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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Student's Companion to Latin Authors, by 
+George Middleton and Thomas R. Mills
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Student's Companion to Latin Authors
+
+Author: George Middleton
+        Thomas R. Mills
+
+Release Date: March 25, 2009 [EBook #28413]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDENT'S COMPANION LATIN AUTHORS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Stefan Cramme and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+The Student's Companion
+
+to Latin Authors
+
+
+by
+
+George Middleton, M.A.
+
+Lecturer in Latin, Aberdeen University; Late Scholar of
+Emmanuel College, Cambridge
+
+and
+
+Thomas R. Mills, M.A.
+
+Late Lecturer in Greek, Aberdeen University, and Classical Lecturer,
+Owens College, Manchester; formerly Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford
+
+
+_with an Introductory Note by_
+
+Prof. W. M. Ramsay, D.C.L., LL.D.
+
+Aberdeen University
+
+
+London
+Macmillan and Co., Ltd.
+New York: The Macmillan Co.
+1896
+
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+
+Glasgow: Printed at the University Press by
+Robert Maclehose and Co.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The object of this book is to give in a convenient form all the facts
+of importance relating to the lives and works of the principal Latin
+Authors, with full quotation of original authorities on all the chief
+points. It appears to us that these facts are not at present readily
+accessible; for the ordinary histories of literature are compelled to
+sacrifice much exact information to the demand for a critical
+appreciation of the authors. The latter aspect does not enter into the
+plan of this book, which may therefore, with advantage, be used side
+by side with any work of the kind indicated, the two supplementing one
+another. The authors have been, as far as possible, illustrated from
+their own works. Special attention has been paid to the great writers,
+as the book is meant for use in the upper forms of schools and by
+students at the Universities. We had collected a considerable amount
+of matter upon the minor authors, most of which it was thought
+advisable to omit, so as not to extend the book unduly. An attempt,
+however, has been made to retain the most important facts about these,
+whenever they illustrated one of the great authors, or whenever it was
+thought that they ought to be in the hands of a student. We have
+attempted no treatment of early Latin as seen in inscriptions and the
+like, but have started with the first literary author, Livius
+Andronicus, and have gone down to Tacitus and the younger Pliny,
+dealing with each author by himself. A section has been added on
+Suetonius. A sketch of the chief ancient authorities on Roman writers
+is given at the end of the book, as well as a selected list of
+editions, which, without being exhaustive, will, we hope, be of
+service to the average student.
+
+Apart from our own study of the authors, our principal authority has,
+of course, been the _History of Roman Literature_ by Teuffel and
+Schwabe (translated by Prof. G. C. W. Warr), and we have made an
+extensive use of editions and monographs both English and foreign,
+which are mentioned where necessary. Ennius has been quoted from
+Vahlen's edition, Plautus from the new edition of Ritschl, the
+fragments of the tragedians and comedians from Ribbeck, of Lucilius
+from L. Müller, and of the minor poets from Bährens, the minor
+historians from Peter's _Fragmenta_, and Suetonius' fragmentary works
+from Reifferscheid.
+
+Some of our materials were originally prepared for the Humanity
+classes in Aberdeen University, and the Latin Literary Club in
+connexion with the Honours class. We have to thank some of our pupils
+for help and criticism, particularly Mr. A. Souter, of Gonville and
+Caius College, Cambridge, and Mr. A. G. Wright, of St. John's College,
+Cambridge, the latter of whom prepared the materials for the article
+on Tibullus, and gave us some useful suggestions. We are specially
+indebted to Professor W. M. Ramsay, without whom the book would not
+have been written. Professor Ramsay has read nearly the whole of the
+work as it has passed through the press, and has all along given us
+invaluable assistance and advice. For any errors in the following
+pages we are, of course, solely responsible.
+
+ABERDEEN, September, 1896.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER I.--EARLY POETS AND PROSE WRITERS,                           1
+
+  Livius Andronicus, 1; Naevius, 4; Plautus, 7; Ennius, 26; Pacuvius,
+  34; Caecilius Statius, 37; Terence, 39; Early Minor Authors, 52; Cato,
+  53; Accius, 55; Lucilius, 58; Atta and Afranius, 64; Minor Poets after
+  Afranius, 65; Authors contemporary with Cicero's youth, 67.
+
+  CHAPTER II.--THE CICERONIAN AGE,                                    69
+
+  Cicero, 69; Q. Cicero, 89; Tiro, 90; Atticus, 90; Varro, 91; Laberius,
+  97; Bibaculus, 99; Caesar and the Corpus Caesarianum, 100; Pollio,
+  112; Nepos, 112; Lucretius, 119; Sallust, 125; Catullus, 132;
+  Contemporary Poets (Cinna, Calvus, Varro Atacinus, Publilius Syrus,
+  etc.), 140.
+
+  CHAPTER III.--THE AUGUSTAN AGE,                                    147
+
+  Virgil, 147; Horace, 163; Contemporary Poets, 180; Tibullus, 185;
+  Propertius, 191; Ovid, 200; Manilius, 213; Livy, 215; Contemporaries
+  of Livy, 223; Vitruvius, 224; Seneca the Elder, 226.
+
+  CHAPTER IV.--POST-AUGUSTAN WRITERS,                                231
+
+  Velleius Paterculus, 231; Valerius Maximus, 234; Celsus, 235;
+  Phaedrus, 237; Seneca the Younger, 240; Curtius Rufus, 256; Columella,
+  258; Pomponius Mela, 259; Persius, 260; Lucan, 264; Petronius, 272;
+  Calpurnius Siculus, 275; Aetna (Lucilius Iunior), 277; Pliny the Elder,
+  281; Valerius Flaccus, 286; Silius Italicus, 289; Statius, 291;
+  Martial, 295; Quintilian, 302; Frontinus, 310; Juvenal, 312; Pliny the
+  Younger, 326; Tacitus, 336; Suetonius, 348.
+
+  APPENDIX A.,                                                       351
+
+  APPENDIX B.,                                                       356
+
+  INDEX OF SUBJECTS,                                                 368
+
+  INDEX OF TITLES,                                                   378
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY NOTE
+
+
+The authors ask me to write a word of introduction to their book; but
+an introduction is not needed when the book supplies a want and is
+trustworthy in what it says. As to the second point, the text will
+speak for itself. On the first, a word may be permitted about my own
+experience in lecturing. The young student of Latin Literature
+requires help in two ways. In the first place, he needs guidance in
+learning to recognize and appreciate the literary merit of the
+authors. Mr. Cruttwell's, and, still better, Mr. Mackail's book, will
+serve his purpose well. They are interesting to read, and they tempt
+him on to study for himself. Mr. Mackail's book, especially, shows
+delicate literary feeling, and a remarkably catholic and true sense of
+literary merit. But, secondly, the student wants a clear statement of
+the facts, certain or probable, about the life of each author, the
+chronology of his works, and their relation to the circumstances and
+personages of the time. Neither of the books which I have named is
+satisfactory in this respect. Both of them omit a large number of
+facts and theories which the student ought to have before him: Mr.
+Cruttwell occasionally even sinks to inaccuracy.
+
+About three years ago I suggested to Mr. Middleton that he should try
+to fill up this gap with a book, in which he should bring together all
+the information that a student should have ready to his hand in
+reading the more familiar classical authors, that he should keep down
+the size of his book by omitting all that the student does not want,
+and that he should set before his readers the evidence on which each
+fact rests, so that they might be led to form opinions and judgments
+of their own. Teuffel-Schwabe's great work contains a vast deal that
+the ordinary student does not want; and it does not contain a certain
+amount which will, I believe, be found in the present book, the
+materials for which have been gathered from a wide range of reading.
+
+I am convinced that much can be done to stimulate and invigorate the
+young student's feeling for Latin literature by helping him to feel
+for himself how each author's words spring from his life, and
+conversely how facts and circumstances of his life can be elicited
+from his words. There will always remain doubts as to the facts and
+dates, _e.g._, in Horace's or in Catullus' life; but any reasoned
+theory has its interest, and is better for the pupil than no theory.
+The present book will, as I hope, be found useful as an aid to that
+method of teaching and of study, provided that both teacher and pupil
+bear in mind that it is a companion to other books--not a book
+complete in itself.
+
+W. M. RAMSAY.
+
+
+
+
+COMPANION TO LATIN AUTHORS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+EARLY POETS AND PROSE WRITERS.
+
+
+
+LIVIUS ANDRONICUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+L. Livius Andronicus, according to the poet Accius, was taken prisoner
+at the capture of Tarentum by Q. Fabius Maximus in B.C. 209, and
+exhibited his first play in B.C. 197.
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 72-3, 'Accius a Q. Maximo quintum consule captum Tarenti
+scripsit Livium annis xxx. postquam eum fabulam docuisse et Atticus
+scribit et nos in antiquis commentariis invenimus: docuisse autem
+fabulam annis post xi., C. Cornelio Q. Minucio coss. ludis Iuventatis,
+quos Salinator Senensi proelio voverat.'
+
+But ancient evidence is unanimous that he was the first literary
+writer of Rome, and this is confirmed by his archaic language. Hence
+the statement of Cicero _ibid._, that Livius produced his first play
+in B.C. 240, must be accepted.
+
+'Atque hic Livius, qui primus fabulam, C. Claudio Caeci filio et M.
+Tuditano coss., docuit anno ipso antequam natus est Ennius; post Romam
+conditam autem quarto decimo et quingentesimo ... In quo tantus error
+Acci fuit, ut his consulibus xl. annos natus Ennius fuerit: cui si
+aequalis fuerit Livius, minor fuit aliquanto is, qui primus fabulam
+dedit, quam ei, qui multas docuerant ante hos consules, et Plautus et
+Naevius.'
+
+Cf. Cic. _Tusc._ i. 3, and Gell. xvii. 21, 42.
+
+Probably Accius, finding in his authorities that Livius was taken
+prisoner at the capture of Tarentum (_i.e._ in B.C. 272), wrongly
+thought of the second capture by Fabius. In spite of Cicero's
+correction, the error of Accius was, we may infer, reproduced by
+Suetonius, and thus penetrated into Jerome, who says, yr. Abr. 1830 =
+B.C. 187, 'T. [an error] Livius tragoediarum scriptor clarus habetur,
+qui ob ingenii meritum a Livio Salinatore, cuius liberos erudiebat,
+libertate donatus est.'
+
+It is probable that Livius was the slave of C. Livius Salinator, the
+father of the victor of Sena (M. Livius Salinator), and taught the
+latter; for he must have been set free before B.C. 240, and the victor
+of Sena could hardly have been born earlier than B.C. 258. This
+connexion made M. Livius Salinator when consul, B.C. 207, select
+Livius Andronicus to prepare a hymn of expiation to the Aventine Juno,
+and, probably in the same year, to compose a hymn of thanksgiving for
+the success of Rome in the Hannibalic War. For his services the
+privileges of a guild were assigned to writers and actors.
+
+Livy xxvii. 37, 'Decrevere pontifices ut virgines ter novenae per
+urbem euntes carmen canerent ... conditum ab Livio poeta ... Carmen in
+Iunonem reginam canentes ibant illa tempestate forsitan laudabile
+rudibus ingeniis, nunc abhorrens et inconditum, si referatur.'
+
+Fest. p. 333, 'Cum Livius Andronicus bello Punico secundo scripsisset
+carmen quod a virginibus est cantatum, quia prosperius res publica
+populi Romani geri coepta est, publice attributa est ei in Aventino
+aedis Minervae, in qua liceret scribis histrionibusque consistere ac
+dona ponere, in honorem Livi, quia is et scribebat fabulas et agebat.'
+
+Livius had a twofold reason for writing, (_a_) To assist him in his
+profession as a schoolmaster he published a translation of the
+_Odyssey_; (_b_) as an actor, he wrote the plays he acted, and
+afterwards published them.
+
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 1, 'Livium et Ennium ... quos utraque lingua domi
+forisque docuisse adnotatum est.'
+
+Livy vii. 2, 8, 'Livius ... qui ab saturis ausus est primus argumento
+fabulam serere, idem scilicet, id quod omnes tum erant, suorum
+carminum actor.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Tragedies._--From the scanty fragments extant and from the titles
+(_Achilles_, _Aegisthus_, and six others are known) we see that these
+were close imitations of Greek plays. Thus l. 38 (Ribbeck),
+
+  'Quem ego nefrendem alui lacteam immulgens opem,'
+
+is, according to Conington, a rendering of Aesch. _Choeph._ 883-4,
+
+  μαστὸν πρὸς ᾧ σὺ πολλὰ δὴ βρίζων ἅμα
+  οὔλοισιν ἐξήμελξας εὐτραφὲς γάλα.
+
+2. _Comedies._--Slight fragments of three of these are extant.
+
+3. A translation of the _Odyssey_ in Saturnians.[1] This, though rough
+and incorrect, long remained a school-book. So Hor. _Ep._ ii. I, 69
+_sqq._,
+
+  'Non equidem insector delendave carmina Livi
+  esse reor, memini quae plagosum mihi parvo
+  Orbilium dictare: sed emendata videri
+  pulchraque et exactis minimum distantia miror.'
+
+For examples of translation, of. Gell, xviii. 9, 5, 'Offendi ...
+librum ... Livi Andronici, qui inscriptus est Odyssea, in quo erat
+versus primus ...,
+
+  "Virúm mihí Caména | ínsecé versútum,"
+
+factus ex illo Homeri versu,
+
+  Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε, Μοῦσα, πολύτροπον.'
+
+Fragments 2 and 3,
+
+  'Meá puer, quid vérbi | éx tuo óre súpera
+  fugít?
+      neque ením te oblítus | Lértié, sum, nóster,'
+
+represent _Od._ i. 64,
+
+  τέκνον ἐμὸν, ποῖόν σε ἔπος φύγεν ἕρκος ὀδόντων;
+  πῶς ἂν ἔπειτ’ Ὀδυσῆος ἐγὼ θείοιο λαθοίμην;
+
+
+
+NAEVIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Cn. Naevius' dates can only be given approximately as B.C. 269-199. As
+he served in the First Punic War, he cannot in any case have been born
+later than B.C. 257. He was a Campanian by birth.
+
+Gell. i. 24, 2, 'Epigramma Naevi plenum superbiae Campanae, quod
+testimonium esse iustum potuisset, nisi ab ipso dictum esset,
+
+  "Inmortales mortales si foret fas flere,
+  flerent divae Camenae Naevium poetam.
+  Itaque postquam est Orci traditus thesauro,
+  obliti sunt Romae loquier lingua Latina."'
+
+Naevius' first play was produced B.C. 235; the fact that he served as
+a soldier shows that he was not an actor.
+
+Gell. xvii. 21, 45, 'Eodem anno (A.U.C. Dxix.) Cn. Naevius poeta
+fabulas apud populum dedit, quem M. Varro in libris de poetis primo
+stipendia fecisse ait bello Poenico primo, idque ipsum Naevium dicere
+in eo carmine, quod de eodem bello scripsit.'
+
+In his plays he attacked the senatorial party, particularly the
+Metelli, and was imprisoned, but afterwards released.
+
+Gell. iii. 3, 15, 'Sicuti de Naevio quoque accepimus, fabulas eum in
+carcere duas scripsisse, Hariolum et Leontem, cum ob assiduam
+maledicentiam et probra in principes civitatis de Graecorum poetarum
+more dicta in vincula Romae a triumviris coniectus esset. Unde post a
+tribunis plebis exemptus est, cum in his, quas supra dixi, fabulis
+delicta sua et petulantias dictorum, quibus multos ante laeserat,
+diluisset.'
+
+Pseud.-Asconius on Cic. _in Verr. act. prior_, 29. 'Dictum facete et
+contumeliose in Metellos antiquum Naevii est, "Fato Metelli Romai
+fiunt consules," cui tunc Metellus consul (B.C. 206) iratus versu
+responderat ..., "Dabunt malum Metelli Naevio poetae."'
+
+Cf. the contemporary reference in Plaut. _Mil._ 212,
+
+  'Nam os columnatum poetae esse indaudivi barbaro,[2]
+  quoi bini custodes semper totis horis occubant.'
+
+For Naevius' freedom of speech cf. his comedies, l. 113 (Ribbeck),
+
+  'Libera lingua loquemur ludis Liberalibus';
+
+l. 108 (on Scipio),
+
+  'Etiam qui res magnas manu saepe gessit gloriose,
+  cuius facta viva nunc vigent, qui apud gentes solus praestat,
+  eum suus pater cum palliod unod ab amica abduxit.'
+
+Naevius was banished and went to Utica, where he died, probably about
+B.C. 199. It must have been after peace was concluded (B.C. 202), as
+otherwise he could have reached Utica only by deserting to the
+enemy.[3] Jerome gives B.C. 201, Cicero B.C. 204, although he says
+Varro put the date later. The verses on Scipio quoted above could
+hardly have been written before the battle of Zama.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1816 = B.C. 201, 'Naevius comicus Uticae moritur,
+pulsus Roma factione nobilium, ac praecipue Metelli.'
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 60, 'His consulibus (B.C. 204), ut in veteribus
+commentariis scriptum est, Naevius est mortuus; quamquam Varro noster,
+diligentissimus investigator antiquitatis, putat in hoc erratum
+vitamque Naevi producit longius.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Tragedies._--There are extant seven titles and a very few
+fragments.
+
+2. _Comedies._--There are titles of about thirty-four _palliatae_,[4]
+and upwards of one hundred and thirty lines extant.
+
+Naevius seems to have adopted _contaminatio_[5] in his plays. Ter.
+_Andr._ prol. 15,
+
+  'Id isti vituperant factum atque in eo disputant
+  contaminari non decere fabulas ...
+  qui quom hunc accusant, Naevium Plautum Ennium
+  accusant.'
+
+3. _Praetextae._--Tragedies on Roman subjects, 'Clastidium' and
+'Romulus.' The _praetexta_ was invented by Naevius.
+
+4. _Bellum Punicum_, an epic poem in Saturnians, divided later into
+seven Books. About seventy-four lines are extant.
+
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 2, 'C. Octavius Lampadio Naevii Punicum bellum, uno
+volumine et continenti scriptura expositum, divisit in septem libros.'
+
+Books i. and ii. contained the mythical origin of Rome and Carthage,
+Aeneas' flight from Troy and his sojourn at the court of Dido in
+Carthage. In Book iii. the history of the First Punic War commenced.
+The work was imitated by Ennius and Virgil, sometimes closely by the
+latter. Cf. Servius on _Aen._ i. 198-207, 'O socii,' etc. 'Et totus
+hic locus de Naevio belli Punici libro translatus est.' _Ibid._ i.
+273, 'Naevius et Ennius Aeneae ex filia nepotem Romulum conditorem
+urbis tradunt.'
+
+Macrob. _Saturn._ vi. 2, 31, 'In principio Aeneidos tempestas
+describitur et Venus apud Iovem queritur ... Hic locus totus sumptus a
+Naevio est ex primo libro belli Punici.'
+
+
+
+PLAUTUS
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Plautus' full name, T. Maccius Plautus, was discovered by Ritschl in
+the Ambrosian (Milan) palimpsest, which gives, _e.g._ after the two
+plays named: 'T. Macci Plauti Casina explicit': 'Macci Plauti Epidicus
+explicit.' In Plaut. _Merc._ l. 6, the MS. reading _Mactici_ was
+emended by Ritschl to _Macci Titi_; and in _Asin._ prol. l. 11,
+_Maccius_ is the right reading. The MSS. read _Maccus_, which Bücheler
+(_Rhein. Mus._ 41, 12) takes to mean 'buffoon,' or 'writer of
+comedies,' from which Plautus took his family name, Maccius, on
+becoming a Roman citizen. 'M. Accius,' formerly supposed to be the
+name, is found in no MS., but 'Accius' is found in _Epitome Festi_, p.
+239, which gives us the poet's birthplace, Sarsina in Umbria, and
+suggests another derivation for his name: 'Ploti appellantur, qui sunt
+planis pedibus, unde et poeta Accius, quia Umber Sarsinas erat, a
+pedum planitie initio Plotus, postea Plautus est dictus.'
+
+In the corresponding passage of Festus, we have only '...us poeta,
+quia Umber,' etc. The name of the poet is lost, and the epitomizer has
+doubtless made a mistake.
+
+Sarsina is mentioned once by Plautus, _Mostell._ 770,
+
+  'Quid? Sarsinatis ecquast, si Umbram non habes?'
+
+The year of his birth can only be conjectured; he died B.C. 184.
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 60, 'Plautus P. Claudio L. Porcio coss. mortuus est.'
+
+Jerome erroneously assigns Plautus' death to yr. Abr. 1817 = B.C. 200,
+'Plautus ex Umbria Sarsinas Romae moritur, qui propter annonae
+difficultatem ad molas manuarias pistori se locaverat; ibi quotiens ab
+opere vacaret, scribere fabulas et vendere sollicitius consueverat.'
+
+From this notice, and from the passage of Gellius below, we learn that
+Plautus lost in foreign trade the money he had made as an assistant to
+scenic artists, and had to work for his living in a flour mill at
+Rome, during which time he wrote plays, and continued to do so
+afterwards.
+
+Gell. iii. 3, 14, 'Saturionem et Addictum et tertiam quamdam, cuius
+nunc mihi nomen non subpetit, in pistrino eum scripsisse, Varro et
+plerique alii memoriae tradiderunt cum, pecunia omni, quam in operis
+artificum scaenicorum pepererat, in mercatibus perdita inops Romam
+redisset et ob quaerendum victum ad circumagendas molas, quae
+"trusatiles" appellantur, operam pistori locasset.'
+
+We conclude from these varied employments that Plautus can hardly have
+been less than thirty years old when he began to write plays. His
+intimacy with the Scipios (Cic. _de Rep._ iv., apud Augustin. _Civ.
+D._ ii. 9), who fell in Spain B.C. 212, leads to the conclusion that
+he must have been well established as an author by that date, though
+none of his plays can be proved to have been written so early. If we
+suppose that his career as a playwright commenced at thirty, and that
+his acquaintance with the Scipios lasted ten years, the year of his
+birth must have been about B.C. 254. This view is supported (1) by the
+notice in Cic. _Brut._ 73, that Plautus had produced many plays by
+B.C. 197; (2) by Cic. _Cato maior_, 50, 'quam gaudebat ... Truculento
+Plautus, quam Pseudolo,' where Plautus is said to have written these
+plays as _senex_. Now the _Pseudolus_ was written B.C. 191; and
+therefore, as a man could not be called _senex_ till he was at least
+sixty, his birth must have been not later than B.C. 251.
+
+Plautus is said to have written his own epitaph.
+
+Gell. i. 24, 3, 'Epigramma Plauti, quod dubitassemus an Plauti foret,
+nisi a M. Varrone positum esset in libro de poetis primo:
+
+  "Postquam est mortem aptus Plautus, Comoedia luget,
+  Scaena est deserta, ac dein Risus, Ludus Iocusque,
+  et Numeri innumeri simul omnes conlacrimarunt."'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+Plautus' plays were early criticized as to their genuineness. Gell.
+iii. 3, 1-3, after mentioning the canons of Aelius Stilo, Sedigitus,
+etc., says that Varro admitted twenty-one plays which were given by
+all the canons, and added some more. 'Nam praeter illas unam et
+viginti, quae Varronianae vocantur, quas idcirco a ceteris segregavit,
+quoniam dubiosae non erant, set consensu omnium Plauti esse
+censebantur, quasdam item alias probavit adductus filo atque facetia
+sermonis Plauto congruentis easque iam nominibus aliorum occupatas
+Plauto vindicavit.'
+
+About one hundred and thirty plays were current under the name of
+Plautus; the theory of Varro (Gell. iii. 3, 10) that these were
+written by a certain Plautius is improbable.
+
+Gell. iii. 3, 11, 'Feruntur sub Plauti nomine comoediae circiter
+centum atque triginta.'
+
+There is little doubt that the 'fabulae Varronianae' are those which
+have come down to us with the addition of the _Vidularia_, which was
+lost between the sixth and the eleventh centuries. The number of
+Varro's second class, consisting of those pieces that stood in most of
+the indices and exhibited Plautine features, Ritschl has fixed at
+nineteen, from citations in Varro _de lingua Latina_. Besides the
+genuine plays the names of thirty-two others are known.
+
+The extant plays[6] are as follows:
+
+1. _Amphitruo_, a _tragicomoedia_, the only play of Plautus of the
+kind. Prol. 59,
+
+  'Faciam ut conmixta sit haec tragicomoedia.'
+
+The original and the date are unknown. The play shows the features of
+the Sicilian _Rhinthonica_.[7] About three hundred lines have been
+lost after Act. iv., Scene 2. The scene is Thebes, which, with Roman
+carelessness or ignorance, is made a harbour; cf. ll. 629 _sqq._
+
+2. _Asinaria_ (sc. _fabula_), from the ᾽Οναγός of Demophilus,
+supposed to have been a writer of the New Comedy. Prol. 10-12,
+
+  'Huic nomen Graece Onagost fabulae;
+  Demophilus scripsit, Maccius vortit barbare.
+  Asinariam volt esse, si per vos licet.'
+
+Authorities assign the play to about B.C. 194. The scene is Athens.
+
+3. _Aulularia_ (from _aulula_, 'a little pot.')--Neither the original
+nor the exact time of composition is known. From Megadorus' tirade
+against the luxury of women, ll. 478 _sqq._, it has been inferred that
+the play was written after the repeal of the Oppian Law in B.C. 195.
+The end of the play is lost. The scene is Athens.
+
+4. _Captivi_, a piece without active interest (_stataria_), without
+female characters, and claiming a moral purpose; l. 1029,
+
+  'Spectatores, ad pudicos mores facta haec fabulast.'
+
+Some authorities think that the parasite (Ergasilus) is an addition to
+the original play, which may have belonged to the New Comedy. The
+scene is in Aetolia.
+
+5. _Curculio_, so called from the name of the parasite. The Greek
+original is unknown; but ll. 462-86 contain a speech from the
+Choragus, in the style of the παράβασις of the Old Comedy. In
+l. 509,
+
+  'Rogitationes plurumas propter vos populus scivit
+  quas vos rogatas rumpitis,'
+
+there is probably an allusion to the Lex Sempronia de pecunia credita,
+B.C. 193. The scene is Epidaurus.
+
+6. _Casina_, so called from a slave-girl introduced. The original was
+the Κληρούμενοι of Diphilus. Prol. 31,
+
+  'Clerumenoe vocatur haec comoedia
+  Graece, Latine Sortientes. Deiphilus
+  hanc Graece scripsit.'
+
+The inference from l. 979, 'Nam ecastor nunc Bacchae nullae ludunt,'
+that the play was written after the S.C. de Bacchanalibus in B.C. 186,
+is improbable; the words rather show, as Mommsen[8] believes, an
+anterior date, when it was not yet dangerous to speak of the
+Bacchanalia. Some authorities find support for the latter date in the
+words of the prologue, ll. 9-20 (written after the poet's death). The
+text of the play has suffered greatly. The scene is Athens.
+
+7. _Cistellaria_.--This play contains a reference to the war against
+Hannibal then going on; ll. 197 _sqq._,
+
+             'Bene valete, et vincite
+  virtute vera, quod fecistis antidhac, ...
+  ut vobis victi Poeni poenas sufferant.'
+
+According to Ritschl, about 600 verses have been lost. The scene is
+Sicyon.
+
+8. _Epidicus_.--This play is referred to in the _Bacchides_, ll. 213-5
+(spoken by Chrysalus), where the unpopularity of the play is
+attributed to the acting of Pellio.
+
+  'Non res, sed actor mihi cor odio sauciat.
+  Etiam Epidicum, quam ego fabulam aeque ac me ipsum amo,
+  nullam aeque invitus specto, si agit Pellio.'
+
+_Epid._ 222,
+
+  'Sed vestita, aurata, ornata ut lepide! ut concinne! ut nove!' etc.,
+
+shows that the piece was written after the repeal of the Lex Oppia
+Sumptuaria, B.C. 195. The plot is complicated, and _contaminatio_ is
+assumed by some authorities. The play contains only seven hundred and
+thirty-three lines, and some believe it to be a stage edition. The
+scene is Athens.
+
+9. _Bacchides_.--The first part of this play, along with the last part
+of the _Aulularia_,[9] has been lost, as also the prefaces of the
+grammarians, so that we do not know what was in the first part. The
+original was probably Menander's Δὶς ἐξαπατῶν. Plautus
+appears to refer to this twice, l. 1090,
+
+  'Perii: pudet. Hocine me aetatis _ludos bis factum_ esse indigne';
+
+l. 1128,
+
+  'Pol hodie altera iam _bis detonsa_ certost.'
+
+The line, ὃν οἱ θεοὶ φιλοῦσιν, ἀποθνῄσκει νέος, which
+belongs to the same play (Stobaeus, _Serm._ 120, 8) is translated in
+ll. 816-7,
+
+    'quem di diligunt
+  adulescens moritur.'
+
+The date is pretty well fixed by l. 1073,
+
+  'Quod non triumpho: pervolgatumst, nil moror.'
+
+Now, triumphs were not frequent till after the Second Punic War, and
+were especially frequent from B.C. 197 to 187. The play probably
+refers to the four triumphs of B.C. 189, and may have been brought out
+in that or the following year. The scene is Athens.
+
+10. _Mostellaria_ (sc. _fabula_, 'a play dealing with a ghost,' from
+_mostellum_, dim. of _monstrum_).--The play is quoted by Festus, p.
+166, as 'Mostellaria'; pp. 162 and 305, as 'Phasma.' According to
+Ritschl, the Φάσμα of Philemon was Plautus' model. The
+reference to _unguenta exotica_ (l. 42) points to a late date, when
+Asiatic luxury was growing common. The play is imitated in Ben
+Jonson's _Alchemist_. The scene is Athens.
+
+11. _Menaechmi_.--If ll. 409 _sqq._, 'Syracusis ... ubi rex ... nunc
+Hierost,' were written independently by Plautus, the date must be
+before B.C. 215; but the reference may only mean that the Greek
+original was composed between 275 and 215 B.C. It has been conjectured
+that a comedy by Posidippus (possibly called Δίδυμοι) was
+the original, from Athenaeus, xiv. p. 658, οὐδὲ γὰρ ἂν εὕροι
+τις ὑμῶν δοῦλόν τινα μάγειρον ἐν κωμῳδίᾳ πλὴν παρὰ Ποσειδίππῳ
+μόνῳ. Now, the _Menaechmi_ is the only play of Plautus where a cook
+is a house-slave, Cylindrus being the slave of Erotium; in his other
+plays cooks are hired from the Forum. The scene is Epidamnus.
+
+12. _Miles Gloriosus_.--In ll. 211-2 (the only personal allusion in
+Plautus),
+
+  'Nam os columnatum poetae esse indaudivi barbaro,
+  quoi bini custodes semper totis horis occubant,'
+
+we have a reference to the imprisonment of Naevius, which shows that
+the play was written before his banishment, probably B.C. 206-5 (see
+under 'Naevius'). Line 1016, 'Cedo signum, si harum Baccharum es,'
+shows that the play is anterior to B.C. 186.
+
+The original is the Ἀλαζών of some Greek poet. Cf. ll. 86-7,
+
+  'Alazon Graece huic nomen est comoediae:
+  id nos Latine gloriosum dicimus.'
+
+The play, however, exhibits _contaminatio_. Two distinct actions, the
+cheating of Sceledrus (Act i.) and the cheating of the Miles (Acts ii.
+and iii.), are united rather loosely; and it has been conjectured that
+Menander's Κόλαξ, or (according to Ritschl) Diphilus'
+Αἱρησιτείχης, was the play used. Ritschl's view is perhaps
+supported by the word _urbicape_ in l. 1055. The play is the longest
+_palliata_ preserved. The scene is Ephesus.
+
+13. _Mercator_.--The original is Philemon's Ἔμπορος; ll. 5-6,
+
+  'Graece haec vocatur Emporos Philemonis;
+eadem Latine Mercator Macci Titi.'
+
+Some light is thrown on the date by ll. 524-6.
+
+  '_L._ Ovem tibi eccillam dabo, natam annos sexaginta,
+  peculiarem. _P._ Mei senex, tam vetulam? _L._ Generis Graeci est.
+  Eam sei curabeis, perbonast; tondetur nimium scite.'
+
+This could not have been written before B.C. 196, the date of the
+settlement of Greece. The play shows traces of two distinct editions.
+The scene is Athens.
+
+14. _Pseudolus_.--The Greek original is unknown. The date of
+production (B.C. 191) is got from the didascalia, as restored by
+Ritschl, 'M. Iunio M. fil. pr. urb. acta Megalesiis.' The Megalesian
+games were held in that year in honour of the dedication of the temple
+which had been vowed to Cybele, B.C. 204 (Livy, xxxvi. 36). 'Pseudolus'
+= Ψευδύλος, but is connected by popular etymology with _dolus_. Cf.
+the puns in l. 1205,
+
+  'Edepol hominem verberonem Pseudolum, ut docte dolum
+  commentust';
+
+l. 1244,
+
+  'Superavit dolum Troianum atque Ulixem Pseudolus.'
+
+Several references to the play are found in Cicero: _Cato Maior_, 50
+(quoted p. 9); _Phil._ ii. 15; _pro Rosc. Com._ 20. The scene is
+Athens.
+
+15. _Poenulus_.--The original was a Greek play, Καρχηδόνιος,
+the author of which is unknown, as the fragments of Menander's
+Καρχηδόνιος do not fit in with Plautus' play. The play was called
+by Plautus 'Patruus,' but posterity went back to the older name
+'Poenulus.' Prol. 53,
+
+  'Carchedonius vocatur haec comoedia
+  Graece, Latine Patruus Pultiphagonidae.'[10]
+
+Authorities assign the play to B.C. 189. The play is considerably
+interpolated, one ending being at l. 1371, another at l. 1422, whence
+some authorities have considered ll. 1372-1422 as spurious. Ritschl
+thinks that the two endings are about the same age, and compares the
+double ending of the _Andria_ of Terence. The play is noted for the
+two Carthaginian renderings of the soliloquy of Hanno, ll. 930-9, and
+ll. 940-9. The scene is Calydon in Aetolia.
+
+16. _Persa_.--This play, the original of which is unknown, has been
+variously assigned to 197 and 186 B.C. The play shows traces of two
+distinct editions. The scene is Athens.
+
+17. _Rudens_.--This play has been assigned to about B.C. 192. The
+original is by Diphilus; and the scene is Cyrene. Prol., 1. 32,
+
+  'Primumdum huic esse nomen urbi Diphilus
+  Cyrenas voluit.'
+
+18. _Stichus_, performed B.C. 200 _ludis plebeis_, as we learn from
+the didascalia, 'Graeca Adelphoe Menandru acta ludis plebeis Cn.
+Baebio C. Terentio aed. pl. ... C. Sulpicio C. Aurelio coss.' This
+cannot be the _Adelphi_ imitated by Terence, the fragments of which do
+not bear the least resemblance to the _Stichus_. It may be a second
+_Adelphi_ by Menander. Others read 'Philadelphoe' in the above
+didascalia. Part of the play has been lost, and it shows traces of two
+distinct editions. The scene is Athens.
+
+19. _Trinummus_.--The original was Philemon's Θησαυρός, as
+seen from the didascalia, 'Graeca Thensaurus Philemonis acta ludis
+Megalensibus.' Some indication of the date is got from l. 990,
+
+  'Vapulabis meo arbitratud et novorum aedilium.'
+
+The only festival that would suit the term _novi aediles_ is the _ludi
+Megalenses_[11] as from B.C. 266 to 153 the new magistrates entered on
+office on the Ides of March. This festival was not of a scenic
+character till B.C. 194, consequently the _Trinummus_ must be after
+that date. The mention of Syrian slaves in l. 542 also makes it
+probable that this is one of the latest works of Plautus. The scene is
+Athens.
+
+20. _Truculentus_.--The original is unknown. The play was written in
+Plautus' old age, probably about B.C. 189. The text has suffered
+greatly. The scene is Athens.
+
+21. _Vidularia_.--Only fragments are extant. It is thought to have
+been modelled on a play called Σχεδία by Menander.
+
+_Argumenta._--These are in _senarii_, and give a summary of each play.
+Two sets are found. The first set are acrostic, and are extant for all
+the plays except the _Vidularia_ and the _Bacchides_. The second
+series was probably written by Sulpicius Apollinaris in the second
+century A.D. There are only five of them extant in the MSS., and
+fragments of other two.
+
+_Prologues._--These (which were usual in the Old and the New Comedy)
+gave the name of the piece and the author, the original and its
+author, the scene of the play, and a partial list of characters. In
+the Prologue also the poet often asked the favour of the audience.
+Prologues to fourteen plays are extant. The part of the prologue
+Plautus (like the New Comedy) assigned either to a god, as in the
+_Rudens_ to Arcturus, or to one of the characters, as in the
+_Mercator_ to a youth (cf. _Mil._ and _Amph._), or to an actor
+addressing the audience in the name of the poet, as in the
+_Truculentus_. All the prologues have suffered from interpolation, but
+those of _Amph._, _Merc._, _Rud._, and _Trin._, and the second parts
+of those of _Mil._ and _Aul._, are founded on what Plautus wrote. The
+prologues in _Cas._, _Poen._, and _Capt._, are due to later hands.
+That the prologues are interpolated is shown by their diction; the wit
+is often poor, and the language un-Plautine, or imitated closely from
+Plautus' genuine works. The prologues in their present form probably
+date from a period shortly after that in which Terence flourished,
+when there was a want of new plays, and people went back to Plautus.
+This is shown by the references to fixed seats for the spectators
+(_Poen._ 15, _Amph._ 65, and _Capt._ 11), which were forbidden by a
+S.C. passed in B.C. 154, when Cassius Longinus began to build a
+theatre of stone--a law that was not repealed till some years later.
+Cf. _Capt._ 11,
+
+  'Negat hercle ille ultimis accensus. Cedito:
+  si non ubi sedeas locus est, est ubi ambules.'
+
+_The Acts._--The plays of Plautus probably went on with few breaks,
+during which the audience were entertained with music. Cf. _Pseud._
+573,
+
+  'Tibicen vos interea hic delectaverit.'
+
+_Diverbium and Canticum._--There was no chorus in Roman comedy, but
+part of the play was set to music and sung to the flute. Some MSS.
+denote this by C (Canticum); while DV (usually placed only over iambic
+senarii) denotes dialogue or soliloquy (Diverbium). Iambic senarii
+were spoken; other metres were sung; but the scenes in septenarii
+stood midway between the dialogue and the _canticum_. Only about a
+fourth of Plautus' verses are in iambic senarii, while in Terence, who
+followed Menander in this respect, about half of the verses are in
+this form.
+
+_The Characters._--These, with the occasional exception of slaves, are
+un-Roman, and exhibit Greek traits belonging to Athens of the time of
+the New Comedy. Plautus, unlike Terence, usually alters the names used
+in the original Greek plays, and substitutes 'tell-tale names'; so
+Parmeno (παραμένων), 'the faithful slave'; Polemo, 'the
+soldier'; Misargyrides, playfully for the _tarpessita_ (banker). The
+names are often of Latin derivation; thus Saturio, in _Pers._;
+Peniculus, in _Menaech._; Curculio, in _Curc._
+
+_The Language of Plautus_, in spite of the Greek dress his plays assume,
+represents essentially the conversational language of his time. Many
+Greek features in language are, however, retained. For words kept in the
+original Greek cf. παῦσαι, οἴχεται, εὖγε, πάλιν, ἐπιθήκην
+(all in the _Trin._); for Greek words Latinized cf. _gynaeceum_,
+_parasitus_, _opsonium_, _dapsilis_ (= δαψιλής); for hybrid new
+formations based on Greek cf. _thensaurarius_, _plagipatidae_,
+_opsonari_, _pultiphagus_.
+
+_References to manners and customs._--(_a_) Many references to Greek life
+are retained from the original, especially in matters relating to dress,
+art, and money (Plautus has no reference to Roman money). Such are
+_chlamys_, _petasus_, _pallium_, _cyathus_, _cantharus_, _thermopolium_,
+_cerussa_, _melinum_ (_pigmentum_), _gynaeceum_, _balineae_,
+_ambulacrum_, _porticus_, _fores Samiae_ (_Menaech._ 178), _nummus_ (=
+drachma or didrachma), _nummi Philippei_, _mina_, _tarpessita_,
+_symbolus_, _epistula_. Cf. also _Pseud._ 146-7,
+
+  'Ut ne peristromata quidem aeque picta sint Campanica,
+  neque Alexandrina beluata tonsilia tappetia.'
+
+(_b_) There are, however, innumerable references to Roman public life
+and manners and customs, even in passages manifestly close to the
+original, although references to public events are rare.
+
+1. _Military expressions._--These, many of which are used
+metaphorically, were well adapted for an audience most of whom had seen
+service. The following are from the _Miles_: _legiones_, _imperator_,
+_peditastelli_, _rogare_, _latrocinari_, _stipendium_, _conscribere_,
+_contubernales_, _eques_, _pedes_, _machinas parare_. Cf. also _Pseud._
+148,
+
+  'Dederamque suas provincias';
+
+_Pseud._ 572,
+
+  'Dum concenturio in corde sycophantias';
+
+_Bacch._ 709,
+
+  'De ducentis nummis primum intendam ballistam in senem:
+  ea ballista si pervortam turrim et propugnacula,
+  recta porta invadam extemplo in oppidum antiquom et vetus.'
+
+All references, however, to the enrolment of mercenaries (_latrones_)
+are probably Greek and belong to the original play.
+
+2. _Political expressions._--(_a_) Names of officials, etc. So
+_tresviri_, _quaestor_, _aedilis_, _praetor_, _senatus_. Cf. _Trin._ 879,
+
+  'Census quom sum iuratori recte rationem dedi';
+
+_Pseud._ 1232,
+
+  'Centuriata habuit capitis comitia.'
+
+(_b_) Law. So _advocatus_ (_Mil._ 663), _festuca_ (_Mil._ 961), _lege
+agito_ (_Mil._ 453). Cf. _Menaech._ 571-95 (on patrons and clients);
+_Trin._ 500-4, where Roman terms of _stipulatio_ are used.
+
+3. _Festivals and localities._--References to these are rarer.
+Examples are: _Mil._ 691,
+
+  'Da, mi vir, Calendis meam qui matrem moenerem';
+
+_Trin._ 545,
+
+  'Campans genus';
+
+_Trin._ 609,
+
+  'Tam modo, inquit Praenestinus.'
+
+_Mil._ 359,
+
+  'Credo ego istoc exemplo tibi esse pereundum extra portam';
+
+a reference to the Esquiline gate, outside which slaves were executed.
+
+4. _Private life._--These references are mostly to the lower classes,
+especially slaves, with whom Plautus was very familiar. Hence words
+referring to household duties, as _promus_, _suppromus_, _cella_,
+_cellarius_, _verna_, _pulmentum_ (from _Mil._) To their patois also
+belong phrases for cheating, like _emungere_, _intervortere_, _sarcinam
+imponere_, _ducere_, _ductare_, _circumducere_, and the very large
+number of words relating to punishment, as: _furcifer_, _verbero_,
+_supplicium virgarum_, _varius virgis_, _talos frangere_, _crux_,
+_verberea statua_ (_Pseud._ 911); _gymnasium flagri_ (_Asin._ 297). Cf.
+also _Epid._ 17,
+
+  'Quid ais? perpetuen valuisti?--Varie.'
+
+From slave life come also terms of abuse like _volturius_, _scelus_,
+_odium populi_, _mers mala_, _lapis_, _saxum_. Note that cruelty in the
+treatment of slaves is peculiarly Roman; but their familiarity with
+their masters and their general situation are from Greek life.
+
+_Prosody._[12]--Plautine prosody, which reflected the variation of
+quantity found in the popular speech, was not properly understood even
+in Cicero's time.
+
+Cf. Cic. _Or._ 184, 'Comicorum senarii propter similitudinem sermonis
+sic saepe sunt abiecti ut non numquam vix in eis numerus et versus
+intellegi possit.'
+
+The chief points are as follows:
+
+1. Final -s is often lost. _Rud._ 103,
+
+  'Patér, salveto, ambóque adeo. Et tu sálvŏs sis';
+
+_Most._ 1124,
+
+  'Quóque modo dominum ádvenientem sérvos ludificátŭs sit.'
+
+2. A mute followed by a liquid does not make the preceding vowel long.
+Thus _agris_, _libros_, _duplex_, are iambi.
+
+3. Iambic words may become pyrrhics, on account of the stress accent
+on the first syllable. So _dŏmī_ and _căvē_ have the last syllable
+short.[13] _Trin._ 868,
+
+  'Fórĭs pultabo. Ad nóstras aedis híc quidem habet rectám viam';
+
+_Stich._ 99,
+
+  'Bónăs ut aequomst fácere facitis, quóm tamen absentís viros.'
+
+4. The stress accent sometimes causes final syllables to be dropped,
+and so to have no effect on quantity, as in _enim_, _apud_, _quidem_,
+_parum_, _soror_, _caput_, _amant_, _habent_, etc. _Trin._ 77,
+
+  'Qui in méntem venĭt tibi ístaec dicta dícere?'
+
+_Stich._ 18 (anapaestic),
+
+  'Haec rés vitae me, sórŏr, saturant.'
+
+No shortening, however, takes place when the accent goes back to the
+antepenult (cf. _continē_), nor in words like _aetas_, _mores_, where
+the first syllable is long, nor even in _abi_, _tene_, _tace_, and the
+like, when the chief accent is weakened, i.e., where these words are
+pronounced slowly and emphatically (especially before a pause).
+_Asin._ 543,
+
+  'Intro abī: nam té quidem edepol níhil est inpudéntius.'
+
+5. This influence of the chief accent affects also combinations of two
+monosyllabic words which make an iambus, and combinations like _ego
+illi_, _age ergo_, in which the second syllable of the second word is
+elided. _Trin._ 354,
+
+  'Is ĕst inmunis, quoí nihil est qui múnus fungatúr suom';
+
+_Trin._ 133,
+
+  'Non égo ĭlli argentum rédderem? Non rédderes';
+
+_Stich._ 237,
+
+  'Adíbo ad hominem. Quís haĕc est quae advorsúm venit?'
+
+6. The chief accent could also affect a preceding syllable. In
+polysyllables or polysyllabic combinations, when the chief accent was
+on the third syllable, the second syllable, if long, could be
+shortened, provided the first syllable were short. _Trin._ 456,
+
+  'Ferĕntárium esse amícum inventum intéllego';
+
+_Stich._ 59,
+
+  'Néc volŭntate id fácere meminit,' etc.;
+
+_Stich._ 179,
+
+  'Per ănnónam caram díxit me natúm pater.'
+
+7. The following common words have to be separately considered, _ille_,
+_iste_, _unde_, _inde_, _nempe_. In the last three the liquid was
+practically dropped; _iste_ was pronounced as _ste_; and in _ille_ only
+one _l_ was heard, cf. _ellum_, _ellam_ (_en-illum_ = _en-ilum_ =
+_en-lum_ = _ellum_). _Frustra_ is a trochee, as in _Menaech._ 692 (at
+the end of a line), _frústră sis_; and the first _i_ of _fieri_ is
+long. Cf. _Trin._ 532,
+
+  'Si in ópserendo possint interfīeri.'
+
+8. An original long vowel is sometimes kept when later authors have it
+short. Examples are, _es_ (from _esse_), final _-or_, as _exertitor_,
+_fateor_, _ecastor_; verbal endings, as _eris_, _eget_, _sit_, _det_,
+_fuat_, _velit_.
+
+9. _Synizesis._ _Deus_, _meus_, _tuos_, _suos_ (nom.), _eius_, _ei_,
+_eum_, _quoius_, _quoi_, _huius_, _huic_, _rei_, etc., may be
+monosyllables; _deorum_, _meorum_, _duorum_, _fuisti_, etc., may be
+dissyllables; _diutius_, _exeundum_, etc., may be trisyllables. Other
+examples are _proin_, _proinde_, _praeoptare_, _dehortor_, _aibam_,
+_quator_.
+
+10. _Hiatus._ This occurs, though not frequently, (_a_) at the natural
+division of the metre. _Menaech._ 219,
+
+  'Spórtulam cape átque argentum. | éccos treis nummós habes.'
+
+(_b_) At the natural break in the sense, especially with change of
+speakers. _Trin._ 432,
+
+  _PH._ 'Tempúst adeundi.' _LE._ 'Éstne hic Philto qui ádvenit?'
+
+The hiatus is commonest in monosyllabic words, or words ending in a
+short syllable followed by _m_, making the first syllable of an arsis
+resolved into two shorts. _Trin._ 433,
+
+  'Is hérclest ipsus. Édepol _ne ego_ istúm velim';
+
+_Trin._ 305,
+
+  'Quí homo cum animo inde áb ineunte aetáte depugnát suo.'
+
+_Views on Plautus._--For Cicero's high opinion of Plautus cf. _de
+Off._ i. 104, 'Duplex omnino est iocandi genus: unum inliberale
+petulans, flagitiosum obscaenum, alterum elegans urbanum, ingeniosum
+facetum. Quo genere non modo Plautus noster et Atticorum antiqua
+comoedia, sed etiam philosophorum Socraticorum libri referti sunt.'
+
+Horace's unfavourable judgment is well known.
+
+_Ep._ ii, 1, 170,
+
+         'Adspice Plautus
+  quo pacto partis tutetur amantis ephebi,
+  ut patris attenti, lenonis ut insidiosi,
+  quantus sit Dossenus edacibus in parasitis,
+  quam non adstricto percurrat pulpita socco.
+  Gestit enim nummum in loculos demittere, post hoc
+  securus cadat an recto stet fabula talo.'
+
+Cf. _A.P._ 270-4. Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 99, 'In comoedia maxime
+claudicamus, licet Varro Musas, Aelii Stilonis sententia, Plautino
+dicat sermone locuturas fuisse, si Latine loqui vellent.'
+
+
+
+ENNIUS.[14]
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Q. Ennius was born B.C. 239 at Rudiae in Calabria (about nineteen
+miles south of Brundisium).
+
+Gell. xvii. 21, 43, 'Consoles secuntur Q. Valerius et C. Mamilius,
+quibus natum esse Q. Ennium poetam M. Varro in primo de poetis libro
+scripsit eumque, cum septimum et sexagesimum annum haberet, duodecimum
+annalem scripsisse, idque ipsum Ennium in eodem libro dicere.' (Cf.
+Cic. _Tusc._ i. 3.) Enn. _Ann._ l. 440,
+
+  'Nos sumus Romani qui fuimus ante Rudini.'
+
+Servius, _in Aen._ vii. 691, '(At Messapus equom domitor): Ab hoc
+Ennius dicit se originem ducere.' (Enn. _Ann._ xviii. fr. 6.)
+
+Ennius knew Greek, Latin, and Oscan. Latin he may have known as a boy,
+since the colony of Brundisium was founded B.C. 244; the use of Greek
+had been widely spread in South Italy through the influence of the
+Greek colonies.[15]
+
+Gell. xvii. 17, 1, 'Q. Ennius tria corda habere sese dicebat, quod
+loqui Graece et Osce et Latine sciret.'
+
+Ennius came to Sardinia during the Second Punic War, probably with
+other Calabrian auxiliaries, but in what year is doubtful. Silius
+Italicus xii. 387 _sqq._, says he was centurion B.C. 215, and
+distinguished himself greatly; but his account is quite untrustworthy.
+In Sardinia he made the acquaintance of M. Porcius Cato, then
+quaestor, who induced him to come to Rome B.C. 204.
+
+Nep. _Cato_, i. 4, 'Praetor (B.C. 198) provinciam obtinuit Sardiniam,
+ex qua, quaestor superiore tempore ex Africa decedens, Q. Ennium
+poetam deduxerat.'
+
+The poet's Graecizing influence seems to have led afterwards to
+hostility between him and his patron, but in spite of this, Ennius
+appears to have cherished warm feelings towards Cato, and praised his
+exploits in the _Annals_.
+
+Cic. _Tusc._ i. 3, 'Oratio Catonis, in qua obiecit ut probrum M.
+Nobiliori quod is in provinciam poetas duxisset. Duxerat autem consul
+ille in Aetoliam, ut scimus, Ennium.'
+
+Cic. _pro Arch._ 22, 'In caelum huius proavus Cato tollitur: magnus
+honos populi Romani rebus adiungitur.'
+
+So far as is known, Ennius was at Rome B.C. 204-189. He lived plainly,
+and supported himself by teaching Latin and Greek.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1777 = B.C. 240, 'Q. Ennius poeta Tarenti [an error]
+nascitur, qui a Catone quaestore Romam translatus habitavit in monte
+Aventino, parco admodum sumptu contentus, et unius ancillae
+ministerio.'
+
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 1, 'Livium et Ennium, quos utraque lingua domi
+forisque docuisse adnotatum est.'
+
+At Rome he was on familiar terms with the elder Scipio Africanus and
+his brother Cornelius Nasica, and their circle.
+
+Cic. _pro Arch._ 22, 'Carus fuit Africano superiori noster Ennius;
+itaque etiam in sepulchro Scipionum putatur is esse constitutus ex
+marmore.'
+
+A pleasant story of his relations with Nasica is given by Cic. _de
+Or._ ii. 276. Two epigrams on Scipio (Nos. 2 and 3) are extant.
+
+In B.C. 189 Ennius accepted an invitation from M. Fulvius Nobilior to
+accompany him in his campaign against the Aetolians, and be a witness
+of his exploits. Fulvius' victory gave the poet materials for the
+praetexta _Ambracia_, and Book xv. of the _Annals_.
+
+Cic. _pro Arch._ 27, 'Ille qui cum Aetolis Ennio comite bellavit
+Fulvius.' Cf. Cic. _Tusc._ i. 3 (above).
+
+In B.C. 184 the poet received the Roman citizenship through the son of
+Fulvius, Q. Nobilior. Hence 'nos sumus Romani, qui fuimus ante Rudini'
+(above). He also received a grant of land at Potentia or Pisaurum from
+Fulvius, who was then _triumvir coloniae deducendae_.
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 79, 'Q. Nobiliorem M. f. ..., qui etiam Q. Ennium, qui cum
+patre eius in Aetolia militaverat, civitate donavit, cum triumvir
+coloniam deduxisset.'
+
+Ennius probably spent the greater part of his days, after returning
+from the Aetolian war, at Rome; and during this period he was on
+intimate terms with the comic poet Caecilius Statius (see p. 37). He
+was often in indifferent circumstances, in spite of the grant of land
+he had received. Ennius died of gout B.C. 169.
+
+Cic. _Cato Maior_, 14, 'Annos septuaginta natus--tot enim vixit
+Ennius--ita ferebat duo quae maxima putantur onera, paupertatem et
+senectutem, ut eis paene delectari videretur.'
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 78, 'Hoc [C. Sulpicio Gallo] praetore ludos Apollini
+faciente, cum Thyesten fabulam docuisset, Q. Marcio Cn. Servilio coss.
+(B.C. 169) mortem obiit Ennius.'
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1849 = B.C. 168, 'Ennius poeta septuagenario maior
+articulari morbo periit, sepultusque est in Scipionis monumento via
+Appia intra primum ab urbe miliarium. Quidam ossa eius Rudiam ex
+Ianiculo translata affirmant.'
+
+For his gout cf. Enn. _Sat._ 1. 8,
+
+  'Numquam poetor nisi si podager';
+
+Hor. _Ep._ i. 19, 7,
+
+  'Ennius ipse pater numquam nisi potus ad arma
+  prosiluit dicenda.'
+
+'Ennius "equi fortis et victoris senectuti comparat suam"' (Cic. _Cato
+Maior_, 14).
+
+The lines are _Ann._ xviii. fr. 7,
+
+  'Sic ut fortis equus, spatio qui saepe supremo
+  vicit Olimpia, nunc senio confectus quiescit.'
+
+His epitaph (_Epigr._ i) is quoted by Cic. _Tusc._ i. 34 and 117,
+
+  'Aspicite, o cives, senis Enni imaginis formam!
+    hic vestrum panxit maxima facta patrum;
+  Nemo me dacrumis decoret nec funera fletu
+    faxit. Cur? Volito vivus per ora virum.'
+
+According to Aelius Stilo, Ennius has depicted his own character in
+_Ann._ vii. fr. 10, wherein he portrays Servilius Geminus, the trusty
+companion of a man of position (Gell. xii. 4). For Ennius'
+self-appreciation cf. also his epitaph (if by himself) quoted above,
+and _Ann._ i. fr. 4,
+
+  'Latos per populos terrasque poemata nostra
+  clara cluebunt.'
+
+In philosophy Ennius was an eclectic. Cf. _Trag._ 1. 417,
+
+  'Philosophari est mihi necesse, at paucis: nam omnino haut placet.
+  Degustandum ex ea, non in eam ingurgitandum censeo.'
+
+His rationalism is seen in _Telamo_, fr. 1,
+
+  'Ego deum genus esse semper dixi et dicam caelitum,
+  sed eos non curare opinor, quid agat humanum genus:
+  nam si curent, bene bonis sit, male malis, quod nunc abest';
+
+_ibid._, fr. 2,
+
+  'Sed superstitiosi vates inpudentesque arioli,
+  aut inertes aut insani aut quibus egestas imperat,
+  qui sibi semitam non sapiunt, alteri monstrant viam,
+  quibus divitias pollicentur, ab eis drachumam ipsi petunt.'
+
+Traces of Epicureanism are seen in _Ann._ i. fr. 13,
+
+  'Terraque corpus
+  quae dedit ipsa capit neque dispendi facit hilum.'
+
+Ennius also believed in the Pythagorean theory of metempsychosis, and
+considered that his soul had animated the body of a peacock. _Ann._ i.
+fr. 14,
+
+  'Memini me fiere pavom.'
+
+Persius 6, 10,
+
+  'Cor iubet hoc Enni postquam destertuit esse
+  Maeonides Quintus pavone e Pythagoreo.'
+
+Cf. also Lucr. i. 120-6.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Tragedies._--Of those founded on mythology we have fragments of
+twenty-two, eight at least of which were borrowed from Euripides. The
+_Auct. ad Herenn._ ii. 34, quotes nine lines which are a literal
+translation of the beginning of the _Medea_. The date of the
+_Thyestes_, B.C. 169, is the only one known (Cic. _Brut._ 78, quoted
+p. 28). Besides these, Ennius probably wrote a praetexta on 'the Rape
+of the Sabines'; and his _Ambracia_ is probably a praetexta on the
+capture of the town by M. Fulvius Nobilior in B.C. 189 (L. Müller
+includes it in the _Saturae_).
+
+2. _Comedies._--There are very slight fragments of the _Cupuncula_ and
+the _Pancratiastes_.
+
+3. _Saturae._--A miscellaneous collection of poems.
+
+Porphyr. ad Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 47, 'Ennius quattuor libros saturarum
+reliquit.'
+
+The reference in Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 66,
+
+  'Quam rudis et Graecis intacti carminis auctor,'
+
+is not to Ennius, as some have supposed, but to the inventor of
+_satura_, whoever he may have been.
+
+The _Saturae_ include (_a_) _Scipio_, probably a short epic. It was
+mostly written in trochaic septenarii. (_b_) _Epicharmus_ (in trochaic
+tetrameters), dealing with Pythagoreanism in the department of
+physics. (_c_) _Euhemerus_ or _Sacra Historia_, modelled on Euhemerus'
+ἱερὰ ἀναγραφή,[16] the doctrines of which were applied
+to the religion of Rome.
+
+Cic. _N.D._ i. 119, 'Euhemerus, quem noster et interpretatus et
+secutus est praeter ceteros Ennius.'
+
+(_d_) _Protreptica_ or _Praecepta_, containing moral maxims. (_e_)
+_Hedyphagetica_, 'On Gastronomy,' modelled on a hexameter poem by
+Archestratus (about B.C. 310). (_f_) _Sota_, so called from
+Σωτάδης, after whom the Sotadean metre has been named. The book
+was probably of a lascivious nature. (_g_) Epigrams; the chief of
+which are mentioned above.
+
+4. The _Annales_, an epic poem in hexameters, which dealt with the
+history of Rome down to the beginning of the Third Macedonian War. It
+contained eighteen Books; there are about six hundred lines extant.
+The following is a sketch of the contents:
+
+Book i., from Aeneas to the death of Romulus; ii., reigns of Numa
+Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Martius; iii., the last three
+kings; iv.-v., the republic down to the war with Pyrrhus; vi., the war
+with Pyrrhus; vii., First Punic War, etc.; viii.-ix., Second Punic
+War; x.-xii., Second Macedonian War, Cato's consulship; xiii.-xv., War
+with Antiochus, subjugation of the Aetolians; xvi.-xviii., from
+Istrian War to beginning of Third Macedonian War.
+
+_Ennius' services_ to Latin literature lay partly in introducing the
+use of the hexameter and other metres from Greek in place of the old
+Saturnian metre. His versification is, of course, rough in comparison
+with that of later writers, the principal points being
+
+(1) Harsh elisions. _Ann._ l. 199,
+
+  'Hos et ego in pugna vici victusque sum ab isdem.'
+
+(2) Quadrisyllable endings; l. 23,
+
+  'Est locus Hesperiam quam mortales perhibebant.'
+
+(3) Absence of caesura, or abrupt break, l. 188,
+
+  'Bellipotentes sunt magis quam sapientipotentes';
+
+l. 511,
+
+  'Cui par imber et ignis, spiritus et gravis terra.'
+
+(4) Omission of _-s_ in scansion, as in the last two examples.
+
+(5) Short vowels sometimes lengthened; l. 86,
+
+  'Omnibus cura viris uter esset induperator.'
+
+(6) Prosaic lines (often spondaic); l. 34,
+
+  'Olli respondit rex Albai longai';
+
+l. 174,
+
+  'Cives Romani tunc facti sunt Campani.'
+
+(7) Harsh instances of tmesis; l. 586,
+
+  'Saxo cere comminuit brum':
+
+l. 605,
+
+  'Massili portabant iuvenes ad litora tanas.'
+
+(8) Apocope; l. 451
+
+  'replet te laetificum _gau_';
+
+l. 561,
+
+  'divom domus altisonum _cael_';
+
+l. 563,
+
+  'endo suam _do_' (= in suam domum).
+
+(9) Alliteration used freely; l. 113,
+
+  'O Tite tute Tati tibi tanta tiranne tulisti';
+
+l. 452,
+
+  'At tuba terribili sonitu taratantara dixit.'
+
+(10) Non-elision; l. 275,
+
+  'Miscent inter sese inimicitiam agitantes.'
+
+_Influence of Ennius._--This is seen in Lucretius, and to a very great
+extent in Virgil. For Lucretius' appreciation of Ennius see Lucr. i.
+117-9. Cf. also _Ann._ l. 150,
+
+  'Postquam lumina sis oculis bonus Ancus reliquit,'
+
+and Lucr. iii. 1025,
+
+  'Lumina sis oculis etiam bonus Ancus reliquit.'
+
+Servius on Verg. _Aen._ viii. 630-4, says 'Sane totus hic locus
+Ennianus est.' Cf. Servius also on _Aen._ i. 20; xi. 608, etc. A large
+number of imitations are quoted by Macrobius, especially in _Saturn._
+Book vi. Virgil modified and refined many of Ennius' rough
+expressions. Thus _Ann._ l. 452 (above quoted), becomes, in Verg.
+_Aen._ ix. 503,
+
+  'At tuba terribilem sonitum procul aere sonoro
+  increpuit';
+
+_Ann._ l. 464,
+
+  'irarumque effunde quadrigas'
+
+becomes in Verg. _Aen._ xii. 499,
+
+  'irarumque omnes effundit habenas.'
+
+_Views on Ennius._--A very few of these may be quoted. Lucr. i. 117-9,
+
+  'Ennius ut noster cecinit qui primus amoeno
+  detulit ex Helicone perenni fronde coronam,
+  per gentes Italas hominum quae clara clueret.'
+
+Cic. _Opt. Gen. Or._ 2, 'Licet dicere Ennium summum epicum poetam, si
+cui ita videtur.' Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 50,
+
+  'Ennius et sapiens et fortis et alter Homerus,
+  ut critici dicunt, leviter curare videtur
+  quo promissa cadant et somnia Pythagorea.'
+
+Propert. v. 1, 61,
+
+  'Ennius hirsuta cingat sua dicta corona.'
+
+Quint. x. 1, 88, 'Ennium sicut sacros vetustate lucos adoremus, in
+quibus grandia et antiqua robora iam non tantam habent speciem quantam
+religionem.'
+
+
+
+PACUVIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+M. Pacuvius, the son (not grandson as Jerome states) of Ennius'
+sister, was born at Brundisium, B.C. 220, spent most of his life at
+Rome, and died at Tarentum shortly before B.C. 130. He was a painter
+as well as a poet.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1863 = B.C. 154, 'Pacuvius Brundusinus tragoediarum
+scriptor clarus habetur, Ennii poetae ex filia nepos, vixitque Romae
+quoad picturam exercuit ac fabulas venditavit, deinde Tarentum
+transgressus prope nonagenarius diem obiit.'
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ xxxv. 19, 'Celebrata est in foro boario, aede Herculis,
+Pacuvii poetae pictura. Ennii sorore genitus hic fuit, clarioremque
+eam artem Romae fecit gloria scaenae.'
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 229, 'Accius isdem aedilibus ait se et Pacuvium docuisse
+fabulam, cum ille octoginta, ipse triginta annos natus esset.'
+
+As Accius was born B.C. 170, Cicero's words imply that Pacuvius was
+born B.C. 220, and produced plays as late as B.C. 140, while from
+Jerome we may conclude that he died shortly before B.C. 130. That
+Pacuvius was taught by his uncle Ennius is shown by Varro, _Sat.
+Menipp._ 356 (Bücheler),
+
+  'Pacvi[17] discipulus dicor, porro is fuit Enni,
+   Ennius Musarum: Pompilius clueor.'
+
+He was a member of the literary circle of Laelius. Cf. Laelius' words
+in Cic. _Lael._ 24, 'In hospitis et amici mei M. Pacuvi nova fabula.'
+In his last years he was intimate with Accius: cf. Gell. xiii. 2, 'Cum
+Pacuvius, inquiunt, grandi iam aetate et morbo corporis diutino
+adfectus, Tarentum ex urbe Roma concessisset, Accius tunc, haut parvo
+iunior, proficiscens in Asiam, cum in oppidum venisset, devertit ad
+Pacuvium comiterque invitatus plusculisque ab eo diebus retentus,
+tragoediam suam, cui Atreus nomen est, desideranti legit.'
+
+Gell. i. 24, 4, gives Pacuvius' epitaph, as written by himself,
+'Epigramma Pacuvii verecundissimum et purissimum, dignumque eius
+elegantissima gravitate:
+
+  "Adulescens, tam etsi properas, te hoc saxum rogat,
+   ut sese aspicias, deinde quod scriptum est legas.
+   Hic sunt poetae Pacuvi Marci sita
+   ossa. Hoc volebam nescius ne esses. Vale."'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Tragedies._--Titles of twelve are known, and over four hundred
+lines of fragments are extant. The _Antiopa_, which is the best known,
+was from Euripides.
+
+Cic. _de Fin._ i. 4, 'Quis enim tam inimicus paene nomini Romano est,
+qui Enni Medeam aut Antiopam Pacuvi spernat aut reiciat quod se eisdem
+Euripidis fabulis delectari dicat?'
+
+The _Niptra_ is from Sophocles. Cic. _T.D._ ii. 49, speaking of ll.
+256-8 (Ribbeck), says, 'Pacuvius melius quam Sophocles.'
+
+Pacuvius also wrote one praetexta, _Paulus_, doubtless on L. Aemilius
+Paulus, the victor of Pydna.
+
+2. _Saturae_ (lost).
+
+Sueton. p. 20 R., 'Carmen quod ex variis poematibus constabat satura
+vocabatur, quale scripserunt Pacuvius et Ennius.'
+
+Pacuvius, like Ennius, shows interest in philosophy, and attacks
+superstition; l. 93,
+
+  'Mater est terra: ea parit corpus, animam aeter adiugat';
+
+ll. 366-75; cf. l. 372,
+
+  'Sunt autem alii philosophi, qui contra fortunam negant
+   esse ullam, sed temeritate res regi omnis autumant';
+
+ll. 83-5,
+
+        'Nam isti qui linguam avium intellegunt
+   plusque ex alieno iecore sapiunt quam ex suo,
+   magis audiendum quam auscultandum censeo.'
+
+For Pacuvius' stilted expressions, cf. Quint. i. 5, 67, 'Ceterum etiam
+ex praepositione et duobus vocabulis dure videtur struxisse Pacuvius
+
+  "Nerei repandirostrum, incurvicervicum pecus"' (l. 408);
+
+_Paulus_, l. 5
+
+  'Qua vix caprigeno generi gradilis gressio est.'
+
+Some views on Pacuvius may be referred to:
+
+Cic. _de Opt. Gen. Or._ 1, 'Itaque licet dicere et Ennium summum
+epicum poetam et Pacuvium tragicum et Caecilium fortasse comicum.'
+
+Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 55,
+
+  'Ambigitur quotiens uter utro sit prior, aufert
+  Pacuvius docti[18] famam senis, Accius alti';
+
+Mart. xi. 90, 5,
+
+  'Attonitusque legis "terrai frugiferai,"
+     Accius et quidquid Pacuviusque vomunt.'
+
+Cf. also Gell. vi. 14, 6; Cic. _Brut._ 258; _Or._ 36; Quint. x. 1, 97;
+Persius, 1. 76-8; Tac. _Dial._ 20.
+
+
+
+CAECILIUS STATIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1838 = B.C. 179, 'Statius Caecilius comoediarum
+scriptor clarus habetur, natione Insuber Gallus et Ennii primum
+contubernalis. Quidam Mediolanensem ferunt. Mortuus est anno post
+mortem Ennii [iii.] et iuxta eum in Ianiculo sepultus.'
+
+iii. is an addition by Ritschl, as we know Caecilius to have been
+alive in B.C. 166, when Terence's _Andria_ was performed. Some read
+iv. The date of his death will then be B.C. 166 or 165. Caecilius
+probably came to Rome among the Insubrian prisoners of war at some
+time between B.C. 200 and 194. The year of his birth is unknown; he is
+never mentioned, like other old writers, such as Plautus and Ennius,
+as having lived to a great age. If he died B.C. 166, we might suppose
+that he was born about B.C. 219, as that would make him of military
+age when the Insubrian war began in B.C. 200. His name as a slave was
+Statius. His patron is unknown.
+
+Gell. iv. 20, 13, 'Statius servile nomen fuit ... Caecilius quoque ille
+comoediarum poeta inclutus servus fuit; et propterea nomen habuit
+"Statius." Sed postea versum est quasi in cognomentum: appellatusque
+est Caecilius Statius.'
+
+Elsewhere he is sometimes called merely Caecilius (as Cic. _de Or._
+ii. 40), but never Statius alone.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+Caecilius' works were at first unsuccessful; cf. the actor Ambivius'
+words in Ter. _Hec._ prol. ii. 6-7,
+
+  'In eis quas primum Caecili didici novas,
+  partim sum earum exactus, partim vix steti.'
+
+Later he examined plays before they were acted, as, _e.g._ Terence's
+_Andria_ in B.C. 166 (see under 'Terence,' p. 42). This implies that
+he occupied a responsible and leading position in the guild of poets.
+
+We have two hundred and ninety lines of fragments, and titles of
+forty-two comedies, sixteen of which correspond with those of plays by
+Menander. For Caecilius' imitation of Menander see Gell. ii. 23. Cf.,
+_e.g._, 'Caecilii Plocium legebamus; hautquaquam mihi et qui aderant
+displicebat... Sed enim postquam in manus Menander venit, a principio
+statim, di boni, quantum stupere atque frigere quantumque mutare a
+Menandro Caecilius visus est!'
+
+Among the views on Caecilius are:
+
+Cic. _ad Att._ vii. 3, 10, '(Caecilius) malus auctor Latinitatis est'
+(probably because he was an Insubrian).
+
+Cic. _de Opt. Gen. Or._ 1, 'fortasse summus comicus.' Sedigitus ap.
+Gell. xv. 24,
+
+  'Caecilio palmam Statio do mimico.'
+
+Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 59,
+
+  '(dicitur) vincere Caecilius gravitate.'
+
+The contemporaries of Caecilius include _Trabea_, _Atilius_ ('poeta
+durissimus,' Cic. _ad Att._ xiv. 20, 3), _Aquilius_ (possibly the
+author of the _Boeotia_, attributed by Varro to Plautus, Gell. iii. 3,
+4), _Licinius Imbrex_, _Luscius Lanuvinus_, all writers of _palliatae_.
+Our chief information about Luscius Lanuvinus is got from the
+prologues to Terence's plays (in all of which, except that of the
+_Hecyra_, he is attacked), and from Donatus' commentary on these
+passages. From Ter. _Eun._ prol. 9-13, we see that he did not tone
+down his originals to suit a Roman audience,
+
+  'Idem Menandri Phasma nuper perdidit
+  atque in Thensauro scripsit, causam dicere
+  prius unde petitur, aurum qua re sit suom,
+  quam illic qui petit, unde is sit thensaurus sibi
+  aut unde in patrium monumentum pervenerit.'
+
+Donatus _ad loc._, 'Arguit Terentius quod Luscius contra consuetudinem
+litigantium defensionem ante accusationem induxerit.'
+
+
+
+TERENCE.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Our chief source of information is Suetonius' life of Terence,
+preserved by Donatus, who also makes a slight addition of his own.
+Jerome's notice is also based on Suetonius.
+
+P. Terentius Afer was born in Africa, and was brought in early life to
+Rome, where he was a slave of P. Terentius Lucanus, by whom he was
+educated and subsequently manumitted.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Ter._ p. 26 R., 'P. Terentius Afer, Karthagine natus,
+serviit Romae Terentio Lucano senatori, a quo ob ingenium et formam
+non institutus modo liberaliter, sed et mature manu missus est. Quidam
+captum esse existumant: quod fieri nullo modo potuisse Fenestella
+docet, cum inter finem secundi Punici belli et initium tertii et natus
+sit et mortuus.'
+
+Terence's cognomen probably shows that he belonged to one of the
+African peoples subdued by Carthage. It may be taken as certain that
+he was not of Punic birth, and that he was brought to Rome in the
+ordinary course of the slave trade.
+
+The date of Terence's birth is not accurately known. Sueton. _ibid._
+p. 32, 'Nondum quintum atque vicesimum ingressus annum ... egressus
+urbe est neque amplius rediit,' which refers to his voyage to Greece
+in B.C. 160, would make the year of his birth to be B.C. 185. This,
+however, is an improbable assumption, which rests on the fact that
+Roman scholars attributed to him the age of his intimate friend, P.
+Scipio Africanus the younger. Thus Sueton. _ibid._ p. 27 (of Terence,
+Scipio, Laelius), says, 'quamvis et Nepos aequales omnes fuisse
+tradat'; with which contrast _ibid._ 'Fenestella ... contendens
+utroque maiorem natu fuisse.' Terence must have been some years older,
+as his first piece, the _Andria_, was produced B.C. 166. A successful
+piece like it makes it probable that he had then passed his boyhood,
+and it is likely that he was born about B.C. 190. The reproach of his
+adversary in _Heaut. Tim._ prol. 23,
+
+  '_repente_ ad studium hunc se adplicasse _musicum_,'
+
+means only that he had not made himself prominent by previous
+exercises in play-writing. Further in _H.T._ prol. 51-2, he describes
+his opponents as _adulescentuli_,
+
+  'Exemplum statuite in me, ut adulescentuli
+  vobis placere studeant potius quam sibi.'
+
+Terence was on intimate terms with P. Scipio Africanus and C. Laelius,
+who were supposed to have helped him in the composition of his plays.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._ p. 30, 'Non obscura fama est adiutum Terentium in
+scriptis a Laelio et Scipione: eamque ipse auxit, numquam nisi leviter
+se tutari conatus, ut in prologo Adelphorum (ll. 15-21),
+
+  "Nam quod isti dicunt malivoli, homines nobiles
+  hunc adiutare adsidueque una scribere,
+  quod illi maledictum vehemens esse existumant:
+  eam laudem hic ducit maxumam, quom illis placet
+  qui vobis univorsis et populo placent,
+  quorum opera in bello, in otio, in negotio
+  suo quisque tempore usust sine superbia."
+
+... Sciebat Laelio et Scipioni non ingratam esse hanc opinionem, quae
+tum magis et usque ad posteriora tempora valuit.'
+
+Sueton. p. 31, also repeats a story that C. Laelius was the author of
+the lines _H.T._ 723 _sqq._
+
+Cf. also Cic. _ad Att._ vii. 3, 10, 'Terentium, cuius fabellae propter
+elegantiam sermonis putabantur a C. Laelio scribi.'
+
+Quint. x. 1, 99, 'Licet Terentii scripta ad Scipionem Africanum
+referantur.'
+
+The remark that ll. 20-1 of the above extract from the _Adelph._ could
+not refer to young men like Scipio and Laelius was made even in
+antiquity.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._ p. 31, 'Santra (a grammarian of the time of Augustus)
+Terentium existimat, si modo in scribendo adiutoribus indiguerit, non
+tam Scipione et Laelio uti potuisse, qui tunc adulescentuli fuerint,
+quam C. Sulpicio Gallo, homine docto, quo console Megalensibus ludis
+initium fabularum dandarum fecerit, vel Q. Fabio Labeone et M.
+Popillio, consulari utroque ac poeta. Ideo ipsum non iuvenes designare
+qui se adiuvare dicantur, sed viros quorum operam et in bello et in
+otio et in negotio populus sit expertus.'
+
+In K. Dziatzko's opinion (second edition of _Phormio_, p. 10, Leipzig,
+1885), the expression 'homines nobiles' points to the literary circle
+of Terence, including old as well as young men, while in what follows
+he touches upon the general reputation of those noble families among
+the Roman people. There is nothing to show that Terence got more than
+general support and advice from his friends. That his diction reflects
+the conversational language of the better classes is recognized.
+
+In B.C. 166, Terence submitted to Caecilius Statius, the examiner of
+plays, his first work, the _Andria_, which was accepted, and performed
+in that year.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._ pp. 28-9, 'Scripsit comoedias sex. Ex quibus primam
+Andriam cum aedilibus daret, iussus ante Caecilio recitare ad cenantem
+cum venisset, dicitur initium quidem fabulae, quod erat contemptiore
+vestitu, in subsellio iuxta lectulum residens legisse, post paucos
+vero versus invitatus ut accumberet cenasse una, dein cetera
+percucurrisse non sine magna Caecilii admiratione.'
+
+From the fact of Caecilius' not recognizing him we may conclude that
+Terence had as yet no connexion with the guild of poets. This fits in
+with _H.T._ prol. 23-4,
+
+  'Repente ad studium hunc se adplicasse musicum,
+  amicum ingenio fretum, haud natura sua.'
+
+Hence probably arose the hatred of other writers, referred to as
+_isti_ (_Andr._ 15; 21); _iniqui_ (_H.T._ 27); cf. also _Hec._ prol.
+ii. 38,
+
+  'Nolite sinere per vos artem musicam
+  recidere ad paucos.'
+
+As to further connexion between Caecilius and Terence, note (1) that
+they had a common actor Ambivius; (2) that Terence sometimes imitates
+Caecilius. Thus, according to Donatus, _Andr._ 805,
+
+  'ut quimus, aiunt, quando ut volumus non licet'
+
+is from Caecilius (l. 177 R.),
+
+  'vivas ut possis quando nec quis ut velis.'
+
+Cf. also _Adelph._ 985,
+
+  'Quod prolubium? quae istaec subitast largitas?'
+
+and Caecilius (l. 91 R.),
+
+  'Quod prolubium, quae voluptas, quae te lactat largitas?'
+
+Terence died B.C. 159, on his way home from Greece, where he had
+probably gone the year before. The place of his death is uncertain.
+Whatever plays he may have written while in Greece are lost.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._ p. 32, 'Post editas comoedias, nondum quintum atque
+vicesimum ingressus annum, causa vitandae opinionis qua videbatur
+aliena pro suis edere, seu percipiendi Graecorum instituta moresque
+quos non perinde exprimeret in scriptis, egressus urbe est neque
+amplius rediit ... Q. Cosconius redeuntem e Graecia perisse in mari
+dicit cum fabulis conversis a Menandro: ceteri mortuum esse in Arcadia
+sive Leucadiae tradunt, Cn. Cornelio Dolabella M. Fulvio Nobiliore
+coss., morbo implicatum ex dolore ac taedio amissarum sarcinarum quas
+in nave praemiserat, ac simul fabularum quas novas fecerat.'
+
+Terence's personal appearance is mentioned by Sueton. p. 33, who also
+states that he had property, and left a daughter who afterwards
+married a Roman knight. 'Fuisse dicitur mediocri statura, gracili
+corpore, colore fusco. Reliquit filiam, quae post equiti Romano
+nupsit: item hortulos xx. iugerum via Appia ad Martis.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Andria_.--The particulars of its production are given above. Of
+its success, Donatus in his commentary says, 'Successu adspecta
+prospero hortamento poetae fuit ad alias conscribendas.' The
+didascalia to the _Andria_ is lost, but we can restore it as follows
+from Donatus' information, 'Incipit Andria Terenti. Acta ludis
+Megalensib. M. Fulvio M' Glabrione aedil. curul. Egit L. Ambivius
+Turpio.[19] Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis paribus tota. Graeca
+Menandru. Facta i. M. Marcello C. Sulpicio cos.'
+
+The meaning of the didascalia is as follows: The piece was produced at
+the Megalesian games (held at the beginning of April) under the curule
+aediles mentioned; L. Ambivius Turpio undertook the representation;
+the music was composed (as in all Terence's comedies) by Flaccus,
+slave of Claudius, and given throughout _tibiis paribus_.[20] The Greek
+original was by Menander; it was the first work of Terence, and the
+year of production was B.C. 166.
+
+The play is adapted from Menander's Ἀνδρία with additions
+from his Περινθία. _Andr._ prol. 13,
+
+  'Quae convenere in Andriam ex Perinthia
+  fatetur transtulisse atque usum pro suis.'
+
+The prologue dates from the first performance, though Wagner and
+Ribbeck have inferred from l. 5,
+
+  'Nam in prologis scribundis operam abutitur,'
+
+that it was written for a second representation, possibly in B.C. 164.
+There are two endings to the play; the shorter one is genuine, the
+longer spurious, and omitted in the best MSS.
+
+2. _Heauton Timorumenos_ is from Menander's Ἡαυτὸν τιμωρούμενος,
+'self tormentor.' The title is referred to in l. 146,
+
+  'hic me exerceo,'
+
+l. 81,
+
+  'An quoiquamst usus homini, se ut cruciet?'
+
+and prol. 5,
+
+  'Ex integra Graeca integram comoediam
+  hodie sum acturus Heauton timorumenon.'
+
+The play was produced at the Ludi Megalenses in B.C. 163, as is seen
+from the didascalia, 'Incipit Heauton Timorumenos Terenti. Acta ludis
+Megalensib. L. Cornelio Lentulo L. Valerio Flacco aedilib. curulib.
+Egit Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Acta primum tibis
+inparib., deinde duabus dextris. Graeca Menandru. Facta ii. M'
+Iuventio Ti. Sempronio cos.'
+
+The play is called 'stataria' in prol. 36,
+
+                            'Date potestatem mihi
+  statariam agere ut liceat per silentium.'
+
+3. _Eunuchus_, 'contaminated' from Menander's Εὐνοῦχος and
+his Κόλαξ. _Eun._ prol. 19,
+
+                       'Nunc acturi sumus
+  Menandri Eunuchum';
+
+_ibid._ 30,
+
+  'Colax Menandrist: in east parasitus colax
+  et miles gloriosus: eas se non negat
+  personas transtulisse in Eunuchum suam
+  ex Graeca: sed eas ab aliis factas prius
+  Latinas scisse sese, id vero pernegat.'
+
+The didascalia shows that the piece was produced at the Ludi
+Megalenses in B.C. 161, and from the MSS. we may conclude that it was
+also acted in B.C. 146. The didascalia is, 'Incipit Eunuchus Terenti.
+Acta ludis Megalensib. L. Postumio Albino L. Cornelio Merula aedilib.
+curulib. Egit Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis
+duabus dextris _tota_. Graeca Menandru. Facta _iii._ M. Valerio C.
+Fannio cos.'
+
+Sueton. _vit. Ter._ p. 29, speaks of the success of the play,
+'Eunuchus quidem his deinceps acta est meruitque pretium quantum nulla
+antea cuiusquam comoedia, octo milia nummum.'
+
+4. _Phormio_, the fifth comedy Terence composed, and the fourth
+completely represented. It was first performed at the Ludi Romani,
+B.C. 161. The Greek original was the Ἐπιδικαζόμενος of
+Apollodorus of Carystus. _Phorm._ prol. 24,
+
+                             'Adporto novam
+  Epidicazomenon quam vocant comoediam
+  Graeci, Latini Phormionem nominant,
+  quia primas partis qui aget, is erit Phormio
+  parasitus, per quem res geretur maxume,'
+
+The didascalia is, 'Incipit Terenti Phormio. Acta ludis Romanis. L.
+Postumio Albino L. Cornelio Merula aedilib. curulib. Egit L. Ambivius
+Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis imparib. tota. Graeca
+Apollodoru Epidicazomenos. Facta iiii. C. Fannio M. Valerio cos.
+
+From notices in the MSS. it is probable that a second representation
+took place in B.C. 141 at the Megalesian games.
+
+5. _Hecyra_ is founded on a play by Apollodorus of Carystus, doubtless
+called Ἡκυρά; cf. Donatus' preface, 'fabula Apollodori
+dicitur esse Graeca.' The first attempted representation was in B.C.
+165, at the Ludi Megalenses. _Hec._ prol. i. 1,
+
+                            'Hecyra quom datast
+  nova, ei novom intervenit vitium et calamitas,
+  ut neque spectari neque cognosci potuerit:
+  ita populus studio stupidus in funambulo
+  animum occuparat.'
+
+The second (unsuccessful) representation was at the ludi funerales of
+Aemilius Paulus in B.C. 160. _Hec._ prol. ii. 38,
+
+                                'Refero denuo.
+  Primo actu placeo. Quom interea rumor venit
+  datum iri gladiatores, populus convolat,
+  tumultuantur clamant pugnant de loco:
+  ego interea meum non potui tutari locum.'
+
+Cf. _Phorm._ prol. 31,
+
+  'Ne simili utamur fortuna, atque usi sumus
+  quom per tumultum noster grex motus locost.'
+
+The first prologue was written for the second performance; the second
+(spoken by the actor Ambivius) for the third performance, also in B.C.
+160. The didascalia is, 'Incipit Terenti Hecyra. Acta ludis
+Megalensib. S. Iulio Caesare Cn. Cornelio Dolabella aedilib. curulib.
+Egit L. Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis paribus
+tota. Graeca _Apollodoru_. Facta v. Cn. Octavio T. Manlio cos. Relata
+est L. Aemelio Paulo ludis funeralib. Non est placita. Tertio relata
+est Q. Fulvio L. Marcio aedilib. curulib.'
+
+6. _Adelphoe_ is founded on Menander's Ἀδελφοί with a scene
+added from Diphilus' Συναποθνῄσκοντες. _Adelph._ prol. 6,
+
+  Synapothnescontes Diphili comoediast;
+  eam Commorientis Plautus fecit fabulam.
+  In Graeca adulescens est, qui lenoni eripit
+  meretricem in prima fabula: eum Plautus locum
+  reliquit integrum; eum hic locum sumpsit sibi
+  in Adelphos, verbum de verbo expressum extulit.'
+
+That this was the first performance is shown by _novam_ in l. 12. The
+part from Diphilus is Act ii., Scene 1. The play was produced in B.C.
+160 at the ludi funerales of L. Aemilius Paulus, as shown by the
+didascalia, 'Incipit Terenti Adelphoe. Acta ludis funeralib. L.
+Aemelio Paulo. Fecere Q. Fabius Maxumus P. Cornelius Africanus. Egit
+L. Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis Sarranis tota.
+Graeca Menandru. Facta vi. M. Cornelio Cethego L. Anicio Gallo cos.'
+
+The order given above agrees essentially with the numbers denoting the
+order of production, as given in the didascaliae. We must, however,
+assume that the first representation of the _Hecyra_ remained
+unnoticed, and must give the second place (instead of the third) to
+the _H.T._, with a section of the MSS., and the third place to the
+_Eun._ with Donatus against the MSS.
+
+_Prologues._--Terence uses these as weapons against his enemies, the
+chief of whom was Luscius Lanuvinus (see under his name), who attacked
+Terence for 'contaminatio' and for want of spirit in his plays. Cf.
+_H.T._ prol. 17,
+
+  'Multas contaminasse Graecas, dum facit
+  paucas Latinas';
+
+_Phorm._ prol. 5,
+
+  'tenui esse oratione et scriptura levi.'
+
+Terence justifies repeatedly his use of 'contaminatio.' _H.T._ prol.
+16,
+
+  'Nam quod rumores distulerunt malivoli,
+  multas contaminasse Graecas, dum facit
+  paucas Latinas: id esse factum hic non negat,
+  neque se pigere et deinde facturum autumat.
+  Habet bonorum exemplum, quo exemplo sibi
+  licere id facere quod illi fecerunt putat.'
+
+Cf. _Andria_, prol. 15-21; _Adelph._ prol. 1-14; _Eun._ prol. 31-3.
+Luscius also attacked him for not adhering more closely to his Greek
+originals, in spite of the fact that, generally speaking, Terence
+translated closely from these. Cf. _Adelph._ prol. 10-11, quoted
+above. A piece was considered to be new if it had not previously been
+presented to a Roman audience. So Terence justifies his originality in
+_Adelph._ prol. 6-14, or excuses himself on the ground that he did not
+know that a piece had been previously used: _Eun._ prol. 19-34.
+
+_Representation of the plays._--Ambivius was the chief actor in all
+the plays. He is the speaker of the prologue of _H.T._ and of the
+second prologue of _Hec._ He calls himself _senex_, cf. _H.T._ prol.
+1. For his popularity cf. _Hec._ prol. ii. 55,
+
+  'Mea causa causam accipite et date silentium.'
+
+The music was provided by Flaccus, slave of Claudius. The composer
+himself was probably the instrumentalist. Four kinds of flutes are
+mentioned as used by him: _tibiae pares_, _impares_, _sarranae_, and _duae
+dextrae_ (see note p. 45). The scene of all the plays is at Athens.
+There is no chorus. The form of the plays is modelled closely on
+Greek. More than half of the verses are iambic senarii, the next
+commonest being troch. septen. and iamb. octon. These are used in
+dialogue. Trochaic octonarii are used in lyrical parts, other lyrical
+metres being rare, and the anapaestic metre not being used. Short
+lines are also found in the middle of lyrical pieces, or at the end of
+pieces of dialogue. _Andr._ 605,
+
+  'Sed eccum video ipsum: occidi.'
+
+Single words sometimes stand at the head of a lyrical piece, as
+_Phorm._ 485 'Dorio,' which makes a line.
+
+The different kinds of scenes are under the same conditions as in
+Plautus. We have (1) scenes provided with music, probably represented
+in MSS. by C (Canticum). (2) Scenes sung as recitative, with musical
+accompaniment, in MSS. denoted by M.M.C. (perhaps for 'Modi Mutati
+Cantici'). (3) Scenes in senarii, without music, in MSS. denoted by DV
+(Diverbium). The division into scenes is very ancient; but the
+division into acts, though existing in the time of Terence (cf. _Hec._
+prol. 39, 'primo actu placeo,'), is not marked in the MSS.
+
+_Names of characters._--Terence uses only Greek names, which often
+suit the characters of the persons, and many of which are repeated in
+the different plays. Cf. Pamphilus and Glycerium, of the lovers in the
+_Andr._; Chremes (χρέμπτομαι, 'cough'), for an old man, in
+_Andr._, _H.T._, _Phorm._; Crito (κρνίω, 'judge'), for an old
+man, in _Andr._, _Phorm._; Sosia (σῴζειν), for a freedman, in
+_Andr._, _Hec._ So names of slaves as Davus (Δᾶος, 'Dacian'),
+Dromo, Geta, Syrus, all in several plays.
+
+_The arguments_, consisting of twelve senarii each, were composed by
+C. Sulpicius Apollinaris in the second century A.D.
+
+_Prosody._--For the variations from later usage, see under 'Plautus.'
+Terence is, of course, more regular in this respect than Plautus.
+
+_Views on Terence._--To those given above the following may be added:
+
+Gell. vi. 14, 6, 'Exempla in Latina lingua M. Varro esse dicit
+ubertatis Pacuvium, gracilitatis Lucilium, mediocritatis
+Terentium.'[21]
+
+Sueton. _vit. Ter._ p. 34, 'Cicero in Limone hactenus laudat,
+
+  "Tu quoque, qui solus lecto sermone, Terenti,
+  conversum expressumque Latina voce Menandrum
+  in medium nobis sedatis motibus effers,
+  quiddam come loquens atque omnia dulcia miscens";
+
+item C. Caesar,
+
+  "Tu quoque, tu in summis, o dimidiate Menander,
+  poneris, et merito, puri sermonis amator.
+  Lenibus atque utinam scriptis adiuncta foret vis,
+  comica ut aequato virtus polleret honore
+  cum Graecis, neve hac despectus parte iaceres.
+  Unum hoc maceror ac doleo tibi desse, Terenti."'
+
+
+
+EARLY MINOR AUTHORS.
+
+
+(_a_) POETS:
+
+The poetical contemporaries of Terence were:
+
+1. _Titinius_, the first writer of _togatae_; fifteen titles and about
+one hundred and eighty lines of fragments are extant. He probably
+began to write after Terence's death.
+
+2. _Sextus Turpilius._--We have titles of thirteen of his _palliatae_,
+six of which are probably from Menander. He died B.C. 103, probably
+about eighty.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1914 = B.C. 103, 'Turpilius comicus senex admodum
+Sinuessae moritur.'
+
+3. _Iuventius_, _Valerius_, and _Vatronius_ wrote _palliatae_; _P.
+Licinius Tegula_ a hymn to Juno, B.C. 200 (Livy xxxi. 12); _Q. Fabius
+Labeo_ (cos. B.C. 183) and _M. Popillius Laenas_ (cos. 173) were poets.
+
+
+(_b_) PROSE WRITERS:
+
+_Fabius Pictor_ was the earliest Roman historian: Liv. i. 44,
+2, 'scriptorum antiquissimus Fabius Pictor.' A relative of Q. Fabius
+Maximus Cunctator (Plut. _Fab. Max._ 18), he took part in the war with
+the Cisalpine Gauls, B.C. 225 (Eutropius, iii. 5), and after the
+battle of Cannae was sent by the Senate on a mission to the oracle of
+Delphi (Liv. xxii. 57, 5).
+
+Fabius wrote in Greek an account of the Second Punic War, prefixed to
+which was a sketch of the history of Rome from its foundation: Liv.
+xxii. 7, 4, 'Fabium aequalem temporibus huiusce belli potissimum
+auctorem habui.' There was also a Latin version, made either by Fabius
+Pictor or by a namesake (Gell. v. 4, 3).
+
+The same subject was treated by _L. Cincius Alimentus_, who was
+praetor B.C. 210 (Liv. xxvi. 23, i), and took an active part in the
+war in Sicily during the next two years (Liv. xxvii. 7, 12, and
+throughout that Book). He was taken prisoner by Hannibal, and
+conversed with him: Liv. xxi. 38, 3, 'L. Cincius Alimentus, qui captum
+se ab Hannibale scribit, maxime auctor moveret ...'
+
+Both Fabius and Cincius wrote in Greek, and both gave a cursory view
+of the earlier history: Dion. Hal. i. 6, ῾Ρωμαίων ὅσοι τὰ
+παλαιὰ ἔργα τῆς πόλεως Ἑλληνικῇ διαλέκτῳ συνέγραψαν, ὧν εἰσι
+πρεσβύτατοι Κόϊντός τε Φάβιος καὶ Λεύκιος Κίγκιος ... τούτων δὲ τῶν
+ἀνδρῶν ἑκατέρος οἷς μὲν αὐτὸς ἕργοις παρεγένετο, διὰ τὴν ἐμπειρίαν
+ἀκριβῶς ἀνέγραψε, τὰ δὲ ἀρχαῖα τὰ μετὰ τὴν κτίσιν τῆς πόλεως
+γενόμενα κεφαλαιωδῶς ἐπέδραμεν.
+
+
+
+CATO.
+
+
+M. Porcius Cato, the Censor (B.C. 234-149), born at Tusculum, of a
+yeoman stock, was one of the most prominent figures of his time. For
+the best account of his military and political career, including his
+advancement to the Consulship (B.C. 195) and Censorship (B.C. 184),
+and his economic and social reforms, the reader may be referred to
+Mommsen, _R.H._, vol. ii. _passim_.
+
+Cato was the founder of Latin prose, and the chief opponent of the
+exaggerated Hellenism that was finding its way into Roman life and
+literature (cf. his own words quoted by Pliny, _N.H._ xxix. 14,
+'Quandoque ista gens suas litteras dabit, omnia corrumpet'); but even
+he shows traces of Greek influence. Cato is represented now only by
+(1) his treatise _De Agri Cultura_, the earliest extant work in Latin
+prose, which, besides giving instruction for the husbandman, deals
+with housekeeping, cookery, and medicine.
+
+(2) His great work was the _Origines_, the earliest history in Latin
+prose, the contents of which are enumerated by Nepos, _Cato_, 3, 3,
+'Senex historias scribere instituit. Earum sunt libri vii. Primus
+continet res gestas regum populi Romani, secundus et tertius unde
+quaeque civitas orta sit Italica (ob quam rem omnes Origines videtur
+appellasse); in quarto autem bellum Poenicum est primum, in quinto
+secundum. Atque haec omnia capitulatim sunt dicta. Reliqua quoque
+bella pari modo persecutus est usque ad praeturam Ser. Galbae, qui
+diripuit Lusitanos (B.C. 151). Atque horum bellorum duces non
+nominavit, sed sine nominibus res notavit.[22] In eisdem exposuit quae
+in Italia Hispaniisque aut fierent aut viderentur admiranda: in quibus
+multa industria et diligentia comparet, nulla doctrina.'
+
+An attempt has been made by A. Bormann (_M. Porcii Catonis Originum
+Libri vii._, Brandenburg 1858, p. 38) to prove that the principle of
+division was geographical, and that history only came in incidentally
+in connexion with the reduction of provinces; but as Nepos was writing
+to an eminent authority on antiquities, his account is likely to be
+right. The period between the kings and the Punic Wars was probably
+omitted by Cato through want of authorities.
+
+The title _Origines_ fails to indicate the scope of the work, which
+was chiefly occupied with general history; it was probably taken, as
+Nepos suggests, from the contents of Books ii. and iii., which seem to
+have been the most novel and valuable part of the undertaking.
+(Jordan, however, takes 'Origines' as equivalent, not to the Greek
+κτίσεις, but to 'res Romanae ab origine repetitae.')
+
+(3) _Praecepta ad Filium_ was the general title of a didactic work
+containing rules for medicine, husbandry, and rhetoric (_e.g._ 'Rem
+tene, verba sequentur'). Cf. Quint. iii. 1, 19, 'Romanorum primus,
+quantum ego quidem sciam, condidit aliqua in hanc materiam (rhetoric)
+M. Cato ille Censorius.'
+
+(4) _Speeches._--Fragments of eighty speeches, out of about two
+hundred and thirty, are collected by Jordan. They are almost equally
+divided between forensic and deliberative speeches: none is known of
+earlier date than B.C. 195. Cato incorporated some of them in the
+_Origines_, _e.g._ For the Rhodians (Gell. vi. 3, 7), and Against
+Galba (Cic. _Brut._ 89).
+
+Works on civil law are attributed to Cato, and we hear also of
+ἀποφθέγματα (Cic. _de Off._ i. 104), _Liber de re militari_ (Gell.
+vi. 4, 5), and _Carmen de moribus_ (Gell. xi. 2, 2).
+
+
+
+ACCIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+The forms Accius and Attius are both found on inscriptions, _e.g._
+from Pisaurum; but in the MSS. of Nonius Marcellus, who often quotes
+Accius, and who is careful about his forms, 'Accius' is always found,
+and generally in MSS. of other authors.
+
+L. Accius was born B.C. 170 at Pisaurum (of. Pliny, _N.H._ vii. 128,
+'Attio Pisaurense').
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1878 = B.C. 139, 'L. Accius tragoediarum scriptor
+clarus habetur, natus Mancino et Serrano coss. (B.C. 170) parentibus
+libertinis et seni iam Pacuvio Tarenti sua scripta recitavit. A quo et
+fundus Accianus iuxta Pisaurum dicitur, quia illuc inter colonos
+fuerat ex urbe deductus.'
+
+This last statement must refer to Accius' father, as the colony of
+Pisaurum was founded B.C. 184. Jerome's chronology is corroborated by
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 229, 'Accius isdem aedilibus (B.C. 140) ait se et
+Pacuvium docuisse fabulam, cum ille lxxx., ipse xxx. annos natus
+esset.'
+
+Accius' friendship and influence with leading men is shown by Cic.
+_pro Arch._ 27, 'D. Brutus, summus vir et imperator (cons. B.C. 138)
+Acci amicissimi sui carminibus templorum ac monumentorum aditus
+exornavit suorum.'
+
+_Auct. ad Herenn._ i. 24, 'Mimus quidam nominatim Accium poetam
+compellavit in scaena. Cum eo Accius iniuriarum egit'; ii. 19, 'P.
+Mucius eum qui L. Accium poetam nominaverat condemnavit.'
+
+The above shows his self-consciousness; cf. also Pliny _N.H._ xxxiv.
+19, 'Notatum ab auctoribus et L. Accium poetam in Camenarum aede
+maxima forma statuam sibi posuisse, cum brevis admodum fuisset.'
+
+For Accius' friendship with Pacuvius, see p. 35. Accius must have
+lived to about B.C. 86, as Cicero (born B.C. 106) talked with him on
+literary subjects.
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 107, 'D. Brutus M. filius, ut ex familiari eius L. Accio
+poeta sum audire solitus.'
+
+His _Tereus_ was produced in B.C. 104, as is seen from
+
+Cic. _Phil._ i. 36 (B.C. 44), 'Nisi forte Accio tum plaudi et
+sexagesimo post anno palmam dari, non Bruto, putabatis.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Tragedies._--Titles of about forty-five plays, and about seven
+hundred lines of fragments are extant. The fragments show imitation of
+Aeschylus as well as of Sophocles and Euripides.
+
+2. _Praetextae._--_Aeneadae_ or _Decius_, and _Brutus_. _Decius_
+treated of the self-sacrifice of P. Decius Mus at Sentinum, B.C. 295.
+Cf. l. 15, 'Patrio exemplo et me dicabo atque animam devoro (=
+devovero) hostibus.' _Brutus_ treated of the overthrow of Tarquinius
+Superbus and the establishment of the consulship.
+
+3. _Didascalica_, in at least nine books, a history of Greek and Latin
+poetry, with special attention to the drama. The few fragments are
+mostly in Sotadean metre. Cf. Gell. vi. 9, 16, 'L. Accius in
+Sotadicorum libro I.'
+
+4. _Pragmaticon libri_ (in trochaic tetrameters) on literary subjects.
+
+5. _Praxidica_, on agriculture. Two lines on ploughing are quoted from
+'liber parergon,' i., but it is not certain whether this is an
+independent work.
+
+6. _Annales_, in hexameters.
+
+7. A work in Saturnians.
+
+Accius gave attention to points of language. Cf. Quint. i. 7, 14,
+'Semivocales geminare diu non fuit usitatissimi moris, atque e
+contrario usque ad Accium et ultra porrectas syllabas geminis, ut
+dixi, vocalibus scripserunt.'
+
+Accius, like Ennius and Pacuvius, attacks superstition. Cf. ll. 169-70,
+
+  'Nil credo auguribus, qui auris verbis divitant
+  alienas, suas ut auro locupletent domos.'
+
+That Virgil imitated Accius is mentioned by Macrob. vi. 1, 58, who
+compares, _e.g._, l. 156,
+
+  'Virtuti sis par, dispar fortunis patris,'
+
+and _Aen._ xii. 435-6,
+
+  'Disce, puer, virtutem ex me verumque laborem,
+  fortunam ex aliis.'
+
+_Views on Accius._--A few of these may be referred to. Cic. _pro
+Sest._ 120, 'Summi poetae ingenium.' Ovid. _Am._ i. 15, 19,
+
+  'Animosi Accius oris.'
+
+Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 97; Tac. _Dial._ 20; and Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 55
+(see 'Pacuvius,' p. 37).
+
+Of the prose writers contemporary with Accius, the most important were
+the annalists _L. Cassius Hemina_ and _L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi_; the
+orators _Ti._ and _C. Graccus_, and their opponent _C. Fannius_, and
+_M. Aemilius Scaurus_, the _princeps senatus_, who also wrote an
+autobiography (Cic. _Brut._ 112). _L. Coelius Antipater_ wrote a
+history of the Second Punic War in seven Books, making use of Silenus,
+whose account was favourable to the Carthaginians (Cic. _de Div._ i.
+49). His strength lay in style (Cic. _de Or._ ii. 53); though
+painstaking, he was apt to exaggerate (Liv. xxvii. 27, 12; xxix, 25,
+3).
+
+
+
+LUCILIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+C. Lucilius' dates are given by Jerome as B.C. 148-103.
+
+yr. Abr. 1869 = B.C. 148, 'Lucilius poeta nascitur.'
+
+yr. Abr. 1914 = B.C. 103, 'C. Lucilius satirarum scriptor Neapoli
+moritur, ac publico funere effertur anno aetatis xlvi.'
+
+If Jerome's notice were correct, Lucilius would have been only
+thirteen years old at the time of the Numantine War (B.C. 134) in
+which he served.
+
+Velleius ii. 9, 4, 'Celebre et Lucili nomen fuit qui sub P. Africano
+Numantino bello eques militaverat.'
+
+It is probable that Jerome has confused the consuls of B.C. 180, A.
+Postumius Albinus and C. Calpurnius Piso, with those of B.C. 148, Sp.
+Postumius Albinus and L. Calpurnius Piso, and that Lucilius was born
+B.C. 180. No reference is found in Lucilius to any event after B.C.
+103, so that Jerome may be right in giving that as the year of his
+death. In Hor. _Sat._ ii. 1, 34, Lucilius is called _senex_, which
+shows that he lived a long life.
+
+Lucilius was born at Suessa in Campania. He was an _eques_, and was
+the great-uncle of Pompey. Juv. 1, 19,
+
+  'Cur tamen hoc potius libeat decurrere campo,
+  per quem magnus equos Auruncae flexit alumnus,
+  si vacat ac placidi rationem admittitis, edam.'
+
+Porphyr. ad Hor. _Sat._ ii. 1, 75, '"infra Lucili censum": Constat
+enim Lucilium avonculum maiorem Pompei fuisse: etenim avia Pompei
+Lucilii soror fuerat.'
+
+Velleius ii. 29, 2, 'Fuit [Cn. Pompeius] genitus matre Lucilia,
+stirpis senatoriae.' This Lucilia was Lucilius' niece, and her father,
+Lucilius' brother, was a senator.
+
+Lucilius was very intimate with Africanus the younger and Laelius, and
+celebrated them in his works. Hor. _Sat._ ii. 1, 71,
+
+  'Quin ubi se a volgo et scaena in secreta remorant
+  virtus Scipiadae et mitis sapientia Laeli,
+  nugari cum illo et discincti ludere, donec
+  decoqueretur olus, soliti.'
+
+Schol. Cruq. _ad loc._, 'Scipio Africanus et Laelius feruntur tam
+fuisse familiares et amici Lucilio, ut quodam tempore Laelio circum
+lectos triclinii fugienti Lucilius superveniens eum obtorta mappa quasi
+feriturus sequeretur.'
+
+Hor. _Sat._ ii. 1, 16,
+
+  'Attamen et iustum poteras et scribere fortem,
+  Scipiadam ut sapiens Lucilius.'
+
+Lucil. _Sat._ xxx. 5 (of Scipio),
+
+                   'Sicubi ad auris
+  fama tuam pugnam clarans adlata dicasset.'
+
+Such intimate association could not have existed if Lucilius had been,
+as Jerome implies, only nineteen at Scipio's death in B.C. 129.
+
+There are many references to Lucilius' attacks on public men. Cf. Hor.
+_Sat._ ii. 1, 62,
+
+                'Quid? cum est Lucilius ausus
+  primus in hunc operis componere carmina morem,
+  detrahere et pellem, nitidus qua quisque per ora
+  cederet, introrsum turpis, num Laelius et qui
+  duxit ab oppressa meritum Carthagine nomen
+  ingenio offensi aut laeso doluere Metello
+  famosisque Lupo cooperto versibus? atqui
+  primores populi arripuit populumque tributim,
+  scilicet uni aequus virtuti atque eius amicis.'
+
+Lucil. lib. incert., ll. 63-4, quoted by Cic. _N.D._ i. 64,
+
+             '"Tubulus si Lucius umquam,
+  si Lupus aut Carbo, Neptuni filius,"
+
+ut ait Lucilius, putasset esse deos, tam periurus aut tam impurus
+fuisset?'
+
+Pers. 1, 114,
+
+                    'Secuit Lucilius urbem,
+  te Lupe, te Muci, et genuinum fregit in illis.'
+
+Juv. 1, 165,
+
+  'Ense velut stricto quotiens Lucilius ardens
+  infremuit, rubet auditor cui frigida mens est
+  criminibus, tacita sudant praecordia culpa.'
+
+_The Saturae._--There were thirty Books altogether, by whom arranged
+is unknown. Fragments are extant from all the Books, except xxi. and
+xxiv. (and possibly xxiii. and xxv.). Books i.-xx. and xxx. were in
+hexameters; xxii. in elegiacs; xxvi.-xxvii. in trochaic septenarii;
+and the next two in trochaic septenarii, iambic senarii, and
+hexameters. Books xxvi.-xxix. were published first, then Book xxx. In
+Book xxvi. Lucilius states his views of life, his poetic principles,
+what led him to write satire, etc. Cf. l. 3,
+
+  'Nunc itidem populum aucupamur istis cum scriptoribus.'
+
+Lines 7-20 contain a conversation between Lucilius and a friend who
+wishes him to engage in public life. Cf. ll. 16-7,
+
+  'Publicanu' vero ut Asiae fiam scripturarius
+  pro Lucilio, id ego nolo, et uno hoc non muto omnia.'
+
+Two divisions of the work may be recognized--(i) Books i.-xxi. (to
+which xxii.-xxv. may be an addition) in hexameters; these Books are
+referred to as one collection by Varro, _L.L._ v. 17. (2) Books
+xxvi.-xxx. in various metres.
+
+_Dates of Composition._--Hor. _Sat._ ii. 1, 62-70 (quoted above),
+shows that Lucilius attacked Lupus and Metellus while Scipio and
+Laelius were still alive, _i.e._ not after B.C. 129; xxvi., ll. 88-9,
+in which Lucilius sneers at marriage,
+
+  'Homines ipsi hanc sibi molestiam ultro atque aerumnam offerunt.
+  Ducunt uxores, producunt, quibus haec faveant, liberos,'
+
+may have special reference to the attempts of Metellus in his
+censorship (B.C. 131) to encourage it. If this is so, Books xxvi.-xxx.
+were composed about B.C. 131-129. Book i. was composed after the death
+of Carneades in B.C. 129 (cf. l. 12, 'nec si Carneaden ipsum Orcu'
+remittat'), and probably soon after the death of Lupus, on whom the
+gods are represented as sitting in judgment.
+
+Serv. ad _Aen._ x. 104, 'Totus hic locus de primo Lucili translatus
+est libro; ubi inducuntur di habere concilium et agere primo de
+interitu Lupi cuiusdam ducis in re publica, postea sententias dicere.'
+
+In B.C. 126 Lucilius was probably, along with other _peregrini_,
+banished under the law of M. Iunius Pennus, trib. pl. in that year. He
+probably returned in B.C. 124, when the law was repealed by C.
+Graccus. Bk. xi. was composed after the condemnation of L. Opimius in
+B.C. 110. Cf. ll. 19-21,
+
+  'Quintus Opimius ille, Iugurtini pater huius,
+  et formosus homo fuit et famosus, utrumque
+  primo adulescens, posterius dat rectiu' sese.'
+
+_Subjects of the Satires._--These were very varied. Besides personal
+satire, we have (1) ethical criticism, as ridicule of philosophers and
+attacks on luxury.
+
+Lib. incert. ll. 134-5 (imitated by Hor. _Sat._ i. 3, 132 _sqq._;
+_Ep._ i. 1, 106-8),
+
+  'Nondum etiam, qui haec omnia habebit,
+  formonsus, dives, liber, rex solu' feretur?'
+
+iv. 4-6 (cf. Hor. _Sat._ ii. 2, 46-8),
+
+  'O Publi, o gurges, Galloni: es homo miser, inquit,
+  cenasti in vita numquam bene, cum omnia in ista
+  consumis squilla atque acupensere cum in decimano.'
+
+(2) Travels, as the account of the journey to the Sicilian Strait,
+imitated by Hor. _Sat._ i. 5.
+
+(3) Literary criticism. Lucilius jeers at Ennius' line,
+
+  'Sparsis hastis longis campus splendet et horret,'
+
+according to Servius ad _Aen._ xi. 601, 'Est versus Ennianus
+vituperatus a Lucilio dicente per irrisionem eum debuisse dicere
+"horret et alget."' Euripides is criticised in xxix., frag. 9. Points
+of orthography and the like are also treated of, cf. ix. 11,
+
+  'Iam puerei venere. E postremum facito atque i,
+  ut pueri plures fiant. I si faci' solum,
+  pupilli, pueri, Lucili hoc uniu' fiet.'[23]
+
+Some other points may be noted:
+
+(1) He addresses a large circle of readers, xxix. 99,
+
+  'Persium non curo legere: Laelium Decumum volo.'
+
+Cf. Cic. _de Or._ ii. 25, 'Hic [Persius] fuit enim, ut noramus, omnium
+fere nostrorum hominum doctissimus: "Laelium Decimum volo," quem
+cognovimus virum bonum et non inlitteratum sed nihil ad Persium.'
+
+(2) For his self-esteem of. xxvi. 16, (quoted above). So xxx. 1,
+
+  'Quoi sua conmittunt mortali claustra Camenae.'
+
+(3) He often mixes Greek words with Latin. Cf. v. 12,
+
+       'Hoc nolueris et debueris te
+  si minu' delectat, quod τεχνίον Eisocratiumst
+  ληρῶδεςque totum ac συμμειρακιῶδες,
+  non operam perdo.'
+
+(4) For his carelessness as to style of. Hor. _Sat._ i. 4, 9,
+
+       'In hora saepe ducentos,
+  ut magnum, versus dictabat, stans pede in uno:
+  cum flueret lutulentus, erat quod tollere velles;
+  garrulus atque piger scribendi ferre laborem,
+  scribendi recte; nam ut multum, nil moror.'
+
+For Lucilius' influence on other poets, see above; also under
+'Persius,' p. 262. For Horace's views on Lucilius, see above; also
+_Sat._ i. 4; i. 10; ii. 1.
+
+Cf. Quint. x. 1, 93, 'Satira quidem tota nostra est, in qua primus
+insignem laudem adeptus Lucilius quosdam ita deditos sibi adhuc habet
+amatores, ut eum non eiusdem modo operis auctoribus sed omnibus poetis
+praeferre non dubitent. Ego quantum ab illis tantum ab Horatio
+dissentio, qui Lucilium "fluere lutulentum" et "esse aliquid, quod
+tollere possis" putat. Nam eruditio in eo mira et libertas atque inde
+acerbitas et abundantia salis.'
+
+
+
+ATTA AND AFRANIUS.
+
+
+Writers of _togatae_ were Atta and Afranius.
+
+Sueton. p. 15 R., 'Togatas tabernarias in scaenam dataverunt praecipue
+duo, L. Afranius et T. Quintius.'
+
+T. Quintius Atta died B.C. 77, according to Jerome yr. Abr. 1940, 'T.
+Quintius Atta, scriptor togatarum, Romae moritur.'
+
+Eleven titles and about twenty lines of fragments are extant. Horace
+refers to Atta in _Ep._ ii. 1, 79 _sqq._,
+
+  'Recte necne crocum floresque perambulet Attae
+  fabula si dubitem, clament periisse pudorem
+  cuncti paene patres, ea cum reprendere coner
+  quae gravis Aesopus, quae doctus Roscius egit.'
+
+L. Afranius was probably born between B.C. 154 and 144. He was the
+chief writer of _togatae_ (Quint. x. 1, 100, 'Togatis excellit
+Afranius'), and also an orator.
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 167, 'L. Afranius poeta, homo perargutus, in fabulis
+quidem etiam ut scitis disertus.'
+
+There are extant forty-two titles (with Latin names) and more than
+four hundred lines of fragments. The plays exhibit Roman surroundings,
+and describe low life, especially of the provincial towns. Cf. the
+title _Brundusinae_, also l. 136,
+
+  'Ubi hice Moschis, quaeso, habet, meretrix Neapolitis?'
+
+Afranius imitated Menander, and probably Terence.
+
+Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 57,
+
+  'Dicitur Afrani toga convenisse Menandro.'
+
+Macrob. _Saturn._ vi. 1, 4, 'Afranius togatarum scriptor in ea togata,
+quae Compitalia inscribitur, non inverecunde respondens arguentibus,
+quod plura sumpsisset a Menandro,
+
+  "Fateor" inquit "sumpsi non ab illo modo,
+  sed ut quisque habuit conveniret quod mihi,
+  quod me non posse melius facere credidi
+  etiam a Latino"' (ll. 25-8).
+
+Sueton. _vit. Ter._ p. 33 R., 'Terentium Afranius omnibus comicis
+praefert.'
+
+
+
+MINOR POETS:
+
+
+(_a_) The poets immediately after Afranius include
+
+(1) Hostius.--He was perhaps the grandfather of Cynthia (Hostia),
+Propertius' mistress. Prop. iv. 20, 7,
+
+  'Est tibi forma potens; sunt castae Palladis artes,
+  splendidaque a docto fama refulget avo.'
+
+There are nine lines extant from his epic poem _Bellum Histricum_,
+which was probably on the war of B.C. 125. Frag. 5 (Bährens),
+
+    'Non si mihi linguae
+  centum atque ora sient totidem vocesque liquatae,'
+
+is from _Il._ ii. 489, and is imitated by Verg. _Aen._ vi. 625 (as
+noticed by Macrob. _Saturn._ vi. 3, 6).
+
+(2) Writers of epigrams--Pompilius, Valerius Aedituus, Porcius
+Licinus, and Q. Lutatius Catulus (cons. B.C. 102).
+
+(3) Q. Valerius Soranus wrote verse on philology and archaeology.
+
+(4) Volcacius Sedigitus wrote verse on literary history up to the time
+of the _fabula palliata_. He wrote _indices_ of Plautus (Gell. iii. 3,
+1), and a work _De Poetis_, which included his canon on the comic
+poets (Gell. xv. 24).
+
+  'Caecilio palmam Statio do mimico.
+  Plautus secundus facile exuperat ceteros.
+  Dein Naevius, qui fervet, pretio in tertiost.
+  Si erit, quod quarto detur, dabitur Licinio.
+  Post insequi Licinium facio Atilium.
+  In sexto consequetur hos Terentius,
+  Turpilius septimum, Trabea octavum optinet,
+  nono loco esse facile facio Luscium.
+  Decimum addo causa antiquitatis Ennium.'
+
+(_b_) The following poets wrote during Cicero's youth, B.C. 106-84:
+
+(1) Cn. Matius, author of _Mimiambi_, and a translation of the
+_Iliad_. An example of the last is Frag. I (Bährens) = _Il._ i. 56,
+
+  'Corpora Graiorum maerebat mandier igni.'
+
+(2) Laevius, author of _Erotopaegnia_, of a lyrical character.
+Porphyr. ad Hor. _Od._ iii. 1, 2, 'Romanis utique non prius audita,
+quamvis Laevius lyrica ante Horatium scripserit; sed videntur illa non
+Graecorum lege ad lyricum characterem exacta.'
+
+About sixty lines are extant. Gell. xix. 7 speaks of Laevius' curious
+vocabulary, and instances _oblittera_ for _oblitterata_;
+_trisaeclisenex_, _dulciorelocus_, etc.
+
+(3) A. Furius of Antium. Only six lines are extant.
+
+(4) C. Iulius Caesar Strabo, a tragic writer and orator.
+
+(5) Sueius. His works are (_a_) _Moretum_, an idyll; (_b_) _Pulli_, on
+the breeding of fowls; (_c_) _Nidus_; (_d_) an epic poem, _Annales_.
+
+(6) Writers of _fabula Atellana_;[24] Novius and L. Pomponius
+(Bononiensis). Fronto p. 62 (ed. Naber), 'Elegantis Novium et
+Pomponium et id genus in verbis rusticanis et iocularibus ac
+ridiculariis.'
+
+Of Novius forty-three titles and over one hundred lines are preserved,
+and of Pomponius about seventy titles and two hundred lines. The
+well-known characters of the _fabula Atellana_ are retained, as is
+seen from the titles. Cf. _Duo Dosseni_, _Maccus Copa_ of Novius; _Bucco
+Adoptatus_, _Maccus Miles_, _Maccus Sequester_, _Maccus Virgo_ of
+Pomponius.
+
+
+
+PROSE WRITERS OF THE SAME PERIOD:
+
+
+_L. Cornelius Sisenna_ (praetor B.C. 78), author of _Historiae_ of the
+Social and Civil Wars (Vell. Pat. ii. 9). Cicero thought him superior
+to his predecessors, but childish (_Brut._ 228, _De Leg._ i. 7), and
+Sallust remarks his want of frankness in speaking of Sulla's career
+(_Iug._ 95). He avoided a piecemeal and desultory treatment of events;
+cf. his own words quoted by Gell. xii. 15, 2, 'Nos una aestate in Asia
+et Graecia gesta litteris idcirco continentia mandavimus, ne
+vellicatim aut saltuatim scribendo lectorum animos impediremus.' His
+translation of the Μιλησιακά of Aristides is mentioned by Ovid,
+_Tr._ ii. 443.
+
+Contemporary with Sisenna were _Q. Claudius Quadrigarius_, and
+_Valerius Antias_, whose narrative was coloured by partiality for the
+Valerii and for Scipio Africanus (see under 'Livy').
+
+_C. Licinius Macer_, father of the poet Calvus, was one of Livy's
+sources for the early history. Dion. Hal. (vi. 11 and vii. 1)
+complains of his carelessness and the weakness of his chronology. He
+claimed that he used original authorities, _e.g._ the _libri lintei_,
+lists of magistrates written on linen. He was a strong democrat, and
+is looked upon by Mommsen (_R.H._ iv., p. 602) as manufacturing
+authorities in support of his political views.
+
+_Sulla_ wrote memoirs of his own life (Plut. _Lucull._ 1), and
+_Lucullus_ composed in Greek a history of the Marsian War (_ibid._).
+
+
+
+Footnotes to Chapter I
+
+
+[1] The scheme of this old national metre, which depends on accent and
+not on quantity, may be seen from the two examples given below.
+Various forms are found, but one of the commonest types is identical
+with the rhythm of the nursery rhyme,
+
+  'The queen was in the parlour, eating bread and honey.'
+
+[2] 'I have heard that a Roman poet is languishing in prison with head
+on hand'--probably a metaphor from a pillar (but the sense is far from
+certain).
+
+[3] Utica was besieged by Scipio from 204 to 202 B.C.
+
+[4] In the _fabula togata_ or _tabernaria_ the surroundings of the
+comedy were Roman, in the _fabula palliata_ Greek, as in Plautus'
+plays. _Togata_ in a wider sense included tragedy as well as comedy.
+
+[5] This term means the construction of a new play by uniting two old
+ones.
+
+[6] The references are to the revised edition of Ritschl.
+
+[7] A species of burlesque tragedy, called after its inventor
+Rhinthon, who flourished B.C. 300.
+
+[8] _R.H._ ii. p. 431 trans.
+
+[9] This shows that the ancient (rough alphabetical) order has been
+departed from. Some grammarian of the fifth century altered the
+position of the play on account of the reference to it in _Epid._
+213-5 (quoted above).
+
+[10] I.e. the 'Patruus' written by the old Roman (lit., 'son of the
+porridge-eater').
+
+[11] These games were celebrated in April. Plays were exhibited also
+at the _Ludi Romani_ (September) and the _Ludi Plebei_ (November).
+
+[12] Much of the information on this head is taken from J. Brix's
+edition of the _Trinummus_. Leipzig, 1888.
+
+[13] This is shown in the universal classical usage of _benĕ_, _malĕ_,
+etc.
+
+[14] The references are to Vahlen's edition.
+
+[15] Thus the original name of Beneventum was Maleventum, i.e.
+ΜαλόϜεντα, accusative of ΜαλόϜεις; cf. Agrigentum from
+Ἀκράγας, and Tarentum from Τάρας.
+
+[16] Euhemerus of Messana, who wrote about the end of the fourth
+century B.C., tried in this work to show that the worship of the gods
+arose from the worship of deified kings and heroes.
+
+[17] The Oscan form of _Pacuvi_.
+
+[18] The term _doctus_ refers to his knowledge of the Greek laws of
+artistic composition.
+
+[19] After Ambivius' name appears in most of the didascaliae 'L.
+Hatilius Praenestinus.' Probably this person was an actor at some
+later productions, and his name has in this way crept into the MSS.
+
+[20] _Tibiae_ were called _pares_ or _impares_ according as they were
+or were not of the same length and key. _Duae dextrae_ were two pipes
+both playing the treble. _Tibiae Sarranae_, from Sarra, the old Latin
+name for Tyre, were a special form of _tibiae pares_.
+
+[21] _Mediocritas_ = τὸ μέσον, the intermediate style between
+τὸ ἁδρόν, 'the florid' (_ubertas_), and τὸ ἰσχνόν,
+'the simple' (_gracilitas_). See W. Peterson's note on Quint. x. 1,
+44.
+
+[22] For the omission of names, cf. iv. 12 (Jordan), 'dictatorem
+Karthaginiensium magister equitum monuit' (of Hannibal and Maharbal).
+
+[23] This means that Lucilius would represent the nom. plu. by _-ei_
+and the gen. sing, by _-i_.
+
+[24] The _fabula Atellana_ was a species of farce adopted by the
+Romans from the Oscan town of Atella in Campania. See Livy, vii. 2,
+for this and the early history of the Roman drama.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE CICERONIAN AGE.
+
+
+
+CICERO.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+M. Tullius Cicero, the son of a Roman knight, was born at Arpinum on
+3rd January, B.C. 106. Jerome yr. Abr. 1911, 'M. Tullius Cicero Arpini
+nascitur matre Helvia, patre equestris ordinis ex regio Volscorum
+genere.' Cic. _ad Att._ xiii. 42, 3, 'Diem meum scis esse iii. Non.
+Ian.'
+
+He gives an account of his education in _Brut._ 306 _sqq._ In civil
+law he was a pupil, in B.C. 89, of Q. Scaevola the Augur, and
+afterwards of the pontifex of the same name (_de Am._ 1). In B.C. 88
+he studied philosophy under Philo the Academic, and rhetoric under
+Molo of Rhodes. Dialectic he practised with the Stoic Diodotus, who
+lived and died in Cicero's house (B.C. 87-5). Other teachers of Cicero
+were the poet Archias (_pro Arch._ 1), the orator Antonius (_de Or._
+ii. 3), the actors Roscius and Aesopus (Plut. _Cic._ 5), the
+rhetorician M. Antonius Gnipho (Sueton. _Gramm._ 7), and the
+philosophers Phaedrus and Zeno.
+
+After establishing a reputation at the bar by his defence of Quinctius
+and of Roscius of Ameria, he visited Asia to recruit his health and
+improve his oratorical style. On his way to the East he stayed six
+months at Athens, where he renewed his philosophical studies under
+Antiochus the Academic. In Asia he attended the leading rhetoricians,
+especially his old teacher Molo at Rhodes, who endeavoured to chasten
+the exuberance of his manner. At Rhodes he also made the acquaintance
+of the famous Stoic Posidonius (_de Fin._ i. 6). After an absence of
+two years he returned to Rome B.C. 77, and shortly afterwards married
+Terentia.
+
+Cicero, who had served in the Social War, B.C. 89 (_Phil._ xii. 27),
+began his official career in 75 as quaestor of the district of
+Lilybaeum in Sicily, where he won golden opinions from all classes
+(_pro Planc._ 64). He headed the poll at the election of aediles for
+69, and of praetors for 66 (_in Pis._ 2); as praetor he presided over
+the court for the trial of cases of _repetundae_ (_pro Clu._ 147). His
+canvass for the consulship of 63 began as early as July 65 (_ad Att._
+i. 1, 1); he was returned with C. Antonius as his colleague (_in Pis._
+3). His services to the State in 63 in the crushing of the
+Catilinarian conspiracy need not be dwelt on here: his activity as an
+orator in that year was great, and he passed a law against undue
+influence by candidates, 'Lex Tullia de ambitu' (_in Vat._ 37). He
+waived his right to a province, allowing Metellus Celer to take Gaul.
+
+In 58 the hostility of P. Clodius effected Cicero's banishment, on the
+ground that he had put the Catilinarian conspirators to death without
+trial. Retiring at first to Vibo, in Lucania, he moved successively to
+Sicily, Thurii, Tarentum, Brundisium, Dyrrhachium, Thessalonica, and
+Athens. At Dyrrhachium he resided from November 58 to August 57, when,
+after several unsuccessful efforts by his friends, a law was passed
+for his recall.
+
+In 53 he was chosen augur in succession to the younger Crassus (Plut.
+_Cic._ 36), and two years later was appointed proconsul of Cilicia,
+under the new arrangement providing for an interval of five years
+between office in Rome and the government of a province. There he
+carried on a petty warfare with the mountaineers, and captured the
+fort of Pindenissus (a success for which the Senate decreed a
+_supplicatio_), occupying the winter with judicial business in the
+towns. His absence from the centre of affairs, though it lasted only a
+year, was most distasteful to him; cf. _ad Att._ v. 11, 1, 'Ne
+provincia nobis prorogetur, per fortunas! dum ades, quidquid provideri
+potest, provide: non dici potest quam flagrem desiderio urbis, quam
+vix harum rerum insulsitatem feram.' For his just dealing with the
+provincials, cf. _ad Att._ v. 21, 5.
+
+In November, 50, Cicero returned to Italy, to find a crisis imminent,
+and finally cast in his lot with the senatorial party. He left Rome
+with the consuls and the leading _optimates_, and for some time had
+charge of the district of Capua (_ad Fam._ xvi. 11, 3, 'nos Capuam
+sumpsimus'). On 7th June, B.C. 49, he embarked to join Pompey in
+Epirus, though far from enthusiastic for his leadership (_ad Fam._
+vii. 3, 2, 'mei facti poenituit... Nihil boni praeter causam.') The
+chiefs of the party looked upon him with suspicion, and he was not
+present at the battle of Pharsalus. After Pompey's overthrow he
+returned to Brundisium, and in 47 was allowed by Caesar to return to
+Rome (_ad Fam._ xiv. 23). His mode of life at this time he thus
+describes (_ad Fam._ ix. 20, 3), 'Ubi salutatio defluxit, litteris me
+involvo, aut scribo aut lego. Veniunt etiam qui me audiant quasi
+doctum hominem, quia paullo sum quam ipsi doctior.'
+
+In 46 he divorced his wife Terentia, of whose neglect he complains,
+_ad Fam._ iv. 14, 3; and married Publilia, with whom he parted in the
+following year. In 45 he lost his only daughter Tullia, who had been
+thrice married; he tried to drown his grief by close application to
+literary work, moving about from villa to villa, and it is to this
+period that most of his philosophical works belong. In 44 he appeared
+once more in Rome, and took a prominent part in the proceedings which
+followed upon Caesar's death. April to July he spent at his various
+villas (_ad Att._ xiv. _passim_), and then decided to visit Athens,
+where his son (born B.C. 65) was studying. On 1st August he reached
+Syracuse, but hearing at Leucopetra that his presence was required at
+Rome, he gave up his plan of travel and returned to the city. With the
+series of _Philippics_ against Antony (44-3) Cicero's career closes.
+In the proscription agreed on by the triumvirs he was marked out as
+one of the chief victims. A fragment of Livy, quoted by Seneca,
+_Suas._ 6, 17, states that he fled first to Tusculum, then to Formiae,
+and took ship from Caieta, but returned to land, exclaiming, 'Moriar
+in patria saepe servata.' On his way from the shore to his villa he
+was slain by a party of Antony's soldiers, and his head was carried to
+Rome and exposed on the Rostra. The date of the assassination was 7th
+December, B.C. 43 (Tiro quoted by Tac. _Dial._ 17).
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+(a) Speeches.
+
+1. The earliest extant speech is that _Pro Quinctio_, delivered B.C.
+81 (Gell. xv. 28, 3) in an action before a iudex for restitution of
+property. This was not Cicero's first appearance as an advocate: § 4,
+'quod mihi consuevit in ceteris causis esse adiumento.'
+
+2. Next year (cf. Gell. _ibid._) Cicero made his first speech in a
+criminal case, defending Sex. Roscius of Ameria on a charge of
+parricide. By so doing he incurred the risk of Sulla's enmity, but at
+the same time established his own position. _De Off._ ii. 51, 'contra
+L. Sullae dominantis opes pro S. Roscio Amerino'; _Brut._ 312, 'prima
+causa publica, pro Sex. Roscio dicta, tantum commendationis habuit, ut
+non ulla esset quae non digna nostro patrocinio videretur.' In later
+years he criticized the 'iuvenilis redundantia' of this speech
+(_Orat._ 108).
+
+3. The speech _Pro Roscio Comoedo_, usually assigned to B.C. 76, was a
+defence of the famous actor in a civil case.
+
+4. The year 70 B.C. is memorable for the group of speeches
+('accusationis vii. libri,' _Orat._ 103), against Verres, accused of
+_repetundae_ by the Sicilians, at whose urgent entreaty Cicero
+undertook the prosecution. The preliminary question, who should
+conduct the prosecution, is argued in the _Divinatio in Caecilium_. Q.
+Caecilius Niger, Verres' quaestor, claimed the right to prosecute, but
+this manoeuvre failed. Of the six speeches _in Verrem_ only one, the
+_Actio Prima_, was delivered: Cicero, seeing that the other side were
+anxious to carry the trial over into the next year, confined himself
+to this short introductory speech (on 5th August, cf. § 31), after
+which he called his witnesses. Their evidence was so damaging that
+Hortensius[25] threw up the defence, and Verres was sentenced to
+banishment and his property confiscated. The five Books of the _Actio
+Secunda_ were published afterwards in order that the facts might be
+thoroughly known.
+
+5. _Pro M. Fonteio_ (incomplete), for Fonteius, propraetor of Gallia
+Narbonensis B.C. 75-3, on a charge of _repetundae_. This trial perhaps
+took place B.C. 69, certainly after the equites had been placed on the
+_iudicia_ by the Lex Aurelia of 70 (cf. § 26).
+
+6. To the same year probably belongs the speech _Pro Caecina_ in a
+civil case.
+
+7. In B.C. 66 Cicero made his first political speech, _Pro Lege
+Manilia_, or _De Imperio Cn. Pompei_, in support of the bill of the
+tribune Manilius for conferring on Pompey the command against
+Mithradates.
+
+8. In the same year he defended Cluentius, charged with murder, in the
+speech _Pro A. Cluentio Habito_. The date is fixed as the year of
+Cicero's praetorship by § 147, 'mea quaestio de pecuniis repetundis.'
+
+9. The three speeches _De Lege Agraria_ are concerned with the bill of
+P. Servilius Rullus for the appointment of _decemviri_ with full power
+to buy and sell land and to establish colonies. The first speech
+(incomplete) was made in the Senate on 1st January, the second and
+third before _contiones_.
+
+10. The speech _Pro C. Rabirio perduellionis reo_ was delivered on
+behalf of Rabirius, charged before the _comitia_ with the murder of
+the tribune Saturninus in B.C. 100. The prosecution had been
+instituted by the democratic party to vindicate the old right of
+_provocatio ad populum_, and to establish the inviolability of the
+tribunes.
+
+11. Of the four speeches _In Catilinam_, i. was delivered in the
+Senate on 8th November, and followed by Catiline's flight from Rome;
+ii. to the people on 9th November; iii. to the people on 3rd December,
+when the Allobroges gave their evidence about the conspiracy; iv. in
+the Senate, on 5th December, calling for the capital punishment of the
+conspirators.[26]
+
+12. In this crisis Cicero made one of his most graceful and witty
+speeches, the _Pro Murena_. The defendant was charged with bribery in
+his candidature for the consulship, and among the prosecutors was
+Cato.
+
+13-14. In B.C. 62 Cicero defended P. Sulla, who was accused of
+complicity with Catiline (_Pro Sulla_), and delivered the speech _Pro
+Archia_ in support of his friend's title to the Roman citizenship.
+
+15. In B.C. 59 L. Flaccus was accused of _repetundae_ as propraetor of
+Asia 62-60, and defended by Cicero in the speech _Pro Flacco_.
+
+16-19. After Cicero's return from exile he returned thanks to the
+Senate in the speech _Cum Senatui gratias egit_, 5th September B.C. 57
+(_ad Att._ iv. 1, 5), delivered from manuscript ('propter rei
+magnitudinem dicta de scripto,' _Pro Planc._ 74). The genuineness of
+the corresponding speech to the people, _Cum populo gratias egit_, is
+suspected; it is mentioned by Dio. xxxix. 9, 1, but not by Cicero
+himself. On 30th September (_ad Att._ iv. 2, 2) the speech _De Domo
+Sua_ was delivered before the _pontifices_, who decided that the site
+of Cicero's house, which Clodius had consecrated, should be restored
+to its owner. Connected with this is the speech _De Haruspicum
+Responsis_, of the year 56, rebutting the argument of Clodius that the
+declaration of the _haruspices_, 'loca sacra et religiosa profana
+haberi' (§ 9) referred to the restitution of Cicero's house.
+
+20. The speech _Pro Sestio_ is in defence of one of Cicero's friends
+who, as tribune, had worked energetically for his recall from exile,
+and was now accused _de vi_ at the instigation of Clodius. Sestius was
+acquitted in March, B.C. 56 (_ad Q.F._ ii. 4, 1).
+
+21. The _Interrogatio in P. Vatinium testem_ was a successful attack
+on the credibility of Vatinius, who had been one of the chief
+witnesses against Sestius.
+
+22. _Pro M. Caelio_.--The prosecution of Caelius on a charge of
+poisoning was instigated by his former mistress, Clodia; it took place
+in B.C. 56, for Cn. Domitius, who tried the case (§ 32), was praetor
+in that year (_ad Q.F._ ii. 3, 6).
+
+23. The speech _De Provinciis Consularibus_, B.C. 56, argues that
+Caesar should be allowed to continue as proconsul of Gaul, and that
+Syria and Macedonia should be taken away from Gabinius and Piso.
+Mommsen[27] regards it as the παλινῳδία of _ad Att._ iv. 5,
+1, and contrasts Cicero's tone to Caesar in this speech with his
+attitude in the _Pro Sestio_, _In Vatinium_, and _De Haruspicum
+Responsis_.
+
+24. The speech _Pro Balbo_ deals with a case similar to that of
+Archias. L. Cornelius Balbus, a native of Gades, and the trusted
+friend of Caesar, had received the _civitas_ from Pompey, and this
+speech is in defence of his right thereto (B.C. 56).
+
+25. _In Pisonem_, an attack on Cicero's enemy (consul B.C. 58),
+delivered in the Senate B.C. 55.
+
+26. _Pro Plancio_, B.C. 54, on behalf of Cn. Plancius, accused of
+organizing clubs to secure by bribery his election to the aedileship.
+
+27. _Pro Rabirio Postumo_, B.C. 54. Rabirius was charged with
+extortion in Egypt.
+
+28. _Pro Milone_.--At the trial of Milo _de vi_ in B.C. 52 Cicero was
+so intimidated by the uproar of the rabble that his speech was a
+failure, and Milo was condemned. The speech now extant was written by
+Cicero at his leisure. Both were known to Asconius,[28] who supplies a
+valuable introduction.
+
+29. For six years we have no speech; but in 46 Cicero broke his rule
+of silence ('in perpetuum tacere,' _ad Fam._ iv. 4, 4), and in the
+speech _Pro Marcello_ thanked Caesar for allowing Marcellus, the
+consul of B.C. 51, to return to Rome.
+
+30. On 26th November B.C. 46 he pleaded before Caesar the cause of Q.
+Ligarius (_Pro Ligario_).
+
+31. In the latter part of B.C. 45 he delivered in Caesar's house the
+speech _Pro Rege Deiotaro_ on behalf of his 'hospes vetus et amicus,'
+the tetrarch of Galatia, accused of treachery to Caesar.
+
+32. Cicero's oratorical career closes with the fourteen speeches
+against Antony, called _Philippics_, after the speeches of
+Demosthenes. This title was suggested by the author himself; cf. the
+letter of Brutus (_ad Brut._ ii. 5, 4), 'iam concedo ut vel
+Philippicae vocentur, quod tu quadam epistula iocans scripsisti.' It
+was the usual title in antiquity, though Gellius (xiii. 1, 1) uses the
+alternative _Antonianae_. The _Philippics_ cover the period from 2nd
+September 44 to 22nd April 43. They were all delivered in the Senate,
+except iv. and vi., which are _contiones_, and ii., which was never
+spoken, but published as a political pamphlet after Antony had left
+Rome: for its fame cf. Juv. 10, 125,
+
+  'Te conspicuae, divina Philippica, famae,
+  volveris a prima quae proxima.'
+
+There are fragments of about twenty speeches, and the titles of thirty
+others are known. The invective _in Sallustium_, and the speech
+_Pridie quam in exilium iret_, are undoubtedly spurious.
+
+Many of the speeches were to a large extent extempore, the heads only
+being committed to writing. These notes were afterwards collected by
+Tiro (Quint. x. 7, 30-1). In publishing, Cicero occasionally omitted
+some passages of the spoken oration, _e.g._ in _Pro Mur._ 57 only the
+headings appear, 'De Postumi criminibus.' 'De Servi adulescentis': cf.
+Plin. _Ep._ i. 20, 7, 'ex his apparet illum permulta dixisse, cum
+ederet omisisse.' For the practice of reporting his speeches in
+shorthand cf. Ascon. _in Mil._ 'manet illa quoque excepta eius oratio'
+(his speech at Milo's trial). The only case in which Cicero appeared
+for the prosecution was that of Verres: the part of an accuser was
+generally distasteful to him; cf. _De Off._ ii. 50, 'duri hominis vel
+potius vix hominis videtur, periculum capitis inferre multis.'
+
+
+(b) Philosophical Works.
+
+1. _De Re Publica_, a discussion of the ideal state and the ideal
+citizen, was published before B.C. 51, for Caelius writes to Cicero in
+Cilicia, 'tui politici libri omnibus vigent' (_ad Fam._ viii. 1, 4).
+In this treatise Cicero made use of Plato, and of Aristotle,
+Theophrastus, and other Peripatetics (_de Div._ ii. 3). There were six
+Books; but until 1822 the _Somnium Scipionis_, extracted by Macrobius
+from Book vi., was the only portion of the work known to exist, with
+the exception of a few fragments. In that year Mai published at Rome,
+from a Vatican palimpsest, remains which make up about one-third of
+the whole.
+
+2. The _De Legibus_ succeeded the _De Re Publica_, as Plato's _Laws_
+came after the _Republic_. The speakers in this dialogue are Atticus,
+Cicero, and his brother Quintus. Book i. expounds the Stoic position
+that the laws of the ideal state are made by the wise man in
+accordance with the mind of God; this position is worked out in Book
+ii. in the regulations for religion, and in iii. on the duties of
+magistrates. The treatise was never completed, and was perhaps a
+posthumous publication: it is not mentioned in the list in _De
+Divinatione_ ii. 1-3, and there is no preface, though Cicero says (_ad
+Att._ iv. 16, 2) 'in singulis libris utor prooemiis.' Certainly it had
+not appeared in B.C. 46, the year of the _Brutus_ (_Brut._ 19). It was
+composed after the murder of Clodius in January, B.C. 52 (ii. 42), and
+in Pompey's lifetime (iii. 22): probably in 52, as the government of
+Cilicia and the civil war left Cicero no time for literature during
+the years 51-48.
+
+3. In the spring of 46 was written the short tract _Paradoxa_, a
+discussion of six Stoic paradoxes (_e.g._ that the wise man alone is
+free). It was addressed to Brutus, and was later than the dialogue
+which bears his name; cf. the preface, 'accipies hoc parvum opusculum,
+lucubratum his iam contractioribus noctibus, quoniam illud maiorum
+vigiliarum munus in tuo nomine apparuit.'
+
+4. The death of Tullia in February, 45, led Cicero to write, at
+Astura, a _Consolatio_, of which only fragments survive. Plin. _N.H._
+praef. 22, quotes Cicero as saying that he here followed the Greek
+philosopher, Crantor, περὶ πένθους. It contained notices of
+the deaths of great men, _De Div._ ii. 22, 'clarissimorum hominum
+nostrae civitatis gravissimos exitus in Consolatione collegimus.'
+
+5. In the _Hortensius_ Cicero appeared as the champion of philosophy:
+_De Fin._ i. 2, 'philosophiae vituperatoribus satis responsum est eo
+libro, quo a nobis philosophia defensa et collaudata est, cum esset
+accusata et vituperata ab Hortensio.' It cannot be traced beyond the
+seventh century, and is now represented by a few fragments. In the
+Middle Ages it was confounded with the _Prior Academics_, the speakers
+in both dialogues being the same. The _Hortensius_ seems to have been
+written before Cicero went to Astura in March, B.C. 45: there is no
+allusion to it in his letters.
+
+6. The treatise _De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum_ discusses various
+theories of the _summum bonum_--the Epicurean in Books i.-ii., the
+Stoic in iii.-iv., the Peripatetic in v. The scene of the dialogue
+changes from Cumae to Tusculum and then to the Academy at Athens. The
+work was dedicated to Brutus in June, 45 (_ad Att._ xiii. 12, 3).
+
+7. The _Academics_ appeared in two editions. Of the original edition
+Book ii., entitled _Lucullus_, has survived; the speakers in it are
+Lucullus, Catulus, Hortensius, and Cicero, and the scene, Hortensius'
+villa. Cicero was not satisfied with this arrangement (_ad Att._ xiii.
+12, 3, 'homines nobiles illi quidem, sed nullo modo philologi, nimis
+acute locuntur'), and after provisionally transferring the parts of
+Lucullus, Catulus, and Hortensius, to Cato and Brutus, he finally
+adopted the suggestion of Atticus to gratify Varro by giving him a
+share in the dialogue together with Atticus and himself (_ad Att._
+xiii. 13, 1, 'commotus tuis litteris, quod ad me de Varrone
+scripseras, totam Academiam ab hominibus nobilissimis abstuli
+transtulique ad nostrum sodalem et ex duobus libris contuli in
+quattuor'). Of this second edition in four Books we possess only Book
+i. (incomplete), and fragments of the others; the scene is at Cumae.
+The dedicatory epistle to Varro is still preserved (_ad Fam._ ix. 8).
+
+8. In the five Books of _Tusculanae Disputationes_, conversations
+between Cicero and a friend at his Tusculan villa, the subject is the
+chief essentials for happiness. Book i. inculcates the proper attitude
+towards death, ii. to grief, iii. to pain, iv. to other trials, v.
+asserts the sufficiency of virtue for happiness. The treatise is
+dedicated to Brutus, and was finished by B.C. 44, in which year (_ad
+Att._ xv. 2, 4) the first Book is known to Atticus.
+
+9. _De Natura Deorum_, in three Books, is also addressed to Brutus.
+The Epicurean, Stoic, and Peripatetic doctrines are represented by C.
+Velleius, Q. Lucilius Balbus, and C. Aurelius Cotta, respectively.
+This treatise was written after the _Tusculans_ (_de Div._ ii. 3): in
+July 45 (_ad Att._ xiii. 39, 2) Atticus is asked for the loan of
+Φαίδρου περὶ θεῶν and περὶ Παλλάδος.
+
+10. The essay _De Senectute_, called also _Cato Maior_ after the
+principal speaker in the dialogue, was addressed to Atticus at the end
+of 45 or early in 44 (_de Div._ ii. 3; _ad Att._ xiv. 21, 3).
+
+11. To a later date in the same year belongs the _Laelius_, or _De
+Amicitia_ (_de Am._ 4 mentions the _de Sen._), in which Laelius
+discourses on friendship. In this book, according to Gell. i. 3,
+10-11, Cicero was under obligations to Theophrastus περὶ φιλίας.
+
+12. _De Divinatione_, in two Books, forms a supplement to the _De
+Natura Deorum_. Cicero and his brother discuss, at Tusculum, the
+nature and validity of 'divinatio,' which is defined (i. 9) as 'earum
+rerum quae fortuitae putantur praedictio atque praesensio.' The date
+is 44.
+
+13. The incomplete essay _De Fato_ was written in 44, after Caesar's
+death (cf. § 2). The conversation takes place at Puteoli, between
+Cicero and the consul-designate Hirtius.
+
+14. On 11th July of the same year Cicero sent to Atticus his treatise
+_De Gloria_, in two Books, now lost (_ad Att._ xvi. 2, 6; _de Off._
+ii. 31).
+
+15. The latest of the extant philosophical works is the _De Officiis_,
+written for the instruction of the author's son. Cicero had completed
+two Books by November, B.C. 44 (xvi. 11, 4), following the treatment
+of Panaetius, and discussing in Book i. the issue between vice and
+virtue, in Book ii. the expediency of a given action. In Book iii. he
+was indebted to Posidonius, for the discussion of apparent conflict
+between virtue and expediency.
+
+There are traces of two other treatises, _De Virtutibus_ and _De
+Auguriis_; and we possess fragments of a translation of Plato's
+_Protagoras_ and _Timaeus_, which cannot be earlier than B.C. 45 (_de
+Fin._ i. 7).
+
+Cicero propounds no original scheme of philosophy, claiming only that
+he renders the conclusions of Greek thinkers accessible to his own
+countrymen. This sort of work cost him little trouble: _ad Att._ xii.
+52, 3, 'ἀπόγραφα sunt; minore labore fiunt: verba tantum affero,
+quibus abundo.' At the same time he is not a mere translator: _de
+Fin._ i. 6, 'nos non interpretum fungimur munere, sed tuemur ea quae
+dicta sunt ab eis quos probamus, eisque nostrum iudicium et nostrum
+scribendi ordinem adiungimus.' His motives for entering upon this task
+are explained in _De Nat. Deor._ i. 7-9: (1) he desired to do a
+service to his country: 'ipsius rei publicae causa philosophiam
+nostris hominibus explicandam putavi'; (2) he sought relief for his
+own mind: 'hortata etiam est ut me ad haec conferrem animi aegritudo,
+fortunae magna et gravi conmota iniuria.' Cicero is an eclectic, with
+a leaning to the New Academy: _Tusc._ iv. 7, 'nullis unius disciplinae
+legibus adstricti, quibus in philosophia necessario pareamus.'
+Probability is all that he expects to reach: _ibid._, 'quid sit in
+quaque re maxime probabile semper requiremus.' The philosophy most
+attractive to him is that which best called forth the oratorical
+faculty: _Tusc._ ii. 9, 'mihi semper Peripateticorum Academiaeque
+consuetudo de omnibus rebus in contrarias partes differendi ...
+placuit ... quod esset ea maxima dicendi exercitatio.'[29]
+
+
+(c) Rhetorical Treatises.
+
+1. The earliest of these is _De Inventione_, or _Rhetorica_, in two
+Books, written probably for the author's own use during Sulla's
+absence in Asia B.C. 87-83. In his mature years Cicero looked back
+with contempt on this youthful effort: _de Or._ i. 5, 'quae pueris aut
+adulescentulis nobis ex commentariolis nostris incohata ac rudia
+exciderunt.' He borrows much from the _Rhet. ad Herenn._, and
+frequently mentions and criticises the views of Hermagoras; but all
+the best writers on rhetoric were laid under contribution: ii. 4,
+'omnibus unum in locum coactis scriptoribus, quod quisque commodissime
+praecipere videbatur, excerpsimus.'
+
+2. The three Books _De Oratore_ were finished in 55: _ad Att._ iv. 13,
+2, 'de libris oratoriis factum est a me diligenter: diu multumque in
+manibus fuerunt: describas licet.' They were written at a time when
+Cicero's voice was seldom heard: _ad Fam._ i. 9, 23, 'ab orationibus
+diiungo me fere referoque ad mansuetiores Musas.' The dialogue takes
+place in B.C. 91, at the Tusculan villa of L. Licinius Crassus; he and
+the rival orator, M. Antonius, are the chief speakers.
+
+3. The dialogue _Brutus_, or _De Claris Oratoribus_, after a brief
+survey of Greek oratory, criticises the Roman orators from L. Brutus
+to Cicero's own time. In spite of his intention to omit living persons
+(§ 231), he discusses Caesar, M. Marcellus, and himself. The speakers
+are Brutus, Atticus, and Cicero; and the date is probably 46, for the
+_Brutus_ is earlier than the _Orator_, which refers to it (§ 23).
+
+4. The _Orator_ or _De Optimo Genere Dicendi_ is a sequel to the _De
+Oratore_ and the _Brutus_, adding practical rules to the exposition of
+theory (_de Div._ ii. 4). It was written at the request of Brutus, to
+whom it is addressed, in the year 46 (_ad Fam._ xii. 17, 2).
+
+5. _Partitiones Oratoriae_ is a catechism on rhetoric, in which the
+questions are put to Cicero by his son.
+
+6. The _Topica_ was written in response to repeated requests from
+Trebatius for explanation of Aristotle's _Topics_. It was done by
+Cicero, without the aid of books, on his voyage from Velia to Rhegium
+in July, 44 (_Top._ 5; _ad Fam._ vii. 19).
+
+7. The short treatise _De Optimo Genere Oratorum_ was introductory to
+a version of the speeches of Demosthenes and Aeschines 'on the Crown,'
+designed to show the Romans what the best Attic oratory was like.
+
+
+(d) Letters.
+
+Cicero's correspondence begins B.C. 68 with _ad Att._ i. 5, and ends
+28th July, B.C. 43. Besides seven hundred and seventy-four letters
+written by Cicero, we have ninety addressed to him by friends. The
+collection was made by friends like Tiro and Atticus: cf. _ad Att._
+xvi. 5, 5 (B.C. 44), 'Mearum epistularum nulla est συναγωγή, sed
+habet Tiro instar septuaginta, et quidem sunt a te quaedam sumendae:
+eas ego oportet perspiciam, corrigam; tum denique edentur.'
+
+The letters now extant fall into four groups.
+
+1. _Epistulae ad Atticum_, in sixteen Books, belonging to the years
+B.C. 68-43, and valuable for their thorough frankness (_ad Att._ viii.
+14, 2, 'ego tecum tamquam mecum loquor'). Nepos appreciates their
+supreme importance for the history of Cicero's time, although he dates
+the commencement of the correspondence wrongly: _Att._ 16, 'xvi.
+volumina epistularum ab consulatu eius usque ad extremum tempus ad
+Atticum missarum; quae qui legat, non multum desideret historiam
+contextam eorum temporum.' Atticus' own letters were not published,
+though Cicero preserved them: _ad Att._ ix. 10, 4, 'Evolvi volumen
+epistularum, quod ego sub signo habeo servoque diligentissime.'
+
+2. _Epistulae ad Quintum Fratrem_, in three Books, of the years B.C.
+60-54.
+
+3. _Epistulae ad Brutum_, originally in nine Books, of which only two
+remain. The present Book i. was really Book ix., and Book ii., which
+contains letters earlier than those in Book i., may have formed part
+of the original Book viii.
+
+4. _Epistulae ad Familiares_, in sixteen Books, letters to and from
+friends, written B.C. 62-43. This title is not found in any MS. Late
+MSS. and old editions have 'Epistulae Familiares': for the title 'Ad
+Diversos' there is no authority. In the best MSS. the Books are titled
+separately by the name of the person to whom the first letter in each
+is written, _e.g._ 'M. Tulli Ciceronis epistularum ad P. Lentulum
+liber i.'
+
+For the colloquial style of the letters cf. _ad Fam._ ix. 21, 1 (to
+Paetus), 'Quid tibi ego in epistulis videor? nonne plebeio sermone
+agere tecum? nec enim semper eodem modo: quid enim simile habet
+epistula aut iudicio aut contioni? ... epistulas vero cottidianis
+verbis texere solemus.'
+
+The following works are now lost: (_a_) _Miscellaneous prose
+writings._--1. Panegyrics on Porcia (_ad Att._ xiii. 37, 3) and Cato,
+B.C. 45; and funeral orations written for other people to deliver (_ad
+Q.F._ iii. 8, 5, 'laudavit pater scripto meo').
+
+2. Memoirs of Cicero's consulship, written B.C. 60, in both Greek and
+Latin (_ad. Att._ i. 19, 10). He took great pains with this book, and
+was anxious that it should be well circulated (_ad Att._ ii. 1, 1).
+
+3. A secret history, _Anekdota_, mentioned in letters of B.C. 59 and
+44 (_ad Att._ ii. 6, 2; xiv. 17, 6).
+
+4. _Admiranda_, a collection of wonders (Pliny, _N.H._ xxxi. 51).
+
+5. _Chorographia_, a book on geography, mentioned by Priscian. The
+letters to Atticus show that Cicero was studying the subject in B.C.
+59.
+
+6. A work on law, _De iure civili in artem redigendo_ (Gell. i. 22,
+7).
+
+7. A translation of Xenophon's _Oeconomicus_, made when Cicero was
+about the age of twenty (_de Off._ ii. 87).
+
+(_b_) _Poems._--1. Cicero's earliest effort in verse was a poem in
+tetrameters, entitled _Pontius Glaucus_: Plut. _Cic._ 2, καὶ
+τι ποιημάτιον ἔτι παιδὸς αὐτοῦ διασῴζεται Πόντιος Γλαῦκος ἐν
+τετραμέτρῳ πεποιημένον.
+
+2. In B.C. 60 he made a verse translation of the astronomical poems of
+Aratus, _ad Att._ ii. 1, 2, 'Prognostica mea ... propediem exspecta.'
+Quotations are given in _De Nat. Deor._ ii. 104 _sqq._
+
+3. In the same year he wrote a poem _De Suo Consulatu_, in three
+Books: _ad Att._ i. 19, 10, 'poema exspectato, ne quod genus a me ipso
+laudis meae praetermittatur.' A long passage from Book ii., spoken by
+the Muse Urania, is recited by Q. Cicero in _De Div._ i. 17 _sqq._
+
+4. Another poem in three Books, _De Temporibus Suis_, belonged
+probably to the year 55. Cicero writes to Lentulus in 54 (_ad Fam._ i.
+9, 23), 'scripsi versibus tres libros de temporibus meis, quos iam
+pridem ad te misissem, si esse edendos putassem.'
+
+5. In the letters to Quintus from June to December, 54, there is
+frequent mention of a poem _Ad Caesarem_. Quintus is consulted for
+information about Britain: _ad Q.F._ ii. 15, 2, 'mihi date Britanniam,
+quam pingam coloribus tuis, penicillo meo.'
+
+6. A poem on Cicero's great townsman Marius is quoted, _De Div._ i.
+106.
+
+Among others quoted are _Limon_, in which Terence was praised (see p.
+51), and _iocularis libellus_ (Quint. viii. 6, 73). Translations from
+Greek poets occur in the philosophical works, e.g. _de Fin._ v. 49,
+from Homer, _Odys._ xii. 184-191; _Tusc._ ii. 23, from various parts
+of Aeschylus, _Prom. Vinct._
+
+The ancient criticisms on Cicero's poetry are all unfavourable:
+
+_De Off._ i. 77, 'Illud optimum est, in quo invadi solere ab improbis
+et invidis audio:
+
+  "Cedant arma togae, concedat laurea laudi."'
+
+Juv. 10, 122,
+
+  '"O fortunatam natam me consule Romam!"
+  Antoni gladios potuit contemnere, si sic
+  omnia dixisset.'
+
+Tac. _Dial._ 21 (quoted p. 111).
+
+Quint. xi. 1, 24, 'In carminibus utinam pepercisset, quae non
+desierunt carpere maligni.'
+
+_Rhetorica ad Herennium_.--This treatise on rhetoric in four Books,
+addressed to the author's relative C. Herennius, is usually printed
+among Cicero's works, and is attributed to him by the MSS. and by
+Jerome and Priscian. But it is clearly not by Cicero, for (_a_) it
+does not agree with his own description of his early rhetorical
+writings as 'incohata ac rudia'; (_b_) the author's position, as
+described by himself, is not Cicero's. It is generally held that one
+Cornificius was the author; Quintilian (_e.g._ v. 10, 2) attributes to
+a person of that name several expressions found in the _ad Herennium_.
+He may have been the Q. Cornificius who opposed Cicero for the
+consulship in B.C. 64. The date of the treatise is probably B.C.
+86-84.
+
+
+
+QUINTUS CICERO.
+
+
+Q. Tullius Cicero, the brother of the orator, was born probably B.C.
+102. He was aedile in 65 (_ad Att._ i. 4, 1); praetor in 62, when he
+tried the case of Archias; propraetor of Asia 61-58 (_ad Q.F._ i. 1,
+2). He acted as _legatus_ of Pompey in Sardinia B.C. 56 (_pro Scauro_,
+39); of Caesar in Gaul, taking part in the second invasion of Britain
+(Caes. _B.G._ v.); and of his brother in Cilicia (_ad Fam._ xv. 4, 8).
+At the outbreak of the civil war he was with Marcus at Formiae and
+Capua; but after the death of Pompey there was a breach between them.
+Being proscribed by the triumvirs he took flight, but was betrayed by
+his slaves and put to death, B.C. 43 (Plut. _Cic._ 47). His wife was
+Pomponia, the sister of Atticus.
+
+For the benefit of M. Cicero in his candidature for the consulship,
+B.C. 64, Quintus wrote the _Commentariolum Petitionis_ (the title in §
+58) or _De Petitione Consulatus_. It is in the form of a letter, and
+is headed in the best MSS. 'Q. M. Fratri S. D.' Quintus writes with
+special reference to his brother's circumstances, but most of the
+rules which he lays down are of general application. The authenticity
+of this treatise has been called in question by Eussner, who ascribes
+it to a clever imitator, partly on the ground of coincidences of
+expression with Cicero's speech _in Toga Candida_; but his arguments
+are refuted by Prof. Tyrrell (_Cicero's Correspondence_, i. pp.
+110-121).
+
+There are also extant three letters to Tiro and one to M. Cicero.
+Quintus' poetry is now represented only by twenty hexameters on the
+signs of the zodiac; but he wrote an epic poem, _Annales_ (_ad Att._
+ii. 16, 4 [Quintus] 'ita remittit ut me roget ut annales suos emendem
+et edam'), and composed tragedies with great rapidity (_ad Q.F._ iii.
+6, 7, 'quattuor tragoedias xvi. diebus absolvisse cum scribas, tu
+quidquam ab alio mutuaris?'). His admiration for Sophocles and
+Euripides appears in _De Fin._ v. 3; _ad Fam._ xvi. 8, 2.
+
+
+
+TIRO.
+
+
+M. Tullius Tiro, the freedman of Cicero, who had a high opinion of his
+worth and ability (_ad Fam._ xvi. 4, 3; _ad Att._ vii. 5, 2), wrote
+(1) a biography of his patron: Ascon. p. 49, 'ut legimus apud Tironem
+libertum Ciceronis in libro iiii. de vita eius.'
+
+(2) Editions of Cicero's speeches and letters: Gell. i. 7, 1, 'in
+oratione Ciceronis v. in Verrem, libro spectatae fidei, Tironiana cura
+atque disciplina facto.' (See also p. 85.)
+
+(3) A collection of Cicero's witticisms: Quint. vi. 3, 5, 'utinam
+libertus eius Tiro aut alius, quisquis fuit, qui iii. hac de re libros
+edidit, parcius dictorum numero indulsissent.'
+
+(4) Grammatical works, as πανδέκται, mentioned by Gell. xiii.
+9, 2.
+
+For his system of shorthand, cf. Sueton. p. 136 R., 'Romae primus
+Tullius Tiro, Ciceronis libertus, commentatus est notas, sed tantum
+praepositionum.'
+
+
+
+T. POMPONIUS ATTICUS (B.C. 109-32).
+
+
+Author of (1) _Annalis_, a chronological table of the chief events in
+Roman and foreign history, accompanied by genealogies (Nepos, _Att._
+18, 1). As it was Cicero's _De Re Publica_ that suggested its
+composition (Cic. _Brut._ 19), its date cannot be earlier than B.C.
+54. (2) Family histories, _e.g._ of the Iunii (Nepos, _Att._ 18, 3),
+published separately. (3) _De Imaginibus_, a collection of
+inscriptions in verse for the busts of celebrated men (Nepos, _Att._
+18, 5). (4) _De Consulatu Ciceronis_, in Greek (Nepos, _Att._ 18, 6),
+written B.C. 60 (Cic. _ad Att._ ii. 1, 1).
+
+Atticus is an interesting figure on account of the large publishing
+business which he conducted (Nepos, _Att._ 13, 3); and the great care
+with which he sought out good MSS. to reproduce in his establishment
+makes him important in the history of the preservation of ancient
+literature.
+
+
+
+M. TERENTIUS VARRO.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+M. Terentius Varro was born B.C. 116 at Reate in the Sabine country.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1901, 'M. Terentius Varro philosophus et poeta
+nascitur.' Symmachus, _Ep._ i. 2, calls him 'Terentius Reatinus'; and
+he owned property in that district: _R.R._ ii. praef. 6, 'ipse
+pecuarias habui grandes, in Apulia oviarias, et in Reatino equarias.'
+
+Of his family nothing is known except that he had an uncle belonging
+to the equestrian order (Plin. _N.H._ vii. 176). His philosophical
+education was received at Athens, where he was a disciple of Antiochus
+of Ascalon: Cic. _Ac. Post._ 12, 'Aristum Athenis [Brutus] audivit
+aliquamdiu, cuius tu [Varro] fratrem Antiochum.'
+
+He took part in the war with Sertorius in Spain, B.C. 76 (Sall. _Hist._
+ii. fr. 69). In the war with the pirates, B.C. 67, he was one of
+Pompeius' lieutenants, and received a _corona navalis_ for his services.
+Varro _R.R._ ii. praef. 7, 'cum piratico bello inter Delum et Ciliciam
+Graeciae classibus praeessem.' Plin. _N.H._ vii. 115, '[Varroni] Magnus
+Pompeius piratico ex bello navalem [coronam] dedit.' Probably he was
+also with Pompeius in the war with Mithradates (Plin. _N.H._ xxxiii.
+136, xxxvii. 11; knowledge of the Caspian, vi. 38). To the coalition of
+Pompeius, Caesar, and Crassus he was originally hostile, going so far as
+to write one of his satires, Τρικάρανος, against them (Appian _B.C._
+ii. 9); but in 59 he was a member of the commission appointed to
+establish Caesar's veterans in Campania: Plin. _N.H._ vii. 176, 'Varro
+auctor est xx. viro se agros dividente Capuae,' etc. He also held the
+office of tribune (Gell. xiii. 12, 6), and was aedile with Murena (Plin.
+xxxv. 173).
+
+When the civil war broke out he was one of Pompeius' lieutenants in
+Farther Spain, and resisted Caesar without success (Caes. _B.C._ ii.
+17-20). From Spain he withdrew to Epirus, where he was coldly received
+by the Pompeians (Cic. _ad Fam._ ix. 6, 3, 'crudeliter otiosis
+minabantur, eratque eis et tua invisa voluntas et mea oratio'). We
+hear of him at Corcyra (_R.R._ i. 4), and at Dyrrhachium a few days
+before the battle of Pharsalus (Cic. _de Div._ i. 68). After Caesar's
+victory he lived quietly at his Tusculan villa (Cic. _ad Fam._ ix. 6,
+4, 'his tempestatibus es prope solus in portu ... equidem hos tuos
+Tusculanenses dies instar esse vitae puto'). He was more easily
+reconciled than Cicero to the new government, and was made librarian
+by Caesar: Sueton. _Iul._ 44, 'Destinabat bibliothecas Graecas
+Latinasque quas maximas posset publicare, data M. Varroni cura
+comparandarum ac digerendarum.' This, however, did not prevent him
+writing a funeral oration on Cato's sister Porcia (Cic. _ad Att._
+xiii. 48, 2).
+
+After Caesar's death Varro was exposed to the persecution of Antonius,
+whose raid on his villa at Casinum is vividly described by Cicero
+(_Phil._ ii. 103 _sqq._). He was proscribed, but the devotion of his
+friends secured his escape (Appian _B.C._ iv. 47).
+
+His old age was spent in peace, the literary activity for which his
+whole life was remarkable being maintained to the end. At the age of
+eighty-three he was still writing: Plin. _N.H._ xxix. 65, 'Cunctarer
+in proferendo ex his remedio, ni M. Varro lxxxiii vitae anno
+prodidisset,' etc.
+
+Varro's death took place in B.C. 27, in his ninetieth year. Jerome yr.
+Abr. 1990, 'M. Terentius Varro philosophus prope nonagenarius moritur.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+Cicero (_ad Att._ xiii. 18) calls Varro 'homo πολυγραφώτατος,'
+and Varro himself said that he had written four hundred and ninety
+Books by the end of his seventy-seventh year: Gell. iii. 10, 17,
+'Addit se quoque iam duodecimam annorum hebdomadam ingressum esse et
+ad eum diem septuaginta hebdomadas librorum conscripsisse.' A letter
+of Jerome[30] gives a list of thirty-nine works in four hundred and
+ninety Books, admitting at the same time that these were only half of
+the total number ('vix medium descripsi indicem'). The titles of
+twenty-one other works are known from various sources.
+
+1. _Agriculture._--Of this enormous number only one has survived in a
+complete form, the treatise _De Re Rustica_ in three Books, in the
+form of a dialogue. Book i. treats of agriculture; ii. of
+stock-raising; iii. of poultry, game, and fish. It was written B.C.
+37-6: _R.R._ i. 1, 1, 'Annus octogesimus admonet me ut sarcinas
+colligam ante quam proficiscar e vita.'
+
+2. _Grammar._--Of the twenty-five books _De Lingua Latina_, only v.-x.
+have been preserved, but the scope of the whole is known from Varro's
+own words. Book i. was introductory; ii.-vii. dealt with etymology;
+viii.-xiii. with inflexions; xiv.-xxv. with syntax. Varro's
+derivations are ridiculed by Quintilian i. 6, 37, 'Sed cui non post
+Varronem sit venia, qui _agrum_ quia in eo _agatur_ aliquid, et
+_graculos_ quia _gregatim_ volent dictos voluit persuadere Ciceroni?'
+From Book v. onwards the work was dedicated to Cicero, in return for
+his _Academics_; it is announced in Cic. _Ac._ i. 2, where Varro says,
+'Habeo opus magnum in manibus, idque iam pridem: ad hunc enim ipsum
+(me autem dicebat) quaedam institui, quae et sunt magna sane et
+limantur a me politius.' The date of publication was probably B.C.
+45-3.
+
+Of the minor works on grammar, some at least were prior to the _De
+Lingua Latina_: Cic. _Ac._ i. 9, 'Plurimum poetis nostris omninoque
+Latinis et litteris luminis et verbis attulisti.' The titles known
+are, _De sermone Latino_, _De origine linguae Latinae_, _De
+similitudine verborum_, _De utilitate sermonis_, _De antiquitate
+litterarum_, Περὶ χαρακτήρων.
+
+3. _Roman History and Antiquities._ Varro's great work in this
+department was the _Antiquitates rerum divinarum humanarumque_, in
+forty-one Books. The arrangement, according to Augustine _De Civ.
+Dei_, vi. 3, was as follows: (_a_) i.-xxv. _res humanae_; i.
+introductory, ii.-vii. history of Rome down to its capture by the
+Gauls, viii.-xiii. geography of Italy, xiv.-xix. Roman Calendar, with
+dates of the chief historical events, xx.-xxv. Roman institutions, (_b_)
+xxvi.-xli. _res divinae_; the persons who sacrifice, the places, the
+times, the rites, and the gods were discussed in three Books each,
+xxvi. being introductory. The second part, at least, was addressed to
+Caesar as _pontifex maximus_. As it is mentioned by Cic. _Ac._ i. 9,
+it must have been published before B.C. 45.
+
+Minor works under this head were _Annales_, _Res urbanae_, _De gente
+populi Romani_, _De vita populi Romani_, _De familiis Troianis_,
+_Tribuum Liber_; _Aetia_ (αἴτια), explaining Roman usages, in the
+form of a catechism; Εἰσαγωγικός to Pompey on the duties of a
+consul (B.C. 71), Gell. xiv. 7, 1; _De Pompeio_, _Legationum Libri_,
+_De sua vita_.
+
+4. _Geography._-(_a_) _Ephemeris navalis_, addressed to Pompey before
+his departure for Spain about B.C. 77, a weather almanack for sailors;
+_Ephemeris rustica_ or _agrestis_, for farmers. (_b_) _Libri navales_,
+perhaps identical with the above, (_c_) _De ora maritima_.
+
+5. _Law._--_De iure civili_ in fifteen Books.
+
+6. _Rhetoric._--_Rhetorica_.
+
+7. _Philosophy._-_De Forma Philosophiae_, _De Philosophia_.
+
+8. _Mathematics_, etc.-_De mensuris_, _Mensuralia_, _De principiis
+numerorum_, _Libri numerorum_, _De geometria_, _De astrologia_.
+
+9. _Disciplinae_ in nine Books, forming a complete course of education
+in the liberal arts.
+
+10. _History of Literature and the Drama._--_De poetis_, _De
+poematis_, _De lectionibus_, _De bibliothecis_, _De proprietate
+scriptorum_, _De personis_, _De descriptionibus_, _De actis scenicis_,
+_De scenicis actionibus_, _De originibus scenicis_, _Quaestiones
+Plautinae_. In the _Hebdomades_ or _Imaginum Libri_ xv. Varro gave
+short accounts in prose and verse of seven hundred famous Greeks and
+Romans, with their portraits (Plin. _N.H._ xxxv. 11), the title being
+derived from the arrangement in groups of seven. Aristotle's Πέπλος
+had dealt similarly with the heroes of the Trojan War, and the
+'Πεπλογραφία Varronis' of Cic. _ad Att._ xvi. 11, 3 is usually
+identified with the _Hebdomades_.
+
+11. Λογιστορικοί, in seventy-six Books, were probably not a
+mixture of fable and history, but essays enlivened by historical
+examples. The titles were double, the chief speaker being named as
+well as the subject of the essay, _e.g._ _Catus de liberis educandis_.
+To this work Cicero probably refers, _Ac._ i. 9, 'Philosophiam multis
+locis incohasti, ad impellendum satis, ad edocendum parum.'
+
+12. Varro's poetical works are now represented only by fragments of
+the _Saturae Menippeae_, a medley of prose and verse in one hundred
+and fifty books (Cic. _Ac._ i. 9, 'Varium et elegans omni fere numero
+poema fecisti'). They were so called by Varro himself (Gell. ii. 18,
+7, 'In satiris quas alii Cynicas, ipse appellat Menippeas'), being
+founded on the dialogues of Menippus, the Cynic of Gadara, of the
+third century B.C. Their object was to present philosophy in a popular
+dress: Cic. _Ac._ i. 8, 'Quae cum facilius minus docti intellegerent,
+iucunditate quadam ad legendum invitati.' From the way in which they
+are spoken of in the same passage ('in illis veteribus nostris'), most
+of them must have been among Varro's earliest writings. The titles are
+extremely curious, _e.g._ 'Δὶς παῖδες οἱ γέροντες,' 'Longe
+fugit qui suos fugit.' Quintilian considers Varro as the founder of a
+type of satire distinct from that of Lucilius, Horace, and Persius: x.
+1, 95, 'Alterum illud etiam prius satirae genus sed non sola carminum
+varietate mixtum condidit Terentius Varro, vir Romanorum
+eruditissimus.' His other poetical works were ten books of _Poemata_,
+four of _Satires_, and six of _Pseudotragoediae_ (tragi-comedy).
+
+13. _Oratory._--Varro left twenty-two Books of _Orationes_ and three
+of _Suasiones_, but he had no fame as an orator: Quint. x. 1, 95,
+'Plus scientiae collaturus quam eloquentiae.'
+
+14. _Letters._--Of these there seem to have been two collections: (_a_)
+_Epistulae Latinae_, real letters to acquaintances; (_b_) _Epistolicae
+Quaestiones_, discussing in epistolary form points of history,
+grammar, etc.
+
+The collection of maxims which passes under the name _Sententiae
+Varronis_ is of uncertain authenticity.
+
+
+
+LABERIUS.
+
+
+The date of D. Laberius' birth is got from Sueton. _Iul._ 39, 'Ludis
+D. Laberius eques Romanus mimum suum egit.' This event took place in
+B.C. 45, and in the prologue to the piece (quoted below), l. 109,
+Laberius says he is sixty years old; hence he was born about B.C. 105.
+He died in January, B.C. 43.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1974 = B.C. 43, 'Laberius mimorum scriptor decimo
+mense post C. Caesaris interitum Puteolis moritur.'
+
+In B.C. 45 Laberius, although an _eques_, was, as a punishment for his
+political opinions, compelled by Caesar to perform in one of his own
+mimes, and was beaten by Publilius Syrus.
+
+Macrob. _Saturn._ ii. 7, 2 _sqq._, 'Laberium asperae libertatis
+equitem Romanum Caesar quingentis milibus invitavit, ut prodiret in
+scaenam et ipse ageret mimos, quos scriptitabat. Sed potestas non
+solum si invitet sed etiam si supplicet cogit, unde se et Laberius a
+Caesare coactum in prologo testatur his versibus:
+
+  "Necessitas, cuius cursus transversi impetum
+  voluerunt multi effugere, pauci potuerunt,
+  quo me detrusit paene extremis sensibus!
+  Quem nulla ambitio, nulla umquam largitio,
+  nullus timor, vis nulla, nulla auctoritas
+  movere potuit in iuventa de statu:
+  ecce in senecta ut facile labefecit loco
+  viri excellentis mente clemente edita
+  summissa placide blandiloquens oratio!
+  Etenim ipsi di negare cui nil potuerunt,
+  hominem me denegare quis posset pati?
+  Ego bis tricenis annis actis sine nota
+  eques Romanus e Lare egressus meo
+  domum revertar mimus," etc.
+
+In ipsa quoque actione subinde se, qua poterat, ulciscebatur inducto
+habitu Syri, qui velut flagris caesus praeripientique similis
+exclamabat
+
+  "Porro Quirites libertatem perdimus"
+
+et paulo post adiecit
+
+  "Necesse est multos timeat quem multi timent."
+
+Quo dicto universitas populi ad solum Caesarem oculos et ora
+convertit, notantes inpotentiam eius hac dicacitate lapidatam. Ob haec
+in Publilium vertit favorem ... [Publilius Syrus] cum mimos componeret
+ingentique adsensu in Italiae oppidis agere coepisset, productus Romae
+per Caesaris ludos, omnes qui tunc scripta et operas suas in scaenam
+locaverant provocavit ut singuli secum posita in vicem materia pro
+tempore contenderent. Nec ullo recusante superavit omnes, in quis et
+Laberium. Unde Caesar adridens hoc modo pronuntiavit
+
+  "Favente tibi me victus es, Laberi, a Syro"
+
+statimque Publilio palmam et Laberio anulum aureum cum quingentis
+sestertiis dedit.'
+
+We have forty-three titles of mimes by Laberius, and about one hundred
+and fifty lines of fragments. From the above we see that Laberius
+criticized contemporary society with great vigour. Other features are
+
+(_a_) His invention of words.
+
+Gell. xvi. 7, 1, 'Laberius in mimis, quos scriptitavit, oppido quam
+verba finxit praelicenter.' Examples are _manuatus est_ for _furatus
+est_; _abluvium_ for _diluvium_.
+
+(_b_) His use of plebeian expressions.
+
+Gell. xix. 13, 3, 'quae a Laberio ignobilia nimis et sordentia in usum
+linguae Latinae intromissa sunt.'
+
+(_c_) His references to philosophy.
+
+Cf. l. 17,
+
+  'nec Pythagoream dogmam doctus';
+
+l. 72,
+
+  'Democritus Abderites physicus philosophus,' etc.
+
+For views on Laberius cf. Hor. _Sat._ i, 10, 5,
+
+    'Nam sic
+  et Laberi mimos ut pulchra poemata mirer.'
+
+Cic. _ad Fam._ xii. 18, 2 (written B.C. 46), 'Equidem sic iam obdurui
+ut ludis Caesaris nostri animo aequissimo viderem T. Plancum, audirem
+Laberi et Publili poemata.'
+
+Contemporaries of Laberius were the satirist Abuccius, and Egnatius,
+who wrote a didactic poem _de rerum natura_.
+
+
+
+M. FURIUS BIBACULUS.
+
+
+According to Jerome, Bibaculus was born B.C. 103, but, as he laughs at
+the old age of the grammarian Orbilius (114-c. 17 B.C.), authorities
+put the date twenty years later.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1914, 'M. Furius poeta cognomento Bibaculus Cremonae
+nascitur.'
+
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 9, '[Orbilius] vixit prope ad centesimum aetatis
+annum, amissa iam pridem memoria, ut versus Bibaculi docet,
+
+  "Orbilius ubinam est, litterarum oblivio?"'
+
+Bibaculus wrote poems against the monarchical party; these are
+referred to as _iambi_ by Quintilian, x. 1, 96.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34, 'Carmina Bibaculi et Catulli referta contumeliis
+Caesarum leguntur: sed ipse divus Iulius, ipse divus Augustus et
+tulere ista et reliquere.'
+
+Two epics, _Aethiopis_ and _Bellum Gallicum_ (on Iulius Caesar's
+exploits), are probably referred to by Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 36,
+
+  'Turgidus Alpinus iugulat dum Memnona, dumque
+  diffingit Rheni luteum caput.'
+
+Acron _ad loc._, 'Bibaculum quemdam poetam Gallum tangit.'
+
+Cf. Hor. _Sat._ ii. 5, 40,
+
+                'Seu pingui tentus omaso
+  Furius hibernas cana nive conspuet Alpes.'
+
+Acron _ad loc._, 'Furius Bibaculus in pragmatia belli Gallici:
+Iuppiter hibernas,' etc.
+
+It is probably from this epic that Macrob. _Saturn._ vi. 1, 31-4,
+quotes passages imitated by Virgil. So, 'Furius in primo annali
+"Interea Oceani linquens Aurora cubile."' (Cf. Virg. _Aen._ iv. 585.)
+
+Bibaculus also wrote a prose work _Lucubrationes_. (Pliny _N.H._ xxiv.
+praef.)
+
+
+
+CAESAR.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+The main facts of C. Iulius Caesar's life are found in a compendious
+form in the Life by Suetonius. The ancient authorities, who are
+unanimous in stating that at the time of his death (15th March, B.C.
+44) Caesar was in his fifty-sixth year (Sueton. _Iul._ 88, Appian
+_B.C._ ii. 149, Plut. _Caes._ 69), must have placed his birth in B.C.
+100. But if this date were correct Caesar must have held the various
+magistracies two years before the legal time--a fact nowhere
+mentioned, and in itself improbable; it is therefore natural to hold
+that he was born in B.C. 102 (Mommsen, _R.H._ iv., p. 15, note). His
+birthday was 12th July (Macrob. _Saturn._ i, 12, 34).
+
+His father, C. Iulius Caesar, was praetor in B.C. 84, and died in the
+same year; Aurelia, his mother, took great interest in his education
+(Tac. _Dial._ 28). From the first Caesar was connected with the
+leaders of the democratic party in the State. Marius, who had married
+his father's sister Julia, conferred on him the office of _flamen
+Dialis_ before he was sixteen years of age; and his first wife was
+Cornelia, daughter of Cinna. His refusal to divorce her at the bidding
+of Sulla drew down upon him the enmity of the dictator; and he fled in
+disguise to the Sabine mountains, where he remained until Sulla
+reluctantly consented to spare his life.
+
+Caesar obtained his first experience of military service as a member
+of the staff of M. Thermus, propraetor of Asia, who conferred on him
+the _civica corona_ for saving the life of a fellow-soldier at the
+siege of Mytilene. After serving for a short time under Servilius
+Isauricus against the pirates in Cilicia, he returned to Rome on the
+news of Sulla's death in 78, and in the following year commenced his
+career as an orator with the prosecution of Cn. Cornelius Dolabella,
+proconsul of Macedonia, for extortion.
+
+Towards the end of that year Caesar left Rome for Rhodes--on his way
+thither being captured by pirates near Miletus--and studied for a year
+under the famous rhetorician Molo, taking part also in some operations
+on the mainland against one of the officials of Mithradates. Having
+been elected one of the _pontifices_ in the room of his uncle, C.
+Aurelius Cotta, he returned to Rome in 74, and soon became a _tribunus
+militum_. In the agitation for the restoration of the powers of the
+tribunes of the _plebs_, Caesar took a prominent part; he also
+supported the _Lex Aurelia_ of 70, which gave the _equites_ a share in
+the _iudicia_, and the _Lex Plautia_, granting an amnesty to the
+adherents of Lepidus and Sertorius.
+
+The year 68 he spent as quaestor in Farther Spain, and on his return
+to Rome strenuously advocated the claims of the Transpadane Gauls to
+the Roman franchise. His first wife having died, he married Pompeia,
+daughter of Q. Pompeius Rufus, and granddaughter of Sulla, whom he
+divorced five years later on account of her alleged adultery with P.
+Clodius. In 67 and 66 the bills of Gabinius and Manilius, conferring
+extensive military powers upon Pompey, were supported by Caesar and
+the other leading democrats.
+
+Whether Caesar was concerned in the abortive attempt of Catiline at
+revolution in 65, is a moot point. He was now aedile, and acquired
+great popularity by the splendid shows which he gave to the people,
+and by his restoration of the statue and trophies of Marius. In 64, as
+president of the _quaestio de sicariis_, he condemned some of the most
+active agents in Sulla's proscriptions. In 63 he supported the _lex
+agraria_ of P. Servilius Rullus, and brought about the prosecution of
+C. Rabirius for the murder of the tribune Saturninus. On the
+re-enactment of the _Lex Domitia de sacerdotiis_, Caesar was elected
+_pontifex maximus_. He was again suspected, probably with good ground,
+of complicity with Catiline's designs; he certainly proposed in the
+Senate that the conspirators should be punished with imprisonment
+instead of death. Praetor in 62, he worked in Pompey's cause by
+proposing that the charge of rebuilding the Capitoline temple should
+be transferred to him from the aristocratic champion Catulus, and by
+supporting the bill of the tribune Metellus Nepos for electing Pompey
+consul in absence. Next year Caesar was propraetor of Farther Spain,
+where he conquered the Lusitanians and Gallaecians, and amassed
+considerable wealth. His coalition with Pompey and Crassus procured
+for him the consulship of 59, rendered notable by the _Leges Iuliae_;
+and before he went out of office his position was secured by the _Lex
+Vatinia_, conferring on him the government of Cisalpine Gaul and
+Illyricum for five years, with the command of three legions;
+Transalpine Gaul and another legion were added by the Senate. The
+following nine years (58-50) were occupied with the subjugation of
+Gaul and the two invasions of Britain (55 and 54). At the conference
+at Luca, in the winter of 57-56, it was agreed that Caesar should be
+continued in office for a second period of five years, and be allowed
+to increase the number of his legions to ten. In 50, realizing the
+danger of his position if he returned to Rome as a private person, he
+was anxious to be a candidate for the consulship _in absentia_; but
+Pompey thwarted his plan. Caesar refused to disband his army at the
+bidding of the Senate, and crossed the Rubicon early in 49. Italy soon
+submitted; he defeated the Pompeians in Spain, captured Massilia, and
+secured Sicily and Sardinia. Landing in Epirus in 48, he was defeated
+at Dyrrhachium, and retreated to Thessaly, where he overthrew Pompey
+at Pharsalus. Then followed his victories over the king of Egypt in
+the Alexandrian war (48), Pharnaces in Asia Minor (47), the Pompeians
+and Juba at Thapsus (46), and C. and Sex. Pompeius at Munda (45).
+
+He had been created dictator in 49 and 48, with the tribunician power
+in perpetuity; and on his return to Rome in 45 he was made consul for
+ten years, dictator, and _praefectus morum_, with the title of
+_imperator_ for life. In the intervals between his campaigns he
+carried out numerous reforms, including the rectification of the
+calendar, B.C. 46 (see p. 110). His assassination by Brutus and
+Cassius and the other conspirators took place on 15th March, B.C. 44.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _De Bello Gallico_, in seven Books. The title used by Caesar
+himself was probably _Commentarii rerum suarum_ (as in Cic. _Brut._
+262, and Sueton. _Iul._ 56; cf. Strabo, iv. 1, 1 ὑπομνήματα),
+although this does not appear in the best MSS., which give variously
+_libri_, _historiae_, or _ephemeris rerum gestarum belli Gallici_.
+
+The work describes Caesar's operations in Gaul, Germany, and Britain
+during the years B.C. 58-52, the events of each year occupying a
+separate Book. It was written and published as a whole, not in parts
+at the end of each year's campaign. Otherwise it is difficult to see
+why Cicero should not have heard of it from his brother Quintus or his
+friend Trebatius, both of whom were with Caesar; or why Hirtius should
+have spoken of the rapidity with which the work was composed (_B.G._
+viii. praef. 6, 'Ceteri quam bene atque emendate, nos etiam quam
+facile atque celeriter eos perfecerit, scimus'). This view is
+corroborated by the statement of Asinius Pollio, that there were
+mistakes in the work due to defective memory (Sueton. _Iul._ 56, 'quae
+... memoria lapsus perperam ediderit'); and by some expressions in the
+earlier Books pointing forward to events mentioned later (i. 28
+compared with vii. 9, and iv. 21 with vii. 76).
+
+The time of composition was probably the winter after the last
+campaign narrated in the Book (B.C. 52-51). It was certainly published
+before B.C. 46, the date of Cicero's _Brutus_, and probably before the
+rupture with Pompey, of whom Caesar speaks with approbation (vii. 6,
+'Cum iam ille urbanas res virtute Cn. Pompei commodiorem in statum
+pervenisse intellegeret').
+
+The aim of the book was twofold: (1) to provide material for professed
+historians: Hirt. _B.G._ viii. praef. 5, 'qui sunt editi, ne scientia
+tantarum rerum scriptoribus deesset'; (2) to furnish a defence of the
+author's own conduct--an object carefully kept in the background. It
+has been proved that Caesar suppressed facts which would have told
+against him at Rome (_e.g._ his rapacity, Sueton. _Iul._ 54), and the
+plausible motives which he assigns for some of his actions cannot be
+accepted as genuine. Cf. the criticism of Asinius Pollio, Sueton.
+_Iul._ 56, 'Pollio Asinius parum diligenter parumque integra veritate
+compositos putat, cum Caesar pleraque et quae per alios erant gesta
+temere crediderit, et quae per se vel consulto vel etiam memoria
+lapsus perperam ediderit, existimatque rescripturum et correcturum
+fuisse.' The style is remarkable for its brevity, directness, and the
+absence of ornament and emotion (Cic. _Brut._ 262, 'Nudi sunt, recti
+et venusti, omni ornatu orationis, tamquam veste, detracto').
+
+Among the materials used by Caesar in writing the _Commentarii_ were his
+own despatches to the Senate (ii. 35, iv. 38, vii. 90) and the reports
+of his _legati_. Late writers speak of his ἐφημερίδες (_e.g._ Plut.
+_Caes._ 22), but there is no ground for supposing that he kept a regular
+diary. He depended to a great extent on his own memory (cf. Pollio's
+criticism, above).
+
+2. _De Bello Civili_, in three Books, similar in plan to the _Bell.
+Gall._ Book iii. ends abruptly with an event of no great importance,
+and, as the death of Pompey would have formed a natural ending, we
+must suppose that Caesar had intended to continue the narrative with
+the Alexandrian, Spanish, and African wars, but was prevented from
+carrying out his plan. The work was published after his death, without
+undergoing revision (Sueton. _Iul._ 56, 'Pollio existimat rescripturum
+et correcturum fuisse').
+
+_Other works in the Corpus Caesarianum._--Sueton. _Iul._ 56 says,
+'Alexandrini Africique et Hispaniensis [belli] incertus auctor est.
+Alii Oppium putant, alii Hirtium, qui etiam Gallici belli novissimum
+imperfectumque librum suppleverit.'
+
+Suetonius evidently believed that Hirtius was the author of _B.G._
+viii., for he introduces a quotation from the preface to that Book
+with the words, 'Hirtius ita praedicat' (_ibid._). Hirtius is also
+mentioned in the MSS. as the author of _B.G._ viii., and there is no
+reason to doubt that this is the case. That he is the author of any of
+the others is rendered doubtful by the fact that his bad health (which
+lasted to November, B.C. 44) and his position as consul would leave
+him little time for literature between the death of Caesar (15th
+March, B.C. 44) and his own death at Mutina (27th April, B.C. 43).
+Hirtius was thus able to carry out only the first part of the plan
+sketched in _B.G._ viii. praef. 2, 'Caesaris nostri commentarios rerum
+gestarum, non cohaerentibus superioribus atque insequentibus eius
+scriptis, contexui, novissimumque imperfectum ab rebus gestis
+Alexandriae confeci usque ad exitum non quidem civilis dissensionis,
+cuius finem nullum videmus, sed vitae Caesaris.'
+
+G. Landgraf, _Untersuchungen zu Caesar und seinen Fortsetzern_
+(Erlangen, 1888), arrives at the following conclusions:
+
+1. In the _Bellum Africum_ we possess the notes of Asinius Pollio, who
+took part in the war. That the work partook of the nature of a journal
+is shown by the style; _e.g._ _interim_ is used about eighty times as a
+connecting link, and dates and hours of the day are given carefully.
+Landgraf supports his position by instancing similarities of
+expression in the _Bell. Afr._ and in three letters from Pollio to
+Cicero (_ad Fam._ x. 31; 32; 33).
+
+2. Ch. 48-64 of the _Bell. Alex._ on events in Spain in B.C. 48-7 were
+sent to Hirtius by Pollio, who was governor of Hispania Ulterior in
+B.C. 45, and as such was best acquainted with these incidents.
+
+3. On the death of Hirtius, Pollio, on searching for his own papers
+(which he had lent Hirtius to help him in his work), found Hirtius'
+_Bell. Gall._ viii., and made some additions.
+
+4. The _Bell. Civ._ was in Hirtius' possession unedited at his death.
+Hirtius evidently intended to publish it along with _B.G._ viii. The
+third Book had been left unfinished by Caesar, whose notes, some of
+which were very brief, Hirtius had extended, and filled up the gaps in
+the narrative. There were also some notes on the _Bell. Alex._ The
+_Bell. Alex._ in the narrower sense (cc. 1-33) Hirtius began with, and
+in the early chapters contented himself with making small additions.
+In the later parts are found considerable additions both by Hirtius
+and by Pollio. Landgraf attempts to distinguish the work of the two:
+cc. 34-41, on the Bellum Ponticum, being mostly by Pollio, and cc.
+65-76, on the wars in Illyria and against Pharnaces, mostly by
+Hirtius.
+
+5. The authorship of the _Bellum Hispaniense_, which in style is far
+below the _Bellum Africum_, Landgraf leaves an open question.
+
+E. Wölfflin (_Sitzungsberichte der k. b. Akad. der Wissenschaften zu
+München_, 1889, pp. 323 _sqq._, and ed. of the _Bell. Afr._, 1889)
+holds the same views as Landgraf, and gives many instances of
+difference in diction between _Bell. Afr._ on the one hand, and
+_Gall._ viii. and _Alex._ on the other; _e.g._
+
+                       _Bell. Afr._    _Bell. Gall._ viii.; _Bell. Alex._
+  _suppetiae_,      -   7 times    -   never.
+  _convallis_,      -   5   "      -   _vallis_, 10 times.
+  _convulnero_,     -   9   "      -   _vulnero_ (as in Caesar).
+  _contendo_ + infin., 20   "      -   never.
+  _adorior_,        -  14   "      -   only in _Gall._ viii. 34.
+  _adgredior_,      -  never       -   14 times.
+  _grandis_,        -   7 times    -   _magnus_.
+  _subito_,         -  22   "      -   never.
+  _repente_,        -  never       -   16 times.
+  _postquam_,       -  34   "      -   not in _Gall._ viii.
+  hist. infin.,     -  24   "      -   never.
+
+On the other hand, Widmann, _Philologus_, L. (1891), p. 565, proves
+that the author of the note-book worked up in the _Bell. Afr._ was an
+officer of the 5th legion, that Pollio was not connected with the 5th
+legion, and probably did not go through the whole African war, as the
+author clearly must have done. This, of course, also proves that
+Hirtius cannot have been the author.
+
+On the whole, we think it proved that the _Bell. Afr._ was not written
+by the author of _B. Gall._ viii. and _B. Alex._, and that the author
+was not in any case Pollio. The _B. Alex._ is probably worked up from
+note-books written by several hands. The attempt to distinguish the
+work of Hirtius and another hand in _B. Gall._ viii. is against the
+evidence of Suetonius; and though several hands have co-operated in
+_B. Alex._, it is hardly possible to distinguish them precisely.
+
+The _Bell. Hisp._ is evidently the work of an eye-witness, cf. c. 29,
+'nostri ad dimicandum procedunt, id quod adversarios existimabamus
+esse facturos.' He is apt to be bombastic (c. 5, 'hic alternis non
+solum morti mortem exaggerabant, sed tumulos tumulis exaequabant'),
+and makes a ridiculous show of learning (quoting the combat of
+Achilles and Memnon, c. 25, and Ennius, c. 23, 'nostri cessere
+parumper'; c. 31, 'pes pede premitur, armis teruntur arma.')
+
+
+(3) CAESAR'S LOST WORKS.
+
+1. _De Analogia_, a treatise on grammar in two Books, dedicated to
+Cicero (Cic. _Brut._ 253) and composed in the interval between two of
+the campaigns in Gaul. Sueton. _Iul._ 56, 'Reliquit et de Analogia
+duos libros ... In transitu Alpium, cum ex citeriore Gallia
+conventibus peractis ad exercitum rediret ... fecit.' It supported the
+view that _analogia_, not _anomalia_, should be the governing
+principle in grammar, _i.e._ that order should be introduced into the
+chaos of varying usages. Gellius i. 10, 4 has a notable quotation from
+the first Book, 'Habe semper in memoria atque in pectore, ut tamquam
+scopulum sic fugias inauditum atque insolens verbum.'
+
+2. _De Astris_, a book on astronomy, written apparently in connexion
+with the rectification of the calendar, B.C. 46, perhaps in Greek.
+Suetonius says nothing about it, but it was known to Macrobius,
+_Saturn._, i. 16, 39, 'Iulius Caesar ... siderum motus, de quibus non
+indoctos libros reliquit, ab Aegyptiis disciplinis hausit.' The _liber
+de computatione_ and _liber fastorum_, attributed to Caesar by the
+Scholiast on Lucan, x. 185, 187, may have formed part of the _De
+Astris_.
+
+3. _Anticatones_, written B.C. 45, in reply to Cicero's panegyric on
+Cato, with flattering references to Cicero himself. Sueton. _Iul._ 56,
+'Reliquit et de Analogia duos libros et Anticatones totidem. ... Sub
+tempus Mundensis proelii fecit.' Cicero expresses himself as highly
+pleased with the book, _ad Att._ xiii. 51, 'bene existimo de illis
+libris, ut tibi coram'; but his tone is different in _Topica_, 94,
+'quibus omnibus generibus usus est nimis impudenter Caesar contra
+Catonem meum.'
+
+4. _Apophthegmata_, a collection of notable sayings, probably growing
+out of the _Dicta Collectanea_ of Sueton. _Iul._ 56, and completed
+B.C. 46-5. Cic. _ad Fam._ ix. 16, 4, 'audio Caesarem, cum volumina iam
+confecerit ἀποφθεγμάτων, si quod afferatur ad eum pro meo, quod
+meum non sit, reicere solere.'
+
+5. _Letters._--In the time of Suetonius, Caesar's official despatches
+to the Senate were extant, and also private letters to Cicero and
+other friends, _e.g._ his confidants Balbus and Oppius. In these a
+cypher was, where necessary, employed. Cf. Sueton. _Iul._ 56, and
+Gell. xvii. 9, 1.
+
+6. _Speeches._--About a dozen titles of speeches are known, but only a
+few detached words and phrases survive. As an orator, Caesar stood in
+the front rank (Sueton. _Iul._ 55). For encomiums on his style see
+Cic. _Brut._ 252, and Quintilian, x. 1, 114, who considered him second
+only to Cicero, and remarkable for _vis_, _acumen_, _concitatio_, and
+_elegantia_. The language of Tac. _Dial._ 21 is less complimentary,
+'Nisi forte quisquam aut Caesaris pro Decio Samnite aut Bruti pro
+Deiotaro rege ceterosque eiusdem lentitudinis ac teporis libros legit,
+nisi qui et carmina eorumdem miratur.'
+
+7. _Poems._--Caesar in his youth composed a poem in praise of
+Hercules, and a tragedy, _Oedipus_. Plutarch (_Caes._ 2) speaks of him
+as reciting poems of his own composition to the pirates who took him
+prisoner. On his journey from Rome to Spain, B.C. 46, he wrote a
+descriptive poem with the title of _Iter_.
+
+Sueton. _Iul._ 56, 'Reliquit ... poema quod inscribitur Iter ...
+[fecit] dum ab urbe in Hispaniam ulteriorem quarto et vicensimo die
+pervenit ... Feruntur et a puero et ab adulescentulo quaedam scripta,
+ut Laudes Herculis, tragoedia Oedipus, item Dicta Collectanea: quos
+omnes libellos vetuit Augustus publicari, in epistula quam brevem
+admodum ac simplicem ad Pompeium Macrum, cui ordinandas bibliothecas
+delegaverat, misit.'
+
+Pliny the younger mentions Caesar as a love poet (_Ep._ v. 3, 5). His
+poetry is spoken of by Tacitus in no flattering terms, _Dial._ 21,
+'fecerunt enim [Caesar et Brutus] et carmina et in bibliothecas
+rettulerunt, non melius quam Cicero, sed felicius, quia illos fecisse
+pauciores sciunt.'
+
+The only extant lines are those on Terence (_q.v._).
+
+
+
+C. ASINIUS POLLIO.
+
+
+C. Asinius Pollio (B.C. 76-A.D. 5), governor of Farther Spain B.C.
+44, consul B.C. 40, retired from public life after his Dalmatian
+triumph, B.C. 39. He was famous as an orator, and was the author of
+(1) A history of the civil wars from B.C. 60 (Hor. _Od._ ii. 1, 1
+_sqq._). (2) Tragedies (Verg. _Ecl._ 8, 10; Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 42;
+_Od._ ii. 1, 9 _sqq._) and love poems (Plin. _Ep._ v. 3, 5). (3) A
+work in which the style of Sallust was criticized (Sueton. _Gramm._
+10). His remarks on Caesar, Cicero, and Livy may be from the same book
+(Sueton. _Iul._ 56; Quint. xii. 1, 22; i. 5, 56).
+
+For Pollio's style, cf. Quint. x. 1, 113, 'A nitore et iucunditate
+Ciceronis ita longe abest ut videri possit saeculo prior.' Pollio
+founded the first public library at Rome, in the _Atrium Libertatis_,
+B.C. 38 (Plin. _N.H._ xxxv. 10), For his intimacy with the poet Cinna,
+who wrote the _Propempticon Pollionis_ in his honour, see p. 142; and
+for his patronage of Virgil and Horace, see Verg. _Ecl._ 3, 84; 8,
+6-13; Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 42. Pollio, of course, belongs to the
+Augustan Age, but is mentioned here because of his connexion with the
+_Corpus Caesarianum_.
+
+
+
+CORNELIUS NEPOS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+The praenomen of Cornelius Nepos is unknown. In Pliny, _N.H._ iii.
+127, he is called 'Padi adcola,' and in Pliny, _Ep._ iv. 28, 1 (to
+Vibius Severus), he is mentioned as a townsman of T. Catius, 'Imagines
+municipum tuorum, Cornelii Nepotis et T. Cati.' Now T. Catius was an
+Insubrian (Cic. _ad Fam._ xv. 16, 1), and as the only Insubrian town
+on the Padus was Ticinum, Nepos was probably born there.
+
+There is no direct evidence as to the date of his birth but we may
+infer from the following facts that he was born not long before B.C.
+100.
+
+1. Jerome puts his literary activity under B.C. 40 = yr. Abr. 1977,
+'Cornelius Nepos scriptor historicus clarus habetur.'
+
+2. A son of his died B.C. 44 while a boy, and unknown to Cicero.
+
+Cic. _ad Att._ xvi. 14, 4, 'Male narras de Nepotis filio: valde
+mehercule moveor et moleste fero; nescieram omnino esse istum puerum.'
+
+3. The respect with which he looks up to Atticus, who was born B.C.
+109.
+
+4. A fragment of his _Exempla_ quoted by Pliny, _N.H._ ix. 136,
+regarding the changes of fashion in purple robes: 'Nepos Cornelius,
+qui divi Augusti principatu obiit, "Me," inquit, "iuvene violacea
+purpura vigebat, ... nec multo post rubra Tarentina. Huic successit
+dibapha Tyria... Hac P. Lentulus Spinther aedilis curulis (B.C. 63)
+primus in praetexta usus improbabatur. Qua purpura quis non iam,"
+inquit, "triclinaria facit?"'
+
+Nepos held no public office, but confined himself to literature, in
+which he was associated with Atticus. Their intimacy must have begun
+after B.C. 65, when Atticus returned to Rome from Athens, where he had
+lived more than twenty years.
+
+Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3, 6, 'P. Vergilius, Cornelius Nepos ... Non quidem hi
+senatores.'
+
+Nep. _Att._ 13, 7, 'Atque hoc non auditum, sed cognitum praedicamus:
+saepe enim propter familiaritatem domesticis rebus interfuimus.'
+
+Nepos knew Cicero, doubtless, through Atticus, but there is no
+evidence that they were intimate, except Gell. xv. 28, 1, who is
+probably mistaken, 'Cornelius Nepos ... M. Ciceronis ut qui maxime
+amicus familiaris fuit.' A fragment of a letter from Cicero to Nepos
+is quoted by Sueton. _Iul._ 55; from Nepos to Cicero by Lactant.
+_inst. div._ iii. 15, 10; and Fronto (p. 20, ed. Naber) speaks of a
+collection of Cicero's works revised by Nepos and Atticus.
+
+Nepos was on intimate terms with Catullus, whom, as coming from
+Verona, he may have known in early life. Catullus, who is mentioned by
+Nepos (_Att._ 12, 4), dedicated a collection of poems to him (Catull.
+1). Nepos was alive in B.C. 29, in which, or the following year, he
+completed the life of Atticus.
+
+As regards Nepos' character and views, Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3, 6,
+attributes to him _sanctitas morum_. The words of Cicero, _ad Att._
+xvi. 5, 5, imply only a playful compliment, 'Et ais, "μετ'
+ἀμύμονα." Tu vero ἀμύμων, ille [Nepos] quidem ἄμβροτος.'
+
+Nepos' slight regard for philosophy is shown by a letter to Cicero
+quoted by Lactant. _inst. div._ iii. 15, 10, 'Tantum abest, ut ego
+magistram esse putem vitae philosophiam beataeque vitae perfectricem,
+ut nullis magis existimem opus esse magistris vivendi quam plerisque,
+qui in ea disputanda versantur.'
+
+Cf. also Cic. _ad Att._ xvi. 5, 5, 'Nepotis epistulam exspecto.
+Cupidus ille meorum? qui ea, quibus maxime γαυριῶ, legenda non
+putet.'
+
+Philosophy, according to Nepos, ought to be practical.
+
+Nep. _Att._ 17, 3, 'Nam principum philosophorum ita percepta habuit
+praecepta, ut his ad vitam agendam, non ad ostentationem uteretur.'
+
+Nepos, as is shown by his works, supported government by the Senate.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. Erotic poems; mentioned by Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3, 6.
+
+2. _Chronica_, in three books, embracing universal history. Catull. 1,
+
+  'Quoi dono lepidum novom libellum
+  arida modo pumice expolitum?
+  Corneli, tibi; namque tu solebas
+  meas esse aliquid putare nugas
+  iam tum, cum ausus es unus Italorum
+  omne aevom tribus explicare chartis,
+  doctis, Iuppiter, et laboriosis.'
+
+It is clear, from the above, that Nepos had mentioned Catullus in the
+work. That the mythical period was treated of is shown by Ausonius,
+_Ep._ 16, 'Apologos Titiani et Nepotis chronica quasi alios apologos
+(nam et ipsa instar sunt fabularum) ... misi ... ad institutionem
+tuorum.'
+
+From Catullus we may possibly infer that the _Chronica_ were written
+before B.C. 63[31]; _unus Italorum_ would imply that they were written
+before the similar works of Varro and Atticus.
+
+3. _Exempla_, in at least five Books, treating of the history of Roman
+manners.
+
+Gell. vi. 18, 11, 'Cornelius Nepos in libro exemplorum quinto.'
+
+4. _Life of the elder Cato_.
+
+Nep. _Cat._ 3, 5, 'Huius de vita et moribus plura in eo libro
+persecuti sumus, quem separatim de eo fecimus rogatu T. Pomponii
+Attici. Quare studiosos Catonis ad illud volumen delegamus.'
+
+5. _Life of Cicero_, written after his death (B.C. 43). Gell. xv. 28,
+2, 'in primo librorum, quos de vita illius composuit.'
+
+6. _A geographical work_, referred to by Pliny, _N.H._ v. 4, etc. All
+the above works are lost.
+
+7. _De Viris Illustribus_, his last work, was dedicated to Atticus
+(praef. i); an addition to the life of Atticus was made after his
+death.
+
+_Att._ 19, 1, 'Hactenus Attico vivo edita a nobis sunt. Nunc, quoniam
+fortuna nos superstites ei esse voluit, reliqua persequemur.'
+
+From _Att._ 12, 1-2, we may conclude that the publication took place
+between B.C. 35 and 33. The addition to the life of Atticus was
+written at some time between B.C. 31 and 27, as in _Att._ 19, 2,
+Octavian is called _imperator_, but not _Augustus_, a title which he
+received in the last-mentioned year.
+
+The work contained at least sixteen Books: cf. Charis. _G.L._ i. 141
+(ed. Keil), 'Cornelius Nepos illustrium virorum libro xvi.'; and was
+divided into sections of two Books each, the first on distinguished
+foreigners, the second on distinguished Romans of the same class. We
+possess the book _de excellentibus ducibus exterarum gentium_; from
+_de historicis Latinis_ the lives of Cato the Censor and Atticus, and
+fragments of the letters of Cornelia, mother of the Gracci. There are
+also mentioned the books _de regibus_ (Nep. _de reg._ 1, 1; 3, 5); _de
+excellentibus ducibus Romanorum_ (Nep. _Hann._ 13, 4); _de historicis
+Graecis_ (Nep. _Dion,_ 3, 2); _de poetis_ (Sueton. p. 31 R.); _de
+grammaticis_ (Sueton. p. 103 R.). The work probably dealt also with
+_iurisconsulti_, _oratores_, and _philosophi_. The book is biographical
+rather than historical, and is designed to compare foreigners with
+Romans, and to please, as well as instruct, those ignorant of Greek
+culture.
+
+_Pel._ 1, 1, 'Vereor ... ne non vitam eius enarrare, sed historiam
+videar scribere.'
+
+_Hann._ 13, 4, 'Tempus est ... Romanorum explicare imperatores, quo
+facilius collatis utrorumque factis, qui viri praeferendi sint, possit
+iudicari.'
+
+_Pel._ 1, 1, 'Medebor cum satietati tum ignorantiae lectorum.'
+
+_Praef._ 2, 'Hi erunt fere, qui expertes litterarum Graecarum,' etc.
+
+Besides tradition and his own recollection, Nepos mentions the
+following sources: Thucydides (_Them._ 1, 4, etc.); Xenophon (_Ag._ 1,
+1); Plato's _Symposium_ (_Alc._ 2, 2); Theopompus (_Alc._ 11, 1);
+Dinon (_Con._ 5, 4); Timaeus (_Alc._ 11, 1); Silenus, Sosilus,
+Polybius, Sulpicius Blitho, Atticus (_Hann._ 13, 1 and 3); the
+writings of Hannibal (_Hann._ 13, 2); Speeches and _Origines_ of Cato
+(_Cat._ 3, 2); Cicero's works, especially _Epp. ad Att._ (_Att._ 16,
+3). The book contains lives of twenty Greek generals from the Persian
+wars to the time of Alexander's successors; a short article on Persian
+and Macedonian kings who were also generals; and the lives of Hamilcar
+and Hannibal, Cato and Atticus. The work possesses little independent
+value, and the following are the chief faults:
+
+1. There are many mistakes in history and geography.
+
+2. The biographies, and the events recorded in them, are badly
+arranged; eulogy is employed indiscriminately, and petty anecdotes are
+too frequent.
+
+3. Important names, as Cimon and Lysander, are dismissed too briefly;
+others, as Atticus and Datames, are treated too fully. Many are left
+out altogether, as some of the leaders in the Peloponnesian war.
+
+4. Important authorities are not used: so Herodotus, for Miltiades,
+Themistocles, and Pausanias. No use is made of the _Hellenica_ of
+Xenophon.
+
+For views on Nepos, cf. Gell. xv. 28, 1, 'Cornelius Nepos rerum
+memoriae non indiligens.'
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ v. 4, 'Portentosa Graeciae mendacia ... quaeque alia
+Cornelius Nepos avidissime credidit.'
+
+Nepos is not mentioned by Quintilian in his list of Roman historians.
+
+In the MSS. only the _Atticus_ and the _Cato_ are ascribed to Nepos,
+the rest being entitled _Liber Aemilii Probi de excellentibus ducibus
+exterarum gentium_. It has been suggested that this arose from a
+misapprehension of _em_(_endavi_) _Probus_. There is an epigram by
+this Probus in the MSS., referring to poems of his and standing after
+the Life of Hannibal, which informs us that he was a contemporary of
+Theodosius (probably Theodosius I., A.D. 379-395). That the work
+cannot be by him is shown by the political references, which suit only
+the beginning of the empire, by the mention of Atticus in the preface,
+and by the correspondence in style between the book and the lives of
+Atticus and Cato, admittedly the work of Nepos; also by the fact that
+L. Ampelius, who probably wrote before the time of Diocletian, used
+the work in his _Liber Memorialis_.
+
+
+
+LUCRETIUS.
+
+
+Our information about Lucretius' life is very scanty. Jerome yr. Abr.
+1922 = B.C. 95, 'T. Lucretius poeta nascitur, qui postea amatorio
+poculo in furorem versus, cum aliquot libros per intervalla insaniae
+conscripsisset, quos postea Cicero emendavit, propria se manu
+interfecit anno aetatis xliiii.' (B.C. 52 or 51).
+
+Donatus, _vit. Verg._ 2, 'Initia aetatis Cremonae egit [Vergilius]
+usque ad virilem togam, quam xv. anno natali suo accepit isdem illis
+consulibus iterum duobus quibus erat natus, evenitque ut eo ipso die
+Lucretius poeta decederet' (October 15).
+
+Teuffel thinks xliiii. is wrong, and would read xlii., thus giving the
+dates as B.C. 96-55, as he thinks that Jerome has fixed the date of
+birth one year too late. Munro (vol. ii. p. 1) accepts xliiii., but
+thinks that Jerome (as elsewhere) is a few years wrong in the date of
+Lucretius' birth, and gives the dates as B.C. 99-55. It is impossible
+to decide as to the date of birth, but most authorities agree on B.C.
+55 as the date of death, a view which is supported by the only
+contemporary reference to the poet: Cic. _ad Q.F._ ii. 11, 4 (written
+in February, B.C. 54), 'Lucreti poemata, ut scribis, ita sunt: multis
+luminibus ingeni, multae tamen artis; sed cum veneris. Virum te
+putabo, si Sallusti Empedoclea legeris, hominem non putabo.'
+
+The above extract is given in the reading of the MSS. Some editors
+read _non_ before _multis_, others _non_ before _multae_, but it is
+best to follow the MSS. (with Tyrrell), translating "But when you come
+(we shall talk about it). I shall consider you a hero, if you read
+Sallust's _Empedoclea_; I shall not consider you a human being."
+
+As regards Lucretius' madness, there is no absolute impossibility in
+the story. Munro (vol. ii. pp. 2, 3) accepts Jerome's account of
+Cicero's editorship; others, less probably, believe that Q. Cicero was
+editor. The first view is rendered probable by the high opinion
+Lucretius had of Cicero, as seen from the frequency with which he
+imitates his _Aratea_ (Munro on Lucr. v. 619), and from the knowledge
+Cicero shows of Lucretius' work, as in _Tusc._ i. 48.
+
+The poet's full name is given in the MSS. as T. Lucretius Carus.
+
+This is all the direct evidence regarding Lucretius' life.[32] The _de
+rerum natura_ is addressed to C. Memmius.[33] From Cic. _ad Fam._
+xiii. 1 (where Cicero tells us he employed his good offices with
+Memmius on behalf of Patro for the preservation of the gardens of
+Epicurus), it appears that he was not an Epicurean. Memmius is the
+only contemporary mentioned by Lucretius; i. 24,
+
+  'Te sociam studeo scribendis versibus esse
+  quos ego de rerum natura pangere conor
+  Memmiadae nostro, quem tu, dea, tempore in omni
+  omnibus ornatum voluisti excellere rebus.'
+
+Many, arguing from the fact that Carus is not known elsewhere as a
+cognomen of the gens Lucretia, think that the poet was a freedman or a
+freedman's son, but from the tone of equality in which he addresses
+Memmius, it is more probable that he was a patrician; cf. i. 140,
+
+  'Sed tua me virtus tamen et sperata voluptas
+  suavis amicitiae quemvis sufferre laborem
+  suadet.'
+
+Several personal characteristics may be inferred from the poem:
+
+1. His earnestness and sincerity; iii. 28,
+
+  'His ibi me rebus quaedam divina voluptas
+  percipit atque horror,' etc.
+
+Cf. the importance he attaches to his subject, i. 926,
+
+  'Avia Pieridum peragro loca nullius ante
+  trita solo.'
+
+2. His admiration for the great men of the past. Cf. iii. 1024-52,
+where Ancus, the Scipios, Homer, Democritus, and Epicurus are praised;
+the introductions to Books i., iii., v., vi., on Epicurus; i. 716-33
+on Empedocles; i. 117-9 on Ennius.
+
+3. His powers of observation and love of nature. Cf. i. 716-25; ii. 29
+_sqq._, 40 _sqq._; 323-32; iv. 572 _sqq._
+
+4. His experience of women. Book iv. 1037-the end.
+
+5. His wide reading. The poem shows knowledge of Epicurus, Empedocles,
+Democritus, Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Plato, the Stoic writers,
+Thucydides, Hippocrates, Homer, Euripides. Among Latin writers Ennius,
+Naevius, Pacuvius, Lucilius, and Accius are all imitated.
+
+There is a reference to contemporary history in i. 41-3,
+
+  'Nam neque nos agere hoc patriai tempore iniquo
+  possumus aequo animo nec Memmi clara propago
+  talibus in rebus communi desse saluti.'
+
+Munro thinks that these lines were written B.C. 59, when Memmius was
+_praetor designatus_, in fierce opposition to Caesar, and on the side
+of the Senate. If this is so, the poem was probably written between
+B.C. 60 and 55. The lines on ambition and its attendant evils (as iii.
+931 _sqq._, v. 1117-35, etc.) may have been written with a special
+view to the facts of Memmius' life. Lucretius may refer to his
+recollection of the civil wars in v. 999,
+
+  'At non multa virum sub signis milia ducta
+  una dies dabat exitio.'
+
+In ii. 40 _sqq._ there is perhaps a reference to Caesar's army in the
+Campus Martius at the beginning of B.C. 58.
+
+The _de rerum natura_ is an exposition of Epicureanism, especially on
+its physical side; i. 54,
+
+  'Nam tibi de summa caeli ratione deumque
+  disserere incipiam et rerum primordia pandam,' etc.
+
+The title is taken from Epicurus' περὶ φύσεως, which Lucretius
+followed closely, as is evident from the account of the Epicurean
+philosophy in Diogenes Laertius, x., and from the fragments of
+Epicurean writers discovered at Herculaneum in 1752. He probably used
+as his model Empedocles' poem περὶ φύσεως.
+
+The object of the poem is to deliver men from the fear of death and of
+the gods; iii. 37,
+
+  'Et metus ille foras praeceps Acheruntis agendus';
+
+i. 62-101; cf. l. 101,
+
+  'Tantum religio potuit suadere malorum.'
+
+Note that the invocation to Venus at the beginning of the poem is not
+inconsistent, but is an address to the universal principle of
+generation; cf. i. 21,
+
+  'Quae quoniam rerum naturam sola gubernas.'
+
+The scope of the Books is as follows: Books i. and ii. state the
+physical theories of Democritus and Epicurus. Book i. states the
+Atomic Theory of Democritus, held by Epicurus, that the world consists
+of atoms and void. The theories of Heraclitus, Empedocles, Anaxagoras,
+etc. are refuted; i. 740,
+
+  'Principiis tamen in rerum fecere ruinas
+  et graviter magni magno cecidere ibi casu.'
+
+Book ii. treats of the combinations of atoms, and the principle of the
+swerve introduced to explain free-will. The varieties of atoms are
+shown to be limited. In Book iii. the nature of the mind and life is
+shown to be material. _Religio_ and the fear of death (cf. ll. 978
+_sqq._) are attacked principally in this Book; iii. 830,
+
+  'Nil igitur mors est ad nos neque pertinet hilum,
+  quandoquidem natura animi mortalis habetur.'
+
+Book iv. treats of the theory of _simulacra_ or images, of the senses,
+and particularly of love. Book v. treats of the formation of the earth
+and the heavenly bodies, the origin of life, and the progress of
+civilization. It is shown that nothing has been created, and that
+everything must perish. Book vi. treats of abnormal phenomena, such as
+thunder and lightning, tempests, volcanoes, earthquakes, etc. The
+plague at Athens is described (from Thucydides). Books v. and vi. are
+unfinished.
+
+Ethical views are given only by the way, the poem being primarily on
+physics. Pleasure is the end of action: ii. 172, 'dux vitae dia
+voluptas.' This pleasure is the absence of disturbance (ἀταραξία),
+hence all passion (as of love, iv. 1121-40) is deprecated; ii. 14,
+
+  'O miseras hominum mentes, o pectora caeca!
+  qualibus in tenebris vitae quantisque periclis
+  degitur hoc aevi quodcumque est! nonne videre
+  nil aliud sibi naturam latrare, nisi utqui
+  corpore seiunctus dolor absit, mente fruatur
+  iucundo sensu cura semota metuque?'
+
+Lucretius, as Epicurus, is often weak in physics. Cf. v. 564 _sqq._,
+of the sun's size,
+
+  'Nec nimio solis maior rota nec minor ardor
+  esse potest, nostris quam sensibus esse videtur.'
+
+In i. 1052 _sqq._ he states well the theory of the antipodes but his
+dependence on Epicurus will not allow him to accept it. Reasons are
+sometimes given for a thing that never existed, as in iv. 710-21 for
+the fear that a lion has for a cock. Some passages come near the
+results of modern science, cf. v. 837 _sqq._ on extinct species; v.
+855 _sqq._ on the struggle for existence; v. 610-3, on the invisible
+rays of the sun.
+
+The references to Lucretius by name are few.
+
+Nep. _Att._ 12, 4, 'L. Iulium Calidum, quem post Lucreti Catullique
+mortem multo elegantissimum poetam nostram tulisse aetatem vere videor
+posse contendere.'
+
+Ovid, _Am._ i. 15, 23,
+
+  'Carmina sublimis tunc sunt peritura Lucreti,
+  exitio terras cum dabit una dies.'
+
+_Trist._ ii. 425,
+
+  'Explicat ut causas rapidi Lucretius ignis.'
+
+Stat. _Silv._ ii. 7, 76,
+
+  'docti furor arduus Lucreti.'
+
+Quint. x. 1, 87, 'Macer et Lucretius legendi quidem, sed non ut
+phrasin, id est, corpus eloquentiae faciant; elegantes in sua quisque
+materia, sed alter humilis alter difficilis.'
+
+Cf. Tac. _Dial._ 23.
+
+His influence on Virgil is seen _passim_. Cf. Gell. i. 21, 7, 'Non
+verba sola sed versus prope totos et locos quoque Lucreti plurimos
+sectatum esse Vergilium videmus.'
+
+Verg. _Georg._ ii. 490 _sqq._ and _Ecl._ 6, 31 _sqq._ refer to
+Lucretius. _Georg._ ii. 490,
+
+  'Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas
+  atque metus omnes et inexorabile fatum
+  subiecit pedibus strepitumque Acherontis avari.'
+
+Horace has also imitated him in several places: so _Sat._ i. 3, 99-110
+(on primitive man) = Lucr. v. 1028 _sqq._; _Sat._ i. 5, 101 _sqq._ =
+Lucr. v. 82 _sqq._ Most of the poets after him, particularly Manilius,
+came under his influence.
+
+
+
+SALLUST.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+C. Sallustius Crispus was born B.C. 86 at Amiternum, in the country of
+the Sabines, and died B.C. 35.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1931 = B.C. 86, 'Sallustius Crispus, scriptor
+historicus, in Sabinis Amiterni nascitur.' _Ibid._ 1982 = B.C. 35,
+'Sallustius diem obiit, quadriennio ante Actiacum bellum.'
+
+Sallust was of plebeian family, as is seen from the fact that he was
+afterwards _tribunus plebis_. According to the Pseud.-Cic. _in
+Sallustium declamatio_, 13-14, he led an evil life in youth, and
+brought his father with sorrow to the grave.
+
+Cf. § 14, 'Cuiquam dubium potest esse, quin mori coegerit eum
+[patrem]?'
+
+There is a story that Milo punished him for an amour with his wife.
+
+Gell. xvii. 18, 'M. Varro ... in libro quem scripsit "Pius aut de
+pace," C. Sallustium scriptorem seriae illius et severae orationis, in
+cuius historia notiones censorias fieri atque exerceri videmus, in
+adulterio deprehensum ab Annio Milone loris bene caesum dicit et, cum
+dedisset pecuniam, dimissum.'
+
+The story is corroborated by Pseud.-Cic. _in Sall._ 15; by Macrob.
+iii. 13, 9, '_alienae_ luxuriae obiurgator et censor,' and others; and
+Sallust himself appears to admit that there was something wrong;
+_Cat._ 4, 'a quo incepto studioque me ambitio mala detinuerat.'[34]
+
+Sallust speaks of the political offices he filled, and of the class of
+men who were unsuccessful candidates about the same time--a supposed
+reference to M. Cato's candidature for the praetorship, B.C. 55.
+
+_Iug._ 4, 'Qui si reputaverint, et quibus ego temporibus magistratus
+adeptus sim et quales viri idem adsequi nequiverint,' etc.
+
+After being quaestor (Pseud.-Cic. _in Sall._ 15), he was, in B.C. 52,
+_tribunus plebis_, when he and other two tribunes opposed Cicero in
+his defence of Milo.
+
+Ascon. _in Cic. pro Mil._ p. 33 (Kiessl. and Schöll), 'C. Sallustius
+et T. Munatius Plancus tr. pleb. inimicissimas contiones de Milone
+habebant.'
+
+In B.C. 50, Sallust was _legatus pro quaestore_ to Bibulus in Syria,
+according to Mommsen (_Hermes_, i. 171), who thinks that the Sallust
+to whom Cicero writes _ad Fam._ ii. 17 is the historian. In the same
+year he was expelled from the Senate by the censors, Appius Claudius
+and L. Piso.
+
+Pseud.-Cic. _in Sall._ 16, 'neque post illum delectum senatus vidimus
+te.'
+
+In B.C. 49, Caesar reappointed him quaestor, and he resumed his place
+in the Senate.
+
+Pseud.-Cic. _in Sall._ 17, 'in senatum post quaesturam est reductus.'
+
+In B.C. 48, he commanded a legion in Illyria without distinction
+(Orosius vi, 15, 8), and next year he was Caesar's agent with the
+insurgent legions in Campania (Appian, _B.C._ ii. 92). In B.C. 46 he
+was praetor, and as such commanded successfully an expedition to seize
+the enemy's stores in Cercina.
+
+_Bell. Afr._ 8, 'Item C. Sallustium Crispum praetorem ad Cercinam
+insulam versus, quam adversarii tenebant, cum parte navium ire iubet.'
+(See also c. 34.)
+
+At the end of the year he was appointed proconsul of Numidia.
+
+_Ibid._ 97, 'Ibi Sallustio pro consule cum imperio relicto ipse Zama
+egressus Uticam se recepit.'
+
+As proconsul, he plundered the province, and bought, probably with the
+spoils, the _horti Sallustiani_, which afterwards belonged to the
+Roman emperors (see Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 47; _Hist._ iii. 82).
+
+Pseud.-Cic. _in Sall._ 19, 'Nonne ita provinciam vastavit, ut nihil
+neque passi sint neque exspectaverint gravius in bello socii nostri,
+quam experti sint in pace hoc Africam interiorem obtinente?'
+
+Sallust is said to have married Terentia, whom Cicero had divorced
+(Jerome _adv. Iov._ 1). Probably he had no son, as he adopted a
+grandson of his sister.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ iii. 30, 'Crispum equestri ortum loco C. Sallustius, rerum
+Romanarum florentissimus auctor, sororis nepotem in nomen adscivit.'
+
+After Caesar's death, Sallust retired from public life, and, having no
+taste for sport or agriculture, spent his leisure in writing history.
+
+_Cat._ 4, 'Ubi ... mihi reliquam aetatem a re publica procul habendam
+decrevi, non fuit consilium socordia atque desidia bonum otium
+conterere, neque vero agrum colundo aut venando servilibus officiis
+intentum aetatem agere; sed ... statui res gestas populi Romani
+carptim, ut quaeque memoria digna videbantur, perscribere.'
+
+Sallust, as above stated, died B.C. 35.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _De Catilinae Coniuratione_ (so _Cat._ 4). The book is called
+_bellum Catilinae_ by Quint. iii. 8, 9, and in some MSS.; in MSS. also
+_bellum Catilinarium_. The work was written after Caesar's death
+(_Cat._ 53-4). It is, as Mommsen (_R.H._ iv. 184, note) states, a
+political pamphlet in the interests of the democratic party (on which
+the monarchy was based), and tries to clear Caesar from the charge of
+being implicated in the Catilinarian conspiracy, and collaterally
+performing the same service for C. Antonius, the uncle of the
+triumvir.
+
+Cf. _Cat._ 49, 'Sed isdem temporibus Q. Catulus et C. Piso neque
+pretio neque gratia Ciceronem inpellere potuere, uti per Allobroges
+aut alium indicem C. Caesar falso nominaretur. Nam uterque cum illo
+gravis inimicitias exercebant ... Sed ubi consulem ad tantum facinus
+inpellere nequeunt,' etc. (Cf. also Caesar's speech in _Cat._ 51.)
+
+_Cat._ 59, 'At ex altera parte C. Antonius pedibus aeger, quod proelio
+adesse nequibat, M. Petreio legato exercitum permittit.' Dion Cassius,
+xxxvii. 39, on the other hand, says that this was a pretence, Antonius
+being unwilling to fight against his old confederate.
+
+2. _Bellum Iugurthinum_. (So in MSS. and Quint. iii. 8, 9.)
+
+_Iug._ 5, 'Bellum scripturus sum, quod populus Romanus cum Iugurtha
+rege Numidarum gessit, primum quia magnum et atrox variaque victoria
+fuit, dehinc quia tunc primum superbiae nobilitatis obviam itum est.'
+
+The object of the book is to give a picture of the low state of the
+oligarchical government (cf. _Iug._ 8, 'Romae omnia venalia esse'),
+and to glorify Marius, the chief of the democratic party.
+
+Of his sources, Sallust mentions Sisenna (_Iug._ 95) for information
+about Sulla, and native authorities for African ethnography.
+
+_Iug._ 17, 'Sed qui mortales initio Africam habuerint, quique postea
+adcesserint, aut quo modo inter se permixti sint ... uti ex libris
+Punicis, qui regis Hiempsalis dicebantur, interpretatum nobis est ...
+dicam.'
+
+Sallust probably also used the memoirs of Scaurus, Sulla, and Catulus.
+
+3. _Historiae_.--This work dealt with the events from B.C. 78 to 67.
+Cf. Ausonius, p. 264 (ed. Peiper),
+
+  'Ab Lepido et Catulo iam res et tempora Romae
+  orsus his senos seriem conecto per annos.'
+
+There is no reference in the fragments to any event after B.C. 67. The
+book took up the history where Sisenna had left off, B.C. 78. Cf. i.
+_frag._ 1 (ed. Maurenbrecher), 'Res populi Romani M. Lepido Q. Catulo
+coss. ac deinde militiae et domi gestas composui.'
+
+Four speeches and two letters from the _Histories_ have been preserved
+in a collection of Sallustian speeches and letters made for rhetorical
+purposes, probably in the second century A.D. Besides these there are
+considerable fragments, chiefly from Books ii. and iii. We may
+conclude from _Iug._ 95, 'neque enim alio loco de Sullae rebus dicturi
+sumus,' that the career of Sulla was not treated of in the
+_Histories_. He is, however, repeatedly mentioned.
+
+Two works are falsely attributed to Sallust:
+
+1. _Oratio invectiva in Tullium_, composed, along with an _Oratio
+invectiva in Sallustium_ falsely ascribed to Cicero, by the same
+ancient rhetorician. The _Or. in Tull._ is quoted by Quintilian, if
+the MSS. are right, _e.g._ iv. 1, 68.
+
+2. An oration and an epistle _ad Caesarem senem de re publica_, both
+probably belonging to the imperial period.
+
+_Sallust as a historian._--1. He departed from the annalistic
+arrangement, and took a broader view of his subject, endeavouring to
+connect events together, and to trace the motives of actions.
+
+2. He shows a want of precision in his facts. Instead of giving dates,
+he often says vaguely _interea_; _isdem temporibus_; _dum haec
+aguntur_. One year in the Jugurthine war is left unaccounted for, and
+Marius is represented as consul in B.C. 105. So in geography and
+ethnography (as in the _Iugurtha_) he is not to be trusted. In _Iug._
+21 he forgets that Cirta is fifty miles from the sea, and that city is
+besieged in the usual way, though surrounded on three sides by gorges.
+
+He prides himself on his impartiality.
+
+_Cat._ 4, 'Mihi a spe, metu, partibus rei publicae animus liber erat.'
+So _Hist._ i. fr. 6.
+
+His leaning to the popular party, however, has been shown above.
+
+3. His speeches do not always suit the speaker or his audience, and
+are not historical. Thus the speech of Catiline (_Cat._ 20) does not
+suit his audience and is not authentic, and that of Marius (_Iug._ 85)
+is too learned for the speaker.
+
+4. His prefaces have little to do with what follows. Cf. Quint. iii.
+8, 9, 'C. Sallustius in bello Iugurthino et Catilinae nihil ad
+historiam pertinentibus principiis orsus est.'
+
+5. He is too fond of hackneyed moral maxims and trite sayings. Thus:
+
+_Cat._ i, 'Sed nostra omnis vis in animo et corpore sita est,' etc.
+
+_Iug._ 2, 'Nam uti genus hominum compositum ex corpore et anima est,
+ita res cunctae studiaque omnia nostra corporis alia, alia animi
+naturam secuntur.'
+
+His tone is that of a severe moralist.
+
+_Cat._ 3, 'Sed ego adulescentulus initio sicuti plerique studio ad rem
+publicam latus sum, ibique mihi multa advorsa fuere. Nam pro pudore,
+pro abstinentia, pro virtute audacia, largitio, avaritia vigebant,'
+etc.
+
+As this moralizing did not fit in with the facts of his life he was
+censured for it, as shown above.
+
+_Sallust's authorities and models._--Besides the authorities mentioned
+above, he used a _breviarium rerum omnium Romanarum_ prepared for him
+by the grammarian Ateius (Sueton. _Gramm._ 10). He is said to have
+borrowed phrases from Cato.
+
+Quint. viii. 3, 29, 'Nec minus noto Sallustius epigrammate incessitur:
+
+  "Et verba antiqui multum furate Catonis,
+  Crispe, Iugurthinae conditor historiae."'
+
+The similarity of Sallust's style to that of Thucydides, whom he tried
+to emulate, was remarked by the ancients.
+
+Quint. ix. 3, 17, 'Ex Graeco vero translata vel Sallustii plurima,
+quale est "volgus amat fieri"' [_Iug._ 34, a poor instance, and
+wrongly quoted]. Cf. _Cat._ 6, 'magisque dandis quam accipiundis
+beneficiis amicitias parabant,' and Thuc. ii. 40, 4, οὐ γὰρ
+πάσχοντες εὖ ἀλλὰ δρῶντες κτώμεθα τοὺς φίλους: _Iug._ 73, 'in
+maius celebrare,' and Thuc. i. 10, 3, ἐπὶ τὸ μεῖζον κοσμῆσαι.
+
+Sallust's popularity is shown by the numerous references to him,
+particularly in Quintilian. Cf. Quint. x. 1, 101, 'At non historia
+cesserit Graecis, nec opponere Thucydidi Sallustium verear'; § 102,
+'immortalem illam Sallustii velocitatem.' Cf. also Martial, xiv. 191,
+'primus Romana Crispus in historia.' Tacitus is the most important
+writer influenced by Sallust. For imitations cf. Tac. _Agr._ 37, where
+part of the description of a battle is modelled on _Iug._ 101. Cf.
+also _Cat._ 43, 'facto non consulto in tali periculo opus esse,' and
+Tac. _Hist._ i. 62, 'ubi facto magis quam consulto opus esset.'
+
+
+
+CATULLUS.
+
+
+The poet's full name, C.[35] Valerius Catullus, is got from Jerome and
+other authorities quoted below, as also his birthplace, Verona, to
+which Catullus himself refers (c. 67, 34, 'Veronae meae'; 68, 27; 100,
+2). The dates of his birth and death are uncertain. Jerome gives them
+as B.C. 87-58.
+
+Yr. Abr. 1930 = B.C. 87, 'Gaius Valerius Catullus scriptor lyricus
+Veronae nascitur.'
+
+Yr. Abr. 1959 = B.C. 58, 'Catullus xxx. aetatis anno Romae moritur.'
+His early death is referred to by Ovid, _Am._ iii. 9, 61,
+
+  'Obvius huic [Tibullo] venias hedera iuvenilia cinctus
+  tempora, cum Calvo, docte Catulle, tuo';
+
+but it is quite certain that the year of his death given by Jerome as
+B.C. 58 is wrong. In c. 113, 2, the second consulship of Pompeius in
+B.C. 55 is referred to, and cc. 11 and 29 were written after Caesar's
+expedition to Britain in B.C. 55. C. 52 used to be taken as referring
+to B.C. 47, from l. 3, 'per consulatum perierat Vatinius,' but, as
+shown below, was written in B.C. 55 or 54. As no clear reference is
+found to any event after B.C. 54 (a highly important time, which would
+have been likely to produce some sarcastic poetry from Catullus), it
+is best to accept the view that Catullus lived from 87 to 54 or 53
+B.C. B. Schmidt (ed. mai. 1887, prolegomena), on the other hand, fixes
+the dates as 82-52 B.C. (accepting Jerome's account of Catullus' age),
+and attributes c. 38 (to Cornificius) to the latter year.
+
+Catullus' family was wealthy and of good position, as is seen from his
+having estates at Sirmio (c. 31) and Tibur (c. 44), and from the fact
+that his father was a friend of Julius Caesar.
+
+Sueton. _Iul._ 73, 'Hospitioque patris eius [Catulli], sicut
+consueverat, uti perseveravit.'
+
+Catullus went to Rome early, and there, as Schmidt thinks, was taught
+by the grammarian Valerius Cato, to whom c. 56 is probably addressed.
+From c. 68, 34-5, we see that he was settled at Rome.
+
+                'Romae vivimus: illa domus,
+  illa mihi sedes, illic mea carpitur aetas.'
+
+Catullus wrote love-poetry soon after taking the _toga virilis_; c.
+68, 15,
+
+  'Tempore quo primum vestis mihi tradita purast,
+    iucundum cum aetas florida ver ageret,
+  multa satis lusi.'
+
+Catullus' love for Lesbia is the outstanding fact of his life. Her
+real name was Clodia, the sister of P. Clodius, nicknamed for her
+immorality 'quadrantaria.'
+
+Apuleius, _Apol._ 10, 'Accusent C. Catullum quod Lesbiam pro Clodia
+nominarit.'
+
+Ovid, _Trist._ ii. 427,
+
+  'Sic sua lascivo cantata est saepe Catullo
+    femina, cui falsum Lesbia nomen erat.'
+
+The name Lesbia (which scans like Clodia) may be got from Sappho, the
+Lesbian poetess, on whom c. 51 (probably the first addressed to
+Clodia) is modelled. The facts known about Clodia all fit in with what
+Catullus tells us of Lesbia. For Lesbia's beauty, cf. cc. 43 and 86;
+Clodia was called βοῶπις from her large and lustrous eyes
+(Cic. _ad Att._ ii. 9, 1; 12, 2, etc.). For her relations with her
+husband, cf. Cic. _ad Att._ ii. 1, 5 (written B.C. 60), 'Est enim
+seditiosa: cum viro bellum gerit.' A hint of the real name is got from
+c. 79, where the Lesbius mentioned is Clodius, just as Lesbia is
+Clodia,
+
+  'Lesbius est pulcer: quid ni? quem Lesbia malit
+    quam te cum tota gente, Catulle, tua.'
+
+It is probable that the acquaintance began in B.C. 61. In B.C. 62
+Clodia was the wife of Q. Caecilius Metellus Celer (Cic. _ad Fam._ v.
+2, 6), and in that year Metellus was governor of Gallia Cisalpina. Now
+from c. 83 it is evident that Lesbia's husband was in Rome when she
+began to be annoyed by Catullus' attentions. We may conclude from c.
+30 that P. Alfenus Varus introduced Catullus to Lesbia. In that poem
+Catullus blames Varus for leading him on and then leaving him in the
+lurch. M'. Allius is next mentioned (c. 68) as a friend in whose house
+Catullus met Lesbia; and cc. 2, 3, 5, and 7 probably belong to this
+fortunate period of the poet's love. C. 8 speaks of Lesbia's leaving
+him (cf. c. 92), probably on account of her husband's suspicions. Cf.
+c. 5, 1,
+
+  'Vivamus, mea Lesbia, atque amemus,
+  rumoresque senum severiorum
+  omnes unius aestimemus assis.'
+
+C. 107 speaks of an unexpected reconciliation (celebrated in c. 36).
+C. 107, 5,
+
+  'Restituis cupido atque insperanti, ipsa refers te
+    nobis. O lucem candidiore nota!'
+
+When Catullus, on account of his brother's death, left Rome for
+Verona, he already knew that Lesbia had other lovers (c. 68, ll. 27
+_sqq._, 135 _sqq._). There are many poems against his rivals: c. 82,
+against Quintius; c. 40, against Ravidus; cc. 74, 80, 88-91, 116,
+against Gellius; c. 77, against Rufus, who is attacked also in cc. 59
+and 69 (this is M. Caelius Rufus, the orator, who intrigued with
+Clodia: Cic. _pro Cael._ 17, etc.); c. 79, against Lesbius (see
+above). After Catullus returned to Rome, he found that he had lost
+Lesbia's affections. C. 70 was then written,
+
+  'Nulli se dicit mulier mea nubere malle
+    quam mihi, non si se Iuppiter ipse petat.
+  Dicit: sed mulier cupido quod dicit amanti,
+    in vento et rapida scribere oportet aqua.'
+
+The words of this poem show that it must have been written after the
+death of Clodia's husband Metellus, which took place in B.C. 59, and
+it was probably written soon after that event, when Catullus had
+returned to Rome from Verona.
+
+Nos. 72, 85, and especially 58, show increasing bitterness, and must,
+with the possible exception of 58, be assigned to the years B.C. 59 or
+58. In c. 76 he prays for power to give Lesbia up; cf. ll. 23-6,
+
+  'Non iam illud quaero, contra ut me diligat illa,
+    aut, quod non potis est, esse pudica velit:
+  ipse valere opto et taetrum hunc deponere morbum.
+    O di, reddite mi hoc pro pietate mea.'
+
+It is probable that the separation between the lovers occurred not
+later than B.C. 58; otherwise Catullus would not have left for
+Bithynia in the next year. In c. 11, the last poem that refers to
+Lesbia, which, from the reference to Britain in l. 12, cannot have
+been written before B.C. 55, we see that Catullus is cured of his
+passion; cf. ll. 21-4,
+
+  'Nec meum respectet, ut ante, amorem,
+  qui illius culpa cecidit velut prati
+  ultimi flos, praetereunte postquam
+              tactus aratro est.'
+
+In the spring of B.C. 57 Catullus went to Bithynia on the staff of the
+propraetor C. Memmius (cc. 10 and 28). From c. 10, 29, 'meus sodalis
+Cinna est Gaius,' we see that C. Helvius Cinna accompanied him. In c.
+46, 9 he speaks of the pleasant meetings of the staff, 'O dulces
+comitum valete coetus.' C. 46 shows that Catullus left Bithynia in the
+spring of the following year: ll. 1-4,
+
+  'Iam ver egelidos refert tepores ...
+  Linquantur Phrygii, Catulle, campi.'
+
+The dirge in c. 101 shows that Catullus, on his way to Italy, visited
+his brother's tomb in the Troad, and paid the last rites to it. C. 4,
+written soon after his return to Sirmio, tells us how he made his way
+home again. About the same time was composed the address to Sirmio in
+c. 31; c. 10 proves that he soon went back to Rome.
+
+The poems against Caesar's party belong to the years B.C. 55 and 54.
+In cc. 41 and 43 Catullus calls a Transpadane girl 'decoctoris amica
+Formiani,' the reference being to Mamurra, 'the bankrupt from
+Formiae,' who had been Caesar's _praefectus fabrum_ in Gaul, and who
+may have been a successful rival of Catullus in love. C. 29, written
+probably in B.C. 54, attacked Mamurra, and also his patrons, Caesar
+and Pompey. From l. 24, 'socer generque, perdidistis omnia,' it is
+clear that the poem was written before Julia's death in September,
+B.C. 54; and from ll. 11-12,
+
+  'eone nomine, imperator unice,
+  fuisti in ultima occidentis insula,'
+
+that it was written after Caesar's first expedition to Britain in B.C.
+55. The poem is referred to by Sueton. _Iul._ 73, 'Valerium Catullum,
+a quo sibi versiculis de Mamurra perpetua stigmata imposita non
+dissimulaverat, satis facientem eadem die adhibuit cenae hospitioque
+patris eius sicut consueverat uti perseveravit.'
+
+C. 52 (against Vatinius) was written B.C. 55 or 54. It used to be
+assigned to B.C. 47, when Vatinius was consul, but l. 3, 'per
+consulatum perierat Vatinius' means 'Vatinius perjures himself by his
+hope of the consulship' (his name stood on the list agreed on at Luca,
+which is mentioned by Cic. _ad Att._ iv. 8_b_, 2); and l. 2, 'Sella in
+curuli struma Nonius sedet,' cannot refer to B.C. 47, as the only
+ordinary curule magistrates in that year were P. Vatinius and Q.
+Fufius Calenus. Among other poems against personal enemies are c. 98,
+against Vettius, and c. 108, against Cominius, both of them informers;
+and c. 84, against Arrius, who aspirated his words wrongly, and who,
+from l. 7, 'hoc misso in Syriam,' is supposed to have gone out to
+Syria as _legatus_ to Crassus in B.C. 55. C. 49 is an attack on Cicero:
+
+  'Disertissime Romuli nepotum,
+  quot sunt quotque fuere, Marce Tulli,
+  quotque post aliis erunt in annis,
+  gratias tibi maximas Catullus
+  agit, pessimus omnium poeta,
+  tanto pessimus omnium poeta
+  quanto tu optimus omnium patronus.'
+
+The sting lies in the _double entendre_ in the last two lines, which
+really mean 'so much the worst poet of all poets, as you are the best
+advocate of all clients, good and bad.' So Cicero is called in a good
+sense _omnium patronus_ by Caecina in Cic. _ad Fam._ vi. 7, 4. The
+poem has special reference to B.C. 54, when Cicero defended Vatinius
+(whom he had reviled two years before in the speech _Pro Sestio_),
+when prosecuted by Catullus' friend, Calvus (cf. c. 14, 1-3); and
+thanks Cicero ironically for some criticism he had passed on his
+poems. Catullus attacks several contemporary poets; so in c. 22,
+Suffenus, who in c. 14 is coupled with Caesius and Aquinus; Volusius
+in cc. 36 and 95; cf. 36, 1, 'Annales Volusi, cacata charta.'[36]
+
+Among Catullus' friends were Veranius and Fabullus (cc. 9, 28, etc.);
+P. Alfenus Varus of Cremona (cc. 10, 22, 30), consul B.C. 39, and a
+famous _iurisconsultus_. C. 61 celebrates the marriage of L. Manlius
+Torquatus (who was praetor B.C. 49) and Vinia Aurunculeia. Several
+poems are addressed to brother poets; c. 35 is to Caecilius of Novum
+Comum; c. 38 to Cornificius, a writer of slight love poems (Ovid,
+_Trist._ ii. 436) who died B.C. 41; c. 95 is on Cinna's _Zmyrna_; cc.
+14, 50, and 96 are addressed to C. Licinius Calvus; c. 56 to Valerius
+Cato (see above); c. 65 to Hortensius Ortalus, who asked Catullus to
+translate Callimachus; c. 1, and possibly c. 102, to Cornelius Nepos.
+
+_Catullus' longer poems._--These, unlike the shorter personal poems,
+are mostly due to Alexandrian influence, to which Catullus may have
+been introduced by his teacher, Valerius Cato. To these poems Catullus
+owes his title _doctus_ (Tibull. iii. 6, 41; Martial, i. 62, 1, etc.).
+They include: c. 66, 'coma Berenices,' from Callimachus; cf. c. 65,
+ll. 15-6,
+
+  'Sed tamen in tantis maeroribus, Ortale, mitto
+    haec expressa tibi carmina Battiadae';
+
+c. 68 to Allius, also Alexandrian; c. 64, the 'Nuptials of Peleus and
+Thetis,' l. 30 of which,
+
+  'Oceanusque, mari totum qui amplectitur orbem,'
+
+is from Euphorion, fr. 158 (Meineke), Ὠκεανὸς, τῷ πᾶσα
+περίρρυτος ἐνδέδεται χθών; c. 63, the 'Attis' in Galliambic metre;
+c. 62, a translation of a Sapphic epithalamium. C. 51, and possibly
+some parts of c. 61, are from Sappho. Catullus was the first Roman to
+use the Sapphic measure (in cc. 11 and 51).
+
+_Publication of the Poems._--From the arrangement of the poems, which
+accords neither with chronology nor with subjects, and from the large
+number of lines extant (2286), which does not suit _libellus_ (c. i.
+1), it is highly probable that they were not left by Catullus as we
+find them. C. 2, beginning 'Passer, deliciae meae puellae,' was the
+first of a series of short poems. Cf. Martial, iv. 14, 13,
+
+  'Sic forsan tener ausus est Catullus
+  magno mittere passerem Maroni';[37]
+
+the book being named from its first word, like _Arma virumque_ of the
+_Aeneid_. C. 1 (to Cornelius Nepos) is the first of another series of
+short pieces (cf. the epithet _nugae_ in l. 4). Catullus doubtless
+published his larger pieces together. The traditional arrangement, due
+to a later hand, is as follows: (1) The lyric poems in various metres;
+(2) the larger poems and the elegies; (3) the shorter poems written in
+elegiacs. Catullus began to be popular as soon as his works were
+published; cf. Nep. _Att._ 12, 4 (quoted p. 124). He is imitated in
+the _Priapea_, in Ovid, in Ausonius, in the _Ciris_, in Martial, etc.
+C. 4 is closely parodied in Verg. _Catal._ 8.
+
+
+
+CONTEMPORARY POETS:
+
+
+(_a_) _Ticidas_ wrote the Hymenaeus and love-poems on Perilla. For the
+latter cf. Ovid, _Trist._ ii. 433-4 and 437-8 (read by Riese
+immediately after),
+
+  'Quid referam Ticidae, quid Memmi carmen, apud quos
+    rebus adest nomen nominibusque pudor,
+  et quorum libris modo dissimulata Perillae
+    nomine nunc legitur dicta, Metelle, tuo?'
+
+(_b_) _C. Helvius Cinna_ was intimate with Catullus, who refers to him
+in c. 10 as being along with him in Bithynia in B.C. 57. See p. 136.
+From the reference to Gallia Cisalpina in Cinna, frag. I (Bährens), we
+might conclude that he was a countryman of Catullus,
+
+  'At nunc me Cenumana per salicta
+  bigis raeda rapit citata nanis.'
+
+In Sueton. _Iul._ 52, Cinna is spoken of as a partisan of Caesar:
+'Helvius Cinna tribunus plebis,' etc.; and he is probably identical
+with the person mentioned _ibid._ 85, as put to death in mistake for a
+man of the same name shortly after the murder of Caesar: 'Plebs statim
+a funere ad domum Bruti et Cassii cum facibus tetendit, atque aegre
+repulsa, obvium sibi Helvium Cinnam per errorem nominis, quasi
+Cornelius is esset, quem graviter pridie contionatum de Caesare
+requirebat, occidit caputque eius praefixum hastae circumtulit.'
+
+Cf. especially Plutarch, _Brut._ 20, ἦν δέ τις Κίννας,
+ποιητικὸς ἀνὴρ, οὐδὲν τῆς αἰτίας μετέχων, ἀλλὰ καὶ φίλος Καίσαρος
+γεγονὼς, etc.[38]
+
+Weichert (_Poet. Lat. Rell._ p. 157) thinks that Plutarch has confused
+the tr. pleb. with the poet, and that Virgil's words (below) imply
+that Helvius Cinna was alive when the _Eclogue_ was written (B.C.
+41-39). The latest authorities, however, identify the two persons.
+Verg. _Ecl._ 9, 35,
+
+  'Nam neque adhuc Vario videor nec dicere Cinna
+  digna, sed argutos inter strepere anser[39] olores.'
+
+Cinna's works were:
+
+1. _Zmyrna_, on the incestuous love of Myrrha for Cinyras. Cinna spent
+nine years on this poem, which was very obscure. Catull. 95,
+
+  'Zmyrna mei Cinnae nonam post denique messem
+  quam coeptast nonamque edita post hiemem.'
+
+Philargyrius ad Verg. _Ecl._ 9, 35, 'Fuit autem liber obscurus adeo ut
+et nonnulli eius aetatis grammatici in eum scripserint magnamque ex
+eius enarratione sint gloriam consecuti.'
+
+2. _Propempticon Pollionis_, written on the occasion of Asinius
+Pollio's visit to Greece.
+
+3. _Epigrams and Love Poems._--For the latter cf. Ovid, _Trist._ ii.
+435 (on the erotic poets),
+
+  'Cinna quoque his comes est, Cinnaque procacior Anser,
+    et leve Cornifici parque Catonis opus.'
+
+(_c_) _C. Licinius Macer Calvus_ was the son of the annalist C.
+Licinius Macer, and was born 28th May, B.C. 82.
+
+Cic. _ad Q.F._ ii. 4, 1, 'Macer Licinius.'
+
+Valer. Max. ix. 12, 7, 'C. Licinius Macer, Calvi pater.'
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ vii. 165, 'C. Mario Cn. Carbone iii. coss. a. d. v. Kal.
+Iun. M. Caelius Rufus et C. Licinius Calvus eadem die geniti sunt.'
+
+Calvus probably died B.C. 47. Cf. Cic. _ad Fam._ xv. 21, 4, written to
+C. Trebonius towards the end of that year. The letter refers to
+correspondence with Calvus, and criticizes his oratory.
+
+See also Cic. _Brut._ 279 and 283-4; and, for his relations with
+Cicero, Tac. _Dial._ 18. Calvus vied with Cicero for the first place
+in the forum. His best known speeches were _in Vatinium_, whom he
+prosecuted at least three times (B.C. 58-54).
+
+Seneca, _Controv._ vii. 4, 6-8, 'Calvus, qui diu cum Cicerone
+iniquissimam litem de principatu eloquentiae habuit, usque eo
+violentus actor et concitatus fuit, ut in media eius actione surgeret
+Vatinius reus et exclamaret: Rogo vos, iudices, num si iste disertus
+est, ideo me damnari oportet? Idem postea cum videret a clientibus
+Catonis, rei sui, Pollionem Asinium circumventum in foro caedi, imponi
+se supra cippum iussit; erat enim parvolus statura, propter quod etiam
+Catullus in hendecasyllabis (c. 53) vocat illum "salaputtium
+disertum." ... Solebat praeterea excedere subsellia sua et impetu
+latus usque in adversariorum partem transcurrere. Et carmina quoque
+eius, quamvis iocosa sint, plena sunt ingentis animi ... Compositio
+quoque eius in actionibus ad exemplum Demosthenis riget: nihil in illa
+placidum, nihil lene est, omnia excitata et fluctuantia.'
+
+Catullus also refers to Calvus in c. 14, and in c. 96, where he speaks
+of the 'mors immatura Quintiliae,' probably Calvus' wife.
+
+Of the poems about nineteen lines are extant. They included: (1)
+_ludicra_ (in hendecasyllables); (2) _epithalamia_; (3) _Io_; (4) _ad
+uxorem_; (5) _epigrammata_. For the last cf. Sueton. _Iul._ 73, 'C.
+Calvo post famosa epigrammata de reconciliatione per amicos agenti
+ultro ac prior scripsit.' (6) 'Calvi de aquae frigidae usu,' which
+forms the title of Martial xiv. 196, may have been a didactic poem.
+Other references to Calvus' poetry are: Ovid, _Trist._ ii. 431,
+
+  'Par fuit exigui similisque licentia Calvi,
+    detexit variis qui sua furta modis';
+
+Propert. iii. 34, 89,
+
+  'Haec etiam docti confessast pagina Calvi
+    cum caneret miserae funera Quintiliae';
+
+Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 16,
+
+  'Illi, scripta quibus comoedia prisca viris est,
+  hoc stabant, hoc sunt imitandi: quos neque pulcher
+  Hermogenes umquam legit, neque simius iste
+  nil praeter Calvum et doctus cantare Catullum.'
+
+(_d_) _P. Terentius Varro Atacinus_ was born B.C. 82 in Gallia
+Narbonensis near Atax (a river, not a town, as Jerome states).
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1935 = B.C. 82, 'P. Terentius Varro vico Atace in
+provincia Narbonensi nascitur; qui postea xxxv. annum agens Graecas
+litteras cum summo studio didicit.'
+
+Porphyr. ad Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 46, 'Terentius Varro Narbonensis, qui
+Atacinus ab Atace fluvio dictus est.'
+
+Varro must have died before B.C. 35, when Horace, speaking of satire,
+wrote, _Sat._ i. 10, 46,
+
+  'Hoc erat, experto frustra Varrone Atacino
+  atque quibusdam aliis melius quod scribere possem.'
+
+Varro's works were:
+
+1. _Bellum Sequanicum_, probably an epic on Caesar's war with
+Ariovistus in B.C. 58.
+
+2. _Saturae_, mentioned only in the above passage of Horace.
+
+3. _Argonautae_, a translation from Apollonius Rhodius in four Books.
+Probus ad Verg. _Georg._ ii. 126, 'Varro qui quattuor libros de
+Argonautis edidit.'
+
+Cf. Sen. _Controv._ vii. 1, 27, 'Illos optimos versus Varronis (=
+Apoll. iii. 749-50),
+
+  "Desierant latrare canes urbesque silebant;
+  omnia noctis erant placida composta quiete."
+
+Solebat Ovidius de his versibus dicere, potuisse fieri longe meliores,
+si secundi versus ultima pars abscideretur et sic desineret "omnia
+noctis erant."'[40]
+
+Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 87; Ovid, _Am._ i. 15, 21; Stat. _Silv._ ii. 7,
+77.
+
+4. _Chorographia_, a geographical work, as the fragments show.
+
+5. _Ephemeris_.--Serv. ad Verg. _Georg._ i. 375, 'Hic locus omnis de
+Varrone est; nam et Varro et Vergilius Aratum secuti sunt.'
+
+6. _Elegies._--One line is given by Bährens. Cf. Propert. iii. 34, 85,
+
+  'Haec quoque perfecto ludebat Iasone Varro,
+    Varro Leucadiae maxima flamma suae.'
+
+(_e_) _Publilius Syrus_ was a manumitted slave, a native of Syria,
+probably of Antioch.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1974 = B.C. 43, 'Publilius mimographus natione Syrus
+Romae scaenam tenet.'
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ xxxv. 199, 'Est et vilissima [creta] qua circum
+praeducere ad victoriae notam pedesque venalium trans maria advectorum
+denotare instituerunt maiores talemque Publilium Antiochium (MSS.
+lochium) mimicae scaenae conditorem et astrologiae consobrinum eius
+Manilium Antiochum, item grammaticae Staberium Erotem eadem nave
+advectos videre proavi.'
+
+An account of Publilius' manumission, and his contest with Laberius in
+B.C. 45, is given by Macrob. _Saturn._ ii. 7, 4-8, and is quoted under
+'Laberius,' p. 97.
+
+Publilius' works were:
+
+1. _Mimi._--Two titles are quoted.
+
+2. _Sententiae._--Six hundred and ninety-seven lines from his mimes
+(unconnected and alphabetically arranged) are preserved from different
+sources. Most are iambic senarii, some trochaic septenarii.
+
+Macrob. _Saturn._ ii. 7, 10, 'Publili sententiae feruntur lepidae et
+ad communem usum adcommodatissimae.'
+
+Cicero heard his and Laberius' plays in B.C. 46. See _ad Fam._ xii.
+18, 2, quoted under 'Laberius,' p. 99.
+
+Sen. _de tranquill._ 11, 8, 'Publilius, tragicis comicisque
+vehementior ingeniis, quotiens mimicas ineptias et verba ad summam
+caveam spectantia reliquit, inter multa alia cothurno, non tantum
+sipario fortiora, et hoc ait,
+
+  "Cuivis potest accidere quod cuiquam potest."'
+
+The lines are, like the above, proverbs of worldly wisdom, and seem to
+have been used in schools.
+
+Jerome _Ep. ad Laetam_, 107, 'Legi quondam in scholis puer,
+
+  "Aegre reprendas quod sinas consuescere."'
+
+
+
+Footnotes to Chapter II
+
+
+[25] Q. Hortensius Hortalus (B.C. 114-50), Cicero's rival as an
+orator, and author of _Annales_ (Vell. ii. 16, 3), a _Rhetoric_
+(Quint. ii. 1, 11), and love poems (Ovid _Tr._ ii. 441).
+
+[26] According to _ad Att._ ii. 1, 3 (if genuine), Cicero intended to
+publish speeches 9-11 in a collection of 'orationes consulares' ('Hoc
+totum σῶμα curabo ut habeas').
+
+[27] _R.H._ iv. 311 (note).
+
+[28] Q. Asconius Pedianus (A.D. 3-88), probably a native of Padua,
+author of a commentary on Cicero's speeches. The extant part is on
+_Pro Cornelio de maiestate_, _In toga candida_, _In Pisonem_, _Pro
+Scauro_, and _Pro Milone_. The commentary on the Verrines and Divinatio,
+which deals almost exclusively with the language, is spurious: the true
+Asconius confines himself to the subject-matter.
+
+[29] The Epicurean philosophy was expounded in the writings of C.
+Amafinius, Rabirius, and T. Catius, whose opinions and literary style
+were alike distasteful to Cicero (_Ac._ i. 5; _ad. Fam._ xv. 19, 2).
+
+[30] F. Ritschl, _Opuscula_, iii., p. 525.
+
+[31] L. Schwabe, _Quaest. Catull._, p. 296. B. Schmidt, however (ed.
+of Catullus, p. 57), thinks that the _Chronica_ are not referred to
+here.
+
+[32] A life of Lucretius has been recently discovered by J. Masson
+(_Journal of Philology_, xxiii. 46), which was written by Girolamo
+Borgia in 1502. It gives B.C. 95-51 as the poet's dates. Several new
+points were supposed to lend it a claim to authority, such as the
+statement that he was 'matre natus diu sterili.' This, however, has
+been shown to rest on a wrong reading of Q. Serenus Sammonicus' _Liber
+Medicinalis_, xxxii., in a passage dealing with the barrenness of
+women, 'hoc poterit magni quartus [liber] monstrare Lucreti,' where
+_partus_, the reading of the oldest edition, was used. This, and other
+considerations, show that the _vita_ does not rest on any ancient
+sources, beyond those which are still extant.
+
+[33] Memmius wrote love poems (Ovid, _Tr._ ii. 433).
+
+[34] Some ascribe these stories to Lenaeus, a freedman of Pompey,
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 15.
+
+[35] Only inferior MSS. give Q., and the reading in c. 67, 12, 'verum
+istud populi, fabula, Quinte, facit,' is not to be accepted.
+
+[36] Some critics, without sufficient proof, identify Volusius with
+the inferior poet Tanusius Geminus.
+
+[37] Martial, of course, has here forgotten his dates.
+
+[38] The incident has been borrowed from Plutarch by Shakespeare,
+_Julius Caesar_, Act iii. Scene 3.
+
+[39] See p. 184.
+
+[40] This appears to us to be an indirect proof that the half lines in
+Virgil are often complete as they stand.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE AUGUSTAN AGE.
+
+
+
+VIRGIL.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Our chief authority for the life of Virgil, apart from his own
+writings and those of his contemporaries, is Donatus, whose work is
+probably based on Suetonius' _De Poetis_. Donatus' work, though not
+free from romance, is much more valuable than the Life by Probus[41]
+or the metrical account given by Phocas.[42] Some important details
+are given in the Life wrongly attributed to Servius, and in an account
+preserved in a Berne MS. of the tenth century.
+
+The poet's name is correctly given as P. Vergilius Maro in all the
+Lives. The balance of authority is decidedly in favour of the spelling
+'Vergilius'; it is always so written in the early MSS. and in
+inscriptions of the Republic and of the early centuries A.D. The
+traditional form in modern literature, 'Virgil,' is here retained.
+
+Virgil was born 15th October, B.C. 70, at Andes (identified
+traditionally with Pietole)[43] near Mantua. Donatus, _vit. Verg._,
+'Natus est Cn. Pompeio Magno et M. Licinio Crasso primum coss. iduum
+Octobrium die, in pago qui Andes dicitur et abest a Mantua non
+procul.'
+
+He was of humble extraction, his father being originally either a
+potter or a day-labourer.
+
+Probus, _vit. Verg._, 'Matre Magia Polla, patre rustico.'
+
+Donatus, 'Parentibus modicis fuit ac praecipue patre, quem quidam
+opificem figulum, plures Magi cuiusdam viatoris initio mercennarium
+mox ob industriam generum tradiderunt egregieque substantiae silvis
+coemendis et apibus curandis auxisse reculam.' (Cf. Virgil's treatment
+of bees in _Georgic_ iv.)
+
+His early years were spent at Cremona, whence in B.C. 55 he went to
+Mediolanum and then to Rome for his higher education. He studied
+philosophy, medicine, mathematics, and rhetoric; but his shyness
+prevented his being a success at the bar, where, we are told, he
+appeared only once.
+
+Donatus, 'Initia aetatis Cremonae egit usque ad virilem togam, quam
+xv. anno natali suo accepit isdem illis consulibus iterum duobus
+quibus erat natus, evenitque ut eo ipso die Lucretius poeta decederet.
+De Cremona Mediolanum et inde paulo post transiit in urbem ... Inter
+cetera studia medicinae quoque ac maxime mathematicae[44] operam
+dedit. Egit et causam apud iudices unam omnino nec amplius quam semel;
+nam et in sermone tardissimum ac paene indocto similem fuisse Melissus
+[a freedman of Maecenas] tradidit.'
+
+The Berne MS. above referred to says: 'Ut primum se contulit Romam,
+studuit apud Epidium oratorem cum Caesare Augusto.'[45] For his
+studies under the Epicurean Siron cf. _Catal._ 7, 8,
+
+  'Nos ad beatos vela mittimus portus,
+  magni petentes docta dicta Sironis,
+  vitamque ab omni vindicabimus cura.'
+
+Cf. also _Ecl._ 6, 31-40, where a brief sketch is given of the
+Epicurean theory of creation.
+
+For a few years we hear nothing of his life, but we may suppose that
+he continued his studies in literature and philosophy, probably at his
+farm, if we can draw any inference from the language of _Ecl._ 1,
+especially l. 19 _sqq._ So far as is known, he took no part in the
+civil wars. In B.C. 41, when lands were assigned to the troops of
+Antonius, Virgil was dispossessed of his property. On the
+recommendation of Asinius Pollio, who was _legatus_ of Gallia
+Transpadana, he went to Rome and obtained from Octavian the
+restitution of his land. The poet expresses his gratitude in _Ecl._ 1,
+42,
+
+  'Hic illum vidi iuvenem, Meliboee, quotannis
+  bis senos cui nostra dies altaria fumant.
+  Hic mihi responsum primus dedit ille petenti:
+  "Pascite ut ante boves, pueri, submittite tauros."'
+
+Cf. also ll. 70-3.
+
+Donatus, 'Ad bucolica transiit maxime ut Asinium Pollionem, Alphenum
+Varum, et Cornelium Gallum celebraret, quia in distributione agrorum
+qui post Philippensem victoriam[46] veteranis triumvirorum iussu trans
+Padum dividebantur, indemnem se praestitissent.'
+
+Virgil was evicted a second time in the following year, after the
+Bellum Perusinum, by the troops of Octavian. Conflicting accounts are
+given by the Lives regarding the persons who seized his land.[47]
+
+Servius, _vit. Verg._, 'Postea ortis bellis civilibus inter Antonium
+et Augustum, Augustus victor Cremonensium agros, quia pro Antonio
+senserant, dedit militibus suis. Qui cum non sufficerent, his addidit
+agros Mantuanos, sublatos non propter civium culpam, sed propter
+vicinitatem Cremonensium: unde ipse in Bucolicis (9, 28), "Mantua vae
+miserae nimium vicina Cremonae."'
+
+Virgil and his household found refuge on an estate which had once
+belonged to his old master Siron: _Catal._ 10,
+
+  'Villula, quae Sironis eras, et pauper agelle ...
+                       Tu nunc eris illi [patri]
+  Mantua quod fuerat quodque Cremona prius.'
+
+Whether he recovered his old farm is uncertain: at all events he spent
+most of his time in the south of Italy. Besides a house in Rome, he
+seems to have had a country house near Nola, and we know that the
+_Georgics_ (cf. iv. 563) were written at Naples.
+
+Donatus, 'Habuit domum Romae Esquiliis iuxta hortos Maecenatis,
+quamquam secessu Campaniae Siciliaeque plurimum uteretur.'
+
+Gell. vi. 20, 1, 'Scriptum in quodam commentario repperi ... Vergilium
+petivisse a Nolanis, aquam uti duceret in propinquum rus.'
+
+He lived a retired life, seldom visiting Rome, and devoting most of
+his time to poetical composition, in which he was regular and
+painstaking.
+
+Tac. _Dial._ 13, 'Securum et quietum Vergilii secessum, in quo tamen
+neque apud divum Augustum gratia caruit neque apud populum Romanum
+notitia: testes Augusti epistulae, testis ipse populus, qui auditis in
+theatro Vergilii versibus surrexit universus et forte praesentem
+spectantemque Vergilium veneratus est sic quasi Augustum.'
+
+Quint. x. 3, 8, 'Vergilium paucissimos die composuisse versus auctor
+est Varius.'
+
+Cf. his own expression, quoted by Gell. xvii. 10, 2, 'parere se versus
+more atque ritu ursino' (alluding to the notion that the bear licked
+its young into shape).
+
+He was already an influential member of Maecenas' literary circle, to
+which, in B.C. 39, he introduced Horace. Cf. Hor. _Sat._ i. 6, 54,
+
+                      'optimus olim
+  Vergilius, post hunc Varius dixere quid essem.'
+
+By Maecenas he was introduced to Augustus,[48] who treated him with
+liberality. Cf. Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 246,
+
+  'Munera quae multa dantis cum laude tulerunt
+  dilecti tibi Vergilius Variusque poetae.'
+
+He was on intimate terms with Horace, who addresses _Od._ i. 3 to him
+on the occasion of a proposed visit to Greece. Cf. ll. 5-8,
+
+    'Navis, quae tibi creditum
+  debes Vergilium, finibus Atticis
+    reddas incolumem, precor,
+  et serves animae dimidium meae.'
+
+In B.C. 37 he formed one of the party who travelled with Horace to
+Brundisium: Hor. _Sat._ i. 5, 40 (see under 'Horace,' p. 167).
+
+For the rest of his life we hear little of Virgil in any public
+connexion. In B.C. 19 he started on a voyage to Greece and Asia,
+intending to spend three years on the revision of the _Aeneid_, but
+returned from Athens in bad health, and died at Brundisium on 21st
+September. His remains were buried near Naples. The epitaph quoted by
+Donatus is obviously not by Virgil: 'Anno aetatis lii. impositurus
+Aeneidi summam manum, statuit in Graeciam et in Asiam secedere
+triennioque continuo nihil amplius quam emendare, ut reliqua vita
+tantum philosophiae vacaret: sed cum ingressus iter Athenis
+occurrisset Augusto ab oriente Romam revertenti destinaretque non
+absistere atque etiam una redire, dum Megara vicinum oppidum
+ferventissimo sole cognoscit, languorem nactus est eumque non
+intermissa navigatione auxit, ita ut gravior aliquanto Brundisium
+appelleret, ubi diebus paucis obiit xi. Kal. Octobr. Cn. Sentio Q.
+Lucretio coss. (21st September, B.C. 19). Ossa eius Neapolim translata
+sunt tumuloque condita ... in quo distichon fecit tale:
+
+  "Mantua me genuit, Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc
+    Parthenope: cecini pascua, rura, duces."'
+
+His personal appearance and character are thus described by Donatus:
+'Corpore et statura fuit grandis, aquilo colore, facie rusticana,
+valetudine varia: nam plerumque a stomacho et a faucibus ac dolore
+capitis laborabat, sanguinem etiam saepe reiecit.' (Cf. Hor. _Sat._ i.
+5, 48,
+
+  'Lusum it Maecenas, dormitum ego Vergiliusque;
+  namque pila lippis inimicum et ludere crudis.')
+
+'Cibi vinique minimi, libidinis pronior ... cetera sane vita et ore et
+animo tam probum constat, ut Neapoli Parthenias volgo appellatus sit,
+ac si quando Romae, quo rarissime commeabat, viseretur in publico,
+sectantes demonstrantesque se suffugeret in proximum tectum.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+MINOR POEMS.--According to Donatus, these were: 'In Balistam ... deinde
+Catalecton et Priapia et Epigrammata et Diras, item Cirim et Culicem,
+cum esset annorum xvi.' Servius omits the boyish production 'in
+Balistam,' and adds the 'Copa.' The 'Aetna,' mentioned with doubt by
+Donatus, is, of course, not by Virgil. (1) _Catalecta_.-This seems
+better than _Catalecton_; either would mean "a collection of poems."
+Some give _Catalepton_ (= "trifles," like Aratus' work τὰ
+κατὰ λεπτόν). Ribbeck thinks _Catalecta_ originally included the
+_Priapea_, _Epigrammata_, and _Dirae_, but came to be restricted to
+the fourteen short pieces given in our MSS. under that title. Some of
+these, _e.g._ No. 5, are spurious. Quint. viii. 3, 28 vouches for No.
+2. Virgil's friends, Tucca and Varius, are addressed in 1 and 9, and
+10 (on Siron's villa) refers to an event in Virgil's life. In the vein
+of Catullus are 3, 4, and 8, the last being an extremely close parody
+of Catullus, c. 4. (2) _Priapea_, three in number. (3) _Dirae_,
+spurious. (4) _Ciris_. The writer's reference to himself in l. 2,
+'Irritaque expertum fallacis praemia volgi,' shows that Virgil is not
+the author. (5) _Culex_. That Virgil wrote a poem with this title is
+attested by Suetonius, Statius, and Martial; _e.g._ Mart. viii. 56, 19,
+
+  'Protinus Italiam concepit et arma virumque
+  qui modo vix Culicem fleverat ore rudi.'
+
+The poem in its present form is accepted by Ribbeck, but it does not
+correspond exactly to the account given by Donatus of the contents.
+(6) The _Copa_ Ribbeck accepts as genuine, but other critics find in
+it characteristics rather of Ovid or of Propertius. (7) The _Moretum_,
+though found in MSS., is not mentioned by Donatus or Servius, a strong
+argument against its being genuine.
+
+BUCOLICA.--These ten poems are called in the MSS. _Eclogae_ ("selected
+pieces"), and were composed B.C. 43-39. Probus, 'Scripsit Bucolica
+annos natus xxviii., Theocritum secutus.'
+
+Servius, 'Tunc ei proposuit Pollio ut carmen bucolicum scriberet, quod
+eum constat triennio[49] scripsisse et emendasse.'
+
+They were doubtless published separately as they were written, and
+afterwards collected into a volume with _Ecl._ 1 (Tityrus) coming
+first. Cf. _Georg._ iv. 565,
+
+  'Carmina qui lusi pastorum, audaxque iuventa,
+  Tityre, te patulae cecini sub tegmine fagi.'
+
+The present order is certainly not the chronological order.
+
+_Ecl._ 1 was written B.C. 41 as a thanksgiving to Augustus (see p.
+150).
+
+_Ecl._ 2 cannot be earlier than the end of 43 when Pollio was made
+governor of Gallia Transpadana, and possibly should not be put earlier
+than the summer of 42. The poem is written on his favourite slave
+Alexis (see Serv. _ad loc._).
+
+_Ecl._ 3 was probably written soon afterwards. Virgil refers in l. 84
+to his intimacy with Pollio,
+
+  'Pollio amat nostram, quamvis est rustica, Musam.'
+
+_Ecl._ 2 and 3 are earlier than 5. Cf. 5, 86-7,
+
+  'Haec nos "Formosum Corydon ardebat Alexim,"
+  haec eadem docuit "Cuium pecus? an Meliboei?"'
+
+_Ecl._ 4. The date is clear from l. 3,
+
+  'Si canimus silvas, silvae sint _consule_ dignae.'
+
+It must have been written in 40, when Pollio was consul. This eclogue,
+which in the Middle Age was believed to be a prophecy of the Messiah's
+coming, cannot be satisfactorily explained as referring to Pollio's
+son Saloninus, or to the expected child of Augustus, Julia.
+
+_Ecl._ 5. Spohn's view is highly probable, that it was written for the
+first celebration of Caesar's birthday in July, 42.
+
+_Ecl._ 6, to Varus, probably written B.C. 40 from Siron's villa.
+
+_Ecl._ 7 contains no allusion to contemporary events: the tone is
+purely pastoral.
+
+_Ecl._ 8 was written while Pollio was on his way back to Rome from his
+victory over the Parthini in Illyricum, for his triumph in B.C. 39.
+Cf. ll. 6 and 12.
+
+In _Ecl._ 9, written B.C. 40 at Siron's villa, the poet expresses his
+grief at the second expulsion from his farm.
+
+_Ecl._ 10 entitled 'Gallus' was written B.C. 39. For details see under
+'Gallus,' p. 182.[50]
+
+_Sources of the Eclogues._--Several of the Eclogues are modelled on
+Theocritus (cf. 'Sicelides Musae' 4, 1; 'Syracosius versus' 6, 1),
+_e.g._ _Ecl._ 8 on Theocr. 2 and 3; and close imitations are found
+throughout. The poet Euphorion of Chalcis (of third century B.C.) is
+alluded to in _Ecl._ 10, 50 in connection with Gallus. The names of
+the shepherds are mostly from Theocritus, as Tityrus, Mopsus,
+Damoetas. They are 'Arcades' (7, 4, etc.), but, like the scenery,
+exhibit traits both of Sicily and of North Italy. Thus the scenery
+never gives an accurate picture of any one locality: _e.g._ _Ecl._ 9,
+ll. 1-10, 26-7, 36, 59-60, present features of the district around
+Mantua, while in ll. 39-43 a Sicilian scene is introduced from
+Theocritus. The lofty mountains, _e.g._ 1, 84, are Sicilian, and so are
+many of the trees, as chestnut and pine, which are said not to be
+found near Mantua. For Mantuan scenery cf. _e.g._ 7, 12,
+
+  'Hic virides tenera praetexit harundine ripas
+Mincius.'
+
+The GEORGICS were written from B.C. 37 to 30 at the suggestion of
+Maecenas. Cf. i. 1.
+
+Serv. _vit. Verg._ 'Item proposuit Maecenas Georgica, quae scripsit
+emendavitque septem annis.'
+
+The poem was finished by B.C. 29. Cf. Donatus, 'Georgica reverso post
+Actiacam victoriam Augusto atque Atellae ... commoranti per continuum
+quadriduum legit.' It was written at Naples. Cf. iv. 559,
+
+  'Haec super arvorum cultu pecorumque canebam ...
+  Illo Vergilium me tempore dulcis alebat
+  Parthenope, studiis florentem ignobilis oti.'
+
+The concluding part of Book iv., originally a dirge on Cornelius
+Gallus, was afterwards altered for the myth of Aristaeus, to please
+Augustus.
+
+Serv. _ad Ecl._ 10, 1, 'Fuit Cornelius Gallus amicus Vergilii, adeo ut
+quartus Georgicorum a medio usque ad finem eius laudes teneret, quas
+postea iubente Augusto in Aristaei fabulam commutavit.'
+
+_Sources of the Georgics._--Besides his own observation, Virgil used
+the following authorities:
+
+1. Hesiod--mostly in Book i., _e.g._ ll. 276-286 (lucky and unlucky
+days). Cf. ii. 176,
+
+  'Ascraeumque cano Romana per oppida carmen.'
+
+2. Books of the priests; _e.g._ i. 269 _sqq._ (what is lawful on holy
+days), i. 338 _sqq._ (Ambarvalia).
+
+3. For agriculture and natural history--Greek writers like Aristotle,
+Theophrastus, Democritus, and Xenophon; and Latin writers like Cato
+and Varro.
+
+4. Alexandrian writers for science and mythology; _e.g._ Eratosthenes
+for i. 233, 'quinque tenent caelum zonae,' etc.; i. 351-465, signs of
+weather, from the Διοσημεῖα of Aratus; iii. 425 _sqq._, the
+Calabrian serpent, from the Θηριακά of Nicander, whose
+writings were also used for the subject of bees in Book iv.
+
+5. Lucretius, to whom Virgil is chiefly indebted, ii. 475 _sqq._,
+especially 490 _sqq._, 'felix qui potuit,' etc., refers to Lucretius.
+The idea of Lucretius, cf. v. 206-217, that man has a perpetual
+struggle with nature, is reflected in Virgil, but modified by his
+acceptance of the argument from design. Cf. i. 99,
+
+  '_Exercet_que frequens tellurem atque _imperat_ arvis,'
+
+and the whole passage i. 118-159. Lucretian science is borrowed in
+passages like i. 89,
+
+  'Seu pluris calor ille vias et caeca relaxat
+  spiramenta, novas veniat qua sucus in herbas';
+
+l. 415-423 (of the habits of birds); iii. 242 _sqq._ (on the passion
+of love). Notice also, with Munro, Lucretian phrases like _principio_,
+_quod superest_, _his animadversis_, _nunc age_, _praeterea_, _nonne
+vides_, _contemplator_, _genitalia semina_.
+
+_Political purpose of the Georgics._--The political purpose of the
+Georgics is to help the policy of Augustus, which aimed at checking
+the depopulation of the country districts. Cf. i. 498-514, and
+especially ll. 506-7,
+
+                     'Non ullus aratro
+  dignus honos: squalent abductis arva colonis.'
+
+The Emperor is introduced throughout as the object of veneration. Cf.
+i. 24-42.
+
+_Natural scenery._--Virgil dwells on Nature in her softer aspects. Cf.
+phrases like ii. 470, 'mollesque sub arbore somni,' and the passage
+ii. 458-540 in praise of a country life. For the praise of Italy see
+the beautiful passage ii. 136-176, where special districts are
+mentioned.
+
+AENEID.--Even before the _Eclogues_ were written, Virgil had meditated
+the composition of an epic, perhaps, as Servius suggests, on the kings
+of Alba. Cf. _Ecl._ 6, 3,
+
+  'Cum canerem reges et proelia, Cynthius aurem
+  vellit et admonuit: "pastorem, Tityre, pingues
+  pascere oportet oves, deductum dicere carmen."'
+
+The idea of a poem in honour of Augustus was present to his mind when
+he wrote _Georg._ iii. 46,
+
+  'Mox tamen ardentes accingar dicere pugnas
+  Caesaris.'
+
+The _Aeneid_ was commenced B.C. 29, and remained unfinished at
+Virgil's death.
+
+Servius, _vit. Verg._, 'postea ab Augusto Aeneidem propositam scripsit
+annis undecim, sed nec emendavit nec edidit.'
+
+His method of working at the poem is thus described by Donatus,
+'Aeneida prosa prius oratione formatam digestamque in xii. libros
+particulatim componere instituit, prout liberet quidque et nihil in
+ordinem arripiens. Ut ne quid impetum moraretur, quaedam imperfecta
+transmisit, alia levissimis verbis veluti fulsit, quae per iocum pro
+tibicinibus interponi aiebat ad sustinendum opus donec solidae
+columnae advenirent.'
+
+In what order the Books were written it is impossible to decide; but
+Book vi. was not read to Augustus till after the death of the young
+Marcellus, B.C. 23.
+
+Donatus, 'Cui [Augusto] multo post perfectaque demum materia tres
+omnino libros recitavit, secundum quartum sextum, sed hunc notabili
+Octaviae adfectione, quae cum recitationi interesset ad illos de filio
+suo versus, "Tu Marcellus eris," defecisse fertur atque aegre
+focillata est.'
+
+Virgil, writing to the emperor, insists on the magnitude of the task
+he had rashly undertaken.
+
+Macrob. _Saturn._ i. 24, 11, 'Tanta incohata res est, ut paene vitio
+mentis tantum opus ingressus mihi videar, cum praesertim, ut scis,
+alia quoque studia ad id opus multoque potiora impertiar.'
+
+Although in his will Virgil left instructions to Varius (and Tucca) to
+destroy all his unpublished manuscripts, Varius was expressly desired
+by Augustus to revise and publish the _Aeneid_.
+
+Donatus, 'Egerat cum Vario, priusquam Italia decederet, ut si quid
+sibi accidisset Aeneida combureret; sed is facturum se pernegarat ...
+Edidit autem auctore Augusto Varius, sed summatim emendata, ut qui
+versus etiam imperfectos sicut erant reliquerit.'
+
+This account is corroborated by Pliny the elder, _N.H._ vii. 114,
+Gellius, and Macrobius.
+
+The rules laid down to the editors by the Emperor were, according to
+Servius, 'ut superflua demerent, nihil adderent tamen.'
+
+It seems probable that the _Aeneid_ was published B.C. 17, for it is
+in the _Carmen Saeculare_ of that year that Horace first alludes to
+the story of Aeneas (cf. l. 50, 'clarus Anchisae Venerisque sanguis'),
+and in the fourth Book of the _Odes_ (four years later) it is more
+than once introduced.
+
+The _choice of the subject_ was influenced (1) by the personal desire
+of the Emperor; (2) by the connexion of the Caesarian house with
+Venus, through Iulus;[51] cf. the invention of Atys (_Aen._ v. 568) by
+Virgil to please Augustus, whose mother was Atia; (3) by Virgil's
+design to write an epic on the greatness of Rome, in the manner of
+Homer.
+
+_The Aeneas Legend._--Stesichorus of Himera, among other writers, made
+Aeneas, a Homeric hero (cf. _Il._ xx. 307-8), settle in Italy; and
+Naevius is said to have adopted the legend in the form given by
+Timaeus, the Sicilian historian of the third century B.C. The legend
+probably arose from the worship of Aphrodite on the coasts of Italy,
+and was disseminated by the Greeks of Cumae to please the Romans. The
+connexion of Rome with Troy had been officially recognized for two
+hundred years (cf. Sueton. _Claud._ 25), and, though not a popular
+belief, had been accepted in literature from the time of Naevius.
+
+_Sources of the Aeneid._--1. Earlier Roman poets as Naevius, Ennius,
+Pacuvius, Accius, Lucilius, Hostius, Varro Atacinus, Lucretius. For
+details see under these names.
+
+2. Cato's _Origines_ and Varro's _Antiquitates_, for Italian legends
+and peoples.
+
+3. _Ius pontificium_ and _ius augurale_, as found in the books of
+sacred colleges (Macrob. i. 24, 16). Cf. the ritual meaning of
+_porricio_ (v. 776), _porrigo_ (viii. 274), the habit of praying with
+veiled head (iii. 405), prayer to Apollo of Soracte (xi. 785).
+
+4. Greek sources: (_a_) particularly the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, but
+also the Homeric Hymns and Cyclic Poems. Thus the games in Book v. =
+the games in honour of Patroclus in _Il._ xxiii.; the shield of Aeneas
+(viii. 626-731) = the shield of Achilles in _Il._ xviii.; (_b_)
+Apollonius Rhodius, for the passion of Dido = that of Medea; (_c_)
+Greek tragedies, _e.g._ the lost _Laocoon_ of Sophocles for ii. 40
+_sqq._
+
+_Religion in the Aeneid._--1. The mythology is mainly from Homer. From
+Latin myths come Faunus, Saturnus, Janus, Picus. Euhemerism is shown
+by the last three being represented as originally kings of Rome.
+
+2. The power of the gods is denoted by _fatum_ or _fata_; cf. x. 112-3,
+
+           'rex Iuppiter omnibus idem:
+  fata viam invenient.'
+
+3. The description of the lower world in Book vi. is from the descent
+into Hades in _Od._ xi., but is modified by Pythagorean ideas (vi.
+748-751, metempsychosis), Stoic ideas (vi. 724 _sqq._, pantheism, cf.
+_Georg._ iv. 219-227) and Platonic myths (_e.g._ in the _Gorgias_,
+_Phaedo_, and _Republic_), and rendered more definite by the
+introduction of heroes of the Republic. Note that Virgil emphasizes
+its mythical nature by dismissing Aeneas through the ivory gate (of
+false dreams).
+
+4. Other beliefs: (_a_) The golden bough (vi. 203-9) compared to the
+mistletoe, the symbol of the lower world with many Indo-European
+peoples; (_b_) Divinities attached to special places, _e.g._ viii.
+349-354 of the _religio_ attaching to the Capitol, ii. 351-2 guardian
+deities: cf. Carmentis, pater Tiberinus, etc.; (_c_) Worship of the
+dead, and belief in their continued influence on human affairs, iii.
+66-8, 301-5.
+
+_Political significance._--1. The pre-eminence of the Julian race and
+of Augustus himself. Cf. i. 286,
+
+  'Nascetur pulchra Troianus origine Caesar,
+  imperium Oceano, famam qui terminet astris,
+  Iulius, a magno demissum nomen Iulo.'
+
+So vi. 789 _sqq._
+
+2. The idea of empire: cf. i. 33,
+
+  'Tantae molis erat Romanam condere gentem';
+
+and of Rome as the conqueror and civilizer of the world: vi. 851,
+
+  'Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento:
+  hae tibi erunt artes, pacisque imponere morem,
+  parcere subiectis et debellare superbos.'
+
+3. The unity of Italy with Rome is seen in Aeneas and Turnus,
+representing respectively the _pietas_ and the martial courage of a
+past age. This is brought out also by the introduction of local names.
+Cf. vii. 682-5, 710-7, 797-802.
+
+4. Virgil shows here and there contempt for pure democracy: vi. 815,
+
+                         'iactantior Ancus
+  nunc quoque iam nimium gaudens popularibus auris.'
+
+Cf. also i. 148-9.
+
+_Authors influenced by Virgil._--Livy, Tacitus, Ovid, Tibullus,
+Propertius, Manilius, Lucan, Silius Italicus, Statius, Valerius
+Flaccus, Martial, Juvenal, the author of _Aetna_. See under each.
+
+
+
+HORACE.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Our chief source of information about Horace is his own works, and
+some important details are added in a life of him by Suetonius.
+
+Horace's full name is Quintus (_Sat._ ii. 6, 37) Horatius (_Od._ iv.
+6, 44) Flaccus (_Sat._ ii. 1, 18). He was born 8th December, B.C. 65,
+at Venusia in Apulia, on the frontier of Lucania.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Natus est vi. Id. Decembr. L. Cotta et L.
+Torquato coss.'
+
+_Ep._ i. 20, 26-8,
+
+  'Forte meum siquis te percontabitur aevum,
+  me quater undenos sciat inplevisse Decembris
+  collegam Lepidum quo duxit Lollius anno.'
+
+_Sat._ i. 1, 34,
+
+                  'Lucanus an Appulus anceps:
+  nam Venusinus arat finem sub utrumque colonus.'
+
+There are a great many references to Apulia in Horace. So _Od._ iii.
+4, 9 _sqq._,
+
+  'Me fabulosae Volture in Appulo
+  nutricis extra limina Pulliae' (his nurse's name), etc.
+
+All Roman virtues are attributed to the Apulians, as in _Od._ i. 22,
+13; iii. 5, 9; _Epod._ ii. 39-42.
+
+Horace, though free-born (_Sat._ i. 6, 7) was the son of a freedman,
+who was by profession a collector of debts, or, according to others, a
+fishmonger. To this last story Horace probably refers with proud
+humility in _Ep._ ii. 2, 60,
+
+  'Bioneis sermonibus et sale nigro.'
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Patre, ut ipse tradit, libertino et auctionum
+coactore, ut vero creditum est, salsamentario.'
+
+_Sat._ i. 6, 6,
+
+  'Ut me libertino patre natum';
+
+_ibid._ 85,
+
+  'Nec timuit, sibi ne vitio quis verteret olim,
+  si praeco parvas aut, ut fuit ipse, coactor
+  mercedes sequerer.'
+
+Stories of his childhood are given, _Od._ iii. 4, 9 _sqq._; _Sat._ i.
+9, 29 _sqq._; _Sat._ ii. 2, 112 _sqq._
+
+Horace speaks highly of his father, who took him from the village
+school to Rome for his education. After speaking of his own freedom
+from vice he says (_Sat._ i. 6, 71 _sqq._),
+
+  'Causa fuit pater his, qui macro pauper agello
+  noluit in Flavi ludum me mittere, ...
+  sed puerum est ausus Romam portare docendum
+  artis quas doceat quivis eques atque senator
+  semet prognatos. Vestem servosque sequentis,
+  in magno ut populo, si qui vidisset, avita
+  ex re praeberi sumptus mihi crederet illos.
+  Ipse mihi custos incorruptissimus omnis
+  circum doctores aderat.'
+
+He received instruction, both in Latin and Greek, from Orbilius,[52] a
+teacher of conservative tendencies. _Ep._ ii. 1, 69,
+
+  'Non equidem insector delendave carmina Livi
+  esse reor, memini quae plagosum mihi parvo
+  Orbilium dictare.'
+
+_Ep._ ii. 2, 41,
+
+  'Romae nutriri mihi contigit atque doceri
+  iratus Graiis quantum nocuisset Achilles.'
+
+His education was continued at Athens. _Ep._ ii. 2, 43,
+
+  'Adiecere bonae paulo plus artis Athenae,
+  scilicet ut vellem curvo dignoscere rectum
+  atque inter silvas Academi quaerere verum.'
+
+His studies were interrupted by the civil war; he joined Brutus (who
+came to Athens in August, B.C. 44), was by him appointed _tribunus
+militum_, and took part in the battle of Philippi, B.C. 42. _Ep._ ii.
+2, 46,
+
+  'Dura sed emovere loco me tempora grato
+  civilisque rudem belli tulit aestus in arma
+  Caesaris Augusti non responsura lacertis.'
+
+_Od._ ii. 7, 9,
+
+  'Philippos et celerem fugam
+  sensi, relicta non bene parmula.'
+
+In _Sat._ i. 7 Horace relates a scene at Clazomenae before Brutus and
+his staff; and in _Ep._ i. 11 he speaks, as if with personal
+knowledge, of places in Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean,
+which he probably visited then. He refers to the hardships of war in
+_Od._ ii. 6, 7; ii. 7, 1; iii. 4, 26.
+
+After the civil war his paternal property was confiscated, probably in
+B.C. 41, and his poverty compelled him to seek the post of a clerk in
+the quaestor's office, and, as he says, to write verses. (Some satires
+and epodes were then written.)
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Victis partibus, venia inpetrata, scriptum
+quaestorium comparavit.'
+
+_Sat._ ii. 6, 36,
+
+  'De re communi scribae magna atque nova te
+  orabant hodie meminisses, Quinte, reverti.'
+
+_Ep._ ii. 2, 49,
+
+  'Unde simul primum me dimisere Philippi,
+  decisis humilem pennis inopemque paterni
+  et laris et fundi paupertas inpulit, audax
+  ut versus facerem.'
+
+In the spring of B.C. 38 Horace was introduced to Maecenas[53] by
+Varius and Virgil, and became intimate with him in the winter of B.C.
+38-7.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Primo Maecenati, mox Augusto insinuatus non
+mediocrem in amborum amicitia locum tenuit. Maecenas quanto opere eum
+dilexerit satis testatur illo epigrammate:
+
+  "Ni te visceribus meis, Horati,
+  plus iam diligo, tu tuum sodalem
+  Ninnio videas strigosiorem":
+
+sed multo magis extremis iudiciis tali ad Augustum elogio: "Horati
+Flacci ut mei esto memor!"'
+
+_Sat._ i. 6, 54,
+
+                     'Optimus olim
+  Vergilius, post hunc Varius dixere quid essem ...
+  Abeo, et revocas nono post mense iubesque          (l. 61)
+  esse in amicorum numero.'
+
+In _Sat._ ii. 6, 40-58 Horace describes how intimate he was socially
+with Maecenas, who, however, did not make him a confidant in political
+matters. The most noteworthy event of this period is described in
+_Sat._ i. 5, viz. Horace's journey to Brundisium in the train of
+Maecenas and Cocceius, who went to arrange some matters between
+Augustus and Antony. His companions were Virgil, Varius, Plotius, and
+the Greek rhetorician, Heliodorus. Plotius, Virgil, and Varius are
+thus referred to (_Sat._ i. 5, 41):
+
+        'Animae quales neque candidiores
+  terra tulit neque quis me sit devinctior alter.'[54]
+
+In B.C. 34 Maecenas gave Horace an estate in the country of the
+Sabines. The question of its position was settled last century by the
+abbé Capmartin de Chaupy. The only place that suits Horace's
+description is east of Tivoli, and in the neighbourhood of Vicovaro,
+which is the same as the Varia of Horace (_Ep._ i. 14, 3), the
+market-town of his tenants. Near it is the stream Licenza, the
+Digentia of Horace, on which stands Bardela (the Mandela of Hor.).
+_Ep._ i. 18, 104,
+
+  'Me quotiens reficit gelidus Digentia rivus,
+  quem Mandela bibit, rugosus frigore pagus.'
+
+The site of his villa may be pretty closely determined from _Ep._ i.
+10, 49,
+
+  'Haec tibi dictabam post fanum putre Vacunae.'
+
+Vacuna is a Sabine goddess, identified with Victoria: near the village
+an inscription has been found which was erected by Vespasian, 'Aedem
+Victoriae vetustate dilapsam sua impensa restituit,' and the natural
+inference is that this is the temple mentioned by Horace.[55] Horace
+stayed a great deal at his country-house, and his works contain many
+references to it.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Vixit plurimum in secessu ruris sui Sabini aut
+Tiburtini, domusque eius ostenditur circa Tiburni luculum.'
+
+_Sat._ ii. 6, 16,
+
+  'Ubi me in mentis et in arcem ex urbe removi.'
+
+Other references are _Ep._ i. 16, 1-14; _Od._ ii. 18, 14.
+
+Augustus having tried unsuccessfully to induce Horace to become his
+secretary, was not offended at the poet's refusal, but continued to
+bestow his favour upon him.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Augustus epistularum quoque ei officium obtulit,
+ut hoc ad Maecenatem scripto significat: "Ante ipse sufficiebam
+scribendis epistulis amicorum, nunc occupatissimus et infirmus
+Horatium nostrum a te cupio abducere. Veniet ergo ab ista parasitica
+mensa ad hanc regiam et nos in epistulis scribendis adiuvabit." Ac ne
+recusanti quidem aut succensuit quicquam aut amicitiam suam ingerere
+desiit ... unaque et altera liberalitate locupletavit.'
+
+Horace composed for Augustus the _Carmen Saeculare_; _Od._ iv. 4; iv.
+14, celebrating the victories of Augustus' step-sons over the
+Rhaetians and the Vindelici; also _Ep._ ii. 1.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Scripta quidem eius usque adeo probavit
+mansuraque perpetuo opinatus est, ut non modo Saeculare carmen
+componendum iniunxerit sed et Vindelicam victoriam Tiberii Drusique
+privignorum suorum eumque coegerit propter hoc tribus carminum libris
+ex longo intervallo quartum addere; post sermones vero quosdam lectos
+nullam sui mentionem habitam ita sit questus: "Irasci me tibi scito,
+quod non in plerisque eius modi scriptis mecum potissimum loquaris; an
+vereris ne apud posteros infame tibi sit, quod videaris familiaris
+nobis esse?" expresseritque eclogam ad se, cuius initium est:
+
+  "Cum tot sustineas et tanta negotia solus,"' etc. (_Ep._ ii. 1).
+
+Horace died 27th November, B.C. 8, and was buried near Maecenas. He
+appointed Augustus his heir.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Decessit v. Kal. Decembris C. Marcio Censorino
+et C. Asinio Gallo coss. lvii. aetatis anno, herede Augusto palam
+nuncupato; ... et conditus est extremis Esquiliis iuxta Maecenatis
+tumulum.'
+
+In personal appearance Horace was 'brevis atque obesus,' according to
+Suetonius, who quotes a joke of Augustus on the subject: 'Vereri autem
+mihi videris ne maiores libelli tui sint, quam ipse es; sed tibi
+statura deest, corpusculum non deest.' Cf. Hor. _Ep._ i. 20, 24,
+
+  'Corporis exigui, praecanum, solibus aptum,
+  irasci celerem, tamen ut placabilis essem';
+
+_Ep._ i. 4, 15,
+
+  'Me pinguem et nitidum bene curata cute vises,
+  cum ridere voles, Epicuri de grege porcum.'
+
+Cf. also _Ep._ i. 7, 25; _Od._ iii. 14, 25.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+_Chronology of the Works._--(1) _Satirae_, in two Books (called
+_Sermones_ in all the MSS.).
+
+Book i. It is clear from _Sat._ ii. 6, 40 that Horace was introduced
+to Maecenas in the spring of B.C. 38. Now all the references to
+Maecenas, with the exception of the prologue in _Sat._ 1 (written
+last), are in the second half of the book, there being no mention of
+him in _Sat._ 2; 3; and 4. It is therefore probable that these three
+Satires were written when Horace knew Varius and Virgil, but not
+Maecenas, _i.e._ B.C. 40-38. _Sat._ 2 is probably the oldest we have,
+as is shown by other considerations, and by the number of archaisms it
+contains. _Sat._ 5 (on the journey to Brundisium) was written shortly
+after the spring of B.C. 37, when the events recorded took place. The
+date of the publication of the book cannot be exactly fixed, the only
+clue we have being the reference in _Sat._ i. 10, 86, to Bibulus, the
+political agent of Antony, whose presence in Rome B.C. 35 may be
+referred to. It cannot be proved that _Sat._ i. 1, 114 _sqq._, is
+imitated from Verg. _Georg._ i. 512 _sqq._, published B.C. 35.
+
+Book ii. and the _Epodes_ were published in B.C. 30 about the same
+time. We have references to Actium (B.C. 31), as in _Sat._ ii. 5, 63;
+and _Sat._ ii. 1 (written last) speaks of Augustus (ll. 11-15) as the
+hero in war, not yet the bringer of peace, and was probably therefore
+composed before the temple of Janus was shut in the beginning of B.C.
+29.
+
+(2) _Epodon liber_, B.C. 30, as above. _Epod._ 9 was written shortly
+after the battle of Actium, 2nd September, B.C. 31, before it was
+known whither Antony had fled.
+
+(3) _Carmina_ (Odes) Books i.-iii., published B.C. 23. In _Od._ i. 12,
+45,
+
+  'Crescit occulto velut arbor aevo
+  fama Marcellis,'
+
+we have a reference to the marriage in B.C. 25 of Augustus' daughter,
+Julia, to his nephew, Marcellus. Marcellus died in the autumn of B.C.
+23, and the lines must have been written before his death. _Od._ ii.
+10 and iii. 19 contain references to Licinius Murena, brother of
+Terentia, Maecenas' wife. Murena was executed for his share in the
+conspiracy of Fannius Caepio in the end of B.C. 23, and it is
+improbable that Horace could have made these references after that
+event.[56]
+
+(4) _Epistles_, Book i., published B.C. 20. The date is fixed by _Ep._
+i. 20, 26-8, already quoted, p. 164.
+
+The year referred to is B.C. 21, and the book was therefore composed
+in B.C. 20, before December of that year.
+
+(5) _Carmen Saeculare_, composed for the _Ludi Saeculares_ of B.C. 17
+(see Sueton. quoted above). An inscription commemorating these games
+was discovered in 1890 on the left bank of the Tiber, and in it Horace
+is mentioned: 'Sacrificioque perfecto pueri xxvi. quibus denuntiatum
+erat patrimi et matrimi et puellae totidem carmen cecinerunt eodemque
+modo in Capitolio. Carmen composuit Q. Horatius Flaccus.'[57]
+
+(6) _Odes_, Book iv., published B.C. 13. _Od._ 4 and 14 celebrate the
+campaign of Drusus and Tiberius in Rhaetia and Vindelicia B.C. 15.
+_Od._ 2 and 5 were written just before Augustus' return, B.C. 13, from
+Gaul, where he had been since B.C. 16.
+
+(7) _Epistles_, Book ii. _Ep._ ii. 1, to Augustus, was written B.C. 14
+in response (see the quotation from Suetonius above) to the emperor's
+request for a poem addressed to himself, after seeing that no mention
+was made of him in _Ep._ ii. 2 and the _Epistula ad Pisones_. These
+are the _sermones quidam_ (both, like _Ep._ ii. 1, on literary
+criticism) referred to by Suetonius, and not Book i. of the Epistles,
+where Augustus is frequently mentioned. The date is fixed by l. 15,
+'praesenti tibi maturos largimur honores,' etc., referring to the
+worship of the _numen Augusti_, which was legalized B.C. 14, and by
+the reference in ll. 252 _sqq._ to the victories of Drusus and
+Tiberius, and their celebration in _Od._ iv. 4; iv. 14. _Ep._ ii. 2
+(to Iulius Florus) was written B.C. 18. Horace hints (l. 25, ll. 84-6)
+that he has not yet returned to lyric poetry; the epistle was
+therefore written before B.C. 17. The _Epistula ad Pisones_ or _De
+Arte Poetica_ was probably written B.C. 17 or 16 after the _Carmen
+Saeculare_, but before Horace had entered on the composition of the
+fourth Book of the Odes.
+
+The _Satires_ are called _Sermones_ in all the MSS., but as Horace
+gave this name both to his Satires (_Sat._ i. 4, 42) and to his
+Epistles (_Ep._ ii. 1, 4; 250) it is convenient to call them
+_Satirae_, the name which Horace also gives them (_Sat._ ii. 1, 1; 6,
+17), and which represent their intended scope. Horace's chief model is
+Lucilius, whom he wished to adapt to the Augustan age. _Sat._ i. 4, 56,
+
+               'his, ego quae nunc,
+  olim quae scripsit Lucilius.'
+
+So _Sat._ ii. 1, 28 and 74. Lucilius' influence is seen most in _Sat._
+i. 2; 5; 7; 8; ii. 2; 3; 4; 8. Horace, after the reception _Sat._ i. 2
+met with, did not, like Lucilius, attack individuals; nor did his
+position as a dependent (_Sat._ ii. 1, 60-79) allow him to do so. We
+find, therefore, no political satire in Horace, who confines himself to
+social and literary topics. He does not attack his contemporaries by
+name, but (_a_) takes some names from Lucilius, as Albucius (_Sat._ ii.
+1, 48), Opimius (_Sat._ ii. 3, 142); (_b_) invents 'tell-tale-names,' as
+Pantolabus (_Sat._ i. 8, 11), Novius (_Sat._ i. 3, 21). In _Sat._ i. 4
+and ii. 1 he defines the moral and social aim of his satire. In _Sat._
+i. 4, 1-13 he criticizes Lucilius' style; this seems to have given
+offence, and in _Sat._ i. 10 he gives reasons for his former criticism.
+Horace's Epicureanism is more pronounced in Book i. than in Book ii. In
+_Sat._ i. 1 and i. 3 (cf. ll. 99-124) the influence of Lucretius is
+seen. In i. 3 he takes up an antagonistic position to Stoicism (cf. ll.
+124-142). In ii. 3 he shows less hostility to Stoicism though he still
+criticizes it.[58] In _Sat._ ii. 7, where the slave Davus enunciates the
+Stoic doctrine, ὅτι μόνος ὁ σοφὸς ἐλεύθερος, Davus' arguments from
+l. 75 onwards have been taken by Horace from Cic. _Parad._ 5.
+
+Horace does not pretend that his Satires (or Epistles) are poetry, and
+makes several statements to that effect. _Sat._ ii. 6, 17,
+
+  'Quid prius inlustrem satiris musaque pedestri?'
+
+_Ep._ ii. 1, 250,
+
+  'Sermones ... repentes per humum.'
+
+So _Sat._ i. 4, 39-44.
+
+The _Epodes_ are called _Epodi_ in the MSS. Ἐπῳδός was the
+name given to a piece composed of couplets, the first line of which is
+longer than the second. Horace calls them _iambi_ (_Epod._ 14, 7;
+_Od._ i. 16, 3). Their style is an imitation of that of Archilochus of
+Paros. _Ep._ i. 19, 23-5,
+
+             'Parios ego primus iambos
+  ostendi Latio, numeros animosque secutus
+  Archilochi, non res et agentia verba Lycamben.'
+
+This is seen in the personal attacks made in many of them, as well as
+in the αἰσχρολογία employed, and also in the versification.
+The dates of several can be fixed. _Epod._ 16 was written B.C. 41, and
+refers to the Perusian war. Horace takes no part with either side, but
+advises his countrymen to leave Rome, like the Phocaeans of old.
+_Epod._ 7 was written B.C. 39; and _Epod._ 1, 9, and 14, about B.C.
+31. The order is strictly metrical. Epodes 1-10 are simple iambics
+(trimeter and dimeter alternately); 11-16 more complicated forms; 17,
+the last, in iambic trimeters.
+
+The _Odes_ Horace himself calls _carmina_. The metres are nearly all
+taken from Sappho and Alcaeus, the two poets whose works Horace wished
+to present to his countrymen in a Roman dress. Cf. _Od._ iii. 30,
+13-4,
+
+  'Princeps Aeolium carmen ad Italos
+  deduxisse modos.'
+
+The metrical differences between himself and his originals are due to
+the difference in the genius of the two languages and to the fact that
+he adopted the views on metre current in his time. Catullus' metre, on
+the other hand, was closely modelled on that of the Alexandrian poets.
+The odes are largely founded on the best Greek lyric poetry, with
+which Horace was thoroughly familiar; cf. his first intention to write
+in Greek (_Sat._ i. 10, 31-5). Alexandrian influence is little seen,
+and his mythological allusions are seldom obscure. Examples of
+imitation (which is commonest in Book i.) are: _Od._ i. 9, the
+beginning of which is from Alcaeus (so i. 10; 11; 18); i. 12
+(beginning) is from Pindar; i. 27 from Anacreon. Bacchylides is
+imitated, _e.g._ in ii. 18.
+
+_Subjects of the Odes._--1. Love and wine form the themes of many.
+_Od._ i. 6, 17,
+
+  'Nos convivia, nos proelia virginum
+  sectis in iuvenes unguibus acrium
+  cantamus.'
+
+Cf. _Od._ ii. 1, 37-40; iii. 3, 69-72.
+
+The love-poems show no trace of personal passion, and the names of the
+women whose charms are sung are taken from Greek; thus Pyrrha (a
+well-known name from Attic comedy) i. 5; Lydia, i. 13, etc.; Lalage,
+i. 22; ii. 5. Cinara (iv. 1; iv. 13) is probably the only one that
+represents a real person. Wine is celebrated, _e.g._ in i. 9; 18; 27;
+ii. 7; iii. 21. A tone of moderation is observed throughout the
+drinking-songs. It is highly probable[59] that in _Od._ i. 27, 1-4 the
+unrestrained bacchanalian spirit of Catullus (cf. c. 27) is reproved,
+
+  'Natis in usum laetitiae scyphis
+  pugnare Thracum est. Tollite barbarum
+    morem verecundumque Bacchum
+      sanguineis prohibete rixis.'
+
+2. In _Od._ i. 24 we have the beautiful dirge on the death of
+Quintilius Varus.
+
+3. _On political subjects._--The chief of these are as follows: i. 2
+(towards the end of B.C. 28); i. 12; i. 14; i. 35 (in B.C. 26); i. 37
+(in B.C. 30); ii. 1. The most important, however, are _Od._ iii. 1-6,
+which form one whole, and are written on the new name of Augustus, and
+the ideas therewith connected. They were all written about B.C.
+27.[60]
+
+In iii. 1, which is general, the rising generation is addressed by the
+prophet of the empire; ll. 3, 4,
+
+                  'Musarum sacerdos
+  virginibus puerisque canto.'
+
+The lesson of the ode is 'A moderate life is the best. Lucky is the
+man who is spared the trouble of managing the State.'
+
+iii. 2 praises courage and honesty, but with special reference to two
+institutions of Augustus: (1) the professional soldier as opposed to
+the citizen-soldier of the republic. The officers were taken from the
+two privileged classes, and there was no promotion from the ranks.
+This is the explanation of ll. 1-4,
+
+  'Angustam amice pauperiem pati
+   robustus acri militia puer
+     condiscat et Parthos ferocis
+       vexet eques,'
+
+lines which also refer to the resuscitation by Augustus of the
+citizen-cavalry. The soldier is not to trouble about politics (ll.
+17-20), and must not fear death (l. 13). (2) The new imperial
+administrative officers, employed not only in collecting taxes, but in
+administrative business of every kind. Speaking of them, Horace pays a
+tribute to loyal silence, and emphasizes the curse that clings to
+breach of faith; l. 25,
+
+  'Est et fideli tuta silentio
+    merces';
+
+l. 31,
+
+  'Raro antecedentem scelestum
+    deseruit pede Poena claudo.'
+
+iii. 3 touches intimately the political questions of the day. Pointed
+reference is made to Cleopatra; she is the _mulier peregrina_ (l. 20),
+the _Lacaena adultera_ (l. 25), who brought Troy low, and would bring
+Rome low, if she and her _famosus hospes_ (l. 26) could raise Troy
+again. The reference here is to a report current about Antony, that he
+intended to make Troy the capital. It is certain that he intended to
+restore to Cleopatra her kingdom with extended frontiers, and to make
+himself ruler of the Eastern empire. This, which would have meant the
+subjection of Rome to the Greeks and half-Greeks, was prevented by the
+'iustum et tenacem propositi virum' (l. i), who for his services is
+honoured as one of the gods; ll. 11-12,
+
+  'Quos inter Augustus recumbens
+  purpureo bibit ore nectar.'
+
+In iii. 4 the poet's personality comes out strongest. He describes his
+protection by the Muses in his early years, and this leads him to
+speak of one of the monarch's chief works of peace, his encouragement
+of literature; ll. 37-40,
+
+  'Vos Caesarem altum, militia simul
+  fessas cohortes abdidit oppidis,
+  finire quaerentem labores
+  Pierio recreatis antro.'
+
+iii. 5 is a defence of Augustus' foreign policy. Publicly he kept up
+Caesar's war policy, hence ll. 2-5,
+
+  'Praesens divus habebitur
+  Augustus adiectis Britannis
+  imperio gravibusque Persis';
+
+but that this concealed his real policy of non-intervention is shown
+by his action regarding Parthia. Hence Horace, by a speech put into
+the mouth of Regulus (l. 18 _sqq._) warns the Romans against trying to
+rescue the survivors of Crassus' army, who, by becoming captives, had
+ceased to be citizens. That some of the Senate wished to interfere in
+this matter is probably shown by ll. 45-6,
+
+  'Donec labantis consilio patres
+  firmaret auctor numquam alias dato.'
+
+iii. 6 refers (ll. 1-8) to Augustus' policy in restoring the ancient
+religion, as is seen by the fact that he rebuilt 82 temples. Lines
+21-32 refer to a law of Augustus on adultery, the date of which is
+unknown.
+
+In Book iv., Odes 2, 4, 5, 6, 14, 15, are political. They show traces
+of adulation, and sing the praises rather of the imperial family than
+of the nation. Cf. iv. 2, 37 (of Augustus),
+
+  'Quo nihil maius meliusve terris
+  fata donavere bonique divi,' etc.
+
+The _Epistles_.--_Sermones_ is the name given them by Horace; they are
+also called _Epistulae_ in the MSS. Social, ethical, and literary
+questions are treated of, and the style is much more careful than that
+of the Satires. The motto, one might say, of the book is _Ep._ i. 1,
+10.
+
+  'Nunc itaque et versus et cetera ludicra pono:
+  quid verum atque decens, curo et rogo et omnis in hoc sum.'
+
+The dates of _Ep._ ii. 1, 2, have already been mentioned. Both treat
+of literary criticism, and the first deals particularly with that of
+the drama. Iulius Florus, to whom _Ep._ ii. 2 is addressed, was the
+representative of the younger literary school at Rome. The _Epistula
+ad Pisones_ or _De Arte Poetica_ is an essay in verse on literary
+criticism, specially pointing out how necessary art is to composition.
+In it, according to Porphyrion, Horace 'congessit praecepta Neoptolemi
+τοῦ Παριανοῦ[61] de arte poetica, non quidem omnia, sed
+eminentissima.' Horace probably was also indebted to Aristotle's
+_Poetics_. Porphyrion says that Horace wrote the _Ars Poetica_ 'ad L.
+Pisonem qui postea urbis custos fuit eiusque liberos.' This does not
+fit in with the probable date, B.C. 17 or 16, as L. Piso was born B.C.
+49, and his sons could not have been old enough for the letter to be
+addressed to them. It is probable that Porphyrion is wrong, and that
+the _A.P._ was addressed to Cn. Piso, who served with Horace under
+Brutus, and his two sons.
+
+_Horace and nature._--Besides references to his Sabine villa, Horace
+refers to natural scenery in many passages. Such are _Epod._ 2; _Od._
+i. 7, 10; ii. 6, 13; iii. 13, 9; _Sat._ ii. 6, 1 _sqq._; _Ep._ i. 10,
+6 _sqq._, i. 16, 1 _sqq._[62] Horace is fond of comparing dangers to
+the plague of floods,[63] a plague from which Italy has always
+suffered. Cf. _Od._ i. 31, 7,
+
+         'rura quae Liris quieta
+  mordet aqua taciturnus amnis.'
+
+So _Od._ iii. 29, 32 _sqq._, and many other passages.
+
+_Popularity of Horace._--Horace's prediction that his works would
+become school-books, _Ep._ i. 20, 17,
+
+  'Hoc quoque te manet, ut pueros elementa docentem
+  occupet extremis in vicis balba senectus,'
+
+was early fulfilled. Cf. Iuv. 7, 226,
+
+  'Quot stabant pueri, cum totus decolor esset
+  Flaccus et haereret nigro fuligo Maroni.'
+
+
+
+CONTEMPORARY POETS:
+
+
+The following writers were friends of Horace:
+
+(_a_) _C. Valgius Rufus_, consul suffectus B.C. 12, belonged to the
+circle of Maecenas (Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 82).
+
+Valgius' works, of which only a few lines are extant, included (1)
+Elegiae. Cf. Hor. _Od._ ii. 9, 9-12,
+
+  'Tu semper urges flebilibus modis
+  Mysten ademptum, nec tibi Vespero
+    surgente decedunt amores
+      nec rapidum fugiente solem.'
+
+(2) Epigrammata, (3) Miscellanies, (4) A translation of Apollodorus'
+τέχνη. (See Quint. iii. 1, 18.) (5) A book on herbs.
+(Pliny, _N.H._ xxv. 4.) An epic was also expected of him, but whether
+written is unknown. Tibull. iv. 1, 179,
+
+  'Est tibi, qui possit magnis se adcingere rebus,
+    Valgius; aeterno propior non alter Homero.'
+
+(_b_) _M. Aristius Fuscus_, a poet and grammarian (Porphyr. _ad Sat._
+i. 9, 60); _Od._ i. 22, and _Ep._ i. 10, are addressed to him.
+
+(_c_) The _Visci_. Comm. Cruq. _ad Sat._ i. 10, 83, 'Visci duo fratres
+fuerunt optimi poetae et iudices critici.'
+
+(_d_) _C. Fundanius_, wrote comedies (Porphyr. _ad Sat._ i. 10, 40).
+
+(_e_) _Servius Sulpicius_, a love poet (Ovid, _Trist._ ii. 441; Hor.
+_Sat._ i. 10, 86).
+
+(_f_) _Iulius Florus_ was 'saturarum scriptor' (Porphyr. _ad Hor. Ep._
+i. 3, 1). Hor. _Ep._ i. 3 and ii. 2, are addressed to him.
+
+(_g_) _Titius_ wrote Pindaric odes, and tragedies, Hor. _Ep._ i. 3,
+9-14.
+
+(_h_) _Albinovanus Celsus_. See Hor. _Ep._ i. 3, 15-7.
+
+(_i_) _C. Iullus Antonius_, B.C. 44-B.C. 2, was a son of the triumvir
+M. Antonius. The Schol. on Hor. _Od._ iv. 2, 2, says of him, "Heroico
+metro Diomedeam scripsit et nonnulla alia soluta oratione."
+
+(_k_) _Furnius_, an orator; died B.C. 37. He is mentioned by Hor.
+_Sat._ i. 10, 86.
+
+Other poets contemporary with Virgil and Horace are:
+
+(_a_) _L. Varius Rufus_ (cf. Verg. _Ecl._ 9, 35). His works were:
+
+(1) Epics (_a_) on the death of Julius Caesar (Macrob. _Saturn._ vi.
+1, 39), (_b_) in praise of Augustus. Hor. _Ep._ i. 16, 27-29 is a
+quotation from this poem (Acron _ad loc._), and it is probably
+referred to in _Od._ i. 6, 1 (to Agrippa),
+
+  'Scriberis Vario fortis et hostium
+  victor Maeonii carminis aliti,
+  quam rem cumque ferox navibus aut equis
+  miles te duce gesserit.'
+
+(2) A tragedy, _Thyestes_, praised by Quint. x. 1, 98, 'iam Varii
+Thyestes cuilibet Graecarum comparari potest.'
+
+(3) Elegies: Porphyr. ad Hor. _Od._ i. 6, 1, 'fuit L. Varius et ipse
+carminis et tragoediarum et elegiorum auctor.'
+
+(_b_) _Aemilius Macer_ was a native of Verona, and died B.C. 16:
+Jerome yr. Abr. 2001, 'Aemilius Macer Veronensis poeta in Asia
+moritur.' He was a friend of Virgil, and was the 'Mopsus' of _Ecl._ 5,
+according to Serv. _ad loc._ Ovid in his youth enjoyed his
+acquaintance; cf. _Tr._ iv. 10, 43, where three didactic poems are
+referred to: (1) _Ornithogonia_, on birds; (2) _Theriaca_, on venomous
+serpents; (3) _De Herbis_, on plants.
+
+For his obligations to Nicander, see under 'Virgil,' p. 158.
+Quintilian calls him 'humilis' (x. 1, 87).
+
+(_c_) _C. Cornelius Gallus_ was born at Forum Iulii B.C. 70, and died
+by his own hand B.C. 27. Jerome yr. Abr. 1990, 'Cornelius Gallus
+Foroiuliensis poeta ... xliii. aetatis suae anno propria se manu
+interficit.' Having commanded a division in the war against Antony, he
+was appointed by Octavian the first prefect of Egypt, B.C. 30, but
+incurred his anger and was banished from Caesar's house and provinces
+(Sueton. _Aug._ 66). The cause of his downfall was indiscreet language
+about Augustus, according to Ovid, _Tr._ ii. 445,
+
+  'Non fuit opprobrio celebrasse Lycorida Gallo,
+    sed linguam nimio non tenuisse mero';
+
+and _Am._ iii. 9, 63,
+
+  'Tu quoque, si falsum est temerati crimen amici,
+    sanguinis atque animae prodige, Galle, tuae.'
+
+The tenth eclogue of Virgil is a testimony to his friendship for
+Gallus, l. 2,
+
+  'Pauca meo Gallo, sed quae legat ipsa Lycoris,
+  carmina sunt dicenda; neget quis carmina Gallo?'
+
+Lines 44-49 are said by Servius, _ad loc._, to be quoted from Gallus
+('de ipsius translati carminibus'). For the tribute to Gallus in the
+original draft of _Georgic_ iv. see under 'Virgil,' p. 157.
+
+He wrote four Books of love-poems to Cytheris, the _liberta_ who
+afterwards deserted him for Antony: Serv. _ad Ecl._ x. 1, 'amorum
+suorum de Cytheride scripsit libros iv.' According to Servius he also
+translated the poems of Euphorion of Chalcis. Cf. Verg. _Ecl._ x. 50,
+
+  'Ibo et Chalcidico quae sunt mihi condita versu
+  carmina pastoris Siculi modulabor avena.'
+
+Compared with Tibullus and Propertius, he was 'durior' (Quint. x. 1,
+93).
+
+(_d_) _Codrus_, mentioned by Virgil, _Ecl._ 7, 22 and 26; 5, 11, was a
+contemporary poet (Serv. _ad Ecl._ 7), and was praised by Valgius
+(Schol. Veron. _ad loc._), but nothing is known of his writings. The
+name is not Roman, and is probably a disguised form of Cordus. He is
+sometimes identified with the Iarbitas of Hor. _Ep._ i. 19, 15.
+
+(_e_) _Bavius_ and _Mevius_ were enemies of Virgil and Horace. Verg.
+_Ecl._ 3, 90,
+
+  'Qui Bavium non odit, amet tua carmina, Mevi.'
+
+Horace, _Epod._ 10, prays for the shipwreck of Mevius. He wrote about
+the prodigal son of the actor Aesopus (Porphyr. ad Hor. _Sat._ ii. 3,
+239). Bavius died B.C. 35, according to Jerome.
+
+(_f_) _Anser_ wrote a poem in praise of Antony, and was rewarded with
+a grant of land (Serv. _ad Ecl._ 9, 36; Cic. _Phil._ xiii. 11). He is
+mentioned by Ovid, _Tr._ ii. 435,
+
+  'Cinna quoque his comes est, Cinnaque procacior Anser.'
+
+Servius sees an allusion to him in _Ecl._ 9, 36,
+
+  'Argutos inter strepere anser olores.'
+
+(_g_) _Domitius Marsus_. His epigram on Tibullus (see p. 186) shows
+that he was alive in B.C. 19; he was, however, dead when Ovid was
+exiled in A.D. 8.
+
+Ovid, _Ex Pont._ iv. 16, 3,
+
+  'Famaque post cineres maior venit; et mihi nomen
+    tunc quoque, cum vivis adnumerarer, erat,
+  cum foret et Marsus, magnique Rabirius oris,
+    Iliacusque Macer sidereusque Pedo.'
+
+He was a member of Augustus' literary circle. Mart. viii. 56, 21,
+
+  'Quid Varios Marsosque loquar, ditataque vatum
+    nomina, magnus erit quos numerare labor?'
+
+His works were:
+
+1. _Cicuta_, a collection of epigrams, often referred to by Martial.
+Cf. ii. 71, 3,
+
+  'aut Marsi recitas aut scripta Catulli.'
+
+2. _Amazonis_, an epic poem.[64] Mart. iv. 29, 7,
+
+  'Saepius in libro memoratur Persius uno
+    quam levis in tota Marsus Amazonide.'
+
+3. _Amores_ or _Elegiae_. Mart. vii. 29, 7,
+
+  'Et Maecenati, Maro cum cantaret Alexin,
+    nota tamen Marsi fusca Melaenis erat.'
+
+4. _Fabellae_.
+
+5. _De Urbanitate_ (in prose). Quint. vi. 3, 102, 'Domitius Marsus,
+qui de urbanitate diligentissime scripsit.'
+
+(_h_) _Pupius_, a tragedian, sneered at by Hor. _Ep._ i. 1, 67,
+'lacrimosa poemata Pupi.'
+
+(_i_) _C. Melissus_, a freedman of Maecenas, invented the _trabeata_,
+a variety of the _togata_.
+
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 21, 'Fecit et novum genus togatarum inscripsitque
+trabeatas.'
+
+
+
+TIBULLUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Albius Tibullus (his praenomen was perhaps Aulus, which, from the
+abbreviation A. being followed by Albius, was lost in the MSS.) seems
+to have been born near Pedum in Latium. (1) Horace, in _Ep._ i. 4, 2,
+addressed to Tibullus, asks, 'Quid nunc te dicam facere in regione
+Pedana?' apparently referring to the 'sedes avitae' of Tibullus
+(Tibull. ii. 4, 53). (2) The Life contained in the best MSS., and
+probably to be attributed to Suetonius, calls him 'Albius Tibullus,
+eques Romanus' (codd. Paris. and Lips. 'regulis'). Bährens
+(_Tibullische Blätter_) holds that _Romanus_ is an erroneous
+correction of _regulis_, for which he proposes to read _R._ (=
+Romanus) _e Gabis_ (= Gabiis). Gabii was within a short distance of
+Pedum.
+
+The date of his birth can be fixed only by indirect evidence.
+
+(1) The Life says 'obiit adulescens,' and the epigram of Domitius
+Marsus, found in the best MSS., calls Tibullus 'iuvenis' at the time
+of his death, which must have occurred about the same time as
+Virgil's, in B.C. 19,
+
+  'Te quoque Vergilio comitem non aequa, Tibulle,
+    mors iuvenem campos misit ad Elysios,
+  ne foret aut elegis molles qui fleret amores
+    aut caneret forti regia bella pede.'
+
+(2) Ovid (_Tr._ iv. 10, 53) says of Tibullus,
+
+  'Successor fuit hic tibi, Galle, Propertius illi.'
+
+Since Gallus was born B.C. 70, and Propertius about B.C. 49, the birth
+of Tibullus must have fallen between those years.
+
+(3) Tibullus accompanied Messalla when he left for Aquitania, B.C. 30
+or 29, according to the Life: 'Ante alios Corvinum Messallam oratorem
+dilexit, cuius etiam contubernalis Aquitanico bello militaribus donis
+donatus est.' Cf. Tibull. i. 7, 9,
+
+  'Non sine me est tibi partus honos; Tarbella Pyrene
+    testis et Oceani litora Santonici.'
+
+Putting together these references we may place the date of Tibullus'
+birth in B.C. 54. (The statement of the Life in the Codex
+Guelferbytanus, 'Natus est Hyrtio et Pansa coss.' is clearly wrong).
+
+He was of equestrian rank, and at one time possessed considerable
+wealth, apparently inherited from a long line of ancestors; i. 1, 41,
+
+  'Non ego divitias patrum fructusque requiro
+    quos tulit antiquo condita messis avo.'
+
+Cf. ii. 1, 1; ii. 4, 53; Hor. _Ep._ i. 4, 7,
+
+  'Di tibi divitias dederunt.'
+
+His family property, however, had been greatly diminished; i. 1, 19,
+
+  'Vos quoque, felicis quondam nunc pauperis agri
+    custodes, fertis munera vestra, lares:
+  tunc vitula innumeros lustrabat caesa iuvencos;
+    nunc agna exigui est hostia parva soli.'
+
+Cf. i. 1, 5 and 37.
+
+It has been supposed that Tibullus suffered these losses in the
+agrarian disturbances of B.C. 41, and that his lands, like those of
+Virgil and Propertius, were confiscated. No town in Latium, however,
+is mentioned by Appian as having its territory thus assigned.
+Tibullus' property may possibly have been restored to him through the
+influence of Messalla.[65] Cf. Hor. _Ep._ i. 4, 11,
+
+  'Et mundus victus non deficiente crumena';
+
+also Tibull. i. 1, 77,
+
+             'Ego composito securus acervo
+  despiciam dites despiciamque famem.'
+
+Of Messalla Tibullus always speaks with the greatest affection. He
+refused at first to accompany him to the East after the battle of
+Actium, but afterwards followed him, and was forced through illness to
+remain at Corcyra: i. 1, 53,
+
+  'Te bellare decet terra, Messalla, marique,
+    ut domus hostiles praeferat exuvias:
+  me retinent vinctum formosae vincla puellae';
+
+i, 3, 3,
+
+  'Me tenet ignotis aegrum Phaeacia terris.'
+
+In the Aquitanian campaign he was Messalla's _contubernalis_, and had
+military distinctions conferred on him (see p. 186).
+
+No further particulars of Tibullus are known, save his love for his
+mistresses Delia and Nemesis, and the fact mentioned by Ovid, in a
+poem on his death, that his mother and sister survived him; _Amor._
+iii. 9, 50,
+
+    'Mater et in cineres ultima dona tulit.
+  Hinc soror in partem misera cum matre doloris
+    venit inornatas dilaniata comas.'
+
+Delia's real name was Plania (δῆλος = _planus_): cf.
+Apuleius, _Apol._ 10, 'eadem igitur opera accusent ... Tibullum quod
+ei sit Plania in animo Delia in versu.' She was a _libertina_, for the
+name is not known as a _nomen gentilicium_, and she had had a husband
+(i. 2, 41, 'coniunx tuus'), who appears to have been serving with the
+army in Cilicia: i. 2, 65,
+
+  'Ferreus ille fuit, qui te cum posset habere,
+    maluerit praedas stultus et arma sequi.
+  Ille licet Cilicum victas agat ante catervas,' etc.
+
+A divorce had probably taken place, as she was not entitled to wear
+the distinctive dress of the Roman matron; i. 6, 67,
+
+  'Sit modo casta, doce, quamvis non vitta ligatos
+    impediat crines nec stola longa pedes.'
+
+Nemesis was a _meretrix_; ii. 4, 14,
+
+  'Illa cava pretium flagitat usque manu.'
+
+She appears to be the 'immitis Glycera' of Hor. _Od._ i. 33, 2,
+addressed to Albius (so Kiessling _ad loc._). Both Delia and Nemesis
+are represented by Ovid as present at the funeral of Tibullus. _Amor._
+iii. 9, 53,
+
+  'Cumque tuis sua iunxerunt Nemesisque priorque
+    oscula nec solos destituere rogos.'
+
+Tibullus was on friendly terms with Horace, who addressed to him _Od._
+i. 33 and _Ep._ i. 4. Horace was doubtless attracted by the frank
+nature of Tibullus (_Ep._ i. 4, 1, 'Albi, nostrorum sermonum candide
+iudex'), and by the community of taste which led them both to imitate
+the classical Ionic rather than the Alexandrian elegy. Horace
+corroborates the statement of Life i. ('insignis forma cultuque
+corporis observabilis') that Tibullus had a fine presence; _ibid._ 1.
+6,
+
+  'Non tu corpus eras sine pectore: di tibi formam,
+  di tibi divitias dederunt artemque fruendi.'
+
+Ovid had met and admired him, and has numerous imitations of him in
+his poems; but the difference of age and the early death of Tibullus
+prevented any long acquaintance; Ovid, _Tr._ iv. 10, 51,
+
+               'Nec amara Tibullo
+  tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae.'
+
+Of friendship between Propertius and Tibullus there is no evidence:
+they never mention one another.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+Four Books of elegiac poems are attributed to Tibullus, who ranks
+first among Roman elegists in the view of Quintilian, x. 1, 93,
+'Elegia quoque Graecos provocamus, cuius mihi tersus atque elegans
+maxime videtur auctor Tibullus.'
+
+Book i., on the poet's love for Delia and Marathus (_El._ 7 is to
+Messalla), was published by himself, and was apparently composed in
+the years B.C. 31-27. This agrees with Ovid, _Tr._ ii. 463,
+
+                    'Legiturque Tibullus
+  et placet, et iam te principe notus erat,'
+
+if we assume that 'principe' refers to the title of Augustus.
+
+Book ii., the chief subject of which is Nemesis, appears to have been
+written several years later. It is unfinished, not having received the
+author's final revision, and was probably published soon after his
+death, certainly several years before Ovid's _Ars Amatoria_ (cf.
+_A.A._ 535 _sqq._).
+
+Book iii. (six Elegies) is professedly the work of Lygdamus. No poet
+of that name is mentioned in ancient literature, and it has been
+suggested that the author may have been a young relative of Tibullus
+who used a Greek adaptation of the gentile name Albius (λύγδος
+= white marble). He speaks as a man of good social position
+(iii. 2, 22). From the fact that he belonged to the circle of
+Messalla, his poems came to be added to those of Tibullus, whom he
+constantly imitates. There are also many reminiscences of Horace,
+Ovid, and Propertius. The six Elegies are addressed to Neaera, who was
+probably the poet's cousin and was married or betrothed to him (iii.
+1, 23; 2, 12). Lygdamus was born in the same year as Ovid, B.C. 43;
+iii. 5, 17,
+
+  'Natalem primo nostrum videre parentes,
+    cum cecidit fato consul uterque pari.'
+
+The remarkable coincidence between iii. 5, 15-20, and Ovid, _A.A._ ii.
+669-70, _Tr._ iv. 10, 6, _Amor._ ii. 14, 23-4, is best explained by
+Hiller (_Hermes_, xviii. 360-1), who suggests that Lygdamus may have
+composed the poem in his earlier years merely to amuse Neaera, without
+publishing it, and that after Ovid's works had appeared he may, to
+oblige a friend or patron (_e.g._ Messalinus), have published his
+collection of elegies, adding in the process of revision the lines
+copied from Ovid.
+
+The remaining poems belong to Book iii. in the MSS., but in most
+editions are printed as a separate Book iv. iv. 1, in hexameters, is
+the _Panegyricus Messallae_, written in honour of Messalla's
+consulship, B.C. 31. Its rhetorical exaggeration and want of taste
+forbid its being attributed to Tibullus, written, as it was, so
+shortly before he reached the summit of his powers. Its date puts
+Lygdamus out of question: doubtless it is by some young member of
+Messalla's circle.
+
+The rest of the Book has for its theme the love of Sulpicia, the
+daughter of Servius Sulpicius and Valeria, the sister of Messalla, for
+a young Greek named Cerinthus. _El._ 2-6 are apparently by Tibullus
+himself, who may have amused himself by turning into verse the letters
+of the young lovers. _El._ 7 is of disputed authorship; but it
+resembles the work of Sulpicia rather than that of Tibullus. _El._
+8-12 are by Sulpicia to Cerinthus. _El._ 13 purports to be by
+Tibullus. _El._ 14 is an epigram, of doubtful authorship.
+
+Two _Priapea_ are found in MSS. of Tibullus, but probably neither of
+them is by him.
+
+
+
+PROPERTIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+The name by which the poet designates himself is Propertius simply;
+the praenomen Sextus rests on the authority of Donatus. The additions
+in some MSS., 'Aurelius' and 'Nauta,' are clearly erroneous.
+
+He was certainly a native of the district of Umbria, and probably of
+the town of Asisium (the modern Assisi). Cf. iv. 1, 121,
+
+  'Umbria te notis antiqua penatibus edit,
+    (mentior? an patriae tangitur ora tuae?)
+  qua nebulosa cavo rorat Mevania campo,
+    et lacus aestivis intepet Umber aquis,
+  scandentisque Asisi consurgit vertice murus,
+    murus ab ingenio notior ille tuo.'
+
+'Asisi' in l. 125 is Lachmann's emendation for 'Asis' of the MSS., and
+is rendered almost certain by the topography of the district. Asisium
+agrees better than Hispellum (the modern Spello) with the description
+in the passage quoted; with iv. 1, 65,
+
+  'Scandentes quisquis cernet de vallibus arces,
+    ingenio muros aestimet ille meo';
+
+and with the epithet 'proxima' in i. 22, 9, as Asisium is nearer than
+Hispellum to Perusia. Cf. i. 22, 3-10,
+
+  'Si Perusina tibi patriae sunt nota sepulcra,
+    Italiae duris funera temporibus, ...
+  proxima supposito contingens Umbria campo
+    me genuit terris fertilis uberibus.'
+
+At Assisi, moreover, have been found several inscriptions of the
+Propertii, one of which, C. PASSENNO | C. F. SERG. |, PAULLO |
+PROPERTIO | BLAESO,[66] probably refers to the Passennus Paullus
+mentioned by Pliny, _Ep._ vi. 15, as 'municeps Propertii.'
+
+Propertius was younger than Tibullus, and older than Ovid. His birth,
+therefore, took place between B.C. 54 and 43 (Hertzberg gives 46,
+Postgate prefers 50). Cf. Ovid, _Tr._ iv. 10, 53,
+
+  'Successor fuit hic [Tibullus] tibi, Galle; Propertius illi;
+    quartus ab his serie temporis ipse fui.'
+
+He came of a family well known in the neighbourhood (cf. iv. 1, 121,
+'notis penatibus,' already quoted), but not 'noble' in the technical
+sense; ii. 34, 55,
+
+  'Aspice me, cui parva domi fortuna relictast,
+    nullus et antiquo Marte triumphus avi.'
+
+His childhood was clouded by the early death of his father, and by the
+confiscation of his estate in B.C. 41; iv. 1, 127,
+
+  'Ossaque legisti non illa aetate legenda
+    patris; et in tenues cogeris ipse lares,
+  nam tua cum multi versarent rura iuvenci,
+    abstulit excultas pertica tristis opes.'
+
+His mother then took him to Rome, where he studied law for a short
+time after assuming the _toga virilis_, but abandoned it in favour of
+poetry; iv. 1, 131,
+
+  'Mox ubi bulla rudi demissast aurea collo,
+    matris et ante deos libera sumpta toga,
+  tum tibi pauca suo de carmine dictat Apollo
+    et vetat insano verba tonare foro.'
+
+Meanwhile he was engaged in his first love affair with Lycinna, who is
+otherwise unknown (iii. 15, 3 _sqq._). In B.C. 29 or 28 his
+acquaintance with Cynthia began. Her real name was Hostia (Apuleius,
+_Apol._ 10, 'Accusent ... Propertium, qui Cynthiam dicat, Hostiam
+dissimulet'), and she was possibly a grand-daughter of the poet
+Hostius (p. 65). Cf. iii. 20, 8,
+
+  'Splendidaque a docto fama refulget avo.'
+
+A courtesan of the higher class, she is represented by Propertius as
+possessed of great personal charms and varied accomplishments (i. 2,
+30, 'Omnia quaeque Venus quaeque Minerva probat'), combined with many
+faults of temper and character. She had a house at Rome in the Subura,
+and we hear of her also at Tibur, where she was buried (iv. 7, 15;
+85). She was considerably older than Propertius; ii. 18, 19,
+
+  'At tu etiam iuvenem odisti me, perfida, cum sis
+    ipsa anus haud longa curva futura die.'
+
+At the end of two years the unfaithfulness of Propertius led to twelve
+months of estrangement; iii. 16, 9,
+
+  'Peccaram semel, et totum sum pulsus in annum.'
+
+Cynthia was reconciled to him about the beginning of B.C. 25; but the
+passion on both sides gradually cooled until, in 23, Propertius
+harshly cast her off (iii. 24 and 25). Possibly there was a second
+reconciliation before her death (iv. 7). The five years of bondage
+(iii. 25, 3, 'Quinque tibi potui servire fideliter annos,') will thus
+be B.C. 28, 27, 25-23.
+
+Propertius lived chiefly at Rome; but i. 18 was written near the
+Clitumnus, and in ii. 19 he promises to join Cynthia in that region.
+In iii. 21 he contemplates a voyage to Athens; l. 1,
+
+  'Magnum iter ad doctas proficisci cogor Athenas,
+  ut me longa gravi solvat amore via.'
+
+A few years earlier he had refused to accompany his friend Tullus to
+Athens and Asia (i. 6).
+
+Nothing is known of the subsequent life of Propertius, but from two
+passages in the younger Pliny it is natural to infer that he married,
+in obedience to the _Lex Iulia_ of B.C. 18, and had issue. Pliny,
+_Ep._ vi. 15, 'Passennus Paullus ... inter maiores suos Propertium
+numerat'; ix. 22, 'Propertium ... a quo genus ducit.'
+
+We cannot tell even when he died. He must have been alive in B.C. 16,
+because iv. 6 was written for the _ludi quinquennales_, which were
+held for the first time in that year; and iv. 11. 65, is an allusion
+to the consulship of P. Cornelius Scipio, also in B.C. 16.
+
+In personal appearance Propertius was pale and thin, and rather fond
+of dress; i. 5, 21,
+
+  'Nec iam pallorem totiens mirabere nostrum,
+    aut cur sim toto corpore nullus ego';
+
+ii. 4, 5,
+
+  'Nequiquam perfusa meis unguenta capillis,
+     ibat et expenso planta morata gradu.'
+
+He had been introduced to Maecenas after the publication of his first
+Book, but naturally was not on such intimate terms with him as older
+men like Virgil and Horace were. ii. 1 and iii. 9 are addressed to
+Maecenas. In the first of these poems Propertius declares that he is
+unequal to the composition of an epic, which his patron had urged upon
+him, but adds (l. 17)
+
+  'Quod mihi si tantum, Maecenas, fata dedissent
+    ut possem heroas ducere in arma manus, ...
+  bellaque resque tui memorarem Caesaris, et tu
+    Caesare sub magno cura secunda fores.'
+
+For poems referring to Augustus cf. ii. 10, iv. 6 (on Actium), iii. 18
+(on the death of Marcellus).
+
+Horace and Propertius do not mention each other by name. Chronology
+forbids the identification of the bore in Hor. _Sat._ i. 9 with
+Propertius, who, on the same ground, cannot be meant in _Sat._ i. 10,
+18,
+
+                     'Neque simius iste,
+  nil praeter Calvum et doctus cantare Catullum.'
+
+But Hor. _Ep._ ii. 2, 87-101, is undoubtedly aimed at Propertius. Cf.
+especially l. 99,
+
+  'Discedo Alcaeus puncto illius; ille meo quis?
+  quis nisi Callimachus? Si plus adposcere visus,
+  fit Mimnermus et optivo cognomine crescit.'
+
+Though both poets belonged to the same literary circle, they differed
+widely in temperament as well as in age. With Tibullus, who was a
+member of Messalla's circle, Propertius may have had no personal
+acquaintance; at all events, neither alludes to the other.
+
+For Virgil Propertius expresses warm admiration in ii. 34, written
+during the composition of the _Aeneid_. Ovid, who calls him 'blandus'
+(_Tr._ ii. 465) and 'tener' (_A.A._ iii. 333), was an intimate friend
+of his; cf. _Tr._ iv. 10, 45 (quoted p. 206). The minor poets to whom
+he writes are Ponticus (i. 7 and 9), Bassus (i. 4), and a tragic poet,
+Lynceus (a pseudonym, ii. 34, 25).
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+The extant Elegies, divided in the MSS. into four Books, are probably
+all that Propertius ever wrote. On account of the disproportionate
+length of Book ii., and the number 'tres' (which, however, may be said
+in anticipation) in ii. 13, 25,
+
+  'Sat mea sat magna est si tres sint pompa libelli,
+    quos ego Persephonae maxima dona feram,'
+
+some editors make Book ii. consist only of _El._ 1-9, and assign the
+remainder (10-34) to a new Book iii. Books iii. and iv. of the MSS.
+then become iv. and v. respectively. In the most recent editions,
+however, the MSS. arrangement is retained, and it is here followed.
+
+_Book_ i.--All the Elegies in Book i., except the last two, are
+amatory. _El._ 2-10 belong to the first months of the poet's love,
+when Cynthia was gracious, though capricious. She had refused to
+accompany a rival of his, who was going to Illyricum as praetor (_El._
+8); but afterwards she left Rome for Baiae, and the rest of the Book
+is full of complaints of her harshness. _El._ 1, written after the
+year of separation, introduces the whole Book in a melancholy strain.
+
+The clearest indication of date in Book i. is 8, 21, 'Nam me non ullae
+poterunt corrumpere taedae,' where Propertius protests that he will
+never marry, in spite of the _Lex Iulia_ of B.C. 27. (He could not
+legally marry a woman of Cynthia's class.) The Book was published
+probably in B.C. 25, under the title of 'Cynthia.' Cf. ii. 24, 1,
+
+  'Cum sis iam noto fabula libro
+  et tua sit toto Cynthia lecta foro.'
+
+Her name was a recommendation for the Book, and it was probably her
+satisfaction at the fame which it brought her that caused her to
+relent towards Propertius. Cf. Mart. xiv. 189,
+
+  'Cynthia, facundi carmen iuvenile Properti,
+    accepit famam, nec minus ipsa dedit.'
+
+At all events, a few months afterwards we find the old relations
+re-established; ii. 3, 3,
+
+  'Vix unum potes, infelix, requiescere mensem,
+    et turpis de te iam liber alter erit.'
+
+_Book_ ii.--Cynthia is the theme of nearly all the thirty-four poems
+of Book ii., which give lively expression to her lover's varying
+moods. Only three Elegies (1, 10, and 31) are given to other subjects.
+
+Of the few poems to which dates can be assigned, the earliest is _El._
+31 (on the dedication of the temple of the Palatine Apollo, B.C. 28),
+and the latest is _El._ 10, to Augustus (written shortly before the
+invasion of Arabia by Aelius Gallus in B.C. 24. Cf. l. 16, 'et domus
+intactae te tremit Arabiae'). The Book was therefore published B.C. 24
+at the earliest.
+
+_Book_ iii.--In this Book the poems on Cynthia form a far smaller
+proportion; 7, 12, and 22 show the warmth of the poet's friendship;
+events of national interest are treated in 4, 11, and 18. In 5, 23-47,
+Propertius looks forward to spending his later years in the study of
+natural science ('naturae perdiscere mores,' l. 25).
+
+There are few hints of the date of any of the poems in iii. _El._ 20
+is apparently as early as B.C. 28; 18 certainly belongs to B.C. 23; 4
+perhaps refers to the expedition against the Parthians planned in B.C.
+22. The last-mentioned year is the earliest possible date of
+publication.
+
+_Book_ iv., in which there is no principle of arrangement, probably
+appeared after the author's death. His archaeological tastes come out
+in four Elegies written, in imitation of the Αἴτια of
+Callimachus, on Roman antiquities--_El._ 2 on Vertumnus, 4 on Tarpeia,
+9 on Cacus, 10 on Jupiter Feretrius. In this way Propertius fulfilled
+his promise to Maecenas, iii. 9, 49,
+
+  'Celsaque Romanis decerpta Palatia tauris
+    ordiar et caeso moenia firma Remo,
+  eductosque pares silvestri ex ubere reges,
+    crescet et ingenium sub tua iussa meum.'
+
+_El._ 7 and 8 relate to Cynthia; in 7 her ghost appears to the poet.
+_El._ 3, a letter from Arethusa to Lycotas, possibly suggested to Ovid
+the plan of his _Heroides_, just as the antiquarian poems already
+mentioned may have suggested the _Fasti_. The Book ends with a lament
+for Cornelia, daughter of Scribonia, Augustus' first wife (_El._ 11).
+
+The date of 6 and 11 is certainly not earlier than B.C. 16, while 8
+seems to have been written before the rupture with Cynthia. The
+antiquarian poems are considered by some to have been among
+Propertius' earliest efforts.
+
+Propertius was familiar with the whole range of Greek poetry--Homer
+(iii. 1, 25-34), Mimnermus (i. 9, 11), Pindar (iii. 17, 40), the
+dramatists, Theocritus, and Apollonius Rhodius. As his models he names
+especially the Alexandrians Callimachus and Philetas, whom he claims
+to follow more closely than any of his predecessors; iii. 1, 1,
+
+  'Callimachi Manes et Coi sacra Philetae,
+    in vestrum, quaeso, me sinite ire nemus.
+  Primus ego ingredior puro de fonte sacerdos
+    Itala per Graios orgia ferre choros.'
+
+Cf. iv. 1, 64,
+
+  'Umbria Romani patria Callimachi.'
+
+In wealth of mythological illustration Propertius is peculiarly
+Alexandrian. He is continually drawing parallels and contrasts from
+Greek legend; _e.g._ i. 15, Cynthia how unlike Calypso! iii. 12, Aelia
+Galla a modern Penelope. Of Roman poets, he names as his predecessors
+in amatory verse Virgil, Varro Atacinus, Catullus, Calvus, and
+Cornelius Gallus (ii 34, 61-92). Once he dreams of writing an epic on
+the Alban kings in the vein of Ennius; iii. 3, 5,
+
+  'Parvaque tam magnis admoram fontibus ora,
+  unde pater sitiens Ennius ante bibit.'
+
+In Propertius love of social pleasures appears side by side with a
+strain of deep melancholy _e.g._ in. 5, 21,
+
+  Me iuvat et multo mentem vincire Lyaeo
+  et caput in verna semper habere rosa,
+
+contrasted with the numerous passages where he is thinking of the
+grave, _e.g._ ii. 1, 71,
+
+  'Quandocumque igitur vitam mea fata reposcent,
+  et breve in exiguo marmore nomen ero.'
+
+There is no greater patriot than Propertius. Cf. the denunciation of
+Cleopatra (iii. 11) and the frequency of the epithet 'Romanus.'
+
+
+
+OVID.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Ovid's own writings (especially _Tr._ iv. 10) supply nearly all the
+information we possess regarding his life. The biographies in the MSS.
+are valueless.
+
+P. Ovidius Naso was his full name, in which the MSS. agree. He speaks
+of himself as Naso simply, and Statius and Martial refer to him by
+that name; Tacitus and the two Senecas use the _nomen_ Ovidius.
+
+He was born in Sulmo, one of the three divisions of the Paelignian
+country, B.C. 43--the year in which Hirtius and Pansa fell at Mutina.
+_Tr._ iv. 10, 3,
+
+  'Sulmo mihi patria est, gelidis uberrimus undis,
+    milia qui novies distat ab urbe decem.
+  Editus hic ego sum; nec non ut tempora noris,
+    cum cecidit fato consul uterque pari.'
+
+His birthday was 20th March--the second day of the festival of the
+Quinquatria (cf. _Fast._ iii. 809-814), l. 13,
+
+  'Haec est armiferae festis de quinque Minervae,
+    quae fieri pugna prima cruenta solet.'
+
+He belonged to an equestrian family, and he frequently contrasts
+himself with those who had reached that dignity by military service or
+by possessing the requisite fortune; _ibid._ l. 7,
+
+  'Si quid id est, usque a proavis vetus ordinis heres,
+    non sum fortunae munere factus eques.'
+
+Cf. _Am._ i. 3, 7; iii. 8, 9; iii. 15, 5; _Pont._ iv. 8, 17.
+
+Along with his elder brother, he received a careful education at Rome,
+and studied also at Athens. He practised rhetoric under Arellius
+Fuscus and Porcius Latro. _Tr._ iv. 10, 15,
+
+  'Protinus excolimur teneri, curaque parentis
+    imus ad insignes urbis ab arte viros.'
+
+_Tr._ i. 2, 77,
+
+  'Non peto quas quondam petii studiosus Athenas.'
+
+Sen. _Contr._ ii. 10, 8, 'Hanc controversiam memini ab Ovidio Nasone
+declamari apud rhetorem Arellium Fuscum, cuius auditor fuit, nam
+Latronis admirator erat, cum diversum sequeretur dicendi genus.'
+Seneca says that _Met._ xiii. 121, and _Am._ i. 2, 11, were borrowed
+from Latro.
+
+But, in spite of his father's remonstrances, Ovid preferred poetry to
+public life. _Tr._ iv. 10, 19,
+
+  'At mihi iam parvo caelestia sacra placebant,
+    inque suum furtim Musa trahebat opus.
+  Saepe pater dixit, "studium quid inutile temptas?
+    Maeonides nullas ipse reliquit opes."
+  Motus eram dictis totoque Helicone relicto
+    scribere conabar verba soluta modis:
+  sponte sua carmen numeros veniebat ad aptos;
+    quicquid temptabam dicere, versus erat.'
+
+In due time he assumed the _toga virilis_, and with it the broad
+purple stripe worn by prospective senators. He also held two of the
+minor offices of the _vigintiviratus_, the preliminary to a senatorial
+career, being (1) triumvir capitalis or else triumvir monetalis, (2)
+decemvir stlitibus iudicandis. _Tr._ iv. 10, 28,
+
+    'Liberior fratri sumpta mihique toga est,
+  induiturque umeris cum lato purpura clavo';
+
+l. 33,
+
+  'Cepimus et tenerae primos aetatis honores,
+    deque viris quondam pars tribus una fui.'
+
+_Fast._ iv. 384,
+
+  'Inter bis quinos usus honore viros.'
+
+In virtue of this second office he sat in the centumviral court;[67]
+and he also acted as an arbitrator. _Tr._ ii. 93,
+
+  'Nec male commissa est nobis fortuna reorum
+    lisque decem deciens inspicienda viris.
+  Res quoque privatas statui sine crimine iudex.'
+
+He sought no higher office, having neither strength nor inclination
+for the Senate; he assumed the narrow stripe of the _eques_, and
+devoted himself to poetry and pleasure. _Tr._ iv. 10, 35,
+
+  'Curia restabat: clavi mensura coacta est:
+    maius erat nostris viribus illud onus.
+  Nec patiens corpus, nec mens fuit apta labori,
+    sollicitaeque fugax ambitionis eram.
+  Et petere Aoniae suadebant tuta sorores
+    otia, iudicio semper amata meo.'
+
+He made a tour in Asia (including Troy) and Sicily in the company of
+the poet Pompeius Macer: the date of this journey is unknown, but he
+was almost a year in Sicily. _Pont._ ii. 10, 21-29 (to Macer),
+
+  'Te duce magnificas Asiae perspeximus urbes,
+    Trinacris est oculis te duce nota meis, ...
+  Hic mihi labentis pars anni magna peracta est.'
+
+_Fast._ vi. 423,
+
+  'Cura videre fuit: vidi templumque locumque,'
+
+(of the temple of Pallas at Troy).
+
+Towards the end of A.D. 8, Ovid was banished by imperial edict to
+Tomi, on the Black Sea, near the mouth of the Danube, the cause
+alleged being the publication of the _Ars Amatoria_. Ovid mentions
+this edict, but also hints at another reason, connected with the
+imperial family. _Tr._ ii. 207,
+
+  'Perdiderint cum me duo crimina, carmen et error,
+    alterius facti culpa silenda mihi;
+  nam non sum tanti renovem ut tua vulnera, Caesar,
+    quem nimio plus est indoluisse semel.
+  Altera pars superest, qua turpi carmine factus
+    arguor obscaeni doctor adulterii.'
+
+He was guilty of no crime of his own, but was banished for witnessing
+the crime of another. Cf. _Tr._ iii. 5, 49,
+
+  'Inscia quod crimen viderunt lumina, plector,
+    peccatumque oculos est habuisse meum.'
+
+It is probable that the real reason[68] of Ovid's banishment was that
+he was privy to a guilty intrigue between D. Silanus and Julia, the
+grand-daughter of Augustus. Julia was banished in A.D. 9, and Tacitus
+(_Ann._ iii. 24) tells us of the intrigue, for which Silanus (like
+Ovid) suffered _relegatio_. His knowledge of the offence was betrayed
+by friends and domestics. Cf. _Tr._ iv. 10, 101,
+
+  'Quid referam comitumque nefas famulosque nocentes?'
+
+The date of his banishment is given _Tr._ iv. 10, 95,
+
+  'Postque meos ortus Pisaea vinctus oliva
+    abstulerat decies praemia victor equus,
+  cum maris Euxini positos ad laeva Tomitas
+    quaerere me laesi principis ira iubet.'
+
+[Here an Olympiad is reckoned as five years.] His punishment was
+_relegatio_, involving banishment to a fixed spot, but not
+confiscation of property; _Tr._ ii. 135,
+
+  'Adde quod edictum, quamvis immite minaxque,
+    attamen in poenae nomine lene fuit;
+  quippe relegatus, non exul, dicor in illo,
+    privaque fortunae sunt ibi verba meae.'
+
+In Tomi he spent the remaining years of his life, far from friends and
+books; _Tr._ v. 12, 53,
+
+  'Non liber hic ullus, non qui mihi commodet aurem,
+    verbaque significent quid mea norit, adest';
+
+suffering from illness (_Tr._ iii. 3) and the climate, and fighting
+against the barbarians; _Tr._ iv. 1, 71,
+
+  'Aspera militiae iuvenis certamina fugi,
+    nec nisi lusura movimus arma manu:
+  nunc senior gladioque latus scutoque sinistram,
+    canitiem galeae subicioque meam.'
+
+On the other hand he learned the language of the people, and actually
+wrote poems in it; _Tr._ v. 12, 57,
+
+  'Ipse mihi videor iam dedidicisse Latine:
+    nam didici Getice Sarmaticeque loqui.'
+
+_Pont._ iv. 13, 19,
+
+  'A! pudet, et Getico scripsi sermone libellum,
+    structaque sunt nostris barbara verba modis,
+  et placui--gratare mihi--coepique poetae
+    inter inhumanos nomen habere Getas!
+  materiam quaeris? laudes de Caesare dixi.'
+
+For his popularity with the natives cf. _Pont._ iv. 14, 53,
+
+  'Solus adhuc ego sum vestris immunis in oris,
+    exceptis si qui munera legis habent.
+  Tempora sacrata mea sunt velata corona,
+    publicus invito quam favor imposuit';
+
+also _Pont._ iv. 9, 101.
+
+Ovid's death took place in A.D. 18: Jerome yr. Abr. 2033, 'Ovidius
+poeta in exilio diem obiit et iuxta oppidum Tomos sepelitur.' He was
+thrice married; _Tr._ iv. 10, 69,
+
+  'Paene mihi puero nec digna nec utilis uxor
+    est data, quae tempus per breve nupta fuit;
+  illi successit quamvis sine crimine coniunx,
+    non tamen in nostro firma futura toro;
+  ultima, quae mecum seros permansit in annos,
+    sustinuit coniunx exulis esse viri.'
+
+His third wife belonged to the _gens Fabia_. Cf. _Pont._ i. 2, 138 (to
+Fabius Maximus),
+
+  'Ille ego, de vestra cui data nupta domo est.'
+
+The _filia_ mentioned _Tr._ iv. 10, 75, may have been either a
+daughter or step-daughter of Ovid's. Some think that she is the
+Perilla of _Tr._ iii. 7.
+
+Ovid's social position was of the highest, as may be inferred from his
+relations with the palace. He was intimate with Messalla, the patron
+of Tibullus, and wrote an elegy on him (now lost). Cf. _Pont._ i. 7,
+27 (to Messalinus),
+
+  'Nec tuus est genitor nos infitiatus amicos,
+    hortator studii causaque faxque mei:
+  cui nos et lacrimas, supremum in funere munus,
+    et dedimus medio scripta canenda foro.'
+
+Among the friends to whom the _Epp. ex Ponto_ are written may be
+mentioned Albinovanus, Carus, Rufus, Severus, Fabius Maximus Cotta,
+Tuticanus, the younger Macer, all poets; and other literary men of
+distinction, _e.g._ Graecinus, Atticus, Brutus, Sex. Pompeius, Gallio.
+For his intimacy with the learned Hyginus cf. Sueton. _Gramm._ 20,
+'fuit familiarissimus Ovidio poetae.'
+
+He was old enough to have seen Virgil, and hear Aemilius Macer and
+Horace recite; with Propertius, Tibullus, Ponticus, and Bassus he was
+on terms of close intimacy (_Am._ iii. 9 is a lament for Tibullus),
+_Tr._ iv. 10, 41-52,
+
+  'Temporis illius colui fovique poetas,
+    quotque aderant vates, rebar adesse deos.
+  Saepe suas volucres legit mihi grandior aevo,
+    quaeque necet serpens, quae iuvet herba, Macer.
+  Saepe suos solitus recitare Propertius ignes,
+    iure sodalicii qui mihi iunctus erat.
+  Ponticus heroo, Bassus quoque clarus iambis
+    dulcia convictus membra fuere mei.
+  Detinuit nostras numerosus Horatius aures,
+    dum ferit Ausonia carmina culta lyra.
+  Vergilium vidi tantum; nec amara Tibullo
+    tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae.'
+
+Besides the _rura paterna_ at Sulmo, Ovid possessed an estate on the
+_via Clodia_, near Rome; _Pont._ i. 8, 41,
+
+  'Non meus amissos animus desiderat agros
+    ruraque Paeligno conspicienda solo,
+  nec quos piniferis positos in collibus hortos
+    spectat Flaminiae Clodia iuncta viae.'
+
+He cannot have been poor, in spite of his complaints, _e.g._ _Pont._ iv.
+8, 32,
+
+  'Carpsit opes illa ruina meas.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Amores_, at first in five Books, but in a second edition reduced
+to three; cf. the motto prefixed to the Book,
+
+  'Qui modo Nasonis fueramus quinque libelli,
+  Tres sumus.'
+
+The poems are nearly all on Corinna, a name which probably does not
+stand for any real person, but merely for an abstraction around which
+Ovid groups his own fancies. To suppose, as Sidonius Apollinaris did
+(23, 157)[69] that Augustus' daughter Julia was meant, is absurd, for
+Corinna is a _meretrix_. The identity of Corinna was unknown; _Am._
+ii. 17, 28,
+
+    'Et multae per me nomen habere volunt.
+  Novi aliquam, quae se circumferat esse Corinnam';
+
+and twenty years afterwards Ovid could write (_A.A._ iii. 538),
+
+  'Et multi, quae sit nostra Corinna, rogant.'
+
+The _Amores_, in their original form, constituted Ovid's earliest
+work, written in his youth. The extant poems are not all that he wrote
+on Corinna; _Tr._ iv. 10, 57,
+
+  'Carmina cum primum populo iuvenilia legi,
+    barba resecta mihi bisve semelve fuit.
+  Moverat ingenium totam cantata per urbem
+    nomine non vero dicta Corinna mihi.
+  Multa quidem scripsi; sed quae vitiosa putavi,
+    emendaturis ignibus ipse dedi.'
+
+The lament for Tibullus (iii. 9) must have been written in Ovid's
+twenty-fourth year.
+
+2. _Heroides_.--Some of these at least were written before the second
+edition of the _Amores_, for in _Am._ ii. 18, 21-6 nine of them are
+mentioned by name. The title _Heroides_ is due to the grammarian
+Priscian; in the MSS. they are called _Epistulae_, and so Ovid himself
+refers to them, _A.A._ iii. 345,
+
+  'Vel tibi composita cantetur epistula voce:
+    ignotum hoc aliis ille novavit opus.'
+
+Of the twenty letters in our collection 1-14 are letters from heroines
+to their lovers; 15-20 are in pairs, _e.g._ Paris to Helen and Helen
+to Paris. The authenticity of these last six is doubted, partly
+because the title _Heroides_ cannot apply to half of them, and also
+because of their inferiority in style. In the use of the epistolary
+form in love poetry Ovid had no predecessor, and he himself calls
+attention to the novelty (_A.A._ above). The style shows the influence
+of Ovid's rhetorical training: the Epistles are _suasoriae_ in verse,
+and of _suasoriae_ we know that he was particularly fond (Sen.
+_Contr._ ii. 10, 12, 'Declamabat Naso raro controversias et non nisi
+ethicas: libentius dicebat suasorias. Molesta illi erat omnis
+argumentatio.'). His matter he would naturally draw from Homer, the
+_Cypria_, Apollonius Rhodius, and the Greek tragedians.
+
+3. Between the two editions of the _Amores_ he wrote the lost tragedy
+_Medea_. It was later than _Am._ iii. 1, where he pictures the Muses
+of Elegy and Tragedy as contending for his homage, and he finally
+decides (ll. 67-8),
+
+  'Exiguum vati concede, Tragoedia, tempus:
+  tu labor aeternus; quod petit illa breve est.'
+
+On the other hand, it was earlier than _Am._ ii. 18, 13,
+
+  'Sceptra tamen sumpsi, curaque tragoedia nostra
+    crevit, et huic operi quamlibet aptus eram.'
+
+The drama enjoyed a high reputation in antiquity. Cf. Quint. x. 1, 98,
+'Ovidii Medea videtur mihi ostendere, quantum ille vir praestare
+potuerit, si ingenio suo imperare quam indulgere maluisset.'
+
+4. _Medicamina Faciei Femineae_, an incomplete poem of 100 lines,
+giving directions for the toilet. Cf. _A.A._ iii. 205,
+
+  'Est mihi, quo dixi vestrae medicamina formae,
+    parvus, sed cura grande, libellus, opus.'
+
+5. _Ars Amatoria_, a didactic poem in three Books, on the art of
+love-intrigue. The title given by the MSS. is doubtless correct: Ovid
+himself speaks of 'ars amandi,' or simply 'ars' or 'artes.' It was
+written about B.C. 2, from the allusion, i. 171, to the 'naumachia' in
+that year,
+
+  'Quid, modo cum belli navalis imagine Caesar
+    Persidas induxit Cecropiasque rates?'
+
+The _Ars_ must have been in view when he wrote _Am._ ii. 18, 19,
+
+  'Quod licet, aut artes teneri profitemur amoris--
+    ei mihi, praeceptis urgeor ipse meis!'
+
+6. _Remedia Amoris_, written next, while professing to be a
+recantation of the last-named work, exhibits, if possible, a more
+immoral tone. Cf. l. 487,
+
+  'Quaeris, ubi invenias? artes, i, perlege nostras.'
+
+7. Ovid now produced a work of greater compass, the _Metamorphoses_,
+in fifteen Books of heroic verse. When it was composed is not known,
+but he had the idea of it in his mind when he wrote _Am._ iii. 12,
+21-40. At the time of his banishment the poem had been written, but
+not revised. He committed his MS. to the flames, but copies were in
+the hands of friends; _Tr._ i. 7, 13-16,
+
+  'Carmina mutatas hominum dicentia formas,
+    infelix domini quod fuga rupit opus.
+  Haec ego discedens, sicut bene multa meorum,
+    ipse mea posui maestus in igne manu.
+
+  Quae quoniam non sunt penitus sublata, sed extant,      (l. 23)
+    pluribus exemplis scripta fuisse reor.
+
+  Ablatum mediis opus est incudibus illud,                (l. 29)
+    defuit et scriptis ultima lima meis.'
+
+The poem consists of a collection of stories of the transformation of
+human beings into animals. Cf. i. 1,
+
+  'In nova fert animus mutatas dicere formas
+  corpora.'
+
+The idea, title, and much of the subject-matter was borrowed from the
+Alexandrians, _e.g._ the Μεταμορφώσεις of Parthenius, the
+Ἑτεροιούμενα of Nicander.
+
+8. In the _Fasti_, in six Books, Ovid furnishes a poetical calendar of
+the Roman year. Each month has a Book allotted to it, and he speaks of
+having written twelve Books; _Tr._ ii. 549,
+
+  'Sex ego Fastorum scripsi totidemque libellos,
+    cumque suo finem mense volumen habet.
+  Idque tuo nuper scriptum sub nomine, Caesar,
+    et tibi sacratum sors mea rupit opus.'
+
+Probably the second six Books were never completed; but there are
+references to portions of them, _e.g._ iii. 57,
+
+  'Vester honos veniet, cum Larentalia dicam;
+    acceptus Geniis illa December habet.'
+
+The _Fasti_ had been written side by side with the _Metam._ and
+interrupted at the sixth Book by Ovid's banishment. During his exile
+he added some passages, but found that his Muse was fit only for
+melancholy themes; iv. 81,
+
+  'Sulmonis gelidi--patriae, Germanice, nostrae--
+    me miserum, Scythico quam procul illa solo est!'
+
+i. 540,
+
+  'Felix, exilium cui locus ille fuit!'
+
+The design is stated at the outset, i. 1-8,
+
+  'Tempora cum causis Latium digesta per annum
+    lapsaque sub terras ortaque signa canam ...
+  Sacra recognosces annalibus eruta priscis,
+    et quo sit merito quaeque notata dies.'
+
+The work is thus a medley of religion, history, and astrology, and in
+its explanations of customs may be compared to the Αἴτια of
+Callimachus. For information about religious rites, and for
+derivations of names (_e.g._ _Agnalia_, i. 317-332), he would have
+recourse to Varro; for history, to Livy (cf. ii. 193-242, the story of
+the Fabii, from Livy, ii. 49, and vi. 587, etc., the story of Tullia,
+from Livy, i. 48); for astronomy, to Clodius Tuscus.
+
+It was begun some time after Augustus regulated the Julian calendar in
+B.C. 8, and was originally addressed to Augustus, as Ovid himself says
+(_Tr._ ii. 552 above); 'Caesar' is addressed ii. 15, vi. 763, and
+elsewhere. After the death of Augustus, Ovid began to remodel it and
+dedicate it to Germanicus. Cf. i. 3,
+
+  'Excipe pacato, Caesar Germanice, voltu
+    hoc opus et timidae dirige navis iter.'
+
+But the task was stopped by his death; and while Book i. has the
+remodelled form, Books ii.-vi. remain as first written.
+
+_Poems written in exile._--9. _Tristia_, five Books of letters to
+Augustus, to Ovid's wife and friends (who, however, are not named),
+praying for pardon or for a place of exile nearer Rome. Book i. was
+written on the journey to Tomi, the other books not after A.D. 11 or
+12, Cf. v. 10, 1,
+
+  'Ut sumus in Ponto, ter frigore constitit Hister.'
+
+10. The _Ibis_ was written at the beginning of his exile. Cf. l. 1,
+
+  'Tempus ad hoc, lustris bis iam mihi quinque peractis.'
+
+The title was taken from the poem in which Callimachus attacked
+Apollonius Rhodius under the name of Ibis. Cf. l. 55,
+
+  'Nunc, quo Battiades inimicum devovet Ibin,
+  hoc ego devoveo teque tuosque modo.'
+
+Ovid studiously conceals the identity of the enemy whom he attacks; l.
+61,
+
+  'Et quoniam, qui sis, nondum quaerentibus edo,
+  Ibidis interea tu quoque nomen habe.'
+
+He had once been a friend of the poet, but had proved false to him,
+doubtless in connexion with the circumstances which caused his
+banishment; cf. l. 85, 'capiti male fido,' l. 130, 'perfide.' He
+persecuted Ovid's wife, and tried to get possession of his property.
+
+The conjectures that the unknown was Messalla Corvinus or the poet
+Manilius may be dismissed at once. Many hold that Hyginus is meant;
+Prof. Ellis suggests the _delator_ Cassius Severus (Tac. _Ann._ iv.
+21), or T. Labienus (Sen. _Contr._ x. praef. 4), or the astrologer
+Thrasyllus (Tac. _Ann._ vi. 20). To the same person probably are
+addressed _Tr._ iii. 11, iv. 9, v. 8; _Pont._ iv. 3.
+
+11. The _Epistulae ex Ponto_, in four Books, were written A.D. 12-16.
+In tone they resemble the _Tristia_, but the composition is more
+careless, and the friends to whom he writes are mentioned by name.
+
+12. _Halieuticon_, a poem on fish, in hexameters, in a fragmentary
+condition. Ovid wrote this towards the end of his life.
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ xxxii. 152, 'His adiciemus ab Ovidio posita nomina quae
+apud neminem alium reperiuntur, sed fortassis in Ponto nascentium, ubi
+id volumen supremis suis temporibus incohavit.'
+
+
+
+MANILIUS.
+
+
+Manilius is not mentioned by any other writer, and his own poem gives
+no particulars of his life. There is uncertainty even as to the true
+form of his name, the MSS. giving variously M. Mallius, Manlius, or
+Manilius, with the addition in one case of EQOM (probably = equitis
+Romani). In some MSS. the poem is wrongly attributed to Aratus or
+Boetius, both of whom wrote on the same subject as Manilius.
+
+Bentley conjectured that Manilius was an Asiatic Greek, but the poet
+speaks of Latin as 'nostra lingua' (ii. 889), while Greek is 'externa
+lingua' (iii. 40), and he uses no Greek constructions.
+
+His poem, the _Astronomica_, in its present form, consists of five
+Books of hexameter verse: probably a sixth Book has been lost. It may
+have been wholly composed in the reign of Tiberius, or begun under
+Augustus. Book v. was written under Tiberius, if the burning of
+Pompey's theatre in A.D. 22 is alluded to in ll. 513-515. The earlier
+Books contain nothing which might not have been written after the
+death of Augustus--the allusions to the disaster of Varus in A.D. 9
+(i. 899), and to the sojourn of Tiberius at Rhodes (iv. 764). Either
+Augustus or Tiberius may be the 'Caesar' of i. 7 and i. 386. On the
+other hand, if Ovid is referring to Manilius (as Prof. Ellis suggests)
+in _Tr._ ii. 485,
+
+  'Ecce canit formas alius iactusque pilarum,
+  hic artem nandi praecipit, ille trochi,'
+
+it would follow that the whole poem had been published before the
+death of Augustus, for the descriptions of ball-play and swimming
+occur in v. 165-171 and 420-431.
+
+Astronomy is treated only in Book i.; the rest of the poem is devoted
+to astrology. This is in accordance with the author's statement of his
+theme (i. 1-3), which he was the first Roman to treat in verse (i. 4,
+113, ii. 57). As his object is to convey instruction rather than to
+give pleasure (iii. 36-39), he does not scruple to use Greek technical
+terms (ii. 693, 829, 897, iii. 40). The subject does not lend itself
+readily to verse (i. 20, iii. 31), and the poem is intolerably dry,
+except the introductions to each Book, which reveal considerable
+poetical power. The chief peculiarities of Manilius' language are his
+strange use of prepositions and his fondness for alliteration;
+imitations of Virgil are found throughout.
+
+Manilius is a fatalist (iv. 14 and 22): still fate does not abolish
+the moral quality of actions (iv. 108-118). The universe is directed
+by a 'vis animae divina' or 'divinum numen' (i. 250, 491).
+
+
+
+LIVY.
+
+
+There is no ancient biography of Livy, and very little light is thrown
+on his life by his own writings or by allusions in other authors.
+
+Titus Livius was born at Patavium (the modern Padua) B.C. 59: Jerome
+yr. Abr. 1958, 'T. Livius Patavinus scriptor historicus nascitur.'
+(The Armenian version gives _Ol._ 180, 4 = B.C. 57.) Near Patavium
+there was a famous sulphur spring known as Aponus or Aponi fons,
+whence Martial calls the district Apona tellus (i. 61, 3, 'Censetur
+Apona Livio suo tellus'). There is no reason to suppose from this that
+Livy's birthplace was not Patavium itself, but a village Aponus, which
+is nowhere mentioned. Statius (_Silv._ iv. 7, 55) calls him 'Timavi
+alumnus.' For Livy's acquaintance with Patavium cf. x. 2, 14 and 15.
+
+From his tone we may infer that he came of a good family, and he must
+have possessed a fair income. The charge against his style of
+_Patavinitas_ implies that he spent a considerable part of his life in
+his native town, but he probably settled at Rome about B.C. 30. That
+he took no part in public life is clear from his own words: i. praef.
+5, 'Hoc laboris praemium petam, ut me a conspectu malorum, quae nostra
+tot per annos vidit aetas, tantisper certe, dum prisca illa tota mente
+repeto, avertam, omnis expers curae, quae scribentis animum etsi non
+flectere a vero, sollicitum tamen efficere posset.'
+
+He enjoyed the intimacy of Augustus, whom he himself mentions, iv. 20,
+7, 'hoc ego cum Augustum Caesarem ... se ipsum ... legisse audissem.'
+Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34, 'T. Livius, eloquentiae ac fidei praeclarus in
+primis, Cn. Pompeium tantis laudibus tulit, ut Pompeianum eum Augustus
+appellaret; neque id amicitiae eorum offecit.' It was at Livy's
+suggestion that the future emperor, Claudius, started to compose a
+history: Sueton. _Claud._ 41, 'historiam in adulescentia, hortante T.
+Livio, Sulpicio vero Flavo etiam adiuvante, scribere adgressus est.'
+On the other hand, Caligula would have liked to remove Livy's writings
+and his bust from all the libraries, calling him 'verbosum in historia
+neglegentemque' (Sueton. _Calig._ 34).
+
+Nothing more is known of his life, except that he visited Campania,
+xxxviii. 56, 3, 'Nam et Literni monumentum monumentoque statua
+superimposita fuit, quam tempestate disiectam nuper vidimus ipsi.'
+
+He died at his native town, A.D. 17: Jerome yr. Abr. 2033, 'Livius
+historicus Patavii moritur.'
+
+He had at least one son (Quint. x. 1, 39, 'apud Livium in epistula ad
+filium scripta'), and one daughter (Sen. _Contr._ x. praef. 2, 'L.
+Magius gener T. Livi').
+
+Livy wrote philosophical works, probably popular treatises like
+Cicero's, some of them in the form of dialogues.
+
+Sen. _Ep._ 100, 9, 'Nomina adhuc T. Livium. Scripsit enim et dialogos,
+quos non magis philosophiae adnumerare possis quam historiae, et ex
+professo philosophiam continentis libros.'
+
+A book on rhetoric was known to Quintilian and Seneca the elder,
+apparently in the form of a letter addressed to the author's son
+(Quint. x. 1, 39, above).
+
+Quint. ii. 5, 20, 'quemadmodum Livius praecipit' (on models of style);
+Sen. _Contr._ ix. 2, 26, 'Livius de oratoribus ... aiebat' (on
+obscurity of expression); Sen. _Contr._ ix. 1, 14, 'T. Livius tam
+iniquus Sallustio fuit ut hanc ipsam sententiam ... obiceret
+Sallustio.'
+
+These minor works have perished, and of his great history only a
+portion survives.
+
+Its title, according to the oldest MSS., the summaries of the lost
+Books, and the grammarians, was _Ab urbe condita libri_; and this is
+corroborated by Livy's own language: i. praef. 1, 'si a primordio urbis
+res populi Romani perscripserim'; and by Pliny, _N.H._ praef. 16, 'T.
+Livium ... in historiarum suarum, quas repetit ab origine urbis,
+quodam volumine.' Livy refers to it loosely as _meos annales_ (xliii.
+13, 2). Separate parts may have had special titles: thus Books
+cix-cxvi. were known as _Civilis belli libri_ viii. (Codex Nazarenus
+of the Periochae).
+
+The number of Books now extant is thirty-five, viz., i.-x., which
+carry the history down to B.C. 293, and xxi.-xlv., covering the period
+B.C. 218-167. Of these xli. and xliii. are incomplete. But we possess
+summaries (_Periochae_ or _Argumenta_) of Books i.-cxlii., except
+cxxxvi. and cxxxvii., which show that the narrative was continued to
+the death of Drusus in B.C. 9. There is no evidence that it actually
+went further; but as the death of Drusus is hardly an event of
+sufficient importance to form the conclusion of so great a work, it
+has been thought that Livy may have intended to finish with the death
+of Augustus--the point from which Tacitus starts. The total number of
+Books would then have been probably one hundred and fifty.
+
+The division into Books (_libri_ or _volumina_) is due to the author:
+vi. 1, 1, 'quae ab condita urbe Romani gessere quinque libris
+exposui.' The division into decades (_i.e._ sets of ten Books) is
+first mentioned towards the end of the fifth century; it is merely a
+conventional arrangement, the subject-matter falling naturally into
+sets of fifteen Books, which again sometimes embrace three
+sub-divisions each a half-decade, or two, a half-decade and a decade.
+
+An epitome was known to Martial, xiv. 190,
+
+  'Pellibus exiguis artatur Livius ingens,
+    quem mea non totum bibliotheca capit.'
+
+The evidence of the date of composition is as follows:
+
+(_a_) i. 19, 3, 'Bis deinde post Numae regnum [Ianus] clausus fuit,
+semel T. Manlio consule post Punicum primum perfectum bellum, iterum,
+quod nostrae aetati dei dederunt ut videremus, post bellum Actiacum ab
+imperatore Caesare Augusto pace terra marique parta.' Now, as the
+first closing of the temple of Janus by Augustus was in B.C. 29, and
+as Livy is silent as to the second closing after the Cantabrian war in
+25, it follows that this passage was written B.C. 29-25. The use of
+the title Augustus, conferred on Octavian in 27, puts the earliest
+possible date two years later. The history therefore was not begun
+before B.C. 27.
+
+(_b_) ix. 36, 1, 'Silva erat Ciminia magis tum invia atque horrenda
+quam nuper fuere Germanici saltus.' In this Niebuhr found an allusion
+to the campaigns of Drusus, B.C. 12-9, and accordingly assumed that
+the first decade was not published till B.C. 9. But the passage may
+equally well refer to earlier campaigns, _e.g._ of Julius Caesar. Nor
+can it be shown that the history of Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
+published B.C. 7, was used by Livy for Books viii.-x. Book ix. must
+have been written before B.C. 20, or Livy would have mentioned the
+recovery of the standards from the Parthians in ix. 18, 9.
+
+(_c_) xxviii. 12, 12, 'Hispania prima Romanis inita provinciarum, quae
+quidem continentis sint, postrema omnium nostra demum aetate ductu
+auspicioque Augusti Caesaris perdomita.' This was written not earlier
+than B.C. 19, if it refers to Agrippa's victory over the Cantabrians.
+
+(_d_) Book lix. mentioned the _lex de maritandis ordinibus_, and
+consequently cannot have been earlier than B.C. 18.
+
+(_e_) The books in which Pompeius figured were composed in the
+lifetime of Augustus (Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34, above).
+
+(_f_) Book cxxi., according to the oldest MS. of the Periochae, was
+published after the death of Augustus; so doubtless were the remaining
+Books (A.D. 14-17).
+
+A work of such compass, and occupying so many years of the author's
+life, would naturally be published in sections. This _a priori_ view
+is corroborated by several considerations: (_a_) There are separate
+prefaces to various sections (vi. 1; xxi. 1; xxxi. 1); (_b_) Livy's
+style was censured[70] by Asinius Pollio, who died A.D. 5; (_c_)
+Augustus was acquainted with Livy's sympathetic treatment of Pompeius
+(see above); (_d_) Livy had great fame in his lifetime: Pliny, _Ep._
+ii. 3, 8, 'Numquamne legisti Gaditanum quemdam T. Livi nomine
+gloriaque commotum ad visendum eum ab ultimo terrarum orbe venisse
+statimque ut viderat abisse?'
+
+The historians from whom Livy derived his materials, and whom he
+himself mentions are: _Fabius Pictor_ (i. 44, 2, etc.). Livy refers to
+him six times, but it may be questioned whether he used him at
+first-hand. More probably he took his opinions on the authority of
+later annalists like Macer, Antias, and Tubero. _Cincius Alimentus_
+(xxi. 38, 3): the Cincius quoted in vii. 3, 7, may be the same, or an
+antiquarian of the Ciceronian or Augustan age; _Cato_ (xxxiv. 15, 9);
+_Calpurnius Piso_ (xxv. 39, 15); _Coelius Antipater_ (xxix. 25, 3);
+_Claudius Quadrigarius_ (vi. 42, 5, etc.); _Valerius Antias_, quoted
+thirty-five times--far more frequently than any other authority;
+_Licinius Macer_; _Aelius Tubero_ (iv. 23, 1); _Clodius Licinus_
+(xxix. 22, 10); _Rutilius_ (xxxix. 52, 1); _Polybius_; _Silenus_
+(xxvi. 49, 3), a Greek, whose account of the Second Punic War was
+favourable to the Carthaginians.
+
+A criticism of Livy's use of these sources is impossible, except in
+the case of Polybius, all the others having perished. His tone in
+alluding to the Greek historian is remarkable for its coldness: xxx.
+45, 5, 'Polybius haudquaquam spernendus auctor'; cf. xxxiii. 10, 8.
+Although Polybius is not mentioned till Book xxx., he was undoubtedly
+used throughout the third decade, as well as in the fourth and fifth.
+Livy follows him very closely. Where Livy differs from Polybius he is
+probably following the account of Coelius Antipater, who is his
+leading authority for the Second Punic War.
+
+Livy is not careful to reconcile his sources, and so frequently
+contradicts himself. His way of explaining a discrepancy between his
+authorities is by striking an average (xxvi. 49, 6, 'si aliquis
+adsentiri necesse est, media simillima veris sunt'). His irresolution
+was noted by Quintilian, ii. 4, 19, 'saepe quaeri solet de tempore, de
+loco, quo gesta res dicitur, nonnumquam de persona quoque, sicut
+Livius frequentissime dubitat.' This of course has its good side: it
+saves him from dogmatizing on uncertain points, and he has a hearty
+appreciation of the confusion in his authorities: xxxvii. 34, 5, 'is
+ubi et quando et quo casu captus sit, sicut pleraque alia, parum inter
+auctores constat.' He recognizes the value of contemporary evidence:
+xxii. 7, 4, 'Fabium aequalem temporibus huiusce belli potissimum
+auctorem habui'; xxi. 38, 3, 'L. Cincius Alimentus, qui captum se ab
+Hannibale scribit, maxime auctor moveret.' Criticism of his
+authorities is most conspicuous in the case of Valerius Antias, whom
+at first he followed in good faith; he condemns him again and again
+for exaggeration and credulity, _e.g._ xxxiii. 10, 8, 'si Valerio qui
+credat, omnium rerum immodice numerum augenti'; xxxix. 43, 1,
+'Valerius Antias, ut qui nec orationem Catonis legisset et fabulae
+tantum sine auctore editae credidisset.' He also recognizes the bias
+of Licinius Macer: vii. 9, 5, 'quaesita ea propriae familiae laus
+leviorem auctorem Licinium facit.' For the untrustworthiness of family
+records, cf. viii. 40, 4, 'vitiatam memoriam funebribus laudibus reor
+falsisque imaginum titulis, dum familiae ad se quaeque famam rerum
+gestarum honorumque fallenti mendacio trahunt.'
+
+Livy often refers to authorities whom he does not name: 'invenio apud
+quosdam,' 'satis constat'; and to tradition: 'fama est,' 'dicitur,'
+'fertur,' 'traditur.' Tradition was the sole source for events prior
+to the sack of Rome by the Gauls, cf. vi. 12, 2 _sqq._
+
+There is no trace in Livy of any use of original documents.
+
+He constantly resists the temptation to digress from his proper theme:
+_e.g._ xxxix. 48, 6, 'cuius belli et causas et ordinem si expromere
+velim, immemor sim propositi, quo statui non ultra attingere externa,
+nisi qua Romanis cohaererent rebus.'
+
+In spite of his love of truth (xxii. 7, 4, 'nihil haustum ex vano
+velim, quo nimis inclinant ferme scribentium animi': cf. Tac. _Ann._
+iv. 34, 'fidei praeclarus'), partiality blinds him to the faults of
+his own countrymen, and he fails to do justice to opponents like the
+Samnites and Carthaginians.
+
+In dealing with the legendary period he admits that his narrative has
+no trustworthy foundation, and gives it merely for what it is worth:
+Praef. 6, 'Quae ante conditam condendamve urbem poeticis magis decora
+fabulis quam incorruptis rerum gestarum monumentis traduntur, ea nec
+adfirmare nec refellere in animo est. Datur haec venia antiquitati, ut
+miscendo humana divinis primordia urbium augustiora faciat.'
+
+The numerous speeches exemplify Livy's rhetorical tendency,
+representing what he thought the speaker would have said under the
+given circumstances: iii. 67, 1, 'ibi in hanc sententiam locutum
+accipio.'
+
+His power of describing character is noted by Seneca, _Suas._ vi. 21,
+'Quoties magni alicuius viri mors ab historicis narrata est, toties
+fere consummatio totius vitae et quasi funebris laudatio redditur. Hoc
+... T. Livius benignius omnibus magnis viris praestitit.'
+
+_Religion and morality._--Livy believes in the influence of the gods
+on human affairs: ix. 1, 11, 'cum rerum humanarum maximum momentum
+sit, quam propitiis rem, quam adversis agant dis.' Superior to the
+gods is _necessitas_ (ix. 4, 16), and _fortuna_ is also powerful (ix.
+17, 3; v. 37, 1). He condemns the irreligion of his own day (x. 40,
+10, 'iuvenis ante doctrinam deos spernentem natus'), cf. iii. 20, 5;
+viii. 11, 1. He retains the old belief in prodigies and portents,
+every war being introduced by a list of them, but recognizes that many
+reported instances were fictitious: xxi. 62, 1, 'Multa ea hieme
+prodigia facta, aut, quod evenire solet motis semel in religionem
+animis, multa nuntiata et temere credita sunt.'
+
+He condemns the vices of his own age, and lauds the old Romans: Praef.
+12, 'Nuper divitiae avaritiam et abundantes voluptates desiderium per
+luxum atque libidinem pereundi perdendique omnia invexere.'
+
+_Politics._--Livy is an aristocrat, with a poor opinion of the lower
+orders: _e.g._ xxiv. 25, 8, 'Ea natura multitudinis est: aut servit
+humiliter aut superbe dominatur; libertatem, quae media est, nec
+cupere modice nec habere sciunt.' His political attitude is influenced
+to a great extent by the earlier historians, who had mostly been on
+the aristocratic side. Yet he is not a defender of the aristocratic
+party through thick and thin; and though he admired the character of
+some leading republicans, there can be no question of his loyalty to
+the Empire. Cf. Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34, 'Scipionem, Afranium, hunc ipsum
+Cassium, hunc Brutum nusquam latrones et parricidas, quae nunc
+vocabula imponuntur, saepe ut insignes viros nominat.'
+
+Livy's view of Caesar is quoted by Seneca, _N.Q._ v. 18, 4, 'in
+incerto esse utrum illum nasci magis rei publicae profuerit, an non
+nasci?'
+
+_Contemporaries of Livy._--1. _Pompeius Trogus_, whose history is
+known to us only through the abridgment made by M. Iunianus Iustinus,
+probably in the time of the Antonines. Trogus was of Gallic descent.
+His grandfather had received the Roman _civitas_ from Pompey; his
+father was one of Caesar's officers, and is possibly to be identified
+with the Cn. Pompeius of Caes. _B.G._ v. 36 (Iustin. xliii. 5, 11).
+His chief work, _Historiae Philippicae_, in forty-four Books, was
+concerned chiefly with the history of Macedonia and the Diadochi; but
+it embraced also the empires of the East and the history of Greece
+down to the time of Philip, as well as Parthia, Spain, Carthage, and
+the early history of Rome.
+
+2. _Fenestella_, who died, according to Jerome, in A.D. 19 at the age
+of seventy. Nothing is known of his life, or of the poems which Jerome
+attributes to him; but he certainly wrote _Annales_ (Nonius, p. 154).
+He is also quoted as an authority on miscellaneous antiquarian and
+constitutional points.
+
+3. _M. Verrius Flaccus_, tutor to the grandsons of Augustus (Sueton.
+_Gramm._ 17), was the author of _Fasti_, fragments of which have been
+discovered near Praeneste, and which were used by Ovid for his poem of
+that name. Of Verrius' grammatical works, the greatest was that
+entitled _De verborum significatu_ (Gell. v. 17, 1), arranged
+alphabetically. It is lost, but we possess part of an abridgment (nine
+out of sixteen Books) made by _Sex. Pompeius Festus_ before the third
+century A.D. The abridgment of Festus was in turn epitomized by
+_Paulus Diaconus_ in the time of Charlemagne, and his work is extant
+in a complete form.
+
+4. _C. Iulius Hyginus_, a freedman of Augustus and librarian of the
+Palatine library (Sueton. _Gramm._ 20), wrote _De vita rebusque
+illustrium virorum_ (Gell. i. 14, 1); _Exempla_ (Gell. x. 18, 7); _De
+situ urbium Italicarum_ (Serv. _ad Verg. Aen._ iii. 553); _De familiis
+Troianis_ (ibid. v. 389); theological works, _e.g._ _De dis Penatibus_
+(Macrob. _Saturn._ iii. 4, 13); commentaries on Virgil and Helvius
+Cinna; and _De Agricultura_, a treatise to which Virgil was indebted
+(Colum. i. 1, 13). The Hyginus who wrote _Fabulae_ and _De Astrologia_
+probably lived in the second century A.D.
+
+
+
+VITRUVIUS.
+
+
+Vitruvius Pollio (the cognomen appears only in the abridgment of his
+book) served under Caesar in Africa B.C. 46; viii. 3, 25, 'C. Iulius
+Masinissae filius ... cum patre Caesari militavit. Is hospitio meo est
+usus. Ita cottidiano convictu necesse fuerat de philologia disputare ...'
+
+Under Augustus he was an officer of engineers, and was enabled to
+spend the rest of his life in comfort through the liberality of that
+prince and his sister Octavia: i. praef. 2, 'Cum M. Aurelio et P.
+Minidio et Cn. Cornelio ad apparationem ballistarum et scorpionum
+reliquorumque tormentorum refectionem fui praesto et cum eis commoda
+accepi. Quae cum primo mihi tribuisti, recognitionem per sororis
+commendationem servasti. Cum ergo eo beneficio essem obligatus, ut ad
+exitum vitae non haberem inopiae timorem ...'
+
+He wrote the treatise _De Architectura_, in ten Books, when he was no
+longer young (ii. praef. 4, 'faciem deformavit aetas'), between the
+years B.C. 16 and 13. The temple of Quirinus, mentioned iii. 2, 7, was
+built in the former year; and he speaks of only one stone theatre in
+Rome (iii. 2, 2), whereas in B.C. 13 there were three.
+
+The arrangement of the subject-matter is as follows: Book i., sciences
+on which architecture is based, chief divisions of the subject, choice
+of site, and method of laying out a town; ii., building materials; iii.,
+temples--Ionic order; iv., Doric and Corinthian orders; v., public
+buildings, _e.g._, forum, theatre; vi., private houses--construction;
+vii., decoration; viii., water-supply; ix., methods of measuring time,
+_e.g._, sun-dials; x., engines and machines used in war and in the arts.
+
+The work is dedicated to Augustus, who is addressed throughout, and is
+meant to be of practical use to him in his building operations.
+
+The body of the work is severely technical; the introductions to the
+Books are in a more ambitious style. Vitruvius writes as a
+professional man, not as a scholar: i. 1, 17, 'Non uti summus
+philosophus nec rhetor disertus nec grammaticus summis rationibus
+artis exercitatus, sed ut architectus his litteris imbutus haec nisus
+sum scribere.' He freely confesses his obligations to Greek authors,
+whom he enumerates vii. praef. 10-14. Diagrams were appended to the
+text: i. 6, 12, 'Quoniam haec a nobis sunt breviter exposita, ut
+facilius intellegantur visum est mihi in extremo volumine formas, sive
+uti Graeci σχήματα dicunt duo explicare.'
+
+
+
+SENECA THE ELDER.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Annaeus Seneca (for the praenomen Marcus, usually given, there is no
+authority: in the best MSS. it is Lucius, possibly through confusion
+with his son) was a native of Corduba: Mart. i. 62, 7,
+
+  'Duosque Senecas unicumque Lucanum
+    facunda loquitur Corduba.'
+
+The date of his birth is probably about B.C. 55, for he was old enough
+to have heard Cicero if the civil wars had not prevented him leaving
+his native town: _Contr._ i. praef. 11, 'Omnes magni in eloquentia
+nominis excepto Cicerone videor audisse: ne Ciceronem quidem aetas
+mihi eripuerat, sed bellorum civilium furor, qui tunc orbem totum
+pervagabatur, intra coloniam meam me continuit.'
+
+He was of equestrian rank; cf. the speech of Seneca the younger, Tac.
+_Ann._ xiv. 53, 'Egone, equestri et provinciali loco ortus, proceribus
+civitatis adnumeror?'
+
+Most of his life appears to have been spent in Rome, where alone he
+could have acquired his vast knowledge of contemporary rhetoric.
+Together with his countryman Porcius Latro, he attended the lectures
+of the rhetorician Marullus: _Contr._ i. praef. 22, 'Hoc Latro meus
+faciebat, ut sententias amaret. Cum condiscipuli essemus apud Marullum
+rhetorem ...' Asinius Pollio he had heard at two different periods:
+_Contr._ iv. praef. 3, 'audivi illum et viridem et postea iam senem.'
+
+Seneca's wife was Helvia, whose noble character is described by her
+son (_ad Helv._ 14, 3; 16, 3): by her he had three sons, M. Annaeus
+Novatus, L. Annaeus Seneca, and M. Annaeus Mela.
+
+He survived Tiberius; for (1) he alludes to events which happened
+after his reign, (2) Sueton. _Tib._ 73, quotes from 'Seneca' an
+account of the death of Tiberius, and we know that the elder Seneca
+wrote history: that his son did likewise there is nothing to show.
+Hence he was alive after A.D. 37. On the other hand, he was dead
+before his son's exile in A.D. 43, for Sen. _ad Helv._ 2, 5, after
+enumerating the calamities which had befallen his mother--among them
+his father's death--concludes with the words 'raptum me audisti: hoc
+adhuc defuerat tibi, lugere vivos.'
+
+Seneca was a man of stern character: for his old-world views and
+dislike of innovation cf. his son's words (_ad Helv._ 17, 3), 'Patris
+mei antiquus rigor ... Virorum optimus, pater meus, maiorum
+consuetudini deditus.' He disapproved of the higher education of
+women, 'propter istas quae litteris non ad sapientiam utuntur, sed ad
+luxuriam instruuntur.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+The only extant works of Seneca are _Oratorum et Rhetorum Sententiae,
+Divisiones, Colores Controversiarum et Suasoriarum_.
+
+1. The _Controversiae_ were written at the request of his three sons,
+but were intended for a wider circle of readers: i. praef. 10,
+'Quaecumque a celeberrimis viris facunde dicta teneo, ne ad quemquam
+privatim pertineant, populo dedicabo.' Seneca here gives a criticism
+of the rhetoricians of his time, with specimens of the style of each:
+i. praef. 1, 'Exigitis rem magis iucundam mihi quam facilem; iubetis
+enim quid de his declamatoribus sentiam qui in aetatem meam inciderunt
+indicare, et si qua memoriae meae nondum elapsa sunt ab illis dicta
+colligere, ut quamvis notitiae vestrae subducti sint, tamen non
+credatis tantum de illis, sed et iudicetis.' The specimens are given
+from memory, and the arrangement is not systematic: i. praef. 4,
+'Illud necesse est impetrem, ne me quasi certum aliquem ordinem
+velitis sequi in contrahendis quae mihi occurrent.' Seneca treats only
+of those rhetoricians whom his sons had not themselves heard: i.
+praef. 4, 'Neque de his me interrogatis quos ipsi audistis, sed de his
+qui ad vos usque non pervenerunt.' His hero is Cicero, since whose
+time oratory has steadily degenerated: i. praef. 11, 'Illud ingenium
+quod solum populus Romanus par imperio suo habuit'; _ibid._ 7, 'Omnia
+ingenia quae lucem studiis nostris attulerunt tunc nata sunt: in
+deterius deinde cottidie data res est.'
+
+Of the ten Books of _Controversiae_ only five have come down to us,
+viz., i., ii., vii., ix., and x. The deficiency is to some extent
+supplied by an abridgment (_Excerpta_) made in the fourth or fifth
+century A.D., which adds thirty-nine themes to the thirty-five
+contained in the surviving part of the original work. Each Book had a
+separate preface. Those to v., vi., and viii. are entirely wanting;
+for the prefaces to ii., iii., and iv. we are indebted to the
+abridgment.
+
+The _Controversiae_ were written when Seneca was an old man, and when
+his two elder sons were preparing for public life, probably about A.D.
+20: x. praef. 1, 'Sinite me ab istis iuvenilibus studiis ad senectutem
+meam reverti'; ii. praef. 4 (to Mela), 'Fratribus tuis ambitiosa curae
+sunt foroque se et honoribus parant.'
+
+As to the date of publication, it has been argued[71] that they
+appeared after the fall of Seianus and before the death of Mamercus
+Scaurus, _i.e._, between A.D. 31 and 34. Probably, however, the
+publication did not take place till after the death of Tiberius, A.D.
+37; the protest against the burning of books (x. praef. 6-7) would
+have been as offensive to him as to Seianus.
+
+2. There is only one book of _Suasoriae_, and the beginning of it is
+lost. It gives specimens of the treatment of seven themes, _e.g._, 3,
+'Deliberat Agamemnon an Iphigeniam immolet negante Calchante aliter
+navigari fas esse.' It is certainly later than the _Controversiae_:
+_Contr._ ii. 4, 8, 'Quae dixerit suo loco reddam, cum ad suasorias
+venero.' One passage cannot have been written before A.D. 34: 2, 22,
+'Scaurum Mamercum, in quo Scaurorum familia exstincta est.' It was not
+published in the lifetime of Tiberius, for Seneca calls the accuser of
+Scaurus 'homo quam improbi animi tam infelicis ingenii' (2, 22), and
+quotes Cremutius Cordus (6, 19) whose books had been burned in
+Tiberius' time.
+
+3. Seneca wrote also on Roman history from the commencement of the
+civil wars to his own time, but left the work of publication to his
+son.
+
+L. Seneca _de vita patris_ (Haase, vol. iii. p. 436), 'Si quaecumque
+composuit pater meus et edi voluit iam in manus populi emisissem, ad
+claritatem nominis sui satis sibi ipsi prospexerat ... Quisquis
+legisset eius historias ab initio bellorum civilium, unde primum
+veritas retro abiit, paene usque ad mortis suae diem,' etc.
+
+
+
+Footnotes to Chapter III
+
+
+[41] M. Valerius Probus of Berytus (Sueton. _Gramm._ 24) who
+flourished, according to Jerome, A.D. 56, prepared critical editions
+of Lucretius, Virgil, and Horace. A commentary on the _Eclogues_ and
+_Georgics_ passes under his name, but most of it is spurious.
+
+[42] A grammarian of the fifth century A.D., who merely versifies
+Donatus.
+
+[43] On this point Professor W. M. Ramsay writes to us: 'Virgil's farm
+was certainly not at Pietole (which is two miles south of Mantua, out
+in the flat plain): for (1) the farm was a long way from the city (cf.
+_Ecl._ 9, 59 _sqq._); (2) it was beside hills (_ibid._ 7 _sqq._); (3)
+woods were on or by it (cf. Donatus "silvis coemendis"), and the flat
+fertile valley was certainly not abandoned to forests. After exploring
+the country, I felt clear that the farm was on the west bank of the
+Mincio, opposite Valeggio, where the northern hills sink to the dead
+level of the Po valley.'
+
+[44] His knowledge of science is reflected in his works. Cf.
+_Georgics_, passim, and _Ecl._ 3, ll. 40-2.
+
+[45] The latter part of this statement is worthless: Augustus was only
+a child when Virgil came to Rome.
+
+[46] Probus is manifestly wrong in saying that the distribution of
+land took place 'post _Mutinense_ bellum.'
+
+[47] For details see H. Nettleship, _Ancient Lives of Vergil_, who
+holds that there was really only one eviction.
+
+[48] The writings of Augustus are enumerated by Sueton. Aug. 85--(1)
+_Rescripta Bruto de Catone_, a reply to Brutus' pamphlet on Cato; (2)
+_Hortationes ad Philosophiam_; (3) _De Vita Sua_; (4) Life of Drusus
+(Sueton. _Claud._ 1); (5) Poems: 'Sicily' in hexameters, Epigrams and
+Fescennine verses; a tragedy, 'Ajax' (never finished).
+
+[49] Servius wrote 'triennio' perhaps because he thought only of the
+dates of _Ecl._ 1 and 10 (H. Nettleship, _ibid._).
+
+[50] C. Schaper's view is that _Ecls._ 4, 6, and 10 were not written
+till B.C. 27-25 for a second edition. He supposes _Ecl._ 6 to allude
+to the marriage of Marcellus and Julia in 25 (referring 6, 3 to the
+_Aeneid_), and _Ecl._ 10 to be a lament for Gallus, who committed
+suicide B.C. 27.
+
+[51] Iulus is properly spelt Iullus (as in inscriptions), and is for
+Iovillos, a diminutive from the stem of Iuppiter.
+
+[52] L. Orbilius Pupillus of Beneventum, who in his Περιαλγής
+complained of the wrongs of his profession (Sueton. _Gramm._ 4 and 9).
+
+[53] Maecenas wrote, besides smaller prose works, a history of his own
+times (Hor. _Od._ ii. 12, 9; Pliny, _N.H._ vii. 148).
+
+[54] For Horace's relations to Propertius see _Ep._ ii. 2, 91-101, and
+under '_Propertius_,' p. 196.
+
+[55] See G. Boissier, _Nouvelles Promenades Archéologiques: Horace et
+Virgile_ (Paris, 1886).
+
+[56] Dr. A. W. Verrall's argument (_Studies in Horace_, pp. 25 _sqq._)
+that _Od._ i.-iii. were published B.C. 19 is not convincing.
+
+[57] Ed. by Mommsen in _Ephemeris Epigraphica_, 1892, p. 225.
+
+[58] For Horace's eclectic position in philosophy, cf. _Ep._ i. 1,
+14-15,
+
+  'Nullius addictus iurare in verba magistri,
+  quo me cumque rapit tempestas, deferor hospes.'
+
+[59] As suggested to us by Prof. W. M. Ramsay. For Horace's opinion of
+Catullus cf. _Sat._ i. 10, 18-9,
+
+                            'Simius iste,
+  nil praeter Calvum et doctus cantare Catullum.'
+
+[60] See Th. Mommsen, _Sitzungsberichte der königl. preuss. Akad. der
+Wissenschaften zu Berlin_. 24 Jan. 1889.
+
+[61] A Peripatetic of the third century B.C., who wrote a popular
+account of the literary and philosophical views of his school.
+
+[62] E. Voss, _Die Natur in der Dichtung des Horaz_ (Düsseldorf,
+1889).
+
+[63] As pointed out by A. W. Verrall, _Studies in Horace_, p. 134
+_sqq._
+
+[64] This poem is probably referred to by Hor. _Od._ iv. 4, 19-22.
+
+[65] M. Valerius Messalla Corvinus, author of memoirs of the Civil War
+(Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34), love poems (Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3, 5), and works on
+grammar (Quint. i. 7, 35).
+
+[66] Dessau, _Inscr. Lat. Sel._ 2925. _Serg._ stands for _Serg[ia
+tribu]_, and is not a cognomen _Sergio_.
+
+[67] See Pliny, _Ep._ v. 9, 2.
+
+[68] This question was first satisfactorily worked out by T. Dyer,
+_Classical Museum_ for 1847, p. 229 _sqq._
+
+[69] See under 'Juvenal,' p. 323.
+
+[70] Pollio accused him of Patavinitas, _i.e._ the use of
+provincialisms (_verba peregrina_, as opposed to _Latina_, Quint. i.
+5, 55, _curiose loqui_ rather than _Latine_, Quint. viii. 1, 2).
+
+[71] By A. Diepenbrock, _L. Annaeus Seneca_, p. 12 (Amsterdam, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+POST-AUGUSTAN WRITERS.
+
+
+
+VELLEIUS PATERCULUS.
+
+
+C.[72] Velleius Paterculus was born at latest B.C. 19, as he was
+quaestor-elect A.D. 6. He was descended from a distinguished family in
+Campania (Vell. ii. 16, 2; Liv. xxiii. 7 _sqq._). His father was a
+_praefectus equitum_ (ii. 104, 3). After some military experience in
+Thrace and Macedonia, Velleius accompanied C. Caesar, the grandson of
+Augustus, on his mission to the East, A.D. 1. His rank at this time
+was _tribunus militum_.
+
+ii. 101, 2 (of the meeting of C. Caesar and the Parthian king), 'Sub
+initia stipendiorum meorum tribuno militum mihi visere contigit: quem
+militiae gradum ante sub patre tuo, M. Vinici, et P. Silio auspicatus
+in Thracia Macedoniaque, mox Achaia Asiaque et omnibus ad Orientem
+visis provinciis et ore atque utroque maris Pontici latere, haud
+iniucunda tot rerum, locorum, gentium, urbium recordatione fruor.'
+
+In A.D. 4, as _praefectus equitum_, he accompanied Tiberius to
+Germany: ii. 104, 3, 'Hoc tempus me, functum ante tribunatu, castrorum
+Ti. Caesaris militem fecit; quippe protinus ab adoptione missus cum eo
+praefectus equitum in Germaniam, successor officii patris mei,
+caelestissimorum eius operum per annos continuos viii. praefectus aut
+legatus spectator et pro captu mediocritatis meae adiutor fui.'
+
+In A.D. 6, when quaestor-elect, he commanded reinforcements sent from
+Rome to Tiberius in Pannonia, and at the expiration of his term of
+office as quaestor in Rome, he returned to Tiberius as a _legatus_:
+ii. 111, 3, 'Habuit in hoc quoque bello mediocritas nostra speciosi
+ministerii locum. Finita equestri militia designatus quaestor necdum
+senator aequatus senatoribus, etiam designatis tribunis plebei, partem
+exercitus ab urbe traditi ab Augusto perduxi ad filium eius. In
+quaestura deinde remissa sorte provinciae legatus eiusdem ad eumdem
+missus sum.'
+
+In A.D. 9 Velleius served in Dalmatia (ii. 115, 5), afterwards
+spending two years in Germany (ii. 104, 3 above). In the winter of
+A.D. 12-13 he took part in the triumph of Tiberius: ii. 121, 2, 'Ex
+Pannoniis Delmatisque egit triumphum ... quem mihi fratrique meo inter
+praecipuos praecipuisque donis adornatos viros comitari contigit.'
+
+Velleius was praetor-elect in A.D. 14: ii. 124, 4, 'Quo tempore mihi
+fratrique meo, candidatis Caesaris, proxime a nobilissimis ac
+sacerdotalibus viris destinari praetoribus contigit, consecutis ut
+neque post nos quemquam divus Augustus neque ante nos Caesar
+commendaret Tiberius.'
+
+The publication of his history, sixteen years later, is the only
+circumstance recorded of Velleius after this date.
+
+The _Historia Romana_, in two Books, was published A.D. 30, in the
+consulship of M. Vinicius, to whom the book is addressed (i. 8, 1, and
+often). The beginning of Book i. is lost; the first eight chapters in
+our text are occupied with a rapid survey of the history of Greece
+since the Trojan war, the Phoenician settlements in the Mediterranean,
+and the chief events in the history of the world before the foundation
+of Rome. C. 8 breaks off at the rape of the Sabine women, and there is
+a great lacuna before we reach, in c. 9, the defeat of Perseus at
+Pydna in B.C. 168. Ch. 9-13 carry the narrative down to the
+destruction of Carthage and Corinth. Book ii. commences at that point,
+and ends with the death of Livia, A.D. 29 (ii. 130, 5, 'cuius temporis
+aegritudinem auxit amissa mater').
+
+Velleius is constantly calling attention to the brevity and
+compression of his treatment, in such phrases as 'omnia transcursu
+dicenda' (ii. 55), 'artatum opus' (ii. 86), 'recisum opus' (ii. 89).
+Much that the plan of his book compels him to omit, he promises to
+publish later in a larger work, _e.g._ ii. 99, 3, 'iusto servemus
+operi,' ii. 114, 4, 'iustis voluminibus ordine narrabimus.' Even as it
+is, he occasionally pauses to describe a great character (ii. 41,
+Caesar), or to express his personal opinion (ii. 66, 3, denunciation
+of Antony for Cicero's murder). Specially noticeable are the
+digressions on the Roman colonies (i. 14-15) and provinces (ii.
+38-39), on the prominence of different types of genius at certain
+epochs (i. 16-18), and on literary history (ii. 9, the chief writers
+of the time of the Gracci; ii. 36, of the Ciceronian and Augustan
+ages; i. 5, praise of Homer; i. 7, of Hesiod). As is natural in so
+short a book, Velleius names very few authorities.
+
+The motive of the history is evidently the glorification of the
+author's old general, Tiberius, whose actual reign, however, he
+dismisses in eight chapters. Probably he felt the subject too risky,
+and devoted his strength to the earlier life of Tiberius, which
+occupies the greater part even of the chapters nominally devoted to
+the reign of Augustus (ii. 59-123). Tiberius is spoken of throughout
+in terms of unqualified praise, and no hint is given of the darker
+side of his character. Seianus also is extolled (ii. 127-8), as he was
+in high favour at the time when Velleius wrote.
+
+
+
+VALERIUS MAXIMUS.
+
+
+Nothing is known of the life of Valerius Maximus beyond the fact that
+he visited Asia in company with Sex. Pompeius, the friend of Ovid and
+of Germanicus. Pompeius was consul A.D. 14, and between A.D. 27 and 30
+became proconsul of Asia.
+
+Val. Max. ii. 6, 8, 'Consuetudinem ... illam etiam in insula Cea
+servari animadverti, quo tempore Asiam cum Sex. Pompeio petens Iulidem
+oppidum intravi.'
+
+Valerius dwells on his obligations to Pompeius in his chapter on
+friendship (iv. 7, _ext._ 2).
+
+His sole work, _Facta et Dicta Memorabilia_, in nine books, is a
+collection of notable incidents and sayings, classified under
+appropriate headings, for the convenience of speakers seeking
+illustrations for their subject-matter. Cf. the preface, 'Urbis Romae
+exterarumque gentium facta simul ac dicta memoratu digna, quae apud
+alios latius diffusa sunt quam ut breviter cognosci possint, ab
+illustribus electa auctoribus digerere constitui, ut documenta sumere
+volentibus longae inquisitionis labor absit.'
+
+The _illustres auctores_ from whom he draws most of his material are
+Livy, Cicero (each mentioned only once), Sallust, and Trogus; but
+thirteen Latin and twenty Greek authors are mentioned by name. He
+frequently misrepresents his authorities.
+
+Each book is divided into chapters on separate topics (_e.g._ _De
+Pudicitia_), under each of which he gives (1) illustrations from Roman
+history, (2) those from the history of other nations. The latter of
+course are few in comparison.
+
+Although Iulius Paris, the epitomizer of Valerius, speaks of ten
+books, only nine are extant, and it may be doubted whether there ever
+was a tenth. Book i. is mutilated.
+
+There are only two passages which throw any light on the date of
+composition--viii. 11, _ext._ 4, a denunciation of Seianus, obviously
+written after his fall in A.D. 31; and vi. 1 praef., before the death
+of Livia, A.D. 29. The work was published at latest in A.D. 37, for it
+is dedicated to Tiberius, who is the object of the most servile
+flattery (_e.g._ ii. 9, 6); similar language is used of Iulius Caesar
+(iv. 5, 6), and Augustus (i. 7, 1), while Brutus and Cassius are
+denounced as parricides (i. 5, 7; i. 8, 8).
+
+Two abridgments of Valerius Maximus are extant.
+
+
+
+CELSUS.
+
+
+Of the life of Celsus nothing is known; but he was an older
+contemporary of Columella. Colum. iii. 17, 4, 'Iulius Atticus et
+Cornelius Celsus, aetatis nostrae celeberrimi auctores, patrem atque
+filium Sasernam secuti.'
+
+He wrote an encyclopaedic work on agriculture, medicine, war,
+rhetoric, and philosophy, but only the section on medicine is extant.
+
+Quint. xi. 12, 24, 'Cum etiam Cornelius Celsus, mediocri vir ingenio,
+non solum de his omnibus conscripserit artibus sed amplius rei
+militaris et rusticae et medicinae praecepta reliquerit.'
+
+The first part consisted of five books on agriculture: cf. Colum. i.
+1, 14, 'Cornelius totum corpus disciplinae quinque libris complexus
+est.' This section of the work was probably written in the reign of
+Tiberius, for it was known to Iulius Graecinus, whose execution took
+place under Caligula. Plin. _N.H._ xiv. 33, 'Graecinus, qui alioqui
+Cornelium Celsum transcripsit.'
+
+There are eight books _De Re Medica_. The only indication of their
+date is in iv. 7, where Celsus mentions a prescription as not found
+'in monumentis medicorum.' As this prescription is given by Scribonius
+Largus, who wrote about A.D. 47, Celsus must have written before that
+year.
+
+The section on war was used by Vegetius (_De Re Mil._ i. 8).
+
+Rhetoric was also treated in the encyclopaedia. Quintilian, who
+mentions him as one of the more careful writers on that subject (iii.
+1, 21, 'accuratius scripsit Celsus'), frequently combats his opinions
+and speaks of him rather contemptuously: _e.g._ ix. 1, 18, 'Cornelius
+Celsus nimia profecto novitatis cupidine ductus. Nam quis ignorasse
+eruditum alioqui virum credat,' etc. He may be the Celsus of Juv. 6,
+245, who (according to the Scholiast) wrote a manual of rhetoric in
+seven books.
+
+There were also six books on the history of philosophy. Augustine _de
+haeres. prol._, 'Opiniones omnium philosophorum qui sectas varias
+condiderunt usque ad tempora sua vi. non parvis voluminibus quidam
+Celsus absolvit; nec redarguit aliquem, sed tantum quid sentirent
+aperuit. Cum ferme centum philosophos nominasset,' etc.
+
+Celsus also wrote separate treatises (1) on philosophy, Quint. x. 1,
+24, 'Scripsit non parum multa Cornelius Celsus, Sextios secutus, non
+sine cultu ac nitore'; (2) on strategy (Lydus _de mag._ i. 47).
+
+
+
+PHAEDRUS.
+
+
+The title of Phaedrus' work, 'Phaedri Augusti liberti fabularum
+Aesopiarum libri,' probably means that he was a freedman of Augustus.
+Tiberius is called 'Caesar Tiberius' in ii. 6, 7; contrast the
+reference to Augustus, iii. 10, 39, 'a divo Augusto.' Phaedrus was
+born in Thrace, possibly in the district of Pieria; but the date is
+unknown; iii. prol. 17,
+
+  'Ego, quem Pierio mater enixa est iugo,
+  in quo tonanti sancta Mnemosyne Iovi
+  fecunda novies artium peperit chorum';
+
+_ibid._ 54,
+
+  'Ego, litteratae qui sum propior Graeciae,
+  cur somno inerti deseram patriae decus?
+  Threissa cum gens numeret auctores suos,
+  Linoque Apollo sit parens, Musa Orpheo.'
+
+Some wrongly take these allusions to mean that he belongs to the realm
+of poesy. That he came to Rome early is shown by the knowledge of
+Latin literature he acquired in his boyhood. Cf. iii. epil. 33, where
+he quotes Ennius,
+
+  'Ego, quondam legi quam puer sententiam,
+  "Palam mutire plebeio piaculum est,"
+  dum sanitas constabit, pulchre meminero.'
+
+After publishing two books of fables, Phaedrus was persecuted by
+Seianus, in some way unknown; iii. prol. 38,
+
+  'Ego porro illius [Aesopi] semita feci viam,
+  et cogitavi plura quam reliquerat,
+  in calamitatem deligens quaedam meam.
+  Quod si accusator alius Seiano foret,
+  si testis alius, index alius denique,
+  dignum faterer esse me tantis malis.'
+
+This persecution may have arisen from references in his fables, such
+as i. 1 (Lupus et agnus), l. 14,
+
+  'Haec propter illos scripta est homines fabula,
+  qui fictis causis innocentes opprimunt';
+
+i. 6 (Ranae ad solem), which Nisard[73] thinks refers to the ambitious
+marriage which Seianus projected with Livia, daughter of Germanicus,
+'The sun dries up the ponds; what will happen if the sun marries and
+has children?' l. 9,
+
+  'Quidnam futurum est, si crearit liberos?'
+
+Phaedrus survived the attacks made on him, and Book v. was written in
+his old age (see below).
+
+Several personal points are clear from his writings:
+
+(1) He had to meet the attacks of critics; ii. epil. 10,
+
+  'Si livor obtrectare curam voluerit,
+  non tamen eripiet laudis conscientiam.'
+
+(2) His desire for fame and his self-consciousness; iii. prol. 60,
+
+  'Ergo hinc abesto livor, ne frustra gemas,
+  quoniam sollemnis mihi debetur gloria.'
+
+(3) His contempt for money; iii. prol. 21,
+
+  'Curamque habendi penitus corde eraserim';
+
+v. 4, 7,
+
+  'Huius respectu fabulae deterritus
+  periculosum semper vitavi lucrum.'
+
+Phaedrus wrote five Books of fables. Many have certainly been lost.
+Cf. his reference to tree-fables, none of which we have; i. prol. 6,
+
+  'quod arbores loquantur, non tantum ferae.'
+
+There are, besides the five Books, thirty fables usually printed as an
+appendix, and probably composed by Phaedrus. The fables are all in
+'impure' iambic senarii, like those of Terence and Publius Syrus.
+Phaedrus followed Aesop, but, as he affirms, not slavishly; i. prol.
+1,
+
+  'Aesopus auctor quam materiam repperit,
+  hanc ego polivi versibus senariis';
+
+iv. prol. 10,
+
+                     'fabulis
+  quas Aesopias, non Aesopi, nomino.'
+
+We have the Greek originals for about a third of the fables; but
+Phaedrus speaks of his additions to Aesop; ii. prol. 8,
+
+  'Equidem omni cura morem servabo senis;
+  sed si libuerit aliquid interponere,
+  dictorum sensus ut delectet varietas,
+  bonas in partes, lector, accipias velim.'
+
+Stories from contemporary or recent history are given in ii. 6, 7;
+iii. 10; v. 7.
+
+Books i. and ii. were published under Tiberius; Book iii. was
+published after Tiberius' death (cf. iii. prol. 33), and is dedicated
+to Eutychus, who has been identified with a favourite slave of
+Caligula. Book iv. followed, addressed to Particulo (iv. prol. 10).
+Book v., addressed to Philetes, was written in the poet's old age; v.
+10, 7,
+
+             'Cui senex contra Lacon:
+  "Non te destituit animus, sed vires meae.
+  Quod fuimus, lauda, si iam damnas, quod sumus."
+  Hoc cur, Philete, scripserim, pulchre vides.'
+
+Martial is the only classical writer who refers to Phaedrus; iii. 20,
+5,
+
+  'An aemulatur improbi iocos Phaedri?'
+
+
+
+SENECA THE YOUNGER.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+L. Annaeus Seneca, the son of Annaeus Seneca, the rhetor, was born at
+Corduba in Spain. For information about his family see under 'Seneca
+the elder,' pp. 226-7. He was probably born about the beginning of our
+era, as he seems to have remembered Asinius Pollio, who died A.D. 5,
+and had passed his boyhood in A.D. 19, when the Jewish and Egyptian
+rites were expelled from Rome.
+
+Sen. _de tranquill. animi_, 17, 7, 'Qualem Pollionem Asinium
+meminimus, quem nulla res ultra decimam [horam] retinuit.'
+
+_Ep._ 108, 22, 'In Tiberii Caesaris principatum iuventae tempus
+inciderat: alienigena tum sacra movebantur.'
+
+At an early age Seneca was brought to Rome by his mother's sister, who
+was probably the wife of Vitrasius Pollio, prefect of Egypt for
+sixteen years.
+
+_Ad Helv._ 19, 2, 'Illius manibus in urbem perlatus sum.'
+
+Seneca's mother took a great interest in his education, which was
+conducted under Fabianus Papirius (cf. _Ep._ 100, 9, etc.) and Sotion
+the Pythagorean, of Alexandria, pupils of Sextius (for Seneca's study
+of whom see _Ep._ 64).
+
+_Ad Helv._ 15, 1, 'Vera vis materni doloris oritur ... "ubi studia,
+quibus libentius quam femina, familiarius quam mater intereram?"'
+
+_Ep._ 108, 17, 'Dicebat [Sotion] quare ille animalibus abstinuisset,
+quare postea Sextius ... § 22. His ego instinctus abstinere animalibus
+coepi et anno peracto non tantum facilis erat mihi consuetudo, sed
+dulcis.'
+
+The elder Seneca put an end to this abstinence, which was associated
+in the popular view with foreign superstitions (see _Ep._ 108, 17-23).
+This must have happened about A.D. 19. The influence of Sotion is seen
+in passages imitated from his book _de ira cohibenda_ by Seneca.
+Seneca also studied under Attalus, a Greek Stoic, possibly about A.D.
+20.
+
+_Ep._ 108, 13-15, 'Ego certe cum Attalum audirem in vitia, in errores,
+in mala vitae perorantem, saepe misertus sum generis humani et illum
+sublimem altioremque humano fastigio credidi ... Inde mihi quaedam
+permansere, Lucili. Magno enim in omnia inceptu veneram. Deinde ad
+civitatis vitam reductus ex bene coeptis pauca servavi: inde ostreis
+boletisque in omnem vitam renuntiatum est.'
+
+Seneca speaks of his change of studies and occupations in _Ep._ 49, 2,
+'Modo apud Sotionem philosophum puer sedi. Modo causas agere coepi.
+Modo desii velle agere, modo desii posse.'
+
+In A.D. 31 Seneca was probably still at Rome; cf. _N.Q._ i. 1, 3,
+'Vidimus [prodigium] eo tempore, quo de Seiano actum est.' Lipsius'
+inference[74] that Seneca made a voyage to Egypt about this time is
+probable, though Seneca himself gives no direct information about it.
+According to this theory his host was Vitrasius Pollio, prefect of
+Egypt. While in Egypt, Seneca was attacked by illness, and escaped
+death by his aunt's care. Cf. _ad Helv._ 19, 2, 'Illius pio maternoque
+nutricio per longum tempus aeger convalui.' Seneca accompanied
+Vitrasius when he resigned his office and returned with his wife to
+Italy A.D. 32 (Dio, lviii. 19, 6). They suffered shipwreck, and
+Vitrasius perished.
+
+_Ad Helv._ 19, 4, 'Sed si prudentiam perfectissimae feminae novi, non
+patietur te nihil profuturo maerore consumi et exemplum tibi suum,
+cuius ego etiam spectator fui, narrabit. Carissimum virum amiserat,
+avunculum nostrum, cui virgo nupserat, in ipsa quidem navigatione:
+tulit tamen eodem tempore et luctum et metum evictisque tempestatibus
+corpus eius naufraga evexit.'
+
+This theory is supported by the fact that Seneca wrote a work 'de ritu
+(al., situ) et sacris Aegyptiorum' (Serv. _ad Aen._ vi. 154).
+
+Through his aunt's influence Seneca obtained the quaestorship.
+
+_Ad Helv._ 19, 2, 'Illa pro quaestura mea gratiam suam extendit, et
+quae ne sermonis quidem aut clarae salutationis sustinuit audaciam,
+pro me vicit indulgentia verecundiam.'
+
+Seneca's quaestorship must have been after the death of his aunt's
+husband, in A.D. 32, as the above passage shows, and before the death of
+Tiberius in A.D. 37, as it was with Tiberius that his aunt's influence
+lay, on account of her husband's services. After his quaestorship Seneca
+appears to have married (cf. _de ira_, iii. 36, 3, etc.). His wife must
+have died before A.D. 57, as in that year Seneca married Pompeia
+Paulina; cf. Dio, lxi. 10, 3, γάμον ἐπιφανέστατον ἔγημε. By his first
+wife he had three sons (_ad Helv._ 2, 5).
+
+While senator, Seneca incurred the jealousy of Caligula, and in A.D.
+39 narrowly escaped death.
+
+Dio, lix. 19, 7, ὁ δὲ δὴ Σενέκας ... διεφθάρη παρ'
+ὀλίγον, μήτ' ἀδικήσας τι, μήτε δόξας, ὅτι δίκην τινὰ ἐν τῷ
+συνεδρίῳ παρόντος αὐτοῦ καλῶς εἴπε. For Seneca's attacks on Caligula
+cf. _ad Helv._ 10, 4; _Apocol._ 15, etc.
+
+Sueton. _Cal._ 53, 'Peroraturus "stricturum se lucubrationis suae
+telum" minabatur; lenius comtiusque scribendi genus adeo contemnens,
+ut Senecam, tum maxime placentem, "commissiones meras" componere, et
+"harenam esse sine calce" diceret.'
+
+In A.D. 41 Seneca was banished to Corsica, through the agency of
+Messalina, on the charge of adultery with Iulia Livilla, sister of
+Caligula, but really because he was suspected of belonging to the
+faction of Agrippina.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42, 'Nec Suillius questu aut exprobratione
+abstinebat ... et Senecam increpans infensum amicis Claudii, sub quo
+iustissimum exilium pertulisset ... Se quaestorem Germanici, illum
+domus eius adulterum fuisse.'
+
+Seneca was tried before the Senate, and Claudius prevented his
+execution.
+
+_Ad Polyb._ 13, 2, 'Deprecatus est pro me senatum, et vitam mihi non
+tantum dedit, sed etiam petiit.'
+
+While in Corsica he devoted himself to literature and science. Cf. _ad
+Helv._ 20, 1 (written in exile), 'Animus omnis occupationis expers
+operibus suis vacat et modo se levioribus studiis oblectat, modo ad
+considerandam suam universique naturam veri avidus insurgit: terras
+primum situmque earum quaerit.'
+
+The _Consolatio ad Polybium_, written during this time, is full of
+flattery of Claudius.
+
+Dio, lxi. 10, 2, τὴν Μεσσαλίναν καὶ τοὺς τοὺ Κλαυδίου
+ἐξελευθέρους ἐθώπευεν ὥστε καὶ βιβλίον σφίσιν ἐκ τῆς νήσου
+πέμψαι ἐπαίνους αὐτῶν ἔχον, ὃ μετὰ ταῦτα ὑπ' αἰσχύνης
+ἀπήλειψε.
+
+Seneca was recalled at the beginning of A.D. 49, became Nero's tutor
+(although he wished to visit Athens), and obtained the praetorship
+through the influence of Agrippina, with whom his name was coupled by
+popular rumour.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xii. 8, 'At Agrippina, ne malis tantum facinoribus
+notesceret, veniam exilii pro Annaeo Seneca, simul praeturam inpetrat,
+laetum in publicum rata ob claritudinem studiorum eius, utque Domitii
+pueritia tali magistro adulesceret et consiliis eiusdem ad spem
+dominationis uterentur, quia Seneca fidus in Agrippinam memoria
+beneficii et infensus Claudio dolore iniuriae credebatur.'
+
+Schol. on _Iuv._ 5, 105, 'Revocatus ... etsi magno desiderio Athenas
+intenderet ab Agrippina tamen in palatium adductus.'
+
+Dio, lxi. 10, 1, οὐ γὰρ ἀπέχρῃσεν αὐτῷ τὴν Ἰουλίαν
+μοιχεῦσαι, οὐδὲ βελτίων ἐκ τῆς φυγῆς ἐγένετο, ἀλλὰ καὶ τῇ
+Ἀγριππίνῃ ἐπλῃσίαζεν.
+
+For Seneca's tutorship cf. also Sueton. _Nero_, 52, 'Liberales
+disciplinas omnes fere puer attigit. Sed a philosophia eum mater
+avertit, monens imperaturo contrariam esse: a cognitione veterum
+oratorum Seneca praeceptor, quo diutius in admiratione sui detineret.'
+
+It is probable that Seneca was, like Nero, privy to the murder of
+Claudius in A.D. 54. Cf. his sarcasms against Claudius in his
+_Apocolocyntosis_.
+
+Sueton. _Nero_ 33 (of Nero), 'Cuius [Claudi] necis etsi non auctor, at
+conscius fuit: neque dissimulanter, ut qui boletos, in quo cibi genere
+venenum is acceperat, quasi deorum cibum, posthac proverbio Graeco
+conlaudare sit solitus.'
+
+Seneca wrote for Nero a speech which he delivered on the occasion of
+Claudius' death.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 3, 'Die funeris laudationem eius princeps exorsus
+est; dum antiquitatem generis, consulatus ac triumphos maiorum
+enumerabat, intentus ipse et ceteri; liberalium quoque artium
+commemoratio, et nihil regente eo triste rei publicae ab externis
+accidisse, pronis animis audita. Postquam ad providentiam
+sapientiamque flexit, nemo risui temperare, quamquam oratio a Seneca
+composita multum cultus praeferret, ut fuit illi viro ingenium amoenum
+et temporis eius auribus accommodatum.'
+
+He acted as a check on Nero (Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 6; 11), and baffled
+Agrippina's vengeance and ambition.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 2, 'Ibaturque in caedes, nisi Afranius Burrus et
+Annaeus Seneca obviam issent. (Ch. 5) Quin et legatis Armeniorum
+causam gentis apud Neronem orantibus escendere suggestum imperatoris
+et praesidere simul parabat, nisi ceteris pavore defixis Seneca
+admonuisset, venienti matri occurreret.'
+
+Seneca interfered to shelter Nero in his amour with Acte, A.D. 55, and
+used the occasion to stir up feud between Agrippina and Nero (Tac.
+_Ann._ xiii. 13). Hence followed an attack by Agrippina on Seneca.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 14, 'Audiretur hinc Germanici filia, inde debilis
+rursus Burrus et exsul Seneca, trunca scilicet manu et professoria
+lingua generis humani regimen expostulantes.'
+
+It is unlikely that Seneca opposed the murder of Britannicus (Feb.
+A.D. 55). Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 17, 'Facinus cui plerique iam hominum
+ignoscebant, antiquas fratrum discordias et insociabile regnum
+aestimantes.'[75]
+
+Seneca took part shortly afterwards in the trial in which Agrippina
+was found not guilty (Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 20-21). There are many
+references to Seneca's great power and wealth at this time.[76]
+
+Cf. Dio, lxi. 4, 1, αὐτοὶ (Seneca and Burrus) τὴν
+ἀρχὴν ἅπασαν παρέλαβον καὶ διῴκησαν ἐφ' ὅσον ἠδυνήθησαν
+ἄριστα καὶ δικαιότατα.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 53 (Seneca addressing Nero in A.D. 62), 'Quartus
+decimus annus est, Caesar, ex quo spei tuae admotus sum, octavus, ut
+imperium obtines: medio temporis tantum honorum atque opum in me
+cumulasti, ut nihil felicitati meae desit nisi moderatio eius... At
+tu gratiam immensam, innumeram pecuniam circumdedisti, adeo ut
+plerumque intra me ipse volvam, "Egone, equestri et provinciali loco
+ortus, proceribus civitatis adnumeror? ... Talis hortos extruit, et
+per haec suburbana incedit, et tantis agrorum spatiis, tam lato
+faenore exuberat?"'
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42 (speech of Suillius, A.D. 58), 'Qua sapientia,
+quibus philosophorum praeceptis, intra quadriennium regiae amicitiae
+ter miliens sestertium paravisset?' (Dio, lxi. 10, 2, gives his wealth
+as 75,000,000 denarii).
+
+Seneca had many estates both in Italy (_Ep._ 123, 1, etc.) and abroad,
+and lent money abroad, even in Britain. His attraction to finance is
+seen in the number of metaphors he draws from that subject.
+
+Sen. _vit. beat._ 17, 2, 'Cur trans mare possides? cur plura quam
+nosti?'
+
+Dio, lxii. 2, 1 (of the rising of the Britons under Boudicca), ὁ
+Σενέκας χιλίας σφίσι μυριάδας ἄκουσιν ἐπὶ χρησταῖς ἐλπίσι
+τόκων δανείσας, ἔπειτ' ἀθρόας τε ἅμα αὐτὰς καὶ βιαίως
+εἰσέπρασσεν.
+
+His attack on usury (_de ben._ vii. 10, 3) is a piece of theoretic
+philosophy.
+
+In A.D. 57 Seneca was consul suffectus (Ulpian, _Dig._ xxxvi. 1). In
+A.D. 58 he brought about the downfall of the former delator, P.
+Suillius. Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42, 'Variis deinde casibus iactatus et
+multorum odia meritus reus, haud tamen sine invidia Senecae damnatur.
+Is fuit P. Suillius.' Seneca is thought to have been implicated in
+Agrippina's murder in A.D. 59. He wrote to the Senate for Nero an
+account of her death.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 7 (Nero says after the fruitless attempt of Anicetus
+to kill Agrippina), 'Quod contra subsidium sibi nisi quid Burrus et
+Seneca expedirent? Quos statim acciverat, incertum an aperiens, et
+ante ignaros. Igitur longum utriusque silentium, ne inriti
+dissuaderent; an eo descensum credebant, ut, nisi praeveniretur
+Agrippina, pereundum Neroni esset? Post Seneca, hactenus promptius, ut
+respiceret Burrum, ac sciscitaretur an militi imperanda caedes esset.
+(Ch. 11) Ergo non iam Nero, cuius immanitas omnium questus anteibat,
+sed Seneca adverso rumore erat, quod oratione tali confessionem
+scripsisset.'
+
+The death of Burrus in A.D. 62 weakened the power of Seneca, who
+resolved to retire. His request, however, was not granted by Nero
+(Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 55-6), but he reduced his establishment, and lived
+in semi-privacy.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 52, 'Mors Burri infregit Senecae potentiam, quia nec
+bonis artibus idem virium erat altero velut duce amoto, et Nero ad
+deteriores inclinabat. Hi variis criminationibus Senecam
+adoriuntur ... Certe finitam Neronis pueritiam, et robur iuventae
+adesse. Exueret magistrum, satis amplis doctoribus instructus
+maioribus suis. (Ch. 56) Instituta prioris potentiae commutat,
+prohibet coetus salutantium, vitat comitantis, rarus per urbem, quasi
+valetudine infensa aut sapientiae studiis domi attineretur.'
+
+Later in A.D. 62, came an unsuccessful attempt to ruin Seneca. Tac.
+_Ann._ xiv. 65, 'Romanus secretis criminationibus incusaverat Senecam
+ut Gai Pisonis socium; sed validius a Seneca eodem crimine perculsus
+est.'
+
+In A.D. 64, on the occasion of the burning of Rome by Nero, Seneca
+wished to retire. He is said to have offered money to repair the
+disasters of the fire.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xv. 45, 'Ferebatur Seneca, quo invidiam sacrilegii a semet
+averteret, longinqui ruris secessum oravisse, et postquam non
+concedebatur, ficta valetudine, quasi aeger nervis, cubiculum non
+egressus.'
+
+Dio, lxii. 25, 3, πᾶσαν αὐτῷ τὴν οὐσίαν ἐπὶ τῇ τῶν
+οἰκοδομουμένων προφάσει κεχαρισμένος.
+
+The story given in Tac. _Ann._ xv. 45 of the attempt to poison Seneca
+probably arose from his abstemious habits.
+
+'Tradidere quidam venenum ei per libertum ipsius cui nomen Cleonicus
+paratum iussu Neronis, vitatumque a Seneca proditione liberti seu
+propria formidine, dum persimplici victu et agrestibus pomis, ac si
+sitis admoneret, profluente aqua vitam tolerat.'
+
+In A.D. 65 Seneca was implicated in the conspiracy of Piso, and was
+forced to commit suicide. His wife wished to die with him, but was
+prevented by Nero's orders.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xv. 60, 'Sequitur caedes Annaei Senecae, laetissima
+principi, non quia coniurationis manifestum compererat, sed ut ferro
+grassaretur, quando veneno non processerat ... (Ch. 63) Post quae
+eodem ictu brachia ferro exsolvunt. Seneca, quoniam senile corpus et
+parco victu tenuatum lenta effugia sanguini praebebat, crurum quoque
+et poplitum venas abrumpit. Saevisque cruciatibus defessus, ne dolore
+suo animum uxoris infringeret atque ipse visendo eius tormenta ad
+impatientiam delaberetur, suadet in aliud cubiculum abscedere. Et
+novissimo quoque momento suppeditante eloquentia advocatis
+scriptoribus pleraque tradidit ... (Ch. 64) At Nero nullo in Paulinam
+proprio odio, ac ne glisceret invidia crudelitatis, inhibere
+mortem. ... Seneca interim, durante tractu et lentitudine mortis,
+Statium Annaeum, diu sibi amicitiae fide et arte medicinae probatum,
+orat, provisum pridem venenum, quo damnati publico Atheniensium
+iudicio exstinguerentur, promeret; adlatumque hausit frustra, frigidus
+iam artus, et cluso corpore adversum vim veneni. Postremo stagnum
+calidae aquae introiit, respergens proximos servorum, addita voce,
+libare se liquorem illum Iovi liberatori. Exin balneo inlatus, et
+vapore eius exanimatus, sine ullo funeris sollemni crematur.'
+
+There was a rumour that some of the conspirators intended to make
+Seneca emperor.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xv. 65, 'Fama fuit Subrium Flavum cum centurionibus
+occulto consilio, neque tamen ignorante Seneca, destinavisse, ut post
+occisum opera Pisonis Neronem Piso quoque interficeretur,
+tradereturque imperium Senecae, quasi insontibus claritudine virtutum
+ad summum fastigium delecto.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+The following prose works are extant:
+
+1. _Dialogorum libri_ xii.
+
+(1) _ad Lucilium: quare aliqua incommoda bonis viris accidant cum
+providentia sit; sive de providentia_. This was probably a late work.
+
+(2) _ad Serenum: nec iniuriam nec contumeliam accipere sapientem; sive
+de constantia sapientis_: written in the first years of Nero's reign.
+
+(3-5) _ad Novatum de ira libri_ iii., probably written in the first
+year of Claudius' reign.
+
+(6) _ad Marciam de consolatione_: written to console Marcia, the
+daughter of Cremutius Cordus, for the death of her son Metilius. The
+work may have been written in A.D. 41, as Caligula's name is
+studiously avoided.
+
+(7) _ad Gallionem de vita beata_. This book, addressed to Seneca's
+brother Gallio (Novatus), was probably written shortly after A.D. 58,
+and justifies his having wealth though a philosopher.
+
+(8) _ad Serenum de otio_. This work, like the next, was addressed to
+Annaeus Serenus, and was written probably about A.D. 62. Only a part
+of it is extant. The book discusses whether a wise man should engage
+in state affairs.
+
+(9) _ad Serenum de tranquillitate animi_, probably written soon after
+Seneca's recall.
+
+(10) _ad Paulinum de brevitate vitae_. For the date cf. 13, 8, 'Sullam
+ultimum Romanorum protulisse pomoerium.' Now, Claudius extended the
+pomoerium in A.D. 50, so this must have been written in A.D. 49, as
+the book was brought out after Seneca's return from exile.
+
+(11) _ad Polybium de consolatione_. This book was addressed in A.D. 43
+or 44 to Polybius, a favourite of Claudius, on the occasion of his
+brother's death. The date is fixed by the reference to Claudius'
+expedition to Britain in 12, 2-3. Cf. § 3, 'Non desinam totiens tibi
+offerre Caesarem. Illo moderante terras et ostendente, quanto melius
+beneficiis imperium custodiatur quam armis, illo rebus humanis
+praeside non est periculum, ne quid perdidisse te sentias.' For
+similar flattery of Claudius, cf. 7,4; 12,5.
+
+(12) _ad Helviam matrem de consolatione_, written during his
+banishment.
+
+2. _ad Neronem Caesarem de clementia_, in three Books, two of which
+are extant. The work was written in A.D. 55-6, doubtless to show the
+public what sort of instruction Seneca had given Nero, and what sort
+of emperor they had to expect (cf. i, 1, 1). The date is settled by i.
+9, 1, '[divus Augustus] cum hoc aetatis esset quod tu nunc es,
+duodevicesimum egressus annum,' Nero having been born 15th December,
+A.D. 37. The flattery contained in ii. 1, 1-2, and elsewhere, can be
+justified to some extent by Nero's conduct at that time. Cf. Sueton.
+_Nero_, 10, 'Neque liberalitatis, neque clementiae, ne comitatis
+quidem exhibendae ullam occasionem omisit.'
+
+3. _De Beneficiis_ in seven Books, addressed to Aebutius Liberalis of
+Lugdunum. It is probable that Books i.-iv. were published first,
+shortly after the death of Claudius (who is sneered at in i. 15, 6).
+Books v.-vii. are probably a later addition. Cf. v. 1, 1, 'In
+prioribus libris videbar consummasse propositum ... Quidquid ultra
+moror, non servio materiae, sed indulgeo ... Verum quia ita vis,
+perseveremus peractis.' The eulogy of Demetrius the Cynic in vii.
+8-12, makes it probable that Book vii. at least was written in
+Seneca's last years.
+
+4. _Apocolocyntosis_, a political satire on Claudius, written shortly
+after his death in A.D. 54. The explanation of the title is given by
+Dio, lx. 35, 2, Ἀγριππίνα καὶ ὁ Νέρων ... ἐς τὸν οὐρανὸν ἀνήγαγον
+ὃν ἐκ τοῦ συμποσίου φοράδην ἐξενηνόχεσαν. ὅθευπερ Λούκιος Ἰούνιος
+Γαλλίων ὁ τοῦ Σενέκα ἀδελφὸς ἀστειότατόν τι ἀπεφθέγξατο· συνέθηκε
+μὲν γὰρ καὶ ὁ Σενέκας σύγγραμμα, ἀποκολοκύντωσιν αὐτὸ ὥσπερ τινὰ
+ἀπαθανάτισιν ὀνομάσας, ἐκεῖνος δὲ ἐν βραχυτάτῳ πολλὰ εἰπὼν
+ἀπομνημονεύεται ... ἔφη τὸν Κλαύδιον ἀγκίστρῳ ἐς τὸν οὐρανὸν
+ἀνενεχθῆναι. The work does not bear this title in the MSS., and
+there is no hint of the witticism in the book itself; the St. Gall
+MS., however, has 'Divi Claudii ΑΠΟΘΗΟΣΙΣ Annei Senecae per
+Saturam,' which may be a corruption of the proper title. The title is
+derived from κολοκύντη, 'a gourd,' which was used to denote a fool.
+Seneca (_Apocol._ 6) takes the official view that Claudius died of a
+fever. The work may have been published at the Saturnalia, and written
+shortly before, as Narcissus is represented as having just arrived in
+Orcus. The personal animosity of Seneca against Caligula and Claudius
+is everywhere apparent.
+
+5. _Naturales Quaestiones_ in seven Books, addressed to Lucilius. Book
+ii. was written after A.D. 57, as in ii. 9, 2 an amphitheatre is
+mentioned which was built by Nero in that year. The work was finished
+before the end of A.D. 64, for in Book vii. there is no mention among
+other prodigies of the comet which appeared again at the end of that
+year.
+
+6. _Epistulae morales ad Lucilium_. These were addressed to Lucilius
+Iunior, the author of 'Aetna' (see p. 277). There are extant one
+hundred and twenty four letters, in twenty Books, but some Books have
+been lost, as Gell. xii. 2, 3 quotes from Book xxii. Books i.-iii.
+were probably published by Seneca, the rest after his death, generally
+in chronological order.
+
+The following poetical works are extant:
+
+1. _Epigrams._--Nine on his exile are given in the editions; probably
+only Nos. 1, 2, and 7 are genuine.
+
+2. _Tragedies._--Some of these may have been composed during Seneca's
+exile in Corsica. See _ad Helv._ 20 (quoted p. 243). The metrical
+treatment is strict, especially in the senarii. Anapaestic, glyconic,
+sapphic lines, etc., are used in the choral odes. There are only three
+actors, except in the spurious _Octavia_. The plays are: (1) _Hercules
+Furens_ and (2) _Troades_ or _Hecuba_, founded on Euripides. (3)
+_Phoenissae_ or _Thebais_. The two parts do not correspond. In ll.
+1-362, Oedipus and Antigone are on their way to Cithaeron; from l. 363
+to the end we find Iocasta and Antigone in Thebes while it is besieged
+by the Seven. (4) _Medea_, founded on Euripides. Ovid has also been
+imitated; so ll. 56 _sqq._ from Ovid, _Heroides_, 12, 137. (5)
+_Phaedra_ or _Hippolytus_. (6) _Oedipus_, after Sophocles. (7)
+_Agamemnon_, after Aeschylus. (8) _Thyestes_. (9) _Hercules Oetaeus_,
+of which the second part, at least, is spurious. (10) _Octavia_, a
+praetexta, describing the death of Octavia, Nero's wife (A.D. 62).
+Seneca himself appears in it. It cannot be by Seneca, as Nero's
+downfall (A.D. 68) is mentioned in ll. 628-36.
+
+The following works are lost or exist only in fragments:
+
+i. Poems of a light nature (Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3). 2. _De motu terrarum_,
+afterwards incorporated in _N.Q._ vi. (see _N.Q._ vi. 4, 2). 3. _De
+lapidum natura_. 4. _De piscium natura_. 5. _De ritu et sacris
+Aegyptiorum_ (see p. 242). 6. _De situ Indiae_. 7. _De forma mundi_.
+8. _Exhortationes_. 9. _De officiis_. 10. _De immatura morte_. 11. _De
+superstitione dialogus_. 12. _De matrimonio_. 13. _De amicitia_. 14.
+_De vita patris_, along with an edition of his works. 15. Speeches by
+himself or by Nero. 16. _Epistulae_ (a) _ad Novatum_, probably written
+from Corsica, (b) _ad Caesonium Maximum_. 17. A book in praise of
+Messalina, afterwards withdrawn (see p. 243). 18. _Moralis
+philosophiae libri_ (see _Ep._ 106, 2). 19. _De remediis fortuitorum_,
+addressed to Gallio. A synopsis with additions is extant. 20. _De
+paupertate_. 21. _De formula honestae vitae_, probably founded on one
+of Seneca's works. 22. _Notae_ (see Sueton. pp. 135-6 R.).
+
+The following are spurious works:
+
+1. 'Epistulae Senecae, Neronis imperatoris magistri, ad Paulum
+Apostolum et Pauli Apostoli ad Senecam.' These letters, fourteen in
+all, are accepted as genuine by Jerome, _de vir. illustr._ 12. 'Seneca
+... quem non ponerem in catalogo sanctorum, nisi me epistulae illae
+provocarent, quae leguntur a plurimis, Pauli ad Senecam et Senecae ad
+Paulum.'
+
+2. A work extant under the title of _Sententiae Rufi_ has been wrongly
+thought to correspond to Seneca's dying words mentioned in Tac. _Ann._
+xv. 63.
+
+3. The book _De moribus_ or _Monita_ contains maxims by Christian
+writers.
+
+_Views and Character._--For Seneca's training in Stoic doctrines see
+_Ep._ 108, 13 (quoted p. 241). With these views he generally
+associates himself (cf. _Ep._ 113, 1; 117, 1), but does not bind
+himself to one school.
+
+Cf. _Ep._ 45, 4, 'Non enim me cuiquam emancipavi, nullius nomen fero.
+Multum magnorum virorum iudicio credo, aliquid et meo vindico.'
+
+Especially towards the end of his life, he came under the influence of
+Demetrius the Cynic.
+
+_Ep._ 62, 3, 'Demetrium, virorum optimum, mecum circumfero et relictis
+conchyliatis cum illo seminudo loquor, ilium admiror. Quidni admirer?
+vidi nihil ei deesse.'
+
+In _de provid._ 5, 7, after quoting Demetrius' fatalistic views,
+Seneca adds, 'Fata nos ducunt, et quantum cuique temporis restat,
+prima nascentium hora disposuit.'
+
+Seneca was one of the few Romans who condemned the butcheries
+practised in the arena, and his views doubtless influenced Nero's
+conduct in A.D. 58.
+
+_Ep._ 95, 33, 'Homo, sacra res homini, iam per lusum ac iocum
+occiditur et quem erudiri ad inferenda accipiendaque volnera nefas
+erat, is iam nudus inermisque producitur satisque spectaculi ex homine
+mors est.'
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 31, 'Edixit Caesar ne quis magistratus aut
+procurator, qui provinciam obtineret, spectaculum gladiatorum aut
+ferarum aut quod aliud ludicrum ederet.'
+
+For Seneca's love of wealth see p. 246. For his estimate of riches cf.
+_De vita beata_, 22, 5. 'Apud me divitiae aliquem locum habent, apud
+te summum ac postremum. Divitiae meae sunt, tu divitiarum es.'
+
+His simplicity of life has been already dealt with.
+
+Dio, lxi. 10, 2, gives a most unjust account of Seneca's character:
+
+πάντα τὰ ἐναντιώτατα οἷς ἐφιλοσόφει ποιῶν ἠλέγχθη. καὶ
+γὰρ τυραννίδος κατηγορῶν τυραννοδιδάσκαλος ἐγίνετο, καὶ τῶν συνόντων
+τοῖς δυνάσταις κατατρέχων οὐκ ἀφίστατο τοῦ παλατίου ... τοῖς τε
+πλουσίοις ἐγκαλῶν οὐσίαν ἑπτακισχιλίων καὶ πεντακοσίων μυριάδων
+ἐκτήσατο.
+
+Seneca followed no traditional style. Cf. _Ep._ 100, 6, 'De
+compositione non constat'; _Ep._ 114, 13, 'Oratio certam regulam non
+habet.' Quintilian, x. 1, 125-131, attacks his style, though admitting
+his great powers.
+
+
+
+CURTIUS RUFUS.
+
+
+The full name is Q. Curtius Rufus, given in the MSS. of his work,
+'Historiarum Alexandri Magni Macedonis Libri x.', the first two Books
+of which are lost. Curtius is not referred to by name by any ancient
+writer, but is probably identical with the Q. Curtius Rufus mentioned
+in the list prefixed to Sueton. _de claris oratoribus_ between M.
+Porcius Latro and L. Valerius Primanus. This order favours the view
+that he belonged to the reign of Claudius, a view supported by the two
+contemporary references in Curtius:
+
+iv. 4, 21 (of Tyre), 'nunc tandem longa pace cuncta refovente sub
+tutela Romanae mansuetudinis adquiescit.'
+
+x. 9, 3-6, 'Quod imperium sub uno stare potuisset, dum a pluribus
+sustinetur, ruit. Proinde iure meritoque populus Romanus salutem se
+principi suo debere profitetur, qui noctis, quam paene supremam
+habuimus, novum sidus inluxit. Huius hercule, non solis ortus lucem
+caliganti reddidit mundo, cum sine suo capite discordia membra
+trepidarent,' etc.
+
+This passage probably refers to the tumultuous scene on the night
+between 24th and 25th Jan., A.D. 41, before Claudius' accession, after
+the murder of Caligula (cf. the pun in _caliganti_), when rival
+claimants to the throne were put forward, and the Senate wished to
+restore the republic (cf. _discordia membra trepidarent_). Sen. _ad
+Polyb._ 13, 1, uses similar language of Claudius, 'Sidus hoc, quod
+praecipitato in profundum et demerso in tenebras orbi refulsit, semper
+luceat.'
+
+As Curtius says nothing but good about the reign of Claudius, he
+probably wrote shortly after his accession. The passage in iv. 4, 21
+(above) also fits in with this view, as there was little fighting in
+the Roman world from 17 to 43 A.D. His bold tone with regard to rulers
+would also suit this time, while it would have been dangerous under
+Caligula, or from 43 to 54 A.D.
+
+Cf. viii. 5, 6, 'Non deerat talia concupiscenti perniciosa adulatio,
+perpetuum malum regum, quorum opes saepius adsentatio quam hostis
+evertit.'
+
+This tone also renders it impossible to identify him with Curtius
+Rufus, mentioned in Tac. _Ann._ xi. 21, as governor of Africa, and as
+'adversus superiores tristi adulatione, adrogans minoribus, inter
+pares difficilis.'
+
+Seneca is supposed to have quoted his contemporary Curtius once or
+twice. Cf. Sen. _Ep._ 56, 9, 'Nihil tam certum est quam otii vitia
+negotio discuti'; and Curt. vii. 1, 4, 'Satis prudens, otii vitia
+negotio discuti.' Cf. also viii. 10, 29 with Sen. _Ep._ 59, 12.
+
+Curtius claims to transcribe his authorities carefully. Cf. ix. 1, 34,
+'Equidem plura transscribo quam credo: nam nec adfirmare sustineo, de
+quibus dubito, nec subducere quae accepi.'
+
+Curtius' statements are usually parallel to those of one or other of
+the historians of Alexander, but he appeals only twice to other
+authorities by name.
+
+ix. 8, 15, 'Clitarchus (c. 300 B.C.) est auctor.'
+
+ix. 5, 21, 'Ptolemaeum (c. 300 B.C.), qui postea regnavit, huic pugnae
+adfuisse auctor est Clitarchus et Timagenes (c. 55 B.C.). Sed ipse ...
+afuisse se missum in expeditionem memoriae tradidit.'
+
+The rhetorical tone of the work is seen in the speeches and letters.
+For the latter cf. iv. 1, 10-74. Curtius has little technical
+knowledge of war or politics. Thus Alexander's assumption of oriental
+pomp to conciliate the Asiatics is looked on as ὕβρις. Cf.
+iii. 12, 18. Like Livy, he attempts to depreciate Alexander's
+abilities by unduly accentuating his good fortune.
+
+Cf. viii. 3, 1, 'Sed hanc quoque expeditionem, ut pleraque alia,
+fortuna indulgendo ei numquam fatigata pro absente transegit.'
+
+
+
+COLUMELLA.
+
+
+L. Iunius Moderatus Columella was a native of Gades: x. 185, 'mea
+[lactuca] quam generant Tartessi littore Gades.' On an inscription he
+is styled 'trib. mil. leg. vi. ferratae' (_C.I.L._ ix. 325), and it
+was probably in the course of his military service that he visited
+Cilicia and Syria: ii. 10, 18, 'hoc semen Ciliciae Syriaeque
+regionibus ipse vidi.'
+
+His uncle, M. Columella, was a leading man in the province of Baetica
+(v. 5, 15); and he himself possessed land in Italy: iii. 9, 2, 'cum et
+in Ardeatino agro, quem multis temporibus ipsi ante possedimus, et in
+Carseolano itemque in Albano generis Aminei vites huius modi notae
+habuerimus.'
+
+He was a contemporary of the younger Seneca, who is spoken of as alive
+(iii. 3, 3).
+
+His chief work is _De Re Rustica_ in twelve Books, dedicated to P.
+Silvinus--a practical treatise on husbandry for 'negotiosi agricolae'
+(ix. 2, 5). Book x., on gardening, is in hexameter verse, and was
+written at the suggestion of Silvinus and another friend, to fill the
+gap which Virgil had left in the Georgics (iv. 147-8); cf. the
+preface, 'Cultus hortorum ... sicut institueram, prosa oratione
+prioribus subnecteretur exordiis, nisi propositum expugnasset frequens
+postulatio tua, quae pervicit, ut poeticis numeris explerem Georgici
+carminis omissas partes, quas tamen et ipse Vergilius significaverat,
+posteris se memorandas relinquere.'
+
+The last two Books were added as an afterthought; xi. 1, 2, 'numerum
+quem iam quasi consummaveram voluminum excessi.'
+
+Columella wrote before A.D. 65 (see above); later than Celsus, but
+earlier than the elder Pliny.
+
+There is also extant a book _De Arboribus_, which formed Book ii. of
+an earlier treatise on agriculture: cf. i. 1, 'Quoniam de cultu
+agrorum abunde primo volumine praecepisse videmur, non intempestiva
+erit arborum virgultorumque cura.' It covers the same ground as _De
+R.R._ iii.-v.
+
+Columella also wrote 'adversus astrologos' (xi. 1, 31), and projected
+a treatise on the religious rites connected with agriculture (ii. 22,
+5, 'lustrationum ceterorumque sacrificiorum, quae pro frugibus fiunt,
+morem priscis usurpatum').
+
+
+
+POMPONIUS MELA.
+
+
+The geographer Pomponius Mela was a native of Tingentera in Spain (ii.
+96). His date can be inferred from iii. 49; the 'principum maximus'
+mentioned there as triumphing over Britain might be either Claudius
+(in A.D. 40) or Caligula (in 44); but the earlier date is favoured by
+Mela's division of Africa according to the system abolished by
+Caligula in 42 (i. 25-30). The title of his work is _De Chorographia_,
+in three Books: the dryness of its details (i. 1, 'opus impeditum et
+facundiae minime capax') is relieved by word-painting, _e.g._ the
+description of Britain, iii. 49. The only authors to whom he
+acknowledges obligations are Nepos (iii. 45) and Hanno (iii. 90).
+
+
+
+PERSIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+We possess a very full account of the life of Persius, which,
+according to the MSS., is taken from Probus' commentary on the poet,
+and may therefore be looked upon as trustworthy. According to Probus
+(from whom are taken the quotations throughout), he lived from 34 to
+62 A.D.: 'Aulus Persius Flaccus natus est pridie Non. Decembr. Fabio
+Persico L. Vitellio coss., decessit viii. Kal. Decembr. Rubrio Mario
+Asinio Gallo coss.' These dates are confirmed by Jerome.
+
+He was born at Volaterrae in Etruria, and was the son of a Roman
+knight who died when Persius was quite young:
+
+'Natus in Etruria Volaterris, eques Romanus, sanguine et affinitate
+primi ordinis viris coniunctus. Pater eum Flaccus pupillum reliquit
+moriens annorum fere sex.'
+
+'Fulvia Sisennia (his mother) nupsit postea Fuscio equiti Romano.'
+
+After the completion of his early education (for which see _Sat._ 3,
+44-51) he studied at Rome, where he came under the influence of the
+Stoic Annaeus Cornutus:
+
+'Studuit Flaccus usque ad annum xii. aetatis suae Volaterris, inde
+Romae apud grammaticum Remmium Palaemonem et apud rhetorem Verginium
+Flavum. Cum esset annorum xvi., amicitia coepit uti Annaei Cornuti,
+ita ut nusquam ab eo discederet; inductus aliquatenus in philosophiam
+est.'
+
+In _Sat._ 5, 21-24 and 30-51, he speaks in the highest terms of
+Cornutus as his guide in life and close friend: cf. esp. ll. 36-7,
+
+             'teneros tu suspicis annos,
+  Socratico, Cornute, sinu.'
+
+Among his other friends were Caesius Bassus (to whom _Sat._ 6 is
+addressed), Lucan, Seneca, and his own relative, Paetus Thrasea:
+
+'Cognovit per Cornutum etiam Annaeum Lucanum, aequaevum auditorem
+Cornuti. Lucanus adeo mirabatur scripta Flacci ut vix retineret se
+recitante eo cum clamore quin illa esse vera poemata diceret, sua ipse
+ludos faceret. Sero cognovit et Senecam, sed non ut caperetur eius
+ingenio ... Idem decem fere annis summe dilectus a Paeto Thrasea est,
+ita ut peregrinaretur quoque cum eo aliquando, cognatam eius Arriam
+uxorem habente.'
+
+Persius was a man of considerable means, as is shown by his will and
+his landed property:
+
+'Reliquit circa HS vicies matri et sorori; scriptis tamen ad matrem
+codicillis Cornuto rogavit ut daret sestertia ut quidam centum, ut
+alii volunt ..., et argenti facti pondo viginti, et libros circa
+septingentos sive bibliothecam suam omnem. Verum a Cornuto sublatis
+libris, pecuniam sororibus, quas heredes frater fecerat, reliquit.'
+
+'Decessit ad octavum miliarium via Appia in praediis suis ... vitio
+stomachi anno aetatis xxviii.'
+
+His character was lofty and disinterested:
+
+'Fuit morum lenissimorum, verecundiae virginalis, formae pulchrae,
+pietatis erga matrem et sororem et amitam exemplo sufficientis. Fuit
+frugi, pudicus.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. His early works, which Cornutus caused to be destroyed at his
+death, were:
+
+(_a_) A praetexta, called _Vescia_ (?).
+
+(_b_) One Book of ὁδοιπορικά, no doubt referring to his
+travels with Thrasea.
+
+(_c_) Some verses on Arria, the wife of Paetus.
+
+'Scripserat in pueritia Flaccus etiam praetextam Vesciam, et
+ὁδοιπορικῶν librum unum, et paucos in socrum Thraseae in Arriam
+matrem versus ... Omnia ea auctor fuit Cornutus matri eius ut
+aboleret.'
+
+2. _Satires._ There are six of these (in hexameters), with a prologue
+(in scazons). Persius wrote slowly, and the Book was left unfinished:
+
+'Et raro et tarde scripsit. Hunc ipsum librum imperfectum reliquit.
+Versus aliqui dempti sunt ultimo libro, ut quasi finitus esset.
+Leviter retractavit Cornutus, et Caesio Basso petenti, ut ipsi
+cederet, tradidit edendum.'
+
+The prologue, and the first satire (on literary criticism)--the only
+real satire he wrote--are said to be imitated from Lucilius. The other
+five are largely Stoic dissertations in verse, and show throughout the
+influence of Cornutus and Persius' other Stoic friends. Probus says he
+attacked Nero's poetry in _Sat._ 1.
+
+'Lecto Lucilii libro x. vehementer satiras componere instituit, cuius
+libri principium imitatus est ... cum tanta recentium poetarum et
+oratorum insectatione, ut etiam Neronem ... culpaverit, cuius versus
+in Neronem cum ita se haberet:
+
+  'Auriculas asini Mida rex habet,'
+
+in eum modum a Cornuto, ipso iam tum mortuo, est emendatus:
+
+  'Auriculas asini quis non habet?' [1, 121]
+
+ne hoc Nero in se dictum arbitraretur.'
+
+_Sat._ 1, 99-102 is said to be a travesty of Nero's poetry.
+
+Very few passages, however, are quoted by the Scholiasts as modelled
+on Lucilius.
+
+Persius refers to Lucilius and Horace in 1, 114-8:
+
+              'Secuit Lucilius urbem,
+  te, Lupe, te, Muci, et genuinum fregit in illis;
+  omne vafer vitium ridenti Flaccus amico
+  tangit, et admissus circum praecordia ludit,
+  callidus excusso populum suspendere naso.'
+
+His obligations to Horace are paramount, imitations--often
+unintentional burlesques--occurring everywhere. Examples are: 1, 42,
+
+              'cedro digna locutus,
+  linquere nec scombros metuentia carmina nec tus.'
+
+from Hor. _A.P._ 331,
+
+  'carmina ... linenda cedro';
+
+and Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 269,
+
+  'Deferar in vicum vendentem tus et odores
+  et piper et quidquid chartis amicitur ineptis.'
+
+Again, 5, 103,
+
+             'exclamet Melicerta perisse
+  frontem de rebus';
+
+from Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 80,
+
+     'clament periise pudorem
+  cuncti paene patres.'
+
+He even borrows Horace's names: Pedius (1, 85), Natta (3, 31), Nerius
+(2, 14), Craterus (3, 65), Bestius (6, 37).
+
+The statement of Joannes Lydus (i. 41) that Persius imitated the mimic
+writer, Sophron, has little to support it.
+
+Probus says the work became immediately popular: 'Editum librum
+continuo mirari homines et diripere coeperunt.'
+
+Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 94, 'multum et verae gloriae quamvis uno libro
+Persius meruit'; Mart. iv. 29, 7,
+
+  'Saepius in libro memoratur Persius uno
+  quam levis in tota Marsus Amazonide.'
+
+
+
+LUCAN.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Besides references to Lucan in other writers, especially Statius,
+Martial, and Tacitus, we have three biographies of him: (1) a short
+and defective life, probably by Suetonius, and showing his well-known
+hatred of the Annaei; (2) one by Vacca, a commentator on Lucan, who
+lived probably in the sixth century, complete and favourable; (3) one
+in Codex Vossianus ii. The last two are in part derived from the
+first.
+
+M. Annaeus Lucanus was born at Corduba in Hispania Baetica, and was
+the son of M. Annaeus Mela, a Roman knight, and nephew of M. Annaeus
+Novatus (the Gallio of Acts 18, 12-17) and L. Annaeus Seneca the
+philosopher.
+
+Vacca, _vit. Luc._, 'M. Annaeus Lucanus patrem habuit M. Annaeum Melam
+ex provincia Baetica Hispaniae interioris Cordubensem equitem Romanum,
+illustrem inter suos, notum Romae et propter Senecam fratrem, clarum
+per omnes virtutes virum, et propter studium vitae quietioris ...
+Matrem habuit et regionis eiusdem et urbis Aciliam nomine, Acilii
+Lucani filiam ... cuius cognomen huic inditum apparet.'
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xvi. 17, 'Mela, quibus Gallio et Seneca, parentibus
+natus ... Idem Annaeum Lucanum genuerat, grande adiumentum
+claritudinis.'
+
+Lucan was born Nov. 3, A.D. 39, and was removed to Rome when eight
+months old.
+
+Vacca, _ibid._, 'Natus est iii. Non. Novembr. C. Caesare Germanico ii.
+L. Apronio Caesiano coss. Octavum mensem agens Romam translatus est.'
+
+He had a successful school and college career. One of his teachers was
+Cornutus, through whom he knew Persius (see p. 261).
+
+Vacca, _ibid._, 'A praeceptoribus tunc eminentissimis est eruditus
+eosque intra breve temporis spatium ingenio adaequavit ... Declamavit
+et graece et latine cum magna admiratione audientium.'
+
+His first literary success was the _laudes Neronis_ in A.D. 60; this
+led to his political advancement.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Luc._, 'Prima ingenii experimenta in Neronis laudibus
+dedit quinquennali certamine.'
+
+Vacca, _ibid._, 'Ob quod puerili mutato in senatorium cultum et in
+notitiam Caesaris Neronis facile pervenit et honore vixdum aetati
+debito dignus iudicatus est. Gessit autem quaesturam, in qua cum
+collegis more tunc usitato munus gladiatorium edidit secundo populi
+favore; sacerdotium etiam accepit auguratus.'
+
+Similarly Suetonius, who also tells us that Lucan had been in Athens.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._, 'Revocatus Athenis a Nerone cohortique amicorum
+additus atque etiam quaestura honoratus, non tamen permansit in
+gratia.'
+
+The reason of the strained relations between Lucan and the emperor
+was, according to Suetonius, that Lucan had behaved rudely when
+reciting in public. Vacca says the reason lay in the jealousy felt by
+Nero, who forbade Lucan to write poetry or to plead causes.
+
+Vacca, _ibid._, 'Quippe et certamine pentaeterico acto in Pompei
+theatro laudibus recitatis in Neronem fuerat coronatus et ex tempore
+Orphea scriptum in experimentum adversum conplures ediderat poetas et
+tres libros, quales videmus. Quare inimicum sibi fecerat imperatorem.
+Quo ambitiosa vanitate, non hominum tantum, sed et artium sibi
+principatum vindicante interdictum est ei poetica, interdictum est
+etiam causarum actionibus.'
+
+Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xv. 49, 'Famam carminum eius premebat Nero
+prohibueratque ostentare, vanus adsimulatione.'
+
+Lucan replied by a poem satirizing Nero and his court.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._, 'Sed et famoso carmine cum ipsum tum potentissimos
+amicorum gravissime proscidit.'
+
+Lucan joined the conspiracy of Piso which was started A.D. 62, but was
+discovered, and compelled to commit suicide, 30th April, A.D. 65.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._, 'Paene signifer Pisonianae coniurationis extitit.'
+
+Vacca, _ibid._, 'A coniuratis in caedem Neronis socius adsumptus est,
+sed parum fauste. Deceptus est a Pisone ... Sua sponte coactus vita
+excedere venas sibi praecidit periitque pridie Kal. Maias Attico
+Vestino et Nerva Siliano coss., xxvi. aetatis annum agens.'
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xv. 70, 'Exin Annaei Lucani caedem imperat. Is, profluente
+sanguine, ubi frigescere pedes manusque et paulatim ab extremis cedere
+spiritum fervido adhuc et compote mentis pectore intellegit,
+recordatus carmen a se compositum, quo volneratum militem per eius
+modi mortis imaginem obisse tradiderat, versus ipsos rettulit, eaque
+illi suprema vox fuit.'
+
+Suetonius (corroborated by Tac. _Ann._ xv. 56) says that Lucan named
+his mother as a fellow-conspirator.
+
+'Verum detecta coniuratione nequaquam parem animi constantiam
+praestitit. Facile enim confessus et ad humillimas devolutus preces
+matrem quoque innoxiam inter socios nominavit, sperans impietatem sibi
+apud parricidam principem profuturam.... Epulatus largiter brachia ad
+secandas venas praebuit medico.'
+
+Lucan married Polla Argentaria. Statius and Martial were her friends,
+and seem to have kept up an observance of Lucan's birthday.
+
+Cf. especially Statius, _Silvae_, ii. 7, on which the author, in his
+preface to the book, says, 'Cludit volumen genethliacon Lucani, quod
+Polla Argentaria, clarissima uxorum, cum hunc diem forte
+consecraremus, imputari sibi voluit.'
+
+Martial vii. 21, 22, and 23 are written on the subject of Lucan's
+birthday.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. The only extant work of Lucan is _De Bello Civili_. This is the
+title in the MSS., and in Petron. 118. The usual title comes from ix.
+985, 'Pharsalia nostra vivet,' words which come after a list of places
+in Greece and Asia immortalized by the poets, and which mean 'My story
+of Pharsalus shall live.' There is no evidence that Lucan gave the
+poem this title.
+
+2. _Lost works._ Vacca mentions the following:
+
+(_a_) In verse: Orpheus; Iliacon; Saturnalia; Catachthonion; Silvarum
+x.; tragoedia Medea (imperfecta): Salticae Fabulae, xiv.; epigrammata.
+
+(_b_) In prose: Oratio in Octavium Sagittam et pro eo; de incendio
+urbis; epistulae ex Campania.
+
+Suetonius also mentions 'Neronis laudes; famosum carmen in Neronem.'
+Stat. _Silv._ ii. 7, 62, mentions another work--'allocutio ad Pollam'
+(his wife).
+
+Lucan's works became immediately popular.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._, 'Poemata eius etiam praelegi memini, confici vero ac
+proponi, non tantum operose et diligenter, sed et inepte quoque.'
+
+Mart. xiv. 194,
+
+  'Sunt quidam qui me dicunt non esse poetam:
+  sed qui me vendit bibliopola putat.'
+
+The epic poem _De Bello Civili_ in ten Books (the last incomplete)
+carries the story of the Civil War down to the point where Caesar is
+besieged in Alexandria. Vacca informs us that Lucan did not live to
+correct the last seven Books.
+
+'Ediderat ... tres libros quales videmus ... Reliqui vii. belli
+civilis libri locum calumniantibus tamquam mendosi non darent, qui
+tametsi sub vero crimine non egent patrocinio: in isdem dici, quod in
+Ovidii libris praescribitur, potest: "emendaturus, si licuisset,
+erat."'
+
+_Lucan's political views._--The first three Books were published when
+Lucan was still on good terms with Nero (cf. the gross flattery in i.
+33-66), but practically the same view of the empire is taken
+throughout the poem; only Lucan expresses his views with greater
+vigour in the last seven Books; and, while in Books i.-iii. the
+question is one between Caesar and Pompey, afterwards it is one
+between Caesar and liberty. Even in Books i.-iii. Caesar is the
+villain of the piece; Pompey embodies all that is good; Cato and
+Brutus are highly spoken of; the former stands as the ideal Stoic. The
+Senate, except in Book v. _ad init._, appears in a rather unfavourable
+light, and so does the plebs. Lucan did not want the re-establishment
+of the republican oligarchy, but acquiesced in the empire as being
+ordained by fate. This is borne out by what we know of the Pisonian
+conspiracy, the object of which was not to re-establish the republic,
+but to put some leading man like Seneca on the throne. A few
+quotations will exemplify these points:
+
+(1) The empire; iv. 691,
+
+           'Libyamque auferre tyranno
+  dum regnum te, Roma, facit';
+
+vii. 432,
+
+  'Quod fugiens civile nefas redituraque nunquam
+  libertas ultra Tigrim Rhenumque recessit';
+
+vii. 442,
+
+  'Felices Arabes Medique eoaque tellus,
+  quam sub perpetuis tenuerunt fata tyrannis.
+  Ex populis qui regna ferunt, sors ultima nostra est,
+  quos servire pudet.'
+
+(2) Pompeius; ii. 732-6,
+
+  'Non quia te superi patrio privare sepulchro
+  maluerint, Phariae busto damnantur harenae:
+  parcitur Hesperiae; procul hoc et in orbe remoto
+  abscondat fortuna nefas, Romanaque tellus
+  inmaculata sui servetur sanguine Magni.'
+
+Cf. ix. 601-4 (where apotheosis is assigned him).
+
+(3) Cato (the hero of Book ix.) and Brutus; ii. 234,
+
+  'At non magnanimi percussit pectora Bruti
+  terror';
+
+ix. 554,
+
+  'Nam cui crediderim superos arcana daturos
+  dicturosque magis quam sancto vera Catoni?'
+
+Cf. ix. 186-9.
+
+(4) Caesar; ii. 439,
+
+  'Caesar in arma furens nullas nisi sanguine fuso
+  gaudet habere vias';
+
+v. 242,
+
+  'perdere successus scelerum';
+
+vii. 593,
+
+               'nondum attigit arcem
+  iuris et humanum columen, quo cuncta premuntur,
+  egressus meruit fatis tam nobile letum.
+  Vivat et, ut Bruti procumbat victima, regnet.'
+
+Caesar's acts are sometimes unfairly represented, as in vii. 798
+_sqq._, ix. 1035 _sqq._ (on viewing Pompeius' corpse); ll. 1038-9,
+
+            'lacrimas non sponte cadentis
+  effudit gemitusque expressit pectore laeto.'
+
+_Lucan's philosophical and religious views._--His Stoicism comes out
+strongly in the poem, ix. 566-84 (speech of Cato), especially 578-80,
+
+  'Estque dei sedes, nisi terra et pontus et aër
+  et caelum et virtus? Superos quid quaerimus ultra?
+  Iuppiter est, quodcumque vides, quodcumque moveris?'
+
+vii. 814,
+
+  'Communis mundo superest rogus ossibus astra
+  mixturus.'
+
+Note especially the very frequent references to fate; i. 263-4,
+
+              'cunctasque pudoris
+  rumpunt fata moras.'
+
+The gods are not introduced as chief agents; cf. the censure of
+Petronius quoted below. Lucan prides himself on despising the gods,
+and substitutes for them his favourite divinity, Fortuna; i. 128,
+
+  'Victrix causa deis placuit, sed victa Catoni';
+
+vii. 445,
+
+      'Sunt nobis nulla profecto
+  numina; cum caeco rapiantur saecula casu,
+  mentimur regnare Iovem.'
+
+_Rhetorical treatment_ is seen in (1) the vast amount of hyperbole
+employed; cf. the account of the siege of Massilia, iii. 538-762; (2)
+the geographical and mythological learning introduced. This is
+sometimes inaccurate; the best known instance is his confusion of
+Pharsalus and Philippi; cf. i. 1 and 688.
+
+_Lucan's models._--(1) For diction, chiefly Virgil.[77] Horace and
+Ovid are also imitated.
+
+(2) For history Lucan is supposed to have used Livy mostly. How far he
+used other authorities is unknown. His history is sometimes inexact.
+In ii. 478 _sqq._ the character of L. Domitius Ahenobarbus is falsely
+portrayed. So the journey of Cato to the shrine of Hammon, ix. 511
+_sqq._
+
+(3) Seneca is one of his authorities for science and philosophy. Thus
+in describing the Nile, x. 194-331, Lucan has used Seneca, _Nat.
+Quaest._ iv. 1-2. The biographer of the _Codex Vossianus_ ii.
+attributes (probably wrongly) the first seven verses of Book i. to
+Seneca.
+
+'Seneca, qui fuit avonculus eius, quia ex abrupto incohabat, hos vii.
+versus addidit: "Bella per Emathios" usque "et pila minantia pilis."'
+
+_Criticisms of Lucan._--Petronius, in introducing his parody of Lucan,
+says, § 118, 'Ecce belli civilis ingens opus quisquis attigerit, nisi
+plenus litteris, sub onere labetur. Non enim res gestae versibus
+comprehendendae sunt, quod longe melius historici faciunt, sed per
+ambages deorumque ministeria et fabulosum sententiarum tormentum
+praecipitandus est liber spiritus.' See p. 275.
+
+Quint. x. 1, 90, 'Lucanus ardens et concitatus et sententiis
+clarissimus et, ut dicam quod sentio, magis oratoribus quam poetis
+imitandus.'
+
+
+
+PETRONIUS.
+
+
+The _Satirae_ of Petronius are attributed in the MSS. to Petronius
+Arbiter. It is practically certain that the author was C. Petronius,
+once proconsul of Bithynia and afterwards consul, who was long a
+member of Nero's inner circle, and who, in A.D. 66, when accused by
+Tigellinus, anticipated execution by suicide.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xvi. 18, 'Proconsul Bithyniae, et mox consul, vigentem se
+ac parem negotiis ostendit. Dein revolutus ad vitia, seu vitiorum
+imitatione, inter paucos familiarium Neroni adsumptus est, elegantiae
+arbiter, dum nihil amoenum et molle adfluentia putat, nisi quod ei
+Petronius adprobavisset. Unde invidia Tigellini ... (Ch. 19) Forte ...
+Campaniam petiverat Caesar, et Cumas usque progressus Petronius illic
+attinebatur. Nec tulit ultra timoris aut spei moras. Neque tamen
+praeceps vitam expulit, sed incisas venas, ut libitum, obligatas
+aperire rursum, et adloqui amicos, non per seria aut quibus gloriam
+constantiae peteret ... Flagitia principis sub nominibus exoletorum
+feminarumque et novitatem cuiusque stupri perscripsit, atque obsignata
+misit Neroni.'
+
+The document mentioned above as sent to Nero has nothing to do with
+the extant _Satirae_. That C. Petronius is the author of the work is
+rendered even more certain from the fact that it was obviously written
+in Nero's time by a man of high culture and knowledge of the world.
+
+The novel contains an account of the adventures of a certain
+Encolpius, as told by himself. Encolpius comes in contact with Priapus
+in Massilia, Cumae, and Croton; and probably the wrath of Priapus (a
+parody of the wrath of Poseidon in the Odyssey) is the leading motive
+that binds the disjointed parts. Cf. ch. 139,
+
+  'Me quoque per terras, per cani Nereos aequor
+  Hellespontiaci sequitur gravis ira Priapi.'
+
+The work, the extant parts of which are from Books xv. and xvi., is in
+form a Satira Menippea,[78] alternately prose and verse. The longer
+episodes, as the supper of Trimalchio and the story of the matron of
+Ephesus, are exclusively prose. In the _Cena Trimalchionis_, where
+Encolpius and his company are entertained by a rich freedman,
+Petronius has given us a correct account of provincial life in South
+Italy. Mommsen (_Hermes_, xiii. 106) has shown that Cumae was the town
+where Trimalchio lived. It is a 'Graeca urbs' (ch. 81), and a Roman
+colony (ch. 44, etc.), so that it cannot be Naples. The chief
+magistrates are called _praetores_ (ch. 65), which suits Cumae alone
+of the towns of this district. The only objection to Cumae being the
+place is the passage in ch. 48, where an event at Cumae is given as
+something wonderful and unusual:
+
+'Nam Sibyllam quidem Cumis ego ipse oculis meis vidi in ampulla
+pendere, et cum illi pueri dicerent: Σίβυλλα, τί θέλεις;
+respondebat illa: ἀποθανεῖν θέλω.'
+
+This, however, may simply be given for comic effect. Friedländer
+thinks _Cumis_ is a wrong reading. The date of Encolpius' adventures
+cannot be under Tiberius, for the emperor is called 'pater patriae'
+(ch. 60), a title which Tiberius refused. Mommsen thinks the dramatic
+date is under Augustus; Friedländer,[79] towards the end of Claudius'
+or the beginning of Nero's reign. The cognomen of Trimalchio,
+Maecenatianus (ch. 71), means that he was a freedman of the well-known
+Maecenas. Trimalchio, therefore, came to Rome as a boy (ch. 29; 75)
+before Maecenas' death (B.C. 8), and was probably born about B.C. 18.
+He is represented as 'senex' (ch. 27), _i.e._ at least sixty, but may
+have been over seventy. A.D. 57 is probably the later limit of date.
+Mommsen thinks that the words (ch. 57), 'puer capillatus in hanc
+coloniam veni: adhuc basilica non erat facta,' mean that when
+Trimalchio came to Cumae it was not a Roman colony. Now, Cumae became
+a colony between 43 and 27 B.C., and, on this supposition, the supper
+of Trimalchio would have to be placed between A.D. 7 and A.D. 23, as
+it is about fifty years since Trimalchio came to Cumae. Friedländer,
+however, thinks that the basilica would not have been put up
+immediately the town became a colony.
+
+The language of the narrative is that of the educated classes of the
+time, and is in close agreement with the style of Seneca the younger.
+The diction of Trimalchio and his fellow-freedman is the South Italian
+popular speech of the time, filled with grammatical mistakes and
+provincialisms, and rich in proverbial expressions. The longest poems
+in the work are: (1) _Troiae halosis_ (ch. 89), 65 senarii, supposed
+to be a parody of Nero's poem of the same name; (2) _De bello civili_
+(ch. 119-124), 295 hexameters, in which Lucan's style is imitated and
+sometimes parodied. Cf. ll. 26-7,
+
+  'Et laxi crines et tot nova nomina vestis,
+  quaeque virum quaerunt,'
+
+with Lucan, i. 164-5,
+
+         'Cultus gestare decoros
+  vix nuribus rapuere mares';
+
+and ll. 51-2,
+
+  'Praeterea gemino deprensam gurgite plebem
+  faenoris illuvies ususque exederat aeris,'
+
+with Lucan, i. 181,
+
+  'Hinc usura vorax, avidumque in tempora faenus.'
+
+
+
+CALPURNIUS SICULUS.
+
+
+Eleven eclogues used to be attributed to T. Calpurnius Siculus, but
+only the first seven are his work, the last four being written by M.
+Aurelius Olympius Nemesianus in the second half of the 3rd century
+A.D. A MS. now lost gave before _Ecl._ 1, 'Titi Calphurnii Siculi
+bucolicum carmen ... incipit'; and before _Ecl._ 8, 'Aurelii Nemesiani
+poetae Carthaginiensis ecloga prima incipit.'
+
+Some information about Calpurnius' life is got from his works. In 4,
+17-8, he (as Corydon) mentions a brother; in 4, 155-6, he speaks of
+his poverty; and in 4, 29 _sqq._, of Meliboeus as having come to his
+assistance when about to leave for Spain; cf. _Ecl._ 4, 36-42,
+
+  Ecce nihil querulum per te, Meliboee, sonamus;
+  per te secura saturi recubamus in umbra,
+  et fruimur silvis Amaryllidos, ultima nuper
+  litora terrarum, nisi tu, Meliboee, fuisses,
+  ultima visuri, trucibusque obnoxia Mauris
+  pascua Geryonis.
+
+The old theory was that Calpurnius lived in the time of Carus and his
+sons (in the second half of the 3rd century A.D.), but the facts fit
+in best with the view that he lived at the beginning of Nero's reign.
+(1) Meliboeus in _Ecl._ 4 probably stands for Seneca (others suppose
+Calpurnius Piso to be meant); 4, 53-7,
+
+  Nam tibi non tantum venturos discere nimbos
+  agricolis qualemque ferat sol aureus ortum,
+  attribuere dei, sed dulcia carmina saepe
+  concinis.
+
+These lines agree with the fact of Seneca's being the author of
+_Naturales Quaestiones_ and of tragedies. (2) _Ecl._ i. 77-83 refers
+to the comet which appeared at the beginning of Nero's reign. (3)
+References to Nero's youth and beauty, poetical gifts, the games he
+gave, and the new era of peace he introduced; 1, 42-5,
+
+  Aurea secura cum pace renascitur aetas,
+  et redit ad terras tandem squalore situque
+  alma Themis posito, iuvenemque beata secuntur
+  saecula, maternis causam qui vicit in ulnis
+
+7, 6,
+
+  quae patula iuvenis deus edit harena.
+
+Cf. also 1, 84-8; 4, 84-9; 7, 83-4. _Ecl._ 7 used to be taken as
+referring to the Colosseum, which was not commenced till about A.D.
+77; but the games may be those mentioned in Sueton. _Nero_, 11, and
+the wooden amphitheatre in 7, 23-4, may be that mentioned by Sueton.
+_Nero_, 12, and Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 31.
+
+The difference of authorship of _Ecl._ 1-7 and of _Ecl._ 8-11 is shown
+by the following: (1) Final _ŏ_ shows classical usage in 1-7, but in
+8-11 we have _expectŏ_ (9, 26), _coniungŏ_ (10, 14), _ambŏ_ (9, 17),
+and the like; (2) 1-7 show only eight elisions, 7-11 show thirty-nine;
+(3) no ending like _montivagus Pan_ (10, 17) is found in 1-7; (4)
+_fateor_ and _memini_ used parenthetically are common in 1-7, and not
+found in 8-11; (5) there are no allusions to the emperor in 8-11; (6)
+_Ecl._ 9 shows imitations of _Ecl._ 2 and 3; (7) 8-11 agree in many
+points with Nemesianus' _Cynegetica_.
+
+The _Eclogues_ are modelled chiefly on Virgil and Theocritus, _e.g._
+_Ecl._ 3 on Verg. _Ecl._ 7 and Theocr. 3, 14, and 23.
+
+The poem _de laude Pisonis_ is now generally attributed to Calpurnius
+Siculus. One point of similarity with Calpurnius' other poems is the
+rareness of elision, there being only two instances (ll. 24, 259). The
+description of Piso's liberality and eloquence (ll. 32, 88, 97 _sqq._)
+and of his skill in draughts (ll. 178-96) corresponds with the
+information given by Tac. _Ann._ xv. 48 and the Schol. on Iuv. 5, 109,
+about Calpurnius Piso, who flourished under Claudius.
+
+
+
+AETNA.
+
+
+This poem, in 645 hexameter lines, is attributed to Virgil in the
+MSS., but is probably by Lucilius Iunior, to whom Seneca addresses his
+_Epistulae Morales_, _De Providentia_, and _Quaestiones Naturales_.
+Lucilius was younger than Seneca (Sen. _Ep._ 26, 7, 'iuvenior es'),
+and was born at Naples or Pompeii.
+
+Sen. _Ep._ 49, 1, 'Ecce Campania et maxime Neapolis ad Pompeiorum
+tuorum conspectum incredibile est quam recens desiderium tui
+fecerint.'
+
+Lucilius had held procuratorial offices in Alpes Graiae et Poeninae,
+Epirus, Creta et Cyrene, and Sicily.
+
+_Ibid._ 44, 2, 'Eques Romanus es et ad hunc ordinem tua te perduxit
+industria.' _Ibid._ 31, 9, 'Quo modo, inquis, isto pervenitur? Non per
+Poeninum Graiumve montem, nec per deserta Candaviae, nec Syrtes tibi
+nec Scylla aut Charybdis adeundae sunt, quae tamen omnia transisti
+procuratiunculae pretio.'[80]
+
+Sen. _N.Q._ iv. praef. 1, 'Delectat te, Lucili, Sicilia et officium
+procurationis otiosae.'
+
+For his life cf. also the words put into his mouth by Sen. _N.Q._ iv.
+praef. 15-17, which show his loyalty to his friends, 'Non mihi in
+amicitia Gaetulici (died A.D. 39) vel Gaius fidem eripuit, non in
+aliorum persona infeliciter amatorum Messalla et Narcissus ...
+propositum meum avertere potuerunt ... videbam apud Gaium tormenta,
+videbam ignes.'[81]
+
+Seneca speaks of him as a pupil in philosophy in _Ep._ 34, 2, 'Adsero
+te mihi: meum opus es.'
+
+A literary work of his is spoken of by Seneca, also a poem in which he
+mentions Alpheus and Arethusa:
+
+_Ep._ 46, 1, 'Librum tuum, quem mihi promiseras, accepi. Levis mihi
+visus est, cum esset nec mei nec tui corporis, sed qui primo adspectu
+aut T. Livi aut Epicuri posset videri ... Non tantum delectatus, sed
+gavisus sum.'
+
+_N.Q._ iii. 26, 6, 'Hoc et a te traditum est ut in poemate, Lucili
+carissime, et a Vergilio, qui adloquitur Arethusam.'
+
+A poem on Aetna is referred to in _Ep._ 79, 5-7, 'Donec pudor obstet,
+ne Aetnam describas in tuo carmine et hunc sollemnem omnibus poetis
+locum adtingas; quem quo minus Ovidius tractaret, nihil obstitit, quod
+iam Vergilius impleverat ... Aut ego te non novi aut Aetna tibi
+salivam movet: iam cupis grande aliquid et par prioribus scribere.'
+
+Some authorities think that Lucilius had meant to incorporate this
+description in a larger poem, but changed his mind, and wrote a poem
+on Aetna alone.
+
+As regards the date of the poem: (1) It was written at a time when
+imitation of Ovid was common. Cf. Sen. _N.Q._ iv. 2, 2, 'Quare non cum
+poeta meo iocor et illi Ovidium suum impingo?' (2) There is no mention
+of Vesuvius in the list of volcanoes in 1. 425 _sqq._ The poem must
+therefore have been written before A.D. 79.
+
+The following are the arguments for Lucilius having been the author:
+
+(1) The poem was written by one who knew Aetna and the vicinity. Now
+Lucilius was long procurator of Sicily.
+
+(2) Military metaphors, as ll. 464-74, would fit in with his having
+been a soldier.
+
+(3) The author speaks as if he knew the neighbourhood of Naples well.
+
+(4) However, the argument that the writer shows Epicurean views, and
+that Lucilius was an Epicurean, has little weight. (_a_) There are
+Stoical doctrines in the poem. Cf. ll. 33-5, 68-70, on the divinity of
+the stars; ll. 173-4, which maintain that the world would come back to
+its former state; ll. 536-9, where Heraclitus' doctrine of fire is
+recommended. (_b_) The _Epistulae Morales_ only show that Lucilius had a
+leaning to Epicureanism, not that he was an Epicurean. Cf. _Ep._ 23,
+9, 'Vocem tibi Epicuri tui reddere,' and other playful references.
+
+(5) The views on natural science given in the poem are sometimes the
+same as those in Sen. _N.Q._ This would fix the date of the poem
+between 65 and 79 A.D. Cf. _Aetna_, 123,
+
+  'Flumina quin etiam latis currentia rivis
+   occasus habuere suos: aut illa vorago
+   derepta in praeceps fatali condidit ore
+   aut occulta fluunt tectis adoperta cavernis
+   atque inopinatos referunt procul edita cursus';
+
+and Sen. _N.Q._ iii. 26, 3, 'Quaedam flumina palam in aliquem specum
+decidunt et sic ex oculis auferuntur, quaedam consumuntur paulatim et
+intercidunt. Eadem ex intervallo revertuntur recipiuntque et nomen et
+cursum.' Cf. also _Aetna_, 96,
+
+                   'Defit namque omnis hiatu,
+  secta est omnis humus penitusque cavata latebris
+  exiles suspensa vias agit';
+
+and Sen. _N.Q._ v. 14, 1, 'Non tota solido contextu terra in imum
+usque fundatur, sed multis partibus cava et caecis suspensa latebris.'
+So the story of the Catanian brothers (ll. 624-45) is told by Sen. _De
+Benef._ iii. 37, 2-3.
+
+Imitations of Lucretius abound. Cf. ll. 219 _sqq._,
+
+  'Nunc quoniam in promptu est operis natura solique,
+   unde ipsi venti, quae res incendia pascit,' etc.
+
+For the author's attacks on superstition, cf. ll. 91-3,
+
+  'Debita carminibus libertas ista; sed omnis
+   in vero mihi cura: canam quo fervida motu
+   aestuet Aetna novosque rapax sibi congerat ignes.'
+
+A version of the _Phaenomena_ of Aratus is extant, the author of which
+is called in the MSS. 'Claudius Caesar,' or 'Germanicus.' He is
+generally identified with Germanicus, the adopted son of Tiberius (so
+Jerome and Lactantius), though in modern times the poem has been
+ascribed to Domitian, who had the title of 'Germanicus' from A.D. 84.
+There are also fragments of _Prognostica_, which are independent of
+Aratus.
+
+
+
+PLINY THE ELDER.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+There is a very brief life of Pliny by Suetonius, but most of our
+information about him is derived from his own writings and the letters
+of his nephew (Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5; v. 8; vi. 16; vi. 20).
+
+C. Plinius Secundus was born A.D. 23 or 24, for at the time of his
+death in A.D. 79 he was in his fifty-sixth year (Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5,
+7, 'decessisse anno sexto et quinquagesimo'). His birthplace was Comum
+in Cisalpine Gaul, according to Sueton. _vit. Plin._ In an anonymous
+Life he is styled 'Veronensis,' probably on account of the phrase in
+_N.H._ praef. 1, 'Catullum conterraneum meum,' where, however, _terra_
+means Gallia, the province, not the city.
+
+Pliny was the son of an _eques_, and had a sister married to L.
+Caecilius of Novum Comum (see p. 139). He came to Rome not later than
+A.D. 35 (_N.H._ xxxvii. 81, 'Servilii Noniani quem consulem vidimus'),
+and was trained in poetry and literature, probably by P. Pomponius
+Secundus[82]; his instructors in rhetoric are not known, but he
+mentions as rhetoricians Remmius Palaemon (xiv. 49) and Arellius
+Fuscus (xxxiii. 152). In botany he learned much from Antonius Castor
+(xxv. 9).
+
+At the beginning of the reign of Claudius, Pliny was an eye-witness of
+the building operations at the harbour of Ostia, A.D. 42 (ix. 14): in
+44 he practised in the law courts. Having decided on a military
+career, he would begin, according to the regulation of Claudius
+(Sueton. _Claud._ 25), with the command of a cohort of infantry. He
+was next _praefectus alae_ (Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5, 3) under Corbulo, who
+was _legatus_ of Germania Inferior, A.D. 47, in his campaign against
+the Chauci: cf. _N.H._ xvi. 2, 'Sunt vero in septemtrione visae nobis
+Chaucorum [gentes]'; and in A.D. 50 fought under Pomponius against the
+Chatti. His 'castrense contubernium' with Titus (born A.D. 41) was
+probably in 55 or 56, when he was in the army of Pompeius Paulinus:
+cf. xxxiii. 143, 'Pompeium Paulinum XII pondo argenti habuisse apud
+exercitum ferocissimis gentibus oppositum scimus.' Personal knowledge
+of Germany appears in several passages of the _N.H._, e.g. xii. 98,
+'extremo in margine imperii, qua Rhenus adluit, vidi'; xxii. 8, 'quem
+morem etiam nunc durare apud Germanos scio.'
+
+Pliny was present at the festivities at Lake Fucinus in A.D. 52
+(xxxiii. 63). During Nero's reign he spent some time in Campania (ii.
+180) and Cisalpine Gaul (xxxv. 20), was a spectator at the Vatican
+games in A.D. 59, and saw the building of Nero's golden house after
+the fire of A.D. 64 (xxxvi. iii).
+
+Under Vespasian Pliny was procurator in Italy, and in several of the
+provinces: Sueton. _vit._, 'Procurationes splendidissimas et continuas
+summa integritate administravit.' (_a_) Hispania Tarraconensis: Plin.
+_Ep._ iii. 5, 17, 'cum procuraret in Hispania'; (_b_) Gallia
+Narbonensis: _N.H._ ii. 150, 'ego vidi in Vocontiorum agro'; (_c_)
+Gallia Belgica: xviii. 183, 'nec recens subtrahemus exemplum in
+Treverico agro tertio ante hoc anno compertum'; (_d_) Africa: vii. 36,
+'ipse in Africa vidi.' For his intimacy with Vespasian cf. Plin. _Ep._
+iii. 5, 9, 'ante lucem ibat ad Vespasianum imperatorem ... inde ad
+delegatum sibi officium.'
+
+In A.D. 79 Pliny was in command of the fleet at Misenum, when his
+scientific interest in the eruption of Vesuvius led him to approach
+too near the volcano, with the result that he was suffocated by the
+ashes (24th August). For a detailed account of his death, see Plin.
+_Ep._ vi. 16 (to Tacitus). Cf. Sueton. _vit._, 'Periit clade
+Campaniae. Cum enim Misenensi classi praeesset, et flagrante Vesuvio
+ad explorandas propius causas liburnica pertendisset, neque
+adversantibus ventis remeare posset, vi pulveris ac favillae oppressus
+est, vel, ut quidam existimant, a servo suo occisus, quem aestu
+deficiens ut necem sibi maturaret oraverit.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+A chronological list of Pliny's writings is given by his nephew (_Ep._
+iii. 5).
+
+1. _De iaculatione equestri_.--'Hunc, cum praefectus alae militaret,
+pari ingenio curaque composuit.' This manual on the javelin as a
+cavalry weapon is mentioned by Pliny himself, _N.H._ viii. 162, 'Nos
+diximus in libro de iaculatione equestri condito.'
+
+2. _De vita Pomponii Secundi_, in two Books, a tribute to the memory
+of a valued friend, the tragic poet Pomponius. Cf. _N.H._ xiv. 56,
+'referentes vitam Pomponii Secundi vatis.'
+
+3. _Bella Germaniae_, in twenty Books, a narrative of the Roman wars
+in Germany; begun by Pliny when serving in that country, the
+apparition of Drusus having besought him to rescue his name from
+oblivion (so Pliny the younger). Cf. Tac. _Ann._ i. 69, 'Tradit C.
+Plinius, Germanicorum bellorum scriptor.'
+
+4. _Studiosus_, in three Books or six parts, a treatise on rhetoric
+from the very rudiments. Quintilian, though surprised at some of
+Pliny's views (xi. 3, 143; 148), numbers him among the more careful
+exponents of the subject (iii. 1, 21, 'accuratius scripsit'). The book
+contained models of good style: Gell. ix. 16, 1, 'refert plerasque
+sententias quas in declamandis controversiis lepide arguteque dictas
+putat.'
+
+5. _Dubius Sermo_, in eight Books, published A.D. 67, towards the end
+of Nero's reign, when purely technical subjects alone could be treated
+without danger to an author. Cf. _N.H._ praef. 28, 'libellos quos de
+grammatica edidi.'
+
+6. _A fine Aufidii Bassi_, in thirty-one Books. At what point Bassus'
+history ended and Pliny's began is not known: but the latter certainly
+dealt with the closing years of Nero's reign (_N.H._ ii. 199, 'anno
+Neronis principis supremo, sicut in rebus eius exposuimus'), as well
+as with the times of Vespasian and Titus (_N.H._ praef. 20, 'Vos
+omnes, patrem te fratremque diximus opere iusto, temporum nostrorum
+historiam orsi a fine Aufidii Bassi'). The work was completed in A.D.
+77, but not published till after the author's death. His nephew says
+he wrote with scrupulous care: _Ep._ v. 8, 5, 'historias et quidem
+religiosissime scripsit.' The book was used by Tacitus (_Ann._ xiii.
+20; xv. 53; _Hist._ iii. 28).
+
+7. _Naturae Historiae_, in thirty-seven Books, is Pliny's only extant
+work. As he speaks of Titus as 'sexies consul,' the date of its
+presentation to him was A.D. 77. Book i. consists of a dedicatory
+epistle to Titus and a table of contents. The body of the work is
+arranged as follows: Book ii., the universe and the elements;
+iii.-vi., geography of Europe, Asia, and Africa; vii., anthropology
+and human physiology; viii.-xi., zoology; xii.-xix., botany;
+xx.-xxvii., the use of vegetable substances in medicine;
+xxviii.-xxxii., the use of animal substances in medicine;
+xxxiii.-xxxvii., mineralogy applied to medicine and the fine arts.
+
+This work, which was meant not for continuous perusal, but for
+consultation as a book of reference, contained twenty thousand facts;
+and its preparation involved the reading of about two thousand volumes
+by one hundred authors (see _N.H._ praef. 17). The extracts he had
+made from these sources Pliny bequeathed to his nephew in one hundred
+and sixty volumes. He makes a point of acknowledging his obligations
+to other writers (praef. 21, 'in his voluminibus auctorum nomina
+praetexui, est enim benignum ... et plenum ingenui pudoris fateri per
+quos profeceris'); cf. the lists of authorities, Roman and foreign,
+prefixed to the work. Such devotion to natural science was unusual in
+men of Pliny's class, and not generally appreciated; cf. xxii. 15,
+'Plerisque ultro etiam irrisui sumus ista commentantes atque frivoli
+operis arguimur.' As a scientific writer Pliny fails because he is not
+an original investigator, and because he lacks the critical faculty.
+For his method of working see Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5.
+
+Politically, Pliny recognizes the necessity of the empire, but his
+heroes are old Romans such as Cincinnatus and Cato. His Roman and
+Italian feeling is intense: cf. xxxvii. 201, 'In toto orbe ...
+pulcherrima omnium est in rebusque merito principatum naturae obtinet
+Italia, rectrix parensque mundi altera.'
+
+His view of life is gloomy (_N.H._ ii. 25, 'nec quidquam miserius
+homine'), and through the _Naturae Historiae_ there runs a monotonous
+strain of condemnation of the immorality of his day. He is uncertain
+as to divine providence, but considers the belief in it salutary, and
+he accepts portents (ii. 92). His tendency is, in the main, Stoic; he
+was probably acquainted with Paetus Thrasea, who corresponded with
+Pomponius.
+
+
+
+VALERIUS FLACCUS.
+
+
+His full name is given in the Vatican MS. as C. Valerius Flaccus
+Setinus Balbus. It is doubtful (even if the last two names really
+belong to the poet) whether _Setinus_ means from Setia in Italy or
+from Setia in Spain. The poet's Latinity gives no evidence on the
+point. Quintilian is the only Roman writer who refers to him; x. 1,
+90, 'Multum in Valerio Flacco nuper amisimus'; which shows that he
+must have died about A.D. 90. In the beginning of the first Book of
+the _Argonautica_ (written shortly after A.D. 70), Valerius addresses
+Vespasian, referring to his exploits in Britain, and to the capture of
+Jerusalem by Titus; i. 7 _sqq._,
+
+    'Tuque o, pelagi cui maior aperti
+  fama, Caledonius postquam tua carbasa vexit
+  oceanus Phrygios prius indignatus Iulos,
+  eripe me populis et habenti nubila terrae,
+  sancte pater, veterumque fave veneranda canenti
+  facta virum. Versam proles tua pandet Idumen
+  (namque potest), Solymo nigrantem pulvere fratrem
+  spargentemque faces et in omni turre furentem.'
+
+i. 5 _sqq._ probably shows that Valerius was a quindecimvir sacris
+faciundis,
+
+  'Phoebe, mone, si Cymaeae mihi conscia vatis
+  stat casta cortina domo, si laurea digna
+  fronte viret.'
+
+Cf. the allusion in viii. 239 _sqq._ to Cybele's bath, which was under
+the management of the xv.viri; and to the rites of lustration, iii.
+417 _sqq._
+
+There are several allusions to the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in A.D.
+79, _e.g._ iv. 507.
+
+The _Argonautica_ is in eight Books, the last being incomplete, and
+the story breaking off shortly before the death of Medea's brother,
+Absyrtus. Valerius probably meant to write twelve Books, but it is not
+known how much farther he actually proceeded in his work. There is
+evidence to show that the last Books would have differed considerably
+from the story as given by Apollonius Rhodius; _e.g._ the visit to
+Phaeacia was probably omitted, as Jason was married at Peuce (Book
+viii.).
+
+Apollonius is followed very closely, many passages being translated
+from him; thus iv. 236 = Apoll. ii. 38; vii. 404 = Apoll. in. 966.
+Valerius, however, amplifies where Apollonius is brief, and vice
+versa. Thus Apoll. ii. 948 _sqq._ is dismissed by Valerius v. 110
+_sqq._ in a few words. The character painting of Valerius is superior
+to that of the original, cf. the character of Jason and of Aeetes. So
+for his artistic work; thus his portraiture of the gradual progress of
+Medea's love is superior to Apollonius' description, and to Virgil's
+of Dido.
+
+The obligations to Virgil are paramount.
+
+(1) Verbal; as i. 55,
+
+  'Tu, cui iam curaeque vigent animique viriles,'
+
+from _Aen._ ix. 311,
+
+  'Ante annos animumque gerens curamque virilem.'
+
+Cf. 'horrentem iaculis, nec credere quivi, heu quid agat, libans
+carchesia, summa dies, miscere polum, rumpere questus,' in Book i.[83]
+
+(2) In matter. The description of Fame, ii. 116 _sqq._, is from _Aen._
+iv. The character of Styrus, the betrothed of Medea, is modelled on
+that of Turnus.
+
+After Virgil, Homer (esp. in Book vi.), Ovid, and Seneca's tragedies
+are chiefly imitated. Statius is full of imitations of Valerius.
+
+Valerius often tries to connect his subject with Rome.[84] Cf. ii.
+304,
+
+  'Iam nemus Egeriae, iam te ciet altus ab Alba
+  Iuppiter et soli non mitis Aricia regi';
+
+ii 573,
+
+  'genus Aeneadum et Troiae melioris honores.'
+
+
+
+SILIUS ITALICUS.
+
+
+The full name of Silius is got from an inscription (_C.I.L._ vi.
+1984), and is Ti. Catius Silius Italicus. Our chief information about
+his life is found in Pliny, _Epist._ iii. 7, where his recent death is
+mentioned. It was probably written A.D. 101, and as it states that
+Silius was then 75 years old, the year of his birth was A.D. 25. His
+birthplace is unknown, but was not Italica in Spain, otherwise Martial
+would have claimed him as a countryman. Pliny tells us that Silius had
+risen by acting as a _delator_ under Nero, who made him consul A.D.
+68. He had taken the side of Vitellius in the war of the succession
+A.D. 69[85] and had afterwards, as proconsul, governed Asia with
+success (under Vespasian). After this he possessed great social
+influence. Towards the end of his life, he retired to Campania, and
+gave himself up to study. The account of his learned retirement,[86]
+his reverence for Virgil,[87] the consulship of his son,[88] the death
+of his younger son,[89] and other details, are corroborated by his
+contemporary Martial.
+
+The passage of Pliny is as follows:
+
+'Modo nuntiatus est Silius Italicus in Neapolitano suo inedia finisse
+vitam. Causa mortis valetudo. Erat illi natus insanabilis clavus,
+cuius taedio ad mortem inrevocabili constantia decucurrit, usque ad
+supremum diem beatus et felix, nisi quod minorem ex liberis duobus
+amisit, sed maiorem melioremque florentem atque etiam consularem
+reliquit. Laeserat famam suam sub Nerone, credebatur sponte accusasse:
+sed in Vitelli amicitia sapienter se et comiter gesserat, ex
+proconsulatu Asiae gloriam reportaverat, maculam veteris industriae
+laudabili otio abluerat. Fuit inter principes civitatis sine potentia,
+sine invidia: salutabatur, colebatur, multumque in lectulo iacens
+cubiculo semper non ex fortuna frequenti doctissimis sermonibus dies
+transigebat, cum a scribendo vacaret. Scribebat carmina maiore cura
+quam ingenio, non numquam iudicia hominum recitationibus experiebatur.
+Novissime ita suadentibus annis ab urbe secessit, seque in Campania
+tenuit, ac ne adventu quidem novi principis inde commotus est ... Erat
+φιλόκαλος usque ad emacitatis reprehensionem. Plures isdem
+in locis villas possidebat adamatisque novis priores neglegebat.
+Multum ubique librorum, multum statuarum, multum imaginum, quas non
+habebat modo verum etiam venerabatur, Vergilii ante omnes, cuius
+natalem religiosius quam suum celebrabat, Neapoli maxime, ubi
+monimentum eius adire ut templum solebat. In hac tranquillitate annum
+quintum et septuagensimum excessit, delicato magis corpore quam
+infirmo; utque novissimus a Nerone factus est consul, ita postremus ex
+omnibus quos Nero consules fecerat decessit.'
+
+Silius' career as an orator is mentioned by Martial vii. 63, 5-8,
+
+  'Sacra cothurnati non attigit ante Maronis,
+    implevit magni quam Ciceronis opus.
+  Hunc miratur adhuc centum gravis hasta virorum,
+    hunc loquitur grato plurimus ore cliens.'
+
+The _Punica_ is an Epic in seventeen Books on the Second Punic War,
+and treats of events down to the battle of Zama, B.C. 202. The
+historical treatment is founded mainly on Livy, and in point of style
+Silius has followed Homer and Virgil, imitations of whom are found on
+every page. For Silius' reverence for Virgil, see above, and cf. viii.
+593,
+
+  'Mantua Musarum domus, atque ad sidera cantu
+  evecta Aonio, et Smyrnaeis aemula plectris.'
+
+Silius also follows Homer and Virgil in their mythology, bringing in
+supernatural motives in a way unsuitable to a historical subject,
+_e.g._ in xv. 20, where Scipio has, like Hercules, to choose between
+Voluptas and Virtus.
+
+The example of Hannibal's dream, iii. 163-182, will show these
+different points. The story of the dream is got from Livy xxi. 22,
+but, for _iuvenis divina specie_, Silius, like Virg. _Aen._ iv. 222
+_sqq._ and 259 _sqq._ substitutes Mercury. Individual imitations in
+the passage are: l. 172, 'Turpe duci totam somno consumere noctem,'
+from _Il._ ii. 24, οὐ χρὴ παννύχιον εὕδειν βουληφόρον
+ἄνδρα; l. 168, 'umentem noctis umbram' is from _Aen._ iv. 7,
+'umentemque Aurora polo dimoverat umbram'; l. 174, 'iam maria effusas
+cernes turbare carinas,' from _Aen._ iv. 566, 'iam mare turbari
+trabibus ... videbis'; l. 182, 'altae moenia Romae' is from _Aen._ i.
+7; l. 181, 'respexisse veto' from _Ecl._ 8, 102, 'nec respexeris.'
+
+The Epitome of the Iliad (in 1075 hexameters), which passes under the
+name of _Homerus Latinus_, has been attributed to Silius. It is a
+close adaptation from the original.
+
+
+
+STATIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+P. Papinius Statius was born at Naples (_Silv._ i. 2, 260, 'mea
+Parthenope'), probably about A.D. 60, for he speaks of himself as on
+the threshold of life at the time of his father's death, about A.D. 80
+('limine primo fatorum,' _Silv._ v. 3, 72). The apparent discrepancy
+in _Silv._ iv. 4, 69 (written A.D. 94-5), 'Nos facta aliena canendo
+vergimur in senium,' may be explained by observing that 'senium' is
+very often used for premature age induced by study (cf. 'insenuit,'
+Hor. _Ep._ ii. 2, 82).
+
+The father of Statius came of a distinguished but not wealthy family:
+_Silv._ v. 3, 116,
+
+  'Non tibi deformes obscuri sanguinis ortus
+  nec sine luce genus, quamquam fortuna parentum
+  artior expensis.'
+
+He taught first at Naples (_ibid._ l. 146) and then at Rome (l. 176);
+and died at the age of sixty-five (l. 252) soon after the eruption of
+Vesuvius, which he had intended to make the subject of a poem (l.
+205). It was from his learned father ('genitor perdocte,' l. 3) that
+Statius derived his first impulse towards poetry, and to his training
+he acknowledges deep obligations (ll. 209-214).
+
+Statius won two prizes for poetry, at the _Augustalia_ in Naples and
+at Alba; but was unsuccessful at the Capitoline competition, probably
+in A.D. 94 (_ibid._ 225-232). In that year he seems to have removed
+from Rome to Naples, and spent there the remainder of his days:
+_Silv._ iii. 5, 12,
+
+  'Anne quod Euboicos fessus remeare penates
+  auguror et patria senium componere terra?'
+
+The date of his death is unknown. The latest event mentioned in his
+poems is the seventeenth consulship of Domitian, A.D. 95 (_Silv._ iv.
+1).
+
+Statius was married to a widow named Claudia (_Silv._ iii. 5, 51
+_sqq._), but had no children (v. 5, 79).
+
+He enjoyed the favour of Domitian ('indulgentissimus imperator,'
+_Silv._ i. praef.) who granted him a supply of water for his country
+house at Alba, and occasionally invited him to his table: _Silv._ iii.
+1, 61,
+
+  'Ast ego, Dardaniae quamvis sub collibus Albae
+  rus proprium magnique ducis mihi munere currens
+  unda domi curas mulcere aestusque levare
+  sufficerent.'
+
+_Silv._ iv. praef., 'Sacratissimis eius epulis honoratus.'
+
+He more than once promises to write an epic on Domitian's career (e.g.
+_Theb._ i. 32). The emperor's freedman Earinus (_Silv._ iii. 4) was
+one of Statius' patrons.
+
+His regard for the poet Lucan produced _Silv._ ii. 7, which is a poem
+on Lucan's birthday, addressed to his widow (see p. 267). But his
+chief admiration was reserved for the memory of Virgil: Naples and
+Alba were endeared to him by their associations with the 'great
+master' and the story of Aeneas: _Silv._ iv. 4, 53,
+
+  'Tenues ignavo pollice chordas
+  pulso, Maroneique sedens in margine templi
+  sumo animum et magni tumulis adcanto magistri.'
+
+For Alba cf. _Silv._ v. 3, 37. The _Thebais_ must recognize its
+inferiority to the _Aeneid_: _Theb._ xii. 816,
+
+  'Vive, precor; nec tu divinam Aeneida tempta,
+  sed longe sequere et vestigia semper adora.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. The _Thebais_, an epic poem in twelve Books, occupied Statius for
+twelve years: xii. 811,
+
+  'O mihi bis senos multum vigilata per annos
+  Thebai.'
+
+Cf. _Silv._ iv. 7, 26,
+
+  'Thebais multa cruciata lima.'
+
+The twelve years were probably 79-91 or 80-92 A.D. _Silv._ i. praef.
+(written 91 or 92), 'Adhuc pro Thebaide mea, quamvis me reliquerit,
+timeo.' The publication apparently did not take place till A.D. 95
+(cf. _Silv._ iv. 4, 87 _sqq._ written in that year).
+
+The subject of the poem is the strife between the brothers Eteocles
+and Polynices, and the subsequent history of Thebes to the death of
+Creon. The dedication is to Domitian. For the popularity of the
+_Thebais_ cf. Juv. _Sat._ 7, 82,
+
+  'Curritur ad vocem iucundam et carmen amicae
+  Thebaidos, laetam cum fecit Statius urbem
+  promisitque diem. Tanta dulcedine captos
+  afficit ille animos tantaque libidine volgi
+  auditur; sed, cum fregit subsellia versu,
+  esurit, intactam Paridi nisi vendit Agaven.'
+
+2. The _Achilleis_, also dedicated to Domitian, is an incomplete epic,
+consisting of one Book and part of a second. It was later than the
+Thebaid, for Statius was working at it in A.D. 95: _Silv._ iv. 4, 93,
+
+  'Nunc vacuos crines alio subit infula nexu:
+  Troia quidem magnusque mihi temptatur Achilles.'
+
+The poem was intended to cover the whole career of Achilles, including
+his retreat in Scyros before the Trojan War, and his exploits after
+the death of Hector, which did not enter into the plan of the _Iliad_:
+cf. l. 3,
+
+      'Quamquam acta viri multum inclita cantu
+  Maeonio, sed plura vacant: nos ire per omnem
+  (sic amor est) heroa velis.'
+
+3. The _Silvae_, which represent the poet in his less serious mood,
+are occasional poems on miscellaneous subjects, published in five
+separate Books. Cf. 1, praef. 'Diu multumque dubitavi ... an hos
+libellos, ... cum singuli de sinu meo prodierint, congregates ipse
+dimitterem.' Many of them were thrown off in haste at the command of
+the Emperor or the request of friends: cf. such expressions as 'stili
+facilitas' (ii. praef.), 'libellorum temeritas,' 'hanc audaciam stili
+nostri' (iii. praef.). Of the poems in Book i. he says, 'nullum ex
+illis biduo longius tractum, quaedam et in singulis diebus effusa' (i.
+praef.). Each of the Books is introduced by a prose preface.
+
+None of the _Silvae_ appeared before A.D. 92; for Rutilius Gallicus,
+for whom i. 4 was written, died in that year, and the poem was not
+published till after his death (i. praef.). Book v. was probably a
+posthumous work: there is no proper preface, and the third and fifth
+poems are incomplete.
+
+Hexameter verse is employed for all the _Silvae_ except six. Of these,
+four are in hendecasyllabics, one in the Alcaic and one in the Sapphic
+stanza.
+
+4. The only other poem of which there is distinct evidence is the
+pantomime _Agave_, written not later than A.D. 84, the year in which
+the player Paris was put to death (Juv. _Sat._ 7, 86, quoted above).
+
+
+
+MARTIAL.[90]
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+M. Valerius Martialis (Coquus is added in the old glossaries) was born
+at Bilbilis in Hispania Tarraconensis on 1st March in one of the years
+A.D. 38-41. His tenth Book, written A.D. 95-8, contains a poem (x. 24)
+written on his fifty-seventh birthday. Cf. ll. 4-5,
+
+  'quinquagesima liba septimamque
+  vestris addimus hanc focis acerram';
+
+ix. 52, 3,
+
+  'ut nostras amo Martias Kalendas';
+
+x. 103, 1,
+
+  'Municipes, Augusta mihi quos Bilbilis acri
+    monte creat, rapidis quem Salo cingit aquis.'
+
+His parents' names are given, v. 34, 1, 'Fronto pater, genetrix
+Flaccilla.' Martial went through the usual education at Bilbilis or at
+a neighbouring town; ix. 73, 7,
+
+  'At me litterulas stulti docuere parentes:
+    quid cum grammaticis rhetoribusque mihi?'
+
+Martial went to Rome A.D. 64, for in A.D. 98, when he left Rome, he
+gives the length of his stay as thirty-four years; x. 103, 7,
+
+  'Quattuor accessit tricesima messibus aestas,
+    ut sine me Cereri rustica liba datis,
+  moenia dum colimus dominae pulcherrima Romae.'
+
+At Rome Martial became the client of the house of the Senecas, and was
+on intimate terms with L. Calpurnius Piso, Memmius Gemellus, and
+Vibius Crispus; xii. 36, 8,
+
+  'Pisones Senecasque Memmiosque
+  et Crispos mihi redde sed priores.'
+
+The failure of Piso's conspiracy in A.D. 65 and the consequent
+downfall of the Senecas must have affected Martial's position. In A.D.
+96 Martial addresses as his patroness Argentaria Polla, Lucan's widow,
+the only surviving member of the family; x. 64, 1,
+
+  'Contigeris regina meos si Polla libellos,' etc.
+
+From her he may have got the small vineyard near Nomentum which he
+possessed by A.D. 84 (xiii. 42 and 119).
+
+Little is known of Martial's life before the reign of Domitian. He may
+have practised at the bar; cf. ii. 30, 5,
+
+  'Is mihi "dives eris, si causas egeris" inquit';
+
+and Quintilian appears to have advised this course (ii. 90). He
+probably lived as a client of great houses to which he was recommended
+by his early-developed poetical talents. Cf. i. 113, 1,
+
+  'Quaecumque lusi iuvenis et puer quondam.'
+
+In A.D. 80 he commemorated the opening by Titus of the Flavian
+Amphitheatre by a collection of poems sent to the emperor. Cf.
+_Spectac._ 32,
+
+  'Da veniam subitis: non displicuisse meretur,
+  festinat, Caesar, qui placuisse tibi.'
+
+Martial received the 'ius trium liberorum' from two of the emperors.
+This probably means that Titus bestowed it and Domitian ratified it.
+Cf. ix. 97, 5,
+
+  'tribuit quod Caesar uterque
+  ius mihi natorum.'
+
+Martial became a titular tribune, and consequently an _eques_, an
+honour probably given him by Titus; iii. 95, 9
+
+  'vidit me Roma tribunum';
+
+v. 13, 1,
+
+  'Sum, fateor, semperque fui, Callistrate, pauper,
+  sed non obscurus nec male notus eques.'
+
+Martial is unsparing in his flattery of Domitian and his freedmen. Cf.
+ix. 79, iv. 45, of Parthenius, the emperor's chamberlain; vii. 99,
+viii. 48, of Crispinus, the emperor's favourite. In A.D. 86 we find
+his poems eagerly read by the emperor. Cf. iv. 27,
+
+  'Saepe meos laudare soles, Auguste, libellos.'
+
+He obtained citizen rights for several applicants; cf. ix. 95. 11,
+
+  'Quot mihi Caesareo facti sunt munere cives';
+
+and was occasionally invited to the emperor's table; cf. ix. 91.
+Domitian, however, refused to assist him pecuniarily (vi. 10). A
+description of Martial's life as a client of great houses is found,
+_e.g._, in v. 20. Among the friends of high rank whom Martial made
+after A.D. 86 were the poet Silius Italicus (iv. 14), the future
+emperor Nerva (v. 28), the author S. Iulius Frontinus (x. 58), the
+younger Pliny (x. 19). Martial also mentions Quintilian (ii. 90) and
+other literary men from Spain, and Juvenal (vii. 24, etc.). Statius he
+never mentions, and was probably at enmity with him; cf. his sneers at
+mythological epics (x. 4, etc.), which hint indirectly at the
+_Thebais_. Martial also attacks his critics (i. 3; xi. 20, etc.),
+plagiarists (_e.g._ xi. 94), and those who wrote scurrilous verses in
+his name (_e.g._ x. 3).
+
+Martial received rewards in return for his poetry, and often begs for
+gifts, and complains of his poverty and the unproductiveness of his
+estate at Nomentum (xii. 57); v. 36,
+
+  'Laudatus nostro quidam, Faustina, libello
+    dissimulat, quasi nil debeat: imposuit';
+
+vii. 16,
+
+  'Aera domi non sunt, superest hoc, Regule, solum,
+  ut tua vendamus munera: numquid emis?'
+
+From 86 to 90 A.D. Martial lived in lodgings on the Quirinal, three
+stairs up; i. 117, 6,
+
+  'Longum est, si velit ad Pirum venire,
+  et scalis habito tribus, sed altis.'
+
+Later he had a house of his own (ix. 18, 2, etc.), and mentions his
+slaves (i. 101; v. 34, etc.). That he was still poor in A.D. 98 is
+evident from Pliny, _Ep._ iii. 21, 2, 'Prosecutus eram viatico
+secedentem: dederam hoc amicitiae, dederam etiam versiculis quos de me
+composuit.'
+
+Martial was evidently never married (ii. 92). In A.D. 98 he left Rome
+and went to Spain, where he had liberal friends, as Terentius Priscus
+(xii. 4), and Marcella (xii. 21), who gave him an estate, described in
+xii. 18. From xii. praef. we see his longing for Rome:
+
+'In hac provinciali solitudine ... bibliothecas, theatra, convictus
+... desideramus quasi destituti. Accedit his municipalium robigo
+dentium et iudici loco livor,' etc.
+
+Martial died, at latest, about A.D. 104, being from 63 to 66 years
+old.
+
+Pliny _Ep._ iii. 21 (written not after A.D. 104), 'Audio Valerium
+Martialem decessisse et moleste fero.'
+
+Martial does not disguise the bad points of his character. Cf. his
+flattery of Domitian, and his continual begging (_passim_), his
+cynical reasons for giving panegyrics (v. 36, quoted above); the
+number of indecent poems he wrote, for which he apologizes (_e.g._ i.
+praef.). Among his good points are his 'candor,' mentioned by Pliny,
+_Ep._ iii. 21; his love of unadorned nature, _e.g._ iii. 58; his love
+for his friends, _e.g._ i. 15.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+_Publication of the Poems._--_Liber Spectaculorum_ was published A.D. 80,
+on the opening of Titus' Amphitheatre. The _Xenia_ and _Apophoreta_
+were two collections of inscriptions for presents at the _Saturnalia_
+in December 84 or 85 A.D. The numbering of these as Books xiii. and
+xiv. has no ancient authority. Martial furnished the other Books with
+numbers (cf. ii. 92, 1, 'primus liber'). Books i., ii., appeared
+together A.D. 86. Then came Books iii.-xi. at intervals of about a
+year to December, 96 A.D. Martial prepared a selection from Books x.
+and xi. for Nerva's use (no longer extant). This was presented along
+with xii. 5,
+
+  'Longior undecimi nobis decimique libelli
+  artatus labor est, et breve rasit opus.
+  Plura legant vacui, quibus otia tuta dedisti;
+  haec lege tu Caesar; forsan et illa leges.'
+
+Book xii. appeared at the beginning of A.D. 102. and shortly
+afterwards in an enlarged edition. An edition of all the Books
+probably did not appear till after Martial's death.
+
+For Martial's immediate popularity, cf. vi. 61,
+
+  'Laudat, amat, cantat nostros mea Roma libellos,
+  meque sinus omnis, me manus omnis habet';
+
+xi. 3, 3,
+
+  'Sed meus in Geticis ad Martia signa pruinis
+    a rigido teritur centurione liber,
+  dicitur et nostros cantare Britannia versus.'
+
+Pliny _Ep._ iii. 21 (written just after Martial's death), 'Erat homo
+ingeniosus acutus acer, et qui plurimum in scribendo et salis haberet
+et fellis nec candoris minus.'
+
+_Martial's Models._--His manner is very original, but some of his
+motives are taken from Greek epigrammatists, especially from
+Lucillius, who flourished under Nero. Thus iv. 53 = Lucill. 30; v. 53
+= L. 93; xii. 23 = L. 34. Many of his pieces are doubtless
+improvisations, and consequently contain careless expressions and
+errors as to facts. Thus, vii. 61, 2,
+
+  'Inque suo nullum limine limen erat';
+
+x. 2, 1,
+
+  'Festinata prior decimi mihi cura libelli
+    elapsum manibus nunc revocavit opus';
+
+x. 93, 5,
+
+  'Ut rosa delectat, metitur quae pollice primo'
+         (= the rose which has not yet been plucked).
+
+In iv. 55, 3, Arpi is given as Cicero's birthplace; in v. 30, 2, etc.,
+Calabria instead of Apulia is given as Horace's native district.
+Catullus is Martial's chief model for hendecasyllabics and
+choliambics. He mentions no other poet so often. Cf. x. 103, 5,
+
+  'Nec sua plus debet tenui Verona Catullo
+    meque velit dici non minus illa suum.'
+
+Ovid, of whom he has more than two hundred reminiscences, is Martial's
+chief pattern for elegiacs. After these Martial's chief model is
+Virgil, chiefly the _Priapea_; then Horace to a less extent;
+Propertius; and Tibullus. Domitius Marsus, Gaetulicus, Calvus, etc.,
+are mentioned frequently, and doubtless imitated.
+
+For Martial's conception of himself as a painter of manners, cf. viii.
+3, 19 (ad Musam),
+
+  'At tu Romano lepidos sale tinge libellos:
+    adgnoscat mores vita legatque suos.
+  Angusta cantare licet videaris avena,
+    dum tua multorum vincat avena tubas.'
+
+x. 4, 7,
+
+  'Quid te vana iuvant miserae ludibria chartae?
+    hoc lege, quod possit dicere vita "Meum est."
+  Non hic Centauros, non Gorgonas, Harpyiasque
+    invenies: hominem pagina nostra sapit.'
+
+Martial satirizes people under manufactured or arbitrarily chosen
+names.
+
+Cf. i. praef., 'Spero me secutum in libellis meis tale temperamentum,
+ut de illis queri non possit, quisquis de se bene senserit, cum salva
+infimarum quoque personarum reverentia ludant.'
+
+Some are tell-tale names, as Vetustilla, 'an old woman,' iii. 93;
+Dento, 'a gourmand,' v. 45; Eulogus, 'a herald,' vi. 8; but the same
+names, _e.g._ Zoilus, are often used to denote different types.
+
+The chief forms of verse used are the elegiac distich (most frequent),
+scazons, and hendecasyllabics. In vi. 65 he apologizes for using the
+pure hexameter, which is found only four times. Other metres are
+extremely rare.
+
+
+
+QUINTILIAN.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+M. Fabius Quintilianus was born at Calagurris in Spain. Auson. _prof._
+i. 7, 'Adserat usque licet Fabium Calagurris alumnum.' Cf. Jerome yr.
+Abr. 2104 (quoted below).
+
+Quintilian came at an early age to Rome, where his father was a
+rhetorician. Cf. his reminiscences:
+
+x. 1, 86, 'Utar verbis isdem quae ex Afro Domitio (died A.D. 59)
+iuvenis excepi.'
+
+v. 7, 7, 'a Domitio Afro quem adulescentulus senem colui.'
+
+vi. 1, 14, 'Nobis adulescentibus accusator Cossutiani Capitonis' (A.D.
+57), etc.
+
+From the above quotations, Quintilian must have been born somewhere
+between A.D. 35 and 40. A.D. 35 is usually given as an approximation.
+For Quintilian's father cf. ix. 3, 73, 'Et cur me prohibeat pudor uti
+domestico exemplo? Pater meus contra eum qui,' etc. He is possibly the
+person mentioned by Seneca, _Contr._ x. praef. 2, 'quo modo ...
+Quintilianus senex declamaverit.'
+
+For Quintilian's teachers of rhetoric, cf. Pliny, _Ep._ ii. 14, 10,
+'Narrabat ille [Quintilianus], Adsectabar Domitium Afrum.' Others were
+Iulius Africanus (Quint. x. 1, 118), Servilius Nonianus (x. 1, 102),
+Galerius Trachalus (x. 1, 119), Iulius Secundus (x. 1, 120), Vibius
+Crispus (xii. 10, 11), Remmius Palaemon (Schol. ad Iuv. 6, 452). After
+his education Quintilian returned to Calagurris, but was brought back
+to Rome by Galba in A.D. 68.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 2084 = A.D. 68, 'M. Fabius Quintilianus Romam a Galba
+perducitur.'
+
+Quintilian engaged as a pleader at Rome, and makes some references to
+his cases. Some of his speeches were published without his consent.
+
+vii. 2, 24, 'In causa Naevi Arpiniani ... cuius actionem et quidem
+solam in hoc tempus emiseram, quod ipsum me fecisse ductum iuvenili
+cupiditate gloriae fateor. Nam ceterae, quae sub nomine meo feruntur,
+neglegentia excipientium in quaestum notariorum corruptae minimam
+partem mei habent.'
+
+iv. 1, 19, 'Ego pro regina Berenice apud ipsam eam causam dixi.'
+
+Cf. also vii. 2, 5; ix. 2, 73-4.
+
+Quintilian was the first person who received an imperial grant as
+teacher of oratory.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 2104 = A.D. 88, 'Quintilianus ex Hispania
+Calagurritanus primus Romae publicam scholam et salarium e fisco
+accepit et claruit.' The date given by Jerome is much too late, as it
+is Quintilian that is alluded to by Sueton. _Vesp._ 18, 'Primus e
+fisco Latinis Graecisque rhetoribus annua centena constituit.' The
+appointment must therefore have been made by A.D. 79. The
+professorship is referred to by Mart. ii. 90, 1,
+
+  'Quintiliane, vagae moderator summe iuventae,
+    gloria Romanae, Quintiliane, togae.'
+
+Cf. Pliny, _Ep._ ii. 14, 10, 'Ita certe ex Quintiliano, praeceptore
+meo, audisse memini.' Quintilian's career as a teacher lasted for
+twenty years.
+
+i. prooem. 1, 'Post impetratam studiis meis quietem, quae per viginti
+annos erudiendis iuvenibus impenderam.'
+
+Teuffel thinks that the _Institutio_ was written A.D. 89-91, in which
+case Quintilian's career as professor was from A.D. 68 to 88;
+Peterson[91] thinks that Quintilian dated his educational work as from
+A.D. 70 to 90, and that the _Institutio_ was begun A.D. 92.
+
+Quintilian grew rich by the practice of his profession, from which he
+ultimately retired. Iuv. 7, 186,
+
+  'Hos inter sumptus sestertia Quintiliano,
+  ut multum, duo sufficient; res nulla minoris
+  constabit patri, quam filius. "Unde igitur tot
+  Quintilianus habet saltus?"'
+
+Quint. ii. 12, 12, 'quando et praecipiendi munus iam pridem deprecati
+sumus et in foro quoque dicendi, quia honestissimum finem putamus,
+desinere dum desideraremur.'
+
+After his retirement Quintilian was appointed tutor of Domitian's
+grandnephews, sons of his niece Flavia Domitilla and his cousin
+Flavius Clemens.
+
+Quint. iv. prooem. 2, 'Cum mihi Domitianus Augustus sororis suae
+nepotum delegaverit curam.'
+
+Through the influence of Clemens, he obtained the consulship.
+
+Auson. _grat. act._ p. 23 (Schenkl), 'Quintilianus consularia per
+Clementem ornamenta sortitus honestamenta potius videtur quam insignia
+potestatis habuisse.'
+
+Cf. Iuv. 7, 197,
+
+  'Si Fortuna volet, fies de rhetore consul;
+  si volet haec eadem, fies de consule rhetor.'
+
+His gratitude led him into fulsome flattery of Domitian.
+
+x. 1, 91, 'Germanicum Augustum ab institutis studiis deflexit cura
+terrarum, parumque dis visum est esse eum maximum poetarum' (cf. iv.
+prooem. 3-5).
+
+Quintilian married late in life. His wife died at the age of eighteen,
+his younger son soon afterwards at the age of five, the elder one
+subsequently at the age of nine.
+
+vi. prooem. § 2, 'Illum, de quo summa conceperam et in quo spem unicam
+senectutis reponebam, repetito volnere orbitatis amisi'; § 9, 'Non
+flosculos, sicut prior, sed iam decimum aetatis ingressus annum,
+certos ac deformatos fructus ostenderat'; § 4, 'erepta prius mihi
+matre eorumdem, quae nondum expleto aetatis undevicesimo anno duos
+enixa filios ...'; § 5, 'cum omni virtute, quae in feminas cadit,
+functa insanabilem adtulit marito dolorem, tum aetate tam puellari,
+praesertim meae comparata, potest et ipsa numerari inter volnera
+orbitatis'; § 6, 'Mihi filius minor quintum egressus annum prior
+alterum ex duobus eruit lumen.'
+
+The date of Quintilian's death is unknown. If he outlived Domitian it
+was not for long, as Pliny in the letters quoted above (the earlier
+written about A.D. 100) does not speak of Quintilian as alive.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+_Earlier works._--Quintilian refers to a work _de causis corruptae
+eloquentiae_, and to an _ars rhetorica_ in two Books. For speeches of
+his taken down and published, see vii. 2, 24, quoted p. 303.
+
+vi. prooem. 3, 'eum librum, quem de causis corruptae eloquentiae
+emisi.'
+
+i. prooem. 7, 'Duo iam sub nomine meo libri ferebantur artis
+rhetoricae neque editi a me neque in hoc comparati. Namque alterum,
+sermone per biduum habito, pueri, quibus id praestabatur, exceperant;
+alterum pluribus sane diebus, quantum notando consequi potuerant,
+interceptum, boni iuvenes sed nimium amantes mei, temerario editionis
+honore volgaverant.'
+
+The _Institutio Oratoria_.--For the date of publication see p. 304.
+The circumstances of publication are given by Quintilian in the
+preface addressed to his bookseller Trypho.
+
+'Efflagitasti cottidiano convicio, ut libros, quos ad Marcellum meum
+de Institutione oratoria scripseram, iam emittere inciperem. Nam ipse
+eos nondum opinabar satis maturuisse, quibus componendis, ut scis,
+paulo plus quam biennium tot alioqui negotiis districtus impendi ...
+Sed si tanto opere efflagitantur quam tu affirmas, permittamus vela
+ventis et oram solventibus bene precemur.'
+
+The work is dedicated to Vitorius Marcellus (to whom Statius'
+_Silvae_, Book iv., is addressed), and was originally written in view
+of the education of his son Geta.
+
+i. prooem. 6, 'Quod opus, Marcelle Vitori, tibi dicamus ... quod
+erudiendo Getae tuo ... non inutiles fore libri videbantur.'
+
+Book iv. prooem. was written when Quintilian had been appointed tutor
+to the young princes, who are mentioned along with Geta and
+Quintilian's elder son; Book vi. prooem. was written not long
+afterwards, and refers to his bereavements; in Book xii. prooem. no
+names are mentioned.
+
+The work deals with the whole education of the future orator.
+
+i. prooem. 5, 'Nec aliter, quam si mihi tradatur educandus orator,
+studia eius formare ab infantia incipiam.'
+
+Quintilian himself gives a sketch of the contents:
+
+i. prooem. 21-2, 'Liber primus ea quae sunt ante officium rhetoris
+continebit [including grammar and philology]. Secundo prima apud
+rhetorem elementa et quae de ipsa rhetorices substantia quaeruntur
+tractabimus. Quinque deinceps (iii.-vii.) inventioni, nam huic et
+dispositio subiungitur, quattuor (viii.-xi.) elocutioni, in cuius
+partem memoria ac pronuntiatio veniunt, dabuntur. Unus (xii.) accedet,
+in quo nobis orator ipse informandus est, ut qui mores eius, quae in
+suscipiendis, discendis, agendis causis ratio, quod eloquentiae genus,
+quis agendi debeat esse finis, quae post finem studia ... disseramus.'
+
+The ordinary handbooks of rhetoric are attacked.
+
+i. prooem. 24-5, 'Nam plerumque nudae illae artes nimia subtilitatis
+affectatione frangunt atque concidunt quidquid est in oratione
+generosius, et omnem sucum ingeni bibunt et ossa detegunt, quae ut
+esse et adstringi nervis suis debent, sic corpore operienda sunt.
+Ideoque nos non particulam illam, sicut plerique, sed quidquid utile
+ad instituendum oratorem putabamus, in hos duodecim libros contulimus
+breviter omnia demonstraturi.'
+
+Quintilian uses his own experience and the best views of different
+authorities.
+
+vi. 2, 25, 'Quod si tradita mihi sequi praecepta sufficeret,
+satisfeceram huic parti, nihil eorum, quae legi vel didici, quod modo
+probabile fuit, omittendo; sed eruere in animo est, quae latent, et
+penitus ipsa huius loci aperire penetralia, quae quidem non aliquo
+tradente sed experimento meo ac natura ipsa duce accepi.'
+
+Quintilian insists that the orator must be a good man (cf. the
+importance he attaches to early education, i. 1, etc.).
+
+xii. 1, 1, 'Sit ergo nobis orator, quem constituimus, is qui a M.
+Catone finitur, vir bonus dicendi peritus; verum, id quod et ille
+posuit prius, et ipsa natura potius ac maius est, utique vir bonus.'
+
+Cf. i. prooem. 9-10; ii. 2 (the whole chapter); ii. 15, 1.
+
+Quintilian's exposition is founded mainly on Cicero, from whom he
+seldom differs. Cf. vii. 3, 8, 'Quamquam dissentire vix audeo a
+Cicerone.'
+
+Quintilian's illustrations are mainly drawn from classical writers.
+Upwards of four hundred and fifty passages of Cicero and about one
+hundred and forty of Virgil are referred to. Quintilian not only
+attacks the modern style, but warns his pupils against the early
+writers.
+
+ii. 5, 21-2, 'Duo autem genera maxime cavenda pueris puto: unum, ne
+quis eos antiquitatis nimius admirator in Graccorum Catonisque et
+aliorum similium lectione durescere velit ... Alterum, quod huic
+diversum est, ne recentis huius lasciviae flosculis capti voluptate
+prava deleniantur, ut praedulce illud genus et puerilibus ingeniis hoc
+gratius, quo propius est, adament.'
+
+For Quintilian's high appreciation of Cicero see x. 1, 105-112; and
+for his antagonism to Seneca, x. 1, 125-131, and to philosophers in
+general, i. prooem. 10.
+
+For Quintilian's authorities see iii. 1, 'Prooemium de scriptoribus
+artis rhetoricae.' They include Dionysius of Halicarnassus; Caecilius;
+Chrysippus (for education; cf. i. 1, 16, etc.); Cicero; _Auctor ad
+Herenn._; Celsus, cf. iii. 1, 21, etc.; Rutilius, cf. ix. 3, 89;
+Remmius Palaemon.
+
+Literary criticism is treated of in Book X. as regards the Greek and
+Latin authors useful to the orator. The principal authority used was
+the περὶ μιμήσεως of Dionysius Halicarnassius. Much of
+Quintilian's criticism is traditional, and the lists of great writers
+came ultimately from the critics of Alexandria. Roman literary critics
+referred to were Cicero (_e.g._ on the Attic orators, x. 1, 76-80) and
+Horace (x. 1, 24; 56, etc.).
+
+_Spurious works._--These include two collections of _declamationes_.
+
+1. Nineteen long pieces, ascribed to Quintilian by Jerome and others,
+but much later than Quintilian's time.
+
+2. One hundred and forty-five shorter pieces out of an original
+collection of three hundred and eighty-eight, the first half being
+lost. Some suppose they are the 'libri artis rhetoricae' (i. prooem.
+7, quoted above), but this is not likely.
+
+
+
+FRONTINUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Iulius Frontinus (as he is called by Tacitus: inscriptions and some
+MSS. give the _praenomen_ Sextus) was born at latest A.D. 41, for he
+was _praetor urbanus_ A.D. 70.
+
+Tac. _Hist._ iv. 39, 'in senatu quem Iulius Frontinus praetor urbanus
+vocaverat ... Mox eiurante Frontino Caesar Domitianus praeturam cepit.'
+
+He served in Gaul during the revolt of Civilis, and received the
+submission of the Lingones (Front. _Strat._ iv. 3, 14[92]). Under
+Vespasian he held the consulship, and preceded Agricola in the command
+in Britain, where he conquered the Silures, probably A.D. 76-78.
+
+Tac. _Agr._ 17, 'Et Cerealis quidem alterius successoris curam
+famamque obruisset: sustinuit molem Iulius Frontinus, vir magnus,
+quantum licebat, validamque et pugnacem Silurum gentem armis subegit,
+super virtutem hostium locorum quoque difficultates eluctatus.'
+
+His knowledge of the tactics of Domitian (_Strat._ i. 1, 8; i. 3, 10;
+ii. 3, 23; ii. 11, 7) makes it probable that he took part in the war
+with the Chatti, A.D. 83. In 97 he became _curator aquarum_ (_Aq._
+102), and at the beginning of the following year was consul for the
+second time (_C.I.L._ iii., p. 862); cf. Martial x. 48, 20, 'bis
+Frontino consule.' In 100 he was once more consul (_C.I.L._ viii.
+7066). He also held the office of augur, in which, A.D. 103 or 104, he
+was succeeded by the younger Pliny; Plin. _Ep._ iv. 8, 'gratularis
+mihi quod acceperim auguratum ... Successi Iulio Frontino, principi
+viro.' His death then may be placed in A.D. 103.
+
+Frontinus was a friend of Martial, who addresses to him _Epig._ x. 58.
+
+We get a glimpse of his character from Pliny's words, _Ep._ ix. 19, 6,
+'Vetuit exstrui monumentum: sed quibus verbis? "Impensa monumenti
+supervacua est: memoria nostri durabit si vita meruimus."'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+During the reign of Domitian (A.D. 81-96) Frontinus composed two
+works. One of these, of which only fragments survive, dealt with the
+art of land-surveying and the laws relating to land. The other,
+written after A.D. 84, when Domitian received the title of Germanicus
+(_Strat._ ii. II, 7, 'eo bello quo victis hostibus cognomen Germanici
+meruit'), is a manual of strategy, in three Books, entitled
+_Strategemata_. It is a sequel to a previous work (now lost) on the
+theory of the art of war, and illustrates its rules by historical
+examples derived chiefly from Sallust, Caesar, and Livy. The purpose
+of the book did not require the citation of authorities, and the
+mention of Livy in ii. 5, 31 and 34, is probably spurious. Frontinus
+gives either a paraphrase retaining some of the expressions of the
+original (cf. _Strat._ i. 5, 16, with Liv. xxxv. 11, 2-13), or a bald
+summary (cf. _Strat._ ii. 5, 1, with Liv. i. 14, 6-11). See G.
+Gundermann, _Jahrb. f. class. Philol._, suppl. xvi., p. 315 _sqq._
+(1888). Some later hand has added a fourth Book, which not only
+presents marked differences in style and tone from the original three,
+but deals with an entirely different subject--the maintenance of
+discipline, and other duties of a commander.
+
+Under Nerva and Trajan (A.D. 97-98) Frontinus wrote his treatise on
+the Roman water-supply, _De Aquis Urbis Romae_. Having been appointed
+_curator aquarum_, he considered it his first duty to acquaint himself
+with the details of his department, and published the result of his
+inquiries in the hope that they might be useful to his successors (cf.
+the preface). The book was begun under Nerva (praef. 'cum ... sit nunc
+mihi ab Nerva Augusto ... aquarum iniunctum officium'), but Nerva had
+been succeeded by Trajan before it was completed (118, 'divus Nerva';
+93, 'Traianum Augustum').
+
+
+
+JUVENAL.
+
+
+The sources for Juvenal's life are (1) his works; (2) an inscription
+found at Aquinum; (3) thirteen extant _vitae_; (4) information of the
+scholiasts; (5) references in Martial and other writers.
+
+The inscription at Aquinum has been much debated; but it is safe to
+follow the opinion of Mommsen, whose experience in identifying people
+mentioned in inscriptions with historical characters depends upon a
+width of knowledge that no other person possesses. The _vitae_ are all
+early mediaeval works, probably founded on a brief account of the
+poet's life composed by some unknown ancient writer, and existing at
+the early Renaissance. The extant _vitae_ contain a very few facts
+which appear to be derived from this source, together with a number of
+inferences gathered, often incorrectly, from Juvenal's works. The most
+important statement is that regarding Juvenal's birth, which is
+contained in the _vita_ in the Codex Barberinus, 8, 18, discovered by
+J. Dürr. The date is given in such precise and accurate terms, and is
+in itself so probable as solving so many of the questions connected
+with the poet's works, that to invent it requires an amount of
+knowledge with which we cannot credit the writer of this otherwise
+very poor account. The statements of the _vitae_ must be carefully
+weighed, and accepted only when rendered probable by other
+considerations.[93]
+
+Juvenal's name is given in some of the MSS. as Decimus Iunius
+Iuvenalis. He was born A.D. 55.
+
+_Codex Barberinus_, 'Iunius Iuvenalis Aquinas Iunio Iuvenale patre,
+matre vero Septumuleia ex Aquinati municipio Claudio Nerone et L.
+Antistio consulibus natus est. Sororem habuit Septumuleiam, quae
+Fuscino nupsit.'
+
+The statement about his sister and mother is very doubtful; that about
+Fuscinus is a bad inference from the fact that _Sat._ 14 (on the
+education of children) is addressed to him. The name _Septumuleia_ may
+be invented from 14, 105, _septima lux_. Juvenal's sister must have
+been called Iunia after her father; the naming of a girl after her
+mother was a mediaeval idea.
+
+Juvenal was born at Aquinum, a town of the Volscians. Twelve of the
+_vitae_ agree in this, and they are confirmed by the poet's own words
+supposed to be addressed to him by his friend Umbricius: 3, 318-21,
+
+                      'Quotiens te
+  Roma tuo refici properantem reddet Aquino,
+  me quoque ad Helvinam Cererem vestramque Dianam
+  converte a Cumis.'
+
+Cf. 6, 57,
+
+  'agello cedo paterno.'
+
+This is corroborated by the inscription found at Aquinum (_C.I.L._ x.
+5382), which gives us other information about the poet:
+
+      _cere_RI · SACRVM
+  _d . iu_NIVS · IVVENALIS
+  _trib_ COH_·i_·DELMATARVM
+    II · VIR · QVINQ · FLAMEN
+         DIVI · VESPASIANI
+    VOVIT · DEDICAV_itq_VE
+    SVA                   PEC
+
+This inscription appears to have stood near the temple of Ceres
+Helvina or Elvina, dedicated by a member of the gens Elvia, references
+to which are found on inscriptions of the district.
+
+The _vitae_ say that Juvenal was the son of a freedman.[94] Cf.
+_Vitae_ i. _a_, i. _b_, ii. _c_ (Dürr): 'libertini locupletis incertum
+filius an alumnus.' _Vita_ v. (Dürr), 'ordinis ut fertur
+libertinorum.' This story is due to a misapprehension of some of
+Juvenal's references. 1, 99-102,
+
+               'Iubet a praecone vocari
+  ipsos Troiugenas (nam vexant limen et ipsi
+  nobiscum): "da praetori, da deinde tribuno."
+  Sed libertinus prior est.'
+
+_Libertinus_ here is not to be taken to mean that the entire set are
+freedmen.
+
+As to 4, 98,
+
+  'unde fit ut malim fraterculus esse gigantis,'
+
+it gives no evidence whatever of Juvenal's position. If it meant
+anything, it would rather imply that Juvenal was the son of a poor
+Italian and not of a foreign slave. So for 11, 145-6. His family was
+respectable, his means were fair, and he could afford to look down on
+upstarts in virtue both of his birth and of his property, although it
+is clear from his own works that he had in Rome the position of a
+rather humble dependent, who would be exposed to insult at the tables
+of the rich and powerful. Cf. 3, 318; 6, 57 (above); 12, 89, 'laribus
+paternis'; 1, 24,
+
+  'patricios omnes opibus cum provocet unus,
+  quo tondente gravis iuveni mihi barba sonabat.'
+
+So 10, 225.
+
+In _vita_ iv. he is said to have attained equestrian rank.
+(Tribunician rank implied equestrian). This, on the whole, is
+confirmed by the inscription, and may be founded on the original
+_vita_.
+
+Juvenal had a full course of education, first under the _litterator_
+and the _grammaticus_, then under the _rhetor._[95] Cf. 1, 15,
+
+  'Et nos ergo manum ferulae subduximus, et nos
+  consilium dedimus Sullae, privatus ut altum
+  dormiret.'
+
+This would imply a good position, and a certain command of money. Such
+_patres libertini_ as Horace's were very rare.
+
+The inscription above quoted (_divi Vespasiani_ shows that its date is
+after A.D. 79, and probably not long after) informs us that Juvenal
+was (1) 'tribunus cohortis I. Delmatarum'[96]; (2) 'duumvir
+quinquennalis'[97] and 'flamen divi Vespasiani' at Aquinum. The dates
+when Juvenal held these posts cannot be determined exactly; but we can
+infer certain points.
+
+(1) There was a _certus ordo honorum_ in municipal life, and Juvenal
+must have held the quaestorship and the aedileship before the
+_duumviratus quinquennalis_. The lower limit of entering on a
+municipal career was twenty-five, according to an order of Augustus,
+and people did not usually begin it much later; we may therefore
+conclude that these municipal posts were held by Juvenal somewhere
+between A.D. 80 and 90. The last year is approximately fixed by the
+way in which Martial in two of his epigrams (vii. 24 and 91) belonging
+to A.D. 91 or 92 speaks of Juvenal; the words show that the latter
+must have been established in Rome for some time.
+
+(2) In ordinary course Juvenal would enter the army after the
+completion of his seventeenth year. The short time he took to arrive
+at the position of tribune, and the statement of _vita_ iv. 'cum ...
+ad dignitatem equestris ordinis pervenire sua virtute meruisset,' make
+it probable that he entered the army as _petitor militiae equestris_,
+as a preliminary step towards entering on a political career.
+
+The cohors Delmatarum I., which Juvenal commanded as tribune, was in
+Britain in A.D. 106, and in A.D. 124.[98] Probably it had been
+stationed there for a period of years, and it is likely that Juvenal
+filled his tribuneship there. Now, all the _vitae_ inform us that
+Juvenal was banished under the pretext of a military command. While
+the other _vitae_ give Egypt as the place of his banishment, _vita_
+iv. gives Scotland; and it seems highly probable that _vita_ iv. has
+confused Juvenal's regular military command in Britain, and his
+banishment, late in life, to Egypt. The words are:
+
+'[Tyrannus] sub honoris praetextu fecit eum praefectum militis contra
+Scotos, qui bellum contra Romanos moverant.'
+
+This is supported by Juvenal's references to Britain. Some of these,
+like his references to Egypt, seem, in contradistinction to most of
+his references to foreign parts, to imply personal knowledge and
+observation. They are as follows:
+
+(1) 2, 159-161,
+
+           'Arma quidem ultra
+  litora Iuvernae promovimus et modo captas
+  Orcadas ac minima contentos nocte Britannos.'
+
+Here 'Iuverna' is the old name of Ireland, which is not mentioned even
+in Tacitus' _Agricola_[99]; for the Orcades cf. Tac. _Agr._ 10; and
+the excessive shortness of the summer nights mentioned in the last
+clause is especially true of the north of Scotland.
+
+(2) 10, 14,
+
+  'Quanto delphinis balaena Britannica maior.'
+
+This is also particularly applicable to the north of Scotland, whales
+being frequently seen off the Orkney and Shetland Islands.
+
+(3) 4, 141,
+
+              'Rutupinove edita fundo
+  ostrea.'
+
+(4) 14, 196,
+
+  'Castella Brigantum.'
+
+(5) 15, 111,
+
+  'Gallia causidicos docuit facunda Britannos,
+  de conducendo loquitur iam rhetore Thule.'
+
+Cf. Tac. _Agr._ 21.
+
+(6) 15, 124, 'Brittones.' This form is rarely found except in military
+inscriptions,[100] and could scarcely have been used except by one
+familiar with the camp in Britain.[101]
+
+That Juvenal came to Rome about A.D. 90 has been shown above. This
+step he may have taken to forward his promotion in the army and
+afterwards in the procuratorial service. His failure in this direction
+may have led to his pessimism. His friendship with Martial (whom,
+however, he does not mention) is shown by Mart. vii. 24 (cf. vii. 91),
+
+  'Cum Iuvenale meo quae me committere temptas,
+  quid non audebis, perfida lingua, loqui?' etc.
+
+That he was still in Rome in B.C. 101, and had the entrée of the atria
+of rich nobles is shown by Mart. xii. 18, written in that year.
+
+  'Dum tu forsitan inquietus erras
+  clamosa, Iuvenalis, in Subura
+  aut collem dominae teris Dianae,
+  dura per limina te potentiorum
+  sudatrix toga ventilat vagumque
+  maior Caelius et minor fatigant,
+  me multos repetita post Decembres
+  accepit mea rusticumque fecit
+  auro Bilbilis et superba ferro.'
+
+From this we see that he lived in the Subura, the plebeian quarter.
+Cf. 3, 5,
+
+  'ego vel Prochytam praepono Suburae.'
+
+While in Rome he still possessed his land at Aquinum and also a
+property at Tibur; 11, 65,
+
+  'de Tiburtino veniet pinguissimus agro
+  haedulus.'
+
+The statement of the _vitae_ that Juvenal studied rhetoric till middle
+life is, as already stated, improbable, as being inconsistent with his
+military and municipal career; 'facundus,' applied to him by Mart.
+vii. 91, 1, does not mean 'declaiming,' but 'poetical' or
+'oratorical.'
+
+_Vitae_ i. _a_ and _b_ (and other seven) say, 'ad mediam fere aetatem
+declamavit animi magis causa quam quod scholae se aut foro
+praepararet.'
+
+_Juvenal's literary life._--In the MSS. the satires are divided into
+Books, and the division seems ancient. Book i. includes _Sat._ 1-5;
+Book ii. = _Sat._ 6; Book iii. = _Sat._ 7-9; Book iv. = _Sat._ 10-12;
+Book v. = _Sat._ 13-16.
+
+Book i. was written under Trajan; certainly after A.D. 100, the date
+of the trial of Marius Priscus [102]; 1, 49,
+
+  'exul ab octava Marius bibit et fruitur dis
+  iratis.'
+
+Book ii. not earlier than A.D. 116. It is highly probable that 6, 407,
+'instantem regi Armenio Parthoque cometen,' refers to a comet seen at
+Rome in November A.D. 115; and 6, 411, 'nutare urbes, subsidere
+terras,' to the earthquake at Antioch, 13th December, A.D. 115.
+
+Book iii., probably about A.D. 120, was written under Hadrian, who is
+eulogized in 7, 1-35. Dürr thinks it probable that 7, 36-243, was
+written under Trajan, and that the introduction, in praise of Hadrian,
+was written afterwards. This is also Friedländer's view; cf. l. 1, 'Et
+spes et ratio studiorum in Caesare tantum,' with Spart. _vit. Hadr._
+14, 8, 'poematum studiosissimus.' This also supports the view that the
+introduction was written not long after Hadrian's accession, when a
+new era for poets was supposed to be beginning.
+
+Book iv. was probably written about A.D. 125.
+
+Book v. A clue to the date is found in 13, 16-7,
+
+         'Stupet haec, qui iam post terga reliquit
+  sexaginta annos, Fonteio consule natus.'
+
+Fonteius Capito and C. Iulius Rufus were consuls A.D. 67, in which
+year the sexagenarian friend whom Juvenal addresses was born. The date
+of writing will therefore be A.D. 127.[103]
+
+Cf. also 15, 27, 'nuper consule Iunco.' Iuncus was consul A.D. 127, so
+that this satire could not have been written before A.D. 128. So 15,
+44,
+
+                 'Horrida sane
+  Aegyptos, sed luxuria, quantum ipse notavi,
+  barbara famoso non cedit turba Canopo.'
+
+Juvenal must have added these lines to the satire while he was an
+exile in Egypt, if he did not write the whole of it there. This is in
+accordance with what _vita_ v. says, 'in exilio ampliavit satyras.'
+Supposing this passage to be an addition, we may conclude that Book v.
+was written about A.D. 128, but not before that year.
+
+_Juvenal's banishment._--As before stated, all the _vitae_ but one
+give Egypt as the place of Juvenal's exile. The exact place, according
+to the scholiast on 1, 1 and 4, 38, was the Great Oasis (Hoasa:
+Hoasis). Three _vitae_ (i. _a_, _b_, iii. _c_) state that he was at
+that time _octogenarius_. This would make the date A.D. 135 or 136.
+Most of the _vitae_ give as the reason of his exile the fact that he
+wrote the lines,[104] 7, 90-2,
+
+  'Quod non dant proceres dabit histrio. Tu Camerinos
+  et Baream, tu nobilium magna atria curas?
+  Praefectos Pelopea facit, Philomela tribunos.'
+
+Now these lines, the first he ever wrote (_vita_ iii. _c_) were
+composed in his youth as an epigram on Paris, Domitian's favourite,
+probably about A.D. 81-3. The true story then is that, when Juvenal in
+A.D. 135 or 136 published a new edition of _Sat._ 7, he added these
+lines (_vitae_ i. _a_, _b_, 'ut ea quoque quae prima fecerat
+inferciret novis scriptis').[105] Now it has been inferred from Spart.
+_vit. Hadr._ 23 _sqq._ that at this time an actor had great influence
+over Hadrian, and the lines were taken as referring to him. The
+emperor in a rage banished Juvenal to Egypt _per honorem militiae_,
+writing maliciously on his commission 'Et te Philomela promovit'
+(_vita_ iv.). The banishment is assigned to the influence of Paris by
+Iohannes Malalas, p. 262 _sqq._ (Dindorf), and by Suidas. Cf. also
+_Sat._ 15, 44 _sqq._, already quoted, and Sidonius Apollinaris 9, 267
+_sqq._,
+
+  'Non qui tempore Caesaris secundi
+  aeterno incoluit Tomos reatu:
+  non qui consimili deinde casu
+  ad volgi tenuem strepentis auram
+  irati fuit histrionis exul.'
+
+_Vita_ iii. _b_, 'Tristitia et angore periit anno aetatis suae altero
+et octuagesimo.'
+
+_Vita_ v., 'Decessit longo senio confectus exul Antonino Pio
+imperatore.'
+
+If this last statement is correct, Juvenal died after reaching the age
+of eighty-two, as Antoninus came to the throne on 10th July, A.D. 138.
+It follows from this also that he must have been born in the second
+half of A.D. 55.
+
+_The Satires._--The following are the more important points regarding
+these:
+
+(1) Juvenal's reasons for writing satire are given in _Sat._ 1, ll.
+1-14. He is wearied with tragedies and epics on mythological subjects,
+'Semper ego auditor tantum?'
+
+He is resolved to follow in the footsteps of Lucilius; ll. 19-21,
+
+  'Cur tamen hoc potius libeat decurrere campo,
+  per quem magnus equos Auruncae flexit alumnus,
+  si vacat ac placidi rationem admittitis, edam.'
+
+His satire is due to indignation at the moral decay of the Roman
+world.
+
+l. 30, 'Difficile est satiram non scribere' (cf. ll. 63, 79).
+
+However, he does not intend to satirize the living, at least under
+their own names; and in fact he has in his mind particularly the times
+of Domitian, while most of his names are those of persons living under
+Claudius or Nero; l. 170,
+
+        'Experiar quid concedatur in illos,
+  quorum Flaminia tegitur cinis atque Latina.'
+
+In the first nine Satires Juvenal's bitterness is directed mainly
+against the senatorial class, possibly because they had given him no
+support in his office-seeking. Even his violent attack on women in
+_Sat._ 6 is launched chiefly against the women of the highest class.
+Note also the unjust way in which he speaks of the government of the
+provinces (_Sat._ 8, 87-139). Juvenal is very bitter against Greeks
+and Orientals, most of all against Egyptians (cf. _Sat._ 15, and his
+attacks on the Egyptian Crispinus in 4, 1-33, etc.). Cf. 3, 119-125,
+for his attacks on foreigners.
+
+(2) He claims a wide scope for his subject; 1, 85,
+
+  'Quidquid agunt homines, votum timor ira voluptas
+  gaudia discursus nostri farrago libelli est.'
+
+(3) His pessimism is very marked; cf. 1, 147,
+
+  'Nil erit ulterius, quod nostris moribus addat
+  posteritas; eadem facient cupientque minores,
+  omne in praecipiti vitium stetit. Utere velis,
+  totos pande sinus.'
+
+So 12, 48-9. His pessimism leads to extravagant language like 6, 29
+_sqq._ He is as hard on trifling foibles as on the most heinous
+offences. Cf. 6, 166 _sqq._, 185 _sqq._, 398 _sqq._, 434-56 (on
+learned ladies).
+
+(4) His rhetorical learning and style (found in all the Satires, but
+particularly in the later ones) are shown by
+
+(_a_) His metre and language. Thus we find rhetorical uses of _ergo_
+(3, 104; 281, etc.); _nunc_ (3, 268; 10, 210); _porro_ (3, 126; 11,
+9); and of other particles.
+
+(_b_) The way in which he chooses themes for his Satires, and
+subdivides them. Several of the Satires, as 5, 8, 10, 14, are
+_theses_, _i.e._ problems of a general character worked out in the
+manner of the rhetorical schools. Thus _Sat._ 5 discusses the
+question, 'Is the position of a client worth having?' _Sat._ 8, 'Has
+high birth a value in itself?' He sometimes uses the commonplaces of
+the schools, as 8, 56,
+
+             'Animalia muta
+  quis generosa putet nisi fortia?'
+
+So 8, 215-6. In the manner of a rhetorician he sometimes gives
+superabundant details. The best example of this is 10, 190-250, on the
+troubles of old age.
+
+(_c_) His knowledge of mythology, history, law, and philosophy. This
+is found mostly in the later Books. In the earlier Satires he dealt
+more with life as he had known it. In the later Satires he has
+recourse to republican times and to foreign history. His historical
+examples Friedländer thinks he took mostly from Valerius Maximus.
+Juvenal's knowledge of philosophy was very superficial, and was
+probably got from his rhetorical training. Errors occur; thus in 13,
+121-2, Stoics and Cynics are looked upon as identical.[106]
+
+(_d_) His high-flown language referred to above.
+
+(_e_) His references to previous literature. Thus Horace is often
+referred to (cf. 7, 62 and 227); Virgil with great frequency (cf. 1,
+162; 6, 434 _sqq._; 7, 66 and 227; 7, 233 _sqq._). Mayor mentions
+Homer, Herodotus, Plato, Lucilius, Cicero, Ovid, Manilius, Valerius
+Maximus, Seneca, Lucan, and Martial among the authors imitated by
+Juvenal.
+
+
+
+PLINY THE YOUNGER.
+
+
+Pliny's full name on the inscriptions of the later period of his life
+reads 'C. Plinius L. f. Ouf. Caecilius Secundus.' This name he partly
+got from his mother's brother C. Plinius Secundus (Pliny the elder),
+who adopted him by will: cf. _Ep._ v. 8, 5, 'Avunculus meus idemque
+per adoptionem pater.' Pliny's name before his adoption in A.D. 79
+(see below) was P. Caecilius L. f. Ouf. Secundus. His birthplace was
+Comum, and he belonged to the Oufentina, the tribe of the people of
+Comum, as well on the side of his natural as on that of his adoptive
+father. In an inscription preserved at Como (_C.I.L._ v. 5279) Pliny's
+father, Cilo, is mentioned, and two men who are undoubtedly Cilo's
+sons, the second mentioned being Pliny the younger, who had always
+been called Secundus.
+
+'L. Caecilius L. f. Cilo iiii.vir a(edilicia) p(otestate), qui
+testamento suo (sestertium) n(ummum) xxxx. (milia) municipibus
+Comensibus legavit, ex quorum reditu quotannis per Neptunalia oleum in
+campo et in thermis et in balineis omnibus, quae sunt Comi,
+praeberentur, t(estamento) f(ieri) iussit et L. Caecilio L. f. Valenti
+et P. Caecilio L. f. Secundo et Lutullae Picti f. contubernali.'[107]
+
+For Cilo's bequests here mentioned cf. Pliny, _Ep._ i, 8, 5; Comum is
+referred to as 'patria mea' in _Ep._ iv. 30, 1. The Caecilii were a
+family of station at Comum even in Caesar's time. Cf. Catull. 35,
+
+  'Poetae tenero meo sodali
+  velim Caecilio, papyre, dicas,
+  Veronam veniat Novi relinquens
+  Comi moenia Lariumque litus.'
+
+Pliny inherited landed property there from his father and mother.
+
+_Ep._ vii. 11, 5, 'Indicavit mihi cupere se aliquid circa Larium
+nostrum possidere: ego illi ex praediis meis quod vellet ... optuli,
+exceptis maternis paternisque.'
+
+The above inscription shows that Pliny's father belonged to the
+municipal nobility, and possibly had 'equestris nobilitas.'
+
+Pliny was in his eighteenth year (_Ep._ vi. 20, 5, 'agebam
+duodevicensimum annum') on 24th August, A.D. 79, when his uncle
+perished in the eruption of Vesuvius, and he was therefore born in the
+second half of 61 or in the first half of 62 A.D. Cilo died young,
+before holding the chief municipal post, and before Pliny was of age;
+and Verginius Rufus became Pliny's guardian.
+
+_Ep._ ii. 1, 8, 'Ille mihi tutor relictus adfectum parentis
+exhibuit.' Pliny was removed to Rome with his uncle, probably at the
+end of A.D. 72. While at school he wrote poetry (_Ep._ vii. 4, 2,
+quoted below), and studied philosophy and rhetoric.
+
+_Ep._ vi. 6, 3, 'Quos tunc ego frequentabam, Quintilianum, Niceten
+Sacerdotem.' Cf. also ii. 14, 10; i. 20, 4; vii. 4, etc. For literary
+studies with his uncle cf. _Ep._ vi. 20, 5, 'Posco librum Titi Livi et
+quasi per otium lego, atque etiam, ut coeperam, excerpo.'
+
+His uncle, as above stated, died on 24th August, A.D. 79, and by his
+will adopted Pliny, whose name thereafter was C. Plinius L. f. Ouf.
+Caecilius Secundus. He therefore changed his praenomen to that of his
+adoptive father, and put his former nomen among his cognomina. By his
+contemporaries he is called Plinius (cf. Martial, x. 19), or Secundus,
+as by Trajan. The name Caecilius was confined to formal inscriptions.
+
+In A.D. 80 or 81 Pliny first appeared as an advocate. Cf. _Ep._ v. 8,
+8, 'Undevicensimo aetatis anno dicere in foro coepi.' Before entering
+the Senate, he held (as stated in the chief inscription, given below)
+the decemvirate _litibus iudicandis_, the military tribunate in the
+third Gallic legion, and the title of Sevir in the Roman knighthood.
+Pliny probably held his military tribunate under Domitian (_i.e._,
+after 13th September, A.D. 81) in Syria.
+
+Cf. _Ep._ i. 10, 2, 'Hunc [Euphraten philosophum] ego in Syria, cum
+adulescentulus militarem, penitus et domi inspexi.'
+
+The date of Pliny's praetorship as A.D. 93 is settled by _Ep._ iii.
+11, 2, the events recorded in which passage are known from Tac. _Agr._
+45 to have taken place shortly after Agricola's death in August, A.D.
+93.
+
+'Fui praetor ... cum ... occisis Senecione Rustico Helvidio, relegatis
+Maurico Gratilla Arria Fannia ... mihi quoque impendere idem exitium
+certis quibusdam notis augurarer.'
+
+The words in _Ep._ vii. 16 (of Calestrius Tiro), 'Simul quaestores
+Caesaris fuimus: ille me in tribunatu liberorum iure praecessit, ego
+illum in praetura sum consecutus, cum mihi Caesar annum remisisset,'
+refer to the fact that the emperor did not insist on the year of
+absence from office between the tribunate and the quaestorship. Pliny
+was quaestor from 1st June, 89 to 31st May, 90 A.D., being nominated
+by the emperor, as shown by the above passage. He was _trib. pleb._
+from 10th December, 90 to 9th December, 91 A.D., and during his year
+of office undertook no cases. Cf. _Ep._ i. 23, 2, 'Ipse cum tribunus
+essem ... abstinui causis agendis.' By special favour he was allowed
+to take office as praetor on 1st January, A.D. 93. In this year he
+appeared before the Senate for the people of Baetica against the
+procurator Baebius Massa.
+
+_Ep._ vii. 33, esp. § 4, 'Dederat me senatus cum Herennio Senecione
+advocatum provinciae Baeticae contra Baebium Massam.'
+
+The inscriptions of Pliny show that he was _praefectus aerarii
+militaris_ between his praetorship in 93 and his _praefectura aerarii
+Saturni_ (from 98 onwards), and this office he held either from 94 to
+96 or from 95 to 97 A.D. Pliny tells us that he and Cornutus Tertullus
+were designated consuls, when they had held the _praefectura aerarii
+Saturni_ for less than two years.
+
+_Paneg._ 91, 'Nondum biennium compleveramus in officio laboriosissimo
+et maximo, cum tu nobis ... consulatum obtulisti.'
+
+This _designatio_ took place on 9th January, A.D. 100, whence the
+_praefectura_ must have been entered on shortly after 9th January,
+A.D. 98. Pliny was probably nominated to it by Nerva and Trajan.
+
+Cf. _ad Trai._ 3, 'Ut primum me, domine, indulgentia _vestra_ promovit
+ad praefecturam aerarii Saturni.'
+
+Mommsen[108] believes that this praefectura was held at the same time
+as the consulship, and on to December, A.D. 101, an unusual length of
+tenure. H. F. Stobbe, however, makes the trial of Classicus, on which
+the last date depends, extend from September 99 to July 100 A.D.
+(_Philologus_, xxx. 347 _sqq._).
+
+_Paneg._ 92, 'Nobis praefectis aerarii consulatum ante quam
+successorem dedisti.'
+
+Pliny, along with Cornutus Tertullus, his colleague in the
+_praefectura_, was made consul A.D. 100. He held the office in
+September of that year, and the tenure was either from July 1 to
+September 30, or from September 1 to October 31.
+
+_Paneg._ 92, 'Ei nos potissimum mensi attribuisti quem tuus natalis
+exornat.'
+
+The _Panegyricus_ is a speech of thanks to Trajan spoken on this
+occasion. In A.D. 99 Pliny, along with Tacitus, appeared for the
+Africans against the proconsul Marius Priscus (see _Ep._ ii. 11 quoted
+p. 338); and in A.D. 101, while still _praefectus aerarii_, he
+appeared for the people of Baetica against the proconsul Caecilius
+Classicus.
+
+_Ep._ iii. 4, 2, 'Legati provinciae Baeticae questuri de proconsulatu
+Caecili Classici advocatum me a senatu petierunt.'
+
+Pliny obtained the augurship, probably in 103 or 104, in succession to
+Sex. Iulius Frontinus, who probably died in 102 or 103 A.D. Cf. _Ep._
+iv. 8, 3, 'Successi Iulio Frontino.' In 103 or 104 A.D. he appeared
+against the Bithynians for the proconsul Iulius Bassus (_Ep._ iv. 9
+etc.). He held the _cura alvei Tiberis et riparum et cloacarum urbis_
+probably from 105 to 107 A.D. See Pliny's chief inscription (below),
+and cf. _Ep._ v. 14, 1-2, 'Mihi nuntiatum est Cornutum Tertullum
+accepisse Aemiliae viae curam ... aliquanto magis me delectat mandatum
+mihi officium, postquam par Cornuto datum video.'
+
+About A.D. 106 Pliny appeared against the Bithynians for the proconsul
+Varenus Rufus (_Ep._ vi. 29, 11).
+
+From 111-2 or 112-3 A.D. Pliny was governor of Pontus and Bithynia,
+being sent out for a special purpose by the emperor as _legatus pro
+praetore consulari potestate_. Cf. the chief inscription (below) and
+the words of Trajan.
+
+_Trai._ 32, 'Meminerimus idcirco te in istam provinciam missum, quoniam
+multa in ea emendanda apparuerint.'
+
+The date of Pliny's governorship is fixed by the mention of Calpurnius
+Macer in the letters (_ad Trai._ 42; 61; 62) as the governor of the
+nearest province. Mommsen has identified him with P. Calpurnius Macer
+Caulius Rufus, who is shown by an inscription (_C.I.L._ iii. 7 and 17)
+to have been governor of Lower Moesia in 112 A.D. This is corroborated
+by the fact that no mention is made of Bithynia in the chief
+collection of letters, which was not completed till A.D. 108 at least.
+Therefore the governorship falls after that time. On the other hand,
+Pliny must have been sent out not later than A.D. 113, as in the chief
+inscription _Optimus_ does not appear in Trajan's name, and this
+cognomen he assumed in A.D. 114. Finally, the fact that Trajan was at
+Rome during Pliny's governorship points to a time between the end of
+the second Dacian War in A.D. 107 and the outbreak of the Parthian War
+in A.D. 113.
+
+Our information about Pliny ends with the close of his correspondence
+with Trajan. It is certain that he held no further office, and it is
+probable that he died before A.D. 114 in his province or shortly after
+his return to Rome.
+
+As regards municipal relations, Pliny held the post of _flamen divi
+Augusti_, according to the inscription which the corporation of
+Vercellae erected to him at his own town (_C.I.L._ v. 5667).
+
+'C. Plini[o L. f. O]uf. Caec[ilio] Secundo [c]os. augur. cur. alv.
+Tib. [et ripa]r. et cloac. urb. [praef. a]er. Sat. praef. aer. mil.
+[pr. tr. pl.] imp. sevir. eq. R. tr. m[i]l. leg. iii. Gall. x. viro
+stl. iud. fl. divi T. Aug.'
+
+For bequests to his native town see the chief inscription (below).
+Besides these are mentioned gifts in his life-time. Under Domitian
+Pliny presented his townspeople with a library (_Ep._ i, 8),
+apparently worth 1,000,000 sesterces (v. 7), and endowed it with
+100,000 sesterces. He also gave 500,000 sesterces for the support of
+freeborn boys and girls (_Ep._ i, 8); and promised to pay one-third of
+the salary of the professor of rhetoric at Comum (_Ep._ iv. 13, 5).
+
+The following is the chief inscription of Pliny (as restored by
+Mommsen), which was erected at the _Thermae_ which he presented to
+Comum (_C.I.L._ v. 5262):
+
+'C. Plinius L. f. Ouf. Caecilius _Secundus cos._ augur legat. pro pr.
+provinciae Pon_ti et Bithyniae_ consulari potesta_t_. in eam
+provinciam e_x. s. c. missus ab_ Imp. Caesar. Nerva Traiano Aug.
+German_ico Dacico p.p_. curator alvei Ti_b_eris et riparum e_t
+cloacar. urb_. praef. aerari Satu_r_ni praef. aerari mil_it. pr. trib.
+pl_. quaestor imp. sevir equitum _Romanorum_ trib. milit. leg. _iii_.
+Gallicae _x.vir stli_tib. iudicand. therm_as ex HS_ ... adiectis in
+ornatum HS ccc ... _et eo amp_lius in tutela_m_ HS CC t. f. i. _item
+in alimenta_ libertor. suorum homin. C. HS XVIII LXVI DCLXVI rei_p.
+legavit, quorum inc_rement. postea ad epulum _pl_eb. urban. voluit
+pertin_ere ... item vivus_ dedit in aliment. pueror. et puellar. pleb.
+urban. HS D _item bybliothecam et_ in tutelam bybliothecae HS C.'
+
+Pliny was also patron of Tifernum Tiberinum and of the Baetici.
+
+_Ep._ iv. 1, 4, 'Oppidum est praediis nostris vicinum, nomen Tiferni
+Tiberini, quod me paene adhuc puerum patronum cooptavit ... In hoc ego
+... templum pecunia mea exstruxi, cuius dedicationem ... differre
+longius inreligiosum est.'
+
+_Ep._ iii. 4, 4, 'Legati ... inplorantes fidem meam, quam essent
+contra Massam Baebium experti, adlegantes patrocini foedus.'
+
+Pliny married three times, twice under Domitian. Cf. _ad Trai._ 2,
+'Liberos ... habere etiam tristissimo illo saeculo volui, sicut potes
+duobus matrimoniis meis credere.' For his third wife, Calpurnia, who
+died A.D. 97, see _Ep._ iv. 19. Pliny had no children, but Trajan
+conferred on him the _ius trium liberorum_ in A.D. 98. Cf. _ad Trai._
+2, 'Me dignum putasti iure trium liberorum.'
+
+_Pliny as orator and writer._--Most of Pliny's cases were before the
+_centumviri_, who dealt with inheritances: cf. _Ep._ vi. 12, 2, 'in
+harena mea, hoc est apud centumviros.' So Mart. x. 19, 14 (written
+A.D. 96),
+
+  'Totos dat tetricae dies Minervae
+  dum centum studet auribus virorum
+  hoc quod saecula posterique possint
+  Arpinis quoque comparare chartis.'
+
+For Pliny's five speeches in criminal trials before the Senate see
+above. Cf. _Ep._ vi. 29, 7 _sqq._, 'Egi quasdam a senatu iussus ...
+Adfui Baeticis contra Baebium Massam ... Adfui rursus isdem
+querentibus de Caecilio Classico ... Accusavi Marium Priscum ...
+Tuitus sum Iulium Bassum ... Dixi proxime pro Vareno.'
+
+Pliny recited his speeches before delivering them, and subsequently
+published them, sometimes with additions.
+
+_Ep._ vii. 17, 2, 'Miror quod scribis fuisse quosdam qui
+reprehenderent quod orationes omnino recitarem.'
+
+_Ep._ iii. 18, 1 (of the _Panegyricus_), 'Quod ego in senatu cum ad
+rationem et loci et temporis ex more fecissem, bono civi
+convenientissimum credidi eadem illa spatiosius et uberius volumine
+amplecti.'
+
+Pliny speaks of his early attempts at poetry:
+
+_Ep._ vii. 4, 2-3, 'Numquam a poetice (altius enim repetam) alienus
+fui; quin etiam quattuordecim natus annos Graecam tragoediam scripsi.
+Qualem? inquis: nescio: tragoedia vocabatur.'
+
+In Books i.-iii. he appears only as a lover of poetry and a patron of
+poets (cf. i. 16; iii. 15). From Book iv. (published A.D. 105) onwards
+he appears as a poet. In _Ep._ vii. 4, 6 are thirteen poor hexameter
+lines on Cicero; _ibid._ §§ 7-8, 'Transii ad elegos: hos quoque non
+minus celeriter explicui: addidi iambos, facilitate corruptus ...
+Postremo placuit exemplo multorum unum separatim hendecasyllaborum
+volumen absolvere, nec paenitet. Legitur, describitur, cantatur
+etiam.' Pliny defends himself for writing light verses in _Ep._ v. 3,
+etc. In the later books he refers to another proposed collection of
+verses.
+
+_Ep._ viii. 21, 3, 'Liber fuit et opusculis varius et metris.'
+
+Pliny says he did not observe chronological order in publishing his
+letters.
+
+_Ep._ i. 1, 1, 'Collegi non servato temporis ordine (neque enim
+historiam componebam), sed ut quaeque in manus venerat.'
+
+This, however, is not convincing, as it falls in with
+Pliny's wish to give an appearance of negligence to the work, and
+besides it may apply only to Book i. Successive publication of the
+different Books is shown by many references; so _Ep._ ix. 19,
+'Significas legisse te in quadam epistula,' where _Ep._ vi. 10 is
+referred to. So also contemporaneous events are always described in
+the same Book or in two Books close together; and when a subject is
+continued in another letter, the order of the two letters fits in with
+chronology. So iii. 4 and iv. 1 deal with the building of a temple at
+Tifernum; iii. 20 and iv. 25 with ballot at elections.
+
+The following are the probable dates of publication: Book i. in A.D.
+97; Book ii. in A.D. 100; Book iii. in A.D. 101 or 102; Book iv. in
+A.D. 105; Book v. in A.D. 106; Book vi. possibly in A.D. 106; Book
+vii. in A.D. 107; Book viii. not before A.D. 109; Book ix. probably
+about the same time.
+
+The correspondence with Trajan is independent of the nine Books of
+letters. The epistles are roughly in chronological order. _Epp._ 1-14
+range from 98 to 106 A.D. _Epp._ 15 to the end were probably all
+written in Bithynia during Pliny's governorship there. Trajan's reply
+is subjoined to most of the letters. The correspondence extant
+stretches from September A.D. 111 over January A.D. 113.
+
+Pliny had intimate relations with other writers, the principal being
+Tacitus; Martial (cf. _Ep._ iii. 21); Silius Italicus (cf. _Ep._ iii.
+7). See pp. 340, 298, 289. For his literary reputation see _Ep._ ix.
+23, 2, quoted p. 338 and cf. _Ep._ i. 2, 6, 'Libelli quos emisimus
+dicuntur in manibus esse, quamvis iam gratiam novitatis exuerint; nisi
+tamen auribus nostris bibliopolae blandiuntur.'
+
+_Pliny's character._--Pliny, without being a great man, is a more
+favourable specimen of character, feeling, and gentlemanly tone, than
+almost any other Roman author. He avoided censorious writing, and most
+of the people he mentions are praised. The chief exception is Regulus
+(_Ep._ i. 5, etc.), and possibly also Iavolenus Priscus (vi. 15). When
+anybody is blamed, his name is omitted unless he is dead or has been
+banished.
+
+_Ep._ vii. 28, i, 'Ais quosdam apud te reprehendisse, tamquam amicos
+meos ex omni occasione ultra modum laudem. Agnosco crimen, amplector
+etiam. Quid enim honestius culpa benignitatis?'
+
+For his desire of praise cf. _Ep._ ix. 23, 5, 'An ... ego celebritate
+nominis mei gaudere non debeo? Ego vero et gaudeo et gaudere me dico.'
+
+For his kindness to slaves cf. _Ep._ viii. 16, 1, 'Permitto servis
+quoque quasi testamenta facere eaque ut legitima custodio' (and the
+rest of the letter).
+
+For his grief at the loss of friends cf. _Ep._ v. 21, 6, 'Sed quid ego
+indulgeo dolori? cui si frenos remittas, nulla materia non maxima est.
+Finem epistulae faciam, ut facere possim etiam lacrimis quas epistula
+expressit.'
+
+For his love of nature cf. Ep. i. 9, 6, 'O mare, o litus, verum
+secretumque μουσεῖον, quam multa invenitis, quam multa
+dictatis!'
+
+Cf. also descriptions of natural scenery, as in _Epp._ ii. 17, 3; v.
+6, 13; vi. 31, 15; viii. 8.
+
+
+
+TACITUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+The historian's full name is uncertain. Other writers, _e.g._ Pliny
+the younger, call him Cornelius Tacitus, or simply Tacitus. His
+praenomen is given as P. in the best Tacitean MS. (Mediceus I.), and
+as C. in later MSS. and by Sidonius Apollinaris (_Ep._ iv. 14;
+22).[109] His birthplace is unknown. The tradition that he was born at
+Interamna in Umbria arose from the fact that the emperor Tacitus (A.D.
+275-6), who claimed descent from the historian (Vopisc. _Tac._ 10, 3),
+was born there.[110] The probable date of his birth is got from a
+comparison of two passages:
+
+_Dial._ 1, 'Disertissimorum ... hominum ... quos eamdem hanc
+quaestionem pertractantes iuvenis admodum audivi.'
+
+Pliny, _Ep._ vii. 20, 3, 'Erit rarum et insigne duos homines aetate
+dignitate propemodum aequales ... alterum alterius studia fovisse.
+Equidem adulescentulus, cum iam tu fama gloriaque floreres, te sequi,
+tibi longo sed proximus intervallo et esse et haberi concupiscebam.'
+
+The dramatic date of the Dialogue is A.D. 75 (_Dial._ 17), and at that
+time Tacitus, as _iuvenis admodum_, must have been between seventeen
+and twenty. From a consideration of the words of Pliny, who was born
+A.D. 61 or 62, the later age seems nearer the mark, and we may
+conclude that Tacitus was born A.D. 55 or 56.
+
+We have no positive information about Tacitus' family, but his
+education, political career, and marriage into a distinguished house,
+prove that he belonged to a family of station. The first person of the
+name we know of is mentioned by Pliny the elder as an _eques_, and may
+have been Tacitus' father.
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ vii. 76, 'Corneli Taciti, equitis Romani, Belgicae
+Galliae rationes procurantis.'
+
+Tacitus received the regular rhetorical training under the best
+masters.
+
+_Dial._ 2, 'M. Aper et Iulius Secundus, celeberrima tum ingenia fori
+nostri, quos ego in iudiciis non modo studiose audiebam, sed domi
+quoque et in publico adsectabar, mira studiorum cupiditate et quodam
+ardore iuvenili, ut fabulas quoque eorum et disputationes et arcana
+semotae dictionis penitus exciperem.'
+
+That Tacitus had a very great reputation as a speaker is seen from
+Pliny, _Ep._ ix. 23, 2, 'Numquam maiorem cepi voluptatem, quam nuper
+ex sermone Corneli Taciti. Narrabat sedisse se cum quodam Circensibus
+proximis: hunc post varios eruditosque sermones requisisse "Italicus
+es an provincialis?" se respondisse "nosti me, et quidem ex studiis."
+Ad hoc illum "Tacitus es an Plinius?"'
+
+In A.D. 98 (according to others, 97) Tacitus delivered the funeral
+oration over Verginius Rufus, and in A.D. 100 he and Pliny prosecuted
+Marius Priscus, proconsul of Africa, for extortion.
+
+Pliny, _Ep._ ii. 1, 6, 'Laudatus est [Verginius Rufus] a consule
+Cornelio Tacito: nam hic supremus felicitati eius cumulus accessit,
+laudator eloquentissimus.'
+
+_Ibid._ ii. 11, 2, 'Ego et Cornelius Tacitus, adesse provincialibus
+iussi.' § 17, 'Respondit Cornelius Tacitus eloquentissime, et quod
+eximium orationi eius inest, σεμνῶς.'
+
+In A.D. 77 Tacitus was betrothed to the daughter of Agricola, then
+consul, and in A.D. 78 he married her.
+
+_Agr._ 9, 'Consul egregiae tum spei filiam iuveni mihi despondit ac
+post consulatum collocavit, et statim Britanniae praepositus est.'
+
+Tacitus gives us a clue to his political career in _Hist._ i. 1.
+
+'Dignitatem nostram a Vespasiano incohatam, a Tito auctam, a Domitiano
+longius provectam non abnuerim.'
+
+This probably means that Vespasian granted him the _latus clavus_,
+_i.e._ a place in the _ordo senatorius_, which was followed by the
+_vigintiviratus_ given by the Senate, and a commission in the army as
+_tribunus militum laticlavius_; that Titus appointed him quaestor A.D.
+80-1; and that Domitian made him tribune or aedile (about 84), and in
+A.D. 88 praetor. For the last office cf. _Ann._ xi. 11,
+
+'Is [Domitianus] edidit ludos saeculares, eisque intentius adfui
+sacerdotio quindecimvirali praeditus ac tunc praetor.'
+
+That Tacitus was absent from Rome A.D. 90-93 we may infer from what he
+says of Agricola's death (A.D. 93).
+
+_Agr._ 45, 'Nobis tam longae absentiae condicione ante quadriennium
+amissus est.'
+
+He must have returned to Rome soon afterwards, for he says in the same
+chapter: 'Mox nostrae duxere Helvidium in carcerem manus; nos Maurici
+Rusticique visus, nos innocenti sanguine Senecio perfudit.'
+
+Tacitus was appointed consul suffectus under Trajan A.D. 98 (see
+Pliny, _Ep._ ii. 1, 6, above quoted).
+
+An inscription found at Mylasa in Caria shows that Tacitus was
+proconsul of Asia about 112-116 A.D.[111]
+
+Tacitus probably died soon after the publication of the _Annals_ (A.D.
+115-7), as he did not live to write his contemplated works on the
+Augustan age and the reigns of Nerva and Trajan.
+
+_Hist._ i. 1, 'Quod si vita suppeditet, principatum divi Nervae et
+imperium Traiani ... senectuti seposui.'
+
+_Ann._ iii. 24, 'Cetera illius aetatis [Augusti] memorabo, si effectis
+in quae tetendi, plures ad curas vitam produxero.'
+
+Tacitus was on intimate terms with Pliny, eleven of whose letters are
+addressed to him. From vii. 20 and viii. 7 we see that they were in
+the habit of "exchanging proof-sheets." To the same circle belonged
+Fabius Iustus, to whom the _Dialogus_ is dedicated, and Asinius Rufus.
+
+Pliny, _Ep._ iv. 15, 1, 'Asinium Rufum singulariter amo. ... Idem
+Cornelium Tacitum arta familiaritate complexus est.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Dialogus de Oratoribus_, an inquiry into the causes of the decay
+of eloquence--'cur nostra potissimum aetas deserta et laude
+eloquentiae orbata vix nomen ipsum oratoris retineat' (_Dial._ 1).
+Some critics have supposed that Tacitus meant this work to be an
+_apologia pro vita sua_, a justification of his preference for a
+literary to a rhetorical career, but this cannot be proved. That
+Tacitus is the author is clear from Pliny, _Ep._ ix. 10, 2, 'Itaque
+poemata quiescunt, quae tu inter nemora et lucos commodissime perfici
+putas'--a reference to _Dial._ 9, 'poetis ... in nemora et lucos, id
+est in solitudinem, secedendum est.' The dramatic date is given in
+_Dial._ 17 as A.D. 75; the statement there and in _Dial._ 24 that one
+hundred and twenty years have passed since Cicero's death (which would
+give A.D. 77) is made in round numbers. The date of composition is
+uncertain. It was not under Domitian, as Tacitus remained silent
+during his reign (_Agr._ 2). We can hardly suppose it to have been
+written under Nerva, as its style is so different from that of the
+_Agricola_; but it may have been written under Domitian, and published
+after his death. Some authorities put it as early as A.D. 81.[112]
+
+2. _De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae liber_, an account of the life
+of Cn. Iulius Agricola, Tacitus' father-in-law, and particularly of
+his career in Britain. It was written early in the reign of Trajan,
+and therefore after 27th Jan., 98 A.D., and probably in that year.
+
+_Agr._ 3, 'quamquam primo statim beatissimi saeculi ortu Nerva Caesar
+res olim dissociabiles miscuerit, principatum ac libertatem, augeatque
+cottidie felicitatem temporum Nerva Traianus.'
+
+3. _Germania_.--The Vatican MSS. give the title as _de origine et situ_
+(another MS. adds _moribus ac populis_) Germanorum. The date of
+publication, as seen from _Germ._ 37, was A.D. 98. The book is not
+mentioned in _Agr._ 3 among the proposed works of Tacitus; and it has
+therefore been supposed that the materials were collected for the
+_Histories_, and that the work was published separately on account of
+its length, and also the interest felt in Germany at the time. There
+is nothing in the theory that the book is a political pamphlet, or
+that it contains a moral purpose. Tacitus is by no means blind to the
+faults of the Germans (c. 17 _sqq._, etc.), though he compares them
+favourably in many respects with the Romans.
+
+4. _Historiae_.--The title is guaranteed by Tertull. _apol._ 16,
+'Cornelius Tacitus in quinta historiarum suarum.' The work embraced
+the time from Galba to Domitian, _i.e._ 69-96 A.D. The first four
+Books and part of the fifth are extant, and give the history of 69 and
+most of 70 A.D. In MS. Mediceus II., the only ancient MS. that
+contains _Ann._ xi.-xvi. and the _Histories_, there is no title, but
+the Books are numbered continuously as belonging to the same work. Cf.
+Jerome, _Comm. on Zacharias_, iii. 14, 'Cornelius Tacitus, qui post
+Augustum usque ad mortem Domitiani vitas Caesarum triginta voluminibus
+exaravit.' If, therefore, the _Annals_ contained sixteen Books, the
+_Histories_ must have contained fourteen, supposing Jerome's statement
+to be correct. Some authorities think the numbers were eighteen and
+twelve respectively. The work was written under Trajan (cf. _Hist._ i.
+1, 'principatum divi Nervae et imperium Traiani'), and was probably
+brought out in instalments. Pliny's letters (vi. 16; 20; vii. 33),
+written about A.D. 106-9, contain contributions to it.
+
+5. _Annales_, or rather _Ab excessu divi Augusti_, the title given by
+MS. Med. I. Tacitus often calls his work _annales_ (as in _Ann._ iv.
+32), but uses the word to signify his plan of recording events by
+their years. Cf. _Ann._ iv. 71, 'Ni mihi destinatum foret suum quaeque
+in annum referre, avebat animus antire,' etc.
+
+He occasionally apologises (as in xii. 40) for departing from this
+order for the sake of clearness. The Books, the division into which
+was made by Tacitus himself (cf. vi. 27, 'in prioribus libris'),
+usually, however, end with some important event.
+
+The _Annals_ deal with the time from the death of Augustus to that of
+Nero, _i.e._ from 14 to 68 A.D. There are extant Books i.-iv. and a
+part of v. and vi., and Books xi.-xvi., except the beginning of xi.
+and the end of xvi. We have thus lost the whole of the reign of
+Caligula and the reign of Claudius from 41-47 (part), and Nero's reign
+from the close of 66 to 68. The work was published between A.D. 115
+and 117. This is settled by _Ann._ ii. 61, 'Exin ventum Elephantinen
+ac Syenen, claustra olim Romani imperii, quod nunc rubrum ad mare
+patescit.'
+
+The conquest here spoken of was made by Trajan A.D. 115, and his
+successor Hadrian, soon after coming to the throne (August, A.D. 117),
+gave up the regions beyond the Euphrates and Tigris (Spartianus,
+_Hadri._ 5).[113]
+
+_Tacitus' views on politics, philosophy, and religion._--
+
+(1) The ideal mixed form of government Tacitus considers to be
+impracticable.
+
+_Ann._ iv. 33, 'Cunctas nationes et urbes populus aut primores aut
+singuli regunt: delecta ex eis et consociata rei publicae forma
+laudari facilius quam evenire, vel si evenit, haud diuturna esse
+potest.'
+
+Tacitus is essentially a conservative. Thus he always uses _antiquus_
+and _priscus_ in a good sense (_H._ ii. 5; 64; _Ann._ vi. 32).
+
+In _Ann._ iii. 60 he speaks with pride of the republic: 'Magna eius
+diei species fuit, quo senatus maiorum beneficia, sociorum pacta,
+regum etiam, qui ante vim Romanam valuerant, decreta ipsorumque
+numinum religiones introspexit, libero, ut quondam, quid firmaret
+mutaretve.'
+
+See also the speech of C. Cassius in _Ann._ xiv. 43. As an aristocrat
+Tacitus is sometimes unjust to men of low birth, as in _Ann._ iv. 3,
+where he sneers at Seianus as 'municipali adultero,' and attaches
+great value to high birth (cf. vi. 27). He is prejudiced against
+slaves and barbarians.
+
+Tacitus theoretically prefers a republic (cf. _Ann._ vi. 42, 'Populi
+imperium iuxta libertatem, paucorum dominatio regiae libidini propior
+est'), but admits the impossibility of a restitution of the free state
+(_H._ ii. 37-8) and the necessity of empire. _H._ i. 1 (of Augustus),
+'omnem potentiam ad unum conferri pacis interfuit.'
+
+Cf. also Galba's speech in _H._ i. 16. The problem is to reconcile the
+empire with freedom (see _Agr._ 3 quoted p. 341). One's duty is to
+steer one's course _inter abruptam contumaciam et deforme obsequium_
+(_Ann._ iv. 20). Tacitus gives only modified approval to patriots like
+Paetus Thrasea (_Ann._ xiv. 12; 49) and Helvidius Priscus (_H._ iv.
+6), and on the other hand gives praise for moderation to men like
+Agricola (_Agr._ 42), M. Lepidus (_Ann._ iv. 20), L. Piso (_Ann._ vi.
+10).
+
+_Ann._ xiv. 12, 'Thrasea Paetus ... sibi causam periculi fecit,
+ceteris libertatis initium non praebuit.'
+
+_Agr._ 42, 'Non contumacia neque inani iactatione libertatis famam
+fatumque provocabat.'
+
+Tacitus blames those who despair of their own times. _Ann._ ii. 88,
+'dum vetera extollimus recentium incuriosi.' He thinks that the
+emperors, from their irresponsible position, were often gradually led
+into wickedness, their downward career being helped by flatterers and
+satellites, and draws a moral lesson from the servile Senate and the
+_delatores_, who, like the emperors themselves, received punishment
+for their conduct (_Ann._ i. 74; iii. 65 _sqq._).
+
+_Ann._ vi. 48, 'Cum Tiberius post tantam rerum experientiam vi
+dominationis convulsus et mutatus sit.'
+
+_Ann._ iv. 33, 'Pauci prudentia honesta ab deterioribus utilia ab
+noxiis discernunt, plures aliorum eventis docentur.'
+
+_Ann._ vi. 6, 'Adeo facinora atque flagitia sua ipsi quoque in
+supplicium verterant ... Quippe Tiberium non fortuna, non solitudines
+protegebant, quin tormenta pectoris suasque ipse poenas fateretur.'
+
+(2) Tacitus attaches himself to no particular school of philosophy,
+and deprecates too close an attention to the subject.
+
+_Agr._ 4, 'Memoria teneo solitum ipsum [Agricolam] narrare se prima in
+iuventa studium philosophiae acrius, ultra quam concessum Romano ac
+senatori, hausisse, ni prudentia matris incensum ac flagrantem animum
+coercuisset.'
+
+He cannot make up his mind as to freewill and predestination, but in
+spite of this doubt expressly states his desire to find out the causes
+of events.
+
+_Ann._ vi. 22, 'Sed mihi haec ac talia audienti in incerto iudicium
+est, fatone res mortalium et necessitate immutabili an forte
+volvantur' (and the rest of the chapter, where the Stoic and Epicurean
+views are mentioned). On the other hand, _H._ i. 4, 'Ut non modo casus
+eventusque rerum, qui plerumque fortuiti sunt, sed ratio etiam
+causaeque noscantur.'
+
+He expresses his belief in divine agency, particularly in the
+_Annals_, but sometimes adopts the pessimistic view that the gods take
+little interest in mankind.
+
+_Ann._ xiv. 5, 'Noctem sideribus inlustrem et placido mari quietam,
+quasi convincendum ad scelus, di praebuere.'
+
+_H._ v. 5, 'Pessimus quisque spretis religionibus patriis.'
+
+_H._ i. 3, 'Nec enim umquam atrocioribus populi Romani cladibus
+magisve iustis indiciis adprobatum est non esse curae deis securitatem
+nostram, esse ultionem.'
+
+_Ann._ xvi. 33, 'Aequitate deum erga bona malaque documenta.'
+
+He believes in the science of divination (see especially _Ann._ iv.
+58), but speaks contemptuously of the impostors found among
+soothsayers and astrologers.
+
+_H._ i. 22, 'Mathematicis ... genus hominum potentibus infidum,
+sperantibus fallax, quod in civitate nostra et vetabitur semper et
+retinebitur.'
+
+Prodigies are recognized, but mentioned only in the _Histories_ and
+the last books of the _Annals_ (from A.D. 51 onwards). See especially
+_H._ ii. 50.
+
+_Tacitus as a historian._--As regards his sources, Tacitus makes more
+use of his predecessors than he does of original documents. Among the
+latter he mentions _acta diurna_ (_Ann._ iii. 3) and _commentarii_ or
+_acta senatus_ (_Ann._ xv. 74); but these he did not make much use of,
+as they were apt to be falsified. He also refers to _publica acta_,
+probably inscriptions (_Ann._ xii. 24); Tiberius' speeches (_Ann._ i.
+81); memoirs of Agrippina, Nero's mother (_Ann._ iv. 53); and of
+Domitius Corbulo on his campaigns in Parthia (_Ann._ xv. 16). He also
+refers by name to several historians, especially in dealing with the
+times after Nero, as C. Plinius (_Ann._ i. 69, quoted p. 284),
+Vipstanus Messalla (_H._ iii. 25), Fabius Rusticus,[114] and Cluvius
+Rufus[115] (_Ann._ xiii. 20).
+
+Other writers are sparingly mentioned, as Sisenna (_H._ iii. 51),
+Caesar (_Germ._ 28). It is certain that Tacitus made use of other
+historians, but he generally refers to his sources without mentioning
+names (as _Ann._ i. 29, 'tradunt plerique'). He sometimes weighs the
+value of two conflicting accounts, or mentions a story only to reject
+it.
+
+_Ann._ iv. 11, 'Haec vulgo iactata, super id quod nullo auctore certo
+firmantur, prompte refutaveris.'
+
+Tacitus' credibility has been attacked, particularly as regards his
+representation of the characters of Tiberius and Nero, but not very
+successfully. He has, however, made mistakes, the most striking of
+which are his view of the Christians (_Ann._ xv. 44) and his account
+of the Jews (_H._ v. 2 _sqq._). The explanation is that he held the
+view current in the upper classes, and did not take the trouble to
+investigate these matters, as the Jews and Christians belonged mostly
+to the lower orders.
+
+Tacitus is not free from superstition (_Ann._ xi. 21; _H._ ii. 50,
+etc.), but one must not suppose he believes the fables he relates (as
+_Ann._ vi. 28; _H._ iv. 83) simply because he expresses no opinion of
+them.
+
+Tacitus is free from party spirit (_Ann._ i. 1, 'sine ira et studio,
+quorum causas procul habeo'; cf. _H._ i. 1) and just in his judgment,
+except in a few passages in the _Histories_, where he is rather unfair
+(i. 42, ii. 95). He is milder in the _Annals_ through advancing years,
+and from the better times he lived in. Generally he takes a lenient
+view of things, except (1) in offences against the state (cf. the
+character of Tiberius); (2) when the religious element comes in; cf.
+what he says of Claudius' marriage with his brother's daughter
+Agrippina: _Ann._ xiv. 2, 'Agrippina ... exercita ad omne flagitium
+patrui nuptiis.'
+
+He shows a somewhat lax morality occasionally, as in _Ann._ xiii. 17
+_sqq._, when speaking of Nero's murder of his brother Britannicus. In
+_Ann._ xi. 19 he approves of compassing a barbarian's death by
+treachery.
+
+For Tacitus' conception of history as dealing with great events cf.
+_Ann._ xiii. 31, 'pauca memoria digna evenere, nisi cui libeat
+laudandis fundamentis et trabibus, quis molem amphitheatri apud campum
+Martis Caesar extruxerat, volumina implere, cum ex dignitate populi
+Romani repertum sit res inlustres annalibus, talia diurnis urbis actis
+mandare.'
+
+His complaints as to his subject-matter in _Ann._ iv. 32, 'Nobis in
+arto et inglorius labor,' must not be taken too seriously.
+
+
+
+SUETONIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+C. Suetonius Tranquillus was the son of Suetonius Laetus, a tribune of
+the thirteenth legion, who took part in the battle of Bedriacum, A.D.
+69 (Sueton. _Otho_, 10). His birth seems to have taken place soon
+after that year,[116] for he was 'adulescens' twenty years after
+Nero's death; _Nero_ 57, 'cum post viginti annos, adulescente me,
+exstitisset condicionis incertae qui se Neronem esse iactaret.'
+
+Suetonius was a friend of the younger Pliny, to whom he was indebted
+for a military tribuneship, which he afterwards passed on to a
+relative (Plin. _Ep._ iii. 8), and for assistance in the purchase of a
+small estate (ibid. i. 24). Pliny encouraged him to publish some of
+his writings (v. 10), and obtained for him from Trajan the _ius trium
+liberorum_ (_ad Trai._ 94).
+
+Under Hadrian he was _magister epistularum_, but was dismissed from
+office in A.D. 121. Spartianus, _Hadr._ 11, 3, 'Septicio Claro
+praefecto praetorio et Suetonio Tranquillo epistularum magistro
+multisque aliis, quod apud Sabinam uxorem in usu eius familiarius se
+tunc egerant quam reverentia domus aulicae postulabat, successores
+dedit.' The remainder of his life appears to have been devoted to
+literature.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _De Vita Caesarum_, in eight Books (Books i.-vi. Iulius-Nero; vii.
+Galba, Otho, and Vitellius; viii. Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian). It
+was published A.D. 119-21, as it was dedicated (according to Joannes
+Lydus) to C. Septicius Clarus, praetorian prefect, who held office
+during those years. The preface and the beginning of the life of
+Iulius are wanting. Suetonius is a conscientious and accurate writer
+(cf. his discussion of Caligula's birthplace, _Calig._ 8), and he
+makes use of good sources, e.g. the _Monumentum Ancyranum_, _Acta
+populi_, _Acta senatus_, autograph documents of the emperors (_Aug._
+87, _Nero_ 52); but there is in his work an almost entire absence of
+dates, and the personal element is, from the point of view of history,
+unduly prominent.
+
+2. _De Viris Illustribus_, including poets, orators (beginning with
+Cicero), historians (from Sallust onwards), philosophers, grammarians,
+and rhetoricians. The greater part of the section _De grammaticis et
+rhetoribus_ is extant, as well as lives of Terence, Horace, and Lucan
+from the section _de poetis_, and of Pliny the elder from the section
+_de historicis_. Extracts from the rest of the work are preserved by
+Jerome. In each section there was (1) a list of the authors discussed,
+(2) a general survey of their branch of literature, (3) brief notices
+of the authors in chronological order. The publication took place,
+according to Roth, 106-113 A.D.
+
+3. Minor works, now lost (mentioned by Suidas), on Greek games, Roman
+games, the Roman year, on critical marks, on Cicero's _Republic_, on
+dress, on imprecations (περὶ δυσφήμων λέξεων ἤτοι βλασφημιῶν καὶ
+πόθεν ἑκάστη), on Roman laws and customs. Some of these were probably
+only sections of the _Prata_, a miscellany in ten Books, which also
+treated of natural science and philology. The books on Greek games and
+on imprecations were almost certainly composed in Greek.
+
+
+
+Footnotes to Chapter IV
+
+
+[72] The praenomen 'Gaius' is rendered highly probable by the reading
+of the _editio princeps_ and by an inscription found in Africa
+(_C.I.L._ viii. 10311).
+
+[73] _Les Poètes Latins de la Décadence_, vol. i., p. 8.
+
+[74] Antwerp edition, p. 89.
+
+[75] Tacitus does not say openly that Seneca was privy to the murder.
+On the whole he is favourable to Seneca, either because he followed
+the authority of Fabius Rusticus, a friend of Seneca, or because
+Seneca perished afterwards through Nero's agency, or because he
+thought Seneca deserved his consideration.
+
+[76] Seneca's influence on the Imperial policy, especially in the
+liberal view it took regarding religion, is well brought out by Prof.
+W. M. Ramsay, in his book, _St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman
+Citizen_, pp. 354 _sqq._
+
+[77] See the very large list of parallels collected by Heitland,
+_Introduction_ to Haskins' _Lucan_, § 51.
+
+[78] See under Varro, p. 96.
+
+[79] Ed. of _Cena Trimalchionis_, p. 7.
+
+[80] See O. Hirschfeld's note on this passage in _Römische
+Verwaltungsgeschichte_, p. 261.
+
+[81] Messalla was a favourite of Gaius, Narcissus of Claudius.
+
+[82] Pomponius was the author of _Aeneas_ and other tragedies. Pliny
+calls him 'consularis poeta,' 'vates civisque clarissimus' (_N.H._
+vii. 80, xiii. 83). Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xii. 28.
+
+[83] Given with other examples by W. C. Summers, _Study of the
+Argonautica_ (Camb. 1894), p. 27.
+
+[84] Summers, _ibid._ p. 56.
+
+[85] Cf. Tac. _Hist._ iii. 65.
+
+[86] Mart. vii. 63.
+
+[87] Mart. xi. 48; 49.
+
+[88] Mart. viii. 66.
+
+[89] Mart. ix. 68.
+
+[90] The references are to L. Friedländer's edition (Leipzig, 1886).
+
+[91] Ed. of Book x., Introd. p. 9 (Oxford, 1891).
+
+[92] A passage probably inserted by the pseudo-Frontinus from memoirs
+of the genuine Frontinus to give an air of authenticity to his work.
+
+[93] J. Dürr, _Das Leben Juvenals_ (Ulm, 1888). L. Friedländer (ed. of
+Juvenal: Leipzig, 1895) attaches little importance to this and the
+other _vitae_, but his arguments do not appear to us to be convincing.
+
+[94] E. G. Hardy (ed. of Juvenal: London, 1891, introd. p. 8) thinks
+that this is supported by Juvenal's gentile name Iunius. As a
+representative of the middle classes he (thinks Hardy) could not have
+been related by blood to either of the two _gentes_ of that name.
+Hardy also states that Decimus is a common _praenomen_ of the plebeian
+_gens Iunia_, and suggests that Juvenal may have got his _praenomen_
+from them. There is no reason, however, to think that every Iunius
+must be related or associated in some way with one of these two
+_gentes_.
+
+[95] The statement of the _vitae_, 'ad mediam fere aetatem
+declamavit,' may imply no more than that he continued his studies in
+private; but it must be observed that the usual meaning of _declamare_
+is 'to attend college classes'; and the statement, in whatever way it
+is taken, must be looked upon as improbable.
+
+[96] If the number I. is right, and this appears most likely. II. is
+the only other possible reading, and it must be noted that the second
+Dalmatian cohort was in Britain at the beginning of the second
+century, and probably had been there for a considerable time. _Trib._
+in the inscription is a conjecture suggested by the _vitae_: _praef._,
+which is epigraphically possible, is preferred by some authorities.
+
+[97] E. G. Hardy thinks that A.D. 87 was one of the years when
+_duumviri quinquennales_ (appointed every five years) were elected in
+Aquinum, and hypothetically assigns Juvenal's holding of the post to
+that year.
+
+[98] _C.I.L._ vii. 1195.
+
+[99] Cf. E. G. Hardy, ed. of Juvenal.
+
+[100] Cf. E. G. Hardy, _ibid._
+
+[101] The reference in 4, 126, 'De temone Britanno excidet Arviragus,'
+proves nothing. It is the sort of reference that would be made by an
+Italian ignorant of Britain, and is, in fact, put into the mouth of
+one.
+
+[102] The view that _Sat._ i. 33 _sqq._ refers to M. Aquilius Regulus,
+who died probably A.D. 105 (Pliny, _Ep._ i. 5, 14-15), is rejected by
+Friedländer _ad loc._
+
+[103] H. Nettleship (_Journal of Philology_, xvi., p. 45) points out
+that C. Vipstanus Apronianus and C. Fonteius Capito were consuls A.D.
+59, and suggests that this may be the year meant. This would give A.D.
+119 as the date of composition.
+
+[104] The scholiast connects with 4, 37-8.
+
+[105] This story is rejected both by Hardy and by Friedländer.
+
+[106] Juvenal had a leaning to Stoicism: cf. _Sat._ 10 _ad fin._, and
+his references to fate, _e.g._ 7, 200; 10, 365; 12, 63. He believes in
+the gods (13, 247-9), but disbelieves the doctrines of the popular
+religion (2, 149 _sqq._).
+
+[107] The inscription records the appointment of Cilo's sons and a
+woman Lutulla as trustees of a fund, the interest of which was to be
+disbursed to the people of Comum.
+
+[108] _Hermes_, iii. 31 _sqq._
+
+[109] The inscription in Caria, formerly supposed to give P. as
+praenomen, is now shown to have been misread.
+
+[110] The inhabitants of Terni (Interamna) erected a statue to Tacitus
+as to a fellow-townsman in A.D. 1514.
+
+[111] _Bull. de Corr. Hell._, 1890, p. 621, quoted by Prof. W. M.
+Ramsay, _The Church in the Roman Empire_, p. 228.
+
+[112] One of the speakers in the Dialogue, Curiatius Maternus, was the
+author of tragedies _Medea_ and _Thyestes_, and of praetextae
+_Domitius_ and _Cato_ (_Dial._ 2-3).
+
+[113] Various attempts have been made, especially in a work published
+in London, 1878, to prove, of course unsuccessfully, that the _Annals_
+were forged in the fifteenth century by the Italian scholar Poggio
+Bracciolini.
+
+[114] Fabius Rusticus, a friend of Seneca, quoted also for the shape
+of Britain (_Agr._ 10).
+
+[115] Cluvius Rufus, governor of Hispania Tarraconensis B.C. 69 (_H._
+i. 8). Mommsen considers that he is one of the historians censured in
+_H._ ii. 101.
+
+[116] Roth gives 71, Teuffel 75 at latest.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX A
+
+ON SOME OF THE CHIEF ANCIENT AUTHORITIES FOR THE HISTORY OF ROMAN
+LITERATURE.
+
+
+1. JEROME[117] (HIERONYMUS) was born about A.D. 335 at Stridon, on the
+frontiers of Dalmatia and Pannonia, and died A.D. 420 at the monastery
+of Bethlehem. His contributions to the history of Roman literature are
+to be found in his translation of the Chronicle (χρονικοὶ
+κανόνες) of Eusebius, in which the dates are reckoned from the first
+year of Abraham (= B.C. 2016 according to his chronology), the point
+at which Eusebius commenced. On the period between the Trojan War and
+A.D. 325 Jerome not merely translated the remarks of Eusebius, as he
+had done in the earlier period, but also added numerous extracts from
+authorities on Roman history and literature. The source from which he
+derived nearly all his information on literature is universally
+admitted to have been the work of Suetonius _De Viris Illustribus_.
+With the statements in the surviving sections of that treatise the
+observations of Jerome agree, and there can be no reasonable doubt
+that he made a similar use of the parts no longer extant. It is a
+significant fact that the important authors on whom Jerome is silent,
+_e.g._ Tacitus, Juvenal, and the younger Pliny, are precisely those
+whom Suetonius, as a contemporary, naturally could not discuss.
+
+The statements of Jerome, based as they are on the high authority of
+Suetonius, may be regarded as in the main trustworthy. Some of them,
+however, are doubtful, and others manifestly wrong.
+
+(_a_) Jerome's plan obliged him to fix every event to a definite year;
+and this, in many cases, can only be guess-work, for Suetonius, as may
+be seen from his extant writings, was often vague in his chronology.
+
+(_b_) Comparison with the remains of Suetonius shows that Jerome's
+claim to have made his extracts with care was not always well
+grounded; _e.g._ his statement that Ennius was a native of Tarentum
+(see p. 27).
+
+(_c_) In reckoning, according to his system of dates, events dated by
+one of the many confusing systems of chronology current in ancient
+times, many openings for error presented themselves; _e.g._ he
+sometimes erred through confusing consuls of the same or similar
+names, as in the case of Lucilius (p. 59); or through confusing
+similar events, as in the case of Livius Andronicus, although the
+mistake about the latter was of long standing (p. 2). Once at least he
+seems to have confused the date of an author's _floruit_ and that of
+his death, making Plautus die in B.C. 200 instead of B.C. 184 (p. 8).
+
+2. AULUS GELLIUS[118] was born probably about A.D. 123, and studied
+under the most eminent teachers both at Rome and at Athens. Of his
+subsequent life nothing is known except that he held some judicial
+post at Rome. His work, the _Noctes Atticae_ in twenty Books (of Book
+viii. only the headings of chapters are preserved), is a miscellany of
+information on philology, philosophy, rhetoric, history, biography,
+literary criticism, natural science, and antiquities. The title is due
+to the fact that the book was commenced in the winter evenings during
+the author's residence at Athens. The arrangement of the contents
+simply follows the haphazard order of the notes which Gellius made in
+the course of his reading of Greek and Roman authors. Those authors,
+and the conversation of contemporaries, are Gellius' professed
+sources, but in some cases the author he names is evidently quoted at
+second-hand, and many of the conversations are doubtless quite
+imaginary. Our obligations to Gellius are twofold.
+
+(_a_) Innumerable extracts from ancient authors are preserved by him
+alone. (No quotations are given from post-Augustan writers--a fact
+which accords with the affected archaism of his style.)
+
+(_b_) His remarks on incidents in the lives of the Roman poets are in
+the main derived from Varro, whose work _De Poetis_ is quoted for the
+epitaph of Plautus (see p. 9); elsewhere his source is indicated
+either vaguely or not at all, e.g. iii. 3, 15, 'accepimus'; xii. 4, 5,
+'ferunt.' For literary criticism Varro is quoted: iii. 3, 9, _sqq._;
+vi. 14, 6 (see pp. 10, 51).
+
+3. NONIUS MARCELLUS,[119] a Peripatetic, of Thubursicum in Numidia, is
+identified by Mommsen with the Nonius Marcellus Herculius of _C.I.L._
+viii. 4878 (date A.D. 323); but nothing is known of his life. His
+work, _De Compendiosa Doctrina ad Filium_ in twenty Books (of Book
+xvi. the title only is known; Book xx. is fragmentary), though
+modelled on that of Gellius, is immeasurably inferior in execution.
+According to the theory usually received Nonius borrowed largely from
+Gellius; but it is possible that both compilers made independent use
+of the same authorities, viz., scholars such as Verrius Flaccus,
+Valerius Probus, and Suetonius, whose works they knew either directly
+or through abridgments. The subjects with which Nonius deals are
+grammar, lexicography, and antiquities; and he is often our sole
+authority for the titles of works as well as for brief extracts.
+
+4. AMBROSIUS THEODOSIUS MACROBIUS, doubtless identical with the
+Macrobius who held, among other high offices, the proconsulship of
+Africa A.D. 410, was probably, like Nonius, of African origin. Besides
+his commentary on the _Somnium Scipionis_ of Cicero, Macrobius wrote a
+work in seven Books on Roman literature and antiquities with the title
+of _Saturnalia_. The imaginary conversations of which it consists are
+supposed to take place during the festival of the Saturnalia at Rome
+(hence the title); and the chief subject of discussion is the poetry
+of Virgil. A remarkable feature of the book is its wealth of quotation
+from Greek and Latin authors. Macrobius, like Gellius, bases his work
+on extracts from older authorities; but, unlike him, arranges his
+matter systematically.
+
+5. AELIUS DONATUS, a grammarian who flourished at Rome about A.D. 350,
+and was one of Jerome's teachers, extracted from the lost work of
+Suetonius the Lives of Terence and Virgil, and prefixed them to his
+own commentaries on Terence and on the _Georgics_ and _Aeneid_. The
+latter is lost, and the commentary on Terence contains much that is
+not from the hand of Donatus.
+
+6. SERVIUS.--There are two versions of the Servian commentary on
+Virgil. The shorter is the work of Maurus Servius Honoratus, who was
+born about 350 A.D., and lived at Rome (Macrob. _Saturn._ i. 2, 15);
+his topographical references show that he composed his commentary
+there. Servius, whose notes are chiefly on the language of the poems,
+gives illustrative quotations from Roman authors, in some cases from
+memory and inaccurately. Donatus is the authority whom he mentions
+oftenest, but he undoubtedly made extensive use of Suetonius.
+
+The longer version contains learned additions to the work of Servius
+by an anonymous Christian writer, who deals mainly with the
+subject-matter of Virgil.
+
+7. ACRO and PORPHYRIO.--Helenius Acro (probably about 200 A.D.) was
+the author of commentaries on Horace and Terence, now lost. The
+scholia on Horace extant under Acro's name are, with few exceptions,
+taken from the commentary of Pomponius Porphyrio, which we possess in
+a mutilated form. Porphyrio, who probably belonged to the 4th cent.
+A.D., names among his sources Acro and Suetonius.
+
+For ASCONIUS see p. 77; for VALERIUS PROBUS, p. 147.
+
+
+
+Footnotes to Appendix A
+
+
+[117] See _Quaestiones Suetonianae_ in Reifferscheid's _Suetonius_,
+pp. 363 _sqq._
+
+[118] See H. Nettleship, _Lectures and Essays_ (1885), p. 248 _sqq._
+
+[119] See Nettleship, _ibid._ p. 277 _sqq._
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX B
+
+SELECT LIST OF EDITIONS.
+
+
+NOTE.--All editions mentioned have explanatory notes, except those
+marked "text" (which are merely texts), and those marked "crit." (which
+have an apparatus criticus).
+
+Editions published in England and Germany have English and German
+notes respectively, unless otherwise stated.
+
+F.P.R. = Fragmenta Poetarum Romanorum, ed. E. Bährens.
+
+  *Livius Andronicus.*
+    Plays--
+      In Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta, ed.
+        O. Ribbeck (vol. i. _Trag._, ii. _Com._) (crit.), Leip. '71-73
+      Do. (with Naevius' plays), L. Müller,                  Berl. '85
+      Odisia, in E. Bährens' Frag. Poet. Rom. (crit.),       Leip. '86
+
+  *Naevius.*
+    Bellum Punicum,      J. Vahlen,                          Leip. '54
+          "              F.P.R.
+    Plays (see above)
+
+  *Plautus.*
+    J. L. Ussing (Latin commentary),                    Copenh. '75-87
+    F. Ritschl, revised by G. Loewe, G. Goetz, and F.
+      Schöll (crit.),                                        Leip. '94
+    Amphitruo,           A. Palmer,                          Lond. '90
+    Asinaria,            J. H. Gray,                         Camb. '94
+    Aulularia,           W. Wagner,                          Camb. '92
+    Captivi,             J. Brix,                            Leip. '84
+    "                    W. M. Lindsay,                       Oxf. '95
+    "                    E. A. Sonnenschein,                 Lond. '80
+    "                    A. R. S. Hallidie,                  Lond. '95
+    Epidicus,            J. H. Gray,                         Camb. '93
+    Mostellaria,         A. O. F. Lorenz,                    Berl. '83
+    "                    E. A. Sonnenschein,                 Camb. '84
+    Menaechmi,           J. Brix and M. Niemeyer,            Leip. '91
+    "                    W. Wagner,                          Camb. '92
+    Miles,               J. Brix,                            Leip. '82
+    "                    A. O. F. Lorenz,                    Berl. '86
+    "                    R. Y. Tyrrell,                      Lond. '94
+    Pseudolus,           A. O. F. Lorenz,                    Berl. '76
+    Rudens,              E. A. Sonnenschein,                  Oxf. '91
+    Stichus,             C. A. M. Fennell,                   Camb. '93
+    Trinummus,           J. Brix and M. Niemeyer,            Leip. '88
+    "                    W. Wagner,                          Camb. '90
+    "                    C. E. Freeman and A. Sloman,         Oxf. '96
+
+  *Ennius.*
+    F.P.R.
+    J. Vahlen                                                Leip. '54
+    Do. (with Naevius'
+      Bell. Pun.),       L. Müller,                   St. Petersb. '85
+
+  *Pacuvius* and *Caecilius Statius.*
+    Ribbeck, _Trag._ and _Com._
+
+  *Terence.*
+    K. Dziatzko (text),                                      Leip. '84
+    W. Wagner,                                               Lond. '92
+    Andria,              A. Spengel,                         Berl. '88
+    "                    C. E. Freeman and A. Sloman,         Oxf. '93
+    "  and Eunuchus,     T. L. Papillon,                     Lond. '70
+    Heaut. Tim.,         E. S. Shuckburgh,                   Lond. '94
+    "                    J. H. Gray,                         Camb. '95
+    Phormio,             K. Dziatzko,                        Leip. '85
+    "                    A. Sloman,                           Oxf. '94
+    "                    J. Bond and A. S. Walpole,          Lond. '95
+    Adelphoe,            K. Dziatzko,                        Leip. '81
+    "                    A. Spengel,                         Berl. '79
+    "                    A. Sloman,                           Oxf. '92
+    "                    S. G. Ashmore,                      Lond. '93
+
+  *Cato the Elder.*
+    De Agricultura (and
+      Varro, Res Rusticae), H. Keil (crit.),              Leip. '82-91
+      Other fragments,      H. Jordan (crit.),               Leip. '60
+
+  *Accius.*
+    Ribbeck, and F.P.R.
+
+  *Lucilius.*
+    L. Müller,                                               Leip. '72
+    C. Lachmann (crit.),                                     Berl. '76
+    F.P.R.
+
+  *Atta, Afranius, Laberius.*
+    Ribbeck.
+
+  *Matius, Laevius, Bibaculus, Calvus, Cinna, Varro Atacinus.*
+    F.P.R.
+
+  *Auctor ad Herennium.*
+    C. L. Kayser,                                            Leip. '54
+    F. Marx (crit.),                                         Leip. '94
+
+  *Varro.*
+    Sat. Menipp., Logistorici,
+      Sententiae Varronis,    A. Riese (crit.),              Leip. '65
+    Sat. Menipp. (text in F. Bücheler's Petronius),          Berl. '95
+    Antiquitates (text in R. Merkel's Ovid, Fasti),          Berl. '41
+    De vita pop. Rom.,        H. Kettner (crit.),           Halle, '63
+    De gente pop. Rom.,       H. Peter (Frag. Hist. Rom.),   Leip. '83
+    De Lingua Latina,         A. Spengel (crit.),            Berl. '85
+    Res Rusticae,             H. Keil (see 'Cato').
+    Grammatical Works
+      (except _De L. L._),    A. Wilmanns (crit.),           Berl. '64
+
+  *Cicero.*
+    1. _Speeches_--
+      Pro Sex. Rosc. Amer.,   E. H. Donkin,                  Lond. '95
+      Pro Sex. Rosc. Amer.,   G. Landgraf,               Erlangen, '84
+      Pro Q. Rosc. Com.,      C. A. Schmidt,                 Leip. '39
+      Verrines,               C. G. Zumpt,                   Berl. '31
+      Div. in Caec. and in
+        Verr., Act. i.,       W. E. Heitland and H. Cowie,   Camb. '95
+        Verr., Act. i.,       J. R. King,                    Lond. '87
+      Div. in Caec. and in Verr.
+        Act ii., 4 and 5,     E. Thomas,                    Paris, '95
+      Pro Caecina,            C. A. Jordan,                  Leip. '47
+      De Imp. Cn. Pompei,     A. S. Wilkins,                 Lond. '94
+      Pro Cluentio,           W. and G. G. Ramsay,            Oxf. '89
+      Pro Cluentio,           W. Y. Fausset,                 Lond. '88
+      De Lege Agraria,        A. W. Zumpt,                   Berl. '61
+      Pro Rab. perd. reo,     W. E. Heitland,                Camb. '82
+      In Catilinam,           A. S. Wilkins,                 Lond. '95
+      Pro Murena,             W. E. Heitland,                Camb. '93
+      Pro Murena,             J. H. Freese,                  Lond. '94
+      Pro Sulla,              J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '91
+      Pro Archia,             J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '95
+      Pro Flacco,             A. du Mesnil,                  Leip. '83
+      Pro Sestio,             H. A. Holden,                  Lond. '95
+      In Vatinium,            C. Halm,                       Leip. '46
+      De Prov. Cons.,         G. Tischer,                    Berl. '61
+      Pro Balbo,              J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '90
+      Pro Plancio,            H. A. Holden,                  Camb. '93
+      Pro Milone,             J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '95
+      Pro Milone,             A. C. Clark,                    Oxf. '95
+      Pro Marcello, Ligario,
+        Deiotaro,             W. Y. Fausset,                  Oxf. '93
+      Philippics,             J. R. King.                     Oxf. '78
+      II. Phil.,              J. E. B. Mayor,                Lond. '93
+      II. Phil.,              A. G. Peskett,                 Camb. '91
+    2. _Rhetorical Works_--
+      De Oratore,             A. S. Wilkins,                  Oxf. '92
+      De Oratore,             G. Sorof,                      Berl. '82
+      De Oratore,             K. W. Piderit
+                                and O. Harnecker,         Leip. '86-90
+      De Inventione,          A. Weidner,                    Berl. '78
+      Brutus,                 K. W. Piderit
+                                and W. Friedrich,            Leip. '89
+      Brutus,                 O. Jahn and A. Eberhard,       Berl. '77
+      Orator,                 J. E. Sandys,                  Camb. '85
+      Orator,                 K. W. Piderit,                 Leip. '76
+      Orator, (with De Opt.
+        Gen. Orat.),          O. Jahn,                       Berl. '69
+      Partit. Orat.,          K. W. Piderit,                 Leip. '67
+    3. _Philosophical Works_--
+      De Re Publica,          F. Osann,                      Gött. '47
+      De Legibus,             A. du Mesnil,                  Leip. '79
+      Paradoxa,               G. H. Moser,                   Gött. '46
+      De Finibus,             J. N. Madvig (Lat. comm.),   Copenh. '78
+      "                       H. Holstein,                   Leip. '73
+      Academica,              J. S. Reid,                    Lond. '85
+      Tusc. Disp.,.           R. Kühner (Lat.),           Hanover, '74
+      "                       O. Heine,                   Leip. '92-96
+      "                       G. Tischer and G. Sorof,    Berl. '84-87
+      De Nat. Deor.,          J. B. Mayor,                Camb. '83-91
+      "                       G. F. Schömann,                Berl. '76
+      De Senectute,           J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '94
+      " Amicitia,             J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '93
+      " Officiis,             H. A. Holden,                  Camb. '93
+      " Divinatione, De
+        Fato,                 G. H. Moser,                 Frankf. '28
+    4. _Letters_--
+      Correspondence of C.    R. Y. Tyrrell and
+                                L. C. Purser,             Dubl. '85-94
+      Selections,             A. Watson,                      Oxf. '91
+      " (C. in his
+      Letters),               R. Y. Tyrrell,                 Lond. '96
+      Epp. ad Att.,           J. G. C. Boot (Lat.)           Amst. '86
+      Epp. ad Fam.,           L. Mendelssohn (crit.),        Leip. '93
+                              C. F. W. Müller (crit.),       Leip. '96
+    5. _Poems_--
+      F.P.R.
+      _Complete texts_--
+      J. C. Orelli, J. G. Baiter, and C. Halm,.            Zür. '45-61
+      C. F. A. Nobbe,                                        Leip. '50
+      C. F. W. Müller, etc.,                              Leip. '90-96
+      J. G. Baiter and C. L. Kayser,                      Leip. '60-69
+
+  *Caesar.*
+    B. Dinter (text),                                        Leip. '96
+    B. Kübler (text),                                     Leip. '93-94
+    Bell. Gall.,          J. Bond and A. S. Walpole,         Lond. '87
+    "                     A. G. Peskett,                     Camb. '78
+    Bell. Gall.,          C. E. Moberly,                      Oxf. '90
+    Bell. Gall.,          F. Kraner and W. Dittenberger,     Berl. '90
+    Bell. Gall.,          A. Doberenz and B. Dinter,         Leip. '92
+    Bell. Civ.,           C. E. Moberly,                      Oxf. '92
+    Bell. Civ.,           F. Kraner and F. Hofmann,          Berl. '90
+    Bell. Civ.,           A. Doberenz and B. Dinter,         Leip. '84
+    Bell. Civ., (Bk. i.), A. G. Peskett,                     Camb. '90
+    Bell. Alex.,          R. Schneider,                      Berl. '89
+    Bell. Afr.,           E. Wölfflin and A. Miodonski,      Leip. '89
+
+  *Nepos.*
+    C. Nipperdey and B. Lupus,                               Berl. '95
+    J. Siebelis and M. Jancovius,                            Leip. '96
+    O. Browning and W. R. Inge,                               Oxf. '88
+    E. S. Shuckburgh,                                        Camb. '95
+
+  *Lucretius.*
+    H. A. J. Munro,                                       Camb. '91-93
+    C. Lachmann,                                             Berl. '82
+    Books i.-iii.,            J. H. W. Lee,                  Lond. '93
+    Book v.,                  J. D. Duff,                    Camb. '96
+
+  *Sallust.*
+    Cat. and Iug.,            W. W. Capes,                    Oxf. '89
+    Cat. and Iug.,            C. Merivale,                   Lond. '84
+    Cat. and Iug., (and
+      frags. of Hist.),       R. Jacobs and H. Wirz,         Berl. '94
+    Cat.,                     A. M. Cook,                    Lond. '88
+    Hist. (text),             H. Jordan,                     Leip. '87
+    Historiarum Reliquiae,    B. Maurenbrecher,           Leip. '91-93
+
+  *Publilius Syrus.*
+    Sententiae,               W. Meyer (crit.),              Leip. '80
+    Sententiae,               R. A. H. Bickford Smith,       Camb. '95
+
+  *Catullus.*
+    A. Palmer (crit.),                                       Lond. '96
+    R. Ellis (crit.),                                         Oxf. '78
+    R. Ellis (commentary),                                    Oxf. '89
+    B. Schmidt (introd. and text),                           Leip. '87
+    F. P. Simpson (selections),                              Lond. '94
+    (With Tibullus and
+      Propertius), L. Müller (text),                         Leip. '92
+
+  *Horace.*
+    E. C. Wickham,                                         Oxf. '90-96
+    A. Kiessling,                                         Berl. '89-95
+    J. C. Orelli, W. Hirschfelder, and W. Mewes,          Berl. '86-92
+    Satires,                  A. Palmer,                     Lond. '96
+    Odes and Epodes,          T. E. Page,                    Lond. '95
+    "                         J. Gow,                        Camb. '96
+    Epistles and A.P.,        A. S. Wilkins,                 Lond. '92
+
+  *Virgil.*
+    O. Ribbeck (crit.),                                   Leip. '94-95
+       "       (text only),                                  Leip. '95
+    T. E. Papillon and A. E. Haigh (text only),               Oxf. '92
+           [The above include the minor poems.]
+    J. Conington and H. Nettleship,                       Lond. '83-84
+    T. E. Papillon and A. E. Haigh,                           Oxf. '92
+    A. Sidgwick,                                          Camb. '90-94
+    B. H. Kennedy,                                           Lond. '79
+    T. Ladewig, C. Schaper, and P. Deuticke,                 Berl. '91
+    K. Kappes,                                            Leip. '93-95
+    Aeneid (i.-vi.),          T. E. Page,                    Lond. '94
+
+  *Tibullus.*
+    E. Hiller (text),                                        Leip. '85
+    E. Bährens (text),                                       Leip. '78
+    L. Dissen,                                               Gött. '35
+
+  *Propertius.*
+    W. A. Hertzberg,                                     Halle, '43-45
+    F. A. Paley,                                             Lond. '72
+    A. Palmer (text),                                        Lond. '80
+    J. P. Postgate (selections),                             Lond. '94
+    "             (text),                                    Lond. '94
+
+  *Ovid.*
+    A. Riese (introd.),                                   Leip. '71-89
+    Heroides,           A. Palmer,                           Lond. '74
+    "                   E. S. Shuckburgh,                    Lond. '96
+    Metam.,             J. Sibelis and F. Polle,          Leip. '92-96
+    "                   M. Haupt, O. Korn, and H. J. Müller, Berl. '85
+    Fasti,              G. H. Hallam,                        Lond. '93
+    Fasti,              R. Merkel,                           Berl. '41
+    "                   H. Peter,                            Leip. '89
+    Tristia,            S. G. Owen (crit.),                   Oxf. '89
+    "     (Bks. i., iii.), S. G. Owen,                     Oxf. '90-93
+    "     and Ibis,     R. Merkel,                           Berl. '37
+    Ibis,               R. Ellis (Lat.),                      Oxf. '82
+
+  *Manilius.*
+    F. Jacob,                                                Berl. '46
+       [See also R. Ellis, _Noctes Manilianae_, Oxf. '91.]
+
+  *Livy.*
+    W. Weissenborn and H. J. Müller,                      Berl. '73-96
+    M. Hertz (introd. and text),                          Leip. '57-63
+    Book i.,                      J. R. Seeley,               Oxf. '81
+    Books iv., vi., ix., xxvii.,  H. M. Stephenson,       Camb. '90-94
+    Book v.,                      L. Whibley,                Camb. '94
+    Books xxi., xxii.,            M. S. Dimsdale,         Camb. '94-95
+    "                             W. W. Capes,               Lond. '95
+
+  *Trogus.*
+    A. Bielowski,                                         Lemberg, '53
+
+  *Verrius Flaccus.*
+    (Festus and Paulus),          C. O. Müller,              Leip. '80
+
+  *Vitruvius.*
+    V. Rose and H. Müller-Strübing (crit.),                  Leip. '67
+
+  *Seneca the Elder.*
+    H. J. Müller (text),                                   Prague, '87
+    A. Kiessling (text),                                     Leip. '72
+
+  *Velleius.*
+    C. Halm (crit.),                                         Leip. '76
+    D. Ruhnken, ed. C. H. Frotscher,                         Leip. '39
+
+  *Valerius Maximus.*
+    C. Kempf (text),                                         Leip. '88
+
+  *Celsus.*
+    C. Daremberg (text),                                     Leip. '59
+
+  *Phaedrus.*
+    J. Siebelis and F. A. Eckstein,                          Leip. '89
+
+  *Seneca the Younger.*
+   Prose Works,           F. Haase (text),                Leip. '93-95
+   Apocolocyntosis, in F. Bücheler's Petronius (text).
+   Tragedies,             R. Peiper and G. Richter (text),   Leip. '67
+
+  *Curtius Rufus.*
+    T. Vogel,                                                Leip. '93
+
+  *Columella.*
+    In _Scriptores Rei Rusticae_,
+                 ed. I. G. Schneider (Lat.),              Leip. 1794-7
+
+  *Asconius.*
+    A. Kiessling and R. Schöll,                              Berl. '75
+
+  *Mela.*
+    C. Frick (text),                                         Leip. '80
+
+  *Persius.*
+    O. Jahn and F. Bücheler (text),                          Berl. '93
+    J. Conington, ed. H. Nettleship,                          Oxf. '93
+
+  *Probus.*
+    H. Keil,                                                Halle, '48
+
+  *Lucan.*
+    C. Hosius (text),                                        Leip. '92
+    C. E. Haskins (introd. by W. E. Heitland),               Lond. '87
+    Book i.,          W. E. Heitland and C. E. Haskins,      Camb. '95
+    "                 Lejay,                                Paris, '94
+    Books i.-v.,      C. M. Francken (Lat.),               Leiden, '96
+
+  *Petronius.*
+    F. Bücheler (text),                                      Berl. '95
+    Cena Trimalchionis, L. Friedländer (text, German
+                          trans., and notes),                Leip. '91
+
+  *Calpurnius Siculus.*
+    H. Schenkl (text),                                     Prague, '85
+    C. H. Keene,                                             Lond. '87
+
+  *Aetna.*
+    H. A. J. Munro,                                          'Camb. 67
+
+  *Pliny the Elder.*
+    L. van Jan and Mayhoff (text),                        Leip. '75-92
+    J. Sillig,                                         Hamburg, '51-58
+    J. Hardouin,                                           Paris, 1723
+    D. Detlefsen (crit.),                                 Berl, '66-82
+    (Selections) Chrestomathia
+                 Pliniana,  L. Urlichs,                      Berl. '57
+
+  *Valerius Flaccus.*
+    J. A. Wagner,                                           Gött. 1805
+    N. E. Lemaire,                                          Paris, '24
+    G. Thilo (text),                                        Halle, '63
+
+  *Silius Italicus.*
+    A. Drakenborch (Lat.),                               Utrecht, 1717
+    G. A. Ruperti, ed. Lemaire,                             Paris, '23
+    L. Bauer (text),                                         Leip. '90
+
+  *Statius.*
+    Silvae,                 E. Bährens (text),               Leip. '76
+    Achilleis,              P. Kohlmann (text),              Leip. '79
+    Thebais,                                                 Leip. '84
+
+  *Martial.*
+    L. Friedländer,                                          Leip. '86
+    (Selections,)           H. M. Stephenson,                Lond. '95
+                            F. A Paley and W. H. Stone,      Lond. '82
+
+  *Quintilian.*
+    G. L. Spalding and C. G. Zumpt,                    Leip. 1798-1834
+    F. Meister (text),                                  Prague, '86-87
+    C. Halm (crit.),                                         Leip. '69
+    Book X.,                J. E. B. Mayor,                  Lond. '72
+    "                       W. Peterson,                      Oxf. '91
+    "                       G. T. A. Krüger,                 Leip. '88
+    "                       E. Bonnell and F. Meister,       Berl. '82
+
+  *Frontinus.*
+    A. Dederich (text),                                      Leip. '55
+    Strategemata,           G. Gundermann (text),            Leip. '88
+    De Aquis,               F. Bücheler (text),              Leip. '58
+
+  *Juvenal.*
+    L. Friedländer,                                          Leip. '95
+    A. Weidner,                                              Leip. '89
+    XIII. Satires,          J. E. B. Mayor,                  Lond. '93
+    "                       C. H. Pearson and H. A. Strong,   Oxf. '92
+    "                       E. G. Hardy,                     Lond. '95
+
+  *Tacitus.*
+    C. Halm (text),                                       Leip. '89-93
+    Dialogus,            W. Peterson,                         Oxf. '93
+    Germania,            H. Furneaux,                         Oxf. '94
+    " and Agricola,      A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb, Lond. '91-94
+    "     "              H. M. Stephenson,                   Camb. '94
+    Histories,           E. Wolff,                        Berl. '86-88
+    "                    W. A. Spooner,                      Lond. '91
+    " (Books i., ii.),   A. D. Godley,                       Lond. '94
+    Annals,              K. Nipperdey and G. Andresen,    Berl. '84-92
+    "                    A. Dräger and F. Becher,         Leip. '82-95
+    "                    H. Furneaux,                      Oxf. '83-91
+    "                    H. Furneaux (Books i.-iv.),          Oxf. '92
+
+  *Pliny the Younger.*
+    H. Keil (text),                                          Leip. '53
+    H. Keil and Th. Mommsen (crit.),                         Leip. '70
+    G. H. Schaefer,                                         Leip. 1805
+    Epistles,         G. Cortius and P. D. Longolius,    Amsterd. 1734
+    " (Book iii.),    J. E. B. Mayor,                        Lond. '89
+    " (to Trajan),    E. G. Hardy,                           Lond. '89
+
+  *Suetonius.*
+    C. L. Roth (text),                                       Leip. '75
+    C. G. Baumgarten-Crusius,                                Leip. '16
+    Julius and Augustus,                H. T. Peck,      New York, '93
+    Augustus,                           E. S. Shuckburgh,    Camb. '96
+    Praeter Caesarum libros reliquiae,  A. Reifferscheid,    Leip. '60
+
+  *Miscellaneous.*
+    Aulus Gellius,                 M. Hertz (text),          Leip. '86
+    Macrobius,                     F. Eyssenhardt (text),    Leip. '93
+    Nonius Marcellus,              L. Müller (crit.),        Leip. '88
+    Servius,               G. Thilo and H. Hagen (crit.), Leip. '78-94
+    Grammatici Latini, H. Keil (crit.),                   Leip. '56-80
+    Corpus Poetarum Latinorum, ed. J. P. Postgate (crit.),   Lond. '94
+      [Including Ennius, Lucretius, Catullus, Horace, Virgil,
+      Tibullus, Propertius, Ovid; other parts to follow.]
+    Oratorum Romanorum Fragmenta, H. Meyer (text),         Zürich, '42
+    Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta, H. Peter (text),       Leip. '83
+    Selected Fragments of Roman Poetry, W. W. Merry,          Oxf. '91
+    Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin, J. Wordsworth,    Oxf. '74
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL INDEX
+
+
+  Abuccius, 99.
+
+  Accius,
+    birth, 55;
+    literary activity, friendships with leading men, 56;
+    character, 56;
+    plays and other works, 57;
+    Accius on philology and philosophy, 57;
+    views on Accius, 58;
+    relations with Pacuvius, 35;
+    on the dates of Livius, 1;
+    imit. by Lucr. 121;
+    by Virg. 161.
+
+  Acro, 354.
+
+  Acta diurna and Acta senatus,
+    used by Tac. 346;
+    by Sueton. 349.
+
+  Aedituus, _see_ Valerius.
+
+  Aelius Stilo, 10, 25, 29.
+
+  Aelius Tubero, 220.
+
+  Aemilius Macer, 182.
+
+  Aemilius Scaurus, 58.
+
+  Aeschylus,
+    imit. by Livius, 3;
+    by Accius, 57;
+    by Sen. 253;
+    trans. by Cic. 88.
+
+  Aesop, imit. by Phaedrus, 239.
+
+  Aesopus, actor, 69.
+
+  Aetna, _see_ Lucilius Iunior.
+
+  Afranius, L. 64.
+
+  Agricola, 338, 341.
+
+  Agrippina, 243 _sqq._;
+    her memoirs, 346.
+
+  Albinovanus Celsus, 181.
+
+  Albius, _see_ Tibullus.
+
+  Alcaeus, imit. by Hor. 174 _sqq._
+
+  Alexandrian influence on Catull. 139, 175;
+    on Virg. 157;
+    on Propert. 199;
+    on Ovid, 210.
+
+  Alimentus, Cincius, 53.
+
+  Amafinius, 83.
+
+  Ambivius Turpio, 38, 43 _sqq._
+
+  Amiternum, birthplace of Sallust, 125.
+
+  Anacreon, foll. by Hor. 175.
+
+  Andes,
+    birthplace of Virg. 148;
+    its position, 148 note.
+
+  Andronicus, Livius,
+    dispute as to his dates, 1;
+    facts of life, 2;
+    actor and schoolmaster, 3;
+    plays, 3;
+    Odisia, 3;
+    Hor.'s reference to, 165.
+
+  Annaeus, _see_ Cornutus, Lucanus, Seneca.
+
+  Anser, 184, 141-2.
+
+  Antias, _see_ Valerius.
+
+  Antioch, birthplace of Publilius Syrus, 145.
+
+  Antiochus,
+    teacher of Cicero, 70;
+    of Varro, 91.
+
+  Antipater, _see_ Coelius.
+
+  Antonius, C. Iullus, 181.
+
+  Antonius, M., the orator, 69.
+
+  Antonius Gnipho, rhetorician, 69.
+
+  Apollodorus, imit. by Ter. 46, 47.
+
+  Apollonius Rhodius,
+    trans. by Atac. 144;
+    imit. by Virg. 161;
+    by Val. Flaccus, 287.
+
+  Aquilius, 39.
+
+  Aquinum, birthpl. of Juv. 313.
+
+  Aratus,
+    trans. by Cic. 87;
+    this trans. used by Lucr. 120;
+    imit. by Atac. 145;
+    by Virg. 157;
+    trans. by Germanicus, 281.
+
+  Archias, 69, 75, 89.
+
+  Archilochus, imit. by Hor. 174.
+
+  Argumenta,
+    to Plautus, 18;
+    to Ter. 51;
+    to Livy, 217.
+
+  Aristius Fuscus, 181.
+
+  Aristotle,
+    foll. by Cic. 79, 85;
+    by Hor. 179.
+
+  Arpinum, birthpl. of Cic. 69.
+
+  Asconius Pedianus, 77.
+
+  Asinius, _see_ Pollio.
+
+  Asisium, birthpl. of Propert. 192.
+
+  Atacinus, _see_ Varro.
+
+  Ateius, foll. by Sall. 131.
+
+  Atellana fabula, 67.
+
+  Atilius, 39.
+
+  Atta, T. Quintius, 64.
+
+  Attalus, teacher of Seneca, 241.
+
+  Atticus, T. Pomponius, 90, 85 _sqq._;
+    on chronology, 1;
+    friend of Nepos, 113.
+
+  Attius, _see_ Accius.
+
+  Augustus,
+    works, 152;
+    relations with Virg. 149, 152, 159;
+    with Hor. 166 _sqq._
+    with Gallus, 182;
+    with Propert. 195;
+    with Ovid, 211;
+    with Livy, 215;
+    with Vitruvius, 225.
+
+
+  Bacchanalia, 12.
+
+  Bacchylides, foll. by Hor. 175.
+
+  Bassus, Aufidius, 284.
+
+  Bassus, poet, 196, 206.
+
+  Bavius, 183.
+
+  Bibaculus, _see_ Furius.
+
+  Bilbilis, birthpl. of Martial, 295.
+
+  Britannicus, 245.
+
+  Brundisium, birthpl. of Pacuvius, 34.
+
+  Brutus,
+    relations with Cic. 80 _sqq._;
+    with Hor. 165 _sqq._;
+    Lucan on, 269.
+
+  Burrus, friend of Seneca, 245 _sqq._
+
+
+  Caecilius of Novum Comum, 139.
+
+  Caecilius Statius,
+    dates, 37;
+    comedies, 38;
+    relations with Ter. 38, 42;
+    views on Caecilius, 39;
+    friend of Ennius, 28;
+    imit. by Ter. 43.
+
+  Caelius Rufus,
+    defended by Cic. 76;
+    enemy of Catull. 135.
+
+  Caesar, C. Iulius,
+    birth, 100;
+    early connexion with democrats, 100;
+    military and civil career, 101-2;
+    supports Pompey, 102;
+    first triumvirate, conquest of Gaul, civil war, 103;
+    dictator, death, 104;
+    _De Bello Gallico_, 104;
+    its objects, style, 105;
+    _De Bello Civili_, 106;
+    other works in the Corpus Caesarianum, 106;
+    theories on their authorship, 107;
+    Caesar's lost works, incl. speeches and poems, 109;
+    criticisms on his poems, 111;
+    verses on Ter. 51;
+    relations with Cic. 71, 77, 109, 110;
+    with Varro, 92;
+    with Sall. 127;
+    with Laberius, 97;
+    with Catull. 137;
+    with Calvus, 143;
+    celebrated by Bibaculus, 100;
+    by Atac. 144;
+    Livy on, 223;
+    Lucan on, 268, 270;
+    foll. by Frontinus, 311;
+    by Tac. 346.
+
+  Caesar Strabo, 66.
+
+  Calagurris, birthpl. of Quintilian, 302.
+
+  Calendar, Caesar's reform of, 104, 110.
+
+  Calidus, Iulius, 124.
+
+  Caligula, and Seneca, 242.
+
+  Callimachus,
+    imit. by Catull. 139;
+    by Propert. 198-9;
+    by Ovid, 211-2.
+
+  Calpurnius Piso, 58;
+    foll. by Livy, 220.
+
+  Calpurnius Siculus, T. 275;
+    discussion of his date, 276;
+    _Eclogae_ and sequel by Nemesianus, his models, _De laude Pisonis_,
+      277.
+
+  Calvus, C. Licinius Macer,
+    life, speeches, 142;
+    poems, relations with Caes. 143;
+    with Catull. 138-9, 143;
+    Hor.'s opinion of, 143, 176.
+
+  Canticum, 19, 50.
+
+  Cassius Hemina, 58.
+
+  Catilinarian conspiracy, 70, 75, 102.
+
+  Catius, T. 83, 112.
+
+  Cato, M. Porcius, the censor,
+    date, 53;
+    founder of Latin prose, 53;
+    works, 54-5;
+    patron of Enn. 27;
+    foll. by Nep. 117;
+    by Virg. 157, 161;
+    by Livy, 219;
+    imit, by Sall. 131.
+
+  Cato Uticensis, Lucan on, 269.
+
+  Cato, Valerius, teacher of Catullus, 133, 139.
+
+  Catullus, C. Valerius,
+    birth and dates, 132;
+    family and education, 133;
+    relations with Lesbia, 134;
+    voyage to Bithynia, 136;
+    attacks Caesar's party, 137;
+    relations with contemporaries, 138;
+    longer poems, Alexandrian influence, publication of poems, 139;
+    metre, 175;
+    friend of Nep. 114-5;
+    of Calvus, 138-9, 143;
+    of Cinna, 140;
+    Hor.'s opinion of, 143, 176;
+    imit. by Virg. 154;
+    by Mart. 301.
+
+  Catulus, _see_ Lutatius.
+
+  Celsus, Cornelius,
+    his encyclopaedia, 235;
+    its subdivisions, extant part _De Re Medica_, 236;
+    foll. by Quint. 309.
+
+  Christians, Tacitus' view of, 347.
+
+  Cicero, M. Tullius,
+    birth, education, at the bar, 69;
+    in the East, political career, Catilinarian conspiracy, banishment, 70;
+    recall, proconsul of Cilicia, in civil war, 71;
+    death, 73;
+    speeches, 73;
+    philosophical works, 79;
+    Cic. as a philosopher, 83;
+    rhetorical works, 83;
+    letters, 85;
+    their style, lost prose writings, 86;
+    poems, 87;
+    criticisms of his poetry, 88;
+    on chronology, 1, 9;
+    verses on Ter. 51;
+    conversed with Accius, 56;
+    criticises Sisenna, 67;
+    attacked by Catull. 138;
+    his reference to Lucr. 119;
+    editorship of Lucr. 120;
+    relations with Nep. 114;
+    with Calvus, 142;
+    foll. by Nep. 117;
+    by Lucr. 120;
+    by Hor. 174;
+    by Val. Max. 234;
+    largely quoted by Quint. 308;
+    admired by elder Sen. 228.
+
+  Cicero, Quintus, 89.
+
+  Cincius Alimentus, 53;
+    foll. by Livy, 219.
+
+  Cinna, C. Helvius,
+    friend of Catull. 136-9, 140;
+    partisan of Caesar, discussion of his identity, 141;
+    poems, 141;
+    patronized by Pollio, 112.
+
+  Claudius, emperor,
+    relations with Livy, 216;
+    with Sen. 243 _sqq._
+
+  Claudius Quadrigarius, 67;
+    foll. by Livy, 220.
+
+  Clodia (Lesbia), 76;
+    Catullus' relations with, 134 _sqq._
+
+  Clodius, P. 70, 76.
+
+  Clodius Licinus, 220.
+
+  Cluvius Rufus, foll. by Tac. 346.
+
+  Codrus, 183.
+
+  Coelius Antipater, 58;
+    foll. by Livy, 220.
+
+  Columella,
+    birth, military service, property, date, 258;
+    works, 258-9.
+
+  Comum, birthpl. of the two Plinii, 281, 326.
+
+  Contaminatio, 6, 13, 46 _sqq._
+
+  Corbulo, Domitius, memoirs of, 346.
+
+  Corduba, birthpl. of the two Senecas and Lucan, 226, 240, 264.
+
+  Corinna, celebrated by Ovid, 207.
+
+  Cornelius, _see_ Celsus, Gallus, Nepos, Sisenna, Tacitus.
+
+  Cornificius, 88.
+
+  Cornificius, poet, 139.
+
+  Cornutus, Annaeus,
+    teacher of Persius, 260 _sqq._;
+    of Lucan, 265.
+
+  Corvinus, _see_ Messalla.
+
+  Cremona, birthpl. of Bibaculus, 99.
+
+  Crispus, _see_ Sallustius.
+
+  Curtius Rufus,
+    his date and identity, 256;
+    _Historiae Alexandri_, 257.
+
+  Cynthia (Hostia), Propertius' relations with, 65, 193, 197 _sqq._
+
+
+  Delia (Plania), Tibullus' love for, 188-9.
+
+  Demetrius the Cynic, 251, 254.
+
+  Democritus, imit. by Lucr. 123.
+
+  Demophilus, 11.
+
+  Didascaliae, 15, 17, 44 _sqq._
+
+  Diodotus, teacher of Cic. 69.
+
+  Diphilus,
+    imit. by Plaut. 12, 15, 17;
+    by Ter. 48.
+
+  Diverbium, 19, 50.
+
+  Domitian,
+    patron of Statius, 293;
+    of Mart. 297 _sqq._;
+    of Quint. 305.
+
+  Domitius Marsus, 184;
+    epigram on Tibull. 186.
+
+  Donatus, Aelius, 354, 39, 44, 147 _sqq._
+
+  Dossenus, in fabula Atellana, 25, 67.
+
+
+  Eclecticism,
+    of Enn. 29;
+    of Cic. 83;
+    of Hor. 173.
+
+  Egnatius, 99.
+
+  Empedocles, imit. by Lucr. 122.
+
+  Ennius,
+    birth, 26;
+    in Sardinia, 26;
+    life in Rome, 27;
+    in Aetolia, a Roman citizen, death, 28;
+    character and views, 29;
+    plays, Saturae, etc. 30;
+    _Annals_, 31;
+    services to Latin literature--the hexameter, 32;
+    influence on other poets, 33;
+    views on Ennius, 34;
+    criticised by Lucilius, 62;
+    imit. by Lucr. 121;
+    by Virg. 161;
+    in _Bell. Hisp._ 109;
+    imit. Naevius, 7;
+    quoted by Phaedrus, 237;
+    taught Pacuv. 35.
+
+  Epicureanism, 83;
+    in Enn. 30;
+    discussed by Cic. 80 _sqq._;
+    in Lucr. 120 _sqq._
+    in Virg. 149;
+    in Hor. 170, 173;
+    in _Aetna_, 279.
+
+  Epidius, teacher of Virg. 149.
+
+  Euhemerism, 31, 162.
+
+  Euphorion, 156, 183.
+
+  Euripides,
+    imit. by Enn. 30;
+    by Pacuv. 36;
+    by Accius, 57;
+    by Sen. 253;
+    criticised by Lucilius, 62.
+
+
+  Fabianus, Papirius, 240.
+
+  Fabius, _see_ Quintilianus.
+
+  Fabius Labeo, 42, 52.
+
+  Fabius Pictor, 52;
+    foll. by Livy, 219.
+
+  Fabius Rusticus, 245;
+    foll. by Tac. 346.
+
+  Fannius, 58.
+
+  Fenestella, 40, 224.
+
+  Festus, 8, 224.
+
+  Flaccus, _see_ Horatius, Persius, Valerius, Verrius.
+
+  Florus, Iulius, 181, 172, 179.
+
+  Forum Iulii, birthpl. of Gallus, 182.
+
+  Frontinus, S. Iulius,
+    military and civil career, 310;
+    works, 311-2;
+    friend of Mart. 298.
+
+  Fundanius, 181.
+
+  Furius Antias, 66.
+
+  Furius Bibaculus, 99.
+
+  Furnius, 181.
+
+  Fuscus, _see_ Aristius.
+
+
+  Gades, birthpl. of Columella, 258.
+
+  Gaetulicus, 301.
+
+  Gallio, _see_ Novatus.
+
+  Gallus, Cornelius,
+    life, 182;
+    poems, 183;
+    relations with Virg. 150, 156.
+
+  Gellius, Aulus, 352.
+
+  Geminus, _see_ Tanusius.
+
+  Germanicus Caesar, 281.
+
+  Glycera, _see_ Nemesis.
+
+  Gracci, 58.
+
+  Guilds of poets, 2, 38.
+
+
+  Hadrian,
+    banishes Juv. 322;
+    dismisses Sueton. 349.
+
+  Helvia, 227, 240 _sqq._
+
+  Helvius, _see_ Cinna.
+
+  Hemina, _see_ Cassius.
+
+  Herennium, Rhet. ad, 88;
+    foll. by Quint. 309.
+
+  Hesiod, imit. by Virg. 157.
+
+  Hieronymus, _see_ Jerome.
+
+  Hirtius and the Corpus Caes. 106 _sqq._
+
+  Homer,
+    trans. by Livius, 3;
+    by Matius, 66;
+    by Cic. 88;
+    imit. by Hostius, 65;
+    by Virg. 161;
+    by Val. Flaccus, 288;
+    by Silius, 291;
+    parodied by Petron. 273.
+
+  Horatius Flaccus, Q.,
+    name, birth, 163;
+    parentage, 164;
+    education, in civil war, 165;
+    clerkship, 166;
+    introduction to Maecenas, journey to Brundisium, Sabine farm, 167;
+    relations with imperial house, 168;
+    death, personal appearance, 169;
+    chronology of works, 170;
+    _Satires_, 170, 172;
+    _Odes_ and _Epodes_, 171, 174;
+    _Epistles_, 171, 172, 179;
+    _Carm. Saec._ 171;
+    _Ars Poet._ 172, 179;
+    nature of the Satires, 173;
+    Odes, models of, 174;
+    metre and subjects of, 175;
+    Epistles, subjects of, 179;
+    Hor. and nature, popularity of Hor. 180;
+    relations with Virg. 151;
+    with Tibull. 189;
+    with Propert. 195;
+    patronized by Pollio, 112;
+    on Calvus and Catull. 143, 176;
+    on Atac. 144;
+    imit. Lucilius, 62;
+    Lucr. 125;
+    parodied Bibac. 100;
+    imit. by Persius, 263;
+    by Lucan, 271;
+    by Mart. 301;
+    by Juv. 325;
+    foll. by Quint. 309.
+
+  Hortensius, 74.
+
+  Hostia, _see_ Cynthia.
+
+  Hostius, 65;
+    imit. by Virg. 161.
+
+  Hyginus, C. Iulius, 224;
+    friend of Ovid, 206.
+
+
+  Iambi = satirical verses, 100, 174.
+
+  Imbrex, Licinius, 39.
+
+  Italicus, _see_ Silius.
+
+  Iulia, grand-daughter of Augustus, 203.
+
+  Iulius, _see_ Caesar, Calidus, Florus, Frontinus, Hyginus.
+
+  Iunior, _see_ Lucilius.
+
+  Iuvenalis, D. Iunius,
+    sources for his life, 312;
+    birth, 313;
+    inscription at Aquinum, 314;
+    parentage, position, and education, 314-6;
+    military and civil career, 316;
+    in Britain, 317;
+    references to Britain, 318;
+    life in Rome, 319;
+    dates of Satires, 320;
+    banishment, 322;
+    death, 323;
+    subjects of Satires, 323;
+    pessimism, rhetorical learning and style, 324-6;
+    friend of Mart. 298;
+    imit. Virg. 163.
+
+  Iuventius, 52.
+
+
+  Jerome, 351;
+    mistakes of, 2, 8, 58, 99, 144.
+
+  Jews, Tacitus' view of, 347.
+
+
+  Labeo, Fabius, 42, 52.
+
+  Laberius,
+    dates, 97;
+    contest with Publ. Syrus, 97, 145;
+    mimes, 98;
+    language and views, 99.
+
+  Laelius, literary circle of, 35, 41, 59.
+
+  Laenas, _see_ Popillius.
+
+  Laevius, 66.
+
+  Lanuvinus, _see_ Luscius.
+
+  Latro, Porcius,
+    teacher of Ovid, 201;
+    friend of Sen. 227.
+
+  Lesbia, _see_ Clodia.
+
+  Libri lintei, 68.
+
+  Licinius Imbrex, 39.
+
+  Licinius Tegula, 52.
+
+  Licinius Macer, 67;
+    foll. by Livy, 220.
+
+  Licinius Macer Calvus, _see_ Calvus.
+
+  Licinus, Porcius, 65.
+
+  Livius, _see_ Andronicus.
+
+  Livius, T.,
+    birth, intimacy with imperial house, 215;
+    death, 216;
+    works on philosophy and rhetoric, 216;
+    his history, the _Periochae_, number and scope of books, 217;
+    date of composition, 218;
+    publication, 219;
+    his sources, 68, 319;
+    comparison with Polybius, 220;
+    characteristics of his history, 220-1;
+    views on religion and morality, 222;
+    politics, 223;
+    imit. Virg. 163;
+    foll. by Ovid, 211;
+    by Val. Max. 234;
+    by Lucan, 271;
+    by Silius, 290;
+    by Frontinus, 311.
+
+  Lucanus, M. Annaeus,
+    biographies of, 264;
+    education, _Laudes Neronis_, political advancement, breach with Nero,
+      265;
+    satirizes Nero, joins Piso's conspiracy, suicide, 266;
+    his wife, 267;
+    lost works, 267;
+    _De Bello Civili_ (Pharsalia), 267, 268 _sqq._
+    popularity of his works, 268;
+    his views on politics, 268;
+    on philosophy and religion, 270;
+    rhetorical treatment, 271;
+    his models, 271;
+    criticisms of Lucan, 272;
+    friendship with Persius, 261;
+    imit. Virg. 163;
+    imit. by Juv. 326;
+    admired by Statius, 293;
+    parodied by Petron. 275.
+
+  Lucilius,
+    date, 58;
+    birthpl. and rank, 59;
+    his friends and enemies, 59-60;
+    _Saturae_, dates of composition, 61;
+    subjects of, 62;
+    on philology, 62;
+    style and character, 63;
+    imit. by Lucr. 121;
+    by Virg. 161;
+    by Hor. 173;
+    by Persius, 262-3;
+    by Juv. 326.
+
+  Lucilius Iunior, 277;
+    official career, friendship with Sen. 278;
+    date and authorship of _Aetna_, 279;
+    imit. Sen. and Lucr. 280;
+    imit. Virg. 163.
+
+  Lucillius, epigrammatist, 301.
+
+  Lucretius Carus, T.,
+    his dates, 119;
+    Cic.'s editorship of his works, recently discovered biography, 120;
+    position and character, 121;
+    _De rerum natura_, 122;
+    his ethics and physics, 123;
+    imit. Enn. 33;
+    imit. by Virg. 158, 161;
+    by Hor. 173;
+    in _Aetna_, 280.
+    Lucullus, 68.
+
+  Ludi Megalenses, 15, 17, 44;
+    Romani, 17;
+    plebei, 17.
+
+  Luscius Lanuvinus, 39, 49.
+
+  Lutatius Catulus, 65.
+
+  Lycinna, 193.
+
+  Lygdamus, 190.
+
+  Lynceus, 196.
+
+
+  Maccius, _see_ Plautus.
+
+  Macer, _see_ Aemilius, Calvus, Pompeius.
+
+  Macrobius, 354.
+
+  Maecenas, 166;
+    relations with Virg. 151, 157;
+    with Hor. 166 _sqq._;
+    with Valgius, 180;
+    with Propert. 195, 198.
+
+  Mamurra, Catullus' hostility to, 137.
+
+  Manilius, 213;
+    imit. Lucr. 125;
+    Virg. 163;
+    imit. by Juv. 326.
+
+  Marcellus, nephew of Augustus, 159, 171.
+
+  Maro, _see_ Vergilius.
+
+  Marsus, _see_ Domitius.
+
+  Martialis, M. Valerius,
+    birth, 295;
+    education, life at Rome, patrons, 296;
+    life under Domitian and Titus, 297;
+    friends of Martial, 298;
+    returns to Spain, 299;
+    character, 299;
+    publication of Epigrams, popularity, 300;
+    models, mistakes, 301;
+    satire and versification, 302;
+    imit. Catull. 140;
+    Virg. 163;
+    friend of Lucan, 267;
+    of Silius, 289;
+    of Frontinus, 311;
+    of Juv. 319;
+    of Pliny the younger, 335;
+    imit. by Juv. 326.
+
+  Maternus, Curiatius, 341.
+
+  Matius, Cn. 66.
+
+  Maximus, _see_ Valerius.
+
+  Mediocritas of Terence, 51.
+
+  Mela, Pomponius, 259.
+
+  Melissus, 149, 185.
+
+  Memmius, C. 120, 122, 136.
+
+  Menander,
+    imit. by Plaut. 13, 15, 18;
+    by Caecilius, 38;
+    by Ter. 44 _sqq._;
+    by Turpilius, 52;
+    by Afranius, 65.
+
+  Menippea Satira, 96, 273.
+
+  Messalina, 243.
+
+  Messalla Corvinus, 187;
+    patron of Tibull. 186 _sqq._;
+    relations with Ovid, 205.
+
+  Mevius, 183.
+
+  Molo,
+    teacher of Cic. 69, 70;
+    of Caes. 102.
+
+  Murena, conspiracy of, 171.
+
+
+  Naevius, Cn.,
+    birth, 4;
+    attacks Metelli, 5;
+    banishment and death, 6;
+    plays, 6;
+    _Bellum Punicum_, 7;
+    Plautus' reference to, 14;
+    imit. by Lucr. 121;
+    by Virg. 161.
+
+  Naples, birthpl. of Statius, 291.
+
+  Naso, _see_ Ovidius.
+
+  Nemesianus, 275, 277.
+
+  Nemesis (Glycera), Tibullus' love for, 188, 190.
+
+  Neoptolemus, 179.
+
+  Nepos, Cornelius,
+    discussion of date, 113;
+    intimacy with Atticus, 113;
+    with Catull. 114;
+    character and views, 114;
+    minor works, 115;
+    _De viris illustribus_, 116;
+    sources, 117;
+    value of his work, 117;
+    authenticity of his works, 118;
+    on Terence, 40;
+    on Cato, 54;
+    friend of Catull. 139;
+    foll. by Mela, 259.
+
+  Nero,
+    relations with Sen. 244 _sqq._;
+    with Lucan, 265;
+    with Petron. 272;
+    with Silius, 289;
+    Calp. Sic. on, 276;
+    his poetry parodied by Persius, 262;
+    by Petron. 275.
+
+  Nicander,
+    foll. by Virg. 158;
+    by Macer, 182;
+    by Ovid, 210.
+
+  Nonius Marcellus, 353.
+
+  Novatus, M. Annaeus (= Gallio), 227, 250, 264.
+
+  Novius, 67.
+
+
+  Oppius, and the Corpus Caes. 106.
+
+  Orbilius, 99, 165.
+
+  Ovidius Naso, P.,
+    name and birth, 200;
+    rank and education, 201;
+    official career, 202;
+    travels, 203;
+    banishment, 203;
+    probable reasons for it, 203-4;
+    life at Tomi, 204-5;
+    death, 205;
+    his literary friends, 206;
+    his property, 206;
+    poems, 207;
+    relations with Aemilius Macer, 182;
+    with Tibull. 189;
+    with Propert. 196;
+    imit. Catull. 140;
+    Virg. 163;
+    foll. Propert. 199;
+    Verrius Flaccus, 224;
+    imit. by Sen. 253;
+    by Lucan, 271;
+    in _Aetna_, 279;
+    by Val. Flaccus, 288;
+    by Mart. 301;
+    by Juv. 326;
+    on Varro Atac. 144;
+    on Gallus, 182.
+
+
+  Pacuvius,
+    birth, 34;
+    literary friends, 35;
+    tragedies, saturae, 36;
+    views and style, 36;
+    views on Pacuvius, 37;
+    imit. by Lucr. 121;
+    by Virg. 161.
+
+  Paetus Thrasea,
+    relative of Persius, 261, 286;
+    Tacitus' attitude to, 344.
+
+  Palliata fabula, 6, 10 _sqq._, 39, 44 _sqq._, 52.
+
+  Panaetius, 82.
+
+  Papinius, _see_ Statius.
+
+  Patavinitas, 215, 219.
+
+  Patavium, birthpl. of Livy, 215.
+
+  Paterculus, _see_ Velleius.
+
+  Paul, St., and Seneca, 254.
+
+  Paulus Diaconus, abridged Festus, 224.
+
+  Pedianus, _see_ Asconius.
+
+  Pedum, prob. birthpl. of Tibull. 185.
+
+  Pellio, actor of Plautus, 12.
+
+  Persius Flaccus, A.,
+    dates, birthpl., rank, education, 260;
+    his friends, property, and character, 261;
+    early works, 261;
+    Satires--their nature, 262;
+    obligations to Hor. 263;
+    popularity, 263-4;
+    imit. Lucilius, 63.
+
+  Petronius Arbiter, C.,
+    life, 272;
+    Satirae--their subject, 273;
+    dramatic scene and date, 273-4;
+    style, 274;
+    poems in the book, 275.
+
+  Phaedrus (philosopher), 69.
+
+  Phaedrus (poet),
+    life, 237;
+    persecuted by Seianus, 237;
+    personal points, 238;
+    _fabulae Aesopiae_, 239;
+    the five books, 239.
+
+  Philemon, imit. by Plaut. 14, 15, 17.
+
+  Philetas, imit. by Propert. 199.
+
+  Philo, teacher of Cic. 69.
+
+  Philology, 57, 63, 94, 307.
+
+  Phocas, 147.
+
+  Pictor, Fabius, 52.
+
+  Pindar, foll. by Hor. 175.
+
+  Pisaurum, birthpl. of Accius, 55.
+
+  Piso, _see_ Calpurnius.
+
+  Piso, conspiracy of, 248, 266, 296.
+
+  Plania, _see_ Delia.
+
+  Plato,
+    trans. by Cic. 82;
+    foll. by Nep. 117;
+    by Virg. 162.
+
+  Plautus, T. Maccius,
+    name, 7;
+    date and pl. of birth, 8;
+    varied employments, 8, 9;
+    intimacy with the Scipios, death, 9;
+    Plautine canon, 10;
+    extant plays, 10-18;
+    argumenta, 18;
+    prologues, 18;
+    acts, diverbium, canticum, characters, 19;
+    language, 20;
+    references to Greek and Roman life, 20;
+    prosody, 22;
+    views on Plautus, 25;
+    reference to Naevius, 5.
+
+  Plinius Secundus, C. (the elder), 281;
+    education, 282;
+    military and procuratorial career, 282-3;
+    death, 283;
+    lost works, 284;
+    _Naturae Historiae_, their contents and character, 285;
+    views, 286;
+    foll. by Tac. 346.
+
+  Plinius Secundus, C. (the younger),
+    name and birthpl. 326;
+    date of birth, education, 327;
+    adoption by his uncle, 328;
+    at the bar, civil career, 328;
+    _Panegyricus_, 330;
+    governor of Pontus et Bithynia, correspondence with Trajan,
+      municipal relations, 331-333;
+    as orator and writer, 333;
+    the Epistles, 334;
+    relations with other writers, character, 335;
+    love of nature, 336;
+    friend of Silius, 289;
+    of Mart. 298;
+    of Frontinus, 310;
+    of Tac. 340;
+    of Sueton. 348.
+
+  Polla Argentaria,
+    wife of Lucan, 267;
+    patroness of Mart. 297.
+
+  Pollio, Asinius, 112;
+    criticises Caesar, 105;
+    connexion with Corpus Caes. 107 _sqq._;
+    criticises Livy, 219;
+    friend of Virg. 149, 154 _sqq._
+
+  Pollio, _see_ Vitruvius.
+
+  Polybius,
+    foll. by Nep. 117;
+    by Livy, 220.
+
+  Polybius, favourite of Claudius, 250.
+
+  Pompeius Macer, poet, 203.
+
+  Pompeius Magnus,
+    Livy a supporter of, 219;
+    Lucan's view of, 268-9.
+
+  Pompeius, _see_ Trogus.
+
+  Pompilius, 65.
+
+  Pomponius, _see_ Mela, Atticus.
+
+  Pomponius Bononiensis, 67.
+
+  Pomponius Secundus, 282, 284.
+
+  Ponticus, 196, 206.
+
+  Popillius Laenas, 42, 52.
+
+  Porcius, _see_ Cato, Latro.
+
+  Porcius Licinus, 65.
+
+  Porphyrio, 355.
+
+  Posidippus, 14.
+
+  Posidonius, 70, 82.
+
+  Praetexta fabula, 7, 30, 36, 57, 341.
+
+  Probus, M. Valerius, 147;
+    his life of Persius, 260.
+
+  Probus, Aemilius, falsely credited with Nepos' works, 118.
+
+  Prologues, 18, 49.
+
+  Propertius, Sex.,
+    name, 191;
+    birth, 192;
+    youth and education, 193;
+    relations with Lycinna and Cynthia, 193-4;
+    later life, 194-5;
+    relations with Maecenas, Augustus, and contemporary poets, 195-6;
+    elegies, 196;
+    dates and contents of the four books, 196-9;
+    his archaeological tastes, 198;
+    character, 200;
+    friend of Ovid, 206;
+    imit. Virg. 163;
+    imit. by Mart. 301.
+
+  Prosody, 22, 32.
+
+  Publilius Syrus,
+    life and works, 145;
+    views on, 146;
+    contest with Laberius, 97, 145.
+
+  Pupius, 185.
+
+  Pythagoreanism,
+    in Enn. 30;
+    in Laberius, 99;
+    in Virg. 162.
+
+
+  Quadrigarius, _see_ Claudius.
+
+  Quintilianus, M. Fabius,
+    pl. of birth, 302;
+    probable date of birth, his teachers, at the bar, 303;
+    professor of oratory, date of the _Institutio_, retirement, 304;
+    tutor to Domitian's grandnephews, consul, flattery of Domitian,
+      domestic relations, 305;
+    earlier works, 306;
+    _Institutio_, 306;
+    scope of work, 307;
+    his authorities, 308;
+    spurious works, 309;
+    friend of Martial, 298;
+    teacher of Pliny the younger, 327;
+    views on Roman writers, _passim_.
+
+  Quintius, _see_ Atta.
+
+
+  Rabirius, 83.
+
+  Reate, birthpl. of Varro, 91.
+
+  Religion,
+    in Enn. 29;
+    in Pacuv. 36;
+    in Accius, 57;
+    in Lucr. 122;
+    in Virg. 161;
+    in Livy, 222;
+    in Tac. 343.
+
+  Rhinthonica, 11.
+
+  Roscius, actor, 69, 73.
+
+  Rudiae, birthpl. of Enn. 26.
+
+  Rufus, _see_ Curtius, Valgius, Varius.
+
+  Rusticus, _see_ Fabius.
+
+  Rutilius, 220.
+
+
+  Sallustius Crispus, C.,
+    dates, youth, rank, 125;
+    political and military life, 126-7;
+    retirement, 128;
+    _Bell. Cat._, object of work, 128;
+    _Bell. Iug._, object of work, 129;
+    _Hist._ 129;
+    spurious works, 130;
+    as a historian, 130;
+    authorities and models, 131;
+    style, popularity, 132;
+    criticised by Livy, 216;
+    foll. by Frontinus, 311;
+    by Val. Max. 235;
+    on Sisenna, 67.
+
+  Santra, on Terence, 42.
+
+  Sappho,
+    imit. by Catull. 139;
+    by Hor. 174.
+
+  Sarranae tibiae, 45.
+
+  Sarsina, birthpl. of Plautus, 8.
+
+  Saturae, 30, 36, 61, 64, 172, 262, 320;
+    Menippeae, 96, 273.
+
+  Saturnians, 3, 7.
+
+  Scaurus, _see_ Aemilius.
+
+  Scipio Africanus the elder, friend of Enn. 27.
+
+  Scipio Africanus the younger,
+    friend of Ter. 40;
+    of Lucilius, 59.
+
+  Sedigitus, Volcacius, 66;
+    on Plautus, 10;
+    canon, 39, 66.
+
+  Seianus,
+    praised by Velleius, 234;
+    relations with Phaedrus, 237.
+
+  Seneca, Annaeus, the elder,
+    birth, rank, 226;
+    life in Rome, death, character, 227;
+    _Controversiae_, 228-9;
+    _Suasoriae_, 229;
+    his history, 230.
+
+  Seneca, L. Annaeus, the younger,
+    birth, family, education, 240;
+    voyage to Egypt, 241;
+    political advancement, 242;
+    banishment, recall, 243;
+    tutorship of Nero, privy to Claudius' murder, 244;
+    checks Nero, 245;
+    power and wealth, 246;
+    loss of power, 247;
+    wishes to retire, 248;
+    Piso's conspiracy, death of Seneca, 248;
+    extant prose works, 249;
+    extant poems, incl. tragedies, 252;
+    lost works, 253;
+    spurious works, views and character, 254;
+    style, 255;
+    imit. Curtius Rufus, 257;
+    friend of Persius, 261;
+    of Calp. Sic. 276;
+    of Lucilius Iunior, 277 _sqq._;
+    foll. by Lucan, 271;
+    imit. by Lucilius, 280;
+    by Val. Flaccus, 288;
+    by Juv. 326;
+    patron of Mart. 296;
+    Quintilian's antagonism to, 309.
+
+  Servius, 354, 147 _sqq._
+
+  Sextius, 237, 240 _sqq._
+
+  Siculus, _see_ Calpurnius.
+
+  Silanus, D. 203.
+
+  Silius Italicus,
+    life, 289;
+    _Punica_, 290;
+    models, 291;
+    Homerus Latinus, 291;
+    friend of Mart. 298;
+    of Pliny the younger, 335;
+    on life of Ennius, 26;
+    imit. Virg. 163.
+
+  Siron, 149, 150.
+
+  Sisenna, L. Cornelius, 67;
+    foll. by Sall. 129;
+    by Tac. 346.
+
+  Sophocles,
+    imit. by Pacuv. 36;
+    by Accius, 57;
+    by Virg. 161;
+    by Sen. 253.
+
+  Soranus, _see_ Valerius.
+
+  Sotadean metre, 31, 57.
+
+  Sotion, 240.
+
+  Stataria, 11, 46.
+
+  Statius, _see_ Caecilius.
+
+  Statius, P. Papinius,
+    birth, 291;
+    poetical competitions, 292;
+    patronized by Domitian, admiration for Lucan and Virgil, 293;
+    works, 293-5;
+    imit. Virg. 163;
+    Val. Flaccus, 288;
+    friend of Lucan, 267;
+    sneered at by Mart. 298.
+
+  Stilo, Aelius, 10, 25, 29.
+
+  Stoicism,
+    discussed by Cic. 79 _sqq._;
+    in Virg. 162;
+    Hor.'s attitude to, 173;
+    in Sen. 241, 254;
+    in Persius, 262;
+    in Lucan, 270;
+    in _Aetna_, 279;
+    in Juv. 325.
+
+  Sueius, 66.
+
+  Suessa, birthpl. of Lucilius, 59.
+
+  Suetonius Tranquillus, C.,
+    life, 348;
+    works, 349;
+    biography of Lucan, 264.
+
+  Sulla, 68, 129.
+
+  Sulmo, birthpl. of Ovid, 200.
+
+  Sulpicia, 191.
+
+  Sulpicius, 181.
+
+  Sulpicius Apollinaris, 18, 51.
+
+  Syrus, see Publilius.
+
+
+  Tabernaria fabula, 6, 64.
+
+  Tacitus, Cornelius, 336;
+    birth and rank, 337;
+    reputation as an orator, 338;
+    political career, death, 339;
+    works, 340-3;
+    views, 343;
+    sources, 346;
+    his credibility, 347;
+    friend of Pliny the younger, 335;
+    imit. Sall. 132;
+    Virg. 163;
+    Pliny the elder, 285.
+
+  Tanusius Geminus, 138.
+
+  Tegula, Licinius, 52.
+
+  Terentius Afer, P.,
+    date and pl. of birth, 39, 40;
+    relations with Laelius, Scipio, and Caecilius, 41-2;
+    death, 43;
+    personal appearance, 44;
+    comedies, 44;
+    prologues, representation, 49;
+    names of characters, 50;
+    arguments, prosody, views on Ter. 51;
+    imit. by Afranius, 65;
+    relations with Caecilius, 38;
+    attacks on Luscius, 39.
+
+  Terentius, _see_ Varro.
+
+  Theocritus,
+    imit. by Virg. 156;
+    by Calp. Sic. 277.
+
+  Theophrastus, imit. by Cic. 79, 82.
+
+  Thrasea, _see_ Paetus.
+
+  Thucydides,
+    imit. by Sall. 132;
+    by Lucr. 123;
+    foll. by Nep. 117.
+
+  Tiberius,
+    Tac.'s view of, 344 _sqq._;
+    praised by Hor. 172;
+    by Velleius, 233;
+    by Val. Max. 235.
+
+  Tibiae, 45, 50.
+
+  Tibullus, Albius,
+    birth, 185;
+    rank and wealth, 186;
+    friendship with Messalla, 187;
+    relations with Delia and Nemesis, 188;
+    with other poets, 189;
+    poems, 189;
+    imit. Virg. 163;
+    friend of Ovid, 206;
+    imit. by Mart. 301.
+
+  Ticidas, 140.
+
+  Ticinum, birthpl. of Nepos, 113.
+
+  Tingentera, birthpl. of Mela, 259.
+
+  Tiro, M. Tullius, 90;
+    edits Cicero's works, 78, 85.
+
+  Titinius, 52.
+
+  Titius, 181.
+
+  Togata fabula, 6, 52, 64, 185.
+
+  Trabea, 39.
+
+  Trabeata fabula, 185.
+
+  Tragicomoedia, 10.
+
+  Tranquillus, _see_ Suetonius.
+
+  Trogus, Pompeius, 223;
+    followed by Val. Max. 235.
+
+  Tucca, 154, 160.
+
+  Tullia, 72, 80.
+
+  Tullius, _see_ Cicero, Tiro.
+
+  Turpilius, 52.
+
+  Tusculum, birthpl. of Cato, 53.
+
+
+  Vacca, biographer of Lucan, 264.
+
+  Valerius, _see_ Catullus, Probus, Martialis.
+
+  Valerius, writer of palliatae, 52.
+
+  Valerius Aedituus, 65.
+
+  Valerius Antias, 67;
+    foll. by Livy, 220.
+
+  Valerius Cato, 133.
+
+  Valerius Flaccus,
+    life, 234.
+    the _Argonautica_, 287;
+    imit. Virg. 163.
+
+  Valerius Maximus, 234;
+    his _Facta et Dicta Memorabilia_, 234;
+    foll. by Juv. 325.
+
+  Valerius Soranus, 65.
+
+  Valgius Rufus, 180.
+
+  Varius Rufus, L., 181;
+    friend of Virg. 154, 160;
+    of Horace, 166 _sqq._
+
+  Varro Atacinus, P. Terentius, 144;
+    imit. by Virg. 161.
+
+  Varro, M. Terentius,
+    birth, 91;
+    military and political career, 91-2;
+    death, 93;
+    works, 93-7;
+    on chronology, 5, 6, 26;
+    on criticism, 10, 51;
+    on Sallust, 126;
+    foll. by Virg. 157, 161;
+    by Ovid, 211;
+    friend of Cic. 81, 94.
+
+  Vatinius,
+    attacked by Cic. 76;
+    by Catull. 137;
+    by Calvus, 142.
+
+  Vatronius, 52.
+
+  Velleius Paterculus, C.,
+    military and civil career, 231-2;
+    his _Historia Romana_, 232.
+
+  Venusia, birthpl. of Hor. 163.
+
+  Vergilius Maro, P.,
+    name, 147;
+    parentage and education, 148;
+    evictions from farm, 149, 150;
+    friendship of Augustus, 149;
+    literary life, 151;
+    later years, 152;
+    personal appearance and character, 153;
+    minor poems, 153;
+    _Bucolica_, 154;
+    the separate Eclogues, 155;
+    sources, 156;
+    scenery in the Eclogues, 156;
+    _Georgics_, 157;
+    sources, 157;
+    political purpose, 158;
+    natural scenery, 158;
+    _Aeneid_, 159;
+    method of composition, 159;
+    posthumous publication, subject, why chosen, 160;
+    the Aeneas legend, 161;
+    sources of _Aeneid_, religion in _Aeneid_, 161;
+    political significance, 162;
+    influence of Virg. 163;
+    popularity of Virg. 180;
+    patronized by Pollio, 112;
+    imit. Naevius, 7;
+    Enn. 33;
+    Accius, 58;
+    Lucilius, 62;
+    Hostius, 65;
+    Bibaculus, 100;
+    Lucr. 125;
+    Catull. 140;
+    Atac. 145;
+    Hyginus, 224;
+    relations with Hor. 166 _sqq._;
+    with Aemilius Macer, 182;
+    with Gallus, 183;
+    with Propert. 196;
+    imit. by Manilius, 214;
+    by Lucan, 271;
+    by Calp. Sic. 277;
+    by Val. Flaccus, 288;
+    by Silius, 291;
+    by Statius, 293;
+    by Mart. 301;
+    by Juv. 325;
+    supplemented by Colum. 258;
+    _Aetna_ attributed to, 277;
+    quoted largely by Quint. 308;
+    half-lines in, 144.
+
+  Verona,
+    birthpl. of Catull. 132;
+    of Aemilius Macer, 182.
+
+  Verrius Flaccus, 224.
+
+  Visci, 181.
+
+  Vitruvius Pollio, 224;
+    his _Architectura_, 225.
+
+  Volaterrae, birthpl. of Persius, 260.
+
+  Volcacius, _see_ Sedigitus.
+
+  Volusius, 138.
+
+
+  Xenophon,
+    trans. by Cic. 87;
+    foll. by Nep. 117.
+
+
+  Zeno, 69.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF TITLES
+
+
+  A fine Aufidii Bassi, 284
+  Ab excessu divi Augusti, 342
+  Ab urbe condita, 217
+  Academica, 80
+  Achilleis, 294
+  Achilles, 3
+  Actis Scenicis, De, 95
+  Adelphoe, 48
+  Admiranda, 87
+  Aegisthus, 3
+  Aeneadae, 57
+  Aeneas, 282
+  Aeneid, 159
+  Aethiopis, 100
+  Aetia, 95
+  Aetna, 277
+  Agamemnon, 253
+  Agave, 295
+  Agricola, 341
+  Agricultura, De
+    (Cato), 54
+    (Hyginus), 224
+  Ajax, 152
+  Alexandri Historiae, 256
+  Amazonis, 184
+  Ambracia, 30
+  Amicitia, De
+    (Cic.), 82
+    (Sen.), 253
+  Amores
+    (Marsus), 185
+    (Ovid), 207
+  Amphitruo, 10
+  Analogia, De, 109
+  Andria, 44
+  Ἀνέκδοτα, 87
+  Annales of
+    Accius, 57
+    Q. Cicero, 90
+    Ennius, 31
+    Fenestella, 224
+    Hortensius, 74
+    Sueius, 66
+    Tacitus, 342
+    Varro, 95
+  Annalis, 90
+  Anticatones, 110
+  Antiopa, 36
+  Antiquitate litterarum, De, 94
+  Antiquitates, 94
+  Antonianae orationes, 78
+  Apocolocyntosis, 251
+  Apophoreta, 300
+  Ἀποφθέγματα
+    (Cato), 55
+    (Caes.), 110
+  Aquis urbis Romae, De, 312
+  Arboribus, De, 259
+  Archia, Pro, 75
+  Architectura, De, 225
+  Argonautae, 144
+  Argonautica, 287
+  Ars Amatoria, 209
+  Ars Poetica, 172, 179
+  Asinaria, 11
+  Astris, De, 110
+  Astrologia, De, 95
+  Astronomica, 213
+  Attis, 139
+  Auguriis, De, 82
+  Aulularia, 11
+
+  Bacchides, 13
+  Balbo, Pro, 76
+  Balistam, In, 153
+  Bella Germaniae, 284
+  Bello Civili, De (Lucan), 267
+  Bellum
+    Africum, 106
+    Alexandrinum, 106
+    Civile, 106
+    Gallicum
+      (Bibaculus), 100
+      (Caes.), 104
+    Hispaniense, 106
+    Histricum, 65
+    Iugurthinum, 129
+    Punicum, 7
+    Sequanicum, 144
+  Beneficiis, De, 251
+  Bibliothecis, De, 95
+  Boeotia, 39
+  Brevitate vitae, De, 250
+  Brundusinae, 64
+  Brutus
+    (Accius), 57
+    (Cic.), 84
+  Bucco Adoptatus, 67
+  Bucolica, 154
+
+  Caecilium, Divinatio in, 73
+  Caecina, Pro, 74
+  Caelio, Pro, 76
+  Caesarem, Ad, 87
+  Caesaris, De morte, 181
+  Captivi, 11
+  Carmen Saeculare, 171
+  Carmina
+    (Catull.), 132
+    (Hor.), 171, 172, 174
+  Casina, 12
+  Catachthonion, 267
+  Catalecta, 153
+  Catilinae coniuratione, De, 128
+  Catilinam, In, 75
+  Cato, 341
+  Cato Maior, 82
+  Catonis vita, 115
+  Causis corruptae eloquentiae, De, 306
+  Cena Trimalchionis, 273
+  Chorographia
+    (Atacinus), 145
+    (Cic.), 87
+    (Mela), 259
+  Chronica, 115
+  Ciceronis vita, 116
+  Cicuta, 184
+  Ciris, 154
+  Cistellaria, 12
+  Claris Oratoribus, De, 84
+  Clastidium, 7
+  Clementia, De, 251
+  Cluentio, Pro, 74
+  Coma Berenices, 139
+  Commentarii
+    (Caes.), 104
+    (Donatus, Servius, etc.), 354
+  Commentariolum petitionis, 89
+  Compendiosa doctrina, De, 353
+  Compitalia, 65
+  Consolatio, 80
+  Consolatione, De,
+    ad Marc., 250
+    ad Polyb., 250
+    ad Helv., 251
+  Constantia, De, 250
+  Consulatu, De suo, 87
+  Consulatu Ciceronis, De, 91
+  Controversiae, 228
+  Copa, 154
+  Culex, 154
+  Cum populo gratias egit, 75
+  Cum senatui gratias egit, 75
+  Cupuncula, 30
+  Curculio, 11
+  Cynegetica, 277
+
+  Decius, 57
+  Declamationes, 309
+  Deiotaro, Pro rege, 77
+  Descriptionibus, De, 95
+  Dialogus de oratoribus, 340
+  Didascalica, 57
+  Diomedea, 181
+  Dirae, 154
+  Dis penatibus, De, 224
+  Disciplinae, 95
+  Divinatione, De, 82
+  Domitius, 341
+  Domo sua, De, 76
+  Drusi vita, 152
+  Dubius sermo, 284
+  Duo Dosseni, 67
+
+  Eclogae
+    (Virg), 154
+    (Calp. Sic.), 275
+  Εἰσαγωγικός, 95
+  Elegiae--of
+    Atacinus, 145
+    Marsus, 29
+    Propert., 196
+    Tibull., 189
+    Valgius, 180
+    Varius, 182
+  Ephemeris, 145
+  Ephemeris navalis, Eph. rustica, 95
+  Epicharmus, 31
+  Epidicus, 12
+  Epigrammata--of
+    Calvus, 143
+    Ennius, 29
+    Lucan, 267
+    Marsus, 185
+    Martial, 300
+    Seneca, 252
+    Valgius, 181
+    Virgil, 154
+  Epistolicae quaestiones, 97
+  Epistula ad Pisones, 172, 179
+  Epistulae--
+    ad Atticum, 85
+    ad Brutum, 86
+    ad Caesonium, 253
+    ad Familiares, 86
+    ad Novatum, 253
+    ad Paulum, 254
+    ad Quintum fratrem, 86
+    ad Traianum, 335
+    ex Campania, 267
+    ex Ponto, 213
+    Latinae, 97
+    morales, 252
+    of Horace, 171, 172, 179
+    of Ovid, 208
+    of Pliny, 334
+  Epithalamia, 143
+  Epodi, 171, 174
+  Erotopaegnia, 66
+  Euhemerus, 31
+  Excellentibus ducibus, De, 116
+  Exempla
+    (Nepos), 115
+    (Hyginus), 224
+  Exhortationes, 253
+
+  Fabellae, 185
+  Fabulae Aesopiae, 239
+  Facta et dicta memorabilia, 234
+  Familiis Troianis, De
+    (Hyginus), 224
+    (Varro), 95
+  Fasti
+    (Ovid), 210
+    (Verrius), 224
+  Fato, De, 82
+  Finibus, De, 80
+  Flacco, Pro, 75
+  Fonteio, Pro, 74
+  Forma mundi, De, 253
+  Forma philosophiae, De, 95
+  Formula honestae vitae, De, 254
+
+  Gente populi Romani, De, 95
+  Geometria, De, 95
+  Georgica, 157
+  Germania, 341
+  Gloria, De, 82
+
+  Halieuticon, 213
+  Haruspicum responsis, De, 76
+  Heauton Timorumenos, 45
+  Hebdomades, 95
+  Hecuba, 253
+  Hecyra, 47
+  Hedyphagetica 31
+  Herbis, De, 182
+  Hercules Furens; Herc. Oetaeus, 253
+  Heroides, 208
+  Hippolytus, 253
+  Historia Romana, 232
+  Historiae
+    (Sall.), 129
+    (Sisenna), 67
+    (Tac.), 341
+  Homerus Latinus, 291
+  Hortationes ad philosophiam, 152
+  Hortensius, 80
+  Hymenaeus, 141
+
+  Iaculatione equestri, De, 284
+  Ibis, 212
+  Iliacon, 267
+  Imagines, 95
+  Imaginibus, De, 91
+  Immatura morte, De, 253
+  Imperio Cn. Pompei, De, 74
+  Incendio urbis, De, 267
+  Institutio oratoria, 306
+  Inventione, De, 83
+  Io, 143
+  Iocularis libellus, 88
+  Ira, De, 250
+  Iter, 111
+  Iure civili, De, 95
+  Iure civili in artem redigendo, De, 87
+
+  Laelius, 82
+  Lapidum natura, De, 253
+  Lectionibus, De, 95
+  Legationum libri, 95
+  Lege agraria, De, 74
+  Lege Manilia, Pro, 74
+  Legibus, De, 79
+  Ligario, Pro, 77
+  Limon, 88
+  Lingua Latina, De, 94
+  Λογιστορικοί, 96
+  Lucubrationes, 100
+  Lucullus, 81
+  Ludus de morte Claudi, 251
+
+  Maccus Copa, Miles, Sequester, Virgo, 67
+  Marcello, Pro, 77
+  Marius, 88
+  Matrimonio, De, 253
+  Medea
+    (Ennius), 30
+    (Lucan), 267
+    (Maternus), 341
+    (Ovid), 208
+    (Sen.), 253
+  Medicamina, 209
+  Menaechmi, 14
+  Mensuralia, 95
+  Mensuris, De, 95
+  Mercator, 15
+  Metamorphoses, 209
+  Miles Gloriosus, 14
+  Milone, Pro, 77
+  Mimi
+    (Laberius), 97
+    (Syrus), 145
+  Mimiambi, 66
+  Monita, 254
+  Moralis philosophiae libri, 254
+  Moretum
+    (Sueius), 66
+    (Virg.), 154
+  Moribus, De
+    (Cato), 55
+    (Sen.), 254
+  Mostellaria, 14
+  Motu terrarum, De, 253
+  Murena, Pro, 75
+
+  Natura deorum, De, 81
+  Naturae historiae, 285
+  Naturales quaestiones, 252
+  Navales libri, 95
+  Neronem, In, 268
+  Neronis laudes, 267
+  Nidus, 66
+  Niptra, 36
+  Noctes Atticae, 352
+  Numerorum libri, 95
+
+  Octavia, 253
+  Octavium, Or. in, 267
+  Odes (Hor.), 171, 172, 174
+  Ὁδοιπορικά, 261
+  Odyssea, 3
+  Oedipus
+    (Caes.), 111
+    (Sen.), 253
+  Officiis, De
+    (Cic.), 82
+    (Sen.), 253
+  Optimo genere dicendi, De, 84
+  Optimo genere oratorum, De, 85
+  Ora maritima, De, 95
+  Orator, 84
+  Oratore, De, 84
+  Origine linguae Latinae, De, 94
+  Origines, 54
+  Originibus scenicis, De, 95
+  Ornithogonia, 182
+  Orpheus, 267
+  Otio, De, 250
+
+  Pancratiastes, 30
+  Πανδέκται, 90
+  Panegyricus (Plin.), 330
+  Panegyricus Messallae, 191
+  Paradoxa, 80
+  Partitiones Oratoriae, 85
+  Paulus, 36
+  Paupertate, De, 254
+  Peleus et Thetis, 139
+  Περιαλγής, 165
+  Persa, 16
+  Personis, De, 95
+  Petitione consulatus, De, 89
+  Phaedra, 253
+  Phaenomena, 281
+  Pharsalia, 267
+  Philippicae Historiae, 223
+  Philippics, 78
+  Philosophia, De, 95
+  Phoenissae, 253
+  Phormio, 46
+  Piscium natura, De, 253
+  Pisonem, In, 77
+  Pisonis, De Laude, 277
+  Plancio, Pro, 77
+  Plocium, 38
+  Poematis, De, 95
+  Poenulus, 16
+  Poetis, De
+    (Sedig.), 66
+    (Varro), 95
+  Pollam, Ad, 268
+  Pompeio, De, 95
+  Pontius Glaucus, 87
+  Ponto, Epp. ex, 213
+  Praecepta, 31
+  Praecepta ad filium, 55
+  Pragmatica, 57
+  Praxidica, 57
+  Priapea, 154, 191
+  Pridie quam in exilium iret, 78
+  Principiis numerorum, De, 95
+  Prognostica, 87, 281
+  Propempticon Pollionis, 142
+  Proprietate Scriptorum, De, 95
+  Protreptica, 31
+  Providentia, De, 250
+  Provinciis consularibus, De, 76
+  Pseudolus, 15
+  Pseudotragoediae, 96
+  Pulli, 66
+  Punica, 290
+
+  Quaestiones Plautinae, 95
+  Quinctio, Pro, 73
+
+  Rabirio Postumo, Pro, 77
+  Rabirio perd. reo, Pro, 74
+  Re medica, De, 236
+  Re militari, De, 55
+  Re publica, De, 79
+  Re rustica, De
+    (Varro), 93
+    (Colum.), 258
+  Remedia Amoris, 209
+  Remediis fortuitorum, De, 254
+  Rerum natura, De
+    (Egnatius), 99
+    (Lucretius), 120
+  Res urbanae, 95
+  Rescripta, 152
+  Rhetorica
+    (Hortens.), 74
+    (Cic.), 83
+    ad Herenn., 88
+    (Varro), 95
+    (Quint.), 306
+  Ritu et sacris Aegyptiorum, De, 253
+  Romulus, 7
+  Roscio, Pro Sex., 73
+  Roscio Comoedo, Pro, 73
+  Rudens, 16
+
+  Sacra Historia, 31
+  Sallustium, In, 78, 130
+  Salticae fabulae, 267
+  Saturae Menippeae, 96
+  Saturae
+    (Enn.), 30
+    (Pacuv.), 36
+    (Lucil.), 61
+    (Atac.), 144
+    (Hor.), 170, 172
+    (Persius), 262
+    (Petron.), 272
+    (Juv.), 320, 323
+  Saturnalia (Lucan.), 267
+  Saturnalia (Macrob.), 354
+  Scenicis actionibus, De, 95
+  Scipio, 31
+  Senectute, De, 82
+  Sententiae (Varro), 97
+  Sententiae (Syrus), 145
+  Sententiae Rufi, 254
+  Sermone Latino, De, 94
+  Sermones (Hor.), 170, 172, 179
+  Sestio, Pro, 76
+  Sicilia, 152
+  Silvae (Lucan), 267
+  Silvae (Statius), 295
+  Similitudine verborum, De, 94
+  Situ Indiae, De, 253
+  Situ urbium Italicarum, De, 224
+  Somnium Scipionis, 79
+  Sota, 31
+  Spectacula, 300
+  Stichus, 17
+  Strategemata, 311
+  Studiosus, 284
+  Suasiones, 97
+  Suasoriae, 229
+  Sulla, Pro, 75
+  Superstitione, De, 253
+
+  Temporibus suis, De, 87
+  Tereus, 56
+  Thebais (Sen.), 253
+  Thebais (Stat.), 293
+  Theriaca, 182
+  Thyestes
+    (Enn.), 30
+    (Varius), 182
+    (Sen.), 253
+    (Maternus), 341
+  Topica, 85
+  Tranquillitate animi, De, 250
+  Tribuum liber, 95
+  Τρικάρανος, 92
+  Trinummus, 17
+  Tristia, 212
+  Troades, 253
+  Truculentus, 17
+  Tullium, invectiva in, 130
+  Tusculanae disputationes, 81
+
+  Urbanitate, De, 185
+  Utilitate sermonis, De, 94
+  Uxorem, Ad, 143
+
+  Vatinium, In, 76
+  Verborum significatu, De, 224
+  Verrem, In, 73
+  Vescia, 261
+  Vidularia, 18
+  Viris illustribus, De
+    (Hyg.), 224
+    (Nep.), 116
+    (Sueton.), 349
+  Virtutibus, De, 82
+  Vita beata, De, 250
+  Vita Caesarum, De, 349
+  Vita patris, De, 253
+  Vita Pomponii, De, 284
+  Vita populi Romani, De, 95
+  Vita sua, De
+    (Varro), 95
+    (Aug.), 152
+
+  Xenia, 300
+  Χαρακτήρων, περὶ, 94
+  Χρονικοὶ κανόνες, 351
+
+  Zmyrna, 141
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+GLASGOW: PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND CO.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+    | Transcriber's note:                                          |
+    |                                                              |
+    | Typographical errors corrected in the text:                  |
+    |                                                              |
+    | Footnotes have been moved to the end of each chapter.        |
+    |                                                              |
+    | Page  29: "equs" changed to "equus"                          |
+    | Page  34: single quote added following "clueret."            |
+    | Page 161: period added following "Religion in the Aeneid"    |
+    | Page 218: single quote added following "capit."              |
+    | Page 259: "B.C." changed to "A.D."                           |
+    |           "Claudius" changed to "Caligula"                   |
+    |           "Caligula" changed to "Claudius" (twice)           |
+    | Page 263: single quote added following "ineptis."            |
+    | Page 381: "Octaviam" changed to "Octavium"                   |
+    |                                                              |
+    | Inconsistencies in hyphenation have not been normalized.     |
+    +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Student's Companion to Latin
+Authors, by George Middleton and Thomas R. Mills
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Student's Companion to Latin Authors, by 
+George Middleton and Thomas R. Mills
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Student's Companion to Latin Authors
+
+Author: George Middleton
+        Thomas R. Mills
+
+Release Date: March 25, 2009 [EBook #28413]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDENT'S COMPANION LATIN AUTHORS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Stefan Cramme and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+   +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Transcriber's note:                                             |
+   |                                                                 |
+   | This e-book contains many Greek quotations. In the ASCII and    |
+   | ISO-8859-1 versions, the Greek is transliterated into Latin     |
+   | letters, which do not perfectly represent the Greek original;   |
+   | especially, accents and breathing marks are not transliterated. |
+   | The same applies to macrons and breves above Latin characters.  |
+   | Transliterated Greek is marked by +...+.                        |
+   | The HTML and UTF-8 versions contain Unicode representations     |
+   | of the Greek text and characters with diacritical marks.        |
+   |                                                                 |
+   | Footnotes have been moved to the end of each chapter.           |
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+   | Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. For           |
+   | a complete list, please see the end of this document.           |
+   +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+The Student's Companion
+
+to Latin Authors
+
+
+by
+
+George Middleton, M.A.
+
+Lecturer in Latin, Aberdeen University; Late Scholar of
+Emmanuel College, Cambridge
+
+and
+
+Thomas R. Mills, M.A.
+
+Late Lecturer in Greek, Aberdeen University, and Classical Lecturer,
+Owens College, Manchester; formerly Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford
+
+
+_with an Introductory Note by_
+
+Prof. W. M. Ramsay, D.C.L., LL.D.
+
+Aberdeen University
+
+
+London
+Macmillan and Co., Ltd.
+New York: The Macmillan Co.
+1896
+
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+
+Glasgow: Printed at the University Press by
+Robert Maclehose and Co.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The object of this book is to give in a convenient form all the facts
+of importance relating to the lives and works of the principal Latin
+Authors, with full quotation of original authorities on all the chief
+points. It appears to us that these facts are not at present readily
+accessible; for the ordinary histories of literature are compelled to
+sacrifice much exact information to the demand for a critical
+appreciation of the authors. The latter aspect does not enter into the
+plan of this book, which may therefore, with advantage, be used side
+by side with any work of the kind indicated, the two supplementing one
+another. The authors have been, as far as possible, illustrated from
+their own works. Special attention has been paid to the great writers,
+as the book is meant for use in the upper forms of schools and by
+students at the Universities. We had collected a considerable amount
+of matter upon the minor authors, most of which it was thought
+advisable to omit, so as not to extend the book unduly. An attempt,
+however, has been made to retain the most important facts about these,
+whenever they illustrated one of the great authors, or whenever it was
+thought that they ought to be in the hands of a student. We have
+attempted no treatment of early Latin as seen in inscriptions and the
+like, but have started with the first literary author, Livius
+Andronicus, and have gone down to Tacitus and the younger Pliny,
+dealing with each author by himself. A section has been added on
+Suetonius. A sketch of the chief ancient authorities on Roman writers
+is given at the end of the book, as well as a selected list of
+editions, which, without being exhaustive, will, we hope, be of
+service to the average student.
+
+Apart from our own study of the authors, our principal authority has,
+of course, been the _History of Roman Literature_ by Teuffel and
+Schwabe (translated by Prof. G. C. W. Warr), and we have made an
+extensive use of editions and monographs both English and foreign,
+which are mentioned where necessary. Ennius has been quoted from
+Vahlen's edition, Plautus from the new edition of Ritschl, the
+fragments of the tragedians and comedians from Ribbeck, of Lucilius
+from L. M�ller, and of the minor poets from B�hrens, the minor
+historians from Peter's _Fragmenta_, and Suetonius' fragmentary works
+from Reifferscheid.
+
+Some of our materials were originally prepared for the Humanity
+classes in Aberdeen University, and the Latin Literary Club in
+connexion with the Honours class. We have to thank some of our pupils
+for help and criticism, particularly Mr. A. Souter, of Gonville and
+Caius College, Cambridge, and Mr. A. G. Wright, of St. John's College,
+Cambridge, the latter of whom prepared the materials for the article
+on Tibullus, and gave us some useful suggestions. We are specially
+indebted to Professor W. M. Ramsay, without whom the book would not
+have been written. Professor Ramsay has read nearly the whole of the
+work as it has passed through the press, and has all along given us
+invaluable assistance and advice. For any errors in the following
+pages we are, of course, solely responsible.
+
+ABERDEEN, September, 1896.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER I.--EARLY POETS AND PROSE WRITERS,                           1
+
+  Livius Andronicus, 1; Naevius, 4; Plautus, 7; Ennius, 26; Pacuvius,
+  34; Caecilius Statius, 37; Terence, 39; Early Minor Authors, 52; Cato,
+  53; Accius, 55; Lucilius, 58; Atta and Afranius, 64; Minor Poets after
+  Afranius, 65; Authors contemporary with Cicero's youth, 67.
+
+  CHAPTER II.--THE CICERONIAN AGE,                                    69
+
+  Cicero, 69; Q. Cicero, 89; Tiro, 90; Atticus, 90; Varro, 91; Laberius,
+  97; Bibaculus, 99; Caesar and the Corpus Caesarianum, 100; Pollio,
+  112; Nepos, 112; Lucretius, 119; Sallust, 125; Catullus, 132;
+  Contemporary Poets (Cinna, Calvus, Varro Atacinus, Publilius Syrus,
+  etc.), 140.
+
+  CHAPTER III.--THE AUGUSTAN AGE,                                    147
+
+  Virgil, 147; Horace, 163; Contemporary Poets, 180; Tibullus, 185;
+  Propertius, 191; Ovid, 200; Manilius, 213; Livy, 215; Contemporaries
+  of Livy, 223; Vitruvius, 224; Seneca the Elder, 226.
+
+  CHAPTER IV.--POST-AUGUSTAN WRITERS,                                231
+
+  Velleius Paterculus, 231; Valerius Maximus, 234; Celsus, 235;
+  Phaedrus, 237; Seneca the Younger, 240; Curtius Rufus, 256; Columella,
+  258; Pomponius Mela, 259; Persius, 260; Lucan, 264; Petronius, 272;
+  Calpurnius Siculus, 275; Aetna (Lucilius Iunior), 277; Pliny the Elder,
+  281; Valerius Flaccus, 286; Silius Italicus, 289; Statius, 291;
+  Martial, 295; Quintilian, 302; Frontinus, 310; Juvenal, 312; Pliny the
+  Younger, 326; Tacitus, 336; Suetonius, 348.
+
+  APPENDIX A.,                                                       351
+
+  APPENDIX B.,                                                       356
+
+  INDEX OF SUBJECTS,                                                 368
+
+  INDEX OF TITLES,                                                   378
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY NOTE
+
+
+The authors ask me to write a word of introduction to their book; but
+an introduction is not needed when the book supplies a want and is
+trustworthy in what it says. As to the second point, the text will
+speak for itself. On the first, a word may be permitted about my own
+experience in lecturing. The young student of Latin Literature
+requires help in two ways. In the first place, he needs guidance in
+learning to recognize and appreciate the literary merit of the
+authors. Mr. Cruttwell's, and, still better, Mr. Mackail's book, will
+serve his purpose well. They are interesting to read, and they tempt
+him on to study for himself. Mr. Mackail's book, especially, shows
+delicate literary feeling, and a remarkably catholic and true sense of
+literary merit. But, secondly, the student wants a clear statement of
+the facts, certain or probable, about the life of each author, the
+chronology of his works, and their relation to the circumstances and
+personages of the time. Neither of the books which I have named is
+satisfactory in this respect. Both of them omit a large number of
+facts and theories which the student ought to have before him: Mr.
+Cruttwell occasionally even sinks to inaccuracy.
+
+About three years ago I suggested to Mr. Middleton that he should try
+to fill up this gap with a book, in which he should bring together all
+the information that a student should have ready to his hand in
+reading the more familiar classical authors, that he should keep down
+the size of his book by omitting all that the student does not want,
+and that he should set before his readers the evidence on which each
+fact rests, so that they might be led to form opinions and judgments
+of their own. Teuffel-Schwabe's great work contains a vast deal that
+the ordinary student does not want; and it does not contain a certain
+amount which will, I believe, be found in the present book, the
+materials for which have been gathered from a wide range of reading.
+
+I am convinced that much can be done to stimulate and invigorate the
+young student's feeling for Latin literature by helping him to feel
+for himself how each author's words spring from his life, and
+conversely how facts and circumstances of his life can be elicited
+from his words. There will always remain doubts as to the facts and
+dates, _e.g._, in Horace's or in Catullus' life; but any reasoned
+theory has its interest, and is better for the pupil than no theory.
+The present book will, as I hope, be found useful as an aid to that
+method of teaching and of study, provided that both teacher and pupil
+bear in mind that it is a companion to other books--not a book
+complete in itself.
+
+W. M. RAMSAY.
+
+
+
+
+COMPANION TO LATIN AUTHORS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+EARLY POETS AND PROSE WRITERS.
+
+
+
+LIVIUS ANDRONICUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+L. Livius Andronicus, according to the poet Accius, was taken prisoner
+at the capture of Tarentum by Q. Fabius Maximus in B.C. 209, and
+exhibited his first play in B.C. 197.
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 72-3, 'Accius a Q. Maximo quintum consule captum Tarenti
+scripsit Livium annis xxx. postquam eum fabulam docuisse et Atticus
+scribit et nos in antiquis commentariis invenimus: docuisse autem
+fabulam annis post xi., C. Cornelio Q. Minucio coss. ludis Iuventatis,
+quos Salinator Senensi proelio voverat.'
+
+But ancient evidence is unanimous that he was the first literary
+writer of Rome, and this is confirmed by his archaic language. Hence
+the statement of Cicero _ibid._, that Livius produced his first play
+in B.C. 240, must be accepted.
+
+'Atque hic Livius, qui primus fabulam, C. Claudio Caeci filio et M.
+Tuditano coss., docuit anno ipso antequam natus est Ennius; post Romam
+conditam autem quarto decimo et quingentesimo ... In quo tantus error
+Acci fuit, ut his consulibus xl. annos natus Ennius fuerit: cui si
+aequalis fuerit Livius, minor fuit aliquanto is, qui primus fabulam
+dedit, quam ei, qui multas docuerant ante hos consules, et Plautus et
+Naevius.'
+
+Cf. Cic. _Tusc._ i. 3, and Gell. xvii. 21, 42.
+
+Probably Accius, finding in his authorities that Livius was taken
+prisoner at the capture of Tarentum (_i.e._ in B.C. 272), wrongly
+thought of the second capture by Fabius. In spite of Cicero's
+correction, the error of Accius was, we may infer, reproduced by
+Suetonius, and thus penetrated into Jerome, who says, yr. Abr. 1830 =
+B.C. 187, 'T. [an error] Livius tragoediarum scriptor clarus habetur,
+qui ob ingenii meritum a Livio Salinatore, cuius liberos erudiebat,
+libertate donatus est.'
+
+It is probable that Livius was the slave of C. Livius Salinator, the
+father of the victor of Sena (M. Livius Salinator), and taught the
+latter; for he must have been set free before B.C. 240, and the victor
+of Sena could hardly have been born earlier than B.C. 258. This
+connexion made M. Livius Salinator when consul, B.C. 207, select
+Livius Andronicus to prepare a hymn of expiation to the Aventine Juno,
+and, probably in the same year, to compose a hymn of thanksgiving for
+the success of Rome in the Hannibalic War. For his services the
+privileges of a guild were assigned to writers and actors.
+
+Livy xxvii. 37, 'Decrevere pontifices ut virgines ter novenae per
+urbem euntes carmen canerent ... conditum ab Livio poeta ... Carmen in
+Iunonem reginam canentes ibant illa tempestate forsitan laudabile
+rudibus ingeniis, nunc abhorrens et inconditum, si referatur.'
+
+Fest. p. 333, 'Cum Livius Andronicus bello Punico secundo scripsisset
+carmen quod a virginibus est cantatum, quia prosperius res publica
+populi Romani geri coepta est, publice attributa est ei in Aventino
+aedis Minervae, in qua liceret scribis histrionibusque consistere ac
+dona ponere, in honorem Livi, quia is et scribebat fabulas et agebat.'
+
+Livius had a twofold reason for writing, (_a_) To assist him in his
+profession as a schoolmaster he published a translation of the
+_Odyssey_; (_b_) as an actor, he wrote the plays he acted, and
+afterwards published them.
+
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 1, 'Livium et Ennium ... quos utraque lingua domi
+forisque docuisse adnotatum est.'
+
+Livy vii. 2, 8, 'Livius ... qui ab saturis ausus est primus argumento
+fabulam serere, idem scilicet, id quod omnes tum erant, suorum
+carminum actor.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Tragedies._--From the scanty fragments extant and from the titles
+(_Achilles_, _Aegisthus_, and six others are known) we see that these
+were close imitations of Greek plays. Thus l. 38 (Ribbeck),
+
+  'Quem ego nefrendem alui lacteam immulgens opem,'
+
+is, according to Conington, a rendering of Aesch. _Choeph._ 883-4,
+
+  +maston pros h� sy polla d� brizon hama
+  ouloisoin ez�mexas eutraphes gala+.
+
+2. _Comedies._--Slight fragments of three of these are extant.
+
+3. A translation of the _Odyssey_ in Saturnians.[1] This, though rough
+and incorrect, long remained a school-book. So Hor. _Ep._ ii. I, 69
+_sqq._,
+
+  'Non equidem insector delendave carmina Livi
+  esse reor, memini quae plagosum mihi parvo
+  Orbilium dictare: sed emendata videri
+  pulchraque et exactis minimum distantia miror.'
+
+For examples of translation, of. Gell, xviii. 9, 5, 'Offendi ...
+librum ... Livi Andronici, qui inscriptus est Odyssea, in quo erat
+versus primus ...,
+
+  "Vir�m mih� Cam�na | �nsec� vers�tum,"
+
+factus ex illo Homeri versu,
+
+  +Andra moi ennepe, Mousa, polytropon+.'
+
+Fragments 2 and 3,
+
+  'Me� puer, quid v�rbi | �x tuo �re s�pera
+  fug�t?
+      neque en�m te obl�tus | L�rti�, sum, n�ster,'
+
+represent _Od._ i. 64,
+
+  +teknon emon, poion se epos phygen herkos odont�n?
+  p�s an epeit' Odys�os eg� theioio lathoim�n?+
+
+
+
+NAEVIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Cn. Naevius' dates can only be given approximately as B.C. 269-199. As
+he served in the First Punic War, he cannot in any case have been born
+later than B.C. 257. He was a Campanian by birth.
+
+Gell. i. 24, 2, 'Epigramma Naevi plenum superbiae Campanae, quod
+testimonium esse iustum potuisset, nisi ab ipso dictum esset,
+
+  "Inmortales mortales si foret fas flere,
+  flerent divae Camenae Naevium poetam.
+  Itaque postquam est Orci traditus thesauro,
+  obliti sunt Romae loquier lingua Latina."'
+
+Naevius' first play was produced B.C. 235; the fact that he served as
+a soldier shows that he was not an actor.
+
+Gell. xvii. 21, 45, 'Eodem anno (A.U.C. Dxix.) Cn. Naevius poeta
+fabulas apud populum dedit, quem M. Varro in libris de poetis primo
+stipendia fecisse ait bello Poenico primo, idque ipsum Naevium dicere
+in eo carmine, quod de eodem bello scripsit.'
+
+In his plays he attacked the senatorial party, particularly the
+Metelli, and was imprisoned, but afterwards released.
+
+Gell. iii. 3, 15, 'Sicuti de Naevio quoque accepimus, fabulas eum in
+carcere duas scripsisse, Hariolum et Leontem, cum ob assiduam
+maledicentiam et probra in principes civitatis de Graecorum poetarum
+more dicta in vincula Romae a triumviris coniectus esset. Unde post a
+tribunis plebis exemptus est, cum in his, quas supra dixi, fabulis
+delicta sua et petulantias dictorum, quibus multos ante laeserat,
+diluisset.'
+
+Pseud.-Asconius on Cic. _in Verr. act. prior_, 29. 'Dictum facete et
+contumeliose in Metellos antiquum Naevii est, "Fato Metelli Romai
+fiunt consules," cui tunc Metellus consul (B.C. 206) iratus versu
+responderat ..., "Dabunt malum Metelli Naevio poetae."'
+
+Cf. the contemporary reference in Plaut. _Mil._ 212,
+
+  'Nam os columnatum poetae esse indaudivi barbaro,[2]
+  quoi bini custodes semper totis horis occubant.'
+
+For Naevius' freedom of speech cf. his comedies, l. 113 (Ribbeck),
+
+  'Libera lingua loquemur ludis Liberalibus';
+
+l. 108 (on Scipio),
+
+  'Etiam qui res magnas manu saepe gessit gloriose,
+  cuius facta viva nunc vigent, qui apud gentes solus praestat,
+  eum suus pater cum palliod unod ab amica abduxit.'
+
+Naevius was banished and went to Utica, where he died, probably about
+B.C. 199. It must have been after peace was concluded (B.C. 202), as
+otherwise he could have reached Utica only by deserting to the
+enemy.[3] Jerome gives B.C. 201, Cicero B.C. 204, although he says
+Varro put the date later. The verses on Scipio quoted above could
+hardly have been written before the battle of Zama.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1816 = B.C. 201, 'Naevius comicus Uticae moritur,
+pulsus Roma factione nobilium, ac praecipue Metelli.'
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 60, 'His consulibus (B.C. 204), ut in veteribus
+commentariis scriptum est, Naevius est mortuus; quamquam Varro noster,
+diligentissimus investigator antiquitatis, putat in hoc erratum
+vitamque Naevi producit longius.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Tragedies._--There are extant seven titles and a very few
+fragments.
+
+2. _Comedies._--There are titles of about thirty-four _palliatae_,[4]
+and upwards of one hundred and thirty lines extant.
+
+Naevius seems to have adopted _contaminatio_[5] in his plays. Ter.
+_Andr._ prol. 15,
+
+  'Id isti vituperant factum atque in eo disputant
+  contaminari non decere fabulas ...
+  qui quom hunc accusant, Naevium Plautum Ennium
+  accusant.'
+
+3. _Praetextae._--Tragedies on Roman subjects, 'Clastidium' and
+'Romulus.' The _praetexta_ was invented by Naevius.
+
+4. _Bellum Punicum_, an epic poem in Saturnians, divided later into
+seven Books. About seventy-four lines are extant.
+
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 2, 'C. Octavius Lampadio Naevii Punicum bellum, uno
+volumine et continenti scriptura expositum, divisit in septem libros.'
+
+Books i. and ii. contained the mythical origin of Rome and Carthage,
+Aeneas' flight from Troy and his sojourn at the court of Dido in
+Carthage. In Book iii. the history of the First Punic War commenced.
+The work was imitated by Ennius and Virgil, sometimes closely by the
+latter. Cf. Servius on _Aen._ i. 198-207, 'O socii,' etc. 'Et totus
+hic locus de Naevio belli Punici libro translatus est.' _Ibid._ i.
+273, 'Naevius et Ennius Aeneae ex filia nepotem Romulum conditorem
+urbis tradunt.'
+
+Macrob. _Saturn._ vi. 2, 31, 'In principio Aeneidos tempestas
+describitur et Venus apud Iovem queritur ... Hic locus totus sumptus a
+Naevio est ex primo libro belli Punici.'
+
+
+
+PLAUTUS
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Plautus' full name, T. Maccius Plautus, was discovered by Ritschl in
+the Ambrosian (Milan) palimpsest, which gives, _e.g._ after the two
+plays named: 'T. Macci Plauti Casina explicit': 'Macci Plauti Epidicus
+explicit.' In Plaut. _Merc._ l. 6, the MS. reading _Mactici_ was
+emended by Ritschl to _Macci Titi_; and in _Asin._ prol. l. 11,
+_Maccius_ is the right reading. The MSS. read _Maccus_, which B�cheler
+(_Rhein. Mus._ 41, 12) takes to mean 'buffoon,' or 'writer of
+comedies,' from which Plautus took his family name, Maccius, on
+becoming a Roman citizen. 'M. Accius,' formerly supposed to be the
+name, is found in no MS., but 'Accius' is found in _Epitome Festi_, p.
+239, which gives us the poet's birthplace, Sarsina in Umbria, and
+suggests another derivation for his name: 'Ploti appellantur, qui sunt
+planis pedibus, unde et poeta Accius, quia Umber Sarsinas erat, a
+pedum planitie initio Plotus, postea Plautus est dictus.'
+
+In the corresponding passage of Festus, we have only '...us poeta,
+quia Umber,' etc. The name of the poet is lost, and the epitomizer has
+doubtless made a mistake.
+
+Sarsina is mentioned once by Plautus, _Mostell._ 770,
+
+  'Quid? Sarsinatis ecquast, si Umbram non habes?'
+
+The year of his birth can only be conjectured; he died B.C. 184.
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 60, 'Plautus P. Claudio L. Porcio coss. mortuus est.'
+
+Jerome erroneously assigns Plautus' death to yr. Abr. 1817 = B.C. 200,
+'Plautus ex Umbria Sarsinas Romae moritur, qui propter annonae
+difficultatem ad molas manuarias pistori se locaverat; ibi quotiens ab
+opere vacaret, scribere fabulas et vendere sollicitius consueverat.'
+
+From this notice, and from the passage of Gellius below, we learn that
+Plautus lost in foreign trade the money he had made as an assistant to
+scenic artists, and had to work for his living in a flour mill at
+Rome, during which time he wrote plays, and continued to do so
+afterwards.
+
+Gell. iii. 3, 14, 'Saturionem et Addictum et tertiam quamdam, cuius
+nunc mihi nomen non subpetit, in pistrino eum scripsisse, Varro et
+plerique alii memoriae tradiderunt cum, pecunia omni, quam in operis
+artificum scaenicorum pepererat, in mercatibus perdita inops Romam
+redisset et ob quaerendum victum ad circumagendas molas, quae
+"trusatiles" appellantur, operam pistori locasset.'
+
+We conclude from these varied employments that Plautus can hardly have
+been less than thirty years old when he began to write plays. His
+intimacy with the Scipios (Cic. _de Rep._ iv., apud Augustin. _Civ.
+D._ ii. 9), who fell in Spain B.C. 212, leads to the conclusion that
+he must have been well established as an author by that date, though
+none of his plays can be proved to have been written so early. If we
+suppose that his career as a playwright commenced at thirty, and that
+his acquaintance with the Scipios lasted ten years, the year of his
+birth must have been about B.C. 254. This view is supported (1) by the
+notice in Cic. _Brut._ 73, that Plautus had produced many plays by
+B.C. 197; (2) by Cic. _Cato maior_, 50, 'quam gaudebat ... Truculento
+Plautus, quam Pseudolo,' where Plautus is said to have written these
+plays as _senex_. Now the _Pseudolus_ was written B.C. 191; and
+therefore, as a man could not be called _senex_ till he was at least
+sixty, his birth must have been not later than B.C. 251.
+
+Plautus is said to have written his own epitaph.
+
+Gell. i. 24, 3, 'Epigramma Plauti, quod dubitassemus an Plauti foret,
+nisi a M. Varrone positum esset in libro de poetis primo:
+
+  "Postquam est mortem aptus Plautus, Comoedia luget,
+  Scaena est deserta, ac dein Risus, Ludus Iocusque,
+  et Numeri innumeri simul omnes conlacrimarunt."'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+Plautus' plays were early criticized as to their genuineness. Gell.
+iii. 3, 1-3, after mentioning the canons of Aelius Stilo, Sedigitus,
+etc., says that Varro admitted twenty-one plays which were given by
+all the canons, and added some more. 'Nam praeter illas unam et
+viginti, quae Varronianae vocantur, quas idcirco a ceteris segregavit,
+quoniam dubiosae non erant, set consensu omnium Plauti esse
+censebantur, quasdam item alias probavit adductus filo atque facetia
+sermonis Plauto congruentis easque iam nominibus aliorum occupatas
+Plauto vindicavit.'
+
+About one hundred and thirty plays were current under the name of
+Plautus; the theory of Varro (Gell. iii. 3, 10) that these were
+written by a certain Plautius is improbable.
+
+Gell. iii. 3, 11, 'Feruntur sub Plauti nomine comoediae circiter
+centum atque triginta.'
+
+There is little doubt that the 'fabulae Varronianae' are those which
+have come down to us with the addition of the _Vidularia_, which was
+lost between the sixth and the eleventh centuries. The number of
+Varro's second class, consisting of those pieces that stood in most of
+the indices and exhibited Plautine features, Ritschl has fixed at
+nineteen, from citations in Varro _de lingua Latina_. Besides the
+genuine plays the names of thirty-two others are known.
+
+The extant plays[6] are as follows:
+
+1. _Amphitruo_, a _tragicomoedia_, the only play of Plautus of the
+kind. Prol. 59,
+
+  'Faciam ut conmixta sit haec tragicomoedia.'
+
+The original and the date are unknown. The play shows the features of
+the Sicilian _Rhinthonica_.[7] About three hundred lines have been
+lost after Act. iv., Scene 2. The scene is Thebes, which, with Roman
+carelessness or ignorance, is made a harbour; cf. ll. 629 _sqq._
+
+2. _Asinaria_ (sc. _fabula_), from the +Onagos+ of Demophilus,
+supposed to have been a writer of the New Comedy. Prol. 10-12,
+
+  'Huic nomen Graece Onagost fabulae;
+  Demophilus scripsit, Maccius vortit barbare.
+  Asinariam volt esse, si per vos licet.'
+
+Authorities assign the play to about B.C. 194. The scene is Athens.
+
+3. _Aulularia_ (from _aulula_, 'a little pot.')--Neither the original
+nor the exact time of composition is known. From Megadorus' tirade
+against the luxury of women, ll. 478 _sqq._, it has been inferred that
+the play was written after the repeal of the Oppian Law in B.C. 195.
+The end of the play is lost. The scene is Athens.
+
+4. _Captivi_, a piece without active interest (_stataria_), without
+female characters, and claiming a moral purpose; l. 1029,
+
+  'Spectatores, ad pudicos mores facta haec fabulast.'
+
+Some authorities think that the parasite (Ergasilus) is an addition to
+the original play, which may have belonged to the New Comedy. The
+scene is in Aetolia.
+
+5. _Curculio_, so called from the name of the parasite. The Greek
+original is unknown; but ll. 462-86 contain a speech from the
+Choragus, in the style of the +parabasis+ of the Old Comedy. In
+l. 509,
+
+  'Rogitationes plurumas propter vos populus scivit
+  quas vos rogatas rumpitis,'
+
+there is probably an allusion to the Lex Sempronia de pecunia credita,
+B.C. 193. The scene is Epidaurus.
+
+6. _Casina_, so called from a slave-girl introduced. The original was
+the +Kl�roumenoi+ of Diphilus. Prol. 31,
+
+  'Clerumenoe vocatur haec comoedia
+  Graece, Latine Sortientes. Deiphilus
+  hanc Graece scripsit.'
+
+The inference from l. 979, 'Nam ecastor nunc Bacchae nullae ludunt,'
+that the play was written after the S.C. de Bacchanalibus in B.C. 186,
+is improbable; the words rather show, as Mommsen[8] believes, an
+anterior date, when it was not yet dangerous to speak of the
+Bacchanalia. Some authorities find support for the latter date in the
+words of the prologue, ll. 9-20 (written after the poet's death). The
+text of the play has suffered greatly. The scene is Athens.
+
+7. _Cistellaria_.--This play contains a reference to the war against
+Hannibal then going on; ll. 197 _sqq._,
+
+             'Bene valete, et vincite
+  virtute vera, quod fecistis antidhac, ...
+  ut vobis victi Poeni poenas sufferant.'
+
+According to Ritschl, about 600 verses have been lost. The scene is
+Sicyon.
+
+8. _Epidicus_.--This play is referred to in the _Bacchides_, ll. 213-5
+(spoken by Chrysalus), where the unpopularity of the play is
+attributed to the acting of Pellio.
+
+  'Non res, sed actor mihi cor odio sauciat.
+  Etiam Epidicum, quam ego fabulam aeque ac me ipsum amo,
+  nullam aeque invitus specto, si agit Pellio.'
+
+_Epid._ 222,
+
+  'Sed vestita, aurata, ornata ut lepide! ut concinne! ut nove!' etc.,
+
+shows that the piece was written after the repeal of the Lex Oppia
+Sumptuaria, B.C. 195. The plot is complicated, and _contaminatio_ is
+assumed by some authorities. The play contains only seven hundred and
+thirty-three lines, and some believe it to be a stage edition. The
+scene is Athens.
+
+9. _Bacchides_.--The first part of this play, along with the last part
+of the _Aulularia_,[9] has been lost, as also the prefaces of the
+grammarians, so that we do not know what was in the first part. The
+original was probably Menander's +Dis exapat�n+. Plautus
+appears to refer to this twice, l. 1090,
+
+  'Perii: pudet. Hocine me aetatis _ludos bis factum_ esse indigne';
+
+l. 1128,
+
+  'Pol hodie altera iam _bis detonsa_ certost.'
+
+The line, +hon hoi theoi philousin, apothn�skei neos+, which
+belongs to the same play (Stobaeus, _Serm._ 120, 8) is translated in
+ll. 816-7,
+
+    'quem di diligunt
+  adulescens moritur.'
+
+The date is pretty well fixed by l. 1073,
+
+  'Quod non triumpho: pervolgatumst, nil moror.'
+
+Now, triumphs were not frequent till after the Second Punic War, and
+were especially frequent from B.C. 197 to 187. The play probably
+refers to the four triumphs of B.C. 189, and may have been brought out
+in that or the following year. The scene is Athens.
+
+10. _Mostellaria_ (sc. _fabula_, 'a play dealing with a ghost,' from
+_mostellum_, dim. of _monstrum_).--The play is quoted by Festus, p.
+166, as 'Mostellaria'; pp. 162 and 305, as 'Phasma.' According to
+Ritschl, the +Phasma+ of Philemon was Plautus' model. The
+reference to _unguenta exotica_ (l. 42) points to a late date, when
+Asiatic luxury was growing common. The play is imitated in Ben
+Jonson's _Alchemist_. The scene is Athens.
+
+11. _Menaechmi_.--If ll. 409 _sqq._, 'Syracusis ... ubi rex ... nunc
+Hierost,' were written independently by Plautus, the date must be
+before B.C. 215; but the reference may only mean that the Greek
+original was composed between 275 and 215 B.C. It has been conjectured
+that a comedy by Posidippus (possibly called +Didymoi+) was
+the original, from Athenaeus, xiv. p. 658, +oude gar an heuroi
+tis hymon doulon tina mageiron en k�m�dia pl�n para Poseidipp�
+mon�+. Now, the _Menaechmi_ is the only play of Plautus where a cook
+is a house-slave, Cylindrus being the slave of Erotium; in his other
+plays cooks are hired from the Forum. The scene is Epidamnus.
+
+12. _Miles Gloriosus_.--In ll. 211-2 (the only personal allusion in
+Plautus),
+
+  'Nam os columnatum poetae esse indaudivi barbaro,
+  quoi bini custodes semper totis horis occubant,'
+
+we have a reference to the imprisonment of Naevius, which shows that
+the play was written before his banishment, probably B.C. 206-5 (see
+under 'Naevius'). Line 1016, 'Cedo signum, si harum Baccharum es,'
+shows that the play is anterior to B.C. 186.
+
+The original is the +Alaz�n+ of some Greek poet. Cf. ll. 86-7,
+
+  'Alazon Graece huic nomen est comoediae:
+  id nos Latine gloriosum dicimus.'
+
+The play, however, exhibits _contaminatio_. Two distinct actions, the
+cheating of Sceledrus (Act i.) and the cheating of the Miles (Acts ii.
+and iii.), are united rather loosely; and it has been conjectured that
+Menander's +Kolax+, or (according to Ritschl) Diphilus'
++Hair�siteich�s+, was the play used. Ritschl's view is perhaps
+supported by the word _urbicape_ in l. 1055. The play is the longest
+_palliata_ preserved. The scene is Ephesus.
+
+13. _Mercator_.--The original is Philemon's +Emporos+; ll. 5-6,
+
+  'Graece haec vocatur Emporos Philemonis;
+eadem Latine Mercator Macci Titi.'
+
+Some light is thrown on the date by ll. 524-6.
+
+  '_L._ Ovem tibi eccillam dabo, natam annos sexaginta,
+  peculiarem. _P._ Mei senex, tam vetulam? _L._ Generis Graeci est.
+  Eam sei curabeis, perbonast; tondetur nimium scite.'
+
+This could not have been written before B.C. 196, the date of the
+settlement of Greece. The play shows traces of two distinct editions.
+The scene is Athens.
+
+14. _Pseudolus_.--The Greek original is unknown. The date of
+production (B.C. 191) is got from the didascalia, as restored by
+Ritschl, 'M. Iunio M. fil. pr. urb. acta Megalesiis.' The Megalesian
+games were held in that year in honour of the dedication of the temple
+which had been vowed to Cybele, B.C. 204 (Livy, xxxvi. 36). 'Pseudolus'
+= +Pseudylos+, but is connected by popular etymology with _dolus_. Cf.
+the puns in l. 1205,
+
+  'Edepol hominem verberonem Pseudolum, ut docte dolum
+  commentust';
+
+l. 1244,
+
+  'Superavit dolum Troianum atque Ulixem Pseudolus.'
+
+Several references to the play are found in Cicero: _Cato Maior_, 50
+(quoted p. 9); _Phil._ ii. 15; _pro Rosc. Com._ 20. The scene is
+Athens.
+
+15. _Poenulus_.--The original was a Greek play, +Karch�donios+,
+the author of which is unknown, as the fragments of Menander's
++Karch�donios+ do not fit in with Plautus' play. The play was called
+by Plautus 'Patruus,' but posterity went back to the older name
+'Poenulus.' Prol. 53,
+
+  'Carchedonius vocatur haec comoedia
+  Graece, Latine Patruus Pultiphagonidae.'[10]
+
+Authorities assign the play to B.C. 189. The play is considerably
+interpolated, one ending being at l. 1371, another at l. 1422, whence
+some authorities have considered ll. 1372-1422 as spurious. Ritschl
+thinks that the two endings are about the same age, and compares the
+double ending of the _Andria_ of Terence. The play is noted for the
+two Carthaginian renderings of the soliloquy of Hanno, ll. 930-9, and
+ll. 940-9. The scene is Calydon in Aetolia.
+
+16. _Persa_.--This play, the original of which is unknown, has been
+variously assigned to 197 and 186 B.C. The play shows traces of two
+distinct editions. The scene is Athens.
+
+17. _Rudens_.--This play has been assigned to about B.C. 192. The
+original is by Diphilus; and the scene is Cyrene. Prol., 1. 32,
+
+  'Primumdum huic esse nomen urbi Diphilus
+  Cyrenas voluit.'
+
+18. _Stichus_, performed B.C. 200 _ludis plebeis_, as we learn from
+the didascalia, 'Graeca Adelphoe Menandru acta ludis plebeis Cn.
+Baebio C. Terentio aed. pl. ... C. Sulpicio C. Aurelio coss.' This
+cannot be the _Adelphi_ imitated by Terence, the fragments of which do
+not bear the least resemblance to the _Stichus_. It may be a second
+_Adelphi_ by Menander. Others read 'Philadelphoe' in the above
+didascalia. Part of the play has been lost, and it shows traces of two
+distinct editions. The scene is Athens.
+
+19. _Trinummus_.--The original was Philemon's +Th�sauros+, as
+seen from the didascalia, 'Graeca Thensaurus Philemonis acta ludis
+Megalensibus.' Some indication of the date is got from l. 990,
+
+  'Vapulabis meo arbitratud et novorum aedilium.'
+
+The only festival that would suit the term _novi aediles_ is the _ludi
+Megalenses_[11] as from B.C. 266 to 153 the new magistrates entered on
+office on the Ides of March. This festival was not of a scenic
+character till B.C. 194, consequently the _Trinummus_ must be after
+that date. The mention of Syrian slaves in l. 542 also makes it
+probable that this is one of the latest works of Plautus. The scene is
+Athens.
+
+20. _Truculentus_.--The original is unknown. The play was written in
+Plautus' old age, probably about B.C. 189. The text has suffered
+greatly. The scene is Athens.
+
+21. _Vidularia_.--Only fragments are extant. It is thought to have
+been modelled on a play called +Schedia+ by Menander.
+
+_Argumenta._--These are in _senarii_, and give a summary of each play.
+Two sets are found. The first set are acrostic, and are extant for all
+the plays except the _Vidularia_ and the _Bacchides_. The second
+series was probably written by Sulpicius Apollinaris in the second
+century A.D. There are only five of them extant in the MSS., and
+fragments of other two.
+
+_Prologues._--These (which were usual in the Old and the New Comedy)
+gave the name of the piece and the author, the original and its
+author, the scene of the play, and a partial list of characters. In
+the Prologue also the poet often asked the favour of the audience.
+Prologues to fourteen plays are extant. The part of the prologue
+Plautus (like the New Comedy) assigned either to a god, as in the
+_Rudens_ to Arcturus, or to one of the characters, as in the
+_Mercator_ to a youth (cf. _Mil._ and _Amph._), or to an actor
+addressing the audience in the name of the poet, as in the
+_Truculentus_. All the prologues have suffered from interpolation, but
+those of _Amph._, _Merc._, _Rud._, and _Trin._, and the second parts
+of those of _Mil._ and _Aul._, are founded on what Plautus wrote. The
+prologues in _Cas._, _Poen._, and _Capt._, are due to later hands.
+That the prologues are interpolated is shown by their diction; the wit
+is often poor, and the language un-Plautine, or imitated closely from
+Plautus' genuine works. The prologues in their present form probably
+date from a period shortly after that in which Terence flourished,
+when there was a want of new plays, and people went back to Plautus.
+This is shown by the references to fixed seats for the spectators
+(_Poen._ 15, _Amph._ 65, and _Capt._ 11), which were forbidden by a
+S.C. passed in B.C. 154, when Cassius Longinus began to build a
+theatre of stone--a law that was not repealed till some years later.
+Cf. _Capt._ 11,
+
+  'Negat hercle ille ultimis accensus. Cedito:
+  si non ubi sedeas locus est, est ubi ambules.'
+
+_The Acts._--The plays of Plautus probably went on with few breaks,
+during which the audience were entertained with music. Cf. _Pseud._
+573,
+
+  'Tibicen vos interea hic delectaverit.'
+
+_Diverbium and Canticum._--There was no chorus in Roman comedy, but
+part of the play was set to music and sung to the flute. Some MSS.
+denote this by C (Canticum); while DV (usually placed only over iambic
+senarii) denotes dialogue or soliloquy (Diverbium). Iambic senarii
+were spoken; other metres were sung; but the scenes in septenarii
+stood midway between the dialogue and the _canticum_. Only about a
+fourth of Plautus' verses are in iambic senarii, while in Terence, who
+followed Menander in this respect, about half of the verses are in
+this form.
+
+_The Characters._--These, with the occasional exception of slaves, are
+un-Roman, and exhibit Greek traits belonging to Athens of the time of
+the New Comedy. Plautus, unlike Terence, usually alters the names used
+in the original Greek plays, and substitutes 'tell-tale names'; so
+Parmeno (+paramen�n+), 'the faithful slave'; Polemo, 'the
+soldier'; Misargyrides, playfully for the _tarpessita_ (banker). The
+names are often of Latin derivation; thus Saturio, in _Pers._;
+Peniculus, in _Menaech._; Curculio, in _Curc._
+
+_The Language of Plautus_, in spite of the Greek dress his plays assume,
+represents essentially the conversational language of his time. Many
+Greek features in language are, however, retained. For words kept in the
+original Greek cf. +pausai+, +oichetai+, +euge+, +palin+, +epith�k�n+
+(all in the _Trin._); for Greek words Latinized cf. _gynaeceum_,
+_parasitus_, _opsonium_, _dapsilis_ (= +dapsil�s+); for hybrid new
+formations based on Greek cf. _thensaurarius_, _plagipatidae_,
+_opsonari_, _pultiphagus_.
+
+_References to manners and customs._--(_a_) Many references to Greek life
+are retained from the original, especially in matters relating to dress,
+art, and money (Plautus has no reference to Roman money). Such are
+_chlamys_, _petasus_, _pallium_, _cyathus_, _cantharus_, _thermopolium_,
+_cerussa_, _melinum_ (_pigmentum_), _gynaeceum_, _balineae_,
+_ambulacrum_, _porticus_, _fores Samiae_ (_Menaech._ 178), _nummus_ (=
+drachma or didrachma), _nummi Philippei_, _mina_, _tarpessita_,
+_symbolus_, _epistula_. Cf. also _Pseud._ 146-7,
+
+  'Ut ne peristromata quidem aeque picta sint Campanica,
+  neque Alexandrina beluata tonsilia tappetia.'
+
+(_b_) There are, however, innumerable references to Roman public life
+and manners and customs, even in passages manifestly close to the
+original, although references to public events are rare.
+
+1. _Military expressions._--These, many of which are used
+metaphorically, were well adapted for an audience most of whom had seen
+service. The following are from the _Miles_: _legiones_, _imperator_,
+_peditastelli_, _rogare_, _latrocinari_, _stipendium_, _conscribere_,
+_contubernales_, _eques_, _pedes_, _machinas parare_. Cf. also _Pseud._
+148,
+
+  'Dederamque suas provincias';
+
+_Pseud._ 572,
+
+  'Dum concenturio in corde sycophantias';
+
+_Bacch._ 709,
+
+  'De ducentis nummis primum intendam ballistam in senem:
+  ea ballista si pervortam turrim et propugnacula,
+  recta porta invadam extemplo in oppidum antiquom et vetus.'
+
+All references, however, to the enrolment of mercenaries (_latrones_)
+are probably Greek and belong to the original play.
+
+2. _Political expressions._--(_a_) Names of officials, etc. So
+_tresviri_, _quaestor_, _aedilis_, _praetor_, _senatus_. Cf. _Trin._ 879,
+
+  'Census quom sum iuratori recte rationem dedi';
+
+_Pseud._ 1232,
+
+  'Centuriata habuit capitis comitia.'
+
+(_b_) Law. So _advocatus_ (_Mil._ 663), _festuca_ (_Mil._ 961), _lege
+agito_ (_Mil._ 453). Cf. _Menaech._ 571-95 (on patrons and clients);
+_Trin._ 500-4, where Roman terms of _stipulatio_ are used.
+
+3. _Festivals and localities._--References to these are rarer.
+Examples are: _Mil._ 691,
+
+  'Da, mi vir, Calendis meam qui matrem moenerem';
+
+_Trin._ 545,
+
+  'Campans genus';
+
+_Trin._ 609,
+
+  'Tam modo, inquit Praenestinus.'
+
+_Mil._ 359,
+
+  'Credo ego istoc exemplo tibi esse pereundum extra portam';
+
+a reference to the Esquiline gate, outside which slaves were executed.
+
+4. _Private life._--These references are mostly to the lower classes,
+especially slaves, with whom Plautus was very familiar. Hence words
+referring to household duties, as _promus_, _suppromus_, _cella_,
+_cellarius_, _verna_, _pulmentum_ (from _Mil._) To their patois also
+belong phrases for cheating, like _emungere_, _intervortere_, _sarcinam
+imponere_, _ducere_, _ductare_, _circumducere_, and the very large
+number of words relating to punishment, as: _furcifer_, _verbero_,
+_supplicium virgarum_, _varius virgis_, _talos frangere_, _crux_,
+_verberea statua_ (_Pseud._ 911); _gymnasium flagri_ (_Asin._ 297). Cf.
+also _Epid._ 17,
+
+  'Quid ais? perpetuen valuisti?--Varie.'
+
+From slave life come also terms of abuse like _volturius_, _scelus_,
+_odium populi_, _mers mala_, _lapis_, _saxum_. Note that cruelty in the
+treatment of slaves is peculiarly Roman; but their familiarity with
+their masters and their general situation are from Greek life.
+
+_Prosody._[12]--Plautine prosody, which reflected the variation of
+quantity found in the popular speech, was not properly understood even
+in Cicero's time.
+
+Cf. Cic. _Or._ 184, 'Comicorum senarii propter similitudinem sermonis
+sic saepe sunt abiecti ut non numquam vix in eis numerus et versus
+intellegi possit.'
+
+The chief points are as follows:
+
+1. Final -s is often lost. _Rud._ 103,
+
+  'Pat�r, salveto, amb�que adeo. Et tu s�lvos sis';
+
+_Most._ 1124,
+
+  'Qu�que modo dominum �dvenientem s�rvos ludific�tus sit.'
+
+2. A mute followed by a liquid does not make the preceding vowel long.
+Thus _agris_, _libros_, _duplex_, are iambi.
+
+3. Iambic words may become pyrrhics, on account of the stress accent
+on the first syllable. So _domi_ and _cave_ have the last syllable
+short.[13] _Trin._ 868,
+
+  'F�ris pultabo. Ad n�stras aedis h�c quidem habet rect�m viam';
+
+_Stich._ 99,
+
+  'B�nas ut aequomst f�cere facitis, qu�m tamen absent�s viros.'
+
+4. The stress accent sometimes causes final syllables to be dropped,
+and so to have no effect on quantity, as in _enim_, _apud_, _quidem_,
+_parum_, _soror_, _caput_, _amant_, _habent_, etc. _Trin._ 77,
+
+  'Qui in m�ntem venit tibi �staec dicta d�cere?'
+
+_Stich._ 18 (anapaestic),
+
+  'Haec r�s vitae me, s�ror, saturant.'
+
+No shortening, however, takes place when the accent goes back to the
+antepenult (cf. _contine_), nor in words like _aetas_, _mores_, where
+the first syllable is long, nor even in _abi_, _tene_, _tace_, and the
+like, when the chief accent is weakened, i.e., where these words are
+pronounced slowly and emphatically (especially before a pause).
+_Asin._ 543,
+
+  'Intro abi: nam t� quidem edepol n�hil est inpud�ntius.'
+
+5. This influence of the chief accent affects also combinations of two
+monosyllabic words which make an iambus, and combinations like _ego
+illi_, _age ergo_, in which the second syllable of the second word is
+elided. _Trin._ 354,
+
+  'Is est inmunis, quo� nihil est qui m�nus fungat�r suom';
+
+_Trin._ 133,
+
+  'Non �go illi argentum r�dderem? Non r�dderes';
+
+_Stich._ 237,
+
+  'Ad�bo ad hominem. Qu�s haec est quae advors�m venit?'
+
+6. The chief accent could also affect a preceding syllable. In
+polysyllables or polysyllabic combinations, when the chief accent was
+on the third syllable, the second syllable, if long, could be
+shortened, provided the first syllable were short. _Trin._ 456,
+
+  'Ferent�rium esse am�cum inventum int�llego';
+
+_Stich._ 59,
+
+  'N�c voluntate id f�cere meminit,' etc.;
+
+_Stich._ 179,
+
+  'Per ann�nam caram d�xit me nat�m pater.'
+
+7. The following common words have to be separately considered, _ille_,
+_iste_, _unde_, _inde_, _nempe_. In the last three the liquid was
+practically dropped; _iste_ was pronounced as _ste_; and in _ille_ only
+one _l_ was heard, cf. _ellum_, _ellam_ (_en-illum_ = _en-ilum_ =
+_en-lum_ = _ellum_). _Frustra_ is a trochee, as in _Menaech._ 692 (at
+the end of a line), _fr�stra sis_; and the first _i_ of _fieri_ is
+long. Cf. _Trin._ 532,
+
+  'Si in �pserendo possint interfieri.'
+
+8. An original long vowel is sometimes kept when later authors have it
+short. Examples are, _es_ (from _esse_), final _-or_, as _exertitor_,
+_fateor_, _ecastor_; verbal endings, as _eris_, _eget_, _sit_, _det_,
+_fuat_, _velit_.
+
+9. _Synizesis._ _Deus_, _meus_, _tuos_, _suos_ (nom.), _eius_, _ei_,
+_eum_, _quoius_, _quoi_, _huius_, _huic_, _rei_, etc., may be
+monosyllables; _deorum_, _meorum_, _duorum_, _fuisti_, etc., may be
+dissyllables; _diutius_, _exeundum_, etc., may be trisyllables. Other
+examples are _proin_, _proinde_, _praeoptare_, _dehortor_, _aibam_,
+_quator_.
+
+10. _Hiatus._ This occurs, though not frequently, (_a_) at the natural
+division of the metre. _Menaech._ 219,
+
+  'Sp�rtulam cape �tque argentum. | �ccos treis numm�s habes.'
+
+(_b_) At the natural break in the sense, especially with change of
+speakers. _Trin._ 432,
+
+  _PH._ 'Temp�st adeundi.' _LE._ '�stne hic Philto qui �dvenit?'
+
+The hiatus is commonest in monosyllabic words, or words ending in a
+short syllable followed by _m_, making the first syllable of an arsis
+resolved into two shorts. _Trin._ 433,
+
+  'Is h�rclest ipsus. �depol _ne ego_ ist�m velim';
+
+_Trin._ 305,
+
+  'Qu� homo cum animo inde �b ineunte aet�te depugn�t suo.'
+
+_Views on Plautus._--For Cicero's high opinion of Plautus cf. _de
+Off._ i. 104, 'Duplex omnino est iocandi genus: unum inliberale
+petulans, flagitiosum obscaenum, alterum elegans urbanum, ingeniosum
+facetum. Quo genere non modo Plautus noster et Atticorum antiqua
+comoedia, sed etiam philosophorum Socraticorum libri referti sunt.'
+
+Horace's unfavourable judgment is well known.
+
+_Ep._ ii, 1, 170,
+
+         'Adspice Plautus
+  quo pacto partis tutetur amantis ephebi,
+  ut patris attenti, lenonis ut insidiosi,
+  quantus sit Dossenus edacibus in parasitis,
+  quam non adstricto percurrat pulpita socco.
+  Gestit enim nummum in loculos demittere, post hoc
+  securus cadat an recto stet fabula talo.'
+
+Cf. _A.P._ 270-4. Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 99, 'In comoedia maxime
+claudicamus, licet Varro Musas, Aelii Stilonis sententia, Plautino
+dicat sermone locuturas fuisse, si Latine loqui vellent.'
+
+
+
+ENNIUS.[14]
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Q. Ennius was born B.C. 239 at Rudiae in Calabria (about nineteen
+miles south of Brundisium).
+
+Gell. xvii. 21, 43, 'Consoles secuntur Q. Valerius et C. Mamilius,
+quibus natum esse Q. Ennium poetam M. Varro in primo de poetis libro
+scripsit eumque, cum septimum et sexagesimum annum haberet, duodecimum
+annalem scripsisse, idque ipsum Ennium in eodem libro dicere.' (Cf.
+Cic. _Tusc._ i. 3.) Enn. _Ann._ l. 440,
+
+  'Nos sumus Romani qui fuimus ante Rudini.'
+
+Servius, _in Aen._ vii. 691, '(At Messapus equom domitor): Ab hoc
+Ennius dicit se originem ducere.' (Enn. _Ann._ xviii. fr. 6.)
+
+Ennius knew Greek, Latin, and Oscan. Latin he may have known as a boy,
+since the colony of Brundisium was founded B.C. 244; the use of Greek
+had been widely spread in South Italy through the influence of the
+Greek colonies.[15]
+
+Gell. xvii. 17, 1, 'Q. Ennius tria corda habere sese dicebat, quod
+loqui Graece et Osce et Latine sciret.'
+
+Ennius came to Sardinia during the Second Punic War, probably with
+other Calabrian auxiliaries, but in what year is doubtful. Silius
+Italicus xii. 387 _sqq._, says he was centurion B.C. 215, and
+distinguished himself greatly; but his account is quite untrustworthy.
+In Sardinia he made the acquaintance of M. Porcius Cato, then
+quaestor, who induced him to come to Rome B.C. 204.
+
+Nep. _Cato_, i. 4, 'Praetor (B.C. 198) provinciam obtinuit Sardiniam,
+ex qua, quaestor superiore tempore ex Africa decedens, Q. Ennium
+poetam deduxerat.'
+
+The poet's Graecizing influence seems to have led afterwards to
+hostility between him and his patron, but in spite of this, Ennius
+appears to have cherished warm feelings towards Cato, and praised his
+exploits in the _Annals_.
+
+Cic. _Tusc._ i. 3, 'Oratio Catonis, in qua obiecit ut probrum M.
+Nobiliori quod is in provinciam poetas duxisset. Duxerat autem consul
+ille in Aetoliam, ut scimus, Ennium.'
+
+Cic. _pro Arch._ 22, 'In caelum huius proavus Cato tollitur: magnus
+honos populi Romani rebus adiungitur.'
+
+So far as is known, Ennius was at Rome B.C. 204-189. He lived plainly,
+and supported himself by teaching Latin and Greek.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1777 = B.C. 240, 'Q. Ennius poeta Tarenti [an error]
+nascitur, qui a Catone quaestore Romam translatus habitavit in monte
+Aventino, parco admodum sumptu contentus, et unius ancillae
+ministerio.'
+
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 1, 'Livium et Ennium, quos utraque lingua domi
+forisque docuisse adnotatum est.'
+
+At Rome he was on familiar terms with the elder Scipio Africanus and
+his brother Cornelius Nasica, and their circle.
+
+Cic. _pro Arch._ 22, 'Carus fuit Africano superiori noster Ennius;
+itaque etiam in sepulchro Scipionum putatur is esse constitutus ex
+marmore.'
+
+A pleasant story of his relations with Nasica is given by Cic. _de
+Or._ ii. 276. Two epigrams on Scipio (Nos. 2 and 3) are extant.
+
+In B.C. 189 Ennius accepted an invitation from M. Fulvius Nobilior to
+accompany him in his campaign against the Aetolians, and be a witness
+of his exploits. Fulvius' victory gave the poet materials for the
+praetexta _Ambracia_, and Book xv. of the _Annals_.
+
+Cic. _pro Arch._ 27, 'Ille qui cum Aetolis Ennio comite bellavit
+Fulvius.' Cf. Cic. _Tusc._ i. 3 (above).
+
+In B.C. 184 the poet received the Roman citizenship through the son of
+Fulvius, Q. Nobilior. Hence 'nos sumus Romani, qui fuimus ante Rudini'
+(above). He also received a grant of land at Potentia or Pisaurum from
+Fulvius, who was then _triumvir coloniae deducendae_.
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 79, 'Q. Nobiliorem M. f. ..., qui etiam Q. Ennium, qui cum
+patre eius in Aetolia militaverat, civitate donavit, cum triumvir
+coloniam deduxisset.'
+
+Ennius probably spent the greater part of his days, after returning
+from the Aetolian war, at Rome; and during this period he was on
+intimate terms with the comic poet Caecilius Statius (see p. 37). He
+was often in indifferent circumstances, in spite of the grant of land
+he had received. Ennius died of gout B.C. 169.
+
+Cic. _Cato Maior_, 14, 'Annos septuaginta natus--tot enim vixit
+Ennius--ita ferebat duo quae maxima putantur onera, paupertatem et
+senectutem, ut eis paene delectari videretur.'
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 78, 'Hoc [C. Sulpicio Gallo] praetore ludos Apollini
+faciente, cum Thyesten fabulam docuisset, Q. Marcio Cn. Servilio coss.
+(B.C. 169) mortem obiit Ennius.'
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1849 = B.C. 168, 'Ennius poeta septuagenario maior
+articulari morbo periit, sepultusque est in Scipionis monumento via
+Appia intra primum ab urbe miliarium. Quidam ossa eius Rudiam ex
+Ianiculo translata affirmant.'
+
+For his gout cf. Enn. _Sat._ 1. 8,
+
+  'Numquam poetor nisi si podager';
+
+Hor. _Ep._ i. 19, 7,
+
+  'Ennius ipse pater numquam nisi potus ad arma
+  prosiluit dicenda.'
+
+'Ennius "equi fortis et victoris senectuti comparat suam"' (Cic. _Cato
+Maior_, 14).
+
+The lines are _Ann._ xviii. fr. 7,
+
+  'Sic ut fortis equus, spatio qui saepe supremo
+  vicit Olimpia, nunc senio confectus quiescit.'
+
+His epitaph (_Epigr._ i) is quoted by Cic. _Tusc._ i. 34 and 117,
+
+  'Aspicite, o cives, senis Enni imaginis formam!
+    hic vestrum panxit maxima facta patrum;
+  Nemo me dacrumis decoret nec funera fletu
+    faxit. Cur? Volito vivus per ora virum.'
+
+According to Aelius Stilo, Ennius has depicted his own character in
+_Ann._ vii. fr. 10, wherein he portrays Servilius Geminus, the trusty
+companion of a man of position (Gell. xii. 4). For Ennius'
+self-appreciation cf. also his epitaph (if by himself) quoted above,
+and _Ann._ i. fr. 4,
+
+  'Latos per populos terrasque poemata nostra
+  clara cluebunt.'
+
+In philosophy Ennius was an eclectic. Cf. _Trag._ 1. 417,
+
+  'Philosophari est mihi necesse, at paucis: nam omnino haut placet.
+  Degustandum ex ea, non in eam ingurgitandum censeo.'
+
+His rationalism is seen in _Telamo_, fr. 1,
+
+  'Ego deum genus esse semper dixi et dicam caelitum,
+  sed eos non curare opinor, quid agat humanum genus:
+  nam si curent, bene bonis sit, male malis, quod nunc abest';
+
+_ibid._, fr. 2,
+
+  'Sed superstitiosi vates inpudentesque arioli,
+  aut inertes aut insani aut quibus egestas imperat,
+  qui sibi semitam non sapiunt, alteri monstrant viam,
+  quibus divitias pollicentur, ab eis drachumam ipsi petunt.'
+
+Traces of Epicureanism are seen in _Ann._ i. fr. 13,
+
+  'Terraque corpus
+  quae dedit ipsa capit neque dispendi facit hilum.'
+
+Ennius also believed in the Pythagorean theory of metempsychosis, and
+considered that his soul had animated the body of a peacock. _Ann._ i.
+fr. 14,
+
+  'Memini me fiere pavom.'
+
+Persius 6, 10,
+
+  'Cor iubet hoc Enni postquam destertuit esse
+  Maeonides Quintus pavone e Pythagoreo.'
+
+Cf. also Lucr. i. 120-6.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Tragedies._--Of those founded on mythology we have fragments of
+twenty-two, eight at least of which were borrowed from Euripides. The
+_Auct. ad Herenn._ ii. 34, quotes nine lines which are a literal
+translation of the beginning of the _Medea_. The date of the
+_Thyestes_, B.C. 169, is the only one known (Cic. _Brut._ 78, quoted
+p. 28). Besides these, Ennius probably wrote a praetexta on 'the Rape
+of the Sabines'; and his _Ambracia_ is probably a praetexta on the
+capture of the town by M. Fulvius Nobilior in B.C. 189 (L. M�ller
+includes it in the _Saturae_).
+
+2. _Comedies._--There are very slight fragments of the _Cupuncula_ and
+the _Pancratiastes_.
+
+3. _Saturae._--A miscellaneous collection of poems.
+
+Porphyr. ad Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 47, 'Ennius quattuor libros saturarum
+reliquit.'
+
+The reference in Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 66,
+
+  'Quam rudis et Graecis intacti carminis auctor,'
+
+is not to Ennius, as some have supposed, but to the inventor of
+_satura_, whoever he may have been.
+
+The _Saturae_ include (_a_) _Scipio_, probably a short epic. It was
+mostly written in trochaic septenarii. (_b_) _Epicharmus_ (in trochaic
+tetrameters), dealing with Pythagoreanism in the department of
+physics. (_c_) _Euhemerus_ or _Sacra Historia_, modelled on Euhemerus'
++hiera anagraph�+,[16] the doctrines of which were applied
+to the religion of Rome.
+
+Cic. _N.D._ i. 119, 'Euhemerus, quem noster et interpretatus et
+secutus est praeter ceteros Ennius.'
+
+(_d_) _Protreptica_ or _Praecepta_, containing moral maxims. (_e_)
+_Hedyphagetica_, 'On Gastronomy,' modelled on a hexameter poem by
+Archestratus (about B.C. 310). (_f_) _Sota_, so called from
++S�tad�s+, after whom the Sotadean metre has been named. The book
+was probably of a lascivious nature. (_g_) Epigrams; the chief of
+which are mentioned above.
+
+4. The _Annales_, an epic poem in hexameters, which dealt with the
+history of Rome down to the beginning of the Third Macedonian War. It
+contained eighteen Books; there are about six hundred lines extant.
+The following is a sketch of the contents:
+
+Book i., from Aeneas to the death of Romulus; ii., reigns of Numa
+Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Martius; iii., the last three
+kings; iv.-v., the republic down to the war with Pyrrhus; vi., the war
+with Pyrrhus; vii., First Punic War, etc.; viii.-ix., Second Punic
+War; x.-xii., Second Macedonian War, Cato's consulship; xiii.-xv., War
+with Antiochus, subjugation of the Aetolians; xvi.-xviii., from
+Istrian War to beginning of Third Macedonian War.
+
+_Ennius' services_ to Latin literature lay partly in introducing the
+use of the hexameter and other metres from Greek in place of the old
+Saturnian metre. His versification is, of course, rough in comparison
+with that of later writers, the principal points being
+
+(1) Harsh elisions. _Ann._ l. 199,
+
+  'Hos et ego in pugna vici victusque sum ab isdem.'
+
+(2) Quadrisyllable endings; l. 23,
+
+  'Est locus Hesperiam quam mortales perhibebant.'
+
+(3) Absence of caesura, or abrupt break, l. 188,
+
+  'Bellipotentes sunt magis quam sapientipotentes';
+
+l. 511,
+
+  'Cui par imber et ignis, spiritus et gravis terra.'
+
+(4) Omission of _-s_ in scansion, as in the last two examples.
+
+(5) Short vowels sometimes lengthened; l. 86,
+
+  'Omnibus cura viris uter esset induperator.'
+
+(6) Prosaic lines (often spondaic); l. 34,
+
+  'Olli respondit rex Albai longai';
+
+l. 174,
+
+  'Cives Romani tunc facti sunt Campani.'
+
+(7) Harsh instances of tmesis; l. 586,
+
+  'Saxo cere comminuit brum':
+
+l. 605,
+
+  'Massili portabant iuvenes ad litora tanas.'
+
+(8) Apocope; l. 451
+
+  'replet te laetificum _gau_';
+
+l. 561,
+
+  'divom domus altisonum _cael_';
+
+l. 563,
+
+  'endo suam _do_' (= in suam domum).
+
+(9) Alliteration used freely; l. 113,
+
+  'O Tite tute Tati tibi tanta tiranne tulisti';
+
+l. 452,
+
+  'At tuba terribili sonitu taratantara dixit.'
+
+(10) Non-elision; l. 275,
+
+  'Miscent inter sese inimicitiam agitantes.'
+
+_Influence of Ennius._--This is seen in Lucretius, and to a very great
+extent in Virgil. For Lucretius' appreciation of Ennius see Lucr. i.
+117-9. Cf. also _Ann._ l. 150,
+
+  'Postquam lumina sis oculis bonus Ancus reliquit,'
+
+and Lucr. iii. 1025,
+
+  'Lumina sis oculis etiam bonus Ancus reliquit.'
+
+Servius on Verg. _Aen._ viii. 630-4, says 'Sane totus hic locus
+Ennianus est.' Cf. Servius also on _Aen._ i. 20; xi. 608, etc. A large
+number of imitations are quoted by Macrobius, especially in _Saturn._
+Book vi. Virgil modified and refined many of Ennius' rough
+expressions. Thus _Ann._ l. 452 (above quoted), becomes, in Verg.
+_Aen._ ix. 503,
+
+  'At tuba terribilem sonitum procul aere sonoro
+  increpuit';
+
+_Ann._ l. 464,
+
+  'irarumque effunde quadrigas'
+
+becomes in Verg. _Aen._ xii. 499,
+
+  'irarumque omnes effundit habenas.'
+
+_Views on Ennius._--A very few of these may be quoted. Lucr. i. 117-9,
+
+  'Ennius ut noster cecinit qui primus amoeno
+  detulit ex Helicone perenni fronde coronam,
+  per gentes Italas hominum quae clara clueret.'
+
+Cic. _Opt. Gen. Or._ 2, 'Licet dicere Ennium summum epicum poetam, si
+cui ita videtur.' Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 50,
+
+  'Ennius et sapiens et fortis et alter Homerus,
+  ut critici dicunt, leviter curare videtur
+  quo promissa cadant et somnia Pythagorea.'
+
+Propert. v. 1, 61,
+
+  'Ennius hirsuta cingat sua dicta corona.'
+
+Quint. x. 1, 88, 'Ennium sicut sacros vetustate lucos adoremus, in
+quibus grandia et antiqua robora iam non tantam habent speciem quantam
+religionem.'
+
+
+
+PACUVIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+M. Pacuvius, the son (not grandson as Jerome states) of Ennius'
+sister, was born at Brundisium, B.C. 220, spent most of his life at
+Rome, and died at Tarentum shortly before B.C. 130. He was a painter
+as well as a poet.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1863 = B.C. 154, 'Pacuvius Brundusinus tragoediarum
+scriptor clarus habetur, Ennii poetae ex filia nepos, vixitque Romae
+quoad picturam exercuit ac fabulas venditavit, deinde Tarentum
+transgressus prope nonagenarius diem obiit.'
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ xxxv. 19, 'Celebrata est in foro boario, aede Herculis,
+Pacuvii poetae pictura. Ennii sorore genitus hic fuit, clarioremque
+eam artem Romae fecit gloria scaenae.'
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 229, 'Accius isdem aedilibus ait se et Pacuvium docuisse
+fabulam, cum ille octoginta, ipse triginta annos natus esset.'
+
+As Accius was born B.C. 170, Cicero's words imply that Pacuvius was
+born B.C. 220, and produced plays as late as B.C. 140, while from
+Jerome we may conclude that he died shortly before B.C. 130. That
+Pacuvius was taught by his uncle Ennius is shown by Varro, _Sat.
+Menipp._ 356 (B�cheler),
+
+  'Pacvi[17] discipulus dicor, porro is fuit Enni,
+   Ennius Musarum: Pompilius clueor.'
+
+He was a member of the literary circle of Laelius. Cf. Laelius' words
+in Cic. _Lael._ 24, 'In hospitis et amici mei M. Pacuvi nova fabula.'
+In his last years he was intimate with Accius: cf. Gell. xiii. 2, 'Cum
+Pacuvius, inquiunt, grandi iam aetate et morbo corporis diutino
+adfectus, Tarentum ex urbe Roma concessisset, Accius tunc, haut parvo
+iunior, proficiscens in Asiam, cum in oppidum venisset, devertit ad
+Pacuvium comiterque invitatus plusculisque ab eo diebus retentus,
+tragoediam suam, cui Atreus nomen est, desideranti legit.'
+
+Gell. i. 24, 4, gives Pacuvius' epitaph, as written by himself,
+'Epigramma Pacuvii verecundissimum et purissimum, dignumque eius
+elegantissima gravitate:
+
+  "Adulescens, tam etsi properas, te hoc saxum rogat,
+   ut sese aspicias, deinde quod scriptum est legas.
+   Hic sunt poetae Pacuvi Marci sita
+   ossa. Hoc volebam nescius ne esses. Vale."'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Tragedies._--Titles of twelve are known, and over four hundred
+lines of fragments are extant. The _Antiopa_, which is the best known,
+was from Euripides.
+
+Cic. _de Fin._ i. 4, 'Quis enim tam inimicus paene nomini Romano est,
+qui Enni Medeam aut Antiopam Pacuvi spernat aut reiciat quod se eisdem
+Euripidis fabulis delectari dicat?'
+
+The _Niptra_ is from Sophocles. Cic. _T.D._ ii. 49, speaking of ll.
+256-8 (Ribbeck), says, 'Pacuvius melius quam Sophocles.'
+
+Pacuvius also wrote one praetexta, _Paulus_, doubtless on L. Aemilius
+Paulus, the victor of Pydna.
+
+2. _Saturae_ (lost).
+
+Sueton. p. 20 R., 'Carmen quod ex variis poematibus constabat satura
+vocabatur, quale scripserunt Pacuvius et Ennius.'
+
+Pacuvius, like Ennius, shows interest in philosophy, and attacks
+superstition; l. 93,
+
+  'Mater est terra: ea parit corpus, animam aeter adiugat';
+
+ll. 366-75; cf. l. 372,
+
+  'Sunt autem alii philosophi, qui contra fortunam negant
+   esse ullam, sed temeritate res regi omnis autumant';
+
+ll. 83-5,
+
+        'Nam isti qui linguam avium intellegunt
+   plusque ex alieno iecore sapiunt quam ex suo,
+   magis audiendum quam auscultandum censeo.'
+
+For Pacuvius' stilted expressions, cf. Quint. i. 5, 67, 'Ceterum etiam
+ex praepositione et duobus vocabulis dure videtur struxisse Pacuvius
+
+  "Nerei repandirostrum, incurvicervicum pecus"' (l. 408);
+
+_Paulus_, l. 5
+
+  'Qua vix caprigeno generi gradilis gressio est.'
+
+Some views on Pacuvius may be referred to:
+
+Cic. _de Opt. Gen. Or._ 1, 'Itaque licet dicere et Ennium summum
+epicum poetam et Pacuvium tragicum et Caecilium fortasse comicum.'
+
+Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 55,
+
+  'Ambigitur quotiens uter utro sit prior, aufert
+  Pacuvius docti[18] famam senis, Accius alti';
+
+Mart. xi. 90, 5,
+
+  'Attonitusque legis "terrai frugiferai,"
+     Accius et quidquid Pacuviusque vomunt.'
+
+Cf. also Gell. vi. 14, 6; Cic. _Brut._ 258; _Or._ 36; Quint. x. 1, 97;
+Persius, 1. 76-8; Tac. _Dial._ 20.
+
+
+
+CAECILIUS STATIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1838 = B.C. 179, 'Statius Caecilius comoediarum
+scriptor clarus habetur, natione Insuber Gallus et Ennii primum
+contubernalis. Quidam Mediolanensem ferunt. Mortuus est anno post
+mortem Ennii [iii.] et iuxta eum in Ianiculo sepultus.'
+
+iii. is an addition by Ritschl, as we know Caecilius to have been
+alive in B.C. 166, when Terence's _Andria_ was performed. Some read
+iv. The date of his death will then be B.C. 166 or 165. Caecilius
+probably came to Rome among the Insubrian prisoners of war at some
+time between B.C. 200 and 194. The year of his birth is unknown; he is
+never mentioned, like other old writers, such as Plautus and Ennius,
+as having lived to a great age. If he died B.C. 166, we might suppose
+that he was born about B.C. 219, as that would make him of military
+age when the Insubrian war began in B.C. 200. His name as a slave was
+Statius. His patron is unknown.
+
+Gell. iv. 20, 13, 'Statius servile nomen fuit ... Caecilius quoque ille
+comoediarum poeta inclutus servus fuit; et propterea nomen habuit
+"Statius." Sed postea versum est quasi in cognomentum: appellatusque
+est Caecilius Statius.'
+
+Elsewhere he is sometimes called merely Caecilius (as Cic. _de Or._
+ii. 40), but never Statius alone.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+Caecilius' works were at first unsuccessful; cf. the actor Ambivius'
+words in Ter. _Hec._ prol. ii. 6-7,
+
+  'In eis quas primum Caecili didici novas,
+  partim sum earum exactus, partim vix steti.'
+
+Later he examined plays before they were acted, as, _e.g._ Terence's
+_Andria_ in B.C. 166 (see under 'Terence,' p. 42). This implies that
+he occupied a responsible and leading position in the guild of poets.
+
+We have two hundred and ninety lines of fragments, and titles of
+forty-two comedies, sixteen of which correspond with those of plays by
+Menander. For Caecilius' imitation of Menander see Gell. ii. 23. Cf.,
+_e.g._, 'Caecilii Plocium legebamus; hautquaquam mihi et qui aderant
+displicebat... Sed enim postquam in manus Menander venit, a principio
+statim, di boni, quantum stupere atque frigere quantumque mutare a
+Menandro Caecilius visus est!'
+
+Among the views on Caecilius are:
+
+Cic. _ad Att._ vii. 3, 10, '(Caecilius) malus auctor Latinitatis est'
+(probably because he was an Insubrian).
+
+Cic. _de Opt. Gen. Or._ 1, 'fortasse summus comicus.' Sedigitus ap.
+Gell. xv. 24,
+
+  'Caecilio palmam Statio do mimico.'
+
+Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 59,
+
+  '(dicitur) vincere Caecilius gravitate.'
+
+The contemporaries of Caecilius include _Trabea_, _Atilius_ ('poeta
+durissimus,' Cic. _ad Att._ xiv. 20, 3), _Aquilius_ (possibly the
+author of the _Boeotia_, attributed by Varro to Plautus, Gell. iii. 3,
+4), _Licinius Imbrex_, _Luscius Lanuvinus_, all writers of _palliatae_.
+Our chief information about Luscius Lanuvinus is got from the
+prologues to Terence's plays (in all of which, except that of the
+_Hecyra_, he is attacked), and from Donatus' commentary on these
+passages. From Ter. _Eun._ prol. 9-13, we see that he did not tone
+down his originals to suit a Roman audience,
+
+  'Idem Menandri Phasma nuper perdidit
+  atque in Thensauro scripsit, causam dicere
+  prius unde petitur, aurum qua re sit suom,
+  quam illic qui petit, unde is sit thensaurus sibi
+  aut unde in patrium monumentum pervenerit.'
+
+Donatus _ad loc._, 'Arguit Terentius quod Luscius contra consuetudinem
+litigantium defensionem ante accusationem induxerit.'
+
+
+
+TERENCE.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Our chief source of information is Suetonius' life of Terence,
+preserved by Donatus, who also makes a slight addition of his own.
+Jerome's notice is also based on Suetonius.
+
+P. Terentius Afer was born in Africa, and was brought in early life to
+Rome, where he was a slave of P. Terentius Lucanus, by whom he was
+educated and subsequently manumitted.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Ter._ p. 26 R., 'P. Terentius Afer, Karthagine natus,
+serviit Romae Terentio Lucano senatori, a quo ob ingenium et formam
+non institutus modo liberaliter, sed et mature manu missus est. Quidam
+captum esse existumant: quod fieri nullo modo potuisse Fenestella
+docet, cum inter finem secundi Punici belli et initium tertii et natus
+sit et mortuus.'
+
+Terence's cognomen probably shows that he belonged to one of the
+African peoples subdued by Carthage. It may be taken as certain that
+he was not of Punic birth, and that he was brought to Rome in the
+ordinary course of the slave trade.
+
+The date of Terence's birth is not accurately known. Sueton. _ibid._
+p. 32, 'Nondum quintum atque vicesimum ingressus annum ... egressus
+urbe est neque amplius rediit,' which refers to his voyage to Greece
+in B.C. 160, would make the year of his birth to be B.C. 185. This,
+however, is an improbable assumption, which rests on the fact that
+Roman scholars attributed to him the age of his intimate friend, P.
+Scipio Africanus the younger. Thus Sueton. _ibid._ p. 27 (of Terence,
+Scipio, Laelius), says, 'quamvis et Nepos aequales omnes fuisse
+tradat'; with which contrast _ibid._ 'Fenestella ... contendens
+utroque maiorem natu fuisse.' Terence must have been some years older,
+as his first piece, the _Andria_, was produced B.C. 166. A successful
+piece like it makes it probable that he had then passed his boyhood,
+and it is likely that he was born about B.C. 190. The reproach of his
+adversary in _Heaut. Tim._ prol. 23,
+
+  '_repente_ ad studium hunc se adplicasse _musicum_,'
+
+means only that he had not made himself prominent by previous
+exercises in play-writing. Further in _H.T._ prol. 51-2, he describes
+his opponents as _adulescentuli_,
+
+  'Exemplum statuite in me, ut adulescentuli
+  vobis placere studeant potius quam sibi.'
+
+Terence was on intimate terms with P. Scipio Africanus and C. Laelius,
+who were supposed to have helped him in the composition of his plays.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._ p. 30, 'Non obscura fama est adiutum Terentium in
+scriptis a Laelio et Scipione: eamque ipse auxit, numquam nisi leviter
+se tutari conatus, ut in prologo Adelphorum (ll. 15-21),
+
+  "Nam quod isti dicunt malivoli, homines nobiles
+  hunc adiutare adsidueque una scribere,
+  quod illi maledictum vehemens esse existumant:
+  eam laudem hic ducit maxumam, quom illis placet
+  qui vobis univorsis et populo placent,
+  quorum opera in bello, in otio, in negotio
+  suo quisque tempore usust sine superbia."
+
+... Sciebat Laelio et Scipioni non ingratam esse hanc opinionem, quae
+tum magis et usque ad posteriora tempora valuit.'
+
+Sueton. p. 31, also repeats a story that C. Laelius was the author of
+the lines _H.T._ 723 _sqq._
+
+Cf. also Cic. _ad Att._ vii. 3, 10, 'Terentium, cuius fabellae propter
+elegantiam sermonis putabantur a C. Laelio scribi.'
+
+Quint. x. 1, 99, 'Licet Terentii scripta ad Scipionem Africanum
+referantur.'
+
+The remark that ll. 20-1 of the above extract from the _Adelph._ could
+not refer to young men like Scipio and Laelius was made even in
+antiquity.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._ p. 31, 'Santra (a grammarian of the time of Augustus)
+Terentium existimat, si modo in scribendo adiutoribus indiguerit, non
+tam Scipione et Laelio uti potuisse, qui tunc adulescentuli fuerint,
+quam C. Sulpicio Gallo, homine docto, quo console Megalensibus ludis
+initium fabularum dandarum fecerit, vel Q. Fabio Labeone et M.
+Popillio, consulari utroque ac poeta. Ideo ipsum non iuvenes designare
+qui se adiuvare dicantur, sed viros quorum operam et in bello et in
+otio et in negotio populus sit expertus.'
+
+In K. Dziatzko's opinion (second edition of _Phormio_, p. 10, Leipzig,
+1885), the expression 'homines nobiles' points to the literary circle
+of Terence, including old as well as young men, while in what follows
+he touches upon the general reputation of those noble families among
+the Roman people. There is nothing to show that Terence got more than
+general support and advice from his friends. That his diction reflects
+the conversational language of the better classes is recognized.
+
+In B.C. 166, Terence submitted to Caecilius Statius, the examiner of
+plays, his first work, the _Andria_, which was accepted, and performed
+in that year.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._ pp. 28-9, 'Scripsit comoedias sex. Ex quibus primam
+Andriam cum aedilibus daret, iussus ante Caecilio recitare ad cenantem
+cum venisset, dicitur initium quidem fabulae, quod erat contemptiore
+vestitu, in subsellio iuxta lectulum residens legisse, post paucos
+vero versus invitatus ut accumberet cenasse una, dein cetera
+percucurrisse non sine magna Caecilii admiratione.'
+
+From the fact of Caecilius' not recognizing him we may conclude that
+Terence had as yet no connexion with the guild of poets. This fits in
+with _H.T._ prol. 23-4,
+
+  'Repente ad studium hunc se adplicasse musicum,
+  amicum ingenio fretum, haud natura sua.'
+
+Hence probably arose the hatred of other writers, referred to as
+_isti_ (_Andr._ 15; 21); _iniqui_ (_H.T._ 27); cf. also _Hec._ prol.
+ii. 38,
+
+  'Nolite sinere per vos artem musicam
+  recidere ad paucos.'
+
+As to further connexion between Caecilius and Terence, note (1) that
+they had a common actor Ambivius; (2) that Terence sometimes imitates
+Caecilius. Thus, according to Donatus, _Andr._ 805,
+
+  'ut quimus, aiunt, quando ut volumus non licet'
+
+is from Caecilius (l. 177 R.),
+
+  'vivas ut possis quando nec quis ut velis.'
+
+Cf. also _Adelph._ 985,
+
+  'Quod prolubium? quae istaec subitast largitas?'
+
+and Caecilius (l. 91 R.),
+
+  'Quod prolubium, quae voluptas, quae te lactat largitas?'
+
+Terence died B.C. 159, on his way home from Greece, where he had
+probably gone the year before. The place of his death is uncertain.
+Whatever plays he may have written while in Greece are lost.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._ p. 32, 'Post editas comoedias, nondum quintum atque
+vicesimum ingressus annum, causa vitandae opinionis qua videbatur
+aliena pro suis edere, seu percipiendi Graecorum instituta moresque
+quos non perinde exprimeret in scriptis, egressus urbe est neque
+amplius rediit ... Q. Cosconius redeuntem e Graecia perisse in mari
+dicit cum fabulis conversis a Menandro: ceteri mortuum esse in Arcadia
+sive Leucadiae tradunt, Cn. Cornelio Dolabella M. Fulvio Nobiliore
+coss., morbo implicatum ex dolore ac taedio amissarum sarcinarum quas
+in nave praemiserat, ac simul fabularum quas novas fecerat.'
+
+Terence's personal appearance is mentioned by Sueton. p. 33, who also
+states that he had property, and left a daughter who afterwards
+married a Roman knight. 'Fuisse dicitur mediocri statura, gracili
+corpore, colore fusco. Reliquit filiam, quae post equiti Romano
+nupsit: item hortulos xx. iugerum via Appia ad Martis.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Andria_.--The particulars of its production are given above. Of
+its success, Donatus in his commentary says, 'Successu adspecta
+prospero hortamento poetae fuit ad alias conscribendas.' The
+didascalia to the _Andria_ is lost, but we can restore it as follows
+from Donatus' information, 'Incipit Andria Terenti. Acta ludis
+Megalensib. M. Fulvio M' Glabrione aedil. curul. Egit L. Ambivius
+Turpio.[19] Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis paribus tota. Graeca
+Menandru. Facta i. M. Marcello C. Sulpicio cos.'
+
+The meaning of the didascalia is as follows: The piece was produced at
+the Megalesian games (held at the beginning of April) under the curule
+aediles mentioned; L. Ambivius Turpio undertook the representation;
+the music was composed (as in all Terence's comedies) by Flaccus,
+slave of Claudius, and given throughout _tibiis paribus_.[20] The Greek
+original was by Menander; it was the first work of Terence, and the
+year of production was B.C. 166.
+
+The play is adapted from Menander's +Andria+ with additions
+from his +Perinthia+. _Andr._ prol. 13,
+
+  'Quae convenere in Andriam ex Perinthia
+  fatetur transtulisse atque usum pro suis.'
+
+The prologue dates from the first performance, though Wagner and
+Ribbeck have inferred from l. 5,
+
+  'Nam in prologis scribundis operam abutitur,'
+
+that it was written for a second representation, possibly in B.C. 164.
+There are two endings to the play; the shorter one is genuine, the
+longer spurious, and omitted in the best MSS.
+
+2. _Heauton Timorumenos_ is from Menander's +Heauton
+tim�roumenos+, 'self tormentor.' The title is referred to in l. 146,
+
+  'hic me exerceo,'
+
+l. 81,
+
+  'An quoiquamst usus homini, se ut cruciet?'
+
+and prol. 5,
+
+  'Ex integra Graeca integram comoediam
+  hodie sum acturus Heauton timorumenon.'
+
+The play was produced at the Ludi Megalenses in B.C. 163, as is seen
+from the didascalia, 'Incipit Heauton Timorumenos Terenti. Acta ludis
+Megalensib. L. Cornelio Lentulo L. Valerio Flacco aedilib. curulib.
+Egit Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Acta primum tibis
+inparib., deinde duabus dextris. Graeca Menandru. Facta ii. M'
+Iuventio Ti. Sempronio cos.'
+
+The play is called 'stataria' in prol. 36,
+
+                            'Date potestatem mihi
+  statariam agere ut liceat per silentium.'
+
+3. _Eunuchus_, 'contaminated' from Menander's +Eunouchos+ and
+his +Kolax+. _Eun._ prol. 19,
+
+                       'Nunc acturi sumus
+  Menandri Eunuchum';
+
+_ibid._ 30,
+
+  'Colax Menandrist: in east parasitus colax
+  et miles gloriosus: eas se non negat
+  personas transtulisse in Eunuchum suam
+  ex Graeca: sed eas ab aliis factas prius
+  Latinas scisse sese, id vero pernegat.'
+
+The didascalia shows that the piece was produced at the Ludi
+Megalenses in B.C. 161, and from the MSS. we may conclude that it was
+also acted in B.C. 146. The didascalia is, 'Incipit Eunuchus Terenti.
+Acta ludis Megalensib. L. Postumio Albino L. Cornelio Merula aedilib.
+curulib. Egit Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis
+duabus dextris _tota_. Graeca Menandru. Facta _iii._ M. Valerio C.
+Fannio cos.'
+
+Sueton. _vit. Ter._ p. 29, speaks of the success of the play,
+'Eunuchus quidem his deinceps acta est meruitque pretium quantum nulla
+antea cuiusquam comoedia, octo milia nummum.'
+
+4. _Phormio_, the fifth comedy Terence composed, and the fourth
+completely represented. It was first performed at the Ludi Romani,
+B.C. 161. The Greek original was the +Epidikazomenos+ of
+Apollodorus of Carystus. _Phorm._ prol. 24,
+
+                             'Adporto novam
+  Epidicazomenon quam vocant comoediam
+  Graeci, Latini Phormionem nominant,
+  quia primas partis qui aget, is erit Phormio
+  parasitus, per quem res geretur maxume,'
+
+The didascalia is, 'Incipit Terenti Phormio. Acta ludis Romanis. L.
+Postumio Albino L. Cornelio Merula aedilib. curulib. Egit L. Ambivius
+Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis imparib. tota. Graeca
+Apollodoru Epidicazomenos. Facta iiii. C. Fannio M. Valerio cos.
+
+From notices in the MSS. it is probable that a second representation
+took place in B.C. 141 at the Megalesian games.
+
+5. _Hecyra_ is founded on a play by Apollodorus of Carystus, doubtless
+called +H�kyra+; cf. Donatus' preface, 'fabula Apollodori
+dicitur esse Graeca.' The first attempted representation was in B.C.
+165, at the Ludi Megalenses. _Hec._ prol. i. 1,
+
+                            'Hecyra quom datast
+  nova, ei novom intervenit vitium et calamitas,
+  ut neque spectari neque cognosci potuerit:
+  ita populus studio stupidus in funambulo
+  animum occuparat.'
+
+The second (unsuccessful) representation was at the ludi funerales of
+Aemilius Paulus in B.C. 160. _Hec._ prol. ii. 38,
+
+                                'Refero denuo.
+  Primo actu placeo. Quom interea rumor venit
+  datum iri gladiatores, populus convolat,
+  tumultuantur clamant pugnant de loco:
+  ego interea meum non potui tutari locum.'
+
+Cf. _Phorm._ prol. 31,
+
+  'Ne simili utamur fortuna, atque usi sumus
+  quom per tumultum noster grex motus locost.'
+
+The first prologue was written for the second performance; the second
+(spoken by the actor Ambivius) for the third performance, also in B.C.
+160. The didascalia is, 'Incipit Terenti Hecyra. Acta ludis
+Megalensib. S. Iulio Caesare Cn. Cornelio Dolabella aedilib. curulib.
+Egit L. Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis paribus
+tota. Graeca _Apollodoru_. Facta v. Cn. Octavio T. Manlio cos. Relata
+est L. Aemelio Paulo ludis funeralib. Non est placita. Tertio relata
+est Q. Fulvio L. Marcio aedilib. curulib.'
+
+6. _Adelphoe_ is founded on Menander's +Adelphoi+ with a scene
+added from Diphilus' +Synapothn�skontes+. _Adelph._ prol. 6,
+
+  Synapothnescontes Diphili comoediast;
+  eam Commorientis Plautus fecit fabulam.
+  In Graeca adulescens est, qui lenoni eripit
+  meretricem in prima fabula: eum Plautus locum
+  reliquit integrum; eum hic locum sumpsit sibi
+  in Adelphos, verbum de verbo expressum extulit.'
+
+That this was the first performance is shown by _novam_ in l. 12. The
+part from Diphilus is Act ii., Scene 1. The play was produced in B.C.
+160 at the ludi funerales of L. Aemilius Paulus, as shown by the
+didascalia, 'Incipit Terenti Adelphoe. Acta ludis funeralib. L.
+Aemelio Paulo. Fecere Q. Fabius Maxumus P. Cornelius Africanus. Egit
+L. Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis Sarranis tota.
+Graeca Menandru. Facta vi. M. Cornelio Cethego L. Anicio Gallo cos.'
+
+The order given above agrees essentially with the numbers denoting the
+order of production, as given in the didascaliae. We must, however,
+assume that the first representation of the _Hecyra_ remained
+unnoticed, and must give the second place (instead of the third) to
+the _H.T._, with a section of the MSS., and the third place to the
+_Eun._ with Donatus against the MSS.
+
+_Prologues._--Terence uses these as weapons against his enemies, the
+chief of whom was Luscius Lanuvinus (see under his name), who attacked
+Terence for 'contaminatio' and for want of spirit in his plays. Cf.
+_H.T._ prol. 17,
+
+  'Multas contaminasse Graecas, dum facit
+  paucas Latinas';
+
+_Phorm._ prol. 5,
+
+  'tenui esse oratione et scriptura levi.'
+
+Terence justifies repeatedly his use of 'contaminatio.' _H.T._ prol.
+16,
+
+  'Nam quod rumores distulerunt malivoli,
+  multas contaminasse Graecas, dum facit
+  paucas Latinas: id esse factum hic non negat,
+  neque se pigere et deinde facturum autumat.
+  Habet bonorum exemplum, quo exemplo sibi
+  licere id facere quod illi fecerunt putat.'
+
+Cf. _Andria_, prol. 15-21; _Adelph._ prol. 1-14; _Eun._ prol. 31-3.
+Luscius also attacked him for not adhering more closely to his Greek
+originals, in spite of the fact that, generally speaking, Terence
+translated closely from these. Cf. _Adelph._ prol. 10-11, quoted
+above. A piece was considered to be new if it had not previously been
+presented to a Roman audience. So Terence justifies his originality in
+_Adelph._ prol. 6-14, or excuses himself on the ground that he did not
+know that a piece had been previously used: _Eun._ prol. 19-34.
+
+_Representation of the plays._--Ambivius was the chief actor in all
+the plays. He is the speaker of the prologue of _H.T._ and of the
+second prologue of _Hec._ He calls himself _senex_, cf. _H.T._ prol.
+1. For his popularity cf. _Hec._ prol. ii. 55,
+
+  'Mea causa causam accipite et date silentium.'
+
+The music was provided by Flaccus, slave of Claudius. The composer
+himself was probably the instrumentalist. Four kinds of flutes are
+mentioned as used by him: _tibiae pares_, _impares_, _sarranae_, and _duae
+dextrae_ (see note p. 45). The scene of all the plays is at Athens.
+There is no chorus. The form of the plays is modelled closely on
+Greek. More than half of the verses are iambic senarii, the next
+commonest being troch. septen. and iamb. octon. These are used in
+dialogue. Trochaic octonarii are used in lyrical parts, other lyrical
+metres being rare, and the anapaestic metre not being used. Short
+lines are also found in the middle of lyrical pieces, or at the end of
+pieces of dialogue. _Andr._ 605,
+
+  'Sed eccum video ipsum: occidi.'
+
+Single words sometimes stand at the head of a lyrical piece, as
+_Phorm._ 485 'Dorio,' which makes a line.
+
+The different kinds of scenes are under the same conditions as in
+Plautus. We have (1) scenes provided with music, probably represented
+in MSS. by C (Canticum). (2) Scenes sung as recitative, with musical
+accompaniment, in MSS. denoted by M.M.C. (perhaps for 'Modi Mutati
+Cantici'). (3) Scenes in senarii, without music, in MSS. denoted by DV
+(Diverbium). The division into scenes is very ancient; but the
+division into acts, though existing in the time of Terence (cf. _Hec._
+prol. 39, 'primo actu placeo,'), is not marked in the MSS.
+
+_Names of characters._--Terence uses only Greek names, which often
+suit the characters of the persons, and many of which are repeated in
+the different plays. Cf. Pamphilus and Glycerium, of the lovers in the
+_Andr._; Chremes (+chremptomai+, 'cough'), for an old man, in
+_Andr._, _H.T._, _Phorm._; Crito (+krin�+, 'judge'), for an old
+man, in _Andr._, _Phorm._; Sosia (+s�zein+), for a freedman, in
+_Andr._, _Hec._ So names of slaves as Davus (+Daos+, 'Dacian'),
+Dromo, Geta, Syrus, all in several plays.
+
+_The arguments_, consisting of twelve senarii each, were composed by
+C. Sulpicius Apollinaris in the second century A.D.
+
+_Prosody._--For the variations from later usage, see under 'Plautus.'
+Terence is, of course, more regular in this respect than Plautus.
+
+_Views on Terence._--To those given above the following may be added:
+
+Gell. vi. 14, 6, 'Exempla in Latina lingua M. Varro esse dicit
+ubertatis Pacuvium, gracilitatis Lucilium, mediocritatis
+Terentium.'[21]
+
+Sueton. _vit. Ter._ p. 34, 'Cicero in Limone hactenus laudat,
+
+  "Tu quoque, qui solus lecto sermone, Terenti,
+  conversum expressumque Latina voce Menandrum
+  in medium nobis sedatis motibus effers,
+  quiddam come loquens atque omnia dulcia miscens";
+
+item C. Caesar,
+
+  "Tu quoque, tu in summis, o dimidiate Menander,
+  poneris, et merito, puri sermonis amator.
+  Lenibus atque utinam scriptis adiuncta foret vis,
+  comica ut aequato virtus polleret honore
+  cum Graecis, neve hac despectus parte iaceres.
+  Unum hoc maceror ac doleo tibi desse, Terenti."'
+
+
+
+EARLY MINOR AUTHORS.
+
+
+(_a_) POETS:
+
+The poetical contemporaries of Terence were:
+
+1. _Titinius_, the first writer of _togatae_; fifteen titles and about
+one hundred and eighty lines of fragments are extant. He probably
+began to write after Terence's death.
+
+2. _Sextus Turpilius._--We have titles of thirteen of his _palliatae_,
+six of which are probably from Menander. He died B.C. 103, probably
+about eighty.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1914 = B.C. 103, 'Turpilius comicus senex admodum
+Sinuessae moritur.'
+
+3. _Iuventius_, _Valerius_, and _Vatronius_ wrote _palliatae_; _P.
+Licinius Tegula_ a hymn to Juno, B.C. 200 (Livy xxxi. 12); _Q. Fabius
+Labeo_ (cos. B.C. 183) and _M. Popillius Laenas_ (cos. 173) were poets.
+
+
+(_b_) PROSE WRITERS:
+
+_Fabius Pictor_ was the earliest Roman historian: Liv. i. 44,
+2, 'scriptorum antiquissimus Fabius Pictor.' A relative of Q. Fabius
+Maximus Cunctator (Plut. _Fab. Max._ 18), he took part in the war with
+the Cisalpine Gauls, B.C. 225 (Eutropius, iii. 5), and after the
+battle of Cannae was sent by the Senate on a mission to the oracle of
+Delphi (Liv. xxii. 57, 5).
+
+Fabius wrote in Greek an account of the Second Punic War, prefixed to
+which was a sketch of the history of Rome from its foundation: Liv.
+xxii. 7, 4, 'Fabium aequalem temporibus huiusce belli potissimum
+auctorem habui.' There was also a Latin version, made either by Fabius
+Pictor or by a namesake (Gell. v. 4, 3).
+
+The same subject was treated by _L. Cincius Alimentus_, who was
+praetor B.C. 210 (Liv. xxvi. 23, i), and took an active part in the
+war in Sicily during the next two years (Liv. xxvii. 7, 12, and
+throughout that Book). He was taken prisoner by Hannibal, and
+conversed with him: Liv. xxi. 38, 3, 'L. Cincius Alimentus, qui captum
+se ab Hannibale scribit, maxime auctor moveret ...'
+
+Both Fabius and Cincius wrote in Greek, and both gave a cursory view
+of the earlier history: Dion. Hal. i. 6, +Romai�n hosoi ta
+palaia erga t�s pole�s Hell�nik� dialekt� synegrapsan, h�n eisi
+presbytatoi Kointos te Phabios kai Leukios Kinkios ... tout�n de t�n
+andr�n hekateros hois men autos ergois paregeneto, dia t�n empeirian
+akrib�s anegrapse, ta de archaia to meta ton ktisin t�s pole�s
+genomena kephalai�d�s epedramen.+
+
+
+
+CATO.
+
+
+M. Porcius Cato, the Censor (B.C. 234-149), born at Tusculum, of a
+yeoman stock, was one of the most prominent figures of his time. For
+the best account of his military and political career, including his
+advancement to the Consulship (B.C. 195) and Censorship (B.C. 184),
+and his economic and social reforms, the reader may be referred to
+Mommsen, _R.H._, vol. ii. _passim_.
+
+Cato was the founder of Latin prose, and the chief opponent of the
+exaggerated Hellenism that was finding its way into Roman life and
+literature (cf. his own words quoted by Pliny, _N.H._ xxix. 14,
+'Quandoque ista gens suas litteras dabit, omnia corrumpet'); but even
+he shows traces of Greek influence. Cato is represented now only by
+(1) his treatise _De Agri Cultura_, the earliest extant work in Latin
+prose, which, besides giving instruction for the husbandman, deals
+with housekeeping, cookery, and medicine.
+
+(2) His great work was the _Origines_, the earliest history in Latin
+prose, the contents of which are enumerated by Nepos, _Cato_, 3, 3,
+'Senex historias scribere instituit. Earum sunt libri vii. Primus
+continet res gestas regum populi Romani, secundus et tertius unde
+quaeque civitas orta sit Italica (ob quam rem omnes Origines videtur
+appellasse); in quarto autem bellum Poenicum est primum, in quinto
+secundum. Atque haec omnia capitulatim sunt dicta. Reliqua quoque
+bella pari modo persecutus est usque ad praeturam Ser. Galbae, qui
+diripuit Lusitanos (B.C. 151). Atque horum bellorum duces non
+nominavit, sed sine nominibus res notavit.[22] In eisdem exposuit quae
+in Italia Hispaniisque aut fierent aut viderentur admiranda: in quibus
+multa industria et diligentia comparet, nulla doctrina.'
+
+An attempt has been made by A. Bormann (_M. Porcii Catonis Originum
+Libri vii._, Brandenburg 1858, p. 38) to prove that the principle of
+division was geographical, and that history only came in incidentally
+in connexion with the reduction of provinces; but as Nepos was writing
+to an eminent authority on antiquities, his account is likely to be
+right. The period between the kings and the Punic Wars was probably
+omitted by Cato through want of authorities.
+
+The title _Origines_ fails to indicate the scope of the work, which
+was chiefly occupied with general history; it was probably taken, as
+Nepos suggests, from the contents of Books ii. and iii., which seem to
+have been the most novel and valuable part of the undertaking.
+(Jordan, however, takes 'Origines' as equivalent, not to the Greek
++ktiseis+, but to 'res Romanae ab origine repetitae.')
+
+(3) _Praecepta ad Filium_ was the general title of a didactic work
+containing rules for medicine, husbandry, and rhetoric (_e.g._ 'Rem
+tene, verba sequentur'). Cf. Quint. iii. 1, 19, 'Romanorum primus,
+quantum ego quidem sciam, condidit aliqua in hanc materiam (rhetoric)
+M. Cato ille Censorius.'
+
+(4) _Speeches._--Fragments of eighty speeches, out of about two
+hundred and thirty, are collected by Jordan. They are almost equally
+divided between forensic and deliberative speeches: none is known of
+earlier date than B.C. 195. Cato incorporated some of them in the
+_Origines_, _e.g._ For the Rhodians (Gell. vi. 3, 7), and Against
+Galba (Cic. _Brut._ 89).
+
+Works on civil law are attributed to Cato, and we hear also of
++apophthegmata+ (Cic. _de Off._ i. 104), _Liber de re militari_ (Gell.
+vi. 4, 5), and _Carmen de moribus_ (Gell. xi. 2, 2).
+
+
+
+ACCIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+The forms Accius and Attius are both found on inscriptions, _e.g._
+from Pisaurum; but in the MSS. of Nonius Marcellus, who often quotes
+Accius, and who is careful about his forms, 'Accius' is always found,
+and generally in MSS. of other authors.
+
+L. Accius was born B.C. 170 at Pisaurum (of. Pliny, _N.H._ vii. 128,
+'Attio Pisaurense').
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1878 = B.C. 139, 'L. Accius tragoediarum scriptor
+clarus habetur, natus Mancino et Serrano coss. (B.C. 170) parentibus
+libertinis et seni iam Pacuvio Tarenti sua scripta recitavit. A quo et
+fundus Accianus iuxta Pisaurum dicitur, quia illuc inter colonos
+fuerat ex urbe deductus.'
+
+This last statement must refer to Accius' father, as the colony of
+Pisaurum was founded B.C. 184. Jerome's chronology is corroborated by
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 229, 'Accius isdem aedilibus (B.C. 140) ait se et
+Pacuvium docuisse fabulam, cum ille lxxx., ipse xxx. annos natus
+esset.'
+
+Accius' friendship and influence with leading men is shown by Cic.
+_pro Arch._ 27, 'D. Brutus, summus vir et imperator (cons. B.C. 138)
+Acci amicissimi sui carminibus templorum ac monumentorum aditus
+exornavit suorum.'
+
+_Auct. ad Herenn._ i. 24, 'Mimus quidam nominatim Accium poetam
+compellavit in scaena. Cum eo Accius iniuriarum egit'; ii. 19, 'P.
+Mucius eum qui L. Accium poetam nominaverat condemnavit.'
+
+The above shows his self-consciousness; cf. also Pliny _N.H._ xxxiv.
+19, 'Notatum ab auctoribus et L. Accium poetam in Camenarum aede
+maxima forma statuam sibi posuisse, cum brevis admodum fuisset.'
+
+For Accius' friendship with Pacuvius, see p. 35. Accius must have
+lived to about B.C. 86, as Cicero (born B.C. 106) talked with him on
+literary subjects.
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 107, 'D. Brutus M. filius, ut ex familiari eius L. Accio
+poeta sum audire solitus.'
+
+His _Tereus_ was produced in B.C. 104, as is seen from
+
+Cic. _Phil._ i. 36 (B.C. 44), 'Nisi forte Accio tum plaudi et
+sexagesimo post anno palmam dari, non Bruto, putabatis.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Tragedies._--Titles of about forty-five plays, and about seven
+hundred lines of fragments are extant. The fragments show imitation of
+Aeschylus as well as of Sophocles and Euripides.
+
+2. _Praetextae._--_Aeneadae_ or _Decius_, and _Brutus_. _Decius_
+treated of the self-sacrifice of P. Decius Mus at Sentinum, B.C. 295.
+Cf. l. 15, 'Patrio exemplo et me dicabo atque animam devoro (=
+devovero) hostibus.' _Brutus_ treated of the overthrow of Tarquinius
+Superbus and the establishment of the consulship.
+
+3. _Didascalica_, in at least nine books, a history of Greek and Latin
+poetry, with special attention to the drama. The few fragments are
+mostly in Sotadean metre. Cf. Gell. vi. 9, 16, 'L. Accius in
+Sotadicorum libro I.'
+
+4. _Pragmaticon libri_ (in trochaic tetrameters) on literary subjects.
+
+5. _Praxidica_, on agriculture. Two lines on ploughing are quoted from
+'liber parergon,' i., but it is not certain whether this is an
+independent work.
+
+6. _Annales_, in hexameters.
+
+7. A work in Saturnians.
+
+Accius gave attention to points of language. Cf. Quint. i. 7, 14,
+'Semivocales geminare diu non fuit usitatissimi moris, atque e
+contrario usque ad Accium et ultra porrectas syllabas geminis, ut
+dixi, vocalibus scripserunt.'
+
+Accius, like Ennius and Pacuvius, attacks superstition. Cf. ll. 169-70,
+
+  'Nil credo auguribus, qui auris verbis divitant
+  alienas, suas ut auro locupletent domos.'
+
+That Virgil imitated Accius is mentioned by Macrob. vi. 1, 58, who
+compares, _e.g._, l. 156,
+
+  'Virtuti sis par, dispar fortunis patris,'
+
+and _Aen._ xii. 435-6,
+
+  'Disce, puer, virtutem ex me verumque laborem,
+  fortunam ex aliis.'
+
+_Views on Accius._--A few of these may be referred to. Cic. _pro
+Sest._ 120, 'Summi poetae ingenium.' Ovid. _Am._ i. 15, 19,
+
+  'Animosi Accius oris.'
+
+Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 97; Tac. _Dial._ 20; and Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 55
+(see 'Pacuvius,' p. 37).
+
+Of the prose writers contemporary with Accius, the most important were
+the annalists _L. Cassius Hemina_ and _L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi_; the
+orators _Ti._ and _C. Graccus_, and their opponent _C. Fannius_, and
+_M. Aemilius Scaurus_, the _princeps senatus_, who also wrote an
+autobiography (Cic. _Brut._ 112). _L. Coelius Antipater_ wrote a
+history of the Second Punic War in seven Books, making use of Silenus,
+whose account was favourable to the Carthaginians (Cic. _de Div._ i.
+49). His strength lay in style (Cic. _de Or._ ii. 53); though
+painstaking, he was apt to exaggerate (Liv. xxvii. 27, 12; xxix, 25,
+3).
+
+
+
+LUCILIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+C. Lucilius' dates are given by Jerome as B.C. 148-103.
+
+yr. Abr. 1869 = B.C. 148, 'Lucilius poeta nascitur.'
+
+yr. Abr. 1914 = B.C. 103, 'C. Lucilius satirarum scriptor Neapoli
+moritur, ac publico funere effertur anno aetatis xlvi.'
+
+If Jerome's notice were correct, Lucilius would have been only
+thirteen years old at the time of the Numantine War (B.C. 134) in
+which he served.
+
+Velleius ii. 9, 4, 'Celebre et Lucili nomen fuit qui sub P. Africano
+Numantino bello eques militaverat.'
+
+It is probable that Jerome has confused the consuls of B.C. 180, A.
+Postumius Albinus and C. Calpurnius Piso, with those of B.C. 148, Sp.
+Postumius Albinus and L. Calpurnius Piso, and that Lucilius was born
+B.C. 180. No reference is found in Lucilius to any event after B.C.
+103, so that Jerome may be right in giving that as the year of his
+death. In Hor. _Sat._ ii. 1, 34, Lucilius is called _senex_, which
+shows that he lived a long life.
+
+Lucilius was born at Suessa in Campania. He was an _eques_, and was
+the great-uncle of Pompey. Juv. 1, 19,
+
+  'Cur tamen hoc potius libeat decurrere campo,
+  per quem magnus equos Auruncae flexit alumnus,
+  si vacat ac placidi rationem admittitis, edam.'
+
+Porphyr. ad Hor. _Sat._ ii. 1, 75, '"infra Lucili censum": Constat
+enim Lucilium avonculum maiorem Pompei fuisse: etenim avia Pompei
+Lucilii soror fuerat.'
+
+Velleius ii. 29, 2, 'Fuit [Cn. Pompeius] genitus matre Lucilia,
+stirpis senatoriae.' This Lucilia was Lucilius' niece, and her father,
+Lucilius' brother, was a senator.
+
+Lucilius was very intimate with Africanus the younger and Laelius, and
+celebrated them in his works. Hor. _Sat._ ii. 1, 71,
+
+  'Quin ubi se a volgo et scaena in secreta remorant
+  virtus Scipiadae et mitis sapientia Laeli,
+  nugari cum illo et discincti ludere, donec
+  decoqueretur olus, soliti.'
+
+Schol. Cruq. _ad loc._, 'Scipio Africanus et Laelius feruntur tam
+fuisse familiares et amici Lucilio, ut quodam tempore Laelio circum
+lectos triclinii fugienti Lucilius superveniens eum obtorta mappa quasi
+feriturus sequeretur.'
+
+Hor. _Sat._ ii. 1, 16,
+
+  'Attamen et iustum poteras et scribere fortem,
+  Scipiadam ut sapiens Lucilius.'
+
+Lucil. _Sat._ xxx. 5 (of Scipio),
+
+                   'Sicubi ad auris
+  fama tuam pugnam clarans adlata dicasset.'
+
+Such intimate association could not have existed if Lucilius had been,
+as Jerome implies, only nineteen at Scipio's death in B.C. 129.
+
+There are many references to Lucilius' attacks on public men. Cf. Hor.
+_Sat._ ii. 1, 62,
+
+                'Quid? cum est Lucilius ausus
+  primus in hunc operis componere carmina morem,
+  detrahere et pellem, nitidus qua quisque per ora
+  cederet, introrsum turpis, num Laelius et qui
+  duxit ab oppressa meritum Carthagine nomen
+  ingenio offensi aut laeso doluere Metello
+  famosisque Lupo cooperto versibus? atqui
+  primores populi arripuit populumque tributim,
+  scilicet uni aequus virtuti atque eius amicis.'
+
+Lucil. lib. incert., ll. 63-4, quoted by Cic. _N.D._ i. 64,
+
+             '"Tubulus si Lucius umquam,
+  si Lupus aut Carbo, Neptuni filius,"
+
+ut ait Lucilius, putasset esse deos, tam periurus aut tam impurus
+fuisset?'
+
+Pers. 1, 114,
+
+                    'Secuit Lucilius urbem,
+  te Lupe, te Muci, et genuinum fregit in illis.'
+
+Juv. 1, 165,
+
+  'Ense velut stricto quotiens Lucilius ardens
+  infremuit, rubet auditor cui frigida mens est
+  criminibus, tacita sudant praecordia culpa.'
+
+_The Saturae._--There were thirty Books altogether, by whom arranged
+is unknown. Fragments are extant from all the Books, except xxi. and
+xxiv. (and possibly xxiii. and xxv.). Books i.-xx. and xxx. were in
+hexameters; xxii. in elegiacs; xxvi.-xxvii. in trochaic septenarii;
+and the next two in trochaic septenarii, iambic senarii, and
+hexameters. Books xxvi.-xxix. were published first, then Book xxx. In
+Book xxvi. Lucilius states his views of life, his poetic principles,
+what led him to write satire, etc. Cf. l. 3,
+
+  'Nunc itidem populum aucupamur istis cum scriptoribus.'
+
+Lines 7-20 contain a conversation between Lucilius and a friend who
+wishes him to engage in public life. Cf. ll. 16-7,
+
+  'Publicanu' vero ut Asiae fiam scripturarius
+  pro Lucilio, id ego nolo, et uno hoc non muto omnia.'
+
+Two divisions of the work may be recognized--(i) Books i.-xxi. (to
+which xxii.-xxv. may be an addition) in hexameters; these Books are
+referred to as one collection by Varro, _L.L._ v. 17. (2) Books
+xxvi.-xxx. in various metres.
+
+_Dates of Composition._--Hor. _Sat._ ii. 1, 62-70 (quoted above),
+shows that Lucilius attacked Lupus and Metellus while Scipio and
+Laelius were still alive, _i.e._ not after B.C. 129; xxvi., ll. 88-9,
+in which Lucilius sneers at marriage,
+
+  'Homines ipsi hanc sibi molestiam ultro atque aerumnam offerunt.
+  Ducunt uxores, producunt, quibus haec faveant, liberos,'
+
+may have special reference to the attempts of Metellus in his
+censorship (B.C. 131) to encourage it. If this is so, Books xxvi.-xxx.
+were composed about B.C. 131-129. Book i. was composed after the death
+of Carneades in B.C. 129 (cf. l. 12, 'nec si Carneaden ipsum Orcu'
+remittat'), and probably soon after the death of Lupus, on whom the
+gods are represented as sitting in judgment.
+
+Serv. ad _Aen._ x. 104, 'Totus hic locus de primo Lucili translatus
+est libro; ubi inducuntur di habere concilium et agere primo de
+interitu Lupi cuiusdam ducis in re publica, postea sententias dicere.'
+
+In B.C. 126 Lucilius was probably, along with other _peregrini_,
+banished under the law of M. Iunius Pennus, trib. pl. in that year. He
+probably returned in B.C. 124, when the law was repealed by C.
+Graccus. Bk. xi. was composed after the condemnation of L. Opimius in
+B.C. 110. Cf. ll. 19-21,
+
+  'Quintus Opimius ille, Iugurtini pater huius,
+  et formosus homo fuit et famosus, utrumque
+  primo adulescens, posterius dat rectiu' sese.'
+
+_Subjects of the Satires._--These were very varied. Besides personal
+satire, we have (1) ethical criticism, as ridicule of philosophers and
+attacks on luxury.
+
+Lib. incert. ll. 134-5 (imitated by Hor. _Sat._ i. 3, 132 _sqq._;
+_Ep._ i. 1, 106-8),
+
+  'Nondum etiam, qui haec omnia habebit,
+  formonsus, dives, liber, rex solu' feretur?'
+
+iv. 4-6 (cf. Hor. _Sat._ ii. 2, 46-8),
+
+  'O Publi, o gurges, Galloni: es homo miser, inquit,
+  cenasti in vita numquam bene, cum omnia in ista
+  consumis squilla atque acupensere cum in decimano.'
+
+(2) Travels, as the account of the journey to the Sicilian Strait,
+imitated by Hor. _Sat._ i. 5.
+
+(3) Literary criticism. Lucilius jeers at Ennius' line,
+
+  'Sparsis hastis longis campus splendet et horret,'
+
+according to Servius ad _Aen._ xi. 601, 'Est versus Ennianus
+vituperatus a Lucilio dicente per irrisionem eum debuisse dicere
+"horret et alget."' Euripides is criticised in xxix., frag. 9. Points
+of orthography and the like are also treated of, cf. ix. 11,
+
+  'Iam puerei venere. E postremum facito atque i,
+  ut pueri plures fiant. I si faci' solum,
+  pupilli, pueri, Lucili hoc uniu' fiet.'[23]
+
+Some other points may be noted:
+
+(1) He addresses a large circle of readers, xxix. 99,
+
+  'Persium non curo legere: Laelium Decumum volo.'
+
+Cf. Cic. _de Or._ ii. 25, 'Hic [Persius] fuit enim, ut noramus, omnium
+fere nostrorum hominum doctissimus: "Laelium Decimum volo," quem
+cognovimus virum bonum et non inlitteratum sed nihil ad Persium.'
+
+(2) For his self-esteem of. xxvi. 16, (quoted above). So xxx. 1,
+
+  'Quoi sua conmittunt mortali claustra Camenae.'
+
+(3) He often mixes Greek words with Latin. Cf. v. 12,
+
+       'Hoc nolueris et debueris te
+  si minu' delectat, quod +technion+ Eisocratiumst
+  +l�r�des+que totum ac +symmeiraki�des+,
+  non operam perdo.'
+
+(4) For his carelessness as to style of. Hor. _Sat._ i. 4, 9,
+
+       'In hora saepe ducentos,
+  ut magnum, versus dictabat, stans pede in uno:
+  cum flueret lutulentus, erat quod tollere velles;
+  garrulus atque piger scribendi ferre laborem,
+  scribendi recte; nam ut multum, nil moror.'
+
+For Lucilius' influence on other poets, see above; also under
+'Persius,' p. 262. For Horace's views on Lucilius, see above; also
+_Sat._ i. 4; i. 10; ii. 1.
+
+Cf. Quint. x. 1, 93, 'Satira quidem tota nostra est, in qua primus
+insignem laudem adeptus Lucilius quosdam ita deditos sibi adhuc habet
+amatores, ut eum non eiusdem modo operis auctoribus sed omnibus poetis
+praeferre non dubitent. Ego quantum ab illis tantum ab Horatio
+dissentio, qui Lucilium "fluere lutulentum" et "esse aliquid, quod
+tollere possis" putat. Nam eruditio in eo mira et libertas atque inde
+acerbitas et abundantia salis.'
+
+
+
+ATTA AND AFRANIUS.
+
+
+Writers of _togatae_ were Atta and Afranius.
+
+Sueton. p. 15 R., 'Togatas tabernarias in scaenam dataverunt praecipue
+duo, L. Afranius et T. Quintius.'
+
+T. Quintius Atta died B.C. 77, according to Jerome yr. Abr. 1940, 'T.
+Quintius Atta, scriptor togatarum, Romae moritur.'
+
+Eleven titles and about twenty lines of fragments are extant. Horace
+refers to Atta in _Ep._ ii. 1, 79 _sqq._,
+
+  'Recte necne crocum floresque perambulet Attae
+  fabula si dubitem, clament periisse pudorem
+  cuncti paene patres, ea cum reprendere coner
+  quae gravis Aesopus, quae doctus Roscius egit.'
+
+L. Afranius was probably born between B.C. 154 and 144. He was the
+chief writer of _togatae_ (Quint. x. 1, 100, 'Togatis excellit
+Afranius'), and also an orator.
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 167, 'L. Afranius poeta, homo perargutus, in fabulis
+quidem etiam ut scitis disertus.'
+
+There are extant forty-two titles (with Latin names) and more than
+four hundred lines of fragments. The plays exhibit Roman surroundings,
+and describe low life, especially of the provincial towns. Cf. the
+title _Brundusinae_, also l. 136,
+
+  'Ubi hice Moschis, quaeso, habet, meretrix Neapolitis?'
+
+Afranius imitated Menander, and probably Terence.
+
+Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 57,
+
+  'Dicitur Afrani toga convenisse Menandro.'
+
+Macrob. _Saturn._ vi. 1, 4, 'Afranius togatarum scriptor in ea togata,
+quae Compitalia inscribitur, non inverecunde respondens arguentibus,
+quod plura sumpsisset a Menandro,
+
+  "Fateor" inquit "sumpsi non ab illo modo,
+  sed ut quisque habuit conveniret quod mihi,
+  quod me non posse melius facere credidi
+  etiam a Latino"' (ll. 25-8).
+
+Sueton. _vit. Ter._ p. 33 R., 'Terentium Afranius omnibus comicis
+praefert.'
+
+
+
+MINOR POETS:
+
+
+(_a_) The poets immediately after Afranius include
+
+(1) Hostius.--He was perhaps the grandfather of Cynthia (Hostia),
+Propertius' mistress. Prop. iv. 20, 7,
+
+  'Est tibi forma potens; sunt castae Palladis artes,
+  splendidaque a docto fama refulget avo.'
+
+There are nine lines extant from his epic poem _Bellum Histricum_,
+which was probably on the war of B.C. 125. Frag. 5 (B�hrens),
+
+    'Non si mihi linguae
+  centum atque ora sient totidem vocesque liquatae,'
+
+is from _Il._ ii. 489, and is imitated by Verg. _Aen._ vi. 625 (as
+noticed by Macrob. _Saturn._ vi. 3, 6).
+
+(2) Writers of epigrams--Pompilius, Valerius Aedituus, Porcius
+Licinus, and Q. Lutatius Catulus (cons. B.C. 102).
+
+(3) Q. Valerius Soranus wrote verse on philology and archaeology.
+
+(4) Volcacius Sedigitus wrote verse on literary history up to the time
+of the _fabula palliata_. He wrote _indices_ of Plautus (Gell. iii. 3,
+1), and a work _De Poetis_, which included his canon on the comic
+poets (Gell. xv. 24).
+
+  'Caecilio palmam Statio do mimico.
+  Plautus secundus facile exuperat ceteros.
+  Dein Naevius, qui fervet, pretio in tertiost.
+  Si erit, quod quarto detur, dabitur Licinio.
+  Post insequi Licinium facio Atilium.
+  In sexto consequetur hos Terentius,
+  Turpilius septimum, Trabea octavum optinet,
+  nono loco esse facile facio Luscium.
+  Decimum addo causa antiquitatis Ennium.'
+
+(_b_) The following poets wrote during Cicero's youth, B.C. 106-84:
+
+(1) Cn. Matius, author of _Mimiambi_, and a translation of the
+_Iliad_. An example of the last is Frag. I (B�hrens) = _Il._ i. 56,
+
+  'Corpora Graiorum maerebat mandier igni.'
+
+(2) Laevius, author of _Erotopaegnia_, of a lyrical character.
+Porphyr. ad Hor. _Od._ iii. 1, 2, 'Romanis utique non prius audita,
+quamvis Laevius lyrica ante Horatium scripserit; sed videntur illa non
+Graecorum lege ad lyricum characterem exacta.'
+
+About sixty lines are extant. Gell. xix. 7 speaks of Laevius' curious
+vocabulary, and instances _oblittera_ for _oblitterata_;
+_trisaeclisenex_, _dulciorelocus_, etc.
+
+(3) A. Furius of Antium. Only six lines are extant.
+
+(4) C. Iulius Caesar Strabo, a tragic writer and orator.
+
+(5) Sueius. His works are (_a_) _Moretum_, an idyll; (_b_) _Pulli_, on
+the breeding of fowls; (_c_) _Nidus_; (_d_) an epic poem, _Annales_.
+
+(6) Writers of _fabula Atellana_;[24] Novius and L. Pomponius
+(Bononiensis). Fronto p. 62 (ed. Naber), 'Elegantis Novium et
+Pomponium et id genus in verbis rusticanis et iocularibus ac
+ridiculariis.'
+
+Of Novius forty-three titles and over one hundred lines are preserved,
+and of Pomponius about seventy titles and two hundred lines. The
+well-known characters of the _fabula Atellana_ are retained, as is
+seen from the titles. Cf. _Duo Dosseni_, _Maccus Copa_ of Novius; _Bucco
+Adoptatus_, _Maccus Miles_, _Maccus Sequester_, _Maccus Virgo_ of
+Pomponius.
+
+
+
+PROSE WRITERS OF THE SAME PERIOD:
+
+
+_L. Cornelius Sisenna_ (praetor B.C. 78), author of _Historiae_ of the
+Social and Civil Wars (Vell. Pat. ii. 9). Cicero thought him superior
+to his predecessors, but childish (_Brut._ 228, _De Leg._ i. 7), and
+Sallust remarks his want of frankness in speaking of Sulla's career
+(_Iug._ 95). He avoided a piecemeal and desultory treatment of events;
+cf. his own words quoted by Gell. xii. 15, 2, 'Nos una aestate in Asia
+et Graecia gesta litteris idcirco continentia mandavimus, ne
+vellicatim aut saltuatim scribendo lectorum animos impediremus.' His
+translation of the +Mil�siaka+ of Aristides is mentioned by Ovid,
+_Tr._ ii. 443.
+
+Contemporary with Sisenna were _Q. Claudius Quadrigarius_, and
+_Valerius Antias_, whose narrative was coloured by partiality for the
+Valerii and for Scipio Africanus (see under 'Livy').
+
+_C. Licinius Macer_, father of the poet Calvus, was one of Livy's
+sources for the early history. Dion. Hal. (vi. 11 and vii. 1)
+complains of his carelessness and the weakness of his chronology. He
+claimed that he used original authorities, _e.g._ the _libri lintei_,
+lists of magistrates written on linen. He was a strong democrat, and
+is looked upon by Mommsen (_R.H._ iv., p. 602) as manufacturing
+authorities in support of his political views.
+
+_Sulla_ wrote memoirs of his own life (Plut. _Lucull._ 1), and
+_Lucullus_ composed in Greek a history of the Marsian War (_ibid._).
+
+
+
+Footnotes to Chapter I
+
+
+[1] The scheme of this old national metre, which depends on accent and
+not on quantity, may be seen from the two examples given below.
+Various forms are found, but one of the commonest types is identical
+with the rhythm of the nursery rhyme,
+
+  'The queen was in the parlour, eating bread and honey.'
+
+[2] 'I have heard that a Roman poet is languishing in prison with head
+on hand'--probably a metaphor from a pillar (but the sense is far from
+certain).
+
+[3] Utica was besieged by Scipio from 204 to 202 B.C.
+
+[4] In the _fabula togata_ or _tabernaria_ the surroundings of the
+comedy were Roman, in the _fabula palliata_ Greek, as in Plautus'
+plays. _Togata_ in a wider sense included tragedy as well as comedy.
+
+[5] This term means the construction of a new play by uniting two old
+ones.
+
+[6] The references are to the revised edition of Ritschl.
+
+[7] A species of burlesque tragedy, called after its inventor
+Rhinthon, who flourished B.C. 300.
+
+[8] _R.H._ ii. p. 431 trans.
+
+[9] This shows that the ancient (rough alphabetical) order has been
+departed from. Some grammarian of the fifth century altered the
+position of the play on account of the reference to it in _Epid._
+213-5 (quoted above).
+
+[10] I.e. the 'Patruus' written by the old Roman (lit., 'son of the
+porridge-eater').
+
+[11] These games were celebrated in April. Plays were exhibited also
+at the _Ludi Romani_ (September) and the _Ludi Plebei_ (November).
+
+[12] Much of the information on this head is taken from J. Brix's
+edition of the _Trinummus_. Leipzig, 1888.
+
+[13] This is shown in the universal classical usage of _bene_, _male_,
+etc.
+
+[14] The references are to Vahlen's edition.
+
+[15] Thus the original name of Beneventum was Maleventum, i.e.
++MaloFenta+, accusative of +MaloFeis+; cf. Agrigentum from
++Akragas+, and Tarentum from +Taras+.
+
+[16] Euhemerus of Messana, who wrote about the end of the fourth
+century B.C., tried in this work to show that the worship of the gods
+arose from the worship of deified kings and heroes.
+
+[17] The Oscan form of _Pacuvi_.
+
+[18] The term _doctus_ refers to his knowledge of the Greek laws of
+artistic composition.
+
+[19] After Ambivius' name appears in most of the didascaliae 'L.
+Hatilius Praenestinus.' Probably this person was an actor at some
+later productions, and his name has in this way crept into the MSS.
+
+[20] _Tibiae_ were called _pares_ or _impares_ according as they were
+or were not of the same length and key. _Duae dextrae_ were two pipes
+both playing the treble. _Tibiae Sarranae_, from Sarra, the old Latin
+name for Tyre, were a special form of _tibiae pares_.
+
+[21] _Mediocritas_ = +to meson+, the intermediate style between
++to hadron+, 'the florid' (_ubertas_), and +to ischnon+,
+'the simple' (_gracilitas_). See W. Peterson's note on Quint. x. 1,
+44.
+
+[22] For the omission of names, cf. iv. 12 (Jordan), 'dictatorem
+Karthaginiensium magister equitum monuit' (of Hannibal and Maharbal).
+
+[23] This means that Lucilius would represent the nom. plu. by _-ei_
+and the gen. sing, by _-i_.
+
+[24] The _fabula Atellana_ was a species of farce adopted by the
+Romans from the Oscan town of Atella in Campania. See Livy, vii. 2,
+for this and the early history of the Roman drama.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE CICERONIAN AGE.
+
+
+
+CICERO.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+M. Tullius Cicero, the son of a Roman knight, was born at Arpinum on
+3rd January, B.C. 106. Jerome yr. Abr. 1911, 'M. Tullius Cicero Arpini
+nascitur matre Helvia, patre equestris ordinis ex regio Volscorum
+genere.' Cic. _ad Att._ xiii. 42, 3, 'Diem meum scis esse iii. Non.
+Ian.'
+
+He gives an account of his education in _Brut._ 306 _sqq._ In civil
+law he was a pupil, in B.C. 89, of Q. Scaevola the Augur, and
+afterwards of the pontifex of the same name (_de Am._ 1). In B.C. 88
+he studied philosophy under Philo the Academic, and rhetoric under
+Molo of Rhodes. Dialectic he practised with the Stoic Diodotus, who
+lived and died in Cicero's house (B.C. 87-5). Other teachers of Cicero
+were the poet Archias (_pro Arch._ 1), the orator Antonius (_de Or._
+ii. 3), the actors Roscius and Aesopus (Plut. _Cic._ 5), the
+rhetorician M. Antonius Gnipho (Sueton. _Gramm._ 7), and the
+philosophers Phaedrus and Zeno.
+
+After establishing a reputation at the bar by his defence of Quinctius
+and of Roscius of Ameria, he visited Asia to recruit his health and
+improve his oratorical style. On his way to the East he stayed six
+months at Athens, where he renewed his philosophical studies under
+Antiochus the Academic. In Asia he attended the leading rhetoricians,
+especially his old teacher Molo at Rhodes, who endeavoured to chasten
+the exuberance of his manner. At Rhodes he also made the acquaintance
+of the famous Stoic Posidonius (_de Fin._ i. 6). After an absence of
+two years he returned to Rome B.C. 77, and shortly afterwards married
+Terentia.
+
+Cicero, who had served in the Social War, B.C. 89 (_Phil._ xii. 27),
+began his official career in 75 as quaestor of the district of
+Lilybaeum in Sicily, where he won golden opinions from all classes
+(_pro Planc._ 64). He headed the poll at the election of aediles for
+69, and of praetors for 66 (_in Pis._ 2); as praetor he presided over
+the court for the trial of cases of _repetundae_ (_pro Clu._ 147). His
+canvass for the consulship of 63 began as early as July 65 (_ad Att._
+i. 1, 1); he was returned with C. Antonius as his colleague (_in Pis._
+3). His services to the State in 63 in the crushing of the
+Catilinarian conspiracy need not be dwelt on here: his activity as an
+orator in that year was great, and he passed a law against undue
+influence by candidates, 'Lex Tullia de ambitu' (_in Vat._ 37). He
+waived his right to a province, allowing Metellus Celer to take Gaul.
+
+In 58 the hostility of P. Clodius effected Cicero's banishment, on the
+ground that he had put the Catilinarian conspirators to death without
+trial. Retiring at first to Vibo, in Lucania, he moved successively to
+Sicily, Thurii, Tarentum, Brundisium, Dyrrhachium, Thessalonica, and
+Athens. At Dyrrhachium he resided from November 58 to August 57, when,
+after several unsuccessful efforts by his friends, a law was passed
+for his recall.
+
+In 53 he was chosen augur in succession to the younger Crassus (Plut.
+_Cic._ 36), and two years later was appointed proconsul of Cilicia,
+under the new arrangement providing for an interval of five years
+between office in Rome and the government of a province. There he
+carried on a petty warfare with the mountaineers, and captured the
+fort of Pindenissus (a success for which the Senate decreed a
+_supplicatio_), occupying the winter with judicial business in the
+towns. His absence from the centre of affairs, though it lasted only a
+year, was most distasteful to him; cf. _ad Att._ v. 11, 1, 'Ne
+provincia nobis prorogetur, per fortunas! dum ades, quidquid provideri
+potest, provide: non dici potest quam flagrem desiderio urbis, quam
+vix harum rerum insulsitatem feram.' For his just dealing with the
+provincials, cf. _ad Att._ v. 21, 5.
+
+In November, 50, Cicero returned to Italy, to find a crisis imminent,
+and finally cast in his lot with the senatorial party. He left Rome
+with the consuls and the leading _optimates_, and for some time had
+charge of the district of Capua (_ad Fam._ xvi. 11, 3, 'nos Capuam
+sumpsimus'). On 7th June, B.C. 49, he embarked to join Pompey in
+Epirus, though far from enthusiastic for his leadership (_ad Fam._
+vii. 3, 2, 'mei facti poenituit... Nihil boni praeter causam.') The
+chiefs of the party looked upon him with suspicion, and he was not
+present at the battle of Pharsalus. After Pompey's overthrow he
+returned to Brundisium, and in 47 was allowed by Caesar to return to
+Rome (_ad Fam._ xiv. 23). His mode of life at this time he thus
+describes (_ad Fam._ ix. 20, 3), 'Ubi salutatio defluxit, litteris me
+involvo, aut scribo aut lego. Veniunt etiam qui me audiant quasi
+doctum hominem, quia paullo sum quam ipsi doctior.'
+
+In 46 he divorced his wife Terentia, of whose neglect he complains,
+_ad Fam._ iv. 14, 3; and married Publilia, with whom he parted in the
+following year. In 45 he lost his only daughter Tullia, who had been
+thrice married; he tried to drown his grief by close application to
+literary work, moving about from villa to villa, and it is to this
+period that most of his philosophical works belong. In 44 he appeared
+once more in Rome, and took a prominent part in the proceedings which
+followed upon Caesar's death. April to July he spent at his various
+villas (_ad Att._ xiv. _passim_), and then decided to visit Athens,
+where his son (born B.C. 65) was studying. On 1st August he reached
+Syracuse, but hearing at Leucopetra that his presence was required at
+Rome, he gave up his plan of travel and returned to the city. With the
+series of _Philippics_ against Antony (44-3) Cicero's career closes.
+In the proscription agreed on by the triumvirs he was marked out as
+one of the chief victims. A fragment of Livy, quoted by Seneca,
+_Suas._ 6, 17, states that he fled first to Tusculum, then to Formiae,
+and took ship from Caieta, but returned to land, exclaiming, 'Moriar
+in patria saepe servata.' On his way from the shore to his villa he
+was slain by a party of Antony's soldiers, and his head was carried to
+Rome and exposed on the Rostra. The date of the assassination was 7th
+December, B.C. 43 (Tiro quoted by Tac. _Dial._ 17).
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+(a) Speeches.
+
+1. The earliest extant speech is that _Pro Quinctio_, delivered B.C.
+81 (Gell. xv. 28, 3) in an action before a iudex for restitution of
+property. This was not Cicero's first appearance as an advocate: � 4,
+'quod mihi consuevit in ceteris causis esse adiumento.'
+
+2. Next year (cf. Gell. _ibid._) Cicero made his first speech in a
+criminal case, defending Sex. Roscius of Ameria on a charge of
+parricide. By so doing he incurred the risk of Sulla's enmity, but at
+the same time established his own position. _De Off._ ii. 51, 'contra
+L. Sullae dominantis opes pro S. Roscio Amerino'; _Brut._ 312, 'prima
+causa publica, pro Sex. Roscio dicta, tantum commendationis habuit, ut
+non ulla esset quae non digna nostro patrocinio videretur.' In later
+years he criticized the 'iuvenilis redundantia' of this speech
+(_Orat._ 108).
+
+3. The speech _Pro Roscio Comoedo_, usually assigned to B.C. 76, was a
+defence of the famous actor in a civil case.
+
+4. The year 70 B.C. is memorable for the group of speeches
+('accusationis vii. libri,' _Orat._ 103), against Verres, accused of
+_repetundae_ by the Sicilians, at whose urgent entreaty Cicero
+undertook the prosecution. The preliminary question, who should
+conduct the prosecution, is argued in the _Divinatio in Caecilium_. Q.
+Caecilius Niger, Verres' quaestor, claimed the right to prosecute, but
+this manoeuvre failed. Of the six speeches _in Verrem_ only one, the
+_Actio Prima_, was delivered: Cicero, seeing that the other side were
+anxious to carry the trial over into the next year, confined himself
+to this short introductory speech (on 5th August, cf. � 31), after
+which he called his witnesses. Their evidence was so damaging that
+Hortensius[25] threw up the defence, and Verres was sentenced to
+banishment and his property confiscated. The five Books of the _Actio
+Secunda_ were published afterwards in order that the facts might be
+thoroughly known.
+
+5. _Pro M. Fonteio_ (incomplete), for Fonteius, propraetor of Gallia
+Narbonensis B.C. 75-3, on a charge of _repetundae_. This trial perhaps
+took place B.C. 69, certainly after the equites had been placed on the
+_iudicia_ by the Lex Aurelia of 70 (cf. � 26).
+
+6. To the same year probably belongs the speech _Pro Caecina_ in a
+civil case.
+
+7. In B.C. 66 Cicero made his first political speech, _Pro Lege
+Manilia_, or _De Imperio Cn. Pompei_, in support of the bill of the
+tribune Manilius for conferring on Pompey the command against
+Mithradates.
+
+8. In the same year he defended Cluentius, charged with murder, in the
+speech _Pro A. Cluentio Habito_. The date is fixed as the year of
+Cicero's praetorship by � 147, 'mea quaestio de pecuniis repetundis.'
+
+9. The three speeches _De Lege Agraria_ are concerned with the bill of
+P. Servilius Rullus for the appointment of _decemviri_ with full power
+to buy and sell land and to establish colonies. The first speech
+(incomplete) was made in the Senate on 1st January, the second and
+third before _contiones_.
+
+10. The speech _Pro C. Rabirio perduellionis reo_ was delivered on
+behalf of Rabirius, charged before the _comitia_ with the murder of
+the tribune Saturninus in B.C. 100. The prosecution had been
+instituted by the democratic party to vindicate the old right of
+_provocatio ad populum_, and to establish the inviolability of the
+tribunes.
+
+11. Of the four speeches _In Catilinam_, i. was delivered in the
+Senate on 8th November, and followed by Catiline's flight from Rome;
+ii. to the people on 9th November; iii. to the people on 3rd December,
+when the Allobroges gave their evidence about the conspiracy; iv. in
+the Senate, on 5th December, calling for the capital punishment of the
+conspirators.[26]
+
+12. In this crisis Cicero made one of his most graceful and witty
+speeches, the _Pro Murena_. The defendant was charged with bribery in
+his candidature for the consulship, and among the prosecutors was
+Cato.
+
+13-14. In B.C. 62 Cicero defended P. Sulla, who was accused of
+complicity with Catiline (_Pro Sulla_), and delivered the speech _Pro
+Archia_ in support of his friend's title to the Roman citizenship.
+
+15. In B.C. 59 L. Flaccus was accused of _repetundae_ as propraetor of
+Asia 62-60, and defended by Cicero in the speech _Pro Flacco_.
+
+16-19. After Cicero's return from exile he returned thanks to the
+Senate in the speech _Cum Senatui gratias egit_, 5th September B.C. 57
+(_ad Att._ iv. 1, 5), delivered from manuscript ('propter rei
+magnitudinem dicta de scripto,' _Pro Planc._ 74). The genuineness of
+the corresponding speech to the people, _Cum populo gratias egit_, is
+suspected; it is mentioned by Dio. xxxix. 9, 1, but not by Cicero
+himself. On 30th September (_ad Att._ iv. 2, 2) the speech _De Domo
+Sua_ was delivered before the _pontifices_, who decided that the site
+of Cicero's house, which Clodius had consecrated, should be restored
+to its owner. Connected with this is the speech _De Haruspicum
+Responsis_, of the year 56, rebutting the argument of Clodius that the
+declaration of the _haruspices_, 'loca sacra et religiosa profana
+haberi' (� 9) referred to the restitution of Cicero's house.
+
+20. The speech _Pro Sestio_ is in defence of one of Cicero's friends
+who, as tribune, had worked energetically for his recall from exile,
+and was now accused _de vi_ at the instigation of Clodius. Sestius was
+acquitted in March, B.C. 56 (_ad Q.F._ ii. 4, 1).
+
+21. The _Interrogatio in P. Vatinium testem_ was a successful attack
+on the credibility of Vatinius, who had been one of the chief
+witnesses against Sestius.
+
+22. _Pro M. Caelio_.--The prosecution of Caelius on a charge of
+poisoning was instigated by his former mistress, Clodia; it took place
+in B.C. 56, for Cn. Domitius, who tried the case (� 32), was praetor
+in that year (_ad Q.F._ ii. 3, 6).
+
+23. The speech _De Provinciis Consularibus_, B.C. 56, argues that
+Caesar should be allowed to continue as proconsul of Gaul, and that
+Syria and Macedonia should be taken away from Gabinius and Piso.
+Mommsen[27] regards it as the +palin�dia+ of _ad Att._ iv. 5,
+1, and contrasts Cicero's tone to Caesar in this speech with his
+attitude in the _Pro Sestio_, _In Vatinium_, and _De Haruspicum
+Responsis_.
+
+24. The speech _Pro Balbo_ deals with a case similar to that of
+Archias. L. Cornelius Balbus, a native of Gades, and the trusted
+friend of Caesar, had received the _civitas_ from Pompey, and this
+speech is in defence of his right thereto (B.C. 56).
+
+25. _In Pisonem_, an attack on Cicero's enemy (consul B.C. 58),
+delivered in the Senate B.C. 55.
+
+26. _Pro Plancio_, B.C. 54, on behalf of Cn. Plancius, accused of
+organizing clubs to secure by bribery his election to the aedileship.
+
+27. _Pro Rabirio Postumo_, B.C. 54. Rabirius was charged with
+extortion in Egypt.
+
+28. _Pro Milone_.--At the trial of Milo _de vi_ in B.C. 52 Cicero was
+so intimidated by the uproar of the rabble that his speech was a
+failure, and Milo was condemned. The speech now extant was written by
+Cicero at his leisure. Both were known to Asconius,[28] who supplies a
+valuable introduction.
+
+29. For six years we have no speech; but in 46 Cicero broke his rule
+of silence ('in perpetuum tacere,' _ad Fam._ iv. 4, 4), and in the
+speech _Pro Marcello_ thanked Caesar for allowing Marcellus, the
+consul of B.C. 51, to return to Rome.
+
+30. On 26th November B.C. 46 he pleaded before Caesar the cause of Q.
+Ligarius (_Pro Ligario_).
+
+31. In the latter part of B.C. 45 he delivered in Caesar's house the
+speech _Pro Rege Deiotaro_ on behalf of his 'hospes vetus et amicus,'
+the tetrarch of Galatia, accused of treachery to Caesar.
+
+32. Cicero's oratorical career closes with the fourteen speeches
+against Antony, called _Philippics_, after the speeches of
+Demosthenes. This title was suggested by the author himself; cf. the
+letter of Brutus (_ad Brut._ ii. 5, 4), 'iam concedo ut vel
+Philippicae vocentur, quod tu quadam epistula iocans scripsisti.' It
+was the usual title in antiquity, though Gellius (xiii. 1, 1) uses the
+alternative _Antonianae_. The _Philippics_ cover the period from 2nd
+September 44 to 22nd April 43. They were all delivered in the Senate,
+except iv. and vi., which are _contiones_, and ii., which was never
+spoken, but published as a political pamphlet after Antony had left
+Rome: for its fame cf. Juv. 10, 125,
+
+  'Te conspicuae, divina Philippica, famae,
+  volveris a prima quae proxima.'
+
+There are fragments of about twenty speeches, and the titles of thirty
+others are known. The invective _in Sallustium_, and the speech
+_Pridie quam in exilium iret_, are undoubtedly spurious.
+
+Many of the speeches were to a large extent extempore, the heads only
+being committed to writing. These notes were afterwards collected by
+Tiro (Quint. x. 7, 30-1). In publishing, Cicero occasionally omitted
+some passages of the spoken oration, _e.g._ in _Pro Mur._ 57 only the
+headings appear, 'De Postumi criminibus.' 'De Servi adulescentis': cf.
+Plin. _Ep._ i. 20, 7, 'ex his apparet illum permulta dixisse, cum
+ederet omisisse.' For the practice of reporting his speeches in
+shorthand cf. Ascon. _in Mil._ 'manet illa quoque excepta eius oratio'
+(his speech at Milo's trial). The only case in which Cicero appeared
+for the prosecution was that of Verres: the part of an accuser was
+generally distasteful to him; cf. _De Off._ ii. 50, 'duri hominis vel
+potius vix hominis videtur, periculum capitis inferre multis.'
+
+
+(b) Philosophical Works.
+
+1. _De Re Publica_, a discussion of the ideal state and the ideal
+citizen, was published before B.C. 51, for Caelius writes to Cicero in
+Cilicia, 'tui politici libri omnibus vigent' (_ad Fam._ viii. 1, 4).
+In this treatise Cicero made use of Plato, and of Aristotle,
+Theophrastus, and other Peripatetics (_de Div._ ii. 3). There were six
+Books; but until 1822 the _Somnium Scipionis_, extracted by Macrobius
+from Book vi., was the only portion of the work known to exist, with
+the exception of a few fragments. In that year Mai published at Rome,
+from a Vatican palimpsest, remains which make up about one-third of
+the whole.
+
+2. The _De Legibus_ succeeded the _De Re Publica_, as Plato's _Laws_
+came after the _Republic_. The speakers in this dialogue are Atticus,
+Cicero, and his brother Quintus. Book i. expounds the Stoic position
+that the laws of the ideal state are made by the wise man in
+accordance with the mind of God; this position is worked out in Book
+ii. in the regulations for religion, and in iii. on the duties of
+magistrates. The treatise was never completed, and was perhaps a
+posthumous publication: it is not mentioned in the list in _De
+Divinatione_ ii. 1-3, and there is no preface, though Cicero says (_ad
+Att._ iv. 16, 2) 'in singulis libris utor prooemiis.' Certainly it had
+not appeared in B.C. 46, the year of the _Brutus_ (_Brut._ 19). It was
+composed after the murder of Clodius in January, B.C. 52 (ii. 42), and
+in Pompey's lifetime (iii. 22): probably in 52, as the government of
+Cilicia and the civil war left Cicero no time for literature during
+the years 51-48.
+
+3. In the spring of 46 was written the short tract _Paradoxa_, a
+discussion of six Stoic paradoxes (_e.g._ that the wise man alone is
+free). It was addressed to Brutus, and was later than the dialogue
+which bears his name; cf. the preface, 'accipies hoc parvum opusculum,
+lucubratum his iam contractioribus noctibus, quoniam illud maiorum
+vigiliarum munus in tuo nomine apparuit.'
+
+4. The death of Tullia in February, 45, led Cicero to write, at
+Astura, a _Consolatio_, of which only fragments survive. Plin. _N.H._
+praef. 22, quotes Cicero as saying that he here followed the Greek
+philosopher, Crantor, +peri penthous+. It contained notices of
+the deaths of great men, _De Div._ ii. 22, 'clarissimorum hominum
+nostrae civitatis gravissimos exitus in Consolatione collegimus.'
+
+5. In the _Hortensius_ Cicero appeared as the champion of philosophy:
+_De Fin._ i. 2, 'philosophiae vituperatoribus satis responsum est eo
+libro, quo a nobis philosophia defensa et collaudata est, cum esset
+accusata et vituperata ab Hortensio.' It cannot be traced beyond the
+seventh century, and is now represented by a few fragments. In the
+Middle Ages it was confounded with the _Prior Academics_, the speakers
+in both dialogues being the same. The _Hortensius_ seems to have been
+written before Cicero went to Astura in March, B.C. 45: there is no
+allusion to it in his letters.
+
+6. The treatise _De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum_ discusses various
+theories of the _summum bonum_--the Epicurean in Books i.-ii., the
+Stoic in iii.-iv., the Peripatetic in v. The scene of the dialogue
+changes from Cumae to Tusculum and then to the Academy at Athens. The
+work was dedicated to Brutus in June, 45 (_ad Att._ xiii. 12, 3).
+
+7. The _Academics_ appeared in two editions. Of the original edition
+Book ii., entitled _Lucullus_, has survived; the speakers in it are
+Lucullus, Catulus, Hortensius, and Cicero, and the scene, Hortensius'
+villa. Cicero was not satisfied with this arrangement (_ad Att._ xiii.
+12, 3, 'homines nobiles illi quidem, sed nullo modo philologi, nimis
+acute locuntur'), and after provisionally transferring the parts of
+Lucullus, Catulus, and Hortensius, to Cato and Brutus, he finally
+adopted the suggestion of Atticus to gratify Varro by giving him a
+share in the dialogue together with Atticus and himself (_ad Att._
+xiii. 13, 1, 'commotus tuis litteris, quod ad me de Varrone
+scripseras, totam Academiam ab hominibus nobilissimis abstuli
+transtulique ad nostrum sodalem et ex duobus libris contuli in
+quattuor'). Of this second edition in four Books we possess only Book
+i. (incomplete), and fragments of the others; the scene is at Cumae.
+The dedicatory epistle to Varro is still preserved (_ad Fam._ ix. 8).
+
+8. In the five Books of _Tusculanae Disputationes_, conversations
+between Cicero and a friend at his Tusculan villa, the subject is the
+chief essentials for happiness. Book i. inculcates the proper attitude
+towards death, ii. to grief, iii. to pain, iv. to other trials, v.
+asserts the sufficiency of virtue for happiness. The treatise is
+dedicated to Brutus, and was finished by B.C. 44, in which year (_ad
+Att._ xv. 2, 4) the first Book is known to Atticus.
+
+9. _De Natura Deorum_, in three Books, is also addressed to Brutus.
+The Epicurean, Stoic, and Peripatetic doctrines are represented by C.
+Velleius, Q. Lucilius Balbus, and C. Aurelius Cotta, respectively.
+This treatise was written after the _Tusculans_ (_de Div._ ii. 3): in
+July 45 (_ad Att._ xiii. 39, 2) Atticus is asked for the loan of
++Phaidrou peri the�n+ and +peri Pallados+.
+
+10. The essay _De Senectute_, called also _Cato Maior_ after the
+principal speaker in the dialogue, was addressed to Atticus at the end
+of 45 or early in 44 (_de Div._ ii. 3; _ad Att._ xiv. 21, 3).
+
+11. To a later date in the same year belongs the _Laelius_, or _De
+Amicitia_ (_de Am._ 4 mentions the _de Sen._), in which Laelius
+discourses on friendship. In this book, according to Gell. i. 3,
+10-11, Cicero was under obligations to Theophrastus +peri philias+.
+
+12. _De Divinatione_, in two Books, forms a supplement to the _De
+Natura Deorum_. Cicero and his brother discuss, at Tusculum, the
+nature and validity of 'divinatio,' which is defined (i. 9) as 'earum
+rerum quae fortuitae putantur praedictio atque praesensio.' The date
+is 44.
+
+13. The incomplete essay _De Fato_ was written in 44, after Caesar's
+death (cf. � 2). The conversation takes place at Puteoli, between
+Cicero and the consul-designate Hirtius.
+
+14. On 11th July of the same year Cicero sent to Atticus his treatise
+_De Gloria_, in two Books, now lost (_ad Att._ xvi. 2, 6; _de Off._
+ii. 31).
+
+15. The latest of the extant philosophical works is the _De Officiis_,
+written for the instruction of the author's son. Cicero had completed
+two Books by November, B.C. 44 (xvi. 11, 4), following the treatment
+of Panaetius, and discussing in Book i. the issue between vice and
+virtue, in Book ii. the expediency of a given action. In Book iii. he
+was indebted to Posidonius, for the discussion of apparent conflict
+between virtue and expediency.
+
+There are traces of two other treatises, _De Virtutibus_ and _De
+Auguriis_; and we possess fragments of a translation of Plato's
+_Protagoras_ and _Timaeus_, which cannot be earlier than B.C. 45 (_de
+Fin._ i. 7).
+
+Cicero propounds no original scheme of philosophy, claiming only that
+he renders the conclusions of Greek thinkers accessible to his own
+countrymen. This sort of work cost him little trouble: _ad Att._ xii.
+52, 3, '+apographa+ sunt; minore labore fiunt: verba tantum affero,
+quibus abundo.' At the same time he is not a mere translator: _de
+Fin._ i. 6, 'nos non interpretum fungimur munere, sed tuemur ea quae
+dicta sunt ab eis quos probamus, eisque nostrum iudicium et nostrum
+scribendi ordinem adiungimus.' His motives for entering upon this task
+are explained in _De Nat. Deor._ i. 7-9: (1) he desired to do a
+service to his country: 'ipsius rei publicae causa philosophiam
+nostris hominibus explicandam putavi'; (2) he sought relief for his
+own mind: 'hortata etiam est ut me ad haec conferrem animi aegritudo,
+fortunae magna et gravi conmota iniuria.' Cicero is an eclectic, with
+a leaning to the New Academy: _Tusc._ iv. 7, 'nullis unius disciplinae
+legibus adstricti, quibus in philosophia necessario pareamus.'
+Probability is all that he expects to reach: _ibid._, 'quid sit in
+quaque re maxime probabile semper requiremus.' The philosophy most
+attractive to him is that which best called forth the oratorical
+faculty: _Tusc._ ii. 9, 'mihi semper Peripateticorum Academiaeque
+consuetudo de omnibus rebus in contrarias partes differendi ...
+placuit ... quod esset ea maxima dicendi exercitatio.'[29]
+
+
+(c) Rhetorical Treatises.
+
+1. The earliest of these is _De Inventione_, or _Rhetorica_, in two
+Books, written probably for the author's own use during Sulla's
+absence in Asia B.C. 87-83. In his mature years Cicero looked back
+with contempt on this youthful effort: _de Or._ i. 5, 'quae pueris aut
+adulescentulis nobis ex commentariolis nostris incohata ac rudia
+exciderunt.' He borrows much from the _Rhet. ad Herenn._, and
+frequently mentions and criticises the views of Hermagoras; but all
+the best writers on rhetoric were laid under contribution: ii. 4,
+'omnibus unum in locum coactis scriptoribus, quod quisque commodissime
+praecipere videbatur, excerpsimus.'
+
+2. The three Books _De Oratore_ were finished in 55: _ad Att._ iv. 13,
+2, 'de libris oratoriis factum est a me diligenter: diu multumque in
+manibus fuerunt: describas licet.' They were written at a time when
+Cicero's voice was seldom heard: _ad Fam._ i. 9, 23, 'ab orationibus
+diiungo me fere referoque ad mansuetiores Musas.' The dialogue takes
+place in B.C. 91, at the Tusculan villa of L. Licinius Crassus; he and
+the rival orator, M. Antonius, are the chief speakers.
+
+3. The dialogue _Brutus_, or _De Claris Oratoribus_, after a brief
+survey of Greek oratory, criticises the Roman orators from L. Brutus
+to Cicero's own time. In spite of his intention to omit living persons
+(� 231), he discusses Caesar, M. Marcellus, and himself. The speakers
+are Brutus, Atticus, and Cicero; and the date is probably 46, for the
+_Brutus_ is earlier than the _Orator_, which refers to it (� 23).
+
+4. The _Orator_ or _De Optimo Genere Dicendi_ is a sequel to the _De
+Oratore_ and the _Brutus_, adding practical rules to the exposition of
+theory (_de Div._ ii. 4). It was written at the request of Brutus, to
+whom it is addressed, in the year 46 (_ad Fam._ xii. 17, 2).
+
+5. _Partitiones Oratoriae_ is a catechism on rhetoric, in which the
+questions are put to Cicero by his son.
+
+6. The _Topica_ was written in response to repeated requests from
+Trebatius for explanation of Aristotle's _Topics_. It was done by
+Cicero, without the aid of books, on his voyage from Velia to Rhegium
+in July, 44 (_Top._ 5; _ad Fam._ vii. 19).
+
+7. The short treatise _De Optimo Genere Oratorum_ was introductory to
+a version of the speeches of Demosthenes and Aeschines 'on the Crown,'
+designed to show the Romans what the best Attic oratory was like.
+
+
+(d) Letters.
+
+Cicero's correspondence begins B.C. 68 with _ad Att._ i. 5, and ends
+28th July, B.C. 43. Besides seven hundred and seventy-four letters
+written by Cicero, we have ninety addressed to him by friends. The
+collection was made by friends like Tiro and Atticus: cf. _ad Att._
+xvi. 5, 5 (B.C. 44), 'Mearum epistularum nulla est +synag�g�+, sed
+habet Tiro instar septuaginta, et quidem sunt a te quaedam sumendae:
+eas ego oportet perspiciam, corrigam; tum denique edentur.'
+
+The letters now extant fall into four groups.
+
+1. _Epistulae ad Atticum_, in sixteen Books, belonging to the years
+B.C. 68-43, and valuable for their thorough frankness (_ad Att._ viii.
+14, 2, 'ego tecum tamquam mecum loquor'). Nepos appreciates their
+supreme importance for the history of Cicero's time, although he dates
+the commencement of the correspondence wrongly: _Att._ 16, 'xvi.
+volumina epistularum ab consulatu eius usque ad extremum tempus ad
+Atticum missarum; quae qui legat, non multum desideret historiam
+contextam eorum temporum.' Atticus' own letters were not published,
+though Cicero preserved them: _ad Att._ ix. 10, 4, 'Evolvi volumen
+epistularum, quod ego sub signo habeo servoque diligentissime.'
+
+2. _Epistulae ad Quintum Fratrem_, in three Books, of the years B.C.
+60-54.
+
+3. _Epistulae ad Brutum_, originally in nine Books, of which only two
+remain. The present Book i. was really Book ix., and Book ii., which
+contains letters earlier than those in Book i., may have formed part
+of the original Book viii.
+
+4. _Epistulae ad Familiares_, in sixteen Books, letters to and from
+friends, written B.C. 62-43. This title is not found in any MS. Late
+MSS. and old editions have 'Epistulae Familiares': for the title 'Ad
+Diversos' there is no authority. In the best MSS. the Books are titled
+separately by the name of the person to whom the first letter in each
+is written, _e.g._ 'M. Tulli Ciceronis epistularum ad P. Lentulum
+liber i.'
+
+For the colloquial style of the letters cf. _ad Fam._ ix. 21, 1 (to
+Paetus), 'Quid tibi ego in epistulis videor? nonne plebeio sermone
+agere tecum? nec enim semper eodem modo: quid enim simile habet
+epistula aut iudicio aut contioni? ... epistulas vero cottidianis
+verbis texere solemus.'
+
+The following works are now lost: (_a_) _Miscellaneous prose
+writings._--1. Panegyrics on Porcia (_ad Att._ xiii. 37, 3) and Cato,
+B.C. 45; and funeral orations written for other people to deliver (_ad
+Q.F._ iii. 8, 5, 'laudavit pater scripto meo').
+
+2. Memoirs of Cicero's consulship, written B.C. 60, in both Greek and
+Latin (_ad. Att._ i. 19, 10). He took great pains with this book, and
+was anxious that it should be well circulated (_ad Att._ ii. 1, 1).
+
+3. A secret history, _Anekdota_, mentioned in letters of B.C. 59 and
+44 (_ad Att._ ii. 6, 2; xiv. 17, 6).
+
+4. _Admiranda_, a collection of wonders (Pliny, _N.H._ xxxi. 51).
+
+5. _Chorographia_, a book on geography, mentioned by Priscian. The
+letters to Atticus show that Cicero was studying the subject in B.C.
+59.
+
+6. A work on law, _De iure civili in artem redigendo_ (Gell. i. 22,
+7).
+
+7. A translation of Xenophon's _Oeconomicus_, made when Cicero was
+about the age of twenty (_de Off._ ii. 87).
+
+(_b_) _Poems._--1. Cicero's earliest effort in verse was a poem in
+tetrameters, entitled _Pontius Glaucus_: Plut. _Cic._ 2, +kai
+ti poi�mation eti paidos autou dias�zetai Pontios Glaukos en
+tetrametr� pepoi�menon+.
+
+2. In B.C. 60 he made a verse translation of the astronomical poems of
+Aratus, _ad Att._ ii. 1, 2, 'Prognostica mea ... propediem exspecta.'
+Quotations are given in _De Nat. Deor._ ii. 104 _sqq._
+
+3. In the same year he wrote a poem _De Suo Consulatu_, in three
+Books: _ad Att._ i. 19, 10, 'poema exspectato, ne quod genus a me ipso
+laudis meae praetermittatur.' A long passage from Book ii., spoken by
+the Muse Urania, is recited by Q. Cicero in _De Div._ i. 17 _sqq._
+
+4. Another poem in three Books, _De Temporibus Suis_, belonged
+probably to the year 55. Cicero writes to Lentulus in 54 (_ad Fam._ i.
+9, 23), 'scripsi versibus tres libros de temporibus meis, quos iam
+pridem ad te misissem, si esse edendos putassem.'
+
+5. In the letters to Quintus from June to December, 54, there is
+frequent mention of a poem _Ad Caesarem_. Quintus is consulted for
+information about Britain: _ad Q.F._ ii. 15, 2, 'mihi date Britanniam,
+quam pingam coloribus tuis, penicillo meo.'
+
+6. A poem on Cicero's great townsman Marius is quoted, _De Div._ i.
+106.
+
+Among others quoted are _Limon_, in which Terence was praised (see p.
+51), and _iocularis libellus_ (Quint. viii. 6, 73). Translations from
+Greek poets occur in the philosophical works, e.g. _de Fin._ v. 49,
+from Homer, _Odys._ xii. 184-191; _Tusc._ ii. 23, from various parts
+of Aeschylus, _Prom. Vinct._
+
+The ancient criticisms on Cicero's poetry are all unfavourable:
+
+_De Off._ i. 77, 'Illud optimum est, in quo invadi solere ab improbis
+et invidis audio:
+
+  "Cedant arma togae, concedat laurea laudi."'
+
+Juv. 10, 122,
+
+  '"O fortunatam natam me consule Romam!"
+  Antoni gladios potuit contemnere, si sic
+  omnia dixisset.'
+
+Tac. _Dial._ 21 (quoted p. 111).
+
+Quint. xi. 1, 24, 'In carminibus utinam pepercisset, quae non
+desierunt carpere maligni.'
+
+_Rhetorica ad Herennium_.--This treatise on rhetoric in four Books,
+addressed to the author's relative C. Herennius, is usually printed
+among Cicero's works, and is attributed to him by the MSS. and by
+Jerome and Priscian. But it is clearly not by Cicero, for (_a_) it
+does not agree with his own description of his early rhetorical
+writings as 'incohata ac rudia'; (_b_) the author's position, as
+described by himself, is not Cicero's. It is generally held that one
+Cornificius was the author; Quintilian (_e.g._ v. 10, 2) attributes to
+a person of that name several expressions found in the _ad Herennium_.
+He may have been the Q. Cornificius who opposed Cicero for the
+consulship in B.C. 64. The date of the treatise is probably B.C.
+86-84.
+
+
+
+QUINTUS CICERO.
+
+
+Q. Tullius Cicero, the brother of the orator, was born probably B.C.
+102. He was aedile in 65 (_ad Att._ i. 4, 1); praetor in 62, when he
+tried the case of Archias; propraetor of Asia 61-58 (_ad Q.F._ i. 1,
+2). He acted as _legatus_ of Pompey in Sardinia B.C. 56 (_pro Scauro_,
+39); of Caesar in Gaul, taking part in the second invasion of Britain
+(Caes. _B.G._ v.); and of his brother in Cilicia (_ad Fam._ xv. 4, 8).
+At the outbreak of the civil war he was with Marcus at Formiae and
+Capua; but after the death of Pompey there was a breach between them.
+Being proscribed by the triumvirs he took flight, but was betrayed by
+his slaves and put to death, B.C. 43 (Plut. _Cic._ 47). His wife was
+Pomponia, the sister of Atticus.
+
+For the benefit of M. Cicero in his candidature for the consulship,
+B.C. 64, Quintus wrote the _Commentariolum Petitionis_ (the title in �
+58) or _De Petitione Consulatus_. It is in the form of a letter, and
+is headed in the best MSS. 'Q. M. Fratri S. D.' Quintus writes with
+special reference to his brother's circumstances, but most of the
+rules which he lays down are of general application. The authenticity
+of this treatise has been called in question by Eussner, who ascribes
+it to a clever imitator, partly on the ground of coincidences of
+expression with Cicero's speech _in Toga Candida_; but his arguments
+are refuted by Prof. Tyrrell (_Cicero's Correspondence_, i. pp.
+110-121).
+
+There are also extant three letters to Tiro and one to M. Cicero.
+Quintus' poetry is now represented only by twenty hexameters on the
+signs of the zodiac; but he wrote an epic poem, _Annales_ (_ad Att._
+ii. 16, 4 [Quintus] 'ita remittit ut me roget ut annales suos emendem
+et edam'), and composed tragedies with great rapidity (_ad Q.F._ iii.
+6, 7, 'quattuor tragoedias xvi. diebus absolvisse cum scribas, tu
+quidquam ab alio mutuaris?'). His admiration for Sophocles and
+Euripides appears in _De Fin._ v. 3; _ad Fam._ xvi. 8, 2.
+
+
+
+TIRO.
+
+
+M. Tullius Tiro, the freedman of Cicero, who had a high opinion of his
+worth and ability (_ad Fam._ xvi. 4, 3; _ad Att._ vii. 5, 2), wrote
+(1) a biography of his patron: Ascon. p. 49, 'ut legimus apud Tironem
+libertum Ciceronis in libro iiii. de vita eius.'
+
+(2) Editions of Cicero's speeches and letters: Gell. i. 7, 1, 'in
+oratione Ciceronis v. in Verrem, libro spectatae fidei, Tironiana cura
+atque disciplina facto.' (See also p. 85.)
+
+(3) A collection of Cicero's witticisms: Quint. vi. 3, 5, 'utinam
+libertus eius Tiro aut alius, quisquis fuit, qui iii. hac de re libros
+edidit, parcius dictorum numero indulsissent.'
+
+(4) Grammatical works, as +pandektai+, mentioned by Gell. xiii.
+9, 2.
+
+For his system of shorthand, cf. Sueton. p. 136 R., 'Romae primus
+Tullius Tiro, Ciceronis libertus, commentatus est notas, sed tantum
+praepositionum.'
+
+
+
+T. POMPONIUS ATTICUS (B.C. 109-32).
+
+
+Author of (1) _Annalis_, a chronological table of the chief events in
+Roman and foreign history, accompanied by genealogies (Nepos, _Att._
+18, 1). As it was Cicero's _De Re Publica_ that suggested its
+composition (Cic. _Brut._ 19), its date cannot be earlier than B.C.
+54. (2) Family histories, _e.g._ of the Iunii (Nepos, _Att._ 18, 3),
+published separately. (3) _De Imaginibus_, a collection of
+inscriptions in verse for the busts of celebrated men (Nepos, _Att._
+18, 5). (4) _De Consulatu Ciceronis_, in Greek (Nepos, _Att._ 18, 6),
+written B.C. 60 (Cic. _ad Att._ ii. 1, 1).
+
+Atticus is an interesting figure on account of the large publishing
+business which he conducted (Nepos, _Att._ 13, 3); and the great care
+with which he sought out good MSS. to reproduce in his establishment
+makes him important in the history of the preservation of ancient
+literature.
+
+
+
+M. TERENTIUS VARRO.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+M. Terentius Varro was born B.C. 116 at Reate in the Sabine country.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1901, 'M. Terentius Varro philosophus et poeta
+nascitur.' Symmachus, _Ep._ i. 2, calls him 'Terentius Reatinus'; and
+he owned property in that district: _R.R._ ii. praef. 6, 'ipse
+pecuarias habui grandes, in Apulia oviarias, et in Reatino equarias.'
+
+Of his family nothing is known except that he had an uncle belonging
+to the equestrian order (Plin. _N.H._ vii. 176). His philosophical
+education was received at Athens, where he was a disciple of Antiochus
+of Ascalon: Cic. _Ac. Post._ 12, 'Aristum Athenis [Brutus] audivit
+aliquamdiu, cuius tu [Varro] fratrem Antiochum.'
+
+He took part in the war with Sertorius in Spain, B.C. 76 (Sall. _Hist._
+ii. fr. 69). In the war with the pirates, B.C. 67, he was one of
+Pompeius' lieutenants, and received a _corona navalis_ for his services.
+Varro _R.R._ ii. praef. 7, 'cum piratico bello inter Delum et Ciliciam
+Graeciae classibus praeessem.' Plin. _N.H._ vii. 115, '[Varroni] Magnus
+Pompeius piratico ex bello navalem [coronam] dedit.' Probably he was
+also with Pompeius in the war with Mithradates (Plin. _N.H._ xxxiii.
+136, xxxvii. 11; knowledge of the Caspian, vi. 38). To the coalition of
+Pompeius, Caesar, and Crassus he was originally hostile, going so far as
+to write one of his satires, +Trikaranos+, against them (Appian _B.C._
+ii. 9); but in 59 he was a member of the commission appointed to
+establish Caesar's veterans in Campania: Plin. _N.H._ vii. 176, 'Varro
+auctor est xx. viro se agros dividente Capuae,' etc. He also held the
+office of tribune (Gell. xiii. 12, 6), and was aedile with Murena (Plin.
+xxxv. 173).
+
+When the civil war broke out he was one of Pompeius' lieutenants in
+Farther Spain, and resisted Caesar without success (Caes. _B.C._ ii.
+17-20). From Spain he withdrew to Epirus, where he was coldly received
+by the Pompeians (Cic. _ad Fam._ ix. 6, 3, 'crudeliter otiosis
+minabantur, eratque eis et tua invisa voluntas et mea oratio'). We
+hear of him at Corcyra (_R.R._ i. 4), and at Dyrrhachium a few days
+before the battle of Pharsalus (Cic. _de Div._ i. 68). After Caesar's
+victory he lived quietly at his Tusculan villa (Cic. _ad Fam._ ix. 6,
+4, 'his tempestatibus es prope solus in portu ... equidem hos tuos
+Tusculanenses dies instar esse vitae puto'). He was more easily
+reconciled than Cicero to the new government, and was made librarian
+by Caesar: Sueton. _Iul._ 44, 'Destinabat bibliothecas Graecas
+Latinasque quas maximas posset publicare, data M. Varroni cura
+comparandarum ac digerendarum.' This, however, did not prevent him
+writing a funeral oration on Cato's sister Porcia (Cic. _ad Att._
+xiii. 48, 2).
+
+After Caesar's death Varro was exposed to the persecution of Antonius,
+whose raid on his villa at Casinum is vividly described by Cicero
+(_Phil._ ii. 103 _sqq._). He was proscribed, but the devotion of his
+friends secured his escape (Appian _B.C._ iv. 47).
+
+His old age was spent in peace, the literary activity for which his
+whole life was remarkable being maintained to the end. At the age of
+eighty-three he was still writing: Plin. _N.H._ xxix. 65, 'Cunctarer
+in proferendo ex his remedio, ni M. Varro lxxxiii vitae anno
+prodidisset,' etc.
+
+Varro's death took place in B.C. 27, in his ninetieth year. Jerome yr.
+Abr. 1990, 'M. Terentius Varro philosophus prope nonagenarius moritur.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+Cicero (_ad Att._ xiii. 18) calls Varro 'homo +polygraph�tatos+,'
+and Varro himself said that he had written four hundred and ninety
+Books by the end of his seventy-seventh year: Gell. iii. 10, 17,
+'Addit se quoque iam duodecimam annorum hebdomadam ingressum esse et
+ad eum diem septuaginta hebdomadas librorum conscripsisse.' A letter
+of Jerome[30] gives a list of thirty-nine works in four hundred and
+ninety Books, admitting at the same time that these were only half of
+the total number ('vix medium descripsi indicem'). The titles of
+twenty-one other works are known from various sources.
+
+1. _Agriculture._--Of this enormous number only one has survived in a
+complete form, the treatise _De Re Rustica_ in three Books, in the
+form of a dialogue. Book i. treats of agriculture; ii. of
+stock-raising; iii. of poultry, game, and fish. It was written B.C.
+37-6: _R.R._ i. 1, 1, 'Annus octogesimus admonet me ut sarcinas
+colligam ante quam proficiscar e vita.'
+
+2. _Grammar._--Of the twenty-five books _De Lingua Latina_, only v.-x.
+have been preserved, but the scope of the whole is known from Varro's
+own words. Book i. was introductory; ii.-vii. dealt with etymology;
+viii.-xiii. with inflexions; xiv.-xxv. with syntax. Varro's
+derivations are ridiculed by Quintilian i. 6, 37, 'Sed cui non post
+Varronem sit venia, qui _agrum_ quia in eo _agatur_ aliquid, et
+_graculos_ quia _gregatim_ volent dictos voluit persuadere Ciceroni?'
+From Book v. onwards the work was dedicated to Cicero, in return for
+his _Academics_; it is announced in Cic. _Ac._ i. 2, where Varro says,
+'Habeo opus magnum in manibus, idque iam pridem: ad hunc enim ipsum
+(me autem dicebat) quaedam institui, quae et sunt magna sane et
+limantur a me politius.' The date of publication was probably B.C.
+45-3.
+
+Of the minor works on grammar, some at least were prior to the _De
+Lingua Latina_: Cic. _Ac._ i. 9, 'Plurimum poetis nostris omninoque
+Latinis et litteris luminis et verbis attulisti.' The titles known
+are, _De sermone Latino_, _De origine linguae Latinae_, _De
+similitudine verborum_, _De utilitate sermonis_, _De antiquitate
+litterarum_, +Peri charakt�r�n+.
+
+3. _Roman History and Antiquities._ Varro's great work in this
+department was the _Antiquitates rerum divinarum humanarumque_, in
+forty-one Books. The arrangement, according to Augustine _De Civ.
+Dei_, vi. 3, was as follows: (_a_) i.-xxv. _res humanae_; i.
+introductory, ii.-vii. history of Rome down to its capture by the
+Gauls, viii.-xiii. geography of Italy, xiv.-xix. Roman Calendar, with
+dates of the chief historical events, xx.-xxv. Roman institutions, (_b_)
+xxvi.-xli. _res divinae_; the persons who sacrifice, the places, the
+times, the rites, and the gods were discussed in three Books each,
+xxvi. being introductory. The second part, at least, was addressed to
+Caesar as _pontifex maximus_. As it is mentioned by Cic. _Ac._ i. 9,
+it must have been published before B.C. 45.
+
+Minor works under this head were _Annales_, _Res urbanae_, _De gente
+populi Romani_, _De vita populi Romani_, _De familiis Troianis_,
+_Tribuum Liber_; _Aetia_ (+aitia+), explaining Roman usages, in the
+form of a catechism; +Eisag�gikos+ to Pompey on the duties of a
+consul (B.C. 71), Gell. xiv. 7, 1; _De Pompeio_, _Legationum Libri_,
+_De sua vita_.
+
+4. _Geography._-(_a_) _Ephemeris navalis_, addressed to Pompey before
+his departure for Spain about B.C. 77, a weather almanack for sailors;
+_Ephemeris rustica_ or _agrestis_, for farmers. (_b_) _Libri navales_,
+perhaps identical with the above, (_c_) _De ora maritima_.
+
+5. _Law._--_De iure civili_ in fifteen Books.
+
+6. _Rhetoric._--_Rhetorica_.
+
+7. _Philosophy._-_De Forma Philosophiae_, _De Philosophia_.
+
+8. _Mathematics_, etc.-_De mensuris_, _Mensuralia_, _De principiis
+numerorum_, _Libri numerorum_, _De geometria_, _De astrologia_.
+
+9. _Disciplinae_ in nine Books, forming a complete course of education
+in the liberal arts.
+
+10. _History of Literature and the Drama._--_De poetis_, _De
+poematis_, _De lectionibus_, _De bibliothecis_, _De proprietate
+scriptorum_, _De personis_, _De descriptionibus_, _De actis scenicis_,
+_De scenicis actionibus_, _De originibus scenicis_, _Quaestiones
+Plautinae_. In the _Hebdomades_ or _Imaginum Libri_ xv. Varro gave
+short accounts in prose and verse of seven hundred famous Greeks and
+Romans, with their portraits (Plin. _N.H._ xxxv. 11), the title being
+derived from the arrangement in groups of seven. Aristotle's +Peplos+
+had dealt similarly with the heroes of the Trojan War, and the
+'+Peplographia+ Varronis' of Cic. _ad Att._ xvi. 11, 3 is usually
+identified with the _Hebdomades_.
+
+11. +Logistorikoi+, in seventy-six Books, were probably not a
+mixture of fable and history, but essays enlivened by historical
+examples. The titles were double, the chief speaker being named as
+well as the subject of the essay, _e.g._ _Catus de liberis educandis_.
+To this work Cicero probably refers, _Ac._ i. 9, 'Philosophiam multis
+locis incohasti, ad impellendum satis, ad edocendum parum.'
+
+12. Varro's poetical works are now represented only by fragments of
+the _Saturae Menippeae_, a medley of prose and verse in one hundred
+and fifty books (Cic. _Ac._ i. 9, 'Varium et elegans omni fere numero
+poema fecisti'). They were so called by Varro himself (Gell. ii. 18,
+7, 'In satiris quas alii Cynicas, ipse appellat Menippeas'), being
+founded on the dialogues of Menippus, the Cynic of Gadara, of the
+third century B.C. Their object was to present philosophy in a popular
+dress: Cic. _Ac._ i. 8, 'Quae cum facilius minus docti intellegerent,
+iucunditate quadam ad legendum invitati.' From the way in which they
+are spoken of in the same passage ('in illis veteribus nostris'), most
+of them must have been among Varro's earliest writings. The titles are
+extremely curious, _e.g._ '+Dis paides hoi gerontes+,' 'Longe
+fugit qui suos fugit.' Quintilian considers Varro as the founder of a
+type of satire distinct from that of Lucilius, Horace, and Persius: x.
+1, 95, 'Alterum illud etiam prius satirae genus sed non sola carminum
+varietate mixtum condidit Terentius Varro, vir Romanorum
+eruditissimus.' His other poetical works were ten books of _Poemata_,
+four of _Satires_, and six of _Pseudotragoediae_ (tragi-comedy).
+
+13. _Oratory._--Varro left twenty-two Books of _Orationes_ and three
+of _Suasiones_, but he had no fame as an orator: Quint. x. 1, 95,
+'Plus scientiae collaturus quam eloquentiae.'
+
+14. _Letters._--Of these there seem to have been two collections: (_a_)
+_Epistulae Latinae_, real letters to acquaintances; (_b_) _Epistolicae
+Quaestiones_, discussing in epistolary form points of history,
+grammar, etc.
+
+The collection of maxims which passes under the name _Sententiae
+Varronis_ is of uncertain authenticity.
+
+
+
+LABERIUS.
+
+
+The date of D. Laberius' birth is got from Sueton. _Iul._ 39, 'Ludis
+D. Laberius eques Romanus mimum suum egit.' This event took place in
+B.C. 45, and in the prologue to the piece (quoted below), l. 109,
+Laberius says he is sixty years old; hence he was born about B.C. 105.
+He died in January, B.C. 43.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1974 = B.C. 43, 'Laberius mimorum scriptor decimo
+mense post C. Caesaris interitum Puteolis moritur.'
+
+In B.C. 45 Laberius, although an _eques_, was, as a punishment for his
+political opinions, compelled by Caesar to perform in one of his own
+mimes, and was beaten by Publilius Syrus.
+
+Macrob. _Saturn._ ii. 7, 2 _sqq._, 'Laberium asperae libertatis
+equitem Romanum Caesar quingentis milibus invitavit, ut prodiret in
+scaenam et ipse ageret mimos, quos scriptitabat. Sed potestas non
+solum si invitet sed etiam si supplicet cogit, unde se et Laberius a
+Caesare coactum in prologo testatur his versibus:
+
+  "Necessitas, cuius cursus transversi impetum
+  voluerunt multi effugere, pauci potuerunt,
+  quo me detrusit paene extremis sensibus!
+  Quem nulla ambitio, nulla umquam largitio,
+  nullus timor, vis nulla, nulla auctoritas
+  movere potuit in iuventa de statu:
+  ecce in senecta ut facile labefecit loco
+  viri excellentis mente clemente edita
+  summissa placide blandiloquens oratio!
+  Etenim ipsi di negare cui nil potuerunt,
+  hominem me denegare quis posset pati?
+  Ego bis tricenis annis actis sine nota
+  eques Romanus e Lare egressus meo
+  domum revertar mimus," etc.
+
+In ipsa quoque actione subinde se, qua poterat, ulciscebatur inducto
+habitu Syri, qui velut flagris caesus praeripientique similis
+exclamabat
+
+  "Porro Quirites libertatem perdimus"
+
+et paulo post adiecit
+
+  "Necesse est multos timeat quem multi timent."
+
+Quo dicto universitas populi ad solum Caesarem oculos et ora
+convertit, notantes inpotentiam eius hac dicacitate lapidatam. Ob haec
+in Publilium vertit favorem ... [Publilius Syrus] cum mimos componeret
+ingentique adsensu in Italiae oppidis agere coepisset, productus Romae
+per Caesaris ludos, omnes qui tunc scripta et operas suas in scaenam
+locaverant provocavit ut singuli secum posita in vicem materia pro
+tempore contenderent. Nec ullo recusante superavit omnes, in quis et
+Laberium. Unde Caesar adridens hoc modo pronuntiavit
+
+  "Favente tibi me victus es, Laberi, a Syro"
+
+statimque Publilio palmam et Laberio anulum aureum cum quingentis
+sestertiis dedit.'
+
+We have forty-three titles of mimes by Laberius, and about one hundred
+and fifty lines of fragments. From the above we see that Laberius
+criticized contemporary society with great vigour. Other features are
+
+(_a_) His invention of words.
+
+Gell. xvi. 7, 1, 'Laberius in mimis, quos scriptitavit, oppido quam
+verba finxit praelicenter.' Examples are _manuatus est_ for _furatus
+est_; _abluvium_ for _diluvium_.
+
+(_b_) His use of plebeian expressions.
+
+Gell. xix. 13, 3, 'quae a Laberio ignobilia nimis et sordentia in usum
+linguae Latinae intromissa sunt.'
+
+(_c_) His references to philosophy.
+
+Cf. l. 17,
+
+  'nec Pythagoream dogmam doctus';
+
+l. 72,
+
+  'Democritus Abderites physicus philosophus,' etc.
+
+For views on Laberius cf. Hor. _Sat._ i, 10, 5,
+
+    'Nam sic
+  et Laberi mimos ut pulchra poemata mirer.'
+
+Cic. _ad Fam._ xii. 18, 2 (written B.C. 46), 'Equidem sic iam obdurui
+ut ludis Caesaris nostri animo aequissimo viderem T. Plancum, audirem
+Laberi et Publili poemata.'
+
+Contemporaries of Laberius were the satirist Abuccius, and Egnatius,
+who wrote a didactic poem _de rerum natura_.
+
+
+
+M. FURIUS BIBACULUS.
+
+
+According to Jerome, Bibaculus was born B.C. 103, but, as he laughs at
+the old age of the grammarian Orbilius (114-c. 17 B.C.), authorities
+put the date twenty years later.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1914, 'M. Furius poeta cognomento Bibaculus Cremonae
+nascitur.'
+
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 9, '[Orbilius] vixit prope ad centesimum aetatis
+annum, amissa iam pridem memoria, ut versus Bibaculi docet,
+
+  "Orbilius ubinam est, litterarum oblivio?"'
+
+Bibaculus wrote poems against the monarchical party; these are
+referred to as _iambi_ by Quintilian, x. 1, 96.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34, 'Carmina Bibaculi et Catulli referta contumeliis
+Caesarum leguntur: sed ipse divus Iulius, ipse divus Augustus et
+tulere ista et reliquere.'
+
+Two epics, _Aethiopis_ and _Bellum Gallicum_ (on Iulius Caesar's
+exploits), are probably referred to by Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 36,
+
+  'Turgidus Alpinus iugulat dum Memnona, dumque
+  diffingit Rheni luteum caput.'
+
+Acron _ad loc._, 'Bibaculum quemdam poetam Gallum tangit.'
+
+Cf. Hor. _Sat._ ii. 5, 40,
+
+                'Seu pingui tentus omaso
+  Furius hibernas cana nive conspuet Alpes.'
+
+Acron _ad loc._, 'Furius Bibaculus in pragmatia belli Gallici:
+Iuppiter hibernas,' etc.
+
+It is probably from this epic that Macrob. _Saturn._ vi. 1, 31-4,
+quotes passages imitated by Virgil. So, 'Furius in primo annali
+"Interea Oceani linquens Aurora cubile."' (Cf. Virg. _Aen._ iv. 585.)
+
+Bibaculus also wrote a prose work _Lucubrationes_. (Pliny _N.H._ xxiv.
+praef.)
+
+
+
+CAESAR.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+The main facts of C. Iulius Caesar's life are found in a compendious
+form in the Life by Suetonius. The ancient authorities, who are
+unanimous in stating that at the time of his death (15th March, B.C.
+44) Caesar was in his fifty-sixth year (Sueton. _Iul._ 88, Appian
+_B.C._ ii. 149, Plut. _Caes._ 69), must have placed his birth in B.C.
+100. But if this date were correct Caesar must have held the various
+magistracies two years before the legal time--a fact nowhere
+mentioned, and in itself improbable; it is therefore natural to hold
+that he was born in B.C. 102 (Mommsen, _R.H._ iv., p. 15, note). His
+birthday was 12th July (Macrob. _Saturn._ i, 12, 34).
+
+His father, C. Iulius Caesar, was praetor in B.C. 84, and died in the
+same year; Aurelia, his mother, took great interest in his education
+(Tac. _Dial._ 28). From the first Caesar was connected with the
+leaders of the democratic party in the State. Marius, who had married
+his father's sister Julia, conferred on him the office of _flamen
+Dialis_ before he was sixteen years of age; and his first wife was
+Cornelia, daughter of Cinna. His refusal to divorce her at the bidding
+of Sulla drew down upon him the enmity of the dictator; and he fled in
+disguise to the Sabine mountains, where he remained until Sulla
+reluctantly consented to spare his life.
+
+Caesar obtained his first experience of military service as a member
+of the staff of M. Thermus, propraetor of Asia, who conferred on him
+the _civica corona_ for saving the life of a fellow-soldier at the
+siege of Mytilene. After serving for a short time under Servilius
+Isauricus against the pirates in Cilicia, he returned to Rome on the
+news of Sulla's death in 78, and in the following year commenced his
+career as an orator with the prosecution of Cn. Cornelius Dolabella,
+proconsul of Macedonia, for extortion.
+
+Towards the end of that year Caesar left Rome for Rhodes--on his way
+thither being captured by pirates near Miletus--and studied for a year
+under the famous rhetorician Molo, taking part also in some operations
+on the mainland against one of the officials of Mithradates. Having
+been elected one of the _pontifices_ in the room of his uncle, C.
+Aurelius Cotta, he returned to Rome in 74, and soon became a _tribunus
+militum_. In the agitation for the restoration of the powers of the
+tribunes of the _plebs_, Caesar took a prominent part; he also
+supported the _Lex Aurelia_ of 70, which gave the _equites_ a share in
+the _iudicia_, and the _Lex Plautia_, granting an amnesty to the
+adherents of Lepidus and Sertorius.
+
+The year 68 he spent as quaestor in Farther Spain, and on his return
+to Rome strenuously advocated the claims of the Transpadane Gauls to
+the Roman franchise. His first wife having died, he married Pompeia,
+daughter of Q. Pompeius Rufus, and granddaughter of Sulla, whom he
+divorced five years later on account of her alleged adultery with P.
+Clodius. In 67 and 66 the bills of Gabinius and Manilius, conferring
+extensive military powers upon Pompey, were supported by Caesar and
+the other leading democrats.
+
+Whether Caesar was concerned in the abortive attempt of Catiline at
+revolution in 65, is a moot point. He was now aedile, and acquired
+great popularity by the splendid shows which he gave to the people,
+and by his restoration of the statue and trophies of Marius. In 64, as
+president of the _quaestio de sicariis_, he condemned some of the most
+active agents in Sulla's proscriptions. In 63 he supported the _lex
+agraria_ of P. Servilius Rullus, and brought about the prosecution of
+C. Rabirius for the murder of the tribune Saturninus. On the
+re-enactment of the _Lex Domitia de sacerdotiis_, Caesar was elected
+_pontifex maximus_. He was again suspected, probably with good ground,
+of complicity with Catiline's designs; he certainly proposed in the
+Senate that the conspirators should be punished with imprisonment
+instead of death. Praetor in 62, he worked in Pompey's cause by
+proposing that the charge of rebuilding the Capitoline temple should
+be transferred to him from the aristocratic champion Catulus, and by
+supporting the bill of the tribune Metellus Nepos for electing Pompey
+consul in absence. Next year Caesar was propraetor of Farther Spain,
+where he conquered the Lusitanians and Gallaecians, and amassed
+considerable wealth. His coalition with Pompey and Crassus procured
+for him the consulship of 59, rendered notable by the _Leges Iuliae_;
+and before he went out of office his position was secured by the _Lex
+Vatinia_, conferring on him the government of Cisalpine Gaul and
+Illyricum for five years, with the command of three legions;
+Transalpine Gaul and another legion were added by the Senate. The
+following nine years (58-50) were occupied with the subjugation of
+Gaul and the two invasions of Britain (55 and 54). At the conference
+at Luca, in the winter of 57-56, it was agreed that Caesar should be
+continued in office for a second period of five years, and be allowed
+to increase the number of his legions to ten. In 50, realizing the
+danger of his position if he returned to Rome as a private person, he
+was anxious to be a candidate for the consulship _in absentia_; but
+Pompey thwarted his plan. Caesar refused to disband his army at the
+bidding of the Senate, and crossed the Rubicon early in 49. Italy soon
+submitted; he defeated the Pompeians in Spain, captured Massilia, and
+secured Sicily and Sardinia. Landing in Epirus in 48, he was defeated
+at Dyrrhachium, and retreated to Thessaly, where he overthrew Pompey
+at Pharsalus. Then followed his victories over the king of Egypt in
+the Alexandrian war (48), Pharnaces in Asia Minor (47), the Pompeians
+and Juba at Thapsus (46), and C. and Sex. Pompeius at Munda (45).
+
+He had been created dictator in 49 and 48, with the tribunician power
+in perpetuity; and on his return to Rome in 45 he was made consul for
+ten years, dictator, and _praefectus morum_, with the title of
+_imperator_ for life. In the intervals between his campaigns he
+carried out numerous reforms, including the rectification of the
+calendar, B.C. 46 (see p. 110). His assassination by Brutus and
+Cassius and the other conspirators took place on 15th March, B.C. 44.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _De Bello Gallico_, in seven Books. The title used by Caesar
+himself was probably _Commentarii rerum suarum_ (as in Cic. _Brut._
+262, and Sueton. _Iul._ 56; cf. Strabo, iv. 1, 1 +hypomn�mata+),
+although this does not appear in the best MSS., which give variously
+_libri_, _historiae_, or _ephemeris rerum gestarum belli Gallici_.
+
+The work describes Caesar's operations in Gaul, Germany, and Britain
+during the years B.C. 58-52, the events of each year occupying a
+separate Book. It was written and published as a whole, not in parts
+at the end of each year's campaign. Otherwise it is difficult to see
+why Cicero should not have heard of it from his brother Quintus or his
+friend Trebatius, both of whom were with Caesar; or why Hirtius should
+have spoken of the rapidity with which the work was composed (_B.G._
+viii. praef. 6, 'Ceteri quam bene atque emendate, nos etiam quam
+facile atque celeriter eos perfecerit, scimus'). This view is
+corroborated by the statement of Asinius Pollio, that there were
+mistakes in the work due to defective memory (Sueton. _Iul._ 56, 'quae
+... memoria lapsus perperam ediderit'); and by some expressions in the
+earlier Books pointing forward to events mentioned later (i. 28
+compared with vii. 9, and iv. 21 with vii. 76).
+
+The time of composition was probably the winter after the last
+campaign narrated in the Book (B.C. 52-51). It was certainly published
+before B.C. 46, the date of Cicero's _Brutus_, and probably before the
+rupture with Pompey, of whom Caesar speaks with approbation (vii. 6,
+'Cum iam ille urbanas res virtute Cn. Pompei commodiorem in statum
+pervenisse intellegeret').
+
+The aim of the book was twofold: (1) to provide material for professed
+historians: Hirt. _B.G._ viii. praef. 5, 'qui sunt editi, ne scientia
+tantarum rerum scriptoribus deesset'; (2) to furnish a defence of the
+author's own conduct--an object carefully kept in the background. It
+has been proved that Caesar suppressed facts which would have told
+against him at Rome (_e.g._ his rapacity, Sueton. _Iul._ 54), and the
+plausible motives which he assigns for some of his actions cannot be
+accepted as genuine. Cf. the criticism of Asinius Pollio, Sueton.
+_Iul._ 56, 'Pollio Asinius parum diligenter parumque integra veritate
+compositos putat, cum Caesar pleraque et quae per alios erant gesta
+temere crediderit, et quae per se vel consulto vel etiam memoria
+lapsus perperam ediderit, existimatque rescripturum et correcturum
+fuisse.' The style is remarkable for its brevity, directness, and the
+absence of ornament and emotion (Cic. _Brut._ 262, 'Nudi sunt, recti
+et venusti, omni ornatu orationis, tamquam veste, detracto').
+
+Among the materials used by Caesar in writing the _Commentarii_ were his
+own despatches to the Senate (ii. 35, iv. 38, vii. 90) and the reports
+of his _legati_. Late writers speak of his +eph�merides+ (_e.g._ Plut.
+_Caes._ 22), but there is no ground for supposing that he kept a regular
+diary. He depended to a great extent on his own memory (cf. Pollio's
+criticism, above).
+
+2. _De Bello Civili_, in three Books, similar in plan to the _Bell.
+Gall._ Book iii. ends abruptly with an event of no great importance,
+and, as the death of Pompey would have formed a natural ending, we
+must suppose that Caesar had intended to continue the narrative with
+the Alexandrian, Spanish, and African wars, but was prevented from
+carrying out his plan. The work was published after his death, without
+undergoing revision (Sueton. _Iul._ 56, 'Pollio existimat rescripturum
+et correcturum fuisse').
+
+_Other works in the Corpus Caesarianum._--Sueton. _Iul._ 56 says,
+'Alexandrini Africique et Hispaniensis [belli] incertus auctor est.
+Alii Oppium putant, alii Hirtium, qui etiam Gallici belli novissimum
+imperfectumque librum suppleverit.'
+
+Suetonius evidently believed that Hirtius was the author of _B.G._
+viii., for he introduces a quotation from the preface to that Book
+with the words, 'Hirtius ita praedicat' (_ibid._). Hirtius is also
+mentioned in the MSS. as the author of _B.G._ viii., and there is no
+reason to doubt that this is the case. That he is the author of any of
+the others is rendered doubtful by the fact that his bad health (which
+lasted to November, B.C. 44) and his position as consul would leave
+him little time for literature between the death of Caesar (15th
+March, B.C. 44) and his own death at Mutina (27th April, B.C. 43).
+Hirtius was thus able to carry out only the first part of the plan
+sketched in _B.G._ viii. praef. 2, 'Caesaris nostri commentarios rerum
+gestarum, non cohaerentibus superioribus atque insequentibus eius
+scriptis, contexui, novissimumque imperfectum ab rebus gestis
+Alexandriae confeci usque ad exitum non quidem civilis dissensionis,
+cuius finem nullum videmus, sed vitae Caesaris.'
+
+G. Landgraf, _Untersuchungen zu Caesar und seinen Fortsetzern_
+(Erlangen, 1888), arrives at the following conclusions:
+
+1. In the _Bellum Africum_ we possess the notes of Asinius Pollio, who
+took part in the war. That the work partook of the nature of a journal
+is shown by the style; _e.g._ _interim_ is used about eighty times as a
+connecting link, and dates and hours of the day are given carefully.
+Landgraf supports his position by instancing similarities of
+expression in the _Bell. Afr._ and in three letters from Pollio to
+Cicero (_ad Fam._ x. 31; 32; 33).
+
+2. Ch. 48-64 of the _Bell. Alex._ on events in Spain in B.C. 48-7 were
+sent to Hirtius by Pollio, who was governor of Hispania Ulterior in
+B.C. 45, and as such was best acquainted with these incidents.
+
+3. On the death of Hirtius, Pollio, on searching for his own papers
+(which he had lent Hirtius to help him in his work), found Hirtius'
+_Bell. Gall._ viii., and made some additions.
+
+4. The _Bell. Civ._ was in Hirtius' possession unedited at his death.
+Hirtius evidently intended to publish it along with _B.G._ viii. The
+third Book had been left unfinished by Caesar, whose notes, some of
+which were very brief, Hirtius had extended, and filled up the gaps in
+the narrative. There were also some notes on the _Bell. Alex._ The
+_Bell. Alex._ in the narrower sense (cc. 1-33) Hirtius began with, and
+in the early chapters contented himself with making small additions.
+In the later parts are found considerable additions both by Hirtius
+and by Pollio. Landgraf attempts to distinguish the work of the two:
+cc. 34-41, on the Bellum Ponticum, being mostly by Pollio, and cc.
+65-76, on the wars in Illyria and against Pharnaces, mostly by
+Hirtius.
+
+5. The authorship of the _Bellum Hispaniense_, which in style is far
+below the _Bellum Africum_, Landgraf leaves an open question.
+
+E. W�lfflin (_Sitzungsberichte der k. b. Akad. der Wissenschaften zu
+M�nchen_, 1889, pp. 323 _sqq._, and ed. of the _Bell. Afr._, 1889)
+holds the same views as Landgraf, and gives many instances of
+difference in diction between _Bell. Afr._ on the one hand, and
+_Gall._ viii. and _Alex._ on the other; _e.g._
+
+                       _Bell. Afr._    _Bell. Gall._ viii.; _Bell. Alex._
+  _suppetiae_,      -   7 times    -   never.
+  _convallis_,      -   5   "      -   _vallis_, 10 times.
+  _convulnero_,     -   9   "      -   _vulnero_ (as in Caesar).
+  _contendo_ + infin., 20   "      -   never.
+  _adorior_,        -  14   "      -   only in _Gall._ viii. 34.
+  _adgredior_,      -  never       -   14 times.
+  _grandis_,        -   7 times    -   _magnus_.
+  _subito_,         -  22   "      -   never.
+  _repente_,        -  never       -   16 times.
+  _postquam_,       -  34   "      -   not in _Gall._ viii.
+  hist. infin.,     -  24   "      -   never.
+
+On the other hand, Widmann, _Philologus_, L. (1891), p. 565, proves
+that the author of the note-book worked up in the _Bell. Afr._ was an
+officer of the 5th legion, that Pollio was not connected with the 5th
+legion, and probably did not go through the whole African war, as the
+author clearly must have done. This, of course, also proves that
+Hirtius cannot have been the author.
+
+On the whole, we think it proved that the _Bell. Afr._ was not written
+by the author of _B. Gall._ viii. and _B. Alex._, and that the author
+was not in any case Pollio. The _B. Alex._ is probably worked up from
+note-books written by several hands. The attempt to distinguish the
+work of Hirtius and another hand in _B. Gall._ viii. is against the
+evidence of Suetonius; and though several hands have co-operated in
+_B. Alex._, it is hardly possible to distinguish them precisely.
+
+The _Bell. Hisp._ is evidently the work of an eye-witness, cf. c. 29,
+'nostri ad dimicandum procedunt, id quod adversarios existimabamus
+esse facturos.' He is apt to be bombastic (c. 5, 'hic alternis non
+solum morti mortem exaggerabant, sed tumulos tumulis exaequabant'),
+and makes a ridiculous show of learning (quoting the combat of
+Achilles and Memnon, c. 25, and Ennius, c. 23, 'nostri cessere
+parumper'; c. 31, 'pes pede premitur, armis teruntur arma.')
+
+
+(3) CAESAR'S LOST WORKS.
+
+1. _De Analogia_, a treatise on grammar in two Books, dedicated to
+Cicero (Cic. _Brut._ 253) and composed in the interval between two of
+the campaigns in Gaul. Sueton. _Iul._ 56, 'Reliquit et de Analogia
+duos libros ... In transitu Alpium, cum ex citeriore Gallia
+conventibus peractis ad exercitum rediret ... fecit.' It supported the
+view that _analogia_, not _anomalia_, should be the governing
+principle in grammar, _i.e._ that order should be introduced into the
+chaos of varying usages. Gellius i. 10, 4 has a notable quotation from
+the first Book, 'Habe semper in memoria atque in pectore, ut tamquam
+scopulum sic fugias inauditum atque insolens verbum.'
+
+2. _De Astris_, a book on astronomy, written apparently in connexion
+with the rectification of the calendar, B.C. 46, perhaps in Greek.
+Suetonius says nothing about it, but it was known to Macrobius,
+_Saturn._, i. 16, 39, 'Iulius Caesar ... siderum motus, de quibus non
+indoctos libros reliquit, ab Aegyptiis disciplinis hausit.' The _liber
+de computatione_ and _liber fastorum_, attributed to Caesar by the
+Scholiast on Lucan, x. 185, 187, may have formed part of the _De
+Astris_.
+
+3. _Anticatones_, written B.C. 45, in reply to Cicero's panegyric on
+Cato, with flattering references to Cicero himself. Sueton. _Iul._ 56,
+'Reliquit et de Analogia duos libros et Anticatones totidem. ... Sub
+tempus Mundensis proelii fecit.' Cicero expresses himself as highly
+pleased with the book, _ad Att._ xiii. 51, 'bene existimo de illis
+libris, ut tibi coram'; but his tone is different in _Topica_, 94,
+'quibus omnibus generibus usus est nimis impudenter Caesar contra
+Catonem meum.'
+
+4. _Apophthegmata_, a collection of notable sayings, probably growing
+out of the _Dicta Collectanea_ of Sueton. _Iul._ 56, and completed
+B.C. 46-5. Cic. _ad Fam._ ix. 16, 4, 'audio Caesarem, cum volumina iam
+confecerit +apophthegmat�n+, si quod afferatur ad eum pro meo, quod
+meum non sit, reicere solere.'
+
+5. _Letters._--In the time of Suetonius, Caesar's official despatches
+to the Senate were extant, and also private letters to Cicero and
+other friends, _e.g._ his confidants Balbus and Oppius. In these a
+cypher was, where necessary, employed. Cf. Sueton. _Iul._ 56, and
+Gell. xvii. 9, 1.
+
+6. _Speeches._--About a dozen titles of speeches are known, but only a
+few detached words and phrases survive. As an orator, Caesar stood in
+the front rank (Sueton. _Iul._ 55). For encomiums on his style see
+Cic. _Brut._ 252, and Quintilian, x. 1, 114, who considered him second
+only to Cicero, and remarkable for _vis_, _acumen_, _concitatio_, and
+_elegantia_. The language of Tac. _Dial._ 21 is less complimentary,
+'Nisi forte quisquam aut Caesaris pro Decio Samnite aut Bruti pro
+Deiotaro rege ceterosque eiusdem lentitudinis ac teporis libros legit,
+nisi qui et carmina eorumdem miratur.'
+
+7. _Poems._--Caesar in his youth composed a poem in praise of
+Hercules, and a tragedy, _Oedipus_. Plutarch (_Caes._ 2) speaks of him
+as reciting poems of his own composition to the pirates who took him
+prisoner. On his journey from Rome to Spain, B.C. 46, he wrote a
+descriptive poem with the title of _Iter_.
+
+Sueton. _Iul._ 56, 'Reliquit ... poema quod inscribitur Iter ...
+[fecit] dum ab urbe in Hispaniam ulteriorem quarto et vicensimo die
+pervenit ... Feruntur et a puero et ab adulescentulo quaedam scripta,
+ut Laudes Herculis, tragoedia Oedipus, item Dicta Collectanea: quos
+omnes libellos vetuit Augustus publicari, in epistula quam brevem
+admodum ac simplicem ad Pompeium Macrum, cui ordinandas bibliothecas
+delegaverat, misit.'
+
+Pliny the younger mentions Caesar as a love poet (_Ep._ v. 3, 5). His
+poetry is spoken of by Tacitus in no flattering terms, _Dial._ 21,
+'fecerunt enim [Caesar et Brutus] et carmina et in bibliothecas
+rettulerunt, non melius quam Cicero, sed felicius, quia illos fecisse
+pauciores sciunt.'
+
+The only extant lines are those on Terence (_q.v._).
+
+
+
+C. ASINIUS POLLIO.
+
+
+C. Asinius Pollio (B.C. 76-A.D. 5), governor of Farther Spain B.C.
+44, consul B.C. 40, retired from public life after his Dalmatian
+triumph, B.C. 39. He was famous as an orator, and was the author of
+(1) A history of the civil wars from B.C. 60 (Hor. _Od._ ii. 1, 1
+_sqq._). (2) Tragedies (Verg. _Ecl._ 8, 10; Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 42;
+_Od._ ii. 1, 9 _sqq._) and love poems (Plin. _Ep._ v. 3, 5). (3) A
+work in which the style of Sallust was criticized (Sueton. _Gramm._
+10). His remarks on Caesar, Cicero, and Livy may be from the same book
+(Sueton. _Iul._ 56; Quint. xii. 1, 22; i. 5, 56).
+
+For Pollio's style, cf. Quint. x. 1, 113, 'A nitore et iucunditate
+Ciceronis ita longe abest ut videri possit saeculo prior.' Pollio
+founded the first public library at Rome, in the _Atrium Libertatis_,
+B.C. 38 (Plin. _N.H._ xxxv. 10), For his intimacy with the poet Cinna,
+who wrote the _Propempticon Pollionis_ in his honour, see p. 142; and
+for his patronage of Virgil and Horace, see Verg. _Ecl._ 3, 84; 8,
+6-13; Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 42. Pollio, of course, belongs to the
+Augustan Age, but is mentioned here because of his connexion with the
+_Corpus Caesarianum_.
+
+
+
+CORNELIUS NEPOS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+The praenomen of Cornelius Nepos is unknown. In Pliny, _N.H._ iii.
+127, he is called 'Padi adcola,' and in Pliny, _Ep._ iv. 28, 1 (to
+Vibius Severus), he is mentioned as a townsman of T. Catius, 'Imagines
+municipum tuorum, Cornelii Nepotis et T. Cati.' Now T. Catius was an
+Insubrian (Cic. _ad Fam._ xv. 16, 1), and as the only Insubrian town
+on the Padus was Ticinum, Nepos was probably born there.
+
+There is no direct evidence as to the date of his birth but we may
+infer from the following facts that he was born not long before B.C.
+100.
+
+1. Jerome puts his literary activity under B.C. 40 = yr. Abr. 1977,
+'Cornelius Nepos scriptor historicus clarus habetur.'
+
+2. A son of his died B.C. 44 while a boy, and unknown to Cicero.
+
+Cic. _ad Att._ xvi. 14, 4, 'Male narras de Nepotis filio: valde
+mehercule moveor et moleste fero; nescieram omnino esse istum puerum.'
+
+3. The respect with which he looks up to Atticus, who was born B.C.
+109.
+
+4. A fragment of his _Exempla_ quoted by Pliny, _N.H._ ix. 136,
+regarding the changes of fashion in purple robes: 'Nepos Cornelius,
+qui divi Augusti principatu obiit, "Me," inquit, "iuvene violacea
+purpura vigebat, ... nec multo post rubra Tarentina. Huic successit
+dibapha Tyria... Hac P. Lentulus Spinther aedilis curulis (B.C. 63)
+primus in praetexta usus improbabatur. Qua purpura quis non iam,"
+inquit, "triclinaria facit?"'
+
+Nepos held no public office, but confined himself to literature, in
+which he was associated with Atticus. Their intimacy must have begun
+after B.C. 65, when Atticus returned to Rome from Athens, where he had
+lived more than twenty years.
+
+Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3, 6, 'P. Vergilius, Cornelius Nepos ... Non quidem hi
+senatores.'
+
+Nep. _Att._ 13, 7, 'Atque hoc non auditum, sed cognitum praedicamus:
+saepe enim propter familiaritatem domesticis rebus interfuimus.'
+
+Nepos knew Cicero, doubtless, through Atticus, but there is no
+evidence that they were intimate, except Gell. xv. 28, 1, who is
+probably mistaken, 'Cornelius Nepos ... M. Ciceronis ut qui maxime
+amicus familiaris fuit.' A fragment of a letter from Cicero to Nepos
+is quoted by Sueton. _Iul._ 55; from Nepos to Cicero by Lactant.
+_inst. div._ iii. 15, 10; and Fronto (p. 20, ed. Naber) speaks of a
+collection of Cicero's works revised by Nepos and Atticus.
+
+Nepos was on intimate terms with Catullus, whom, as coming from
+Verona, he may have known in early life. Catullus, who is mentioned by
+Nepos (_Att._ 12, 4), dedicated a collection of poems to him (Catull.
+1). Nepos was alive in B.C. 29, in which, or the following year, he
+completed the life of Atticus.
+
+As regards Nepos' character and views, Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3, 6,
+attributes to him _sanctitas morum_. The words of Cicero, _ad Att._
+xvi. 5, 5, imply only a playful compliment, 'Et ais, "+met'
+amymona+." Tu vero +amym�n+, ille [Nepos] quidem +ambrotos+.'
+
+Nepos' slight regard for philosophy is shown by a letter to Cicero
+quoted by Lactant. _inst. div._ iii. 15, 10, 'Tantum abest, ut ego
+magistram esse putem vitae philosophiam beataeque vitae perfectricem,
+ut nullis magis existimem opus esse magistris vivendi quam plerisque,
+qui in ea disputanda versantur.'
+
+Cf. also Cic. _ad Att._ xvi. 5, 5, 'Nepotis epistulam exspecto.
+Cupidus ille meorum? qui ea, quibus maxime +gaurio+, legenda non
+putet.'
+
+Philosophy, according to Nepos, ought to be practical.
+
+Nep. _Att._ 17, 3, 'Nam principum philosophorum ita percepta habuit
+praecepta, ut his ad vitam agendam, non ad ostentationem uteretur.'
+
+Nepos, as is shown by his works, supported government by the Senate.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. Erotic poems; mentioned by Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3, 6.
+
+2. _Chronica_, in three books, embracing universal history. Catull. 1,
+
+  'Quoi dono lepidum novom libellum
+  arida modo pumice expolitum?
+  Corneli, tibi; namque tu solebas
+  meas esse aliquid putare nugas
+  iam tum, cum ausus es unus Italorum
+  omne aevom tribus explicare chartis,
+  doctis, Iuppiter, et laboriosis.'
+
+It is clear, from the above, that Nepos had mentioned Catullus in the
+work. That the mythical period was treated of is shown by Ausonius,
+_Ep._ 16, 'Apologos Titiani et Nepotis chronica quasi alios apologos
+(nam et ipsa instar sunt fabularum) ... misi ... ad institutionem
+tuorum.'
+
+From Catullus we may possibly infer that the _Chronica_ were written
+before B.C. 63[31]; _unus Italorum_ would imply that they were written
+before the similar works of Varro and Atticus.
+
+3. _Exempla_, in at least five Books, treating of the history of Roman
+manners.
+
+Gell. vi. 18, 11, 'Cornelius Nepos in libro exemplorum quinto.'
+
+4. _Life of the elder Cato_.
+
+Nep. _Cat._ 3, 5, 'Huius de vita et moribus plura in eo libro
+persecuti sumus, quem separatim de eo fecimus rogatu T. Pomponii
+Attici. Quare studiosos Catonis ad illud volumen delegamus.'
+
+5. _Life of Cicero_, written after his death (B.C. 43). Gell. xv. 28,
+2, 'in primo librorum, quos de vita illius composuit.'
+
+6. _A geographical work_, referred to by Pliny, _N.H._ v. 4, etc. All
+the above works are lost.
+
+7. _De Viris Illustribus_, his last work, was dedicated to Atticus
+(praef. i); an addition to the life of Atticus was made after his
+death.
+
+_Att._ 19, 1, 'Hactenus Attico vivo edita a nobis sunt. Nunc, quoniam
+fortuna nos superstites ei esse voluit, reliqua persequemur.'
+
+From _Att._ 12, 1-2, we may conclude that the publication took place
+between B.C. 35 and 33. The addition to the life of Atticus was
+written at some time between B.C. 31 and 27, as in _Att._ 19, 2,
+Octavian is called _imperator_, but not _Augustus_, a title which he
+received in the last-mentioned year.
+
+The work contained at least sixteen Books: cf. Charis. _G.L._ i. 141
+(ed. Keil), 'Cornelius Nepos illustrium virorum libro xvi.'; and was
+divided into sections of two Books each, the first on distinguished
+foreigners, the second on distinguished Romans of the same class. We
+possess the book _de excellentibus ducibus exterarum gentium_; from
+_de historicis Latinis_ the lives of Cato the Censor and Atticus, and
+fragments of the letters of Cornelia, mother of the Gracci. There are
+also mentioned the books _de regibus_ (Nep. _de reg._ 1, 1; 3, 5); _de
+excellentibus ducibus Romanorum_ (Nep. _Hann._ 13, 4); _de historicis
+Graecis_ (Nep. _Dion,_ 3, 2); _de poetis_ (Sueton. p. 31 R.); _de
+grammaticis_ (Sueton. p. 103 R.). The work probably dealt also with
+_iurisconsulti_, _oratores_, and _philosophi_. The book is biographical
+rather than historical, and is designed to compare foreigners with
+Romans, and to please, as well as instruct, those ignorant of Greek
+culture.
+
+_Pel._ 1, 1, 'Vereor ... ne non vitam eius enarrare, sed historiam
+videar scribere.'
+
+_Hann._ 13, 4, 'Tempus est ... Romanorum explicare imperatores, quo
+facilius collatis utrorumque factis, qui viri praeferendi sint, possit
+iudicari.'
+
+_Pel._ 1, 1, 'Medebor cum satietati tum ignorantiae lectorum.'
+
+_Praef._ 2, 'Hi erunt fere, qui expertes litterarum Graecarum,' etc.
+
+Besides tradition and his own recollection, Nepos mentions the
+following sources: Thucydides (_Them._ 1, 4, etc.); Xenophon (_Ag._ 1,
+1); Plato's _Symposium_ (_Alc._ 2, 2); Theopompus (_Alc._ 11, 1);
+Dinon (_Con._ 5, 4); Timaeus (_Alc._ 11, 1); Silenus, Sosilus,
+Polybius, Sulpicius Blitho, Atticus (_Hann._ 13, 1 and 3); the
+writings of Hannibal (_Hann._ 13, 2); Speeches and _Origines_ of Cato
+(_Cat._ 3, 2); Cicero's works, especially _Epp. ad Att._ (_Att._ 16,
+3). The book contains lives of twenty Greek generals from the Persian
+wars to the time of Alexander's successors; a short article on Persian
+and Macedonian kings who were also generals; and the lives of Hamilcar
+and Hannibal, Cato and Atticus. The work possesses little independent
+value, and the following are the chief faults:
+
+1. There are many mistakes in history and geography.
+
+2. The biographies, and the events recorded in them, are badly
+arranged; eulogy is employed indiscriminately, and petty anecdotes are
+too frequent.
+
+3. Important names, as Cimon and Lysander, are dismissed too briefly;
+others, as Atticus and Datames, are treated too fully. Many are left
+out altogether, as some of the leaders in the Peloponnesian war.
+
+4. Important authorities are not used: so Herodotus, for Miltiades,
+Themistocles, and Pausanias. No use is made of the _Hellenica_ of
+Xenophon.
+
+For views on Nepos, cf. Gell. xv. 28, 1, 'Cornelius Nepos rerum
+memoriae non indiligens.'
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ v. 4, 'Portentosa Graeciae mendacia ... quaeque alia
+Cornelius Nepos avidissime credidit.'
+
+Nepos is not mentioned by Quintilian in his list of Roman historians.
+
+In the MSS. only the _Atticus_ and the _Cato_ are ascribed to Nepos,
+the rest being entitled _Liber Aemilii Probi de excellentibus ducibus
+exterarum gentium_. It has been suggested that this arose from a
+misapprehension of _em_(_endavi_) _Probus_. There is an epigram by
+this Probus in the MSS., referring to poems of his and standing after
+the Life of Hannibal, which informs us that he was a contemporary of
+Theodosius (probably Theodosius I., A.D. 379-395). That the work
+cannot be by him is shown by the political references, which suit only
+the beginning of the empire, by the mention of Atticus in the preface,
+and by the correspondence in style between the book and the lives of
+Atticus and Cato, admittedly the work of Nepos; also by the fact that
+L. Ampelius, who probably wrote before the time of Diocletian, used
+the work in his _Liber Memorialis_.
+
+
+
+LUCRETIUS.
+
+
+Our information about Lucretius' life is very scanty. Jerome yr. Abr.
+1922 = B.C. 95, 'T. Lucretius poeta nascitur, qui postea amatorio
+poculo in furorem versus, cum aliquot libros per intervalla insaniae
+conscripsisset, quos postea Cicero emendavit, propria se manu
+interfecit anno aetatis xliiii.' (B.C. 52 or 51).
+
+Donatus, _vit. Verg._ 2, 'Initia aetatis Cremonae egit [Vergilius]
+usque ad virilem togam, quam xv. anno natali suo accepit isdem illis
+consulibus iterum duobus quibus erat natus, evenitque ut eo ipso die
+Lucretius poeta decederet' (October 15).
+
+Teuffel thinks xliiii. is wrong, and would read xlii., thus giving the
+dates as B.C. 96-55, as he thinks that Jerome has fixed the date of
+birth one year too late. Munro (vol. ii. p. 1) accepts xliiii., but
+thinks that Jerome (as elsewhere) is a few years wrong in the date of
+Lucretius' birth, and gives the dates as B.C. 99-55. It is impossible
+to decide as to the date of birth, but most authorities agree on B.C.
+55 as the date of death, a view which is supported by the only
+contemporary reference to the poet: Cic. _ad Q.F._ ii. 11, 4 (written
+in February, B.C. 54), 'Lucreti poemata, ut scribis, ita sunt: multis
+luminibus ingeni, multae tamen artis; sed cum veneris. Virum te
+putabo, si Sallusti Empedoclea legeris, hominem non putabo.'
+
+The above extract is given in the reading of the MSS. Some editors
+read _non_ before _multis_, others _non_ before _multae_, but it is
+best to follow the MSS. (with Tyrrell), translating "But when you come
+(we shall talk about it). I shall consider you a hero, if you read
+Sallust's _Empedoclea_; I shall not consider you a human being."
+
+As regards Lucretius' madness, there is no absolute impossibility in
+the story. Munro (vol. ii. pp. 2, 3) accepts Jerome's account of
+Cicero's editorship; others, less probably, believe that Q. Cicero was
+editor. The first view is rendered probable by the high opinion
+Lucretius had of Cicero, as seen from the frequency with which he
+imitates his _Aratea_ (Munro on Lucr. v. 619), and from the knowledge
+Cicero shows of Lucretius' work, as in _Tusc._ i. 48.
+
+The poet's full name is given in the MSS. as T. Lucretius Carus.
+
+This is all the direct evidence regarding Lucretius' life.[32] The _de
+rerum natura_ is addressed to C. Memmius.[33] From Cic. _ad Fam._
+xiii. 1 (where Cicero tells us he employed his good offices with
+Memmius on behalf of Patro for the preservation of the gardens of
+Epicurus), it appears that he was not an Epicurean. Memmius is the
+only contemporary mentioned by Lucretius; i. 24,
+
+  'Te sociam studeo scribendis versibus esse
+  quos ego de rerum natura pangere conor
+  Memmiadae nostro, quem tu, dea, tempore in omni
+  omnibus ornatum voluisti excellere rebus.'
+
+Many, arguing from the fact that Carus is not known elsewhere as a
+cognomen of the gens Lucretia, think that the poet was a freedman or a
+freedman's son, but from the tone of equality in which he addresses
+Memmius, it is more probable that he was a patrician; cf. i. 140,
+
+  'Sed tua me virtus tamen et sperata voluptas
+  suavis amicitiae quemvis sufferre laborem
+  suadet.'
+
+Several personal characteristics may be inferred from the poem:
+
+1. His earnestness and sincerity; iii. 28,
+
+  'His ibi me rebus quaedam divina voluptas
+  percipit atque horror,' etc.
+
+Cf. the importance he attaches to his subject, i. 926,
+
+  'Avia Pieridum peragro loca nullius ante
+  trita solo.'
+
+2. His admiration for the great men of the past. Cf. iii. 1024-52,
+where Ancus, the Scipios, Homer, Democritus, and Epicurus are praised;
+the introductions to Books i., iii., v., vi., on Epicurus; i. 716-33
+on Empedocles; i. 117-9 on Ennius.
+
+3. His powers of observation and love of nature. Cf. i. 716-25; ii. 29
+_sqq._, 40 _sqq._; 323-32; iv. 572 _sqq._
+
+4. His experience of women. Book iv. 1037-the end.
+
+5. His wide reading. The poem shows knowledge of Epicurus, Empedocles,
+Democritus, Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Plato, the Stoic writers,
+Thucydides, Hippocrates, Homer, Euripides. Among Latin writers Ennius,
+Naevius, Pacuvius, Lucilius, and Accius are all imitated.
+
+There is a reference to contemporary history in i. 41-3,
+
+  'Nam neque nos agere hoc patriai tempore iniquo
+  possumus aequo animo nec Memmi clara propago
+  talibus in rebus communi desse saluti.'
+
+Munro thinks that these lines were written B.C. 59, when Memmius was
+_praetor designatus_, in fierce opposition to Caesar, and on the side
+of the Senate. If this is so, the poem was probably written between
+B.C. 60 and 55. The lines on ambition and its attendant evils (as iii.
+931 _sqq._, v. 1117-35, etc.) may have been written with a special
+view to the facts of Memmius' life. Lucretius may refer to his
+recollection of the civil wars in v. 999,
+
+  'At non multa virum sub signis milia ducta
+  una dies dabat exitio.'
+
+In ii. 40 _sqq._ there is perhaps a reference to Caesar's army in the
+Campus Martius at the beginning of B.C. 58.
+
+The _de rerum natura_ is an exposition of Epicureanism, especially on
+its physical side; i. 54,
+
+  'Nam tibi de summa caeli ratione deumque
+  disserere incipiam et rerum primordia pandam,' etc.
+
+The title is taken from Epicurus' +peri physe�s+, which Lucretius
+followed closely, as is evident from the account of the Epicurean
+philosophy in Diogenes Laertius, x., and from the fragments of
+Epicurean writers discovered at Herculaneum in 1752. He probably used
+as his model Empedocles' poem +peri physe�s+.
+
+The object of the poem is to deliver men from the fear of death and of
+the gods; iii. 37,
+
+  'Et metus ille foras praeceps Acheruntis agendus';
+
+i. 62-101; cf. l. 101,
+
+  'Tantum religio potuit suadere malorum.'
+
+Note that the invocation to Venus at the beginning of the poem is not
+inconsistent, but is an address to the universal principle of
+generation; cf. i. 21,
+
+  'Quae quoniam rerum naturam sola gubernas.'
+
+The scope of the Books is as follows: Books i. and ii. state the
+physical theories of Democritus and Epicurus. Book i. states the
+Atomic Theory of Democritus, held by Epicurus, that the world consists
+of atoms and void. The theories of Heraclitus, Empedocles, Anaxagoras,
+etc. are refuted; i. 740,
+
+  'Principiis tamen in rerum fecere ruinas
+  et graviter magni magno cecidere ibi casu.'
+
+Book ii. treats of the combinations of atoms, and the principle of the
+swerve introduced to explain free-will. The varieties of atoms are
+shown to be limited. In Book iii. the nature of the mind and life is
+shown to be material. _Religio_ and the fear of death (cf. ll. 978
+_sqq._) are attacked principally in this Book; iii. 830,
+
+  'Nil igitur mors est ad nos neque pertinet hilum,
+  quandoquidem natura animi mortalis habetur.'
+
+Book iv. treats of the theory of _simulacra_ or images, of the senses,
+and particularly of love. Book v. treats of the formation of the earth
+and the heavenly bodies, the origin of life, and the progress of
+civilization. It is shown that nothing has been created, and that
+everything must perish. Book vi. treats of abnormal phenomena, such as
+thunder and lightning, tempests, volcanoes, earthquakes, etc. The
+plague at Athens is described (from Thucydides). Books v. and vi. are
+unfinished.
+
+Ethical views are given only by the way, the poem being primarily on
+physics. Pleasure is the end of action: ii. 172, 'dux vitae dia
+voluptas.' This pleasure is the absence of disturbance (+ataraxia+),
+hence all passion (as of love, iv. 1121-40) is deprecated; ii. 14,
+
+  'O miseras hominum mentes, o pectora caeca!
+  qualibus in tenebris vitae quantisque periclis
+  degitur hoc aevi quodcumque est! nonne videre
+  nil aliud sibi naturam latrare, nisi utqui
+  corpore seiunctus dolor absit, mente fruatur
+  iucundo sensu cura semota metuque?'
+
+Lucretius, as Epicurus, is often weak in physics. Cf. v. 564 _sqq._,
+of the sun's size,
+
+  'Nec nimio solis maior rota nec minor ardor
+  esse potest, nostris quam sensibus esse videtur.'
+
+In i. 1052 _sqq._ he states well the theory of the antipodes but his
+dependence on Epicurus will not allow him to accept it. Reasons are
+sometimes given for a thing that never existed, as in iv. 710-21 for
+the fear that a lion has for a cock. Some passages come near the
+results of modern science, cf. v. 837 _sqq._ on extinct species; v.
+855 _sqq._ on the struggle for existence; v. 610-3, on the invisible
+rays of the sun.
+
+The references to Lucretius by name are few.
+
+Nep. _Att._ 12, 4, 'L. Iulium Calidum, quem post Lucreti Catullique
+mortem multo elegantissimum poetam nostram tulisse aetatem vere videor
+posse contendere.'
+
+Ovid, _Am._ i. 15, 23,
+
+  'Carmina sublimis tunc sunt peritura Lucreti,
+  exitio terras cum dabit una dies.'
+
+_Trist._ ii. 425,
+
+  'Explicat ut causas rapidi Lucretius ignis.'
+
+Stat. _Silv._ ii. 7, 76,
+
+  'docti furor arduus Lucreti.'
+
+Quint. x. 1, 87, 'Macer et Lucretius legendi quidem, sed non ut
+phrasin, id est, corpus eloquentiae faciant; elegantes in sua quisque
+materia, sed alter humilis alter difficilis.'
+
+Cf. Tac. _Dial._ 23.
+
+His influence on Virgil is seen _passim_. Cf. Gell. i. 21, 7, 'Non
+verba sola sed versus prope totos et locos quoque Lucreti plurimos
+sectatum esse Vergilium videmus.'
+
+Verg. _Georg._ ii. 490 _sqq._ and _Ecl._ 6, 31 _sqq._ refer to
+Lucretius. _Georg._ ii. 490,
+
+  'Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas
+  atque metus omnes et inexorabile fatum
+  subiecit pedibus strepitumque Acherontis avari.'
+
+Horace has also imitated him in several places: so _Sat._ i. 3, 99-110
+(on primitive man) = Lucr. v. 1028 _sqq._; _Sat._ i. 5, 101 _sqq._ =
+Lucr. v. 82 _sqq._ Most of the poets after him, particularly Manilius,
+came under his influence.
+
+
+
+SALLUST.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+C. Sallustius Crispus was born B.C. 86 at Amiternum, in the country of
+the Sabines, and died B.C. 35.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1931 = B.C. 86, 'Sallustius Crispus, scriptor
+historicus, in Sabinis Amiterni nascitur.' _Ibid._ 1982 = B.C. 35,
+'Sallustius diem obiit, quadriennio ante Actiacum bellum.'
+
+Sallust was of plebeian family, as is seen from the fact that he was
+afterwards _tribunus plebis_. According to the Pseud.-Cic. _in
+Sallustium declamatio_, 13-14, he led an evil life in youth, and
+brought his father with sorrow to the grave.
+
+Cf. � 14, 'Cuiquam dubium potest esse, quin mori coegerit eum
+[patrem]?'
+
+There is a story that Milo punished him for an amour with his wife.
+
+Gell. xvii. 18, 'M. Varro ... in libro quem scripsit "Pius aut de
+pace," C. Sallustium scriptorem seriae illius et severae orationis, in
+cuius historia notiones censorias fieri atque exerceri videmus, in
+adulterio deprehensum ab Annio Milone loris bene caesum dicit et, cum
+dedisset pecuniam, dimissum.'
+
+The story is corroborated by Pseud.-Cic. _in Sall._ 15; by Macrob.
+iii. 13, 9, '_alienae_ luxuriae obiurgator et censor,' and others; and
+Sallust himself appears to admit that there was something wrong;
+_Cat._ 4, 'a quo incepto studioque me ambitio mala detinuerat.'[34]
+
+Sallust speaks of the political offices he filled, and of the class of
+men who were unsuccessful candidates about the same time--a supposed
+reference to M. Cato's candidature for the praetorship, B.C. 55.
+
+_Iug._ 4, 'Qui si reputaverint, et quibus ego temporibus magistratus
+adeptus sim et quales viri idem adsequi nequiverint,' etc.
+
+After being quaestor (Pseud.-Cic. _in Sall._ 15), he was, in B.C. 52,
+_tribunus plebis_, when he and other two tribunes opposed Cicero in
+his defence of Milo.
+
+Ascon. _in Cic. pro Mil._ p. 33 (Kiessl. and Sch�ll), 'C. Sallustius
+et T. Munatius Plancus tr. pleb. inimicissimas contiones de Milone
+habebant.'
+
+In B.C. 50, Sallust was _legatus pro quaestore_ to Bibulus in Syria,
+according to Mommsen (_Hermes_, i. 171), who thinks that the Sallust
+to whom Cicero writes _ad Fam._ ii. 17 is the historian. In the same
+year he was expelled from the Senate by the censors, Appius Claudius
+and L. Piso.
+
+Pseud.-Cic. _in Sall._ 16, 'neque post illum delectum senatus vidimus
+te.'
+
+In B.C. 49, Caesar reappointed him quaestor, and he resumed his place
+in the Senate.
+
+Pseud.-Cic. _in Sall._ 17, 'in senatum post quaesturam est reductus.'
+
+In B.C. 48, he commanded a legion in Illyria without distinction
+(Orosius vi, 15, 8), and next year he was Caesar's agent with the
+insurgent legions in Campania (Appian, _B.C._ ii. 92). In B.C. 46 he
+was praetor, and as such commanded successfully an expedition to seize
+the enemy's stores in Cercina.
+
+_Bell. Afr._ 8, 'Item C. Sallustium Crispum praetorem ad Cercinam
+insulam versus, quam adversarii tenebant, cum parte navium ire iubet.'
+(See also c. 34.)
+
+At the end of the year he was appointed proconsul of Numidia.
+
+_Ibid._ 97, 'Ibi Sallustio pro consule cum imperio relicto ipse Zama
+egressus Uticam se recepit.'
+
+As proconsul, he plundered the province, and bought, probably with the
+spoils, the _horti Sallustiani_, which afterwards belonged to the
+Roman emperors (see Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 47; _Hist._ iii. 82).
+
+Pseud.-Cic. _in Sall._ 19, 'Nonne ita provinciam vastavit, ut nihil
+neque passi sint neque exspectaverint gravius in bello socii nostri,
+quam experti sint in pace hoc Africam interiorem obtinente?'
+
+Sallust is said to have married Terentia, whom Cicero had divorced
+(Jerome _adv. Iov._ 1). Probably he had no son, as he adopted a
+grandson of his sister.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ iii. 30, 'Crispum equestri ortum loco C. Sallustius, rerum
+Romanarum florentissimus auctor, sororis nepotem in nomen adscivit.'
+
+After Caesar's death, Sallust retired from public life, and, having no
+taste for sport or agriculture, spent his leisure in writing history.
+
+_Cat._ 4, 'Ubi ... mihi reliquam aetatem a re publica procul habendam
+decrevi, non fuit consilium socordia atque desidia bonum otium
+conterere, neque vero agrum colundo aut venando servilibus officiis
+intentum aetatem agere; sed ... statui res gestas populi Romani
+carptim, ut quaeque memoria digna videbantur, perscribere.'
+
+Sallust, as above stated, died B.C. 35.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _De Catilinae Coniuratione_ (so _Cat._ 4). The book is called
+_bellum Catilinae_ by Quint. iii. 8, 9, and in some MSS.; in MSS. also
+_bellum Catilinarium_. The work was written after Caesar's death
+(_Cat._ 53-4). It is, as Mommsen (_R.H._ iv. 184, note) states, a
+political pamphlet in the interests of the democratic party (on which
+the monarchy was based), and tries to clear Caesar from the charge of
+being implicated in the Catilinarian conspiracy, and collaterally
+performing the same service for C. Antonius, the uncle of the
+triumvir.
+
+Cf. _Cat._ 49, 'Sed isdem temporibus Q. Catulus et C. Piso neque
+pretio neque gratia Ciceronem inpellere potuere, uti per Allobroges
+aut alium indicem C. Caesar falso nominaretur. Nam uterque cum illo
+gravis inimicitias exercebant ... Sed ubi consulem ad tantum facinus
+inpellere nequeunt,' etc. (Cf. also Caesar's speech in _Cat._ 51.)
+
+_Cat._ 59, 'At ex altera parte C. Antonius pedibus aeger, quod proelio
+adesse nequibat, M. Petreio legato exercitum permittit.' Dion Cassius,
+xxxvii. 39, on the other hand, says that this was a pretence, Antonius
+being unwilling to fight against his old confederate.
+
+2. _Bellum Iugurthinum_. (So in MSS. and Quint. iii. 8, 9.)
+
+_Iug._ 5, 'Bellum scripturus sum, quod populus Romanus cum Iugurtha
+rege Numidarum gessit, primum quia magnum et atrox variaque victoria
+fuit, dehinc quia tunc primum superbiae nobilitatis obviam itum est.'
+
+The object of the book is to give a picture of the low state of the
+oligarchical government (cf. _Iug._ 8, 'Romae omnia venalia esse'),
+and to glorify Marius, the chief of the democratic party.
+
+Of his sources, Sallust mentions Sisenna (_Iug._ 95) for information
+about Sulla, and native authorities for African ethnography.
+
+_Iug._ 17, 'Sed qui mortales initio Africam habuerint, quique postea
+adcesserint, aut quo modo inter se permixti sint ... uti ex libris
+Punicis, qui regis Hiempsalis dicebantur, interpretatum nobis est ...
+dicam.'
+
+Sallust probably also used the memoirs of Scaurus, Sulla, and Catulus.
+
+3. _Historiae_.--This work dealt with the events from B.C. 78 to 67.
+Cf. Ausonius, p. 264 (ed. Peiper),
+
+  'Ab Lepido et Catulo iam res et tempora Romae
+  orsus his senos seriem conecto per annos.'
+
+There is no reference in the fragments to any event after B.C. 67. The
+book took up the history where Sisenna had left off, B.C. 78. Cf. i.
+_frag._ 1 (ed. Maurenbrecher), 'Res populi Romani M. Lepido Q. Catulo
+coss. ac deinde militiae et domi gestas composui.'
+
+Four speeches and two letters from the _Histories_ have been preserved
+in a collection of Sallustian speeches and letters made for rhetorical
+purposes, probably in the second century A.D. Besides these there are
+considerable fragments, chiefly from Books ii. and iii. We may
+conclude from _Iug._ 95, 'neque enim alio loco de Sullae rebus dicturi
+sumus,' that the career of Sulla was not treated of in the
+_Histories_. He is, however, repeatedly mentioned.
+
+Two works are falsely attributed to Sallust:
+
+1. _Oratio invectiva in Tullium_, composed, along with an _Oratio
+invectiva in Sallustium_ falsely ascribed to Cicero, by the same
+ancient rhetorician. The _Or. in Tull._ is quoted by Quintilian, if
+the MSS. are right, _e.g._ iv. 1, 68.
+
+2. An oration and an epistle _ad Caesarem senem de re publica_, both
+probably belonging to the imperial period.
+
+_Sallust as a historian._--1. He departed from the annalistic
+arrangement, and took a broader view of his subject, endeavouring to
+connect events together, and to trace the motives of actions.
+
+2. He shows a want of precision in his facts. Instead of giving dates,
+he often says vaguely _interea_; _isdem temporibus_; _dum haec
+aguntur_. One year in the Jugurthine war is left unaccounted for, and
+Marius is represented as consul in B.C. 105. So in geography and
+ethnography (as in the _Iugurtha_) he is not to be trusted. In _Iug._
+21 he forgets that Cirta is fifty miles from the sea, and that city is
+besieged in the usual way, though surrounded on three sides by gorges.
+
+He prides himself on his impartiality.
+
+_Cat._ 4, 'Mihi a spe, metu, partibus rei publicae animus liber erat.'
+So _Hist._ i. fr. 6.
+
+His leaning to the popular party, however, has been shown above.
+
+3. His speeches do not always suit the speaker or his audience, and
+are not historical. Thus the speech of Catiline (_Cat._ 20) does not
+suit his audience and is not authentic, and that of Marius (_Iug._ 85)
+is too learned for the speaker.
+
+4. His prefaces have little to do with what follows. Cf. Quint. iii.
+8, 9, 'C. Sallustius in bello Iugurthino et Catilinae nihil ad
+historiam pertinentibus principiis orsus est.'
+
+5. He is too fond of hackneyed moral maxims and trite sayings. Thus:
+
+_Cat._ i, 'Sed nostra omnis vis in animo et corpore sita est,' etc.
+
+_Iug._ 2, 'Nam uti genus hominum compositum ex corpore et anima est,
+ita res cunctae studiaque omnia nostra corporis alia, alia animi
+naturam secuntur.'
+
+His tone is that of a severe moralist.
+
+_Cat._ 3, 'Sed ego adulescentulus initio sicuti plerique studio ad rem
+publicam latus sum, ibique mihi multa advorsa fuere. Nam pro pudore,
+pro abstinentia, pro virtute audacia, largitio, avaritia vigebant,'
+etc.
+
+As this moralizing did not fit in with the facts of his life he was
+censured for it, as shown above.
+
+_Sallust's authorities and models._--Besides the authorities mentioned
+above, he used a _breviarium rerum omnium Romanarum_ prepared for him
+by the grammarian Ateius (Sueton. _Gramm._ 10). He is said to have
+borrowed phrases from Cato.
+
+Quint. viii. 3, 29, 'Nec minus noto Sallustius epigrammate incessitur:
+
+  "Et verba antiqui multum furate Catonis,
+  Crispe, Iugurthinae conditor historiae."'
+
+The similarity of Sallust's style to that of Thucydides, whom he tried
+to emulate, was remarked by the ancients.
+
+Quint. ix. 3, 17, 'Ex Graeco vero translata vel Sallustii plurima,
+quale est "volgus amat fieri"' [_Iug._ 34, a poor instance, and
+wrongly quoted]. Cf. _Cat._ 6, 'magisque dandis quam accipiundis
+beneficiis amicitias parabant,' and Thuc. ii. 40, 4, +ou gar
+paschontes eu alla dr�ntes kt�metha tous philous+: _Iug._ 73, 'in
+maius celebrare,' and Thuc. i. 10, 3, +epi to meizon kosm�sai+.
+
+Sallust's popularity is shown by the numerous references to him,
+particularly in Quintilian. Cf. Quint. x. 1, 101, 'At non historia
+cesserit Graecis, nec opponere Thucydidi Sallustium verear'; � 102,
+'immortalem illam Sallustii velocitatem.' Cf. also Martial, xiv. 191,
+'primus Romana Crispus in historia.' Tacitus is the most important
+writer influenced by Sallust. For imitations cf. Tac. _Agr._ 37, where
+part of the description of a battle is modelled on _Iug._ 101. Cf.
+also _Cat._ 43, 'facto non consulto in tali periculo opus esse,' and
+Tac. _Hist._ i. 62, 'ubi facto magis quam consulto opus esset.'
+
+
+
+CATULLUS.
+
+
+The poet's full name, C.[35] Valerius Catullus, is got from Jerome and
+other authorities quoted below, as also his birthplace, Verona, to
+which Catullus himself refers (c. 67, 34, 'Veronae meae'; 68, 27; 100,
+2). The dates of his birth and death are uncertain. Jerome gives them
+as B.C. 87-58.
+
+Yr. Abr. 1930 = B.C. 87, 'Gaius Valerius Catullus scriptor lyricus
+Veronae nascitur.'
+
+Yr. Abr. 1959 = B.C. 58, 'Catullus xxx. aetatis anno Romae moritur.'
+His early death is referred to by Ovid, _Am._ iii. 9, 61,
+
+  'Obvius huic [Tibullo] venias hedera iuvenilia cinctus
+  tempora, cum Calvo, docte Catulle, tuo';
+
+but it is quite certain that the year of his death given by Jerome as
+B.C. 58 is wrong. In c. 113, 2, the second consulship of Pompeius in
+B.C. 55 is referred to, and cc. 11 and 29 were written after Caesar's
+expedition to Britain in B.C. 55. C. 52 used to be taken as referring
+to B.C. 47, from l. 3, 'per consulatum perierat Vatinius,' but, as
+shown below, was written in B.C. 55 or 54. As no clear reference is
+found to any event after B.C. 54 (a highly important time, which would
+have been likely to produce some sarcastic poetry from Catullus), it
+is best to accept the view that Catullus lived from 87 to 54 or 53
+B.C. B. Schmidt (ed. mai. 1887, prolegomena), on the other hand, fixes
+the dates as 82-52 B.C. (accepting Jerome's account of Catullus' age),
+and attributes c. 38 (to Cornificius) to the latter year.
+
+Catullus' family was wealthy and of good position, as is seen from his
+having estates at Sirmio (c. 31) and Tibur (c. 44), and from the fact
+that his father was a friend of Julius Caesar.
+
+Sueton. _Iul._ 73, 'Hospitioque patris eius [Catulli], sicut
+consueverat, uti perseveravit.'
+
+Catullus went to Rome early, and there, as Schmidt thinks, was taught
+by the grammarian Valerius Cato, to whom c. 56 is probably addressed.
+From c. 68, 34-5, we see that he was settled at Rome.
+
+                'Romae vivimus: illa domus,
+  illa mihi sedes, illic mea carpitur aetas.'
+
+Catullus wrote love-poetry soon after taking the _toga virilis_; c.
+68, 15,
+
+  'Tempore quo primum vestis mihi tradita purast,
+    iucundum cum aetas florida ver ageret,
+  multa satis lusi.'
+
+Catullus' love for Lesbia is the outstanding fact of his life. Her
+real name was Clodia, the sister of P. Clodius, nicknamed for her
+immorality 'quadrantaria.'
+
+Apuleius, _Apol._ 10, 'Accusent C. Catullum quod Lesbiam pro Clodia
+nominarit.'
+
+Ovid, _Trist._ ii. 427,
+
+  'Sic sua lascivo cantata est saepe Catullo
+    femina, cui falsum Lesbia nomen erat.'
+
+The name Lesbia (which scans like Clodia) may be got from Sappho, the
+Lesbian poetess, on whom c. 51 (probably the first addressed to
+Clodia) is modelled. The facts known about Clodia all fit in with what
+Catullus tells us of Lesbia. For Lesbia's beauty, cf. cc. 43 and 86;
+Clodia was called +bo�pis+ from her large and lustrous eyes
+(Cic. _ad Att._ ii. 9, 1; 12, 2, etc.). For her relations with her
+husband, cf. Cic. _ad Att._ ii. 1, 5 (written B.C. 60), 'Est enim
+seditiosa: cum viro bellum gerit.' A hint of the real name is got from
+c. 79, where the Lesbius mentioned is Clodius, just as Lesbia is
+Clodia,
+
+  'Lesbius est pulcer: quid ni? quem Lesbia malit
+    quam te cum tota gente, Catulle, tua.'
+
+It is probable that the acquaintance began in B.C. 61. In B.C. 62
+Clodia was the wife of Q. Caecilius Metellus Celer (Cic. _ad Fam._ v.
+2, 6), and in that year Metellus was governor of Gallia Cisalpina. Now
+from c. 83 it is evident that Lesbia's husband was in Rome when she
+began to be annoyed by Catullus' attentions. We may conclude from c.
+30 that P. Alfenus Varus introduced Catullus to Lesbia. In that poem
+Catullus blames Varus for leading him on and then leaving him in the
+lurch. M'. Allius is next mentioned (c. 68) as a friend in whose house
+Catullus met Lesbia; and cc. 2, 3, 5, and 7 probably belong to this
+fortunate period of the poet's love. C. 8 speaks of Lesbia's leaving
+him (cf. c. 92), probably on account of her husband's suspicions. Cf.
+c. 5, 1,
+
+  'Vivamus, mea Lesbia, atque amemus,
+  rumoresque senum severiorum
+  omnes unius aestimemus assis.'
+
+C. 107 speaks of an unexpected reconciliation (celebrated in c. 36).
+C. 107, 5,
+
+  'Restituis cupido atque insperanti, ipsa refers te
+    nobis. O lucem candidiore nota!'
+
+When Catullus, on account of his brother's death, left Rome for
+Verona, he already knew that Lesbia had other lovers (c. 68, ll. 27
+_sqq._, 135 _sqq._). There are many poems against his rivals: c. 82,
+against Quintius; c. 40, against Ravidus; cc. 74, 80, 88-91, 116,
+against Gellius; c. 77, against Rufus, who is attacked also in cc. 59
+and 69 (this is M. Caelius Rufus, the orator, who intrigued with
+Clodia: Cic. _pro Cael._ 17, etc.); c. 79, against Lesbius (see
+above). After Catullus returned to Rome, he found that he had lost
+Lesbia's affections. C. 70 was then written,
+
+  'Nulli se dicit mulier mea nubere malle
+    quam mihi, non si se Iuppiter ipse petat.
+  Dicit: sed mulier cupido quod dicit amanti,
+    in vento et rapida scribere oportet aqua.'
+
+The words of this poem show that it must have been written after the
+death of Clodia's husband Metellus, which took place in B.C. 59, and
+it was probably written soon after that event, when Catullus had
+returned to Rome from Verona.
+
+Nos. 72, 85, and especially 58, show increasing bitterness, and must,
+with the possible exception of 58, be assigned to the years B.C. 59 or
+58. In c. 76 he prays for power to give Lesbia up; cf. ll. 23-6,
+
+  'Non iam illud quaero, contra ut me diligat illa,
+    aut, quod non potis est, esse pudica velit:
+  ipse valere opto et taetrum hunc deponere morbum.
+    O di, reddite mi hoc pro pietate mea.'
+
+It is probable that the separation between the lovers occurred not
+later than B.C. 58; otherwise Catullus would not have left for
+Bithynia in the next year. In c. 11, the last poem that refers to
+Lesbia, which, from the reference to Britain in l. 12, cannot have
+been written before B.C. 55, we see that Catullus is cured of his
+passion; cf. ll. 21-4,
+
+  'Nec meum respectet, ut ante, amorem,
+  qui illius culpa cecidit velut prati
+  ultimi flos, praetereunte postquam
+              tactus aratro est.'
+
+In the spring of B.C. 57 Catullus went to Bithynia on the staff of the
+propraetor C. Memmius (cc. 10 and 28). From c. 10, 29, 'meus sodalis
+Cinna est Gaius,' we see that C. Helvius Cinna accompanied him. In c.
+46, 9 he speaks of the pleasant meetings of the staff, 'O dulces
+comitum valete coetus.' C. 46 shows that Catullus left Bithynia in the
+spring of the following year: ll. 1-4,
+
+  'Iam ver egelidos refert tepores ...
+  Linquantur Phrygii, Catulle, campi.'
+
+The dirge in c. 101 shows that Catullus, on his way to Italy, visited
+his brother's tomb in the Troad, and paid the last rites to it. C. 4,
+written soon after his return to Sirmio, tells us how he made his way
+home again. About the same time was composed the address to Sirmio in
+c. 31; c. 10 proves that he soon went back to Rome.
+
+The poems against Caesar's party belong to the years B.C. 55 and 54.
+In cc. 41 and 43 Catullus calls a Transpadane girl 'decoctoris amica
+Formiani,' the reference being to Mamurra, 'the bankrupt from
+Formiae,' who had been Caesar's _praefectus fabrum_ in Gaul, and who
+may have been a successful rival of Catullus in love. C. 29, written
+probably in B.C. 54, attacked Mamurra, and also his patrons, Caesar
+and Pompey. From l. 24, 'socer generque, perdidistis omnia,' it is
+clear that the poem was written before Julia's death in September,
+B.C. 54; and from ll. 11-12,
+
+  'eone nomine, imperator unice,
+  fuisti in ultima occidentis insula,'
+
+that it was written after Caesar's first expedition to Britain in B.C.
+55. The poem is referred to by Sueton. _Iul._ 73, 'Valerium Catullum,
+a quo sibi versiculis de Mamurra perpetua stigmata imposita non
+dissimulaverat, satis facientem eadem die adhibuit cenae hospitioque
+patris eius sicut consueverat uti perseveravit.'
+
+C. 52 (against Vatinius) was written B.C. 55 or 54. It used to be
+assigned to B.C. 47, when Vatinius was consul, but l. 3, 'per
+consulatum perierat Vatinius' means 'Vatinius perjures himself by his
+hope of the consulship' (his name stood on the list agreed on at Luca,
+which is mentioned by Cic. _ad Att._ iv. 8_b_, 2); and l. 2, 'Sella in
+curuli struma Nonius sedet,' cannot refer to B.C. 47, as the only
+ordinary curule magistrates in that year were P. Vatinius and Q.
+Fufius Calenus. Among other poems against personal enemies are c. 98,
+against Vettius, and c. 108, against Cominius, both of them informers;
+and c. 84, against Arrius, who aspirated his words wrongly, and who,
+from l. 7, 'hoc misso in Syriam,' is supposed to have gone out to
+Syria as _legatus_ to Crassus in B.C. 55. C. 49 is an attack on Cicero:
+
+  'Disertissime Romuli nepotum,
+  quot sunt quotque fuere, Marce Tulli,
+  quotque post aliis erunt in annis,
+  gratias tibi maximas Catullus
+  agit, pessimus omnium poeta,
+  tanto pessimus omnium poeta
+  quanto tu optimus omnium patronus.'
+
+The sting lies in the _double entendre_ in the last two lines, which
+really mean 'so much the worst poet of all poets, as you are the best
+advocate of all clients, good and bad.' So Cicero is called in a good
+sense _omnium patronus_ by Caecina in Cic. _ad Fam._ vi. 7, 4. The
+poem has special reference to B.C. 54, when Cicero defended Vatinius
+(whom he had reviled two years before in the speech _Pro Sestio_),
+when prosecuted by Catullus' friend, Calvus (cf. c. 14, 1-3); and
+thanks Cicero ironically for some criticism he had passed on his
+poems. Catullus attacks several contemporary poets; so in c. 22,
+Suffenus, who in c. 14 is coupled with Caesius and Aquinus; Volusius
+in cc. 36 and 95; cf. 36, 1, 'Annales Volusi, cacata charta.'[36]
+
+Among Catullus' friends were Veranius and Fabullus (cc. 9, 28, etc.);
+P. Alfenus Varus of Cremona (cc. 10, 22, 30), consul B.C. 39, and a
+famous _iurisconsultus_. C. 61 celebrates the marriage of L. Manlius
+Torquatus (who was praetor B.C. 49) and Vinia Aurunculeia. Several
+poems are addressed to brother poets; c. 35 is to Caecilius of Novum
+Comum; c. 38 to Cornificius, a writer of slight love poems (Ovid,
+_Trist._ ii. 436) who died B.C. 41; c. 95 is on Cinna's _Zmyrna_; cc.
+14, 50, and 96 are addressed to C. Licinius Calvus; c. 56 to Valerius
+Cato (see above); c. 65 to Hortensius Ortalus, who asked Catullus to
+translate Callimachus; c. 1, and possibly c. 102, to Cornelius Nepos.
+
+_Catullus' longer poems._--These, unlike the shorter personal poems,
+are mostly due to Alexandrian influence, to which Catullus may have
+been introduced by his teacher, Valerius Cato. To these poems Catullus
+owes his title _doctus_ (Tibull. iii. 6, 41; Martial, i. 62, 1, etc.).
+They include: c. 66, 'coma Berenices,' from Callimachus; cf. c. 65,
+ll. 15-6,
+
+  'Sed tamen in tantis maeroribus, Ortale, mitto
+    haec expressa tibi carmina Battiadae';
+
+c. 68 to Allius, also Alexandrian; c. 64, the 'Nuptials of Peleus and
+Thetis,' l. 30 of which,
+
+  'Oceanusque, mari totum qui amplectitur orbem,'
+
+is from Euphorion, fr. 158 (Meineke), +Okeanos, t� pasa
+perirrytos endedetai chth�n+; c. 63, the 'Attis' in Galliambic metre;
+c. 62, a translation of a Sapphic epithalamium. C. 51, and possibly
+some parts of c. 61, are from Sappho. Catullus was the first Roman to
+use the Sapphic measure (in cc. 11 and 51).
+
+_Publication of the Poems._--From the arrangement of the poems, which
+accords neither with chronology nor with subjects, and from the large
+number of lines extant (2286), which does not suit _libellus_ (c. i.
+1), it is highly probable that they were not left by Catullus as we
+find them. C. 2, beginning 'Passer, deliciae meae puellae,' was the
+first of a series of short poems. Cf. Martial, iv. 14, 13,
+
+  'Sic forsan tener ausus est Catullus
+  magno mittere passerem Maroni';[37]
+
+the book being named from its first word, like _Arma virumque_ of the
+_Aeneid_. C. 1 (to Cornelius Nepos) is the first of another series of
+short pieces (cf. the epithet _nugae_ in l. 4). Catullus doubtless
+published his larger pieces together. The traditional arrangement, due
+to a later hand, is as follows: (1) The lyric poems in various metres;
+(2) the larger poems and the elegies; (3) the shorter poems written in
+elegiacs. Catullus began to be popular as soon as his works were
+published; cf. Nep. _Att._ 12, 4 (quoted p. 124). He is imitated in
+the _Priapea_, in Ovid, in Ausonius, in the _Ciris_, in Martial, etc.
+C. 4 is closely parodied in Verg. _Catal._ 8.
+
+
+
+CONTEMPORARY POETS:
+
+
+(_a_) _Ticidas_ wrote the Hymenaeus and love-poems on Perilla. For the
+latter cf. Ovid, _Trist._ ii. 433-4 and 437-8 (read by Riese
+immediately after),
+
+  'Quid referam Ticidae, quid Memmi carmen, apud quos
+    rebus adest nomen nominibusque pudor,
+  et quorum libris modo dissimulata Perillae
+    nomine nunc legitur dicta, Metelle, tuo?'
+
+(_b_) _C. Helvius Cinna_ was intimate with Catullus, who refers to him
+in c. 10 as being along with him in Bithynia in B.C. 57. See p. 136.
+From the reference to Gallia Cisalpina in Cinna, frag. I (B�hrens), we
+might conclude that he was a countryman of Catullus,
+
+  'At nunc me Cenumana per salicta
+  bigis raeda rapit citata nanis.'
+
+In Sueton. _Iul._ 52, Cinna is spoken of as a partisan of Caesar:
+'Helvius Cinna tribunus plebis,' etc.; and he is probably identical
+with the person mentioned _ibid._ 85, as put to death in mistake for a
+man of the same name shortly after the murder of Caesar: 'Plebs statim
+a funere ad domum Bruti et Cassii cum facibus tetendit, atque aegre
+repulsa, obvium sibi Helvium Cinnam per errorem nominis, quasi
+Cornelius is esset, quem graviter pridie contionatum de Caesare
+requirebat, occidit caputque eius praefixum hastae circumtulit.'
+
+Cf. especially Plutarch, _Brut._ 20, +�n de tis Kinnas,
+poi�tikos an�r, ouden t�s aitias metech�n, alla kai philos Kaisaros
+gegon�s+, etc.[38]
+
+Weichert (_Poet. Lat. Rell._ p. 157) thinks that Plutarch has confused
+the tr. pleb. with the poet, and that Virgil's words (below) imply
+that Helvius Cinna was alive when the _Eclogue_ was written (B.C.
+41-39). The latest authorities, however, identify the two persons.
+Verg. _Ecl._ 9, 35,
+
+  'Nam neque adhuc Vario videor nec dicere Cinna
+  digna, sed argutos inter strepere anser[39] olores.'
+
+Cinna's works were:
+
+1. _Zmyrna_, on the incestuous love of Myrrha for Cinyras. Cinna spent
+nine years on this poem, which was very obscure. Catull. 95,
+
+  'Zmyrna mei Cinnae nonam post denique messem
+  quam coeptast nonamque edita post hiemem.'
+
+Philargyrius ad Verg. _Ecl._ 9, 35, 'Fuit autem liber obscurus adeo ut
+et nonnulli eius aetatis grammatici in eum scripserint magnamque ex
+eius enarratione sint gloriam consecuti.'
+
+2. _Propempticon Pollionis_, written on the occasion of Asinius
+Pollio's visit to Greece.
+
+3. _Epigrams and Love Poems._--For the latter cf. Ovid, _Trist._ ii.
+435 (on the erotic poets),
+
+  'Cinna quoque his comes est, Cinnaque procacior Anser,
+    et leve Cornifici parque Catonis opus.'
+
+(_c_) _C. Licinius Macer Calvus_ was the son of the annalist C.
+Licinius Macer, and was born 28th May, B.C. 82.
+
+Cic. _ad Q.F._ ii. 4, 1, 'Macer Licinius.'
+
+Valer. Max. ix. 12, 7, 'C. Licinius Macer, Calvi pater.'
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ vii. 165, 'C. Mario Cn. Carbone iii. coss. a. d. v. Kal.
+Iun. M. Caelius Rufus et C. Licinius Calvus eadem die geniti sunt.'
+
+Calvus probably died B.C. 47. Cf. Cic. _ad Fam._ xv. 21, 4, written to
+C. Trebonius towards the end of that year. The letter refers to
+correspondence with Calvus, and criticizes his oratory.
+
+See also Cic. _Brut._ 279 and 283-4; and, for his relations with
+Cicero, Tac. _Dial._ 18. Calvus vied with Cicero for the first place
+in the forum. His best known speeches were _in Vatinium_, whom he
+prosecuted at least three times (B.C. 58-54).
+
+Seneca, _Controv._ vii. 4, 6-8, 'Calvus, qui diu cum Cicerone
+iniquissimam litem de principatu eloquentiae habuit, usque eo
+violentus actor et concitatus fuit, ut in media eius actione surgeret
+Vatinius reus et exclamaret: Rogo vos, iudices, num si iste disertus
+est, ideo me damnari oportet? Idem postea cum videret a clientibus
+Catonis, rei sui, Pollionem Asinium circumventum in foro caedi, imponi
+se supra cippum iussit; erat enim parvolus statura, propter quod etiam
+Catullus in hendecasyllabis (c. 53) vocat illum "salaputtium
+disertum." ... Solebat praeterea excedere subsellia sua et impetu
+latus usque in adversariorum partem transcurrere. Et carmina quoque
+eius, quamvis iocosa sint, plena sunt ingentis animi ... Compositio
+quoque eius in actionibus ad exemplum Demosthenis riget: nihil in illa
+placidum, nihil lene est, omnia excitata et fluctuantia.'
+
+Catullus also refers to Calvus in c. 14, and in c. 96, where he speaks
+of the 'mors immatura Quintiliae,' probably Calvus' wife.
+
+Of the poems about nineteen lines are extant. They included: (1)
+_ludicra_ (in hendecasyllables); (2) _epithalamia_; (3) _Io_; (4) _ad
+uxorem_; (5) _epigrammata_. For the last cf. Sueton. _Iul._ 73, 'C.
+Calvo post famosa epigrammata de reconciliatione per amicos agenti
+ultro ac prior scripsit.' (6) 'Calvi de aquae frigidae usu,' which
+forms the title of Martial xiv. 196, may have been a didactic poem.
+Other references to Calvus' poetry are: Ovid, _Trist._ ii. 431,
+
+  'Par fuit exigui similisque licentia Calvi,
+    detexit variis qui sua furta modis';
+
+Propert. iii. 34, 89,
+
+  'Haec etiam docti confessast pagina Calvi
+    cum caneret miserae funera Quintiliae';
+
+Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 16,
+
+  'Illi, scripta quibus comoedia prisca viris est,
+  hoc stabant, hoc sunt imitandi: quos neque pulcher
+  Hermogenes umquam legit, neque simius iste
+  nil praeter Calvum et doctus cantare Catullum.'
+
+(_d_) _P. Terentius Varro Atacinus_ was born B.C. 82 in Gallia
+Narbonensis near Atax (a river, not a town, as Jerome states).
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1935 = B.C. 82, 'P. Terentius Varro vico Atace in
+provincia Narbonensi nascitur; qui postea xxxv. annum agens Graecas
+litteras cum summo studio didicit.'
+
+Porphyr. ad Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 46, 'Terentius Varro Narbonensis, qui
+Atacinus ab Atace fluvio dictus est.'
+
+Varro must have died before B.C. 35, when Horace, speaking of satire,
+wrote, _Sat._ i. 10, 46,
+
+  'Hoc erat, experto frustra Varrone Atacino
+  atque quibusdam aliis melius quod scribere possem.'
+
+Varro's works were:
+
+1. _Bellum Sequanicum_, probably an epic on Caesar's war with
+Ariovistus in B.C. 58.
+
+2. _Saturae_, mentioned only in the above passage of Horace.
+
+3. _Argonautae_, a translation from Apollonius Rhodius in four Books.
+Probus ad Verg. _Georg._ ii. 126, 'Varro qui quattuor libros de
+Argonautis edidit.'
+
+Cf. Sen. _Controv._ vii. 1, 27, 'Illos optimos versus Varronis (=
+Apoll. iii. 749-50),
+
+  "Desierant latrare canes urbesque silebant;
+  omnia noctis erant placida composta quiete."
+
+Solebat Ovidius de his versibus dicere, potuisse fieri longe meliores,
+si secundi versus ultima pars abscideretur et sic desineret "omnia
+noctis erant."'[40]
+
+Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 87; Ovid, _Am._ i. 15, 21; Stat. _Silv._ ii. 7,
+77.
+
+4. _Chorographia_, a geographical work, as the fragments show.
+
+5. _Ephemeris_.--Serv. ad Verg. _Georg._ i. 375, 'Hic locus omnis de
+Varrone est; nam et Varro et Vergilius Aratum secuti sunt.'
+
+6. _Elegies._--One line is given by B�hrens. Cf. Propert. iii. 34, 85,
+
+  'Haec quoque perfecto ludebat Iasone Varro,
+    Varro Leucadiae maxima flamma suae.'
+
+(_e_) _Publilius Syrus_ was a manumitted slave, a native of Syria,
+probably of Antioch.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1974 = B.C. 43, 'Publilius mimographus natione Syrus
+Romae scaenam tenet.'
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ xxxv. 199, 'Est et vilissima [creta] qua circum
+praeducere ad victoriae notam pedesque venalium trans maria advectorum
+denotare instituerunt maiores talemque Publilium Antiochium (MSS.
+lochium) mimicae scaenae conditorem et astrologiae consobrinum eius
+Manilium Antiochum, item grammaticae Staberium Erotem eadem nave
+advectos videre proavi.'
+
+An account of Publilius' manumission, and his contest with Laberius in
+B.C. 45, is given by Macrob. _Saturn._ ii. 7, 4-8, and is quoted under
+'Laberius,' p. 97.
+
+Publilius' works were:
+
+1. _Mimi._--Two titles are quoted.
+
+2. _Sententiae._--Six hundred and ninety-seven lines from his mimes
+(unconnected and alphabetically arranged) are preserved from different
+sources. Most are iambic senarii, some trochaic septenarii.
+
+Macrob. _Saturn._ ii. 7, 10, 'Publili sententiae feruntur lepidae et
+ad communem usum adcommodatissimae.'
+
+Cicero heard his and Laberius' plays in B.C. 46. See _ad Fam._ xii.
+18, 2, quoted under 'Laberius,' p. 99.
+
+Sen. _de tranquill._ 11, 8, 'Publilius, tragicis comicisque
+vehementior ingeniis, quotiens mimicas ineptias et verba ad summam
+caveam spectantia reliquit, inter multa alia cothurno, non tantum
+sipario fortiora, et hoc ait,
+
+  "Cuivis potest accidere quod cuiquam potest."'
+
+The lines are, like the above, proverbs of worldly wisdom, and seem to
+have been used in schools.
+
+Jerome _Ep. ad Laetam_, 107, 'Legi quondam in scholis puer,
+
+  "Aegre reprendas quod sinas consuescere."'
+
+
+
+Footnotes to Chapter II
+
+
+[25] Q. Hortensius Hortalus (B.C. 114-50), Cicero's rival as an
+orator, and author of _Annales_ (Vell. ii. 16, 3), a _Rhetoric_
+(Quint. ii. 1, 11), and love poems (Ovid _Tr._ ii. 441).
+
+[26] According to _ad Att._ ii. 1, 3 (if genuine), Cicero intended to
+publish speeches 9-11 in a collection of 'orationes consulares' ('Hoc
+totum +s�ma+ curabo ut habeas').
+
+[27] _R.H._ iv. 311 (note).
+
+[28] Q. Asconius Pedianus (A.D. 3-88), probably a native of Padua,
+author of a commentary on Cicero's speeches. The extant part is on
+_Pro Cornelio de maiestate_, _In toga candida_, _In Pisonem_, _Pro
+Scauro_, and _Pro Milone_. The commentary on the Verrines and Divinatio,
+which deals almost exclusively with the language, is spurious: the true
+Asconius confines himself to the subject-matter.
+
+[29] The Epicurean philosophy was expounded in the writings of C.
+Amafinius, Rabirius, and T. Catius, whose opinions and literary style
+were alike distasteful to Cicero (_Ac._ i. 5; _ad. Fam._ xv. 19, 2).
+
+[30] F. Ritschl, _Opuscula_, iii., p. 525.
+
+[31] L. Schwabe, _Quaest. Catull._, p. 296. B. Schmidt, however (ed.
+of Catullus, p. 57), thinks that the _Chronica_ are not referred to
+here.
+
+[32] A life of Lucretius has been recently discovered by J. Masson
+(_Journal of Philology_, xxiii. 46), which was written by Girolamo
+Borgia in 1502. It gives B.C. 95-51 as the poet's dates. Several new
+points were supposed to lend it a claim to authority, such as the
+statement that he was 'matre natus diu sterili.' This, however, has
+been shown to rest on a wrong reading of Q. Serenus Sammonicus' _Liber
+Medicinalis_, xxxii., in a passage dealing with the barrenness of
+women, 'hoc poterit magni quartus [liber] monstrare Lucreti,' where
+_partus_, the reading of the oldest edition, was used. This, and other
+considerations, show that the _vita_ does not rest on any ancient
+sources, beyond those which are still extant.
+
+[33] Memmius wrote love poems (Ovid, _Tr._ ii. 433).
+
+[34] Some ascribe these stories to Lenaeus, a freedman of Pompey,
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 15.
+
+[35] Only inferior MSS. give Q., and the reading in c. 67, 12, 'verum
+istud populi, fabula, Quinte, facit,' is not to be accepted.
+
+[36] Some critics, without sufficient proof, identify Volusius with
+the inferior poet Tanusius Geminus.
+
+[37] Martial, of course, has here forgotten his dates.
+
+[38] The incident has been borrowed from Plutarch by Shakespeare,
+_Julius Caesar_, Act iii. Scene 3.
+
+[39] See p. 184.
+
+[40] This appears to us to be an indirect proof that the half lines in
+Virgil are often complete as they stand.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE AUGUSTAN AGE.
+
+
+
+VIRGIL.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Our chief authority for the life of Virgil, apart from his own
+writings and those of his contemporaries, is Donatus, whose work is
+probably based on Suetonius' _De Poetis_. Donatus' work, though not
+free from romance, is much more valuable than the Life by Probus[41]
+or the metrical account given by Phocas.[42] Some important details
+are given in the Life wrongly attributed to Servius, and in an account
+preserved in a Berne MS. of the tenth century.
+
+The poet's name is correctly given as P. Vergilius Maro in all the
+Lives. The balance of authority is decidedly in favour of the spelling
+'Vergilius'; it is always so written in the early MSS. and in
+inscriptions of the Republic and of the early centuries A.D. The
+traditional form in modern literature, 'Virgil,' is here retained.
+
+Virgil was born 15th October, B.C. 70, at Andes (identified
+traditionally with Pietole)[43] near Mantua. Donatus, _vit. Verg._,
+'Natus est Cn. Pompeio Magno et M. Licinio Crasso primum coss. iduum
+Octobrium die, in pago qui Andes dicitur et abest a Mantua non
+procul.'
+
+He was of humble extraction, his father being originally either a
+potter or a day-labourer.
+
+Probus, _vit. Verg._, 'Matre Magia Polla, patre rustico.'
+
+Donatus, 'Parentibus modicis fuit ac praecipue patre, quem quidam
+opificem figulum, plures Magi cuiusdam viatoris initio mercennarium
+mox ob industriam generum tradiderunt egregieque substantiae silvis
+coemendis et apibus curandis auxisse reculam.' (Cf. Virgil's treatment
+of bees in _Georgic_ iv.)
+
+His early years were spent at Cremona, whence in B.C. 55 he went to
+Mediolanum and then to Rome for his higher education. He studied
+philosophy, medicine, mathematics, and rhetoric; but his shyness
+prevented his being a success at the bar, where, we are told, he
+appeared only once.
+
+Donatus, 'Initia aetatis Cremonae egit usque ad virilem togam, quam
+xv. anno natali suo accepit isdem illis consulibus iterum duobus
+quibus erat natus, evenitque ut eo ipso die Lucretius poeta decederet.
+De Cremona Mediolanum et inde paulo post transiit in urbem ... Inter
+cetera studia medicinae quoque ac maxime mathematicae[44] operam
+dedit. Egit et causam apud iudices unam omnino nec amplius quam semel;
+nam et in sermone tardissimum ac paene indocto similem fuisse Melissus
+[a freedman of Maecenas] tradidit.'
+
+The Berne MS. above referred to says: 'Ut primum se contulit Romam,
+studuit apud Epidium oratorem cum Caesare Augusto.'[45] For his
+studies under the Epicurean Siron cf. _Catal._ 7, 8,
+
+  'Nos ad beatos vela mittimus portus,
+  magni petentes docta dicta Sironis,
+  vitamque ab omni vindicabimus cura.'
+
+Cf. also _Ecl._ 6, 31-40, where a brief sketch is given of the
+Epicurean theory of creation.
+
+For a few years we hear nothing of his life, but we may suppose that
+he continued his studies in literature and philosophy, probably at his
+farm, if we can draw any inference from the language of _Ecl._ 1,
+especially l. 19 _sqq._ So far as is known, he took no part in the
+civil wars. In B.C. 41, when lands were assigned to the troops of
+Antonius, Virgil was dispossessed of his property. On the
+recommendation of Asinius Pollio, who was _legatus_ of Gallia
+Transpadana, he went to Rome and obtained from Octavian the
+restitution of his land. The poet expresses his gratitude in _Ecl._ 1,
+42,
+
+  'Hic illum vidi iuvenem, Meliboee, quotannis
+  bis senos cui nostra dies altaria fumant.
+  Hic mihi responsum primus dedit ille petenti:
+  "Pascite ut ante boves, pueri, submittite tauros."'
+
+Cf. also ll. 70-3.
+
+Donatus, 'Ad bucolica transiit maxime ut Asinium Pollionem, Alphenum
+Varum, et Cornelium Gallum celebraret, quia in distributione agrorum
+qui post Philippensem victoriam[46] veteranis triumvirorum iussu trans
+Padum dividebantur, indemnem se praestitissent.'
+
+Virgil was evicted a second time in the following year, after the
+Bellum Perusinum, by the troops of Octavian. Conflicting accounts are
+given by the Lives regarding the persons who seized his land.[47]
+
+Servius, _vit. Verg._, 'Postea ortis bellis civilibus inter Antonium
+et Augustum, Augustus victor Cremonensium agros, quia pro Antonio
+senserant, dedit militibus suis. Qui cum non sufficerent, his addidit
+agros Mantuanos, sublatos non propter civium culpam, sed propter
+vicinitatem Cremonensium: unde ipse in Bucolicis (9, 28), "Mantua vae
+miserae nimium vicina Cremonae."'
+
+Virgil and his household found refuge on an estate which had once
+belonged to his old master Siron: _Catal._ 10,
+
+  'Villula, quae Sironis eras, et pauper agelle ...
+                       Tu nunc eris illi [patri]
+  Mantua quod fuerat quodque Cremona prius.'
+
+Whether he recovered his old farm is uncertain: at all events he spent
+most of his time in the south of Italy. Besides a house in Rome, he
+seems to have had a country house near Nola, and we know that the
+_Georgics_ (cf. iv. 563) were written at Naples.
+
+Donatus, 'Habuit domum Romae Esquiliis iuxta hortos Maecenatis,
+quamquam secessu Campaniae Siciliaeque plurimum uteretur.'
+
+Gell. vi. 20, 1, 'Scriptum in quodam commentario repperi ... Vergilium
+petivisse a Nolanis, aquam uti duceret in propinquum rus.'
+
+He lived a retired life, seldom visiting Rome, and devoting most of
+his time to poetical composition, in which he was regular and
+painstaking.
+
+Tac. _Dial._ 13, 'Securum et quietum Vergilii secessum, in quo tamen
+neque apud divum Augustum gratia caruit neque apud populum Romanum
+notitia: testes Augusti epistulae, testis ipse populus, qui auditis in
+theatro Vergilii versibus surrexit universus et forte praesentem
+spectantemque Vergilium veneratus est sic quasi Augustum.'
+
+Quint. x. 3, 8, 'Vergilium paucissimos die composuisse versus auctor
+est Varius.'
+
+Cf. his own expression, quoted by Gell. xvii. 10, 2, 'parere se versus
+more atque ritu ursino' (alluding to the notion that the bear licked
+its young into shape).
+
+He was already an influential member of Maecenas' literary circle, to
+which, in B.C. 39, he introduced Horace. Cf. Hor. _Sat._ i. 6, 54,
+
+                      'optimus olim
+  Vergilius, post hunc Varius dixere quid essem.'
+
+By Maecenas he was introduced to Augustus,[48] who treated him with
+liberality. Cf. Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 246,
+
+  'Munera quae multa dantis cum laude tulerunt
+  dilecti tibi Vergilius Variusque poetae.'
+
+He was on intimate terms with Horace, who addresses _Od._ i. 3 to him
+on the occasion of a proposed visit to Greece. Cf. ll. 5-8,
+
+    'Navis, quae tibi creditum
+  debes Vergilium, finibus Atticis
+    reddas incolumem, precor,
+  et serves animae dimidium meae.'
+
+In B.C. 37 he formed one of the party who travelled with Horace to
+Brundisium: Hor. _Sat._ i. 5, 40 (see under 'Horace,' p. 167).
+
+For the rest of his life we hear little of Virgil in any public
+connexion. In B.C. 19 he started on a voyage to Greece and Asia,
+intending to spend three years on the revision of the _Aeneid_, but
+returned from Athens in bad health, and died at Brundisium on 21st
+September. His remains were buried near Naples. The epitaph quoted by
+Donatus is obviously not by Virgil: 'Anno aetatis lii. impositurus
+Aeneidi summam manum, statuit in Graeciam et in Asiam secedere
+triennioque continuo nihil amplius quam emendare, ut reliqua vita
+tantum philosophiae vacaret: sed cum ingressus iter Athenis
+occurrisset Augusto ab oriente Romam revertenti destinaretque non
+absistere atque etiam una redire, dum Megara vicinum oppidum
+ferventissimo sole cognoscit, languorem nactus est eumque non
+intermissa navigatione auxit, ita ut gravior aliquanto Brundisium
+appelleret, ubi diebus paucis obiit xi. Kal. Octobr. Cn. Sentio Q.
+Lucretio coss. (21st September, B.C. 19). Ossa eius Neapolim translata
+sunt tumuloque condita ... in quo distichon fecit tale:
+
+  "Mantua me genuit, Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc
+    Parthenope: cecini pascua, rura, duces."'
+
+His personal appearance and character are thus described by Donatus:
+'Corpore et statura fuit grandis, aquilo colore, facie rusticana,
+valetudine varia: nam plerumque a stomacho et a faucibus ac dolore
+capitis laborabat, sanguinem etiam saepe reiecit.' (Cf. Hor. _Sat._ i.
+5, 48,
+
+  'Lusum it Maecenas, dormitum ego Vergiliusque;
+  namque pila lippis inimicum et ludere crudis.')
+
+'Cibi vinique minimi, libidinis pronior ... cetera sane vita et ore et
+animo tam probum constat, ut Neapoli Parthenias volgo appellatus sit,
+ac si quando Romae, quo rarissime commeabat, viseretur in publico,
+sectantes demonstrantesque se suffugeret in proximum tectum.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+MINOR POEMS.--According to Donatus, these were: 'In Balistam ... deinde
+Catalecton et Priapia et Epigrammata et Diras, item Cirim et Culicem,
+cum esset annorum xvi.' Servius omits the boyish production 'in
+Balistam,' and adds the 'Copa.' The 'Aetna,' mentioned with doubt by
+Donatus, is, of course, not by Virgil. (1) _Catalecta_.-This seems
+better than _Catalecton_; either would mean "a collection of poems."
+Some give _Catalepton_ (= "trifles," like Aratus' work +ta
+kata lepton+). Ribbeck thinks _Catalecta_ originally included the
+_Priapea_, _Epigrammata_, and _Dirae_, but came to be restricted to
+the fourteen short pieces given in our MSS. under that title. Some of
+these, _e.g._ No. 5, are spurious. Quint. viii. 3, 28 vouches for No.
+2. Virgil's friends, Tucca and Varius, are addressed in 1 and 9, and
+10 (on Siron's villa) refers to an event in Virgil's life. In the vein
+of Catullus are 3, 4, and 8, the last being an extremely close parody
+of Catullus, c. 4. (2) _Priapea_, three in number. (3) _Dirae_,
+spurious. (4) _Ciris_. The writer's reference to himself in l. 2,
+'Irritaque expertum fallacis praemia volgi,' shows that Virgil is not
+the author. (5) _Culex_. That Virgil wrote a poem with this title is
+attested by Suetonius, Statius, and Martial; _e.g._ Mart. viii. 56, 19,
+
+  'Protinus Italiam concepit et arma virumque
+  qui modo vix Culicem fleverat ore rudi.'
+
+The poem in its present form is accepted by Ribbeck, but it does not
+correspond exactly to the account given by Donatus of the contents.
+(6) The _Copa_ Ribbeck accepts as genuine, but other critics find in
+it characteristics rather of Ovid or of Propertius. (7) The _Moretum_,
+though found in MSS., is not mentioned by Donatus or Servius, a strong
+argument against its being genuine.
+
+BUCOLICA.--These ten poems are called in the MSS. _Eclogae_ ("selected
+pieces"), and were composed B.C. 43-39. Probus, 'Scripsit Bucolica
+annos natus xxviii., Theocritum secutus.'
+
+Servius, 'Tunc ei proposuit Pollio ut carmen bucolicum scriberet, quod
+eum constat triennio[49] scripsisse et emendasse.'
+
+They were doubtless published separately as they were written, and
+afterwards collected into a volume with _Ecl._ 1 (Tityrus) coming
+first. Cf. _Georg._ iv. 565,
+
+  'Carmina qui lusi pastorum, audaxque iuventa,
+  Tityre, te patulae cecini sub tegmine fagi.'
+
+The present order is certainly not the chronological order.
+
+_Ecl._ 1 was written B.C. 41 as a thanksgiving to Augustus (see p.
+150).
+
+_Ecl._ 2 cannot be earlier than the end of 43 when Pollio was made
+governor of Gallia Transpadana, and possibly should not be put earlier
+than the summer of 42. The poem is written on his favourite slave
+Alexis (see Serv. _ad loc._).
+
+_Ecl._ 3 was probably written soon afterwards. Virgil refers in l. 84
+to his intimacy with Pollio,
+
+  'Pollio amat nostram, quamvis est rustica, Musam.'
+
+_Ecl._ 2 and 3 are earlier than 5. Cf. 5, 86-7,
+
+  'Haec nos "Formosum Corydon ardebat Alexim,"
+  haec eadem docuit "Cuium pecus? an Meliboei?"'
+
+_Ecl._ 4. The date is clear from l. 3,
+
+  'Si canimus silvas, silvae sint _consule_ dignae.'
+
+It must have been written in 40, when Pollio was consul. This eclogue,
+which in the Middle Age was believed to be a prophecy of the Messiah's
+coming, cannot be satisfactorily explained as referring to Pollio's
+son Saloninus, or to the expected child of Augustus, Julia.
+
+_Ecl._ 5. Spohn's view is highly probable, that it was written for the
+first celebration of Caesar's birthday in July, 42.
+
+_Ecl._ 6, to Varus, probably written B.C. 40 from Siron's villa.
+
+_Ecl._ 7 contains no allusion to contemporary events: the tone is
+purely pastoral.
+
+_Ecl._ 8 was written while Pollio was on his way back to Rome from his
+victory over the Parthini in Illyricum, for his triumph in B.C. 39.
+Cf. ll. 6 and 12.
+
+In _Ecl._ 9, written B.C. 40 at Siron's villa, the poet expresses his
+grief at the second expulsion from his farm.
+
+_Ecl._ 10 entitled 'Gallus' was written B.C. 39. For details see under
+'Gallus,' p. 182.[50]
+
+_Sources of the Eclogues._--Several of the Eclogues are modelled on
+Theocritus (cf. 'Sicelides Musae' 4, 1; 'Syracosius versus' 6, 1),
+_e.g._ _Ecl._ 8 on Theocr. 2 and 3; and close imitations are found
+throughout. The poet Euphorion of Chalcis (of third century B.C.) is
+alluded to in _Ecl._ 10, 50 in connection with Gallus. The names of
+the shepherds are mostly from Theocritus, as Tityrus, Mopsus,
+Damoetas. They are 'Arcades' (7, 4, etc.), but, like the scenery,
+exhibit traits both of Sicily and of North Italy. Thus the scenery
+never gives an accurate picture of any one locality: _e.g._ _Ecl._ 9,
+ll. 1-10, 26-7, 36, 59-60, present features of the district around
+Mantua, while in ll. 39-43 a Sicilian scene is introduced from
+Theocritus. The lofty mountains, _e.g._ 1, 84, are Sicilian, and so are
+many of the trees, as chestnut and pine, which are said not to be
+found near Mantua. For Mantuan scenery cf. _e.g._ 7, 12,
+
+  'Hic virides tenera praetexit harundine ripas
+Mincius.'
+
+The GEORGICS were written from B.C. 37 to 30 at the suggestion of
+Maecenas. Cf. i. 1.
+
+Serv. _vit. Verg._ 'Item proposuit Maecenas Georgica, quae scripsit
+emendavitque septem annis.'
+
+The poem was finished by B.C. 29. Cf. Donatus, 'Georgica reverso post
+Actiacam victoriam Augusto atque Atellae ... commoranti per continuum
+quadriduum legit.' It was written at Naples. Cf. iv. 559,
+
+  'Haec super arvorum cultu pecorumque canebam ...
+  Illo Vergilium me tempore dulcis alebat
+  Parthenope, studiis florentem ignobilis oti.'
+
+The concluding part of Book iv., originally a dirge on Cornelius
+Gallus, was afterwards altered for the myth of Aristaeus, to please
+Augustus.
+
+Serv. _ad Ecl._ 10, 1, 'Fuit Cornelius Gallus amicus Vergilii, adeo ut
+quartus Georgicorum a medio usque ad finem eius laudes teneret, quas
+postea iubente Augusto in Aristaei fabulam commutavit.'
+
+_Sources of the Georgics._--Besides his own observation, Virgil used
+the following authorities:
+
+1. Hesiod--mostly in Book i., _e.g._ ll. 276-286 (lucky and unlucky
+days). Cf. ii. 176,
+
+  'Ascraeumque cano Romana per oppida carmen.'
+
+2. Books of the priests; _e.g._ i. 269 _sqq._ (what is lawful on holy
+days), i. 338 _sqq._ (Ambarvalia).
+
+3. For agriculture and natural history--Greek writers like Aristotle,
+Theophrastus, Democritus, and Xenophon; and Latin writers like Cato
+and Varro.
+
+4. Alexandrian writers for science and mythology; _e.g._ Eratosthenes
+for i. 233, 'quinque tenent caelum zonae,' etc.; i. 351-465, signs of
+weather, from the +Dios�meia+ of Aratus; iii. 425 _sqq._, the
+Calabrian serpent, from the +Th�riaka+ of Nicander, whose
+writings were also used for the subject of bees in Book iv.
+
+5. Lucretius, to whom Virgil is chiefly indebted, ii. 475 _sqq._,
+especially 490 _sqq._, 'felix qui potuit,' etc., refers to Lucretius.
+The idea of Lucretius, cf. v. 206-217, that man has a perpetual
+struggle with nature, is reflected in Virgil, but modified by his
+acceptance of the argument from design. Cf. i. 99,
+
+  '_Exercet_que frequens tellurem atque _imperat_ arvis,'
+
+and the whole passage i. 118-159. Lucretian science is borrowed in
+passages like i. 89,
+
+  'Seu pluris calor ille vias et caeca relaxat
+  spiramenta, novas veniat qua sucus in herbas';
+
+l. 415-423 (of the habits of birds); iii. 242 _sqq._ (on the passion
+of love). Notice also, with Munro, Lucretian phrases like _principio_,
+_quod superest_, _his animadversis_, _nunc age_, _praeterea_, _nonne
+vides_, _contemplator_, _genitalia semina_.
+
+_Political purpose of the Georgics._--The political purpose of the
+Georgics is to help the policy of Augustus, which aimed at checking
+the depopulation of the country districts. Cf. i. 498-514, and
+especially ll. 506-7,
+
+                     'Non ullus aratro
+  dignus honos: squalent abductis arva colonis.'
+
+The Emperor is introduced throughout as the object of veneration. Cf.
+i. 24-42.
+
+_Natural scenery._--Virgil dwells on Nature in her softer aspects. Cf.
+phrases like ii. 470, 'mollesque sub arbore somni,' and the passage
+ii. 458-540 in praise of a country life. For the praise of Italy see
+the beautiful passage ii. 136-176, where special districts are
+mentioned.
+
+AENEID.--Even before the _Eclogues_ were written, Virgil had meditated
+the composition of an epic, perhaps, as Servius suggests, on the kings
+of Alba. Cf. _Ecl._ 6, 3,
+
+  'Cum canerem reges et proelia, Cynthius aurem
+  vellit et admonuit: "pastorem, Tityre, pingues
+  pascere oportet oves, deductum dicere carmen."'
+
+The idea of a poem in honour of Augustus was present to his mind when
+he wrote _Georg._ iii. 46,
+
+  'Mox tamen ardentes accingar dicere pugnas
+  Caesaris.'
+
+The _Aeneid_ was commenced B.C. 29, and remained unfinished at
+Virgil's death.
+
+Servius, _vit. Verg._, 'postea ab Augusto Aeneidem propositam scripsit
+annis undecim, sed nec emendavit nec edidit.'
+
+His method of working at the poem is thus described by Donatus,
+'Aeneida prosa prius oratione formatam digestamque in xii. libros
+particulatim componere instituit, prout liberet quidque et nihil in
+ordinem arripiens. Ut ne quid impetum moraretur, quaedam imperfecta
+transmisit, alia levissimis verbis veluti fulsit, quae per iocum pro
+tibicinibus interponi aiebat ad sustinendum opus donec solidae
+columnae advenirent.'
+
+In what order the Books were written it is impossible to decide; but
+Book vi. was not read to Augustus till after the death of the young
+Marcellus, B.C. 23.
+
+Donatus, 'Cui [Augusto] multo post perfectaque demum materia tres
+omnino libros recitavit, secundum quartum sextum, sed hunc notabili
+Octaviae adfectione, quae cum recitationi interesset ad illos de filio
+suo versus, "Tu Marcellus eris," defecisse fertur atque aegre
+focillata est.'
+
+Virgil, writing to the emperor, insists on the magnitude of the task
+he had rashly undertaken.
+
+Macrob. _Saturn._ i. 24, 11, 'Tanta incohata res est, ut paene vitio
+mentis tantum opus ingressus mihi videar, cum praesertim, ut scis,
+alia quoque studia ad id opus multoque potiora impertiar.'
+
+Although in his will Virgil left instructions to Varius (and Tucca) to
+destroy all his unpublished manuscripts, Varius was expressly desired
+by Augustus to revise and publish the _Aeneid_.
+
+Donatus, 'Egerat cum Vario, priusquam Italia decederet, ut si quid
+sibi accidisset Aeneida combureret; sed is facturum se pernegarat ...
+Edidit autem auctore Augusto Varius, sed summatim emendata, ut qui
+versus etiam imperfectos sicut erant reliquerit.'
+
+This account is corroborated by Pliny the elder, _N.H._ vii. 114,
+Gellius, and Macrobius.
+
+The rules laid down to the editors by the Emperor were, according to
+Servius, 'ut superflua demerent, nihil adderent tamen.'
+
+It seems probable that the _Aeneid_ was published B.C. 17, for it is
+in the _Carmen Saeculare_ of that year that Horace first alludes to
+the story of Aeneas (cf. l. 50, 'clarus Anchisae Venerisque sanguis'),
+and in the fourth Book of the _Odes_ (four years later) it is more
+than once introduced.
+
+The _choice of the subject_ was influenced (1) by the personal desire
+of the Emperor; (2) by the connexion of the Caesarian house with
+Venus, through Iulus;[51] cf. the invention of Atys (_Aen._ v. 568) by
+Virgil to please Augustus, whose mother was Atia; (3) by Virgil's
+design to write an epic on the greatness of Rome, in the manner of
+Homer.
+
+_The Aeneas Legend._--Stesichorus of Himera, among other writers, made
+Aeneas, a Homeric hero (cf. _Il._ xx. 307-8), settle in Italy; and
+Naevius is said to have adopted the legend in the form given by
+Timaeus, the Sicilian historian of the third century B.C. The legend
+probably arose from the worship of Aphrodite on the coasts of Italy,
+and was disseminated by the Greeks of Cumae to please the Romans. The
+connexion of Rome with Troy had been officially recognized for two
+hundred years (cf. Sueton. _Claud._ 25), and, though not a popular
+belief, had been accepted in literature from the time of Naevius.
+
+_Sources of the Aeneid._--1. Earlier Roman poets as Naevius, Ennius,
+Pacuvius, Accius, Lucilius, Hostius, Varro Atacinus, Lucretius. For
+details see under these names.
+
+2. Cato's _Origines_ and Varro's _Antiquitates_, for Italian legends
+and peoples.
+
+3. _Ius pontificium_ and _ius augurale_, as found in the books of
+sacred colleges (Macrob. i. 24, 16). Cf. the ritual meaning of
+_porricio_ (v. 776), _porrigo_ (viii. 274), the habit of praying with
+veiled head (iii. 405), prayer to Apollo of Soracte (xi. 785).
+
+4. Greek sources: (_a_) particularly the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, but
+also the Homeric Hymns and Cyclic Poems. Thus the games in Book v. =
+the games in honour of Patroclus in _Il._ xxiii.; the shield of Aeneas
+(viii. 626-731) = the shield of Achilles in _Il._ xviii.; (_b_)
+Apollonius Rhodius, for the passion of Dido = that of Medea; (_c_)
+Greek tragedies, _e.g._ the lost _Laocoon_ of Sophocles for ii. 40
+_sqq._
+
+_Religion in the Aeneid._--1. The mythology is mainly from Homer. From
+Latin myths come Faunus, Saturnus, Janus, Picus. Euhemerism is shown
+by the last three being represented as originally kings of Rome.
+
+2. The power of the gods is denoted by _fatum_ or _fata_; cf. x. 112-3,
+
+           'rex Iuppiter omnibus idem:
+  fata viam invenient.'
+
+3. The description of the lower world in Book vi. is from the descent
+into Hades in _Od._ xi., but is modified by Pythagorean ideas (vi.
+748-751, metempsychosis), Stoic ideas (vi. 724 _sqq._, pantheism, cf.
+_Georg._ iv. 219-227) and Platonic myths (_e.g._ in the _Gorgias_,
+_Phaedo_, and _Republic_), and rendered more definite by the
+introduction of heroes of the Republic. Note that Virgil emphasizes
+its mythical nature by dismissing Aeneas through the ivory gate (of
+false dreams).
+
+4. Other beliefs: (_a_) The golden bough (vi. 203-9) compared to the
+mistletoe, the symbol of the lower world with many Indo-European
+peoples; (_b_) Divinities attached to special places, _e.g._ viii.
+349-354 of the _religio_ attaching to the Capitol, ii. 351-2 guardian
+deities: cf. Carmentis, pater Tiberinus, etc.; (_c_) Worship of the
+dead, and belief in their continued influence on human affairs, iii.
+66-8, 301-5.
+
+_Political significance._--1. The pre-eminence of the Julian race and
+of Augustus himself. Cf. i. 286,
+
+  'Nascetur pulchra Troianus origine Caesar,
+  imperium Oceano, famam qui terminet astris,
+  Iulius, a magno demissum nomen Iulo.'
+
+So vi. 789 _sqq._
+
+2. The idea of empire: cf. i. 33,
+
+  'Tantae molis erat Romanam condere gentem';
+
+and of Rome as the conqueror and civilizer of the world: vi. 851,
+
+  'Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento:
+  hae tibi erunt artes, pacisque imponere morem,
+  parcere subiectis et debellare superbos.'
+
+3. The unity of Italy with Rome is seen in Aeneas and Turnus,
+representing respectively the _pietas_ and the martial courage of a
+past age. This is brought out also by the introduction of local names.
+Cf. vii. 682-5, 710-7, 797-802.
+
+4. Virgil shows here and there contempt for pure democracy: vi. 815,
+
+                         'iactantior Ancus
+  nunc quoque iam nimium gaudens popularibus auris.'
+
+Cf. also i. 148-9.
+
+_Authors influenced by Virgil._--Livy, Tacitus, Ovid, Tibullus,
+Propertius, Manilius, Lucan, Silius Italicus, Statius, Valerius
+Flaccus, Martial, Juvenal, the author of _Aetna_. See under each.
+
+
+
+HORACE.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Our chief source of information about Horace is his own works, and
+some important details are added in a life of him by Suetonius.
+
+Horace's full name is Quintus (_Sat._ ii. 6, 37) Horatius (_Od._ iv.
+6, 44) Flaccus (_Sat._ ii. 1, 18). He was born 8th December, B.C. 65,
+at Venusia in Apulia, on the frontier of Lucania.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Natus est vi. Id. Decembr. L. Cotta et L.
+Torquato coss.'
+
+_Ep._ i. 20, 26-8,
+
+  'Forte meum siquis te percontabitur aevum,
+  me quater undenos sciat inplevisse Decembris
+  collegam Lepidum quo duxit Lollius anno.'
+
+_Sat._ i. 1, 34,
+
+                  'Lucanus an Appulus anceps:
+  nam Venusinus arat finem sub utrumque colonus.'
+
+There are a great many references to Apulia in Horace. So _Od._ iii.
+4, 9 _sqq._,
+
+  'Me fabulosae Volture in Appulo
+  nutricis extra limina Pulliae' (his nurse's name), etc.
+
+All Roman virtues are attributed to the Apulians, as in _Od._ i. 22,
+13; iii. 5, 9; _Epod._ ii. 39-42.
+
+Horace, though free-born (_Sat._ i. 6, 7) was the son of a freedman,
+who was by profession a collector of debts, or, according to others, a
+fishmonger. To this last story Horace probably refers with proud
+humility in _Ep._ ii. 2, 60,
+
+  'Bioneis sermonibus et sale nigro.'
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Patre, ut ipse tradit, libertino et auctionum
+coactore, ut vero creditum est, salsamentario.'
+
+_Sat._ i. 6, 6,
+
+  'Ut me libertino patre natum';
+
+_ibid._ 85,
+
+  'Nec timuit, sibi ne vitio quis verteret olim,
+  si praeco parvas aut, ut fuit ipse, coactor
+  mercedes sequerer.'
+
+Stories of his childhood are given, _Od._ iii. 4, 9 _sqq._; _Sat._ i.
+9, 29 _sqq._; _Sat._ ii. 2, 112 _sqq._
+
+Horace speaks highly of his father, who took him from the village
+school to Rome for his education. After speaking of his own freedom
+from vice he says (_Sat._ i. 6, 71 _sqq._),
+
+  'Causa fuit pater his, qui macro pauper agello
+  noluit in Flavi ludum me mittere, ...
+  sed puerum est ausus Romam portare docendum
+  artis quas doceat quivis eques atque senator
+  semet prognatos. Vestem servosque sequentis,
+  in magno ut populo, si qui vidisset, avita
+  ex re praeberi sumptus mihi crederet illos.
+  Ipse mihi custos incorruptissimus omnis
+  circum doctores aderat.'
+
+He received instruction, both in Latin and Greek, from Orbilius,[52] a
+teacher of conservative tendencies. _Ep._ ii. 1, 69,
+
+  'Non equidem insector delendave carmina Livi
+  esse reor, memini quae plagosum mihi parvo
+  Orbilium dictare.'
+
+_Ep._ ii. 2, 41,
+
+  'Romae nutriri mihi contigit atque doceri
+  iratus Graiis quantum nocuisset Achilles.'
+
+His education was continued at Athens. _Ep._ ii. 2, 43,
+
+  'Adiecere bonae paulo plus artis Athenae,
+  scilicet ut vellem curvo dignoscere rectum
+  atque inter silvas Academi quaerere verum.'
+
+His studies were interrupted by the civil war; he joined Brutus (who
+came to Athens in August, B.C. 44), was by him appointed _tribunus
+militum_, and took part in the battle of Philippi, B.C. 42. _Ep._ ii.
+2, 46,
+
+  'Dura sed emovere loco me tempora grato
+  civilisque rudem belli tulit aestus in arma
+  Caesaris Augusti non responsura lacertis.'
+
+_Od._ ii. 7, 9,
+
+  'Philippos et celerem fugam
+  sensi, relicta non bene parmula.'
+
+In _Sat._ i. 7 Horace relates a scene at Clazomenae before Brutus and
+his staff; and in _Ep._ i. 11 he speaks, as if with personal
+knowledge, of places in Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean,
+which he probably visited then. He refers to the hardships of war in
+_Od._ ii. 6, 7; ii. 7, 1; iii. 4, 26.
+
+After the civil war his paternal property was confiscated, probably in
+B.C. 41, and his poverty compelled him to seek the post of a clerk in
+the quaestor's office, and, as he says, to write verses. (Some satires
+and epodes were then written.)
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Victis partibus, venia inpetrata, scriptum
+quaestorium comparavit.'
+
+_Sat._ ii. 6, 36,
+
+  'De re communi scribae magna atque nova te
+  orabant hodie meminisses, Quinte, reverti.'
+
+_Ep._ ii. 2, 49,
+
+  'Unde simul primum me dimisere Philippi,
+  decisis humilem pennis inopemque paterni
+  et laris et fundi paupertas inpulit, audax
+  ut versus facerem.'
+
+In the spring of B.C. 38 Horace was introduced to Maecenas[53] by
+Varius and Virgil, and became intimate with him in the winter of B.C.
+38-7.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Primo Maecenati, mox Augusto insinuatus non
+mediocrem in amborum amicitia locum tenuit. Maecenas quanto opere eum
+dilexerit satis testatur illo epigrammate:
+
+  "Ni te visceribus meis, Horati,
+  plus iam diligo, tu tuum sodalem
+  Ninnio videas strigosiorem":
+
+sed multo magis extremis iudiciis tali ad Augustum elogio: "Horati
+Flacci ut mei esto memor!"'
+
+_Sat._ i. 6, 54,
+
+                     'Optimus olim
+  Vergilius, post hunc Varius dixere quid essem ...
+  Abeo, et revocas nono post mense iubesque          (l. 61)
+  esse in amicorum numero.'
+
+In _Sat._ ii. 6, 40-58 Horace describes how intimate he was socially
+with Maecenas, who, however, did not make him a confidant in political
+matters. The most noteworthy event of this period is described in
+_Sat._ i. 5, viz. Horace's journey to Brundisium in the train of
+Maecenas and Cocceius, who went to arrange some matters between
+Augustus and Antony. His companions were Virgil, Varius, Plotius, and
+the Greek rhetorician, Heliodorus. Plotius, Virgil, and Varius are
+thus referred to (_Sat._ i. 5, 41):
+
+        'Animae quales neque candidiores
+  terra tulit neque quis me sit devinctior alter.'[54]
+
+In B.C. 34 Maecenas gave Horace an estate in the country of the
+Sabines. The question of its position was settled last century by the
+abb� Capmartin de Chaupy. The only place that suits Horace's
+description is east of Tivoli, and in the neighbourhood of Vicovaro,
+which is the same as the Varia of Horace (_Ep._ i. 14, 3), the
+market-town of his tenants. Near it is the stream Licenza, the
+Digentia of Horace, on which stands Bardela (the Mandela of Hor.).
+_Ep._ i. 18, 104,
+
+  'Me quotiens reficit gelidus Digentia rivus,
+  quem Mandela bibit, rugosus frigore pagus.'
+
+The site of his villa may be pretty closely determined from _Ep._ i.
+10, 49,
+
+  'Haec tibi dictabam post fanum putre Vacunae.'
+
+Vacuna is a Sabine goddess, identified with Victoria: near the village
+an inscription has been found which was erected by Vespasian, 'Aedem
+Victoriae vetustate dilapsam sua impensa restituit,' and the natural
+inference is that this is the temple mentioned by Horace.[55] Horace
+stayed a great deal at his country-house, and his works contain many
+references to it.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Vixit plurimum in secessu ruris sui Sabini aut
+Tiburtini, domusque eius ostenditur circa Tiburni luculum.'
+
+_Sat._ ii. 6, 16,
+
+  'Ubi me in mentis et in arcem ex urbe removi.'
+
+Other references are _Ep._ i. 16, 1-14; _Od._ ii. 18, 14.
+
+Augustus having tried unsuccessfully to induce Horace to become his
+secretary, was not offended at the poet's refusal, but continued to
+bestow his favour upon him.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Augustus epistularum quoque ei officium obtulit,
+ut hoc ad Maecenatem scripto significat: "Ante ipse sufficiebam
+scribendis epistulis amicorum, nunc occupatissimus et infirmus
+Horatium nostrum a te cupio abducere. Veniet ergo ab ista parasitica
+mensa ad hanc regiam et nos in epistulis scribendis adiuvabit." Ac ne
+recusanti quidem aut succensuit quicquam aut amicitiam suam ingerere
+desiit ... unaque et altera liberalitate locupletavit.'
+
+Horace composed for Augustus the _Carmen Saeculare_; _Od._ iv. 4; iv.
+14, celebrating the victories of Augustus' step-sons over the
+Rhaetians and the Vindelici; also _Ep._ ii. 1.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Scripta quidem eius usque adeo probavit
+mansuraque perpetuo opinatus est, ut non modo Saeculare carmen
+componendum iniunxerit sed et Vindelicam victoriam Tiberii Drusique
+privignorum suorum eumque coegerit propter hoc tribus carminum libris
+ex longo intervallo quartum addere; post sermones vero quosdam lectos
+nullam sui mentionem habitam ita sit questus: "Irasci me tibi scito,
+quod non in plerisque eius modi scriptis mecum potissimum loquaris; an
+vereris ne apud posteros infame tibi sit, quod videaris familiaris
+nobis esse?" expresseritque eclogam ad se, cuius initium est:
+
+  "Cum tot sustineas et tanta negotia solus,"' etc. (_Ep._ ii. 1).
+
+Horace died 27th November, B.C. 8, and was buried near Maecenas. He
+appointed Augustus his heir.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Decessit v. Kal. Decembris C. Marcio Censorino
+et C. Asinio Gallo coss. lvii. aetatis anno, herede Augusto palam
+nuncupato; ... et conditus est extremis Esquiliis iuxta Maecenatis
+tumulum.'
+
+In personal appearance Horace was 'brevis atque obesus,' according to
+Suetonius, who quotes a joke of Augustus on the subject: 'Vereri autem
+mihi videris ne maiores libelli tui sint, quam ipse es; sed tibi
+statura deest, corpusculum non deest.' Cf. Hor. _Ep._ i. 20, 24,
+
+  'Corporis exigui, praecanum, solibus aptum,
+  irasci celerem, tamen ut placabilis essem';
+
+_Ep._ i. 4, 15,
+
+  'Me pinguem et nitidum bene curata cute vises,
+  cum ridere voles, Epicuri de grege porcum.'
+
+Cf. also _Ep._ i. 7, 25; _Od._ iii. 14, 25.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+_Chronology of the Works._--(1) _Satirae_, in two Books (called
+_Sermones_ in all the MSS.).
+
+Book i. It is clear from _Sat._ ii. 6, 40 that Horace was introduced
+to Maecenas in the spring of B.C. 38. Now all the references to
+Maecenas, with the exception of the prologue in _Sat._ 1 (written
+last), are in the second half of the book, there being no mention of
+him in _Sat._ 2; 3; and 4. It is therefore probable that these three
+Satires were written when Horace knew Varius and Virgil, but not
+Maecenas, _i.e._ B.C. 40-38. _Sat._ 2 is probably the oldest we have,
+as is shown by other considerations, and by the number of archaisms it
+contains. _Sat._ 5 (on the journey to Brundisium) was written shortly
+after the spring of B.C. 37, when the events recorded took place. The
+date of the publication of the book cannot be exactly fixed, the only
+clue we have being the reference in _Sat._ i. 10, 86, to Bibulus, the
+political agent of Antony, whose presence in Rome B.C. 35 may be
+referred to. It cannot be proved that _Sat._ i. 1, 114 _sqq._, is
+imitated from Verg. _Georg._ i. 512 _sqq._, published B.C. 35.
+
+Book ii. and the _Epodes_ were published in B.C. 30 about the same
+time. We have references to Actium (B.C. 31), as in _Sat._ ii. 5, 63;
+and _Sat._ ii. 1 (written last) speaks of Augustus (ll. 11-15) as the
+hero in war, not yet the bringer of peace, and was probably therefore
+composed before the temple of Janus was shut in the beginning of B.C.
+29.
+
+(2) _Epodon liber_, B.C. 30, as above. _Epod._ 9 was written shortly
+after the battle of Actium, 2nd September, B.C. 31, before it was
+known whither Antony had fled.
+
+(3) _Carmina_ (Odes) Books i.-iii., published B.C. 23. In _Od._ i. 12,
+45,
+
+  'Crescit occulto velut arbor aevo
+  fama Marcellis,'
+
+we have a reference to the marriage in B.C. 25 of Augustus' daughter,
+Julia, to his nephew, Marcellus. Marcellus died in the autumn of B.C.
+23, and the lines must have been written before his death. _Od._ ii.
+10 and iii. 19 contain references to Licinius Murena, brother of
+Terentia, Maecenas' wife. Murena was executed for his share in the
+conspiracy of Fannius Caepio in the end of B.C. 23, and it is
+improbable that Horace could have made these references after that
+event.[56]
+
+(4) _Epistles_, Book i., published B.C. 20. The date is fixed by _Ep._
+i. 20, 26-8, already quoted, p. 164.
+
+The year referred to is B.C. 21, and the book was therefore composed
+in B.C. 20, before December of that year.
+
+(5) _Carmen Saeculare_, composed for the _Ludi Saeculares_ of B.C. 17
+(see Sueton. quoted above). An inscription commemorating these games
+was discovered in 1890 on the left bank of the Tiber, and in it Horace
+is mentioned: 'Sacrificioque perfecto pueri xxvi. quibus denuntiatum
+erat patrimi et matrimi et puellae totidem carmen cecinerunt eodemque
+modo in Capitolio. Carmen composuit Q. Horatius Flaccus.'[57]
+
+(6) _Odes_, Book iv., published B.C. 13. _Od._ 4 and 14 celebrate the
+campaign of Drusus and Tiberius in Rhaetia and Vindelicia B.C. 15.
+_Od._ 2 and 5 were written just before Augustus' return, B.C. 13, from
+Gaul, where he had been since B.C. 16.
+
+(7) _Epistles_, Book ii. _Ep._ ii. 1, to Augustus, was written B.C. 14
+in response (see the quotation from Suetonius above) to the emperor's
+request for a poem addressed to himself, after seeing that no mention
+was made of him in _Ep._ ii. 2 and the _Epistula ad Pisones_. These
+are the _sermones quidam_ (both, like _Ep._ ii. 1, on literary
+criticism) referred to by Suetonius, and not Book i. of the Epistles,
+where Augustus is frequently mentioned. The date is fixed by l. 15,
+'praesenti tibi maturos largimur honores,' etc., referring to the
+worship of the _numen Augusti_, which was legalized B.C. 14, and by
+the reference in ll. 252 _sqq._ to the victories of Drusus and
+Tiberius, and their celebration in _Od._ iv. 4; iv. 14. _Ep._ ii. 2
+(to Iulius Florus) was written B.C. 18. Horace hints (l. 25, ll. 84-6)
+that he has not yet returned to lyric poetry; the epistle was
+therefore written before B.C. 17. The _Epistula ad Pisones_ or _De
+Arte Poetica_ was probably written B.C. 17 or 16 after the _Carmen
+Saeculare_, but before Horace had entered on the composition of the
+fourth Book of the Odes.
+
+The _Satires_ are called _Sermones_ in all the MSS., but as Horace
+gave this name both to his Satires (_Sat._ i. 4, 42) and to his
+Epistles (_Ep._ ii. 1, 4; 250) it is convenient to call them
+_Satirae_, the name which Horace also gives them (_Sat._ ii. 1, 1; 6,
+17), and which represent their intended scope. Horace's chief model is
+Lucilius, whom he wished to adapt to the Augustan age. _Sat._ i. 4, 56,
+
+               'his, ego quae nunc,
+  olim quae scripsit Lucilius.'
+
+So _Sat._ ii. 1, 28 and 74. Lucilius' influence is seen most in _Sat._
+i. 2; 5; 7; 8; ii. 2; 3; 4; 8. Horace, after the reception _Sat._ i. 2
+met with, did not, like Lucilius, attack individuals; nor did his
+position as a dependent (_Sat._ ii. 1, 60-79) allow him to do so. We
+find, therefore, no political satire in Horace, who confines himself to
+social and literary topics. He does not attack his contemporaries by
+name, but (_a_) takes some names from Lucilius, as Albucius (_Sat._ ii.
+1, 48), Opimius (_Sat._ ii. 3, 142); (_b_) invents 'tell-tale-names,' as
+Pantolabus (_Sat._ i. 8, 11), Novius (_Sat._ i. 3, 21). In _Sat._ i. 4
+and ii. 1 he defines the moral and social aim of his satire. In _Sat._
+i. 4, 1-13 he criticizes Lucilius' style; this seems to have given
+offence, and in _Sat._ i. 10 he gives reasons for his former criticism.
+Horace's Epicureanism is more pronounced in Book i. than in Book ii. In
+_Sat._ i. 1 and i. 3 (cf. ll. 99-124) the influence of Lucretius is
+seen. In i. 3 he takes up an antagonistic position to Stoicism (cf. ll.
+124-142). In ii. 3 he shows less hostility to Stoicism though he still
+criticizes it.[58] In _Sat._ ii. 7, where the slave Davus enunciates the
+Stoic doctrine, +hoti monos ho sophos eleutheros+, Davus' arguments from
+l. 75 onwards have been taken by Horace from Cic. _Parad._ 5.
+
+Horace does not pretend that his Satires (or Epistles) are poetry, and
+makes several statements to that effect. _Sat._ ii. 6, 17,
+
+  'Quid prius inlustrem satiris musaque pedestri?'
+
+_Ep._ ii. 1, 250,
+
+  'Sermones ... repentes per humum.'
+
+So _Sat._ i. 4, 39-44.
+
+The _Epodes_ are called _Epodi_ in the MSS. +Ep�dos+ was the
+name given to a piece composed of couplets, the first line of which is
+longer than the second. Horace calls them _iambi_ (_Epod._ 14, 7;
+_Od._ i. 16, 3). Their style is an imitation of that of Archilochus of
+Paros. _Ep._ i. 19, 23-5,
+
+             'Parios ego primus iambos
+  ostendi Latio, numeros animosque secutus
+  Archilochi, non res et agentia verba Lycamben.'
+
+This is seen in the personal attacks made in many of them, as well as
+in the +aischrologia+ employed, and also in the versification.
+The dates of several can be fixed. _Epod._ 16 was written B.C. 41, and
+refers to the Perusian war. Horace takes no part with either side, but
+advises his countrymen to leave Rome, like the Phocaeans of old.
+_Epod._ 7 was written B.C. 39; and _Epod._ 1, 9, and 14, about B.C.
+31. The order is strictly metrical. Epodes 1-10 are simple iambics
+(trimeter and dimeter alternately); 11-16 more complicated forms; 17,
+the last, in iambic trimeters.
+
+The _Odes_ Horace himself calls _carmina_. The metres are nearly all
+taken from Sappho and Alcaeus, the two poets whose works Horace wished
+to present to his countrymen in a Roman dress. Cf. _Od._ iii. 30,
+13-4,
+
+  'Princeps Aeolium carmen ad Italos
+  deduxisse modos.'
+
+The metrical differences between himself and his originals are due to
+the difference in the genius of the two languages and to the fact that
+he adopted the views on metre current in his time. Catullus' metre, on
+the other hand, was closely modelled on that of the Alexandrian poets.
+The odes are largely founded on the best Greek lyric poetry, with
+which Horace was thoroughly familiar; cf. his first intention to write
+in Greek (_Sat._ i. 10, 31-5). Alexandrian influence is little seen,
+and his mythological allusions are seldom obscure. Examples of
+imitation (which is commonest in Book i.) are: _Od._ i. 9, the
+beginning of which is from Alcaeus (so i. 10; 11; 18); i. 12
+(beginning) is from Pindar; i. 27 from Anacreon. Bacchylides is
+imitated, _e.g._ in ii. 18.
+
+_Subjects of the Odes._--1. Love and wine form the themes of many.
+_Od._ i. 6, 17,
+
+  'Nos convivia, nos proelia virginum
+  sectis in iuvenes unguibus acrium
+  cantamus.'
+
+Cf. _Od._ ii. 1, 37-40; iii. 3, 69-72.
+
+The love-poems show no trace of personal passion, and the names of the
+women whose charms are sung are taken from Greek; thus Pyrrha (a
+well-known name from Attic comedy) i. 5; Lydia, i. 13, etc.; Lalage,
+i. 22; ii. 5. Cinara (iv. 1; iv. 13) is probably the only one that
+represents a real person. Wine is celebrated, _e.g._ in i. 9; 18; 27;
+ii. 7; iii. 21. A tone of moderation is observed throughout the
+drinking-songs. It is highly probable[59] that in _Od._ i. 27, 1-4 the
+unrestrained bacchanalian spirit of Catullus (cf. c. 27) is reproved,
+
+  'Natis in usum laetitiae scyphis
+  pugnare Thracum est. Tollite barbarum
+    morem verecundumque Bacchum
+      sanguineis prohibete rixis.'
+
+2. In _Od._ i. 24 we have the beautiful dirge on the death of
+Quintilius Varus.
+
+3. _On political subjects._--The chief of these are as follows: i. 2
+(towards the end of B.C. 28); i. 12; i. 14; i. 35 (in B.C. 26); i. 37
+(in B.C. 30); ii. 1. The most important, however, are _Od._ iii. 1-6,
+which form one whole, and are written on the new name of Augustus, and
+the ideas therewith connected. They were all written about B.C.
+27.[60]
+
+In iii. 1, which is general, the rising generation is addressed by the
+prophet of the empire; ll. 3, 4,
+
+                  'Musarum sacerdos
+  virginibus puerisque canto.'
+
+The lesson of the ode is 'A moderate life is the best. Lucky is the
+man who is spared the trouble of managing the State.'
+
+iii. 2 praises courage and honesty, but with special reference to two
+institutions of Augustus: (1) the professional soldier as opposed to
+the citizen-soldier of the republic. The officers were taken from the
+two privileged classes, and there was no promotion from the ranks.
+This is the explanation of ll. 1-4,
+
+  'Angustam amice pauperiem pati
+   robustus acri militia puer
+     condiscat et Parthos ferocis
+       vexet eques,'
+
+lines which also refer to the resuscitation by Augustus of the
+citizen-cavalry. The soldier is not to trouble about politics (ll.
+17-20), and must not fear death (l. 13). (2) The new imperial
+administrative officers, employed not only in collecting taxes, but in
+administrative business of every kind. Speaking of them, Horace pays a
+tribute to loyal silence, and emphasizes the curse that clings to
+breach of faith; l. 25,
+
+  'Est et fideli tuta silentio
+    merces';
+
+l. 31,
+
+  'Raro antecedentem scelestum
+    deseruit pede Poena claudo.'
+
+iii. 3 touches intimately the political questions of the day. Pointed
+reference is made to Cleopatra; she is the _mulier peregrina_ (l. 20),
+the _Lacaena adultera_ (l. 25), who brought Troy low, and would bring
+Rome low, if she and her _famosus hospes_ (l. 26) could raise Troy
+again. The reference here is to a report current about Antony, that he
+intended to make Troy the capital. It is certain that he intended to
+restore to Cleopatra her kingdom with extended frontiers, and to make
+himself ruler of the Eastern empire. This, which would have meant the
+subjection of Rome to the Greeks and half-Greeks, was prevented by the
+'iustum et tenacem propositi virum' (l. i), who for his services is
+honoured as one of the gods; ll. 11-12,
+
+  'Quos inter Augustus recumbens
+  purpureo bibit ore nectar.'
+
+In iii. 4 the poet's personality comes out strongest. He describes his
+protection by the Muses in his early years, and this leads him to
+speak of one of the monarch's chief works of peace, his encouragement
+of literature; ll. 37-40,
+
+  'Vos Caesarem altum, militia simul
+  fessas cohortes abdidit oppidis,
+  finire quaerentem labores
+  Pierio recreatis antro.'
+
+iii. 5 is a defence of Augustus' foreign policy. Publicly he kept up
+Caesar's war policy, hence ll. 2-5,
+
+  'Praesens divus habebitur
+  Augustus adiectis Britannis
+  imperio gravibusque Persis';
+
+but that this concealed his real policy of non-intervention is shown
+by his action regarding Parthia. Hence Horace, by a speech put into
+the mouth of Regulus (l. 18 _sqq._) warns the Romans against trying to
+rescue the survivors of Crassus' army, who, by becoming captives, had
+ceased to be citizens. That some of the Senate wished to interfere in
+this matter is probably shown by ll. 45-6,
+
+  'Donec labantis consilio patres
+  firmaret auctor numquam alias dato.'
+
+iii. 6 refers (ll. 1-8) to Augustus' policy in restoring the ancient
+religion, as is seen by the fact that he rebuilt 82 temples. Lines
+21-32 refer to a law of Augustus on adultery, the date of which is
+unknown.
+
+In Book iv., Odes 2, 4, 5, 6, 14, 15, are political. They show traces
+of adulation, and sing the praises rather of the imperial family than
+of the nation. Cf. iv. 2, 37 (of Augustus),
+
+  'Quo nihil maius meliusve terris
+  fata donavere bonique divi,' etc.
+
+The _Epistles_.--_Sermones_ is the name given them by Horace; they are
+also called _Epistulae_ in the MSS. Social, ethical, and literary
+questions are treated of, and the style is much more careful than that
+of the Satires. The motto, one might say, of the book is _Ep._ i. 1,
+10.
+
+  'Nunc itaque et versus et cetera ludicra pono:
+  quid verum atque decens, curo et rogo et omnis in hoc sum.'
+
+The dates of _Ep._ ii. 1, 2, have already been mentioned. Both treat
+of literary criticism, and the first deals particularly with that of
+the drama. Iulius Florus, to whom _Ep._ ii. 2 is addressed, was the
+representative of the younger literary school at Rome. The _Epistula
+ad Pisones_ or _De Arte Poetica_ is an essay in verse on literary
+criticism, specially pointing out how necessary art is to composition.
+In it, according to Porphyrion, Horace 'congessit praecepta Neoptolemi
++tou Parianou+[61] de arte poetica, non quidem omnia, sed
+eminentissima.' Horace probably was also indebted to Aristotle's
+_Poetics_. Porphyrion says that Horace wrote the _Ars Poetica_ 'ad L.
+Pisonem qui postea urbis custos fuit eiusque liberos.' This does not
+fit in with the probable date, B.C. 17 or 16, as L. Piso was born B.C.
+49, and his sons could not have been old enough for the letter to be
+addressed to them. It is probable that Porphyrion is wrong, and that
+the _A.P._ was addressed to Cn. Piso, who served with Horace under
+Brutus, and his two sons.
+
+_Horace and nature._--Besides references to his Sabine villa, Horace
+refers to natural scenery in many passages. Such are _Epod._ 2; _Od._
+i. 7, 10; ii. 6, 13; iii. 13, 9; _Sat._ ii. 6, 1 _sqq._; _Ep._ i. 10,
+6 _sqq._, i. 16, 1 _sqq._[62] Horace is fond of comparing dangers to
+the plague of floods,[63] a plague from which Italy has always
+suffered. Cf. _Od._ i. 31, 7,
+
+         'rura quae Liris quieta
+  mordet aqua taciturnus amnis.'
+
+So _Od._ iii. 29, 32 _sqq._, and many other passages.
+
+_Popularity of Horace._--Horace's prediction that his works would
+become school-books, _Ep._ i. 20, 17,
+
+  'Hoc quoque te manet, ut pueros elementa docentem
+  occupet extremis in vicis balba senectus,'
+
+was early fulfilled. Cf. Iuv. 7, 226,
+
+  'Quot stabant pueri, cum totus decolor esset
+  Flaccus et haereret nigro fuligo Maroni.'
+
+
+
+CONTEMPORARY POETS:
+
+
+The following writers were friends of Horace:
+
+(_a_) _C. Valgius Rufus_, consul suffectus B.C. 12, belonged to the
+circle of Maecenas (Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 82).
+
+Valgius' works, of which only a few lines are extant, included (1)
+Elegiae. Cf. Hor. _Od._ ii. 9, 9-12,
+
+  'Tu semper urges flebilibus modis
+  Mysten ademptum, nec tibi Vespero
+    surgente decedunt amores
+      nec rapidum fugiente solem.'
+
+(2) Epigrammata, (3) Miscellanies, (4) A translation of Apollodorus'
++techn�+. (See Quint. iii. 1, 18.) (5) A book on herbs.
+(Pliny, _N.H._ xxv. 4.) An epic was also expected of him, but whether
+written is unknown. Tibull. iv. 1, 179,
+
+  'Est tibi, qui possit magnis se adcingere rebus,
+    Valgius; aeterno propior non alter Homero.'
+
+(_b_) _M. Aristius Fuscus_, a poet and grammarian (Porphyr. _ad Sat._
+i. 9, 60); _Od._ i. 22, and _Ep._ i. 10, are addressed to him.
+
+(_c_) The _Visci_. Comm. Cruq. _ad Sat._ i. 10, 83, 'Visci duo fratres
+fuerunt optimi poetae et iudices critici.'
+
+(_d_) _C. Fundanius_, wrote comedies (Porphyr. _ad Sat._ i. 10, 40).
+
+(_e_) _Servius Sulpicius_, a love poet (Ovid, _Trist._ ii. 441; Hor.
+_Sat._ i. 10, 86).
+
+(_f_) _Iulius Florus_ was 'saturarum scriptor' (Porphyr. _ad Hor. Ep._
+i. 3, 1). Hor. _Ep._ i. 3 and ii. 2, are addressed to him.
+
+(_g_) _Titius_ wrote Pindaric odes, and tragedies, Hor. _Ep._ i. 3,
+9-14.
+
+(_h_) _Albinovanus Celsus_. See Hor. _Ep._ i. 3, 15-7.
+
+(_i_) _C. Iullus Antonius_, B.C. 44-B.C. 2, was a son of the triumvir
+M. Antonius. The Schol. on Hor. _Od._ iv. 2, 2, says of him, "Heroico
+metro Diomedeam scripsit et nonnulla alia soluta oratione."
+
+(_k_) _Furnius_, an orator; died B.C. 37. He is mentioned by Hor.
+_Sat._ i. 10, 86.
+
+Other poets contemporary with Virgil and Horace are:
+
+(_a_) _L. Varius Rufus_ (cf. Verg. _Ecl._ 9, 35). His works were:
+
+(1) Epics (_a_) on the death of Julius Caesar (Macrob. _Saturn._ vi.
+1, 39), (_b_) in praise of Augustus. Hor. _Ep._ i. 16, 27-29 is a
+quotation from this poem (Acron _ad loc._), and it is probably
+referred to in _Od._ i. 6, 1 (to Agrippa),
+
+  'Scriberis Vario fortis et hostium
+  victor Maeonii carminis aliti,
+  quam rem cumque ferox navibus aut equis
+  miles te duce gesserit.'
+
+(2) A tragedy, _Thyestes_, praised by Quint. x. 1, 98, 'iam Varii
+Thyestes cuilibet Graecarum comparari potest.'
+
+(3) Elegies: Porphyr. ad Hor. _Od._ i. 6, 1, 'fuit L. Varius et ipse
+carminis et tragoediarum et elegiorum auctor.'
+
+(_b_) _Aemilius Macer_ was a native of Verona, and died B.C. 16:
+Jerome yr. Abr. 2001, 'Aemilius Macer Veronensis poeta in Asia
+moritur.' He was a friend of Virgil, and was the 'Mopsus' of _Ecl._ 5,
+according to Serv. _ad loc._ Ovid in his youth enjoyed his
+acquaintance; cf. _Tr._ iv. 10, 43, where three didactic poems are
+referred to: (1) _Ornithogonia_, on birds; (2) _Theriaca_, on venomous
+serpents; (3) _De Herbis_, on plants.
+
+For his obligations to Nicander, see under 'Virgil,' p. 158.
+Quintilian calls him 'humilis' (x. 1, 87).
+
+(_c_) _C. Cornelius Gallus_ was born at Forum Iulii B.C. 70, and died
+by his own hand B.C. 27. Jerome yr. Abr. 1990, 'Cornelius Gallus
+Foroiuliensis poeta ... xliii. aetatis suae anno propria se manu
+interficit.' Having commanded a division in the war against Antony, he
+was appointed by Octavian the first prefect of Egypt, B.C. 30, but
+incurred his anger and was banished from Caesar's house and provinces
+(Sueton. _Aug._ 66). The cause of his downfall was indiscreet language
+about Augustus, according to Ovid, _Tr._ ii. 445,
+
+  'Non fuit opprobrio celebrasse Lycorida Gallo,
+    sed linguam nimio non tenuisse mero';
+
+and _Am._ iii. 9, 63,
+
+  'Tu quoque, si falsum est temerati crimen amici,
+    sanguinis atque animae prodige, Galle, tuae.'
+
+The tenth eclogue of Virgil is a testimony to his friendship for
+Gallus, l. 2,
+
+  'Pauca meo Gallo, sed quae legat ipsa Lycoris,
+  carmina sunt dicenda; neget quis carmina Gallo?'
+
+Lines 44-49 are said by Servius, _ad loc._, to be quoted from Gallus
+('de ipsius translati carminibus'). For the tribute to Gallus in the
+original draft of _Georgic_ iv. see under 'Virgil,' p. 157.
+
+He wrote four Books of love-poems to Cytheris, the _liberta_ who
+afterwards deserted him for Antony: Serv. _ad Ecl._ x. 1, 'amorum
+suorum de Cytheride scripsit libros iv.' According to Servius he also
+translated the poems of Euphorion of Chalcis. Cf. Verg. _Ecl._ x. 50,
+
+  'Ibo et Chalcidico quae sunt mihi condita versu
+  carmina pastoris Siculi modulabor avena.'
+
+Compared with Tibullus and Propertius, he was 'durior' (Quint. x. 1,
+93).
+
+(_d_) _Codrus_, mentioned by Virgil, _Ecl._ 7, 22 and 26; 5, 11, was a
+contemporary poet (Serv. _ad Ecl._ 7), and was praised by Valgius
+(Schol. Veron. _ad loc._), but nothing is known of his writings. The
+name is not Roman, and is probably a disguised form of Cordus. He is
+sometimes identified with the Iarbitas of Hor. _Ep._ i. 19, 15.
+
+(_e_) _Bavius_ and _Mevius_ were enemies of Virgil and Horace. Verg.
+_Ecl._ 3, 90,
+
+  'Qui Bavium non odit, amet tua carmina, Mevi.'
+
+Horace, _Epod._ 10, prays for the shipwreck of Mevius. He wrote about
+the prodigal son of the actor Aesopus (Porphyr. ad Hor. _Sat._ ii. 3,
+239). Bavius died B.C. 35, according to Jerome.
+
+(_f_) _Anser_ wrote a poem in praise of Antony, and was rewarded with
+a grant of land (Serv. _ad Ecl._ 9, 36; Cic. _Phil._ xiii. 11). He is
+mentioned by Ovid, _Tr._ ii. 435,
+
+  'Cinna quoque his comes est, Cinnaque procacior Anser.'
+
+Servius sees an allusion to him in _Ecl._ 9, 36,
+
+  'Argutos inter strepere anser olores.'
+
+(_g_) _Domitius Marsus_. His epigram on Tibullus (see p. 186) shows
+that he was alive in B.C. 19; he was, however, dead when Ovid was
+exiled in A.D. 8.
+
+Ovid, _Ex Pont._ iv. 16, 3,
+
+  'Famaque post cineres maior venit; et mihi nomen
+    tunc quoque, cum vivis adnumerarer, erat,
+  cum foret et Marsus, magnique Rabirius oris,
+    Iliacusque Macer sidereusque Pedo.'
+
+He was a member of Augustus' literary circle. Mart. viii. 56, 21,
+
+  'Quid Varios Marsosque loquar, ditataque vatum
+    nomina, magnus erit quos numerare labor?'
+
+His works were:
+
+1. _Cicuta_, a collection of epigrams, often referred to by Martial.
+Cf. ii. 71, 3,
+
+  'aut Marsi recitas aut scripta Catulli.'
+
+2. _Amazonis_, an epic poem.[64] Mart. iv. 29, 7,
+
+  'Saepius in libro memoratur Persius uno
+    quam levis in tota Marsus Amazonide.'
+
+3. _Amores_ or _Elegiae_. Mart. vii. 29, 7,
+
+  'Et Maecenati, Maro cum cantaret Alexin,
+    nota tamen Marsi fusca Melaenis erat.'
+
+4. _Fabellae_.
+
+5. _De Urbanitate_ (in prose). Quint. vi. 3, 102, 'Domitius Marsus,
+qui de urbanitate diligentissime scripsit.'
+
+(_h_) _Pupius_, a tragedian, sneered at by Hor. _Ep._ i. 1, 67,
+'lacrimosa poemata Pupi.'
+
+(_i_) _C. Melissus_, a freedman of Maecenas, invented the _trabeata_,
+a variety of the _togata_.
+
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 21, 'Fecit et novum genus togatarum inscripsitque
+trabeatas.'
+
+
+
+TIBULLUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Albius Tibullus (his praenomen was perhaps Aulus, which, from the
+abbreviation A. being followed by Albius, was lost in the MSS.) seems
+to have been born near Pedum in Latium. (1) Horace, in _Ep._ i. 4, 2,
+addressed to Tibullus, asks, 'Quid nunc te dicam facere in regione
+Pedana?' apparently referring to the 'sedes avitae' of Tibullus
+(Tibull. ii. 4, 53). (2) The Life contained in the best MSS., and
+probably to be attributed to Suetonius, calls him 'Albius Tibullus,
+eques Romanus' (codd. Paris. and Lips. 'regulis'). B�hrens
+(_Tibullische Bl�tter_) holds that _Romanus_ is an erroneous
+correction of _regulis_, for which he proposes to read _R._ (=
+Romanus) _e Gabis_ (= Gabiis). Gabii was within a short distance of
+Pedum.
+
+The date of his birth can be fixed only by indirect evidence.
+
+(1) The Life says 'obiit adulescens,' and the epigram of Domitius
+Marsus, found in the best MSS., calls Tibullus 'iuvenis' at the time
+of his death, which must have occurred about the same time as
+Virgil's, in B.C. 19,
+
+  'Te quoque Vergilio comitem non aequa, Tibulle,
+    mors iuvenem campos misit ad Elysios,
+  ne foret aut elegis molles qui fleret amores
+    aut caneret forti regia bella pede.'
+
+(2) Ovid (_Tr._ iv. 10, 53) says of Tibullus,
+
+  'Successor fuit hic tibi, Galle, Propertius illi.'
+
+Since Gallus was born B.C. 70, and Propertius about B.C. 49, the birth
+of Tibullus must have fallen between those years.
+
+(3) Tibullus accompanied Messalla when he left for Aquitania, B.C. 30
+or 29, according to the Life: 'Ante alios Corvinum Messallam oratorem
+dilexit, cuius etiam contubernalis Aquitanico bello militaribus donis
+donatus est.' Cf. Tibull. i. 7, 9,
+
+  'Non sine me est tibi partus honos; Tarbella Pyrene
+    testis et Oceani litora Santonici.'
+
+Putting together these references we may place the date of Tibullus'
+birth in B.C. 54. (The statement of the Life in the Codex
+Guelferbytanus, 'Natus est Hyrtio et Pansa coss.' is clearly wrong).
+
+He was of equestrian rank, and at one time possessed considerable
+wealth, apparently inherited from a long line of ancestors; i. 1, 41,
+
+  'Non ego divitias patrum fructusque requiro
+    quos tulit antiquo condita messis avo.'
+
+Cf. ii. 1, 1; ii. 4, 53; Hor. _Ep._ i. 4, 7,
+
+  'Di tibi divitias dederunt.'
+
+His family property, however, had been greatly diminished; i. 1, 19,
+
+  'Vos quoque, felicis quondam nunc pauperis agri
+    custodes, fertis munera vestra, lares:
+  tunc vitula innumeros lustrabat caesa iuvencos;
+    nunc agna exigui est hostia parva soli.'
+
+Cf. i. 1, 5 and 37.
+
+It has been supposed that Tibullus suffered these losses in the
+agrarian disturbances of B.C. 41, and that his lands, like those of
+Virgil and Propertius, were confiscated. No town in Latium, however,
+is mentioned by Appian as having its territory thus assigned.
+Tibullus' property may possibly have been restored to him through the
+influence of Messalla.[65] Cf. Hor. _Ep._ i. 4, 11,
+
+  'Et mundus victus non deficiente crumena';
+
+also Tibull. i. 1, 77,
+
+             'Ego composito securus acervo
+  despiciam dites despiciamque famem.'
+
+Of Messalla Tibullus always speaks with the greatest affection. He
+refused at first to accompany him to the East after the battle of
+Actium, but afterwards followed him, and was forced through illness to
+remain at Corcyra: i. 1, 53,
+
+  'Te bellare decet terra, Messalla, marique,
+    ut domus hostiles praeferat exuvias:
+  me retinent vinctum formosae vincla puellae';
+
+i, 3, 3,
+
+  'Me tenet ignotis aegrum Phaeacia terris.'
+
+In the Aquitanian campaign he was Messalla's _contubernalis_, and had
+military distinctions conferred on him (see p. 186).
+
+No further particulars of Tibullus are known, save his love for his
+mistresses Delia and Nemesis, and the fact mentioned by Ovid, in a
+poem on his death, that his mother and sister survived him; _Amor._
+iii. 9, 50,
+
+    'Mater et in cineres ultima dona tulit.
+  Hinc soror in partem misera cum matre doloris
+    venit inornatas dilaniata comas.'
+
+Delia's real name was Plania (+d�los+ = _planus_): cf.
+Apuleius, _Apol._ 10, 'eadem igitur opera accusent ... Tibullum quod
+ei sit Plania in animo Delia in versu.' She was a _libertina_, for the
+name is not known as a _nomen gentilicium_, and she had had a husband
+(i. 2, 41, 'coniunx tuus'), who appears to have been serving with the
+army in Cilicia: i. 2, 65,
+
+  'Ferreus ille fuit, qui te cum posset habere,
+    maluerit praedas stultus et arma sequi.
+  Ille licet Cilicum victas agat ante catervas,' etc.
+
+A divorce had probably taken place, as she was not entitled to wear
+the distinctive dress of the Roman matron; i. 6, 67,
+
+  'Sit modo casta, doce, quamvis non vitta ligatos
+    impediat crines nec stola longa pedes.'
+
+Nemesis was a _meretrix_; ii. 4, 14,
+
+  'Illa cava pretium flagitat usque manu.'
+
+She appears to be the 'immitis Glycera' of Hor. _Od._ i. 33, 2,
+addressed to Albius (so Kiessling _ad loc._). Both Delia and Nemesis
+are represented by Ovid as present at the funeral of Tibullus. _Amor._
+iii. 9, 53,
+
+  'Cumque tuis sua iunxerunt Nemesisque priorque
+    oscula nec solos destituere rogos.'
+
+Tibullus was on friendly terms with Horace, who addressed to him _Od._
+i. 33 and _Ep._ i. 4. Horace was doubtless attracted by the frank
+nature of Tibullus (_Ep._ i. 4, 1, 'Albi, nostrorum sermonum candide
+iudex'), and by the community of taste which led them both to imitate
+the classical Ionic rather than the Alexandrian elegy. Horace
+corroborates the statement of Life i. ('insignis forma cultuque
+corporis observabilis') that Tibullus had a fine presence; _ibid._ 1.
+6,
+
+  'Non tu corpus eras sine pectore: di tibi formam,
+  di tibi divitias dederunt artemque fruendi.'
+
+Ovid had met and admired him, and has numerous imitations of him in
+his poems; but the difference of age and the early death of Tibullus
+prevented any long acquaintance; Ovid, _Tr._ iv. 10, 51,
+
+               'Nec amara Tibullo
+  tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae.'
+
+Of friendship between Propertius and Tibullus there is no evidence:
+they never mention one another.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+Four Books of elegiac poems are attributed to Tibullus, who ranks
+first among Roman elegists in the view of Quintilian, x. 1, 93,
+'Elegia quoque Graecos provocamus, cuius mihi tersus atque elegans
+maxime videtur auctor Tibullus.'
+
+Book i., on the poet's love for Delia and Marathus (_El._ 7 is to
+Messalla), was published by himself, and was apparently composed in
+the years B.C. 31-27. This agrees with Ovid, _Tr._ ii. 463,
+
+                    'Legiturque Tibullus
+  et placet, et iam te principe notus erat,'
+
+if we assume that 'principe' refers to the title of Augustus.
+
+Book ii., the chief subject of which is Nemesis, appears to have been
+written several years later. It is unfinished, not having received the
+author's final revision, and was probably published soon after his
+death, certainly several years before Ovid's _Ars Amatoria_ (cf.
+_A.A._ 535 _sqq._).
+
+Book iii. (six Elegies) is professedly the work of Lygdamus. No poet
+of that name is mentioned in ancient literature, and it has been
+suggested that the author may have been a young relative of Tibullus
+who used a Greek adaptation of the gentile name Albius (+lygdos+
+= white marble). He speaks as a man of good social position
+(iii. 2, 22). From the fact that he belonged to the circle of
+Messalla, his poems came to be added to those of Tibullus, whom he
+constantly imitates. There are also many reminiscences of Horace,
+Ovid, and Propertius. The six Elegies are addressed to Neaera, who was
+probably the poet's cousin and was married or betrothed to him (iii.
+1, 23; 2, 12). Lygdamus was born in the same year as Ovid, B.C. 43;
+iii. 5, 17,
+
+  'Natalem primo nostrum videre parentes,
+    cum cecidit fato consul uterque pari.'
+
+The remarkable coincidence between iii. 5, 15-20, and Ovid, _A.A._ ii.
+669-70, _Tr._ iv. 10, 6, _Amor._ ii. 14, 23-4, is best explained by
+Hiller (_Hermes_, xviii. 360-1), who suggests that Lygdamus may have
+composed the poem in his earlier years merely to amuse Neaera, without
+publishing it, and that after Ovid's works had appeared he may, to
+oblige a friend or patron (_e.g._ Messalinus), have published his
+collection of elegies, adding in the process of revision the lines
+copied from Ovid.
+
+The remaining poems belong to Book iii. in the MSS., but in most
+editions are printed as a separate Book iv. iv. 1, in hexameters, is
+the _Panegyricus Messallae_, written in honour of Messalla's
+consulship, B.C. 31. Its rhetorical exaggeration and want of taste
+forbid its being attributed to Tibullus, written, as it was, so
+shortly before he reached the summit of his powers. Its date puts
+Lygdamus out of question: doubtless it is by some young member of
+Messalla's circle.
+
+The rest of the Book has for its theme the love of Sulpicia, the
+daughter of Servius Sulpicius and Valeria, the sister of Messalla, for
+a young Greek named Cerinthus. _El._ 2-6 are apparently by Tibullus
+himself, who may have amused himself by turning into verse the letters
+of the young lovers. _El._ 7 is of disputed authorship; but it
+resembles the work of Sulpicia rather than that of Tibullus. _El._
+8-12 are by Sulpicia to Cerinthus. _El._ 13 purports to be by
+Tibullus. _El._ 14 is an epigram, of doubtful authorship.
+
+Two _Priapea_ are found in MSS. of Tibullus, but probably neither of
+them is by him.
+
+
+
+PROPERTIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+The name by which the poet designates himself is Propertius simply;
+the praenomen Sextus rests on the authority of Donatus. The additions
+in some MSS., 'Aurelius' and 'Nauta,' are clearly erroneous.
+
+He was certainly a native of the district of Umbria, and probably of
+the town of Asisium (the modern Assisi). Cf. iv. 1, 121,
+
+  'Umbria te notis antiqua penatibus edit,
+    (mentior? an patriae tangitur ora tuae?)
+  qua nebulosa cavo rorat Mevania campo,
+    et lacus aestivis intepet Umber aquis,
+  scandentisque Asisi consurgit vertice murus,
+    murus ab ingenio notior ille tuo.'
+
+'Asisi' in l. 125 is Lachmann's emendation for 'Asis' of the MSS., and
+is rendered almost certain by the topography of the district. Asisium
+agrees better than Hispellum (the modern Spello) with the description
+in the passage quoted; with iv. 1, 65,
+
+  'Scandentes quisquis cernet de vallibus arces,
+    ingenio muros aestimet ille meo';
+
+and with the epithet 'proxima' in i. 22, 9, as Asisium is nearer than
+Hispellum to Perusia. Cf. i. 22, 3-10,
+
+  'Si Perusina tibi patriae sunt nota sepulcra,
+    Italiae duris funera temporibus, ...
+  proxima supposito contingens Umbria campo
+    me genuit terris fertilis uberibus.'
+
+At Assisi, moreover, have been found several inscriptions of the
+Propertii, one of which, C. PASSENNO | C. F. SERG. |, PAULLO |
+PROPERTIO | BLAESO,[66] probably refers to the Passennus Paullus
+mentioned by Pliny, _Ep._ vi. 15, as 'municeps Propertii.'
+
+Propertius was younger than Tibullus, and older than Ovid. His birth,
+therefore, took place between B.C. 54 and 43 (Hertzberg gives 46,
+Postgate prefers 50). Cf. Ovid, _Tr._ iv. 10, 53,
+
+  'Successor fuit hic [Tibullus] tibi, Galle; Propertius illi;
+    quartus ab his serie temporis ipse fui.'
+
+He came of a family well known in the neighbourhood (cf. iv. 1, 121,
+'notis penatibus,' already quoted), but not 'noble' in the technical
+sense; ii. 34, 55,
+
+  'Aspice me, cui parva domi fortuna relictast,
+    nullus et antiquo Marte triumphus avi.'
+
+His childhood was clouded by the early death of his father, and by the
+confiscation of his estate in B.C. 41; iv. 1, 127,
+
+  'Ossaque legisti non illa aetate legenda
+    patris; et in tenues cogeris ipse lares,
+  nam tua cum multi versarent rura iuvenci,
+    abstulit excultas pertica tristis opes.'
+
+His mother then took him to Rome, where he studied law for a short
+time after assuming the _toga virilis_, but abandoned it in favour of
+poetry; iv. 1, 131,
+
+  'Mox ubi bulla rudi demissast aurea collo,
+    matris et ante deos libera sumpta toga,
+  tum tibi pauca suo de carmine dictat Apollo
+    et vetat insano verba tonare foro.'
+
+Meanwhile he was engaged in his first love affair with Lycinna, who is
+otherwise unknown (iii. 15, 3 _sqq._). In B.C. 29 or 28 his
+acquaintance with Cynthia began. Her real name was Hostia (Apuleius,
+_Apol._ 10, 'Accusent ... Propertium, qui Cynthiam dicat, Hostiam
+dissimulet'), and she was possibly a grand-daughter of the poet
+Hostius (p. 65). Cf. iii. 20, 8,
+
+  'Splendidaque a docto fama refulget avo.'
+
+A courtesan of the higher class, she is represented by Propertius as
+possessed of great personal charms and varied accomplishments (i. 2,
+30, 'Omnia quaeque Venus quaeque Minerva probat'), combined with many
+faults of temper and character. She had a house at Rome in the Subura,
+and we hear of her also at Tibur, where she was buried (iv. 7, 15;
+85). She was considerably older than Propertius; ii. 18, 19,
+
+  'At tu etiam iuvenem odisti me, perfida, cum sis
+    ipsa anus haud longa curva futura die.'
+
+At the end of two years the unfaithfulness of Propertius led to twelve
+months of estrangement; iii. 16, 9,
+
+  'Peccaram semel, et totum sum pulsus in annum.'
+
+Cynthia was reconciled to him about the beginning of B.C. 25; but the
+passion on both sides gradually cooled until, in 23, Propertius
+harshly cast her off (iii. 24 and 25). Possibly there was a second
+reconciliation before her death (iv. 7). The five years of bondage
+(iii. 25, 3, 'Quinque tibi potui servire fideliter annos,') will thus
+be B.C. 28, 27, 25-23.
+
+Propertius lived chiefly at Rome; but i. 18 was written near the
+Clitumnus, and in ii. 19 he promises to join Cynthia in that region.
+In iii. 21 he contemplates a voyage to Athens; l. 1,
+
+  'Magnum iter ad doctas proficisci cogor Athenas,
+  ut me longa gravi solvat amore via.'
+
+A few years earlier he had refused to accompany his friend Tullus to
+Athens and Asia (i. 6).
+
+Nothing is known of the subsequent life of Propertius, but from two
+passages in the younger Pliny it is natural to infer that he married,
+in obedience to the _Lex Iulia_ of B.C. 18, and had issue. Pliny,
+_Ep._ vi. 15, 'Passennus Paullus ... inter maiores suos Propertium
+numerat'; ix. 22, 'Propertium ... a quo genus ducit.'
+
+We cannot tell even when he died. He must have been alive in B.C. 16,
+because iv. 6 was written for the _ludi quinquennales_, which were
+held for the first time in that year; and iv. 11. 65, is an allusion
+to the consulship of P. Cornelius Scipio, also in B.C. 16.
+
+In personal appearance Propertius was pale and thin, and rather fond
+of dress; i. 5, 21,
+
+  'Nec iam pallorem totiens mirabere nostrum,
+    aut cur sim toto corpore nullus ego';
+
+ii. 4, 5,
+
+  'Nequiquam perfusa meis unguenta capillis,
+     ibat et expenso planta morata gradu.'
+
+He had been introduced to Maecenas after the publication of his first
+Book, but naturally was not on such intimate terms with him as older
+men like Virgil and Horace were. ii. 1 and iii. 9 are addressed to
+Maecenas. In the first of these poems Propertius declares that he is
+unequal to the composition of an epic, which his patron had urged upon
+him, but adds (l. 17)
+
+  'Quod mihi si tantum, Maecenas, fata dedissent
+    ut possem heroas ducere in arma manus, ...
+  bellaque resque tui memorarem Caesaris, et tu
+    Caesare sub magno cura secunda fores.'
+
+For poems referring to Augustus cf. ii. 10, iv. 6 (on Actium), iii. 18
+(on the death of Marcellus).
+
+Horace and Propertius do not mention each other by name. Chronology
+forbids the identification of the bore in Hor. _Sat._ i. 9 with
+Propertius, who, on the same ground, cannot be meant in _Sat._ i. 10,
+18,
+
+                     'Neque simius iste,
+  nil praeter Calvum et doctus cantare Catullum.'
+
+But Hor. _Ep._ ii. 2, 87-101, is undoubtedly aimed at Propertius. Cf.
+especially l. 99,
+
+  'Discedo Alcaeus puncto illius; ille meo quis?
+  quis nisi Callimachus? Si plus adposcere visus,
+  fit Mimnermus et optivo cognomine crescit.'
+
+Though both poets belonged to the same literary circle, they differed
+widely in temperament as well as in age. With Tibullus, who was a
+member of Messalla's circle, Propertius may have had no personal
+acquaintance; at all events, neither alludes to the other.
+
+For Virgil Propertius expresses warm admiration in ii. 34, written
+during the composition of the _Aeneid_. Ovid, who calls him 'blandus'
+(_Tr._ ii. 465) and 'tener' (_A.A._ iii. 333), was an intimate friend
+of his; cf. _Tr._ iv. 10, 45 (quoted p. 206). The minor poets to whom
+he writes are Ponticus (i. 7 and 9), Bassus (i. 4), and a tragic poet,
+Lynceus (a pseudonym, ii. 34, 25).
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+The extant Elegies, divided in the MSS. into four Books, are probably
+all that Propertius ever wrote. On account of the disproportionate
+length of Book ii., and the number 'tres' (which, however, may be said
+in anticipation) in ii. 13, 25,
+
+  'Sat mea sat magna est si tres sint pompa libelli,
+    quos ego Persephonae maxima dona feram,'
+
+some editors make Book ii. consist only of _El._ 1-9, and assign the
+remainder (10-34) to a new Book iii. Books iii. and iv. of the MSS.
+then become iv. and v. respectively. In the most recent editions,
+however, the MSS. arrangement is retained, and it is here followed.
+
+_Book_ i.--All the Elegies in Book i., except the last two, are
+amatory. _El._ 2-10 belong to the first months of the poet's love,
+when Cynthia was gracious, though capricious. She had refused to
+accompany a rival of his, who was going to Illyricum as praetor (_El._
+8); but afterwards she left Rome for Baiae, and the rest of the Book
+is full of complaints of her harshness. _El._ 1, written after the
+year of separation, introduces the whole Book in a melancholy strain.
+
+The clearest indication of date in Book i. is 8, 21, 'Nam me non ullae
+poterunt corrumpere taedae,' where Propertius protests that he will
+never marry, in spite of the _Lex Iulia_ of B.C. 27. (He could not
+legally marry a woman of Cynthia's class.) The Book was published
+probably in B.C. 25, under the title of 'Cynthia.' Cf. ii. 24, 1,
+
+  'Cum sis iam noto fabula libro
+  et tua sit toto Cynthia lecta foro.'
+
+Her name was a recommendation for the Book, and it was probably her
+satisfaction at the fame which it brought her that caused her to
+relent towards Propertius. Cf. Mart. xiv. 189,
+
+  'Cynthia, facundi carmen iuvenile Properti,
+    accepit famam, nec minus ipsa dedit.'
+
+At all events, a few months afterwards we find the old relations
+re-established; ii. 3, 3,
+
+  'Vix unum potes, infelix, requiescere mensem,
+    et turpis de te iam liber alter erit.'
+
+_Book_ ii.--Cynthia is the theme of nearly all the thirty-four poems
+of Book ii., which give lively expression to her lover's varying
+moods. Only three Elegies (1, 10, and 31) are given to other subjects.
+
+Of the few poems to which dates can be assigned, the earliest is _El._
+31 (on the dedication of the temple of the Palatine Apollo, B.C. 28),
+and the latest is _El._ 10, to Augustus (written shortly before the
+invasion of Arabia by Aelius Gallus in B.C. 24. Cf. l. 16, 'et domus
+intactae te tremit Arabiae'). The Book was therefore published B.C. 24
+at the earliest.
+
+_Book_ iii.--In this Book the poems on Cynthia form a far smaller
+proportion; 7, 12, and 22 show the warmth of the poet's friendship;
+events of national interest are treated in 4, 11, and 18. In 5, 23-47,
+Propertius looks forward to spending his later years in the study of
+natural science ('naturae perdiscere mores,' l. 25).
+
+There are few hints of the date of any of the poems in iii. _El._ 20
+is apparently as early as B.C. 28; 18 certainly belongs to B.C. 23; 4
+perhaps refers to the expedition against the Parthians planned in B.C.
+22. The last-mentioned year is the earliest possible date of
+publication.
+
+_Book_ iv., in which there is no principle of arrangement, probably
+appeared after the author's death. His archaeological tastes come out
+in four Elegies written, in imitation of the +Aitia+ of
+Callimachus, on Roman antiquities--_El._ 2 on Vertumnus, 4 on Tarpeia,
+9 on Cacus, 10 on Jupiter Feretrius. In this way Propertius fulfilled
+his promise to Maecenas, iii. 9, 49,
+
+  'Celsaque Romanis decerpta Palatia tauris
+    ordiar et caeso moenia firma Remo,
+  eductosque pares silvestri ex ubere reges,
+    crescet et ingenium sub tua iussa meum.'
+
+_El._ 7 and 8 relate to Cynthia; in 7 her ghost appears to the poet.
+_El._ 3, a letter from Arethusa to Lycotas, possibly suggested to Ovid
+the plan of his _Heroides_, just as the antiquarian poems already
+mentioned may have suggested the _Fasti_. The Book ends with a lament
+for Cornelia, daughter of Scribonia, Augustus' first wife (_El._ 11).
+
+The date of 6 and 11 is certainly not earlier than B.C. 16, while 8
+seems to have been written before the rupture with Cynthia. The
+antiquarian poems are considered by some to have been among
+Propertius' earliest efforts.
+
+Propertius was familiar with the whole range of Greek poetry--Homer
+(iii. 1, 25-34), Mimnermus (i. 9, 11), Pindar (iii. 17, 40), the
+dramatists, Theocritus, and Apollonius Rhodius. As his models he names
+especially the Alexandrians Callimachus and Philetas, whom he claims
+to follow more closely than any of his predecessors; iii. 1, 1,
+
+  'Callimachi Manes et Coi sacra Philetae,
+    in vestrum, quaeso, me sinite ire nemus.
+  Primus ego ingredior puro de fonte sacerdos
+    Itala per Graios orgia ferre choros.'
+
+Cf. iv. 1, 64,
+
+  'Umbria Romani patria Callimachi.'
+
+In wealth of mythological illustration Propertius is peculiarly
+Alexandrian. He is continually drawing parallels and contrasts from
+Greek legend; _e.g._ i. 15, Cynthia how unlike Calypso! iii. 12, Aelia
+Galla a modern Penelope. Of Roman poets, he names as his predecessors
+in amatory verse Virgil, Varro Atacinus, Catullus, Calvus, and
+Cornelius Gallus (ii 34, 61-92). Once he dreams of writing an epic on
+the Alban kings in the vein of Ennius; iii. 3, 5,
+
+  'Parvaque tam magnis admoram fontibus ora,
+  unde pater sitiens Ennius ante bibit.'
+
+In Propertius love of social pleasures appears side by side with a
+strain of deep melancholy _e.g._ in. 5, 21,
+
+  Me iuvat et multo mentem vincire Lyaeo
+  et caput in verna semper habere rosa,
+
+contrasted with the numerous passages where he is thinking of the
+grave, _e.g._ ii. 1, 71,
+
+  'Quandocumque igitur vitam mea fata reposcent,
+  et breve in exiguo marmore nomen ero.'
+
+There is no greater patriot than Propertius. Cf. the denunciation of
+Cleopatra (iii. 11) and the frequency of the epithet 'Romanus.'
+
+
+
+OVID.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Ovid's own writings (especially _Tr._ iv. 10) supply nearly all the
+information we possess regarding his life. The biographies in the MSS.
+are valueless.
+
+P. Ovidius Naso was his full name, in which the MSS. agree. He speaks
+of himself as Naso simply, and Statius and Martial refer to him by
+that name; Tacitus and the two Senecas use the _nomen_ Ovidius.
+
+He was born in Sulmo, one of the three divisions of the Paelignian
+country, B.C. 43--the year in which Hirtius and Pansa fell at Mutina.
+_Tr._ iv. 10, 3,
+
+  'Sulmo mihi patria est, gelidis uberrimus undis,
+    milia qui novies distat ab urbe decem.
+  Editus hic ego sum; nec non ut tempora noris,
+    cum cecidit fato consul uterque pari.'
+
+His birthday was 20th March--the second day of the festival of the
+Quinquatria (cf. _Fast._ iii. 809-814), l. 13,
+
+  'Haec est armiferae festis de quinque Minervae,
+    quae fieri pugna prima cruenta solet.'
+
+He belonged to an equestrian family, and he frequently contrasts
+himself with those who had reached that dignity by military service or
+by possessing the requisite fortune; _ibid._ l. 7,
+
+  'Si quid id est, usque a proavis vetus ordinis heres,
+    non sum fortunae munere factus eques.'
+
+Cf. _Am._ i. 3, 7; iii. 8, 9; iii. 15, 5; _Pont._ iv. 8, 17.
+
+Along with his elder brother, he received a careful education at Rome,
+and studied also at Athens. He practised rhetoric under Arellius
+Fuscus and Porcius Latro. _Tr._ iv. 10, 15,
+
+  'Protinus excolimur teneri, curaque parentis
+    imus ad insignes urbis ab arte viros.'
+
+_Tr._ i. 2, 77,
+
+  'Non peto quas quondam petii studiosus Athenas.'
+
+Sen. _Contr._ ii. 10, 8, 'Hanc controversiam memini ab Ovidio Nasone
+declamari apud rhetorem Arellium Fuscum, cuius auditor fuit, nam
+Latronis admirator erat, cum diversum sequeretur dicendi genus.'
+Seneca says that _Met._ xiii. 121, and _Am._ i. 2, 11, were borrowed
+from Latro.
+
+But, in spite of his father's remonstrances, Ovid preferred poetry to
+public life. _Tr._ iv. 10, 19,
+
+  'At mihi iam parvo caelestia sacra placebant,
+    inque suum furtim Musa trahebat opus.
+  Saepe pater dixit, "studium quid inutile temptas?
+    Maeonides nullas ipse reliquit opes."
+  Motus eram dictis totoque Helicone relicto
+    scribere conabar verba soluta modis:
+  sponte sua carmen numeros veniebat ad aptos;
+    quicquid temptabam dicere, versus erat.'
+
+In due time he assumed the _toga virilis_, and with it the broad
+purple stripe worn by prospective senators. He also held two of the
+minor offices of the _vigintiviratus_, the preliminary to a senatorial
+career, being (1) triumvir capitalis or else triumvir monetalis, (2)
+decemvir stlitibus iudicandis. _Tr._ iv. 10, 28,
+
+    'Liberior fratri sumpta mihique toga est,
+  induiturque umeris cum lato purpura clavo';
+
+l. 33,
+
+  'Cepimus et tenerae primos aetatis honores,
+    deque viris quondam pars tribus una fui.'
+
+_Fast._ iv. 384,
+
+  'Inter bis quinos usus honore viros.'
+
+In virtue of this second office he sat in the centumviral court;[67]
+and he also acted as an arbitrator. _Tr._ ii. 93,
+
+  'Nec male commissa est nobis fortuna reorum
+    lisque decem deciens inspicienda viris.
+  Res quoque privatas statui sine crimine iudex.'
+
+He sought no higher office, having neither strength nor inclination
+for the Senate; he assumed the narrow stripe of the _eques_, and
+devoted himself to poetry and pleasure. _Tr._ iv. 10, 35,
+
+  'Curia restabat: clavi mensura coacta est:
+    maius erat nostris viribus illud onus.
+  Nec patiens corpus, nec mens fuit apta labori,
+    sollicitaeque fugax ambitionis eram.
+  Et petere Aoniae suadebant tuta sorores
+    otia, iudicio semper amata meo.'
+
+He made a tour in Asia (including Troy) and Sicily in the company of
+the poet Pompeius Macer: the date of this journey is unknown, but he
+was almost a year in Sicily. _Pont._ ii. 10, 21-29 (to Macer),
+
+  'Te duce magnificas Asiae perspeximus urbes,
+    Trinacris est oculis te duce nota meis, ...
+  Hic mihi labentis pars anni magna peracta est.'
+
+_Fast._ vi. 423,
+
+  'Cura videre fuit: vidi templumque locumque,'
+
+(of the temple of Pallas at Troy).
+
+Towards the end of A.D. 8, Ovid was banished by imperial edict to
+Tomi, on the Black Sea, near the mouth of the Danube, the cause
+alleged being the publication of the _Ars Amatoria_. Ovid mentions
+this edict, but also hints at another reason, connected with the
+imperial family. _Tr._ ii. 207,
+
+  'Perdiderint cum me duo crimina, carmen et error,
+    alterius facti culpa silenda mihi;
+  nam non sum tanti renovem ut tua vulnera, Caesar,
+    quem nimio plus est indoluisse semel.
+  Altera pars superest, qua turpi carmine factus
+    arguor obscaeni doctor adulterii.'
+
+He was guilty of no crime of his own, but was banished for witnessing
+the crime of another. Cf. _Tr._ iii. 5, 49,
+
+  'Inscia quod crimen viderunt lumina, plector,
+    peccatumque oculos est habuisse meum.'
+
+It is probable that the real reason[68] of Ovid's banishment was that
+he was privy to a guilty intrigue between D. Silanus and Julia, the
+grand-daughter of Augustus. Julia was banished in A.D. 9, and Tacitus
+(_Ann._ iii. 24) tells us of the intrigue, for which Silanus (like
+Ovid) suffered _relegatio_. His knowledge of the offence was betrayed
+by friends and domestics. Cf. _Tr._ iv. 10, 101,
+
+  'Quid referam comitumque nefas famulosque nocentes?'
+
+The date of his banishment is given _Tr._ iv. 10, 95,
+
+  'Postque meos ortus Pisaea vinctus oliva
+    abstulerat decies praemia victor equus,
+  cum maris Euxini positos ad laeva Tomitas
+    quaerere me laesi principis ira iubet.'
+
+[Here an Olympiad is reckoned as five years.] His punishment was
+_relegatio_, involving banishment to a fixed spot, but not
+confiscation of property; _Tr._ ii. 135,
+
+  'Adde quod edictum, quamvis immite minaxque,
+    attamen in poenae nomine lene fuit;
+  quippe relegatus, non exul, dicor in illo,
+    privaque fortunae sunt ibi verba meae.'
+
+In Tomi he spent the remaining years of his life, far from friends and
+books; _Tr._ v. 12, 53,
+
+  'Non liber hic ullus, non qui mihi commodet aurem,
+    verbaque significent quid mea norit, adest';
+
+suffering from illness (_Tr._ iii. 3) and the climate, and fighting
+against the barbarians; _Tr._ iv. 1, 71,
+
+  'Aspera militiae iuvenis certamina fugi,
+    nec nisi lusura movimus arma manu:
+  nunc senior gladioque latus scutoque sinistram,
+    canitiem galeae subicioque meam.'
+
+On the other hand he learned the language of the people, and actually
+wrote poems in it; _Tr._ v. 12, 57,
+
+  'Ipse mihi videor iam dedidicisse Latine:
+    nam didici Getice Sarmaticeque loqui.'
+
+_Pont._ iv. 13, 19,
+
+  'A! pudet, et Getico scripsi sermone libellum,
+    structaque sunt nostris barbara verba modis,
+  et placui--gratare mihi--coepique poetae
+    inter inhumanos nomen habere Getas!
+  materiam quaeris? laudes de Caesare dixi.'
+
+For his popularity with the natives cf. _Pont._ iv. 14, 53,
+
+  'Solus adhuc ego sum vestris immunis in oris,
+    exceptis si qui munera legis habent.
+  Tempora sacrata mea sunt velata corona,
+    publicus invito quam favor imposuit';
+
+also _Pont._ iv. 9, 101.
+
+Ovid's death took place in A.D. 18: Jerome yr. Abr. 2033, 'Ovidius
+poeta in exilio diem obiit et iuxta oppidum Tomos sepelitur.' He was
+thrice married; _Tr._ iv. 10, 69,
+
+  'Paene mihi puero nec digna nec utilis uxor
+    est data, quae tempus per breve nupta fuit;
+  illi successit quamvis sine crimine coniunx,
+    non tamen in nostro firma futura toro;
+  ultima, quae mecum seros permansit in annos,
+    sustinuit coniunx exulis esse viri.'
+
+His third wife belonged to the _gens Fabia_. Cf. _Pont._ i. 2, 138 (to
+Fabius Maximus),
+
+  'Ille ego, de vestra cui data nupta domo est.'
+
+The _filia_ mentioned _Tr._ iv. 10, 75, may have been either a
+daughter or step-daughter of Ovid's. Some think that she is the
+Perilla of _Tr._ iii. 7.
+
+Ovid's social position was of the highest, as may be inferred from his
+relations with the palace. He was intimate with Messalla, the patron
+of Tibullus, and wrote an elegy on him (now lost). Cf. _Pont._ i. 7,
+27 (to Messalinus),
+
+  'Nec tuus est genitor nos infitiatus amicos,
+    hortator studii causaque faxque mei:
+  cui nos et lacrimas, supremum in funere munus,
+    et dedimus medio scripta canenda foro.'
+
+Among the friends to whom the _Epp. ex Ponto_ are written may be
+mentioned Albinovanus, Carus, Rufus, Severus, Fabius Maximus Cotta,
+Tuticanus, the younger Macer, all poets; and other literary men of
+distinction, _e.g._ Graecinus, Atticus, Brutus, Sex. Pompeius, Gallio.
+For his intimacy with the learned Hyginus cf. Sueton. _Gramm._ 20,
+'fuit familiarissimus Ovidio poetae.'
+
+He was old enough to have seen Virgil, and hear Aemilius Macer and
+Horace recite; with Propertius, Tibullus, Ponticus, and Bassus he was
+on terms of close intimacy (_Am._ iii. 9 is a lament for Tibullus),
+_Tr._ iv. 10, 41-52,
+
+  'Temporis illius colui fovique poetas,
+    quotque aderant vates, rebar adesse deos.
+  Saepe suas volucres legit mihi grandior aevo,
+    quaeque necet serpens, quae iuvet herba, Macer.
+  Saepe suos solitus recitare Propertius ignes,
+    iure sodalicii qui mihi iunctus erat.
+  Ponticus heroo, Bassus quoque clarus iambis
+    dulcia convictus membra fuere mei.
+  Detinuit nostras numerosus Horatius aures,
+    dum ferit Ausonia carmina culta lyra.
+  Vergilium vidi tantum; nec amara Tibullo
+    tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae.'
+
+Besides the _rura paterna_ at Sulmo, Ovid possessed an estate on the
+_via Clodia_, near Rome; _Pont._ i. 8, 41,
+
+  'Non meus amissos animus desiderat agros
+    ruraque Paeligno conspicienda solo,
+  nec quos piniferis positos in collibus hortos
+    spectat Flaminiae Clodia iuncta viae.'
+
+He cannot have been poor, in spite of his complaints, _e.g._ _Pont._ iv.
+8, 32,
+
+  'Carpsit opes illa ruina meas.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Amores_, at first in five Books, but in a second edition reduced
+to three; cf. the motto prefixed to the Book,
+
+  'Qui modo Nasonis fueramus quinque libelli,
+  Tres sumus.'
+
+The poems are nearly all on Corinna, a name which probably does not
+stand for any real person, but merely for an abstraction around which
+Ovid groups his own fancies. To suppose, as Sidonius Apollinaris did
+(23, 157)[69] that Augustus' daughter Julia was meant, is absurd, for
+Corinna is a _meretrix_. The identity of Corinna was unknown; _Am._
+ii. 17, 28,
+
+    'Et multae per me nomen habere volunt.
+  Novi aliquam, quae se circumferat esse Corinnam';
+
+and twenty years afterwards Ovid could write (_A.A._ iii. 538),
+
+  'Et multi, quae sit nostra Corinna, rogant.'
+
+The _Amores_, in their original form, constituted Ovid's earliest
+work, written in his youth. The extant poems are not all that he wrote
+on Corinna; _Tr._ iv. 10, 57,
+
+  'Carmina cum primum populo iuvenilia legi,
+    barba resecta mihi bisve semelve fuit.
+  Moverat ingenium totam cantata per urbem
+    nomine non vero dicta Corinna mihi.
+  Multa quidem scripsi; sed quae vitiosa putavi,
+    emendaturis ignibus ipse dedi.'
+
+The lament for Tibullus (iii. 9) must have been written in Ovid's
+twenty-fourth year.
+
+2. _Heroides_.--Some of these at least were written before the second
+edition of the _Amores_, for in _Am._ ii. 18, 21-6 nine of them are
+mentioned by name. The title _Heroides_ is due to the grammarian
+Priscian; in the MSS. they are called _Epistulae_, and so Ovid himself
+refers to them, _A.A._ iii. 345,
+
+  'Vel tibi composita cantetur epistula voce:
+    ignotum hoc aliis ille novavit opus.'
+
+Of the twenty letters in our collection 1-14 are letters from heroines
+to their lovers; 15-20 are in pairs, _e.g._ Paris to Helen and Helen
+to Paris. The authenticity of these last six is doubted, partly
+because the title _Heroides_ cannot apply to half of them, and also
+because of their inferiority in style. In the use of the epistolary
+form in love poetry Ovid had no predecessor, and he himself calls
+attention to the novelty (_A.A._ above). The style shows the influence
+of Ovid's rhetorical training: the Epistles are _suasoriae_ in verse,
+and of _suasoriae_ we know that he was particularly fond (Sen.
+_Contr._ ii. 10, 12, 'Declamabat Naso raro controversias et non nisi
+ethicas: libentius dicebat suasorias. Molesta illi erat omnis
+argumentatio.'). His matter he would naturally draw from Homer, the
+_Cypria_, Apollonius Rhodius, and the Greek tragedians.
+
+3. Between the two editions of the _Amores_ he wrote the lost tragedy
+_Medea_. It was later than _Am._ iii. 1, where he pictures the Muses
+of Elegy and Tragedy as contending for his homage, and he finally
+decides (ll. 67-8),
+
+  'Exiguum vati concede, Tragoedia, tempus:
+  tu labor aeternus; quod petit illa breve est.'
+
+On the other hand, it was earlier than _Am._ ii. 18, 13,
+
+  'Sceptra tamen sumpsi, curaque tragoedia nostra
+    crevit, et huic operi quamlibet aptus eram.'
+
+The drama enjoyed a high reputation in antiquity. Cf. Quint. x. 1, 98,
+'Ovidii Medea videtur mihi ostendere, quantum ille vir praestare
+potuerit, si ingenio suo imperare quam indulgere maluisset.'
+
+4. _Medicamina Faciei Femineae_, an incomplete poem of 100 lines,
+giving directions for the toilet. Cf. _A.A._ iii. 205,
+
+  'Est mihi, quo dixi vestrae medicamina formae,
+    parvus, sed cura grande, libellus, opus.'
+
+5. _Ars Amatoria_, a didactic poem in three Books, on the art of
+love-intrigue. The title given by the MSS. is doubtless correct: Ovid
+himself speaks of 'ars amandi,' or simply 'ars' or 'artes.' It was
+written about B.C. 2, from the allusion, i. 171, to the 'naumachia' in
+that year,
+
+  'Quid, modo cum belli navalis imagine Caesar
+    Persidas induxit Cecropiasque rates?'
+
+The _Ars_ must have been in view when he wrote _Am._ ii. 18, 19,
+
+  'Quod licet, aut artes teneri profitemur amoris--
+    ei mihi, praeceptis urgeor ipse meis!'
+
+6. _Remedia Amoris_, written next, while professing to be a
+recantation of the last-named work, exhibits, if possible, a more
+immoral tone. Cf. l. 487,
+
+  'Quaeris, ubi invenias? artes, i, perlege nostras.'
+
+7. Ovid now produced a work of greater compass, the _Metamorphoses_,
+in fifteen Books of heroic verse. When it was composed is not known,
+but he had the idea of it in his mind when he wrote _Am._ iii. 12,
+21-40. At the time of his banishment the poem had been written, but
+not revised. He committed his MS. to the flames, but copies were in
+the hands of friends; _Tr._ i. 7, 13-16,
+
+  'Carmina mutatas hominum dicentia formas,
+    infelix domini quod fuga rupit opus.
+  Haec ego discedens, sicut bene multa meorum,
+    ipse mea posui maestus in igne manu.
+
+  Quae quoniam non sunt penitus sublata, sed extant,      (l. 23)
+    pluribus exemplis scripta fuisse reor.
+
+  Ablatum mediis opus est incudibus illud,                (l. 29)
+    defuit et scriptis ultima lima meis.'
+
+The poem consists of a collection of stories of the transformation of
+human beings into animals. Cf. i. 1,
+
+  'In nova fert animus mutatas dicere formas
+  corpora.'
+
+The idea, title, and much of the subject-matter was borrowed from the
+Alexandrians, _e.g._ the +Metamorph�seis+ of Parthenius, the
++Heteroioumena+ of Nicander.
+
+8. In the _Fasti_, in six Books, Ovid furnishes a poetical calendar of
+the Roman year. Each month has a Book allotted to it, and he speaks of
+having written twelve Books; _Tr._ ii. 549,
+
+  'Sex ego Fastorum scripsi totidemque libellos,
+    cumque suo finem mense volumen habet.
+  Idque tuo nuper scriptum sub nomine, Caesar,
+    et tibi sacratum sors mea rupit opus.'
+
+Probably the second six Books were never completed; but there are
+references to portions of them, _e.g._ iii. 57,
+
+  'Vester honos veniet, cum Larentalia dicam;
+    acceptus Geniis illa December habet.'
+
+The _Fasti_ had been written side by side with the _Metam._ and
+interrupted at the sixth Book by Ovid's banishment. During his exile
+he added some passages, but found that his Muse was fit only for
+melancholy themes; iv. 81,
+
+  'Sulmonis gelidi--patriae, Germanice, nostrae--
+    me miserum, Scythico quam procul illa solo est!'
+
+i. 540,
+
+  'Felix, exilium cui locus ille fuit!'
+
+The design is stated at the outset, i. 1-8,
+
+  'Tempora cum causis Latium digesta per annum
+    lapsaque sub terras ortaque signa canam ...
+  Sacra recognosces annalibus eruta priscis,
+    et quo sit merito quaeque notata dies.'
+
+The work is thus a medley of religion, history, and astrology, and in
+its explanations of customs may be compared to the +Aitia+ of
+Callimachus. For information about religious rites, and for
+derivations of names (_e.g._ _Agnalia_, i. 317-332), he would have
+recourse to Varro; for history, to Livy (cf. ii. 193-242, the story of
+the Fabii, from Livy, ii. 49, and vi. 587, etc., the story of Tullia,
+from Livy, i. 48); for astronomy, to Clodius Tuscus.
+
+It was begun some time after Augustus regulated the Julian calendar in
+B.C. 8, and was originally addressed to Augustus, as Ovid himself says
+(_Tr._ ii. 552 above); 'Caesar' is addressed ii. 15, vi. 763, and
+elsewhere. After the death of Augustus, Ovid began to remodel it and
+dedicate it to Germanicus. Cf. i. 3,
+
+  'Excipe pacato, Caesar Germanice, voltu
+    hoc opus et timidae dirige navis iter.'
+
+But the task was stopped by his death; and while Book i. has the
+remodelled form, Books ii.-vi. remain as first written.
+
+_Poems written in exile._--9. _Tristia_, five Books of letters to
+Augustus, to Ovid's wife and friends (who, however, are not named),
+praying for pardon or for a place of exile nearer Rome. Book i. was
+written on the journey to Tomi, the other books not after A.D. 11 or
+12, Cf. v. 10, 1,
+
+  'Ut sumus in Ponto, ter frigore constitit Hister.'
+
+10. The _Ibis_ was written at the beginning of his exile. Cf. l. 1,
+
+  'Tempus ad hoc, lustris bis iam mihi quinque peractis.'
+
+The title was taken from the poem in which Callimachus attacked
+Apollonius Rhodius under the name of Ibis. Cf. l. 55,
+
+  'Nunc, quo Battiades inimicum devovet Ibin,
+  hoc ego devoveo teque tuosque modo.'
+
+Ovid studiously conceals the identity of the enemy whom he attacks; l.
+61,
+
+  'Et quoniam, qui sis, nondum quaerentibus edo,
+  Ibidis interea tu quoque nomen habe.'
+
+He had once been a friend of the poet, but had proved false to him,
+doubtless in connexion with the circumstances which caused his
+banishment; cf. l. 85, 'capiti male fido,' l. 130, 'perfide.' He
+persecuted Ovid's wife, and tried to get possession of his property.
+
+The conjectures that the unknown was Messalla Corvinus or the poet
+Manilius may be dismissed at once. Many hold that Hyginus is meant;
+Prof. Ellis suggests the _delator_ Cassius Severus (Tac. _Ann._ iv.
+21), or T. Labienus (Sen. _Contr._ x. praef. 4), or the astrologer
+Thrasyllus (Tac. _Ann._ vi. 20). To the same person probably are
+addressed _Tr._ iii. 11, iv. 9, v. 8; _Pont._ iv. 3.
+
+11. The _Epistulae ex Ponto_, in four Books, were written A.D. 12-16.
+In tone they resemble the _Tristia_, but the composition is more
+careless, and the friends to whom he writes are mentioned by name.
+
+12. _Halieuticon_, a poem on fish, in hexameters, in a fragmentary
+condition. Ovid wrote this towards the end of his life.
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ xxxii. 152, 'His adiciemus ab Ovidio posita nomina quae
+apud neminem alium reperiuntur, sed fortassis in Ponto nascentium, ubi
+id volumen supremis suis temporibus incohavit.'
+
+
+
+MANILIUS.
+
+
+Manilius is not mentioned by any other writer, and his own poem gives
+no particulars of his life. There is uncertainty even as to the true
+form of his name, the MSS. giving variously M. Mallius, Manlius, or
+Manilius, with the addition in one case of EQOM (probably = equitis
+Romani). In some MSS. the poem is wrongly attributed to Aratus or
+Boetius, both of whom wrote on the same subject as Manilius.
+
+Bentley conjectured that Manilius was an Asiatic Greek, but the poet
+speaks of Latin as 'nostra lingua' (ii. 889), while Greek is 'externa
+lingua' (iii. 40), and he uses no Greek constructions.
+
+His poem, the _Astronomica_, in its present form, consists of five
+Books of hexameter verse: probably a sixth Book has been lost. It may
+have been wholly composed in the reign of Tiberius, or begun under
+Augustus. Book v. was written under Tiberius, if the burning of
+Pompey's theatre in A.D. 22 is alluded to in ll. 513-515. The earlier
+Books contain nothing which might not have been written after the
+death of Augustus--the allusions to the disaster of Varus in A.D. 9
+(i. 899), and to the sojourn of Tiberius at Rhodes (iv. 764). Either
+Augustus or Tiberius may be the 'Caesar' of i. 7 and i. 386. On the
+other hand, if Ovid is referring to Manilius (as Prof. Ellis suggests)
+in _Tr._ ii. 485,
+
+  'Ecce canit formas alius iactusque pilarum,
+  hic artem nandi praecipit, ille trochi,'
+
+it would follow that the whole poem had been published before the
+death of Augustus, for the descriptions of ball-play and swimming
+occur in v. 165-171 and 420-431.
+
+Astronomy is treated only in Book i.; the rest of the poem is devoted
+to astrology. This is in accordance with the author's statement of his
+theme (i. 1-3), which he was the first Roman to treat in verse (i. 4,
+113, ii. 57). As his object is to convey instruction rather than to
+give pleasure (iii. 36-39), he does not scruple to use Greek technical
+terms (ii. 693, 829, 897, iii. 40). The subject does not lend itself
+readily to verse (i. 20, iii. 31), and the poem is intolerably dry,
+except the introductions to each Book, which reveal considerable
+poetical power. The chief peculiarities of Manilius' language are his
+strange use of prepositions and his fondness for alliteration;
+imitations of Virgil are found throughout.
+
+Manilius is a fatalist (iv. 14 and 22): still fate does not abolish
+the moral quality of actions (iv. 108-118). The universe is directed
+by a 'vis animae divina' or 'divinum numen' (i. 250, 491).
+
+
+
+LIVY.
+
+
+There is no ancient biography of Livy, and very little light is thrown
+on his life by his own writings or by allusions in other authors.
+
+Titus Livius was born at Patavium (the modern Padua) B.C. 59: Jerome
+yr. Abr. 1958, 'T. Livius Patavinus scriptor historicus nascitur.'
+(The Armenian version gives _Ol._ 180, 4 = B.C. 57.) Near Patavium
+there was a famous sulphur spring known as Aponus or Aponi fons,
+whence Martial calls the district Apona tellus (i. 61, 3, 'Censetur
+Apona Livio suo tellus'). There is no reason to suppose from this that
+Livy's birthplace was not Patavium itself, but a village Aponus, which
+is nowhere mentioned. Statius (_Silv._ iv. 7, 55) calls him 'Timavi
+alumnus.' For Livy's acquaintance with Patavium cf. x. 2, 14 and 15.
+
+From his tone we may infer that he came of a good family, and he must
+have possessed a fair income. The charge against his style of
+_Patavinitas_ implies that he spent a considerable part of his life in
+his native town, but he probably settled at Rome about B.C. 30. That
+he took no part in public life is clear from his own words: i. praef.
+5, 'Hoc laboris praemium petam, ut me a conspectu malorum, quae nostra
+tot per annos vidit aetas, tantisper certe, dum prisca illa tota mente
+repeto, avertam, omnis expers curae, quae scribentis animum etsi non
+flectere a vero, sollicitum tamen efficere posset.'
+
+He enjoyed the intimacy of Augustus, whom he himself mentions, iv. 20,
+7, 'hoc ego cum Augustum Caesarem ... se ipsum ... legisse audissem.'
+Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34, 'T. Livius, eloquentiae ac fidei praeclarus in
+primis, Cn. Pompeium tantis laudibus tulit, ut Pompeianum eum Augustus
+appellaret; neque id amicitiae eorum offecit.' It was at Livy's
+suggestion that the future emperor, Claudius, started to compose a
+history: Sueton. _Claud._ 41, 'historiam in adulescentia, hortante T.
+Livio, Sulpicio vero Flavo etiam adiuvante, scribere adgressus est.'
+On the other hand, Caligula would have liked to remove Livy's writings
+and his bust from all the libraries, calling him 'verbosum in historia
+neglegentemque' (Sueton. _Calig._ 34).
+
+Nothing more is known of his life, except that he visited Campania,
+xxxviii. 56, 3, 'Nam et Literni monumentum monumentoque statua
+superimposita fuit, quam tempestate disiectam nuper vidimus ipsi.'
+
+He died at his native town, A.D. 17: Jerome yr. Abr. 2033, 'Livius
+historicus Patavii moritur.'
+
+He had at least one son (Quint. x. 1, 39, 'apud Livium in epistula ad
+filium scripta'), and one daughter (Sen. _Contr._ x. praef. 2, 'L.
+Magius gener T. Livi').
+
+Livy wrote philosophical works, probably popular treatises like
+Cicero's, some of them in the form of dialogues.
+
+Sen. _Ep._ 100, 9, 'Nomina adhuc T. Livium. Scripsit enim et dialogos,
+quos non magis philosophiae adnumerare possis quam historiae, et ex
+professo philosophiam continentis libros.'
+
+A book on rhetoric was known to Quintilian and Seneca the elder,
+apparently in the form of a letter addressed to the author's son
+(Quint. x. 1, 39, above).
+
+Quint. ii. 5, 20, 'quemadmodum Livius praecipit' (on models of style);
+Sen. _Contr._ ix. 2, 26, 'Livius de oratoribus ... aiebat' (on
+obscurity of expression); Sen. _Contr._ ix. 1, 14, 'T. Livius tam
+iniquus Sallustio fuit ut hanc ipsam sententiam ... obiceret
+Sallustio.'
+
+These minor works have perished, and of his great history only a
+portion survives.
+
+Its title, according to the oldest MSS., the summaries of the lost
+Books, and the grammarians, was _Ab urbe condita libri_; and this is
+corroborated by Livy's own language: i. praef. 1, 'si a primordio urbis
+res populi Romani perscripserim'; and by Pliny, _N.H._ praef. 16, 'T.
+Livium ... in historiarum suarum, quas repetit ab origine urbis,
+quodam volumine.' Livy refers to it loosely as _meos annales_ (xliii.
+13, 2). Separate parts may have had special titles: thus Books
+cix-cxvi. were known as _Civilis belli libri_ viii. (Codex Nazarenus
+of the Periochae).
+
+The number of Books now extant is thirty-five, viz., i.-x., which
+carry the history down to B.C. 293, and xxi.-xlv., covering the period
+B.C. 218-167. Of these xli. and xliii. are incomplete. But we possess
+summaries (_Periochae_ or _Argumenta_) of Books i.-cxlii., except
+cxxxvi. and cxxxvii., which show that the narrative was continued to
+the death of Drusus in B.C. 9. There is no evidence that it actually
+went further; but as the death of Drusus is hardly an event of
+sufficient importance to form the conclusion of so great a work, it
+has been thought that Livy may have intended to finish with the death
+of Augustus--the point from which Tacitus starts. The total number of
+Books would then have been probably one hundred and fifty.
+
+The division into Books (_libri_ or _volumina_) is due to the author:
+vi. 1, 1, 'quae ab condita urbe Romani gessere quinque libris
+exposui.' The division into decades (_i.e._ sets of ten Books) is
+first mentioned towards the end of the fifth century; it is merely a
+conventional arrangement, the subject-matter falling naturally into
+sets of fifteen Books, which again sometimes embrace three
+sub-divisions each a half-decade, or two, a half-decade and a decade.
+
+An epitome was known to Martial, xiv. 190,
+
+  'Pellibus exiguis artatur Livius ingens,
+    quem mea non totum bibliotheca capit.'
+
+The evidence of the date of composition is as follows:
+
+(_a_) i. 19, 3, 'Bis deinde post Numae regnum [Ianus] clausus fuit,
+semel T. Manlio consule post Punicum primum perfectum bellum, iterum,
+quod nostrae aetati dei dederunt ut videremus, post bellum Actiacum ab
+imperatore Caesare Augusto pace terra marique parta.' Now, as the
+first closing of the temple of Janus by Augustus was in B.C. 29, and
+as Livy is silent as to the second closing after the Cantabrian war in
+25, it follows that this passage was written B.C. 29-25. The use of
+the title Augustus, conferred on Octavian in 27, puts the earliest
+possible date two years later. The history therefore was not begun
+before B.C. 27.
+
+(_b_) ix. 36, 1, 'Silva erat Ciminia magis tum invia atque horrenda
+quam nuper fuere Germanici saltus.' In this Niebuhr found an allusion
+to the campaigns of Drusus, B.C. 12-9, and accordingly assumed that
+the first decade was not published till B.C. 9. But the passage may
+equally well refer to earlier campaigns, _e.g._ of Julius Caesar. Nor
+can it be shown that the history of Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
+published B.C. 7, was used by Livy for Books viii.-x. Book ix. must
+have been written before B.C. 20, or Livy would have mentioned the
+recovery of the standards from the Parthians in ix. 18, 9.
+
+(_c_) xxviii. 12, 12, 'Hispania prima Romanis inita provinciarum, quae
+quidem continentis sint, postrema omnium nostra demum aetate ductu
+auspicioque Augusti Caesaris perdomita.' This was written not earlier
+than B.C. 19, if it refers to Agrippa's victory over the Cantabrians.
+
+(_d_) Book lix. mentioned the _lex de maritandis ordinibus_, and
+consequently cannot have been earlier than B.C. 18.
+
+(_e_) The books in which Pompeius figured were composed in the
+lifetime of Augustus (Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34, above).
+
+(_f_) Book cxxi., according to the oldest MS. of the Periochae, was
+published after the death of Augustus; so doubtless were the remaining
+Books (A.D. 14-17).
+
+A work of such compass, and occupying so many years of the author's
+life, would naturally be published in sections. This _a priori_ view
+is corroborated by several considerations: (_a_) There are separate
+prefaces to various sections (vi. 1; xxi. 1; xxxi. 1); (_b_) Livy's
+style was censured[70] by Asinius Pollio, who died A.D. 5; (_c_)
+Augustus was acquainted with Livy's sympathetic treatment of Pompeius
+(see above); (_d_) Livy had great fame in his lifetime: Pliny, _Ep._
+ii. 3, 8, 'Numquamne legisti Gaditanum quemdam T. Livi nomine
+gloriaque commotum ad visendum eum ab ultimo terrarum orbe venisse
+statimque ut viderat abisse?'
+
+The historians from whom Livy derived his materials, and whom he
+himself mentions are: _Fabius Pictor_ (i. 44, 2, etc.). Livy refers to
+him six times, but it may be questioned whether he used him at
+first-hand. More probably he took his opinions on the authority of
+later annalists like Macer, Antias, and Tubero. _Cincius Alimentus_
+(xxi. 38, 3): the Cincius quoted in vii. 3, 7, may be the same, or an
+antiquarian of the Ciceronian or Augustan age; _Cato_ (xxxiv. 15, 9);
+_Calpurnius Piso_ (xxv. 39, 15); _Coelius Antipater_ (xxix. 25, 3);
+_Claudius Quadrigarius_ (vi. 42, 5, etc.); _Valerius Antias_, quoted
+thirty-five times--far more frequently than any other authority;
+_Licinius Macer_; _Aelius Tubero_ (iv. 23, 1); _Clodius Licinus_
+(xxix. 22, 10); _Rutilius_ (xxxix. 52, 1); _Polybius_; _Silenus_
+(xxvi. 49, 3), a Greek, whose account of the Second Punic War was
+favourable to the Carthaginians.
+
+A criticism of Livy's use of these sources is impossible, except in
+the case of Polybius, all the others having perished. His tone in
+alluding to the Greek historian is remarkable for its coldness: xxx.
+45, 5, 'Polybius haudquaquam spernendus auctor'; cf. xxxiii. 10, 8.
+Although Polybius is not mentioned till Book xxx., he was undoubtedly
+used throughout the third decade, as well as in the fourth and fifth.
+Livy follows him very closely. Where Livy differs from Polybius he is
+probably following the account of Coelius Antipater, who is his
+leading authority for the Second Punic War.
+
+Livy is not careful to reconcile his sources, and so frequently
+contradicts himself. His way of explaining a discrepancy between his
+authorities is by striking an average (xxvi. 49, 6, 'si aliquis
+adsentiri necesse est, media simillima veris sunt'). His irresolution
+was noted by Quintilian, ii. 4, 19, 'saepe quaeri solet de tempore, de
+loco, quo gesta res dicitur, nonnumquam de persona quoque, sicut
+Livius frequentissime dubitat.' This of course has its good side: it
+saves him from dogmatizing on uncertain points, and he has a hearty
+appreciation of the confusion in his authorities: xxxvii. 34, 5, 'is
+ubi et quando et quo casu captus sit, sicut pleraque alia, parum inter
+auctores constat.' He recognizes the value of contemporary evidence:
+xxii. 7, 4, 'Fabium aequalem temporibus huiusce belli potissimum
+auctorem habui'; xxi. 38, 3, 'L. Cincius Alimentus, qui captum se ab
+Hannibale scribit, maxime auctor moveret.' Criticism of his
+authorities is most conspicuous in the case of Valerius Antias, whom
+at first he followed in good faith; he condemns him again and again
+for exaggeration and credulity, _e.g._ xxxiii. 10, 8, 'si Valerio qui
+credat, omnium rerum immodice numerum augenti'; xxxix. 43, 1,
+'Valerius Antias, ut qui nec orationem Catonis legisset et fabulae
+tantum sine auctore editae credidisset.' He also recognizes the bias
+of Licinius Macer: vii. 9, 5, 'quaesita ea propriae familiae laus
+leviorem auctorem Licinium facit.' For the untrustworthiness of family
+records, cf. viii. 40, 4, 'vitiatam memoriam funebribus laudibus reor
+falsisque imaginum titulis, dum familiae ad se quaeque famam rerum
+gestarum honorumque fallenti mendacio trahunt.'
+
+Livy often refers to authorities whom he does not name: 'invenio apud
+quosdam,' 'satis constat'; and to tradition: 'fama est,' 'dicitur,'
+'fertur,' 'traditur.' Tradition was the sole source for events prior
+to the sack of Rome by the Gauls, cf. vi. 12, 2 _sqq._
+
+There is no trace in Livy of any use of original documents.
+
+He constantly resists the temptation to digress from his proper theme:
+_e.g._ xxxix. 48, 6, 'cuius belli et causas et ordinem si expromere
+velim, immemor sim propositi, quo statui non ultra attingere externa,
+nisi qua Romanis cohaererent rebus.'
+
+In spite of his love of truth (xxii. 7, 4, 'nihil haustum ex vano
+velim, quo nimis inclinant ferme scribentium animi': cf. Tac. _Ann._
+iv. 34, 'fidei praeclarus'), partiality blinds him to the faults of
+his own countrymen, and he fails to do justice to opponents like the
+Samnites and Carthaginians.
+
+In dealing with the legendary period he admits that his narrative has
+no trustworthy foundation, and gives it merely for what it is worth:
+Praef. 6, 'Quae ante conditam condendamve urbem poeticis magis decora
+fabulis quam incorruptis rerum gestarum monumentis traduntur, ea nec
+adfirmare nec refellere in animo est. Datur haec venia antiquitati, ut
+miscendo humana divinis primordia urbium augustiora faciat.'
+
+The numerous speeches exemplify Livy's rhetorical tendency,
+representing what he thought the speaker would have said under the
+given circumstances: iii. 67, 1, 'ibi in hanc sententiam locutum
+accipio.'
+
+His power of describing character is noted by Seneca, _Suas._ vi. 21,
+'Quoties magni alicuius viri mors ab historicis narrata est, toties
+fere consummatio totius vitae et quasi funebris laudatio redditur. Hoc
+... T. Livius benignius omnibus magnis viris praestitit.'
+
+_Religion and morality._--Livy believes in the influence of the gods
+on human affairs: ix. 1, 11, 'cum rerum humanarum maximum momentum
+sit, quam propitiis rem, quam adversis agant dis.' Superior to the
+gods is _necessitas_ (ix. 4, 16), and _fortuna_ is also powerful (ix.
+17, 3; v. 37, 1). He condemns the irreligion of his own day (x. 40,
+10, 'iuvenis ante doctrinam deos spernentem natus'), cf. iii. 20, 5;
+viii. 11, 1. He retains the old belief in prodigies and portents,
+every war being introduced by a list of them, but recognizes that many
+reported instances were fictitious: xxi. 62, 1, 'Multa ea hieme
+prodigia facta, aut, quod evenire solet motis semel in religionem
+animis, multa nuntiata et temere credita sunt.'
+
+He condemns the vices of his own age, and lauds the old Romans: Praef.
+12, 'Nuper divitiae avaritiam et abundantes voluptates desiderium per
+luxum atque libidinem pereundi perdendique omnia invexere.'
+
+_Politics._--Livy is an aristocrat, with a poor opinion of the lower
+orders: _e.g._ xxiv. 25, 8, 'Ea natura multitudinis est: aut servit
+humiliter aut superbe dominatur; libertatem, quae media est, nec
+cupere modice nec habere sciunt.' His political attitude is influenced
+to a great extent by the earlier historians, who had mostly been on
+the aristocratic side. Yet he is not a defender of the aristocratic
+party through thick and thin; and though he admired the character of
+some leading republicans, there can be no question of his loyalty to
+the Empire. Cf. Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34, 'Scipionem, Afranium, hunc ipsum
+Cassium, hunc Brutum nusquam latrones et parricidas, quae nunc
+vocabula imponuntur, saepe ut insignes viros nominat.'
+
+Livy's view of Caesar is quoted by Seneca, _N.Q._ v. 18, 4, 'in
+incerto esse utrum illum nasci magis rei publicae profuerit, an non
+nasci?'
+
+_Contemporaries of Livy._--1. _Pompeius Trogus_, whose history is
+known to us only through the abridgment made by M. Iunianus Iustinus,
+probably in the time of the Antonines. Trogus was of Gallic descent.
+His grandfather had received the Roman _civitas_ from Pompey; his
+father was one of Caesar's officers, and is possibly to be identified
+with the Cn. Pompeius of Caes. _B.G._ v. 36 (Iustin. xliii. 5, 11).
+His chief work, _Historiae Philippicae_, in forty-four Books, was
+concerned chiefly with the history of Macedonia and the Diadochi; but
+it embraced also the empires of the East and the history of Greece
+down to the time of Philip, as well as Parthia, Spain, Carthage, and
+the early history of Rome.
+
+2. _Fenestella_, who died, according to Jerome, in A.D. 19 at the age
+of seventy. Nothing is known of his life, or of the poems which Jerome
+attributes to him; but he certainly wrote _Annales_ (Nonius, p. 154).
+He is also quoted as an authority on miscellaneous antiquarian and
+constitutional points.
+
+3. _M. Verrius Flaccus_, tutor to the grandsons of Augustus (Sueton.
+_Gramm._ 17), was the author of _Fasti_, fragments of which have been
+discovered near Praeneste, and which were used by Ovid for his poem of
+that name. Of Verrius' grammatical works, the greatest was that
+entitled _De verborum significatu_ (Gell. v. 17, 1), arranged
+alphabetically. It is lost, but we possess part of an abridgment (nine
+out of sixteen Books) made by _Sex. Pompeius Festus_ before the third
+century A.D. The abridgment of Festus was in turn epitomized by
+_Paulus Diaconus_ in the time of Charlemagne, and his work is extant
+in a complete form.
+
+4. _C. Iulius Hyginus_, a freedman of Augustus and librarian of the
+Palatine library (Sueton. _Gramm._ 20), wrote _De vita rebusque
+illustrium virorum_ (Gell. i. 14, 1); _Exempla_ (Gell. x. 18, 7); _De
+situ urbium Italicarum_ (Serv. _ad Verg. Aen._ iii. 553); _De familiis
+Troianis_ (ibid. v. 389); theological works, _e.g._ _De dis Penatibus_
+(Macrob. _Saturn._ iii. 4, 13); commentaries on Virgil and Helvius
+Cinna; and _De Agricultura_, a treatise to which Virgil was indebted
+(Colum. i. 1, 13). The Hyginus who wrote _Fabulae_ and _De Astrologia_
+probably lived in the second century A.D.
+
+
+
+VITRUVIUS.
+
+
+Vitruvius Pollio (the cognomen appears only in the abridgment of his
+book) served under Caesar in Africa B.C. 46; viii. 3, 25, 'C. Iulius
+Masinissae filius ... cum patre Caesari militavit. Is hospitio meo est
+usus. Ita cottidiano convictu necesse fuerat de philologia disputare ...'
+
+Under Augustus he was an officer of engineers, and was enabled to
+spend the rest of his life in comfort through the liberality of that
+prince and his sister Octavia: i. praef. 2, 'Cum M. Aurelio et P.
+Minidio et Cn. Cornelio ad apparationem ballistarum et scorpionum
+reliquorumque tormentorum refectionem fui praesto et cum eis commoda
+accepi. Quae cum primo mihi tribuisti, recognitionem per sororis
+commendationem servasti. Cum ergo eo beneficio essem obligatus, ut ad
+exitum vitae non haberem inopiae timorem ...'
+
+He wrote the treatise _De Architectura_, in ten Books, when he was no
+longer young (ii. praef. 4, 'faciem deformavit aetas'), between the
+years B.C. 16 and 13. The temple of Quirinus, mentioned iii. 2, 7, was
+built in the former year; and he speaks of only one stone theatre in
+Rome (iii. 2, 2), whereas in B.C. 13 there were three.
+
+The arrangement of the subject-matter is as follows: Book i., sciences
+on which architecture is based, chief divisions of the subject, choice
+of site, and method of laying out a town; ii., building materials; iii.,
+temples--Ionic order; iv., Doric and Corinthian orders; v., public
+buildings, _e.g._, forum, theatre; vi., private houses--construction;
+vii., decoration; viii., water-supply; ix., methods of measuring time,
+_e.g._, sun-dials; x., engines and machines used in war and in the arts.
+
+The work is dedicated to Augustus, who is addressed throughout, and is
+meant to be of practical use to him in his building operations.
+
+The body of the work is severely technical; the introductions to the
+Books are in a more ambitious style. Vitruvius writes as a
+professional man, not as a scholar: i. 1, 17, 'Non uti summus
+philosophus nec rhetor disertus nec grammaticus summis rationibus
+artis exercitatus, sed ut architectus his litteris imbutus haec nisus
+sum scribere.' He freely confesses his obligations to Greek authors,
+whom he enumerates vii. praef. 10-14. Diagrams were appended to the
+text: i. 6, 12, 'Quoniam haec a nobis sunt breviter exposita, ut
+facilius intellegantur visum est mihi in extremo volumine formas, sive
+uti Graeci +sch�mata+ dicunt duo explicare.'
+
+
+
+SENECA THE ELDER.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Annaeus Seneca (for the praenomen Marcus, usually given, there is no
+authority: in the best MSS. it is Lucius, possibly through confusion
+with his son) was a native of Corduba: Mart. i. 62, 7,
+
+  'Duosque Senecas unicumque Lucanum
+    facunda loquitur Corduba.'
+
+The date of his birth is probably about B.C. 55, for he was old enough
+to have heard Cicero if the civil wars had not prevented him leaving
+his native town: _Contr._ i. praef. 11, 'Omnes magni in eloquentia
+nominis excepto Cicerone videor audisse: ne Ciceronem quidem aetas
+mihi eripuerat, sed bellorum civilium furor, qui tunc orbem totum
+pervagabatur, intra coloniam meam me continuit.'
+
+He was of equestrian rank; cf. the speech of Seneca the younger, Tac.
+_Ann._ xiv. 53, 'Egone, equestri et provinciali loco ortus, proceribus
+civitatis adnumeror?'
+
+Most of his life appears to have been spent in Rome, where alone he
+could have acquired his vast knowledge of contemporary rhetoric.
+Together with his countryman Porcius Latro, he attended the lectures
+of the rhetorician Marullus: _Contr._ i. praef. 22, 'Hoc Latro meus
+faciebat, ut sententias amaret. Cum condiscipuli essemus apud Marullum
+rhetorem ...' Asinius Pollio he had heard at two different periods:
+_Contr._ iv. praef. 3, 'audivi illum et viridem et postea iam senem.'
+
+Seneca's wife was Helvia, whose noble character is described by her
+son (_ad Helv._ 14, 3; 16, 3): by her he had three sons, M. Annaeus
+Novatus, L. Annaeus Seneca, and M. Annaeus Mela.
+
+He survived Tiberius; for (1) he alludes to events which happened
+after his reign, (2) Sueton. _Tib._ 73, quotes from 'Seneca' an
+account of the death of Tiberius, and we know that the elder Seneca
+wrote history: that his son did likewise there is nothing to show.
+Hence he was alive after A.D. 37. On the other hand, he was dead
+before his son's exile in A.D. 43, for Sen. _ad Helv._ 2, 5, after
+enumerating the calamities which had befallen his mother--among them
+his father's death--concludes with the words 'raptum me audisti: hoc
+adhuc defuerat tibi, lugere vivos.'
+
+Seneca was a man of stern character: for his old-world views and
+dislike of innovation cf. his son's words (_ad Helv._ 17, 3), 'Patris
+mei antiquus rigor ... Virorum optimus, pater meus, maiorum
+consuetudini deditus.' He disapproved of the higher education of
+women, 'propter istas quae litteris non ad sapientiam utuntur, sed ad
+luxuriam instruuntur.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+The only extant works of Seneca are _Oratorum et Rhetorum Sententiae,
+Divisiones, Colores Controversiarum et Suasoriarum_.
+
+1. The _Controversiae_ were written at the request of his three sons,
+but were intended for a wider circle of readers: i. praef. 10,
+'Quaecumque a celeberrimis viris facunde dicta teneo, ne ad quemquam
+privatim pertineant, populo dedicabo.' Seneca here gives a criticism
+of the rhetoricians of his time, with specimens of the style of each:
+i. praef. 1, 'Exigitis rem magis iucundam mihi quam facilem; iubetis
+enim quid de his declamatoribus sentiam qui in aetatem meam inciderunt
+indicare, et si qua memoriae meae nondum elapsa sunt ab illis dicta
+colligere, ut quamvis notitiae vestrae subducti sint, tamen non
+credatis tantum de illis, sed et iudicetis.' The specimens are given
+from memory, and the arrangement is not systematic: i. praef. 4,
+'Illud necesse est impetrem, ne me quasi certum aliquem ordinem
+velitis sequi in contrahendis quae mihi occurrent.' Seneca treats only
+of those rhetoricians whom his sons had not themselves heard: i.
+praef. 4, 'Neque de his me interrogatis quos ipsi audistis, sed de his
+qui ad vos usque non pervenerunt.' His hero is Cicero, since whose
+time oratory has steadily degenerated: i. praef. 11, 'Illud ingenium
+quod solum populus Romanus par imperio suo habuit'; _ibid._ 7, 'Omnia
+ingenia quae lucem studiis nostris attulerunt tunc nata sunt: in
+deterius deinde cottidie data res est.'
+
+Of the ten Books of _Controversiae_ only five have come down to us,
+viz., i., ii., vii., ix., and x. The deficiency is to some extent
+supplied by an abridgment (_Excerpta_) made in the fourth or fifth
+century A.D., which adds thirty-nine themes to the thirty-five
+contained in the surviving part of the original work. Each Book had a
+separate preface. Those to v., vi., and viii. are entirely wanting;
+for the prefaces to ii., iii., and iv. we are indebted to the
+abridgment.
+
+The _Controversiae_ were written when Seneca was an old man, and when
+his two elder sons were preparing for public life, probably about A.D.
+20: x. praef. 1, 'Sinite me ab istis iuvenilibus studiis ad senectutem
+meam reverti'; ii. praef. 4 (to Mela), 'Fratribus tuis ambitiosa curae
+sunt foroque se et honoribus parant.'
+
+As to the date of publication, it has been argued[71] that they
+appeared after the fall of Seianus and before the death of Mamercus
+Scaurus, _i.e._, between A.D. 31 and 34. Probably, however, the
+publication did not take place till after the death of Tiberius, A.D.
+37; the protest against the burning of books (x. praef. 6-7) would
+have been as offensive to him as to Seianus.
+
+2. There is only one book of _Suasoriae_, and the beginning of it is
+lost. It gives specimens of the treatment of seven themes, _e.g._, 3,
+'Deliberat Agamemnon an Iphigeniam immolet negante Calchante aliter
+navigari fas esse.' It is certainly later than the _Controversiae_:
+_Contr._ ii. 4, 8, 'Quae dixerit suo loco reddam, cum ad suasorias
+venero.' One passage cannot have been written before A.D. 34: 2, 22,
+'Scaurum Mamercum, in quo Scaurorum familia exstincta est.' It was not
+published in the lifetime of Tiberius, for Seneca calls the accuser of
+Scaurus 'homo quam improbi animi tam infelicis ingenii' (2, 22), and
+quotes Cremutius Cordus (6, 19) whose books had been burned in
+Tiberius' time.
+
+3. Seneca wrote also on Roman history from the commencement of the
+civil wars to his own time, but left the work of publication to his
+son.
+
+L. Seneca _de vita patris_ (Haase, vol. iii. p. 436), 'Si quaecumque
+composuit pater meus et edi voluit iam in manus populi emisissem, ad
+claritatem nominis sui satis sibi ipsi prospexerat ... Quisquis
+legisset eius historias ab initio bellorum civilium, unde primum
+veritas retro abiit, paene usque ad mortis suae diem,' etc.
+
+
+
+Footnotes to Chapter III
+
+
+[41] M. Valerius Probus of Berytus (Sueton. _Gramm._ 24) who
+flourished, according to Jerome, A.D. 56, prepared critical editions
+of Lucretius, Virgil, and Horace. A commentary on the _Eclogues_ and
+_Georgics_ passes under his name, but most of it is spurious.
+
+[42] A grammarian of the fifth century A.D., who merely versifies
+Donatus.
+
+[43] On this point Professor W. M. Ramsay writes to us: 'Virgil's farm
+was certainly not at Pietole (which is two miles south of Mantua, out
+in the flat plain): for (1) the farm was a long way from the city (cf.
+_Ecl._ 9, 59 _sqq._); (2) it was beside hills (_ibid._ 7 _sqq._); (3)
+woods were on or by it (cf. Donatus "silvis coemendis"), and the flat
+fertile valley was certainly not abandoned to forests. After exploring
+the country, I felt clear that the farm was on the west bank of the
+Mincio, opposite Valeggio, where the northern hills sink to the dead
+level of the Po valley.'
+
+[44] His knowledge of science is reflected in his works. Cf.
+_Georgics_, passim, and _Ecl._ 3, ll. 40-2.
+
+[45] The latter part of this statement is worthless: Augustus was only
+a child when Virgil came to Rome.
+
+[46] Probus is manifestly wrong in saying that the distribution of
+land took place 'post _Mutinense_ bellum.'
+
+[47] For details see H. Nettleship, _Ancient Lives of Vergil_, who
+holds that there was really only one eviction.
+
+[48] The writings of Augustus are enumerated by Sueton. Aug. 85--(1)
+_Rescripta Bruto de Catone_, a reply to Brutus' pamphlet on Cato; (2)
+_Hortationes ad Philosophiam_; (3) _De Vita Sua_; (4) Life of Drusus
+(Sueton. _Claud._ 1); (5) Poems: 'Sicily' in hexameters, Epigrams and
+Fescennine verses; a tragedy, 'Ajax' (never finished).
+
+[49] Servius wrote 'triennio' perhaps because he thought only of the
+dates of _Ecl._ 1 and 10 (H. Nettleship, _ibid._).
+
+[50] C. Schaper's view is that _Ecls._ 4, 6, and 10 were not written
+till B.C. 27-25 for a second edition. He supposes _Ecl._ 6 to allude
+to the marriage of Marcellus and Julia in 25 (referring 6, 3 to the
+_Aeneid_), and _Ecl._ 10 to be a lament for Gallus, who committed
+suicide B.C. 27.
+
+[51] Iulus is properly spelt Iullus (as in inscriptions), and is for
+Iovillos, a diminutive from the stem of Iuppiter.
+
+[52] L. Orbilius Pupillus of Beneventum, who in his +Perialg�s+
+complained of the wrongs of his profession (Sueton. _Gramm._ 4 and 9).
+
+[53] Maecenas wrote, besides smaller prose works, a history of his own
+times (Hor. _Od._ ii. 12, 9; Pliny, _N.H._ vii. 148).
+
+[54] For Horace's relations to Propertius see _Ep._ ii. 2, 91-101, and
+under '_Propertius_,' p. 196.
+
+[55] See G. Boissier, _Nouvelles Promenades Arch�ologiques: Horace et
+Virgile_ (Paris, 1886).
+
+[56] Dr. A. W. Verrall's argument (_Studies in Horace_, pp. 25 _sqq._)
+that _Od._ i.-iii. were published B.C. 19 is not convincing.
+
+[57] Ed. by Mommsen in _Ephemeris Epigraphica_, 1892, p. 225.
+
+[58] For Horace's eclectic position in philosophy, cf. _Ep._ i. 1,
+14-15,
+
+  'Nullius addictus iurare in verba magistri,
+  quo me cumque rapit tempestas, deferor hospes.'
+
+[59] As suggested to us by Prof. W. M. Ramsay. For Horace's opinion of
+Catullus cf. _Sat._ i. 10, 18-9,
+
+                            'Simius iste,
+  nil praeter Calvum et doctus cantare Catullum.'
+
+[60] See Th. Mommsen, _Sitzungsberichte der k�nigl. preuss. Akad. der
+Wissenschaften zu Berlin_. 24 Jan. 1889.
+
+[61] A Peripatetic of the third century B.C., who wrote a popular
+account of the literary and philosophical views of his school.
+
+[62] E. Voss, _Die Natur in der Dichtung des Horaz_ (D�sseldorf,
+1889).
+
+[63] As pointed out by A. W. Verrall, _Studies in Horace_, p. 134
+_sqq._
+
+[64] This poem is probably referred to by Hor. _Od._ iv. 4, 19-22.
+
+[65] M. Valerius Messalla Corvinus, author of memoirs of the Civil War
+(Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34), love poems (Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3, 5), and works on
+grammar (Quint. i. 7, 35).
+
+[66] Dessau, _Inscr. Lat. Sel._ 2925. _Serg._ stands for _Serg[ia
+tribu]_, and is not a cognomen _Sergio_.
+
+[67] See Pliny, _Ep._ v. 9, 2.
+
+[68] This question was first satisfactorily worked out by T. Dyer,
+_Classical Museum_ for 1847, p. 229 _sqq._
+
+[69] See under 'Juvenal,' p. 323.
+
+[70] Pollio accused him of Patavinitas, _i.e._ the use of
+provincialisms (_verba peregrina_, as opposed to _Latina_, Quint. i.
+5, 55, _curiose loqui_ rather than _Latine_, Quint. viii. 1, 2).
+
+[71] By A. Diepenbrock, _L. Annaeus Seneca_, p. 12 (Amsterdam, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+POST-AUGUSTAN WRITERS.
+
+
+
+VELLEIUS PATERCULUS.
+
+
+C.[72] Velleius Paterculus was born at latest B.C. 19, as he was
+quaestor-elect A.D. 6. He was descended from a distinguished family in
+Campania (Vell. ii. 16, 2; Liv. xxiii. 7 _sqq._). His father was a
+_praefectus equitum_ (ii. 104, 3). After some military experience in
+Thrace and Macedonia, Velleius accompanied C. Caesar, the grandson of
+Augustus, on his mission to the East, A.D. 1. His rank at this time
+was _tribunus militum_.
+
+ii. 101, 2 (of the meeting of C. Caesar and the Parthian king), 'Sub
+initia stipendiorum meorum tribuno militum mihi visere contigit: quem
+militiae gradum ante sub patre tuo, M. Vinici, et P. Silio auspicatus
+in Thracia Macedoniaque, mox Achaia Asiaque et omnibus ad Orientem
+visis provinciis et ore atque utroque maris Pontici latere, haud
+iniucunda tot rerum, locorum, gentium, urbium recordatione fruor.'
+
+In A.D. 4, as _praefectus equitum_, he accompanied Tiberius to
+Germany: ii. 104, 3, 'Hoc tempus me, functum ante tribunatu, castrorum
+Ti. Caesaris militem fecit; quippe protinus ab adoptione missus cum eo
+praefectus equitum in Germaniam, successor officii patris mei,
+caelestissimorum eius operum per annos continuos viii. praefectus aut
+legatus spectator et pro captu mediocritatis meae adiutor fui.'
+
+In A.D. 6, when quaestor-elect, he commanded reinforcements sent from
+Rome to Tiberius in Pannonia, and at the expiration of his term of
+office as quaestor in Rome, he returned to Tiberius as a _legatus_:
+ii. 111, 3, 'Habuit in hoc quoque bello mediocritas nostra speciosi
+ministerii locum. Finita equestri militia designatus quaestor necdum
+senator aequatus senatoribus, etiam designatis tribunis plebei, partem
+exercitus ab urbe traditi ab Augusto perduxi ad filium eius. In
+quaestura deinde remissa sorte provinciae legatus eiusdem ad eumdem
+missus sum.'
+
+In A.D. 9 Velleius served in Dalmatia (ii. 115, 5), afterwards
+spending two years in Germany (ii. 104, 3 above). In the winter of
+A.D. 12-13 he took part in the triumph of Tiberius: ii. 121, 2, 'Ex
+Pannoniis Delmatisque egit triumphum ... quem mihi fratrique meo inter
+praecipuos praecipuisque donis adornatos viros comitari contigit.'
+
+Velleius was praetor-elect in A.D. 14: ii. 124, 4, 'Quo tempore mihi
+fratrique meo, candidatis Caesaris, proxime a nobilissimis ac
+sacerdotalibus viris destinari praetoribus contigit, consecutis ut
+neque post nos quemquam divus Augustus neque ante nos Caesar
+commendaret Tiberius.'
+
+The publication of his history, sixteen years later, is the only
+circumstance recorded of Velleius after this date.
+
+The _Historia Romana_, in two Books, was published A.D. 30, in the
+consulship of M. Vinicius, to whom the book is addressed (i. 8, 1, and
+often). The beginning of Book i. is lost; the first eight chapters in
+our text are occupied with a rapid survey of the history of Greece
+since the Trojan war, the Phoenician settlements in the Mediterranean,
+and the chief events in the history of the world before the foundation
+of Rome. C. 8 breaks off at the rape of the Sabine women, and there is
+a great lacuna before we reach, in c. 9, the defeat of Perseus at
+Pydna in B.C. 168. Ch. 9-13 carry the narrative down to the
+destruction of Carthage and Corinth. Book ii. commences at that point,
+and ends with the death of Livia, A.D. 29 (ii. 130, 5, 'cuius temporis
+aegritudinem auxit amissa mater').
+
+Velleius is constantly calling attention to the brevity and
+compression of his treatment, in such phrases as 'omnia transcursu
+dicenda' (ii. 55), 'artatum opus' (ii. 86), 'recisum opus' (ii. 89).
+Much that the plan of his book compels him to omit, he promises to
+publish later in a larger work, _e.g._ ii. 99, 3, 'iusto servemus
+operi,' ii. 114, 4, 'iustis voluminibus ordine narrabimus.' Even as it
+is, he occasionally pauses to describe a great character (ii. 41,
+Caesar), or to express his personal opinion (ii. 66, 3, denunciation
+of Antony for Cicero's murder). Specially noticeable are the
+digressions on the Roman colonies (i. 14-15) and provinces (ii.
+38-39), on the prominence of different types of genius at certain
+epochs (i. 16-18), and on literary history (ii. 9, the chief writers
+of the time of the Gracci; ii. 36, of the Ciceronian and Augustan
+ages; i. 5, praise of Homer; i. 7, of Hesiod). As is natural in so
+short a book, Velleius names very few authorities.
+
+The motive of the history is evidently the glorification of the
+author's old general, Tiberius, whose actual reign, however, he
+dismisses in eight chapters. Probably he felt the subject too risky,
+and devoted his strength to the earlier life of Tiberius, which
+occupies the greater part even of the chapters nominally devoted to
+the reign of Augustus (ii. 59-123). Tiberius is spoken of throughout
+in terms of unqualified praise, and no hint is given of the darker
+side of his character. Seianus also is extolled (ii. 127-8), as he was
+in high favour at the time when Velleius wrote.
+
+
+
+VALERIUS MAXIMUS.
+
+
+Nothing is known of the life of Valerius Maximus beyond the fact that
+he visited Asia in company with Sex. Pompeius, the friend of Ovid and
+of Germanicus. Pompeius was consul A.D. 14, and between A.D. 27 and 30
+became proconsul of Asia.
+
+Val. Max. ii. 6, 8, 'Consuetudinem ... illam etiam in insula Cea
+servari animadverti, quo tempore Asiam cum Sex. Pompeio petens Iulidem
+oppidum intravi.'
+
+Valerius dwells on his obligations to Pompeius in his chapter on
+friendship (iv. 7, _ext._ 2).
+
+His sole work, _Facta et Dicta Memorabilia_, in nine books, is a
+collection of notable incidents and sayings, classified under
+appropriate headings, for the convenience of speakers seeking
+illustrations for their subject-matter. Cf. the preface, 'Urbis Romae
+exterarumque gentium facta simul ac dicta memoratu digna, quae apud
+alios latius diffusa sunt quam ut breviter cognosci possint, ab
+illustribus electa auctoribus digerere constitui, ut documenta sumere
+volentibus longae inquisitionis labor absit.'
+
+The _illustres auctores_ from whom he draws most of his material are
+Livy, Cicero (each mentioned only once), Sallust, and Trogus; but
+thirteen Latin and twenty Greek authors are mentioned by name. He
+frequently misrepresents his authorities.
+
+Each book is divided into chapters on separate topics (_e.g._ _De
+Pudicitia_), under each of which he gives (1) illustrations from Roman
+history, (2) those from the history of other nations. The latter of
+course are few in comparison.
+
+Although Iulius Paris, the epitomizer of Valerius, speaks of ten
+books, only nine are extant, and it may be doubted whether there ever
+was a tenth. Book i. is mutilated.
+
+There are only two passages which throw any light on the date of
+composition--viii. 11, _ext._ 4, a denunciation of Seianus, obviously
+written after his fall in A.D. 31; and vi. 1 praef., before the death
+of Livia, A.D. 29. The work was published at latest in A.D. 37, for it
+is dedicated to Tiberius, who is the object of the most servile
+flattery (_e.g._ ii. 9, 6); similar language is used of Iulius Caesar
+(iv. 5, 6), and Augustus (i. 7, 1), while Brutus and Cassius are
+denounced as parricides (i. 5, 7; i. 8, 8).
+
+Two abridgments of Valerius Maximus are extant.
+
+
+
+CELSUS.
+
+
+Of the life of Celsus nothing is known; but he was an older
+contemporary of Columella. Colum. iii. 17, 4, 'Iulius Atticus et
+Cornelius Celsus, aetatis nostrae celeberrimi auctores, patrem atque
+filium Sasernam secuti.'
+
+He wrote an encyclopaedic work on agriculture, medicine, war,
+rhetoric, and philosophy, but only the section on medicine is extant.
+
+Quint. xi. 12, 24, 'Cum etiam Cornelius Celsus, mediocri vir ingenio,
+non solum de his omnibus conscripserit artibus sed amplius rei
+militaris et rusticae et medicinae praecepta reliquerit.'
+
+The first part consisted of five books on agriculture: cf. Colum. i.
+1, 14, 'Cornelius totum corpus disciplinae quinque libris complexus
+est.' This section of the work was probably written in the reign of
+Tiberius, for it was known to Iulius Graecinus, whose execution took
+place under Caligula. Plin. _N.H._ xiv. 33, 'Graecinus, qui alioqui
+Cornelium Celsum transcripsit.'
+
+There are eight books _De Re Medica_. The only indication of their
+date is in iv. 7, where Celsus mentions a prescription as not found
+'in monumentis medicorum.' As this prescription is given by Scribonius
+Largus, who wrote about A.D. 47, Celsus must have written before that
+year.
+
+The section on war was used by Vegetius (_De Re Mil._ i. 8).
+
+Rhetoric was also treated in the encyclopaedia. Quintilian, who
+mentions him as one of the more careful writers on that subject (iii.
+1, 21, 'accuratius scripsit Celsus'), frequently combats his opinions
+and speaks of him rather contemptuously: _e.g._ ix. 1, 18, 'Cornelius
+Celsus nimia profecto novitatis cupidine ductus. Nam quis ignorasse
+eruditum alioqui virum credat,' etc. He may be the Celsus of Juv. 6,
+245, who (according to the Scholiast) wrote a manual of rhetoric in
+seven books.
+
+There were also six books on the history of philosophy. Augustine _de
+haeres. prol._, 'Opiniones omnium philosophorum qui sectas varias
+condiderunt usque ad tempora sua vi. non parvis voluminibus quidam
+Celsus absolvit; nec redarguit aliquem, sed tantum quid sentirent
+aperuit. Cum ferme centum philosophos nominasset,' etc.
+
+Celsus also wrote separate treatises (1) on philosophy, Quint. x. 1,
+24, 'Scripsit non parum multa Cornelius Celsus, Sextios secutus, non
+sine cultu ac nitore'; (2) on strategy (Lydus _de mag._ i. 47).
+
+
+
+PHAEDRUS.
+
+
+The title of Phaedrus' work, 'Phaedri Augusti liberti fabularum
+Aesopiarum libri,' probably means that he was a freedman of Augustus.
+Tiberius is called 'Caesar Tiberius' in ii. 6, 7; contrast the
+reference to Augustus, iii. 10, 39, 'a divo Augusto.' Phaedrus was
+born in Thrace, possibly in the district of Pieria; but the date is
+unknown; iii. prol. 17,
+
+  'Ego, quem Pierio mater enixa est iugo,
+  in quo tonanti sancta Mnemosyne Iovi
+  fecunda novies artium peperit chorum';
+
+_ibid._ 54,
+
+  'Ego, litteratae qui sum propior Graeciae,
+  cur somno inerti deseram patriae decus?
+  Threissa cum gens numeret auctores suos,
+  Linoque Apollo sit parens, Musa Orpheo.'
+
+Some wrongly take these allusions to mean that he belongs to the realm
+of poesy. That he came to Rome early is shown by the knowledge of
+Latin literature he acquired in his boyhood. Cf. iii. epil. 33, where
+he quotes Ennius,
+
+  'Ego, quondam legi quam puer sententiam,
+  "Palam mutire plebeio piaculum est,"
+  dum sanitas constabit, pulchre meminero.'
+
+After publishing two books of fables, Phaedrus was persecuted by
+Seianus, in some way unknown; iii. prol. 38,
+
+  'Ego porro illius [Aesopi] semita feci viam,
+  et cogitavi plura quam reliquerat,
+  in calamitatem deligens quaedam meam.
+  Quod si accusator alius Seiano foret,
+  si testis alius, index alius denique,
+  dignum faterer esse me tantis malis.'
+
+This persecution may have arisen from references in his fables, such
+as i. 1 (Lupus et agnus), l. 14,
+
+  'Haec propter illos scripta est homines fabula,
+  qui fictis causis innocentes opprimunt';
+
+i. 6 (Ranae ad solem), which Nisard[73] thinks refers to the ambitious
+marriage which Seianus projected with Livia, daughter of Germanicus,
+'The sun dries up the ponds; what will happen if the sun marries and
+has children?' l. 9,
+
+  'Quidnam futurum est, si crearit liberos?'
+
+Phaedrus survived the attacks made on him, and Book v. was written in
+his old age (see below).
+
+Several personal points are clear from his writings:
+
+(1) He had to meet the attacks of critics; ii. epil. 10,
+
+  'Si livor obtrectare curam voluerit,
+  non tamen eripiet laudis conscientiam.'
+
+(2) His desire for fame and his self-consciousness; iii. prol. 60,
+
+  'Ergo hinc abesto livor, ne frustra gemas,
+  quoniam sollemnis mihi debetur gloria.'
+
+(3) His contempt for money; iii. prol. 21,
+
+  'Curamque habendi penitus corde eraserim';
+
+v. 4, 7,
+
+  'Huius respectu fabulae deterritus
+  periculosum semper vitavi lucrum.'
+
+Phaedrus wrote five Books of fables. Many have certainly been lost.
+Cf. his reference to tree-fables, none of which we have; i. prol. 6,
+
+  'quod arbores loquantur, non tantum ferae.'
+
+There are, besides the five Books, thirty fables usually printed as an
+appendix, and probably composed by Phaedrus. The fables are all in
+'impure' iambic senarii, like those of Terence and Publius Syrus.
+Phaedrus followed Aesop, but, as he affirms, not slavishly; i. prol.
+1,
+
+  'Aesopus auctor quam materiam repperit,
+  hanc ego polivi versibus senariis';
+
+iv. prol. 10,
+
+                     'fabulis
+  quas Aesopias, non Aesopi, nomino.'
+
+We have the Greek originals for about a third of the fables; but
+Phaedrus speaks of his additions to Aesop; ii. prol. 8,
+
+  'Equidem omni cura morem servabo senis;
+  sed si libuerit aliquid interponere,
+  dictorum sensus ut delectet varietas,
+  bonas in partes, lector, accipias velim.'
+
+Stories from contemporary or recent history are given in ii. 6, 7;
+iii. 10; v. 7.
+
+Books i. and ii. were published under Tiberius; Book iii. was
+published after Tiberius' death (cf. iii. prol. 33), and is dedicated
+to Eutychus, who has been identified with a favourite slave of
+Caligula. Book iv. followed, addressed to Particulo (iv. prol. 10).
+Book v., addressed to Philetes, was written in the poet's old age; v.
+10, 7,
+
+             'Cui senex contra Lacon:
+  "Non te destituit animus, sed vires meae.
+  Quod fuimus, lauda, si iam damnas, quod sumus."
+  Hoc cur, Philete, scripserim, pulchre vides.'
+
+Martial is the only classical writer who refers to Phaedrus; iii. 20,
+5,
+
+  'An aemulatur improbi iocos Phaedri?'
+
+
+
+SENECA THE YOUNGER.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+L. Annaeus Seneca, the son of Annaeus Seneca, the rhetor, was born at
+Corduba in Spain. For information about his family see under 'Seneca
+the elder,' pp. 226-7. He was probably born about the beginning of our
+era, as he seems to have remembered Asinius Pollio, who died A.D. 5,
+and had passed his boyhood in A.D. 19, when the Jewish and Egyptian
+rites were expelled from Rome.
+
+Sen. _de tranquill. animi_, 17, 7, 'Qualem Pollionem Asinium
+meminimus, quem nulla res ultra decimam [horam] retinuit.'
+
+_Ep._ 108, 22, 'In Tiberii Caesaris principatum iuventae tempus
+inciderat: alienigena tum sacra movebantur.'
+
+At an early age Seneca was brought to Rome by his mother's sister, who
+was probably the wife of Vitrasius Pollio, prefect of Egypt for
+sixteen years.
+
+_Ad Helv._ 19, 2, 'Illius manibus in urbem perlatus sum.'
+
+Seneca's mother took a great interest in his education, which was
+conducted under Fabianus Papirius (cf. _Ep._ 100, 9, etc.) and Sotion
+the Pythagorean, of Alexandria, pupils of Sextius (for Seneca's study
+of whom see _Ep._ 64).
+
+_Ad Helv._ 15, 1, 'Vera vis materni doloris oritur ... "ubi studia,
+quibus libentius quam femina, familiarius quam mater intereram?"'
+
+_Ep._ 108, 17, 'Dicebat [Sotion] quare ille animalibus abstinuisset,
+quare postea Sextius ... � 22. His ego instinctus abstinere animalibus
+coepi et anno peracto non tantum facilis erat mihi consuetudo, sed
+dulcis.'
+
+The elder Seneca put an end to this abstinence, which was associated
+in the popular view with foreign superstitions (see _Ep._ 108, 17-23).
+This must have happened about A.D. 19. The influence of Sotion is seen
+in passages imitated from his book _de ira cohibenda_ by Seneca.
+Seneca also studied under Attalus, a Greek Stoic, possibly about A.D.
+20.
+
+_Ep._ 108, 13-15, 'Ego certe cum Attalum audirem in vitia, in errores,
+in mala vitae perorantem, saepe misertus sum generis humani et illum
+sublimem altioremque humano fastigio credidi ... Inde mihi quaedam
+permansere, Lucili. Magno enim in omnia inceptu veneram. Deinde ad
+civitatis vitam reductus ex bene coeptis pauca servavi: inde ostreis
+boletisque in omnem vitam renuntiatum est.'
+
+Seneca speaks of his change of studies and occupations in _Ep._ 49, 2,
+'Modo apud Sotionem philosophum puer sedi. Modo causas agere coepi.
+Modo desii velle agere, modo desii posse.'
+
+In A.D. 31 Seneca was probably still at Rome; cf. _N.Q._ i. 1, 3,
+'Vidimus [prodigium] eo tempore, quo de Seiano actum est.' Lipsius'
+inference[74] that Seneca made a voyage to Egypt about this time is
+probable, though Seneca himself gives no direct information about it.
+According to this theory his host was Vitrasius Pollio, prefect of
+Egypt. While in Egypt, Seneca was attacked by illness, and escaped
+death by his aunt's care. Cf. _ad Helv._ 19, 2, 'Illius pio maternoque
+nutricio per longum tempus aeger convalui.' Seneca accompanied
+Vitrasius when he resigned his office and returned with his wife to
+Italy A.D. 32 (Dio, lviii. 19, 6). They suffered shipwreck, and
+Vitrasius perished.
+
+_Ad Helv._ 19, 4, 'Sed si prudentiam perfectissimae feminae novi, non
+patietur te nihil profuturo maerore consumi et exemplum tibi suum,
+cuius ego etiam spectator fui, narrabit. Carissimum virum amiserat,
+avunculum nostrum, cui virgo nupserat, in ipsa quidem navigatione:
+tulit tamen eodem tempore et luctum et metum evictisque tempestatibus
+corpus eius naufraga evexit.'
+
+This theory is supported by the fact that Seneca wrote a work 'de ritu
+(al., situ) et sacris Aegyptiorum' (Serv. _ad Aen._ vi. 154).
+
+Through his aunt's influence Seneca obtained the quaestorship.
+
+_Ad Helv._ 19, 2, 'Illa pro quaestura mea gratiam suam extendit, et
+quae ne sermonis quidem aut clarae salutationis sustinuit audaciam,
+pro me vicit indulgentia verecundiam.'
+
+Seneca's quaestorship must have been after the death of his aunt's
+husband, in A.D. 32, as the above passage shows, and before the death of
+Tiberius in A.D. 37, as it was with Tiberius that his aunt's influence
+lay, on account of her husband's services. After his quaestorship Seneca
+appears to have married (cf. _de ira_, iii. 36, 3, etc.). His wife must
+have died before A.D. 57, as in that year Seneca married Pompeia
+Paulina; cf. Dio, lxi. 10, 3, +gamon epiphanestaton eg�me+. By his first
+wife he had three sons (_ad Helv._ 2, 5).
+
+While senator, Seneca incurred the jealousy of Caligula, and in A.D.
+39 narrowly escaped death.
+
+Dio, lix. 19, 7, +ho de d� Senekas ... diephthar� par'
+oligon, m�t' adik�sas ti, m�te doxas, hoti dik�n tina en t�
+synedri� parontos autou kal�s eipe+. For Seneca's attacks on Caligula
+cf. _ad Helv._ 10, 4; _Apocol._ 15, etc.
+
+Sueton. _Cal._ 53, 'Peroraturus "stricturum se lucubrationis suae
+telum" minabatur; lenius comtiusque scribendi genus adeo contemnens,
+ut Senecam, tum maxime placentem, "commissiones meras" componere, et
+"harenam esse sine calce" diceret.'
+
+In A.D. 41 Seneca was banished to Corsica, through the agency of
+Messalina, on the charge of adultery with Iulia Livilla, sister of
+Caligula, but really because he was suspected of belonging to the
+faction of Agrippina.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42, 'Nec Suillius questu aut exprobratione
+abstinebat ... et Senecam increpans infensum amicis Claudii, sub quo
+iustissimum exilium pertulisset ... Se quaestorem Germanici, illum
+domus eius adulterum fuisse.'
+
+Seneca was tried before the Senate, and Claudius prevented his
+execution.
+
+_Ad Polyb._ 13, 2, 'Deprecatus est pro me senatum, et vitam mihi non
+tantum dedit, sed etiam petiit.'
+
+While in Corsica he devoted himself to literature and science. Cf. _ad
+Helv._ 20, 1 (written in exile), 'Animus omnis occupationis expers
+operibus suis vacat et modo se levioribus studiis oblectat, modo ad
+considerandam suam universique naturam veri avidus insurgit: terras
+primum situmque earum quaerit.'
+
+The _Consolatio ad Polybium_, written during this time, is full of
+flattery of Claudius.
+
+Dio, lxi. 10, 2, +t�n Messalinan kai tous tou Klaudiou
+exeleutherous eth�peuen h�ste kai biblion sphisin ek t�s n�sou
+pempsai epainous aut�n echon, ho meta tauta hyp' aischyn�s
+ap�leipse+.
+
+Seneca was recalled at the beginning of A.D. 49, became Nero's tutor
+(although he wished to visit Athens), and obtained the praetorship
+through the influence of Agrippina, with whom his name was coupled by
+popular rumour.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xii. 8, 'At Agrippina, ne malis tantum facinoribus
+notesceret, veniam exilii pro Annaeo Seneca, simul praeturam inpetrat,
+laetum in publicum rata ob claritudinem studiorum eius, utque Domitii
+pueritia tali magistro adulesceret et consiliis eiusdem ad spem
+dominationis uterentur, quia Seneca fidus in Agrippinam memoria
+beneficii et infensus Claudio dolore iniuriae credebatur.'
+
+Schol. on _Iuv._ 5, 105, 'Revocatus ... etsi magno desiderio Athenas
+intenderet ab Agrippina tamen in palatium adductus.'
+
+Dio, lxi. 10, 1, +ou gar apechr�sen aut� t�n Ioulian
+moicheusai, oude belti�n ek t�s phyg�s egeneto, alla kai t�
+Agrippin� epl�siazen.+
+
+For Seneca's tutorship cf. also Sueton. _Nero_, 52, 'Liberales
+disciplinas omnes fere puer attigit. Sed a philosophia eum mater
+avertit, monens imperaturo contrariam esse: a cognitione veterum
+oratorum Seneca praeceptor, quo diutius in admiratione sui detineret.'
+
+It is probable that Seneca was, like Nero, privy to the murder of
+Claudius in A.D. 54. Cf. his sarcasms against Claudius in his
+_Apocolocyntosis_.
+
+Sueton. _Nero_ 33 (of Nero), 'Cuius [Claudi] necis etsi non auctor, at
+conscius fuit: neque dissimulanter, ut qui boletos, in quo cibi genere
+venenum is acceperat, quasi deorum cibum, posthac proverbio Graeco
+conlaudare sit solitus.'
+
+Seneca wrote for Nero a speech which he delivered on the occasion of
+Claudius' death.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 3, 'Die funeris laudationem eius princeps exorsus
+est; dum antiquitatem generis, consulatus ac triumphos maiorum
+enumerabat, intentus ipse et ceteri; liberalium quoque artium
+commemoratio, et nihil regente eo triste rei publicae ab externis
+accidisse, pronis animis audita. Postquam ad providentiam
+sapientiamque flexit, nemo risui temperare, quamquam oratio a Seneca
+composita multum cultus praeferret, ut fuit illi viro ingenium amoenum
+et temporis eius auribus accommodatum.'
+
+He acted as a check on Nero (Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 6; 11), and baffled
+Agrippina's vengeance and ambition.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 2, 'Ibaturque in caedes, nisi Afranius Burrus et
+Annaeus Seneca obviam issent. (Ch. 5) Quin et legatis Armeniorum
+causam gentis apud Neronem orantibus escendere suggestum imperatoris
+et praesidere simul parabat, nisi ceteris pavore defixis Seneca
+admonuisset, venienti matri occurreret.'
+
+Seneca interfered to shelter Nero in his amour with Acte, A.D. 55, and
+used the occasion to stir up feud between Agrippina and Nero (Tac.
+_Ann._ xiii. 13). Hence followed an attack by Agrippina on Seneca.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 14, 'Audiretur hinc Germanici filia, inde debilis
+rursus Burrus et exsul Seneca, trunca scilicet manu et professoria
+lingua generis humani regimen expostulantes.'
+
+It is unlikely that Seneca opposed the murder of Britannicus (Feb.
+A.D. 55). Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 17, 'Facinus cui plerique iam hominum
+ignoscebant, antiquas fratrum discordias et insociabile regnum
+aestimantes.'[75]
+
+Seneca took part shortly afterwards in the trial in which Agrippina
+was found not guilty (Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 20-21). There are many
+references to Seneca's great power and wealth at this time.[76]
+
+Cf. Dio, lxi. 4, 1, +autoi+ (Seneca and Burrus) +t�n
+arch�n hapasan parelabon kai di�k�san eph' hoson �dyn�th�san
+arista kai dikaiotata.+
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 53 (Seneca addressing Nero in A.D. 62), 'Quartus
+decimus annus est, Caesar, ex quo spei tuae admotus sum, octavus, ut
+imperium obtines: medio temporis tantum honorum atque opum in me
+cumulasti, ut nihil felicitati meae desit nisi moderatio eius... At
+tu gratiam immensam, innumeram pecuniam circumdedisti, adeo ut
+plerumque intra me ipse volvam, "Egone, equestri et provinciali loco
+ortus, proceribus civitatis adnumeror? ... Talis hortos extruit, et
+per haec suburbana incedit, et tantis agrorum spatiis, tam lato
+faenore exuberat?"'
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42 (speech of Suillius, A.D. 58), 'Qua sapientia,
+quibus philosophorum praeceptis, intra quadriennium regiae amicitiae
+ter miliens sestertium paravisset?' (Dio, lxi. 10, 2, gives his wealth
+as 75,000,000 denarii).
+
+Seneca had many estates both in Italy (_Ep._ 123, 1, etc.) and abroad,
+and lent money abroad, even in Britain. His attraction to finance is
+seen in the number of metaphors he draws from that subject.
+
+Sen. _vit. beat._ 17, 2, 'Cur trans mare possides? cur plura quam
+nosti?'
+
+Dio, lxii. 2, 1 (of the rising of the Britons under Boudicca), +ho
+Senekas chilias sphisi myriadas akousin epi chr�stais elpisi tok�n
+daneisas, epeit' athroas te hama autas kai biai�s eiseprassen.+
+
+His attack on usury (_de ben._ vii. 10, 3) is a piece of theoretic
+philosophy.
+
+In A.D. 57 Seneca was consul suffectus (Ulpian, _Dig._ xxxvi. 1). In
+A.D. 58 he brought about the downfall of the former delator, P.
+Suillius. Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42, 'Variis deinde casibus iactatus et
+multorum odia meritus reus, haud tamen sine invidia Senecae damnatur.
+Is fuit P. Suillius.' Seneca is thought to have been implicated in
+Agrippina's murder in A.D. 59. He wrote to the Senate for Nero an
+account of her death.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 7 (Nero says after the fruitless attempt of Anicetus
+to kill Agrippina), 'Quod contra subsidium sibi nisi quid Burrus et
+Seneca expedirent? Quos statim acciverat, incertum an aperiens, et
+ante ignaros. Igitur longum utriusque silentium, ne inriti
+dissuaderent; an eo descensum credebant, ut, nisi praeveniretur
+Agrippina, pereundum Neroni esset? Post Seneca, hactenus promptius, ut
+respiceret Burrum, ac sciscitaretur an militi imperanda caedes esset.
+(Ch. 11) Ergo non iam Nero, cuius immanitas omnium questus anteibat,
+sed Seneca adverso rumore erat, quod oratione tali confessionem
+scripsisset.'
+
+The death of Burrus in A.D. 62 weakened the power of Seneca, who
+resolved to retire. His request, however, was not granted by Nero
+(Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 55-6), but he reduced his establishment, and lived
+in semi-privacy.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 52, 'Mors Burri infregit Senecae potentiam, quia nec
+bonis artibus idem virium erat altero velut duce amoto, et Nero ad
+deteriores inclinabat. Hi variis criminationibus Senecam
+adoriuntur ... Certe finitam Neronis pueritiam, et robur iuventae
+adesse. Exueret magistrum, satis amplis doctoribus instructus
+maioribus suis. (Ch. 56) Instituta prioris potentiae commutat,
+prohibet coetus salutantium, vitat comitantis, rarus per urbem, quasi
+valetudine infensa aut sapientiae studiis domi attineretur.'
+
+Later in A.D. 62, came an unsuccessful attempt to ruin Seneca. Tac.
+_Ann._ xiv. 65, 'Romanus secretis criminationibus incusaverat Senecam
+ut Gai Pisonis socium; sed validius a Seneca eodem crimine perculsus
+est.'
+
+In A.D. 64, on the occasion of the burning of Rome by Nero, Seneca
+wished to retire. He is said to have offered money to repair the
+disasters of the fire.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xv. 45, 'Ferebatur Seneca, quo invidiam sacrilegii a semet
+averteret, longinqui ruris secessum oravisse, et postquam non
+concedebatur, ficta valetudine, quasi aeger nervis, cubiculum non
+egressus.'
+
+Dio, lxii. 25, 3, +pasan aut� t�n ousian epi t� t�n
+oikodomoumen�n prophasei kecharismenos.+
+
+The story given in Tac. _Ann._ xv. 45 of the attempt to poison Seneca
+probably arose from his abstemious habits.
+
+'Tradidere quidam venenum ei per libertum ipsius cui nomen Cleonicus
+paratum iussu Neronis, vitatumque a Seneca proditione liberti seu
+propria formidine, dum persimplici victu et agrestibus pomis, ac si
+sitis admoneret, profluente aqua vitam tolerat.'
+
+In A.D. 65 Seneca was implicated in the conspiracy of Piso, and was
+forced to commit suicide. His wife wished to die with him, but was
+prevented by Nero's orders.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xv. 60, 'Sequitur caedes Annaei Senecae, laetissima
+principi, non quia coniurationis manifestum compererat, sed ut ferro
+grassaretur, quando veneno non processerat ... (Ch. 63) Post quae
+eodem ictu brachia ferro exsolvunt. Seneca, quoniam senile corpus et
+parco victu tenuatum lenta effugia sanguini praebebat, crurum quoque
+et poplitum venas abrumpit. Saevisque cruciatibus defessus, ne dolore
+suo animum uxoris infringeret atque ipse visendo eius tormenta ad
+impatientiam delaberetur, suadet in aliud cubiculum abscedere. Et
+novissimo quoque momento suppeditante eloquentia advocatis
+scriptoribus pleraque tradidit ... (Ch. 64) At Nero nullo in Paulinam
+proprio odio, ac ne glisceret invidia crudelitatis, inhibere
+mortem. ... Seneca interim, durante tractu et lentitudine mortis,
+Statium Annaeum, diu sibi amicitiae fide et arte medicinae probatum,
+orat, provisum pridem venenum, quo damnati publico Atheniensium
+iudicio exstinguerentur, promeret; adlatumque hausit frustra, frigidus
+iam artus, et cluso corpore adversum vim veneni. Postremo stagnum
+calidae aquae introiit, respergens proximos servorum, addita voce,
+libare se liquorem illum Iovi liberatori. Exin balneo inlatus, et
+vapore eius exanimatus, sine ullo funeris sollemni crematur.'
+
+There was a rumour that some of the conspirators intended to make
+Seneca emperor.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xv. 65, 'Fama fuit Subrium Flavum cum centurionibus
+occulto consilio, neque tamen ignorante Seneca, destinavisse, ut post
+occisum opera Pisonis Neronem Piso quoque interficeretur,
+tradereturque imperium Senecae, quasi insontibus claritudine virtutum
+ad summum fastigium delecto.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+The following prose works are extant:
+
+1. _Dialogorum libri_ xii.
+
+(1) _ad Lucilium: quare aliqua incommoda bonis viris accidant cum
+providentia sit; sive de providentia_. This was probably a late work.
+
+(2) _ad Serenum: nec iniuriam nec contumeliam accipere sapientem; sive
+de constantia sapientis_: written in the first years of Nero's reign.
+
+(3-5) _ad Novatum de ira libri_ iii., probably written in the first
+year of Claudius' reign.
+
+(6) _ad Marciam de consolatione_: written to console Marcia, the
+daughter of Cremutius Cordus, for the death of her son Metilius. The
+work may have been written in A.D. 41, as Caligula's name is
+studiously avoided.
+
+(7) _ad Gallionem de vita beata_. This book, addressed to Seneca's
+brother Gallio (Novatus), was probably written shortly after A.D. 58,
+and justifies his having wealth though a philosopher.
+
+(8) _ad Serenum de otio_. This work, like the next, was addressed to
+Annaeus Serenus, and was written probably about A.D. 62. Only a part
+of it is extant. The book discusses whether a wise man should engage
+in state affairs.
+
+(9) _ad Serenum de tranquillitate animi_, probably written soon after
+Seneca's recall.
+
+(10) _ad Paulinum de brevitate vitae_. For the date cf. 13, 8, 'Sullam
+ultimum Romanorum protulisse pomoerium.' Now, Claudius extended the
+pomoerium in A.D. 50, so this must have been written in A.D. 49, as
+the book was brought out after Seneca's return from exile.
+
+(11) _ad Polybium de consolatione_. This book was addressed in A.D. 43
+or 44 to Polybius, a favourite of Claudius, on the occasion of his
+brother's death. The date is fixed by the reference to Claudius'
+expedition to Britain in 12, 2-3. Cf. � 3, 'Non desinam totiens tibi
+offerre Caesarem. Illo moderante terras et ostendente, quanto melius
+beneficiis imperium custodiatur quam armis, illo rebus humanis
+praeside non est periculum, ne quid perdidisse te sentias.' For
+similar flattery of Claudius, cf. 7,4; 12,5.
+
+(12) _ad Helviam matrem de consolatione_, written during his
+banishment.
+
+2. _ad Neronem Caesarem de clementia_, in three Books, two of which
+are extant. The work was written in A.D. 55-6, doubtless to show the
+public what sort of instruction Seneca had given Nero, and what sort
+of emperor they had to expect (cf. i, 1, 1). The date is settled by i.
+9, 1, '[divus Augustus] cum hoc aetatis esset quod tu nunc es,
+duodevicesimum egressus annum,' Nero having been born 15th December,
+A.D. 37. The flattery contained in ii. 1, 1-2, and elsewhere, can be
+justified to some extent by Nero's conduct at that time. Cf. Sueton.
+_Nero_, 10, 'Neque liberalitatis, neque clementiae, ne comitatis
+quidem exhibendae ullam occasionem omisit.'
+
+3. _De Beneficiis_ in seven Books, addressed to Aebutius Liberalis of
+Lugdunum. It is probable that Books i.-iv. were published first,
+shortly after the death of Claudius (who is sneered at in i. 15, 6).
+Books v.-vii. are probably a later addition. Cf. v. 1, 1, 'In
+prioribus libris videbar consummasse propositum ... Quidquid ultra
+moror, non servio materiae, sed indulgeo ... Verum quia ita vis,
+perseveremus peractis.' The eulogy of Demetrius the Cynic in vii.
+8-12, makes it probable that Book vii. at least was written in
+Seneca's last years.
+
+4. _Apocolocyntosis_, a political satire on Claudius, written shortly
+after his death in A.D. 54. The explanation of the title is given by
+Dio, lx. 35, 2, +Agrippina kai ho Neron ... es ton ouranon an�gagon
+hon ek tou symposiou phorad�n exen�nochesan. hotheuper Loukios Iounios
+Galli�n ho tou Seneka adelphos asteiotaton ti apephthenxato; syneth�ke
+men gar kai ho Senekas syngramma, apokolokynt�sin auto h�sper tina
+apathanatisin onomasas, ekeinos de en brachytat� polla eip�n
+apomn�moneuetai ... eph� ton Klaudion ankistr� es ton ouranon
+anenechth�nai+. The work does not bear this title in the MSS., and
+there is no hint of the witticism in the book itself; the St. Gall
+MS., however, has 'Divi Claudii +APOTH�OSIS+ Annei Senecae per
+Saturam,' which may be a corruption of the proper title. The title is
+derived from +kolokynt�+, 'a gourd,' which was used to denote a fool.
+Seneca (_Apocol._ 6) takes the official view that Claudius died of a
+fever. The work may have been published at the Saturnalia, and written
+shortly before, as Narcissus is represented as having just arrived in
+Orcus. The personal animosity of Seneca against Caligula and Claudius
+is everywhere apparent.
+
+5. _Naturales Quaestiones_ in seven Books, addressed to Lucilius. Book
+ii. was written after A.D. 57, as in ii. 9, 2 an amphitheatre is
+mentioned which was built by Nero in that year. The work was finished
+before the end of A.D. 64, for in Book vii. there is no mention among
+other prodigies of the comet which appeared again at the end of that
+year.
+
+6. _Epistulae morales ad Lucilium_. These were addressed to Lucilius
+Iunior, the author of 'Aetna' (see p. 277). There are extant one
+hundred and twenty four letters, in twenty Books, but some Books have
+been lost, as Gell. xii. 2, 3 quotes from Book xxii. Books i.-iii.
+were probably published by Seneca, the rest after his death, generally
+in chronological order.
+
+The following poetical works are extant:
+
+1. _Epigrams._--Nine on his exile are given in the editions; probably
+only Nos. 1, 2, and 7 are genuine.
+
+2. _Tragedies._--Some of these may have been composed during Seneca's
+exile in Corsica. See _ad Helv._ 20 (quoted p. 243). The metrical
+treatment is strict, especially in the senarii. Anapaestic, glyconic,
+sapphic lines, etc., are used in the choral odes. There are only three
+actors, except in the spurious _Octavia_. The plays are: (1) _Hercules
+Furens_ and (2) _Troades_ or _Hecuba_, founded on Euripides. (3)
+_Phoenissae_ or _Thebais_. The two parts do not correspond. In ll.
+1-362, Oedipus and Antigone are on their way to Cithaeron; from l. 363
+to the end we find Iocasta and Antigone in Thebes while it is besieged
+by the Seven. (4) _Medea_, founded on Euripides. Ovid has also been
+imitated; so ll. 56 _sqq._ from Ovid, _Heroides_, 12, 137. (5)
+_Phaedra_ or _Hippolytus_. (6) _Oedipus_, after Sophocles. (7)
+_Agamemnon_, after Aeschylus. (8) _Thyestes_. (9) _Hercules Oetaeus_,
+of which the second part, at least, is spurious. (10) _Octavia_, a
+praetexta, describing the death of Octavia, Nero's wife (A.D. 62).
+Seneca himself appears in it. It cannot be by Seneca, as Nero's
+downfall (A.D. 68) is mentioned in ll. 628-36.
+
+The following works are lost or exist only in fragments:
+
+i. Poems of a light nature (Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3). 2. _De motu terrarum_,
+afterwards incorporated in _N.Q._ vi. (see _N.Q._ vi. 4, 2). 3. _De
+lapidum natura_. 4. _De piscium natura_. 5. _De ritu et sacris
+Aegyptiorum_ (see p. 242). 6. _De situ Indiae_. 7. _De forma mundi_.
+8. _Exhortationes_. 9. _De officiis_. 10. _De immatura morte_. 11. _De
+superstitione dialogus_. 12. _De matrimonio_. 13. _De amicitia_. 14.
+_De vita patris_, along with an edition of his works. 15. Speeches by
+himself or by Nero. 16. _Epistulae_ (a) _ad Novatum_, probably written
+from Corsica, (b) _ad Caesonium Maximum_. 17. A book in praise of
+Messalina, afterwards withdrawn (see p. 243). 18. _Moralis
+philosophiae libri_ (see _Ep._ 106, 2). 19. _De remediis fortuitorum_,
+addressed to Gallio. A synopsis with additions is extant. 20. _De
+paupertate_. 21. _De formula honestae vitae_, probably founded on one
+of Seneca's works. 22. _Notae_ (see Sueton. pp. 135-6 R.).
+
+The following are spurious works:
+
+1. 'Epistulae Senecae, Neronis imperatoris magistri, ad Paulum
+Apostolum et Pauli Apostoli ad Senecam.' These letters, fourteen in
+all, are accepted as genuine by Jerome, _de vir. illustr._ 12. 'Seneca
+... quem non ponerem in catalogo sanctorum, nisi me epistulae illae
+provocarent, quae leguntur a plurimis, Pauli ad Senecam et Senecae ad
+Paulum.'
+
+2. A work extant under the title of _Sententiae Rufi_ has been wrongly
+thought to correspond to Seneca's dying words mentioned in Tac. _Ann._
+xv. 63.
+
+3. The book _De moribus_ or _Monita_ contains maxims by Christian
+writers.
+
+_Views and Character._--For Seneca's training in Stoic doctrines see
+_Ep._ 108, 13 (quoted p. 241). With these views he generally
+associates himself (cf. _Ep._ 113, 1; 117, 1), but does not bind
+himself to one school.
+
+Cf. _Ep._ 45, 4, 'Non enim me cuiquam emancipavi, nullius nomen fero.
+Multum magnorum virorum iudicio credo, aliquid et meo vindico.'
+
+Especially towards the end of his life, he came under the influence of
+Demetrius the Cynic.
+
+_Ep._ 62, 3, 'Demetrium, virorum optimum, mecum circumfero et relictis
+conchyliatis cum illo seminudo loquor, ilium admiror. Quidni admirer?
+vidi nihil ei deesse.'
+
+In _de provid._ 5, 7, after quoting Demetrius' fatalistic views,
+Seneca adds, 'Fata nos ducunt, et quantum cuique temporis restat,
+prima nascentium hora disposuit.'
+
+Seneca was one of the few Romans who condemned the butcheries
+practised in the arena, and his views doubtless influenced Nero's
+conduct in A.D. 58.
+
+_Ep._ 95, 33, 'Homo, sacra res homini, iam per lusum ac iocum
+occiditur et quem erudiri ad inferenda accipiendaque volnera nefas
+erat, is iam nudus inermisque producitur satisque spectaculi ex homine
+mors est.'
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 31, 'Edixit Caesar ne quis magistratus aut
+procurator, qui provinciam obtineret, spectaculum gladiatorum aut
+ferarum aut quod aliud ludicrum ederet.'
+
+For Seneca's love of wealth see p. 246. For his estimate of riches cf.
+_De vita beata_, 22, 5. 'Apud me divitiae aliquem locum habent, apud
+te summum ac postremum. Divitiae meae sunt, tu divitiarum es.'
+
+His simplicity of life has been already dealt with.
+
+Dio, lxi. 10, 2, gives a most unjust account of Seneca's character:
+
++panta ta enanti�tata hois ephilosophei poi�n �lenchth�. kai
+gar tyrannidos kat�gor�n tyrannodidaskalos egineto, kai t�n synont�n
+tois dynastais katatrech�n ouk aphistato tou palatiou ... tois te
+plousiois enkal�n ousian heptakischili�n kai pentakosi�n myriad�n
+ekt�sato.+
+
+Seneca followed no traditional style. Cf. _Ep._ 100, 6, 'De
+compositione non constat'; _Ep._ 114, 13, 'Oratio certam regulam non
+habet.' Quintilian, x. 1, 125-131, attacks his style, though admitting
+his great powers.
+
+
+
+CURTIUS RUFUS.
+
+
+The full name is Q. Curtius Rufus, given in the MSS. of his work,
+'Historiarum Alexandri Magni Macedonis Libri x.', the first two Books
+of which are lost. Curtius is not referred to by name by any ancient
+writer, but is probably identical with the Q. Curtius Rufus mentioned
+in the list prefixed to Sueton. _de claris oratoribus_ between M.
+Porcius Latro and L. Valerius Primanus. This order favours the view
+that he belonged to the reign of Claudius, a view supported by the two
+contemporary references in Curtius:
+
+iv. 4, 21 (of Tyre), 'nunc tandem longa pace cuncta refovente sub
+tutela Romanae mansuetudinis adquiescit.'
+
+x. 9, 3-6, 'Quod imperium sub uno stare potuisset, dum a pluribus
+sustinetur, ruit. Proinde iure meritoque populus Romanus salutem se
+principi suo debere profitetur, qui noctis, quam paene supremam
+habuimus, novum sidus inluxit. Huius hercule, non solis ortus lucem
+caliganti reddidit mundo, cum sine suo capite discordia membra
+trepidarent,' etc.
+
+This passage probably refers to the tumultuous scene on the night
+between 24th and 25th Jan., A.D. 41, before Claudius' accession, after
+the murder of Caligula (cf. the pun in _caliganti_), when rival
+claimants to the throne were put forward, and the Senate wished to
+restore the republic (cf. _discordia membra trepidarent_). Sen. _ad
+Polyb._ 13, 1, uses similar language of Claudius, 'Sidus hoc, quod
+praecipitato in profundum et demerso in tenebras orbi refulsit, semper
+luceat.'
+
+As Curtius says nothing but good about the reign of Claudius, he
+probably wrote shortly after his accession. The passage in iv. 4, 21
+(above) also fits in with this view, as there was little fighting in
+the Roman world from 17 to 43 A.D. His bold tone with regard to rulers
+would also suit this time, while it would have been dangerous under
+Caligula, or from 43 to 54 A.D.
+
+Cf. viii. 5, 6, 'Non deerat talia concupiscenti perniciosa adulatio,
+perpetuum malum regum, quorum opes saepius adsentatio quam hostis
+evertit.'
+
+This tone also renders it impossible to identify him with Curtius
+Rufus, mentioned in Tac. _Ann._ xi. 21, as governor of Africa, and as
+'adversus superiores tristi adulatione, adrogans minoribus, inter
+pares difficilis.'
+
+Seneca is supposed to have quoted his contemporary Curtius once or
+twice. Cf. Sen. _Ep._ 56, 9, 'Nihil tam certum est quam otii vitia
+negotio discuti'; and Curt. vii. 1, 4, 'Satis prudens, otii vitia
+negotio discuti.' Cf. also viii. 10, 29 with Sen. _Ep._ 59, 12.
+
+Curtius claims to transcribe his authorities carefully. Cf. ix. 1, 34,
+'Equidem plura transscribo quam credo: nam nec adfirmare sustineo, de
+quibus dubito, nec subducere quae accepi.'
+
+Curtius' statements are usually parallel to those of one or other of
+the historians of Alexander, but he appeals only twice to other
+authorities by name.
+
+ix. 8, 15, 'Clitarchus (c. 300 B.C.) est auctor.'
+
+ix. 5, 21, 'Ptolemaeum (c. 300 B.C.), qui postea regnavit, huic pugnae
+adfuisse auctor est Clitarchus et Timagenes (c. 55 B.C.). Sed ipse ...
+afuisse se missum in expeditionem memoriae tradidit.'
+
+The rhetorical tone of the work is seen in the speeches and letters.
+For the latter cf. iv. 1, 10-74. Curtius has little technical
+knowledge of war or politics. Thus Alexander's assumption of oriental
+pomp to conciliate the Asiatics is looked on as +hybris+. Cf.
+iii. 12, 18. Like Livy, he attempts to depreciate Alexander's
+abilities by unduly accentuating his good fortune.
+
+Cf. viii. 3, 1, 'Sed hanc quoque expeditionem, ut pleraque alia,
+fortuna indulgendo ei numquam fatigata pro absente transegit.'
+
+
+
+COLUMELLA.
+
+
+L. Iunius Moderatus Columella was a native of Gades: x. 185, 'mea
+[lactuca] quam generant Tartessi littore Gades.' On an inscription he
+is styled 'trib. mil. leg. vi. ferratae' (_C.I.L._ ix. 325), and it
+was probably in the course of his military service that he visited
+Cilicia and Syria: ii. 10, 18, 'hoc semen Ciliciae Syriaeque
+regionibus ipse vidi.'
+
+His uncle, M. Columella, was a leading man in the province of Baetica
+(v. 5, 15); and he himself possessed land in Italy: iii. 9, 2, 'cum et
+in Ardeatino agro, quem multis temporibus ipsi ante possedimus, et in
+Carseolano itemque in Albano generis Aminei vites huius modi notae
+habuerimus.'
+
+He was a contemporary of the younger Seneca, who is spoken of as alive
+(iii. 3, 3).
+
+His chief work is _De Re Rustica_ in twelve Books, dedicated to P.
+Silvinus--a practical treatise on husbandry for 'negotiosi agricolae'
+(ix. 2, 5). Book x., on gardening, is in hexameter verse, and was
+written at the suggestion of Silvinus and another friend, to fill the
+gap which Virgil had left in the Georgics (iv. 147-8); cf. the
+preface, 'Cultus hortorum ... sicut institueram, prosa oratione
+prioribus subnecteretur exordiis, nisi propositum expugnasset frequens
+postulatio tua, quae pervicit, ut poeticis numeris explerem Georgici
+carminis omissas partes, quas tamen et ipse Vergilius significaverat,
+posteris se memorandas relinquere.'
+
+The last two Books were added as an afterthought; xi. 1, 2, 'numerum
+quem iam quasi consummaveram voluminum excessi.'
+
+Columella wrote before A.D. 65 (see above); later than Celsus, but
+earlier than the elder Pliny.
+
+There is also extant a book _De Arboribus_, which formed Book ii. of
+an earlier treatise on agriculture: cf. i. 1, 'Quoniam de cultu
+agrorum abunde primo volumine praecepisse videmur, non intempestiva
+erit arborum virgultorumque cura.' It covers the same ground as _De
+R.R._ iii.-v.
+
+Columella also wrote 'adversus astrologos' (xi. 1, 31), and projected
+a treatise on the religious rites connected with agriculture (ii. 22,
+5, 'lustrationum ceterorumque sacrificiorum, quae pro frugibus fiunt,
+morem priscis usurpatum').
+
+
+
+POMPONIUS MELA.
+
+
+The geographer Pomponius Mela was a native of Tingentera in Spain (ii.
+96). His date can be inferred from iii. 49; the 'principum maximus'
+mentioned there as triumphing over Britain might be either Claudius
+(in A.D. 40) or Caligula (in 44); but the earlier date is favoured by
+Mela's division of Africa according to the system abolished by
+Caligula in 42 (i. 25-30). The title of his work is _De Chorographia_,
+in three Books: the dryness of its details (i. 1, 'opus impeditum et
+facundiae minime capax') is relieved by word-painting, _e.g._ the
+description of Britain, iii. 49. The only authors to whom he
+acknowledges obligations are Nepos (iii. 45) and Hanno (iii. 90).
+
+
+
+PERSIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+We possess a very full account of the life of Persius, which,
+according to the MSS., is taken from Probus' commentary on the poet,
+and may therefore be looked upon as trustworthy. According to Probus
+(from whom are taken the quotations throughout), he lived from 34 to
+62 A.D.: 'Aulus Persius Flaccus natus est pridie Non. Decembr. Fabio
+Persico L. Vitellio coss., decessit viii. Kal. Decembr. Rubrio Mario
+Asinio Gallo coss.' These dates are confirmed by Jerome.
+
+He was born at Volaterrae in Etruria, and was the son of a Roman
+knight who died when Persius was quite young:
+
+'Natus in Etruria Volaterris, eques Romanus, sanguine et affinitate
+primi ordinis viris coniunctus. Pater eum Flaccus pupillum reliquit
+moriens annorum fere sex.'
+
+'Fulvia Sisennia (his mother) nupsit postea Fuscio equiti Romano.'
+
+After the completion of his early education (for which see _Sat._ 3,
+44-51) he studied at Rome, where he came under the influence of the
+Stoic Annaeus Cornutus:
+
+'Studuit Flaccus usque ad annum xii. aetatis suae Volaterris, inde
+Romae apud grammaticum Remmium Palaemonem et apud rhetorem Verginium
+Flavum. Cum esset annorum xvi., amicitia coepit uti Annaei Cornuti,
+ita ut nusquam ab eo discederet; inductus aliquatenus in philosophiam
+est.'
+
+In _Sat._ 5, 21-24 and 30-51, he speaks in the highest terms of
+Cornutus as his guide in life and close friend: cf. esp. ll. 36-7,
+
+             'teneros tu suspicis annos,
+  Socratico, Cornute, sinu.'
+
+Among his other friends were Caesius Bassus (to whom _Sat._ 6 is
+addressed), Lucan, Seneca, and his own relative, Paetus Thrasea:
+
+'Cognovit per Cornutum etiam Annaeum Lucanum, aequaevum auditorem
+Cornuti. Lucanus adeo mirabatur scripta Flacci ut vix retineret se
+recitante eo cum clamore quin illa esse vera poemata diceret, sua ipse
+ludos faceret. Sero cognovit et Senecam, sed non ut caperetur eius
+ingenio ... Idem decem fere annis summe dilectus a Paeto Thrasea est,
+ita ut peregrinaretur quoque cum eo aliquando, cognatam eius Arriam
+uxorem habente.'
+
+Persius was a man of considerable means, as is shown by his will and
+his landed property:
+
+'Reliquit circa HS vicies matri et sorori; scriptis tamen ad matrem
+codicillis Cornuto rogavit ut daret sestertia ut quidam centum, ut
+alii volunt ..., et argenti facti pondo viginti, et libros circa
+septingentos sive bibliothecam suam omnem. Verum a Cornuto sublatis
+libris, pecuniam sororibus, quas heredes frater fecerat, reliquit.'
+
+'Decessit ad octavum miliarium via Appia in praediis suis ... vitio
+stomachi anno aetatis xxviii.'
+
+His character was lofty and disinterested:
+
+'Fuit morum lenissimorum, verecundiae virginalis, formae pulchrae,
+pietatis erga matrem et sororem et amitam exemplo sufficientis. Fuit
+frugi, pudicus.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. His early works, which Cornutus caused to be destroyed at his
+death, were:
+
+(_a_) A praetexta, called _Vescia_ (?).
+
+(_b_) One Book of +hodoiporika+, no doubt referring to his
+travels with Thrasea.
+
+(_c_) Some verses on Arria, the wife of Paetus.
+
+'Scripserat in pueritia Flaccus etiam praetextam Vesciam, et
++hodoiporik�n+ librum unum, et paucos in socrum Thraseae in Arriam
+matrem versus ... Omnia ea auctor fuit Cornutus matri eius ut
+aboleret.'
+
+2. _Satires._ There are six of these (in hexameters), with a prologue
+(in scazons). Persius wrote slowly, and the Book was left unfinished:
+
+'Et raro et tarde scripsit. Hunc ipsum librum imperfectum reliquit.
+Versus aliqui dempti sunt ultimo libro, ut quasi finitus esset.
+Leviter retractavit Cornutus, et Caesio Basso petenti, ut ipsi
+cederet, tradidit edendum.'
+
+The prologue, and the first satire (on literary criticism)--the only
+real satire he wrote--are said to be imitated from Lucilius. The other
+five are largely Stoic dissertations in verse, and show throughout the
+influence of Cornutus and Persius' other Stoic friends. Probus says he
+attacked Nero's poetry in _Sat._ 1.
+
+'Lecto Lucilii libro x. vehementer satiras componere instituit, cuius
+libri principium imitatus est ... cum tanta recentium poetarum et
+oratorum insectatione, ut etiam Neronem ... culpaverit, cuius versus
+in Neronem cum ita se haberet:
+
+  'Auriculas asini Mida rex habet,'
+
+in eum modum a Cornuto, ipso iam tum mortuo, est emendatus:
+
+  'Auriculas asini quis non habet?' [1, 121]
+
+ne hoc Nero in se dictum arbitraretur.'
+
+_Sat._ 1, 99-102 is said to be a travesty of Nero's poetry.
+
+Very few passages, however, are quoted by the Scholiasts as modelled
+on Lucilius.
+
+Persius refers to Lucilius and Horace in 1, 114-8:
+
+              'Secuit Lucilius urbem,
+  te, Lupe, te, Muci, et genuinum fregit in illis;
+  omne vafer vitium ridenti Flaccus amico
+  tangit, et admissus circum praecordia ludit,
+  callidus excusso populum suspendere naso.'
+
+His obligations to Horace are paramount, imitations--often
+unintentional burlesques--occurring everywhere. Examples are: 1, 42,
+
+              'cedro digna locutus,
+  linquere nec scombros metuentia carmina nec tus.'
+
+from Hor. _A.P._ 331,
+
+  'carmina ... linenda cedro';
+
+and Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 269,
+
+  'Deferar in vicum vendentem tus et odores
+  et piper et quidquid chartis amicitur ineptis.'
+
+Again, 5, 103,
+
+             'exclamet Melicerta perisse
+  frontem de rebus';
+
+from Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 80,
+
+     'clament periise pudorem
+  cuncti paene patres.'
+
+He even borrows Horace's names: Pedius (1, 85), Natta (3, 31), Nerius
+(2, 14), Craterus (3, 65), Bestius (6, 37).
+
+The statement of Joannes Lydus (i. 41) that Persius imitated the mimic
+writer, Sophron, has little to support it.
+
+Probus says the work became immediately popular: 'Editum librum
+continuo mirari homines et diripere coeperunt.'
+
+Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 94, 'multum et verae gloriae quamvis uno libro
+Persius meruit'; Mart. iv. 29, 7,
+
+  'Saepius in libro memoratur Persius uno
+  quam levis in tota Marsus Amazonide.'
+
+
+
+LUCAN.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Besides references to Lucan in other writers, especially Statius,
+Martial, and Tacitus, we have three biographies of him: (1) a short
+and defective life, probably by Suetonius, and showing his well-known
+hatred of the Annaei; (2) one by Vacca, a commentator on Lucan, who
+lived probably in the sixth century, complete and favourable; (3) one
+in Codex Vossianus ii. The last two are in part derived from the
+first.
+
+M. Annaeus Lucanus was born at Corduba in Hispania Baetica, and was
+the son of M. Annaeus Mela, a Roman knight, and nephew of M. Annaeus
+Novatus (the Gallio of Acts 18, 12-17) and L. Annaeus Seneca the
+philosopher.
+
+Vacca, _vit. Luc._, 'M. Annaeus Lucanus patrem habuit M. Annaeum Melam
+ex provincia Baetica Hispaniae interioris Cordubensem equitem Romanum,
+illustrem inter suos, notum Romae et propter Senecam fratrem, clarum
+per omnes virtutes virum, et propter studium vitae quietioris ...
+Matrem habuit et regionis eiusdem et urbis Aciliam nomine, Acilii
+Lucani filiam ... cuius cognomen huic inditum apparet.'
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xvi. 17, 'Mela, quibus Gallio et Seneca, parentibus
+natus ... Idem Annaeum Lucanum genuerat, grande adiumentum
+claritudinis.'
+
+Lucan was born Nov. 3, A.D. 39, and was removed to Rome when eight
+months old.
+
+Vacca, _ibid._, 'Natus est iii. Non. Novembr. C. Caesare Germanico ii.
+L. Apronio Caesiano coss. Octavum mensem agens Romam translatus est.'
+
+He had a successful school and college career. One of his teachers was
+Cornutus, through whom he knew Persius (see p. 261).
+
+Vacca, _ibid._, 'A praeceptoribus tunc eminentissimis est eruditus
+eosque intra breve temporis spatium ingenio adaequavit ... Declamavit
+et graece et latine cum magna admiratione audientium.'
+
+His first literary success was the _laudes Neronis_ in A.D. 60; this
+led to his political advancement.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Luc._, 'Prima ingenii experimenta in Neronis laudibus
+dedit quinquennali certamine.'
+
+Vacca, _ibid._, 'Ob quod puerili mutato in senatorium cultum et in
+notitiam Caesaris Neronis facile pervenit et honore vixdum aetati
+debito dignus iudicatus est. Gessit autem quaesturam, in qua cum
+collegis more tunc usitato munus gladiatorium edidit secundo populi
+favore; sacerdotium etiam accepit auguratus.'
+
+Similarly Suetonius, who also tells us that Lucan had been in Athens.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._, 'Revocatus Athenis a Nerone cohortique amicorum
+additus atque etiam quaestura honoratus, non tamen permansit in
+gratia.'
+
+The reason of the strained relations between Lucan and the emperor
+was, according to Suetonius, that Lucan had behaved rudely when
+reciting in public. Vacca says the reason lay in the jealousy felt by
+Nero, who forbade Lucan to write poetry or to plead causes.
+
+Vacca, _ibid._, 'Quippe et certamine pentaeterico acto in Pompei
+theatro laudibus recitatis in Neronem fuerat coronatus et ex tempore
+Orphea scriptum in experimentum adversum conplures ediderat poetas et
+tres libros, quales videmus. Quare inimicum sibi fecerat imperatorem.
+Quo ambitiosa vanitate, non hominum tantum, sed et artium sibi
+principatum vindicante interdictum est ei poetica, interdictum est
+etiam causarum actionibus.'
+
+Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xv. 49, 'Famam carminum eius premebat Nero
+prohibueratque ostentare, vanus adsimulatione.'
+
+Lucan replied by a poem satirizing Nero and his court.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._, 'Sed et famoso carmine cum ipsum tum potentissimos
+amicorum gravissime proscidit.'
+
+Lucan joined the conspiracy of Piso which was started A.D. 62, but was
+discovered, and compelled to commit suicide, 30th April, A.D. 65.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._, 'Paene signifer Pisonianae coniurationis extitit.'
+
+Vacca, _ibid._, 'A coniuratis in caedem Neronis socius adsumptus est,
+sed parum fauste. Deceptus est a Pisone ... Sua sponte coactus vita
+excedere venas sibi praecidit periitque pridie Kal. Maias Attico
+Vestino et Nerva Siliano coss., xxvi. aetatis annum agens.'
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xv. 70, 'Exin Annaei Lucani caedem imperat. Is, profluente
+sanguine, ubi frigescere pedes manusque et paulatim ab extremis cedere
+spiritum fervido adhuc et compote mentis pectore intellegit,
+recordatus carmen a se compositum, quo volneratum militem per eius
+modi mortis imaginem obisse tradiderat, versus ipsos rettulit, eaque
+illi suprema vox fuit.'
+
+Suetonius (corroborated by Tac. _Ann._ xv. 56) says that Lucan named
+his mother as a fellow-conspirator.
+
+'Verum detecta coniuratione nequaquam parem animi constantiam
+praestitit. Facile enim confessus et ad humillimas devolutus preces
+matrem quoque innoxiam inter socios nominavit, sperans impietatem sibi
+apud parricidam principem profuturam.... Epulatus largiter brachia ad
+secandas venas praebuit medico.'
+
+Lucan married Polla Argentaria. Statius and Martial were her friends,
+and seem to have kept up an observance of Lucan's birthday.
+
+Cf. especially Statius, _Silvae_, ii. 7, on which the author, in his
+preface to the book, says, 'Cludit volumen genethliacon Lucani, quod
+Polla Argentaria, clarissima uxorum, cum hunc diem forte
+consecraremus, imputari sibi voluit.'
+
+Martial vii. 21, 22, and 23 are written on the subject of Lucan's
+birthday.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. The only extant work of Lucan is _De Bello Civili_. This is the
+title in the MSS., and in Petron. 118. The usual title comes from ix.
+985, 'Pharsalia nostra vivet,' words which come after a list of places
+in Greece and Asia immortalized by the poets, and which mean 'My story
+of Pharsalus shall live.' There is no evidence that Lucan gave the
+poem this title.
+
+2. _Lost works._ Vacca mentions the following:
+
+(_a_) In verse: Orpheus; Iliacon; Saturnalia; Catachthonion; Silvarum
+x.; tragoedia Medea (imperfecta): Salticae Fabulae, xiv.; epigrammata.
+
+(_b_) In prose: Oratio in Octavium Sagittam et pro eo; de incendio
+urbis; epistulae ex Campania.
+
+Suetonius also mentions 'Neronis laudes; famosum carmen in Neronem.'
+Stat. _Silv._ ii. 7, 62, mentions another work--'allocutio ad Pollam'
+(his wife).
+
+Lucan's works became immediately popular.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._, 'Poemata eius etiam praelegi memini, confici vero ac
+proponi, non tantum operose et diligenter, sed et inepte quoque.'
+
+Mart. xiv. 194,
+
+  'Sunt quidam qui me dicunt non esse poetam:
+  sed qui me vendit bibliopola putat.'
+
+The epic poem _De Bello Civili_ in ten Books (the last incomplete)
+carries the story of the Civil War down to the point where Caesar is
+besieged in Alexandria. Vacca informs us that Lucan did not live to
+correct the last seven Books.
+
+'Ediderat ... tres libros quales videmus ... Reliqui vii. belli
+civilis libri locum calumniantibus tamquam mendosi non darent, qui
+tametsi sub vero crimine non egent patrocinio: in isdem dici, quod in
+Ovidii libris praescribitur, potest: "emendaturus, si licuisset,
+erat."'
+
+_Lucan's political views._--The first three Books were published when
+Lucan was still on good terms with Nero (cf. the gross flattery in i.
+33-66), but practically the same view of the empire is taken
+throughout the poem; only Lucan expresses his views with greater
+vigour in the last seven Books; and, while in Books i.-iii. the
+question is one between Caesar and Pompey, afterwards it is one
+between Caesar and liberty. Even in Books i.-iii. Caesar is the
+villain of the piece; Pompey embodies all that is good; Cato and
+Brutus are highly spoken of; the former stands as the ideal Stoic. The
+Senate, except in Book v. _ad init._, appears in a rather unfavourable
+light, and so does the plebs. Lucan did not want the re-establishment
+of the republican oligarchy, but acquiesced in the empire as being
+ordained by fate. This is borne out by what we know of the Pisonian
+conspiracy, the object of which was not to re-establish the republic,
+but to put some leading man like Seneca on the throne. A few
+quotations will exemplify these points:
+
+(1) The empire; iv. 691,
+
+           'Libyamque auferre tyranno
+  dum regnum te, Roma, facit';
+
+vii. 432,
+
+  'Quod fugiens civile nefas redituraque nunquam
+  libertas ultra Tigrim Rhenumque recessit';
+
+vii. 442,
+
+  'Felices Arabes Medique eoaque tellus,
+  quam sub perpetuis tenuerunt fata tyrannis.
+  Ex populis qui regna ferunt, sors ultima nostra est,
+  quos servire pudet.'
+
+(2) Pompeius; ii. 732-6,
+
+  'Non quia te superi patrio privare sepulchro
+  maluerint, Phariae busto damnantur harenae:
+  parcitur Hesperiae; procul hoc et in orbe remoto
+  abscondat fortuna nefas, Romanaque tellus
+  inmaculata sui servetur sanguine Magni.'
+
+Cf. ix. 601-4 (where apotheosis is assigned him).
+
+(3) Cato (the hero of Book ix.) and Brutus; ii. 234,
+
+  'At non magnanimi percussit pectora Bruti
+  terror';
+
+ix. 554,
+
+  'Nam cui crediderim superos arcana daturos
+  dicturosque magis quam sancto vera Catoni?'
+
+Cf. ix. 186-9.
+
+(4) Caesar; ii. 439,
+
+  'Caesar in arma furens nullas nisi sanguine fuso
+  gaudet habere vias';
+
+v. 242,
+
+  'perdere successus scelerum';
+
+vii. 593,
+
+               'nondum attigit arcem
+  iuris et humanum columen, quo cuncta premuntur,
+  egressus meruit fatis tam nobile letum.
+  Vivat et, ut Bruti procumbat victima, regnet.'
+
+Caesar's acts are sometimes unfairly represented, as in vii. 798
+_sqq._, ix. 1035 _sqq._ (on viewing Pompeius' corpse); ll. 1038-9,
+
+            'lacrimas non sponte cadentis
+  effudit gemitusque expressit pectore laeto.'
+
+_Lucan's philosophical and religious views._--His Stoicism comes out
+strongly in the poem, ix. 566-84 (speech of Cato), especially 578-80,
+
+  'Estque dei sedes, nisi terra et pontus et a�r
+  et caelum et virtus? Superos quid quaerimus ultra?
+  Iuppiter est, quodcumque vides, quodcumque moveris?'
+
+vii. 814,
+
+  'Communis mundo superest rogus ossibus astra
+  mixturus.'
+
+Note especially the very frequent references to fate; i. 263-4,
+
+              'cunctasque pudoris
+  rumpunt fata moras.'
+
+The gods are not introduced as chief agents; cf. the censure of
+Petronius quoted below. Lucan prides himself on despising the gods,
+and substitutes for them his favourite divinity, Fortuna; i. 128,
+
+  'Victrix causa deis placuit, sed victa Catoni';
+
+vii. 445,
+
+      'Sunt nobis nulla profecto
+  numina; cum caeco rapiantur saecula casu,
+  mentimur regnare Iovem.'
+
+_Rhetorical treatment_ is seen in (1) the vast amount of hyperbole
+employed; cf. the account of the siege of Massilia, iii. 538-762; (2)
+the geographical and mythological learning introduced. This is
+sometimes inaccurate; the best known instance is his confusion of
+Pharsalus and Philippi; cf. i. 1 and 688.
+
+_Lucan's models._--(1) For diction, chiefly Virgil.[77] Horace and
+Ovid are also imitated.
+
+(2) For history Lucan is supposed to have used Livy mostly. How far he
+used other authorities is unknown. His history is sometimes inexact.
+In ii. 478 _sqq._ the character of L. Domitius Ahenobarbus is falsely
+portrayed. So the journey of Cato to the shrine of Hammon, ix. 511
+_sqq._
+
+(3) Seneca is one of his authorities for science and philosophy. Thus
+in describing the Nile, x. 194-331, Lucan has used Seneca, _Nat.
+Quaest._ iv. 1-2. The biographer of the _Codex Vossianus_ ii.
+attributes (probably wrongly) the first seven verses of Book i. to
+Seneca.
+
+'Seneca, qui fuit avonculus eius, quia ex abrupto incohabat, hos vii.
+versus addidit: "Bella per Emathios" usque "et pila minantia pilis."'
+
+_Criticisms of Lucan._--Petronius, in introducing his parody of Lucan,
+says, � 118, 'Ecce belli civilis ingens opus quisquis attigerit, nisi
+plenus litteris, sub onere labetur. Non enim res gestae versibus
+comprehendendae sunt, quod longe melius historici faciunt, sed per
+ambages deorumque ministeria et fabulosum sententiarum tormentum
+praecipitandus est liber spiritus.' See p. 275.
+
+Quint. x. 1, 90, 'Lucanus ardens et concitatus et sententiis
+clarissimus et, ut dicam quod sentio, magis oratoribus quam poetis
+imitandus.'
+
+
+
+PETRONIUS.
+
+
+The _Satirae_ of Petronius are attributed in the MSS. to Petronius
+Arbiter. It is practically certain that the author was C. Petronius,
+once proconsul of Bithynia and afterwards consul, who was long a
+member of Nero's inner circle, and who, in A.D. 66, when accused by
+Tigellinus, anticipated execution by suicide.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xvi. 18, 'Proconsul Bithyniae, et mox consul, vigentem se
+ac parem negotiis ostendit. Dein revolutus ad vitia, seu vitiorum
+imitatione, inter paucos familiarium Neroni adsumptus est, elegantiae
+arbiter, dum nihil amoenum et molle adfluentia putat, nisi quod ei
+Petronius adprobavisset. Unde invidia Tigellini ... (Ch. 19) Forte ...
+Campaniam petiverat Caesar, et Cumas usque progressus Petronius illic
+attinebatur. Nec tulit ultra timoris aut spei moras. Neque tamen
+praeceps vitam expulit, sed incisas venas, ut libitum, obligatas
+aperire rursum, et adloqui amicos, non per seria aut quibus gloriam
+constantiae peteret ... Flagitia principis sub nominibus exoletorum
+feminarumque et novitatem cuiusque stupri perscripsit, atque obsignata
+misit Neroni.'
+
+The document mentioned above as sent to Nero has nothing to do with
+the extant _Satirae_. That C. Petronius is the author of the work is
+rendered even more certain from the fact that it was obviously written
+in Nero's time by a man of high culture and knowledge of the world.
+
+The novel contains an account of the adventures of a certain
+Encolpius, as told by himself. Encolpius comes in contact with Priapus
+in Massilia, Cumae, and Croton; and probably the wrath of Priapus (a
+parody of the wrath of Poseidon in the Odyssey) is the leading motive
+that binds the disjointed parts. Cf. ch. 139,
+
+  'Me quoque per terras, per cani Nereos aequor
+  Hellespontiaci sequitur gravis ira Priapi.'
+
+The work, the extant parts of which are from Books xv. and xvi., is in
+form a Satira Menippea,[78] alternately prose and verse. The longer
+episodes, as the supper of Trimalchio and the story of the matron of
+Ephesus, are exclusively prose. In the _Cena Trimalchionis_, where
+Encolpius and his company are entertained by a rich freedman,
+Petronius has given us a correct account of provincial life in South
+Italy. Mommsen (_Hermes_, xiii. 106) has shown that Cumae was the town
+where Trimalchio lived. It is a 'Graeca urbs' (ch. 81), and a Roman
+colony (ch. 44, etc.), so that it cannot be Naples. The chief
+magistrates are called _praetores_ (ch. 65), which suits Cumae alone
+of the towns of this district. The only objection to Cumae being the
+place is the passage in ch. 48, where an event at Cumae is given as
+something wonderful and unusual:
+
+'Nam Sibyllam quidem Cumis ego ipse oculis meis vidi in ampulla
+pendere, et cum illi pueri dicerent: +Sibylla, ti theleis?+
+respondebat illa: +apothanein thelo+.'
+
+This, however, may simply be given for comic effect. Friedl�nder
+thinks _Cumis_ is a wrong reading. The date of Encolpius' adventures
+cannot be under Tiberius, for the emperor is called 'pater patriae'
+(ch. 60), a title which Tiberius refused. Mommsen thinks the dramatic
+date is under Augustus; Friedl�nder,[79] towards the end of Claudius'
+or the beginning of Nero's reign. The cognomen of Trimalchio,
+Maecenatianus (ch. 71), means that he was a freedman of the well-known
+Maecenas. Trimalchio, therefore, came to Rome as a boy (ch. 29; 75)
+before Maecenas' death (B.C. 8), and was probably born about B.C. 18.
+He is represented as 'senex' (ch. 27), _i.e._ at least sixty, but may
+have been over seventy. A.D. 57 is probably the later limit of date.
+Mommsen thinks that the words (ch. 57), 'puer capillatus in hanc
+coloniam veni: adhuc basilica non erat facta,' mean that when
+Trimalchio came to Cumae it was not a Roman colony. Now, Cumae became
+a colony between 43 and 27 B.C., and, on this supposition, the supper
+of Trimalchio would have to be placed between A.D. 7 and A.D. 23, as
+it is about fifty years since Trimalchio came to Cumae. Friedl�nder,
+however, thinks that the basilica would not have been put up
+immediately the town became a colony.
+
+The language of the narrative is that of the educated classes of the
+time, and is in close agreement with the style of Seneca the younger.
+The diction of Trimalchio and his fellow-freedman is the South Italian
+popular speech of the time, filled with grammatical mistakes and
+provincialisms, and rich in proverbial expressions. The longest poems
+in the work are: (1) _Troiae halosis_ (ch. 89), 65 senarii, supposed
+to be a parody of Nero's poem of the same name; (2) _De bello civili_
+(ch. 119-124), 295 hexameters, in which Lucan's style is imitated and
+sometimes parodied. Cf. ll. 26-7,
+
+  'Et laxi crines et tot nova nomina vestis,
+  quaeque virum quaerunt,'
+
+with Lucan, i. 164-5,
+
+         'Cultus gestare decoros
+  vix nuribus rapuere mares';
+
+and ll. 51-2,
+
+  'Praeterea gemino deprensam gurgite plebem
+  faenoris illuvies ususque exederat aeris,'
+
+with Lucan, i. 181,
+
+  'Hinc usura vorax, avidumque in tempora faenus.'
+
+
+
+CALPURNIUS SICULUS.
+
+
+Eleven eclogues used to be attributed to T. Calpurnius Siculus, but
+only the first seven are his work, the last four being written by M.
+Aurelius Olympius Nemesianus in the second half of the 3rd century
+A.D. A MS. now lost gave before _Ecl._ 1, 'Titi Calphurnii Siculi
+bucolicum carmen ... incipit'; and before _Ecl._ 8, 'Aurelii Nemesiani
+poetae Carthaginiensis ecloga prima incipit.'
+
+Some information about Calpurnius' life is got from his works. In 4,
+17-8, he (as Corydon) mentions a brother; in 4, 155-6, he speaks of
+his poverty; and in 4, 29 _sqq._, of Meliboeus as having come to his
+assistance when about to leave for Spain; cf. _Ecl._ 4, 36-42,
+
+  Ecce nihil querulum per te, Meliboee, sonamus;
+  per te secura saturi recubamus in umbra,
+  et fruimur silvis Amaryllidos, ultima nuper
+  litora terrarum, nisi tu, Meliboee, fuisses,
+  ultima visuri, trucibusque obnoxia Mauris
+  pascua Geryonis.
+
+The old theory was that Calpurnius lived in the time of Carus and his
+sons (in the second half of the 3rd century A.D.), but the facts fit
+in best with the view that he lived at the beginning of Nero's reign.
+(1) Meliboeus in _Ecl._ 4 probably stands for Seneca (others suppose
+Calpurnius Piso to be meant); 4, 53-7,
+
+  Nam tibi non tantum venturos discere nimbos
+  agricolis qualemque ferat sol aureus ortum,
+  attribuere dei, sed dulcia carmina saepe
+  concinis.
+
+These lines agree with the fact of Seneca's being the author of
+_Naturales Quaestiones_ and of tragedies. (2) _Ecl._ i. 77-83 refers
+to the comet which appeared at the beginning of Nero's reign. (3)
+References to Nero's youth and beauty, poetical gifts, the games he
+gave, and the new era of peace he introduced; 1, 42-5,
+
+  Aurea secura cum pace renascitur aetas,
+  et redit ad terras tandem squalore situque
+  alma Themis posito, iuvenemque beata secuntur
+  saecula, maternis causam qui vicit in ulnis
+
+7, 6,
+
+  quae patula iuvenis deus edit harena.
+
+Cf. also 1, 84-8; 4, 84-9; 7, 83-4. _Ecl._ 7 used to be taken as
+referring to the Colosseum, which was not commenced till about A.D.
+77; but the games may be those mentioned in Sueton. _Nero_, 11, and
+the wooden amphitheatre in 7, 23-4, may be that mentioned by Sueton.
+_Nero_, 12, and Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 31.
+
+The difference of authorship of _Ecl._ 1-7 and of _Ecl._ 8-11 is shown
+by the following: (1) Final _o_ shows classical usage in 1-7, but in
+8-11 we have _expecto_ (9, 26), _coniungo_ (10, 14), _ambo_ (9, 17),
+and the like; (2) 1-7 show only eight elisions, 7-11 show thirty-nine;
+(3) no ending like _montivagus Pan_ (10, 17) is found in 1-7; (4)
+_fateor_ and _memini_ used parenthetically are common in 1-7, and not
+found in 8-11; (5) there are no allusions to the emperor in 8-11; (6)
+_Ecl._ 9 shows imitations of _Ecl._ 2 and 3; (7) 8-11 agree in many
+points with Nemesianus' _Cynegetica_.
+
+The _Eclogues_ are modelled chiefly on Virgil and Theocritus, _e.g._
+_Ecl._ 3 on Verg. _Ecl._ 7 and Theocr. 3, 14, and 23.
+
+The poem _de laude Pisonis_ is now generally attributed to Calpurnius
+Siculus. One point of similarity with Calpurnius' other poems is the
+rareness of elision, there being only two instances (ll. 24, 259). The
+description of Piso's liberality and eloquence (ll. 32, 88, 97 _sqq._)
+and of his skill in draughts (ll. 178-96) corresponds with the
+information given by Tac. _Ann._ xv. 48 and the Schol. on Iuv. 5, 109,
+about Calpurnius Piso, who flourished under Claudius.
+
+
+
+AETNA.
+
+
+This poem, in 645 hexameter lines, is attributed to Virgil in the
+MSS., but is probably by Lucilius Iunior, to whom Seneca addresses his
+_Epistulae Morales_, _De Providentia_, and _Quaestiones Naturales_.
+Lucilius was younger than Seneca (Sen. _Ep._ 26, 7, 'iuvenior es'),
+and was born at Naples or Pompeii.
+
+Sen. _Ep._ 49, 1, 'Ecce Campania et maxime Neapolis ad Pompeiorum
+tuorum conspectum incredibile est quam recens desiderium tui
+fecerint.'
+
+Lucilius had held procuratorial offices in Alpes Graiae et Poeninae,
+Epirus, Creta et Cyrene, and Sicily.
+
+_Ibid._ 44, 2, 'Eques Romanus es et ad hunc ordinem tua te perduxit
+industria.' _Ibid._ 31, 9, 'Quo modo, inquis, isto pervenitur? Non per
+Poeninum Graiumve montem, nec per deserta Candaviae, nec Syrtes tibi
+nec Scylla aut Charybdis adeundae sunt, quae tamen omnia transisti
+procuratiunculae pretio.'[80]
+
+Sen. _N.Q._ iv. praef. 1, 'Delectat te, Lucili, Sicilia et officium
+procurationis otiosae.'
+
+For his life cf. also the words put into his mouth by Sen. _N.Q._ iv.
+praef. 15-17, which show his loyalty to his friends, 'Non mihi in
+amicitia Gaetulici (died A.D. 39) vel Gaius fidem eripuit, non in
+aliorum persona infeliciter amatorum Messalla et Narcissus ...
+propositum meum avertere potuerunt ... videbam apud Gaium tormenta,
+videbam ignes.'[81]
+
+Seneca speaks of him as a pupil in philosophy in _Ep._ 34, 2, 'Adsero
+te mihi: meum opus es.'
+
+A literary work of his is spoken of by Seneca, also a poem in which he
+mentions Alpheus and Arethusa:
+
+_Ep._ 46, 1, 'Librum tuum, quem mihi promiseras, accepi. Levis mihi
+visus est, cum esset nec mei nec tui corporis, sed qui primo adspectu
+aut T. Livi aut Epicuri posset videri ... Non tantum delectatus, sed
+gavisus sum.'
+
+_N.Q._ iii. 26, 6, 'Hoc et a te traditum est ut in poemate, Lucili
+carissime, et a Vergilio, qui adloquitur Arethusam.'
+
+A poem on Aetna is referred to in _Ep._ 79, 5-7, 'Donec pudor obstet,
+ne Aetnam describas in tuo carmine et hunc sollemnem omnibus poetis
+locum adtingas; quem quo minus Ovidius tractaret, nihil obstitit, quod
+iam Vergilius impleverat ... Aut ego te non novi aut Aetna tibi
+salivam movet: iam cupis grande aliquid et par prioribus scribere.'
+
+Some authorities think that Lucilius had meant to incorporate this
+description in a larger poem, but changed his mind, and wrote a poem
+on Aetna alone.
+
+As regards the date of the poem: (1) It was written at a time when
+imitation of Ovid was common. Cf. Sen. _N.Q._ iv. 2, 2, 'Quare non cum
+poeta meo iocor et illi Ovidium suum impingo?' (2) There is no mention
+of Vesuvius in the list of volcanoes in 1. 425 _sqq._ The poem must
+therefore have been written before A.D. 79.
+
+The following are the arguments for Lucilius having been the author:
+
+(1) The poem was written by one who knew Aetna and the vicinity. Now
+Lucilius was long procurator of Sicily.
+
+(2) Military metaphors, as ll. 464-74, would fit in with his having
+been a soldier.
+
+(3) The author speaks as if he knew the neighbourhood of Naples well.
+
+(4) However, the argument that the writer shows Epicurean views, and
+that Lucilius was an Epicurean, has little weight. (_a_) There are
+Stoical doctrines in the poem. Cf. ll. 33-5, 68-70, on the divinity of
+the stars; ll. 173-4, which maintain that the world would come back to
+its former state; ll. 536-9, where Heraclitus' doctrine of fire is
+recommended. (_b_) The _Epistulae Morales_ only show that Lucilius had a
+leaning to Epicureanism, not that he was an Epicurean. Cf. _Ep._ 23,
+9, 'Vocem tibi Epicuri tui reddere,' and other playful references.
+
+(5) The views on natural science given in the poem are sometimes the
+same as those in Sen. _N.Q._ This would fix the date of the poem
+between 65 and 79 A.D. Cf. _Aetna_, 123,
+
+  'Flumina quin etiam latis currentia rivis
+   occasus habuere suos: aut illa vorago
+   derepta in praeceps fatali condidit ore
+   aut occulta fluunt tectis adoperta cavernis
+   atque inopinatos referunt procul edita cursus';
+
+and Sen. _N.Q._ iii. 26, 3, 'Quaedam flumina palam in aliquem specum
+decidunt et sic ex oculis auferuntur, quaedam consumuntur paulatim et
+intercidunt. Eadem ex intervallo revertuntur recipiuntque et nomen et
+cursum.' Cf. also _Aetna_, 96,
+
+                   'Defit namque omnis hiatu,
+  secta est omnis humus penitusque cavata latebris
+  exiles suspensa vias agit';
+
+and Sen. _N.Q._ v. 14, 1, 'Non tota solido contextu terra in imum
+usque fundatur, sed multis partibus cava et caecis suspensa latebris.'
+So the story of the Catanian brothers (ll. 624-45) is told by Sen. _De
+Benef._ iii. 37, 2-3.
+
+Imitations of Lucretius abound. Cf. ll. 219 _sqq._,
+
+  'Nunc quoniam in promptu est operis natura solique,
+   unde ipsi venti, quae res incendia pascit,' etc.
+
+For the author's attacks on superstition, cf. ll. 91-3,
+
+  'Debita carminibus libertas ista; sed omnis
+   in vero mihi cura: canam quo fervida motu
+   aestuet Aetna novosque rapax sibi congerat ignes.'
+
+A version of the _Phaenomena_ of Aratus is extant, the author of which
+is called in the MSS. 'Claudius Caesar,' or 'Germanicus.' He is
+generally identified with Germanicus, the adopted son of Tiberius (so
+Jerome and Lactantius), though in modern times the poem has been
+ascribed to Domitian, who had the title of 'Germanicus' from A.D. 84.
+There are also fragments of _Prognostica_, which are independent of
+Aratus.
+
+
+
+PLINY THE ELDER.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+There is a very brief life of Pliny by Suetonius, but most of our
+information about him is derived from his own writings and the letters
+of his nephew (Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5; v. 8; vi. 16; vi. 20).
+
+C. Plinius Secundus was born A.D. 23 or 24, for at the time of his
+death in A.D. 79 he was in his fifty-sixth year (Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5,
+7, 'decessisse anno sexto et quinquagesimo'). His birthplace was Comum
+in Cisalpine Gaul, according to Sueton. _vit. Plin._ In an anonymous
+Life he is styled 'Veronensis,' probably on account of the phrase in
+_N.H._ praef. 1, 'Catullum conterraneum meum,' where, however, _terra_
+means Gallia, the province, not the city.
+
+Pliny was the son of an _eques_, and had a sister married to L.
+Caecilius of Novum Comum (see p. 139). He came to Rome not later than
+A.D. 35 (_N.H._ xxxvii. 81, 'Servilii Noniani quem consulem vidimus'),
+and was trained in poetry and literature, probably by P. Pomponius
+Secundus[82]; his instructors in rhetoric are not known, but he
+mentions as rhetoricians Remmius Palaemon (xiv. 49) and Arellius
+Fuscus (xxxiii. 152). In botany he learned much from Antonius Castor
+(xxv. 9).
+
+At the beginning of the reign of Claudius, Pliny was an eye-witness of
+the building operations at the harbour of Ostia, A.D. 42 (ix. 14): in
+44 he practised in the law courts. Having decided on a military
+career, he would begin, according to the regulation of Claudius
+(Sueton. _Claud._ 25), with the command of a cohort of infantry. He
+was next _praefectus alae_ (Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5, 3) under Corbulo, who
+was _legatus_ of Germania Inferior, A.D. 47, in his campaign against
+the Chauci: cf. _N.H._ xvi. 2, 'Sunt vero in septemtrione visae nobis
+Chaucorum [gentes]'; and in A.D. 50 fought under Pomponius against the
+Chatti. His 'castrense contubernium' with Titus (born A.D. 41) was
+probably in 55 or 56, when he was in the army of Pompeius Paulinus:
+cf. xxxiii. 143, 'Pompeium Paulinum XII pondo argenti habuisse apud
+exercitum ferocissimis gentibus oppositum scimus.' Personal knowledge
+of Germany appears in several passages of the _N.H._, e.g. xii. 98,
+'extremo in margine imperii, qua Rhenus adluit, vidi'; xxii. 8, 'quem
+morem etiam nunc durare apud Germanos scio.'
+
+Pliny was present at the festivities at Lake Fucinus in A.D. 52
+(xxxiii. 63). During Nero's reign he spent some time in Campania (ii.
+180) and Cisalpine Gaul (xxxv. 20), was a spectator at the Vatican
+games in A.D. 59, and saw the building of Nero's golden house after
+the fire of A.D. 64 (xxxvi. iii).
+
+Under Vespasian Pliny was procurator in Italy, and in several of the
+provinces: Sueton. _vit._, 'Procurationes splendidissimas et continuas
+summa integritate administravit.' (_a_) Hispania Tarraconensis: Plin.
+_Ep._ iii. 5, 17, 'cum procuraret in Hispania'; (_b_) Gallia
+Narbonensis: _N.H._ ii. 150, 'ego vidi in Vocontiorum agro'; (_c_)
+Gallia Belgica: xviii. 183, 'nec recens subtrahemus exemplum in
+Treverico agro tertio ante hoc anno compertum'; (_d_) Africa: vii. 36,
+'ipse in Africa vidi.' For his intimacy with Vespasian cf. Plin. _Ep._
+iii. 5, 9, 'ante lucem ibat ad Vespasianum imperatorem ... inde ad
+delegatum sibi officium.'
+
+In A.D. 79 Pliny was in command of the fleet at Misenum, when his
+scientific interest in the eruption of Vesuvius led him to approach
+too near the volcano, with the result that he was suffocated by the
+ashes (24th August). For a detailed account of his death, see Plin.
+_Ep._ vi. 16 (to Tacitus). Cf. Sueton. _vit._, 'Periit clade
+Campaniae. Cum enim Misenensi classi praeesset, et flagrante Vesuvio
+ad explorandas propius causas liburnica pertendisset, neque
+adversantibus ventis remeare posset, vi pulveris ac favillae oppressus
+est, vel, ut quidam existimant, a servo suo occisus, quem aestu
+deficiens ut necem sibi maturaret oraverit.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+A chronological list of Pliny's writings is given by his nephew (_Ep._
+iii. 5).
+
+1. _De iaculatione equestri_.--'Hunc, cum praefectus alae militaret,
+pari ingenio curaque composuit.' This manual on the javelin as a
+cavalry weapon is mentioned by Pliny himself, _N.H._ viii. 162, 'Nos
+diximus in libro de iaculatione equestri condito.'
+
+2. _De vita Pomponii Secundi_, in two Books, a tribute to the memory
+of a valued friend, the tragic poet Pomponius. Cf. _N.H._ xiv. 56,
+'referentes vitam Pomponii Secundi vatis.'
+
+3. _Bella Germaniae_, in twenty Books, a narrative of the Roman wars
+in Germany; begun by Pliny when serving in that country, the
+apparition of Drusus having besought him to rescue his name from
+oblivion (so Pliny the younger). Cf. Tac. _Ann._ i. 69, 'Tradit C.
+Plinius, Germanicorum bellorum scriptor.'
+
+4. _Studiosus_, in three Books or six parts, a treatise on rhetoric
+from the very rudiments. Quintilian, though surprised at some of
+Pliny's views (xi. 3, 143; 148), numbers him among the more careful
+exponents of the subject (iii. 1, 21, 'accuratius scripsit'). The book
+contained models of good style: Gell. ix. 16, 1, 'refert plerasque
+sententias quas in declamandis controversiis lepide arguteque dictas
+putat.'
+
+5. _Dubius Sermo_, in eight Books, published A.D. 67, towards the end
+of Nero's reign, when purely technical subjects alone could be treated
+without danger to an author. Cf. _N.H._ praef. 28, 'libellos quos de
+grammatica edidi.'
+
+6. _A fine Aufidii Bassi_, in thirty-one Books. At what point Bassus'
+history ended and Pliny's began is not known: but the latter certainly
+dealt with the closing years of Nero's reign (_N.H._ ii. 199, 'anno
+Neronis principis supremo, sicut in rebus eius exposuimus'), as well
+as with the times of Vespasian and Titus (_N.H._ praef. 20, 'Vos
+omnes, patrem te fratremque diximus opere iusto, temporum nostrorum
+historiam orsi a fine Aufidii Bassi'). The work was completed in A.D.
+77, but not published till after the author's death. His nephew says
+he wrote with scrupulous care: _Ep._ v. 8, 5, 'historias et quidem
+religiosissime scripsit.' The book was used by Tacitus (_Ann._ xiii.
+20; xv. 53; _Hist._ iii. 28).
+
+7. _Naturae Historiae_, in thirty-seven Books, is Pliny's only extant
+work. As he speaks of Titus as 'sexies consul,' the date of its
+presentation to him was A.D. 77. Book i. consists of a dedicatory
+epistle to Titus and a table of contents. The body of the work is
+arranged as follows: Book ii., the universe and the elements;
+iii.-vi., geography of Europe, Asia, and Africa; vii., anthropology
+and human physiology; viii.-xi., zoology; xii.-xix., botany;
+xx.-xxvii., the use of vegetable substances in medicine;
+xxviii.-xxxii., the use of animal substances in medicine;
+xxxiii.-xxxvii., mineralogy applied to medicine and the fine arts.
+
+This work, which was meant not for continuous perusal, but for
+consultation as a book of reference, contained twenty thousand facts;
+and its preparation involved the reading of about two thousand volumes
+by one hundred authors (see _N.H._ praef. 17). The extracts he had
+made from these sources Pliny bequeathed to his nephew in one hundred
+and sixty volumes. He makes a point of acknowledging his obligations
+to other writers (praef. 21, 'in his voluminibus auctorum nomina
+praetexui, est enim benignum ... et plenum ingenui pudoris fateri per
+quos profeceris'); cf. the lists of authorities, Roman and foreign,
+prefixed to the work. Such devotion to natural science was unusual in
+men of Pliny's class, and not generally appreciated; cf. xxii. 15,
+'Plerisque ultro etiam irrisui sumus ista commentantes atque frivoli
+operis arguimur.' As a scientific writer Pliny fails because he is not
+an original investigator, and because he lacks the critical faculty.
+For his method of working see Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5.
+
+Politically, Pliny recognizes the necessity of the empire, but his
+heroes are old Romans such as Cincinnatus and Cato. His Roman and
+Italian feeling is intense: cf. xxxvii. 201, 'In toto orbe ...
+pulcherrima omnium est in rebusque merito principatum naturae obtinet
+Italia, rectrix parensque mundi altera.'
+
+His view of life is gloomy (_N.H._ ii. 25, 'nec quidquam miserius
+homine'), and through the _Naturae Historiae_ there runs a monotonous
+strain of condemnation of the immorality of his day. He is uncertain
+as to divine providence, but considers the belief in it salutary, and
+he accepts portents (ii. 92). His tendency is, in the main, Stoic; he
+was probably acquainted with Paetus Thrasea, who corresponded with
+Pomponius.
+
+
+
+VALERIUS FLACCUS.
+
+
+His full name is given in the Vatican MS. as C. Valerius Flaccus
+Setinus Balbus. It is doubtful (even if the last two names really
+belong to the poet) whether _Setinus_ means from Setia in Italy or
+from Setia in Spain. The poet's Latinity gives no evidence on the
+point. Quintilian is the only Roman writer who refers to him; x. 1,
+90, 'Multum in Valerio Flacco nuper amisimus'; which shows that he
+must have died about A.D. 90. In the beginning of the first Book of
+the _Argonautica_ (written shortly after A.D. 70), Valerius addresses
+Vespasian, referring to his exploits in Britain, and to the capture of
+Jerusalem by Titus; i. 7 _sqq._,
+
+    'Tuque o, pelagi cui maior aperti
+  fama, Caledonius postquam tua carbasa vexit
+  oceanus Phrygios prius indignatus Iulos,
+  eripe me populis et habenti nubila terrae,
+  sancte pater, veterumque fave veneranda canenti
+  facta virum. Versam proles tua pandet Idumen
+  (namque potest), Solymo nigrantem pulvere fratrem
+  spargentemque faces et in omni turre furentem.'
+
+i. 5 _sqq._ probably shows that Valerius was a quindecimvir sacris
+faciundis,
+
+  'Phoebe, mone, si Cymaeae mihi conscia vatis
+  stat casta cortina domo, si laurea digna
+  fronte viret.'
+
+Cf. the allusion in viii. 239 _sqq._ to Cybele's bath, which was under
+the management of the xv.viri; and to the rites of lustration, iii.
+417 _sqq._
+
+There are several allusions to the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in A.D.
+79, _e.g._ iv. 507.
+
+The _Argonautica_ is in eight Books, the last being incomplete, and
+the story breaking off shortly before the death of Medea's brother,
+Absyrtus. Valerius probably meant to write twelve Books, but it is not
+known how much farther he actually proceeded in his work. There is
+evidence to show that the last Books would have differed considerably
+from the story as given by Apollonius Rhodius; _e.g._ the visit to
+Phaeacia was probably omitted, as Jason was married at Peuce (Book
+viii.).
+
+Apollonius is followed very closely, many passages being translated
+from him; thus iv. 236 = Apoll. ii. 38; vii. 404 = Apoll. in. 966.
+Valerius, however, amplifies where Apollonius is brief, and vice
+versa. Thus Apoll. ii. 948 _sqq._ is dismissed by Valerius v. 110
+_sqq._ in a few words. The character painting of Valerius is superior
+to that of the original, cf. the character of Jason and of Aeetes. So
+for his artistic work; thus his portraiture of the gradual progress of
+Medea's love is superior to Apollonius' description, and to Virgil's
+of Dido.
+
+The obligations to Virgil are paramount.
+
+(1) Verbal; as i. 55,
+
+  'Tu, cui iam curaeque vigent animique viriles,'
+
+from _Aen._ ix. 311,
+
+  'Ante annos animumque gerens curamque virilem.'
+
+Cf. 'horrentem iaculis, nec credere quivi, heu quid agat, libans
+carchesia, summa dies, miscere polum, rumpere questus,' in Book i.[83]
+
+(2) In matter. The description of Fame, ii. 116 _sqq._, is from _Aen._
+iv. The character of Styrus, the betrothed of Medea, is modelled on
+that of Turnus.
+
+After Virgil, Homer (esp. in Book vi.), Ovid, and Seneca's tragedies
+are chiefly imitated. Statius is full of imitations of Valerius.
+
+Valerius often tries to connect his subject with Rome.[84] Cf. ii.
+304,
+
+  'Iam nemus Egeriae, iam te ciet altus ab Alba
+  Iuppiter et soli non mitis Aricia regi';
+
+ii 573,
+
+  'genus Aeneadum et Troiae melioris honores.'
+
+
+
+SILIUS ITALICUS.
+
+
+The full name of Silius is got from an inscription (_C.I.L._ vi.
+1984), and is Ti. Catius Silius Italicus. Our chief information about
+his life is found in Pliny, _Epist._ iii. 7, where his recent death is
+mentioned. It was probably written A.D. 101, and as it states that
+Silius was then 75 years old, the year of his birth was A.D. 25. His
+birthplace is unknown, but was not Italica in Spain, otherwise Martial
+would have claimed him as a countryman. Pliny tells us that Silius had
+risen by acting as a _delator_ under Nero, who made him consul A.D.
+68. He had taken the side of Vitellius in the war of the succession
+A.D. 69[85] and had afterwards, as proconsul, governed Asia with
+success (under Vespasian). After this he possessed great social
+influence. Towards the end of his life, he retired to Campania, and
+gave himself up to study. The account of his learned retirement,[86]
+his reverence for Virgil,[87] the consulship of his son,[88] the death
+of his younger son,[89] and other details, are corroborated by his
+contemporary Martial.
+
+The passage of Pliny is as follows:
+
+'Modo nuntiatus est Silius Italicus in Neapolitano suo inedia finisse
+vitam. Causa mortis valetudo. Erat illi natus insanabilis clavus,
+cuius taedio ad mortem inrevocabili constantia decucurrit, usque ad
+supremum diem beatus et felix, nisi quod minorem ex liberis duobus
+amisit, sed maiorem melioremque florentem atque etiam consularem
+reliquit. Laeserat famam suam sub Nerone, credebatur sponte accusasse:
+sed in Vitelli amicitia sapienter se et comiter gesserat, ex
+proconsulatu Asiae gloriam reportaverat, maculam veteris industriae
+laudabili otio abluerat. Fuit inter principes civitatis sine potentia,
+sine invidia: salutabatur, colebatur, multumque in lectulo iacens
+cubiculo semper non ex fortuna frequenti doctissimis sermonibus dies
+transigebat, cum a scribendo vacaret. Scribebat carmina maiore cura
+quam ingenio, non numquam iudicia hominum recitationibus experiebatur.
+Novissime ita suadentibus annis ab urbe secessit, seque in Campania
+tenuit, ac ne adventu quidem novi principis inde commotus est ... Erat
++philokalos+ usque ad emacitatis reprehensionem. Plures isdem
+in locis villas possidebat adamatisque novis priores neglegebat.
+Multum ubique librorum, multum statuarum, multum imaginum, quas non
+habebat modo verum etiam venerabatur, Vergilii ante omnes, cuius
+natalem religiosius quam suum celebrabat, Neapoli maxime, ubi
+monimentum eius adire ut templum solebat. In hac tranquillitate annum
+quintum et septuagensimum excessit, delicato magis corpore quam
+infirmo; utque novissimus a Nerone factus est consul, ita postremus ex
+omnibus quos Nero consules fecerat decessit.'
+
+Silius' career as an orator is mentioned by Martial vii. 63, 5-8,
+
+  'Sacra cothurnati non attigit ante Maronis,
+    implevit magni quam Ciceronis opus.
+  Hunc miratur adhuc centum gravis hasta virorum,
+    hunc loquitur grato plurimus ore cliens.'
+
+The _Punica_ is an Epic in seventeen Books on the Second Punic War,
+and treats of events down to the battle of Zama, B.C. 202. The
+historical treatment is founded mainly on Livy, and in point of style
+Silius has followed Homer and Virgil, imitations of whom are found on
+every page. For Silius' reverence for Virgil, see above, and cf. viii.
+593,
+
+  'Mantua Musarum domus, atque ad sidera cantu
+  evecta Aonio, et Smyrnaeis aemula plectris.'
+
+Silius also follows Homer and Virgil in their mythology, bringing in
+supernatural motives in a way unsuitable to a historical subject,
+_e.g._ in xv. 20, where Scipio has, like Hercules, to choose between
+Voluptas and Virtus.
+
+The example of Hannibal's dream, iii. 163-182, will show these
+different points. The story of the dream is got from Livy xxi. 22,
+but, for _iuvenis divina specie_, Silius, like Virg. _Aen._ iv. 222
+_sqq._ and 259 _sqq._ substitutes Mercury. Individual imitations in
+the passage are: l. 172, 'Turpe duci totam somno consumere noctem,'
+from _Il._ ii. 24, +ou chr� pannychion heudein boul�phoron
+andra+; l. 168, 'umentem noctis umbram' is from _Aen._ iv. 7,
+'umentemque Aurora polo dimoverat umbram'; l. 174, 'iam maria effusas
+cernes turbare carinas,' from _Aen._ iv. 566, 'iam mare turbari
+trabibus ... videbis'; l. 182, 'altae moenia Romae' is from _Aen._ i.
+7; l. 181, 'respexisse veto' from _Ecl._ 8, 102, 'nec respexeris.'
+
+The Epitome of the Iliad (in 1075 hexameters), which passes under the
+name of _Homerus Latinus_, has been attributed to Silius. It is a
+close adaptation from the original.
+
+
+
+STATIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+P. Papinius Statius was born at Naples (_Silv._ i. 2, 260, 'mea
+Parthenope'), probably about A.D. 60, for he speaks of himself as on
+the threshold of life at the time of his father's death, about A.D. 80
+('limine primo fatorum,' _Silv._ v. 3, 72). The apparent discrepancy
+in _Silv._ iv. 4, 69 (written A.D. 94-5), 'Nos facta aliena canendo
+vergimur in senium,' may be explained by observing that 'senium' is
+very often used for premature age induced by study (cf. 'insenuit,'
+Hor. _Ep._ ii. 2, 82).
+
+The father of Statius came of a distinguished but not wealthy family:
+_Silv._ v. 3, 116,
+
+  'Non tibi deformes obscuri sanguinis ortus
+  nec sine luce genus, quamquam fortuna parentum
+  artior expensis.'
+
+He taught first at Naples (_ibid._ l. 146) and then at Rome (l. 176);
+and died at the age of sixty-five (l. 252) soon after the eruption of
+Vesuvius, which he had intended to make the subject of a poem (l.
+205). It was from his learned father ('genitor perdocte,' l. 3) that
+Statius derived his first impulse towards poetry, and to his training
+he acknowledges deep obligations (ll. 209-214).
+
+Statius won two prizes for poetry, at the _Augustalia_ in Naples and
+at Alba; but was unsuccessful at the Capitoline competition, probably
+in A.D. 94 (_ibid._ 225-232). In that year he seems to have removed
+from Rome to Naples, and spent there the remainder of his days:
+_Silv._ iii. 5, 12,
+
+  'Anne quod Euboicos fessus remeare penates
+  auguror et patria senium componere terra?'
+
+The date of his death is unknown. The latest event mentioned in his
+poems is the seventeenth consulship of Domitian, A.D. 95 (_Silv._ iv.
+1).
+
+Statius was married to a widow named Claudia (_Silv._ iii. 5, 51
+_sqq._), but had no children (v. 5, 79).
+
+He enjoyed the favour of Domitian ('indulgentissimus imperator,'
+_Silv._ i. praef.) who granted him a supply of water for his country
+house at Alba, and occasionally invited him to his table: _Silv._ iii.
+1, 61,
+
+  'Ast ego, Dardaniae quamvis sub collibus Albae
+  rus proprium magnique ducis mihi munere currens
+  unda domi curas mulcere aestusque levare
+  sufficerent.'
+
+_Silv._ iv. praef., 'Sacratissimis eius epulis honoratus.'
+
+He more than once promises to write an epic on Domitian's career (e.g.
+_Theb._ i. 32). The emperor's freedman Earinus (_Silv._ iii. 4) was
+one of Statius' patrons.
+
+His regard for the poet Lucan produced _Silv._ ii. 7, which is a poem
+on Lucan's birthday, addressed to his widow (see p. 267). But his
+chief admiration was reserved for the memory of Virgil: Naples and
+Alba were endeared to him by their associations with the 'great
+master' and the story of Aeneas: _Silv._ iv. 4, 53,
+
+  'Tenues ignavo pollice chordas
+  pulso, Maroneique sedens in margine templi
+  sumo animum et magni tumulis adcanto magistri.'
+
+For Alba cf. _Silv._ v. 3, 37. The _Thebais_ must recognize its
+inferiority to the _Aeneid_: _Theb._ xii. 816,
+
+  'Vive, precor; nec tu divinam Aeneida tempta,
+  sed longe sequere et vestigia semper adora.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. The _Thebais_, an epic poem in twelve Books, occupied Statius for
+twelve years: xii. 811,
+
+  'O mihi bis senos multum vigilata per annos
+  Thebai.'
+
+Cf. _Silv._ iv. 7, 26,
+
+  'Thebais multa cruciata lima.'
+
+The twelve years were probably 79-91 or 80-92 A.D. _Silv._ i. praef.
+(written 91 or 92), 'Adhuc pro Thebaide mea, quamvis me reliquerit,
+timeo.' The publication apparently did not take place till A.D. 95
+(cf. _Silv._ iv. 4, 87 _sqq._ written in that year).
+
+The subject of the poem is the strife between the brothers Eteocles
+and Polynices, and the subsequent history of Thebes to the death of
+Creon. The dedication is to Domitian. For the popularity of the
+_Thebais_ cf. Juv. _Sat._ 7, 82,
+
+  'Curritur ad vocem iucundam et carmen amicae
+  Thebaidos, laetam cum fecit Statius urbem
+  promisitque diem. Tanta dulcedine captos
+  afficit ille animos tantaque libidine volgi
+  auditur; sed, cum fregit subsellia versu,
+  esurit, intactam Paridi nisi vendit Agaven.'
+
+2. The _Achilleis_, also dedicated to Domitian, is an incomplete epic,
+consisting of one Book and part of a second. It was later than the
+Thebaid, for Statius was working at it in A.D. 95: _Silv._ iv. 4, 93,
+
+  'Nunc vacuos crines alio subit infula nexu:
+  Troia quidem magnusque mihi temptatur Achilles.'
+
+The poem was intended to cover the whole career of Achilles, including
+his retreat in Scyros before the Trojan War, and his exploits after
+the death of Hector, which did not enter into the plan of the _Iliad_:
+cf. l. 3,
+
+      'Quamquam acta viri multum inclita cantu
+  Maeonio, sed plura vacant: nos ire per omnem
+  (sic amor est) heroa velis.'
+
+3. The _Silvae_, which represent the poet in his less serious mood,
+are occasional poems on miscellaneous subjects, published in five
+separate Books. Cf. 1, praef. 'Diu multumque dubitavi ... an hos
+libellos, ... cum singuli de sinu meo prodierint, congregates ipse
+dimitterem.' Many of them were thrown off in haste at the command of
+the Emperor or the request of friends: cf. such expressions as 'stili
+facilitas' (ii. praef.), 'libellorum temeritas,' 'hanc audaciam stili
+nostri' (iii. praef.). Of the poems in Book i. he says, 'nullum ex
+illis biduo longius tractum, quaedam et in singulis diebus effusa' (i.
+praef.). Each of the Books is introduced by a prose preface.
+
+None of the _Silvae_ appeared before A.D. 92; for Rutilius Gallicus,
+for whom i. 4 was written, died in that year, and the poem was not
+published till after his death (i. praef.). Book v. was probably a
+posthumous work: there is no proper preface, and the third and fifth
+poems are incomplete.
+
+Hexameter verse is employed for all the _Silvae_ except six. Of these,
+four are in hendecasyllabics, one in the Alcaic and one in the Sapphic
+stanza.
+
+4. The only other poem of which there is distinct evidence is the
+pantomime _Agave_, written not later than A.D. 84, the year in which
+the player Paris was put to death (Juv. _Sat._ 7, 86, quoted above).
+
+
+
+MARTIAL.[90]
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+M. Valerius Martialis (Coquus is added in the old glossaries) was born
+at Bilbilis in Hispania Tarraconensis on 1st March in one of the years
+A.D. 38-41. His tenth Book, written A.D. 95-8, contains a poem (x. 24)
+written on his fifty-seventh birthday. Cf. ll. 4-5,
+
+  'quinquagesima liba septimamque
+  vestris addimus hanc focis acerram';
+
+ix. 52, 3,
+
+  'ut nostras amo Martias Kalendas';
+
+x. 103, 1,
+
+  'Municipes, Augusta mihi quos Bilbilis acri
+    monte creat, rapidis quem Salo cingit aquis.'
+
+His parents' names are given, v. 34, 1, 'Fronto pater, genetrix
+Flaccilla.' Martial went through the usual education at Bilbilis or at
+a neighbouring town; ix. 73, 7,
+
+  'At me litterulas stulti docuere parentes:
+    quid cum grammaticis rhetoribusque mihi?'
+
+Martial went to Rome A.D. 64, for in A.D. 98, when he left Rome, he
+gives the length of his stay as thirty-four years; x. 103, 7,
+
+  'Quattuor accessit tricesima messibus aestas,
+    ut sine me Cereri rustica liba datis,
+  moenia dum colimus dominae pulcherrima Romae.'
+
+At Rome Martial became the client of the house of the Senecas, and was
+on intimate terms with L. Calpurnius Piso, Memmius Gemellus, and
+Vibius Crispus; xii. 36, 8,
+
+  'Pisones Senecasque Memmiosque
+  et Crispos mihi redde sed priores.'
+
+The failure of Piso's conspiracy in A.D. 65 and the consequent
+downfall of the Senecas must have affected Martial's position. In A.D.
+96 Martial addresses as his patroness Argentaria Polla, Lucan's widow,
+the only surviving member of the family; x. 64, 1,
+
+  'Contigeris regina meos si Polla libellos,' etc.
+
+From her he may have got the small vineyard near Nomentum which he
+possessed by A.D. 84 (xiii. 42 and 119).
+
+Little is known of Martial's life before the reign of Domitian. He may
+have practised at the bar; cf. ii. 30, 5,
+
+  'Is mihi "dives eris, si causas egeris" inquit';
+
+and Quintilian appears to have advised this course (ii. 90). He
+probably lived as a client of great houses to which he was recommended
+by his early-developed poetical talents. Cf. i. 113, 1,
+
+  'Quaecumque lusi iuvenis et puer quondam.'
+
+In A.D. 80 he commemorated the opening by Titus of the Flavian
+Amphitheatre by a collection of poems sent to the emperor. Cf.
+_Spectac._ 32,
+
+  'Da veniam subitis: non displicuisse meretur,
+  festinat, Caesar, qui placuisse tibi.'
+
+Martial received the 'ius trium liberorum' from two of the emperors.
+This probably means that Titus bestowed it and Domitian ratified it.
+Cf. ix. 97, 5,
+
+  'tribuit quod Caesar uterque
+  ius mihi natorum.'
+
+Martial became a titular tribune, and consequently an _eques_, an
+honour probably given him by Titus; iii. 95, 9
+
+  'vidit me Roma tribunum';
+
+v. 13, 1,
+
+  'Sum, fateor, semperque fui, Callistrate, pauper,
+  sed non obscurus nec male notus eques.'
+
+Martial is unsparing in his flattery of Domitian and his freedmen. Cf.
+ix. 79, iv. 45, of Parthenius, the emperor's chamberlain; vii. 99,
+viii. 48, of Crispinus, the emperor's favourite. In A.D. 86 we find
+his poems eagerly read by the emperor. Cf. iv. 27,
+
+  'Saepe meos laudare soles, Auguste, libellos.'
+
+He obtained citizen rights for several applicants; cf. ix. 95. 11,
+
+  'Quot mihi Caesareo facti sunt munere cives';
+
+and was occasionally invited to the emperor's table; cf. ix. 91.
+Domitian, however, refused to assist him pecuniarily (vi. 10). A
+description of Martial's life as a client of great houses is found,
+_e.g._, in v. 20. Among the friends of high rank whom Martial made
+after A.D. 86 were the poet Silius Italicus (iv. 14), the future
+emperor Nerva (v. 28), the author S. Iulius Frontinus (x. 58), the
+younger Pliny (x. 19). Martial also mentions Quintilian (ii. 90) and
+other literary men from Spain, and Juvenal (vii. 24, etc.). Statius he
+never mentions, and was probably at enmity with him; cf. his sneers at
+mythological epics (x. 4, etc.), which hint indirectly at the
+_Thebais_. Martial also attacks his critics (i. 3; xi. 20, etc.),
+plagiarists (_e.g._ xi. 94), and those who wrote scurrilous verses in
+his name (_e.g._ x. 3).
+
+Martial received rewards in return for his poetry, and often begs for
+gifts, and complains of his poverty and the unproductiveness of his
+estate at Nomentum (xii. 57); v. 36,
+
+  'Laudatus nostro quidam, Faustina, libello
+    dissimulat, quasi nil debeat: imposuit';
+
+vii. 16,
+
+  'Aera domi non sunt, superest hoc, Regule, solum,
+  ut tua vendamus munera: numquid emis?'
+
+From 86 to 90 A.D. Martial lived in lodgings on the Quirinal, three
+stairs up; i. 117, 6,
+
+  'Longum est, si velit ad Pirum venire,
+  et scalis habito tribus, sed altis.'
+
+Later he had a house of his own (ix. 18, 2, etc.), and mentions his
+slaves (i. 101; v. 34, etc.). That he was still poor in A.D. 98 is
+evident from Pliny, _Ep._ iii. 21, 2, 'Prosecutus eram viatico
+secedentem: dederam hoc amicitiae, dederam etiam versiculis quos de me
+composuit.'
+
+Martial was evidently never married (ii. 92). In A.D. 98 he left Rome
+and went to Spain, where he had liberal friends, as Terentius Priscus
+(xii. 4), and Marcella (xii. 21), who gave him an estate, described in
+xii. 18. From xii. praef. we see his longing for Rome:
+
+'In hac provinciali solitudine ... bibliothecas, theatra, convictus
+... desideramus quasi destituti. Accedit his municipalium robigo
+dentium et iudici loco livor,' etc.
+
+Martial died, at latest, about A.D. 104, being from 63 to 66 years
+old.
+
+Pliny _Ep._ iii. 21 (written not after A.D. 104), 'Audio Valerium
+Martialem decessisse et moleste fero.'
+
+Martial does not disguise the bad points of his character. Cf. his
+flattery of Domitian, and his continual begging (_passim_), his
+cynical reasons for giving panegyrics (v. 36, quoted above); the
+number of indecent poems he wrote, for which he apologizes (_e.g._ i.
+praef.). Among his good points are his 'candor,' mentioned by Pliny,
+_Ep._ iii. 21; his love of unadorned nature, _e.g._ iii. 58; his love
+for his friends, _e.g._ i. 15.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+_Publication of the Poems._--_Liber Spectaculorum_ was published A.D. 80,
+on the opening of Titus' Amphitheatre. The _Xenia_ and _Apophoreta_
+were two collections of inscriptions for presents at the _Saturnalia_
+in December 84 or 85 A.D. The numbering of these as Books xiii. and
+xiv. has no ancient authority. Martial furnished the other Books with
+numbers (cf. ii. 92, 1, 'primus liber'). Books i., ii., appeared
+together A.D. 86. Then came Books iii.-xi. at intervals of about a
+year to December, 96 A.D. Martial prepared a selection from Books x.
+and xi. for Nerva's use (no longer extant). This was presented along
+with xii. 5,
+
+  'Longior undecimi nobis decimique libelli
+  artatus labor est, et breve rasit opus.
+  Plura legant vacui, quibus otia tuta dedisti;
+  haec lege tu Caesar; forsan et illa leges.'
+
+Book xii. appeared at the beginning of A.D. 102. and shortly
+afterwards in an enlarged edition. An edition of all the Books
+probably did not appear till after Martial's death.
+
+For Martial's immediate popularity, cf. vi. 61,
+
+  'Laudat, amat, cantat nostros mea Roma libellos,
+  meque sinus omnis, me manus omnis habet';
+
+xi. 3, 3,
+
+  'Sed meus in Geticis ad Martia signa pruinis
+    a rigido teritur centurione liber,
+  dicitur et nostros cantare Britannia versus.'
+
+Pliny _Ep._ iii. 21 (written just after Martial's death), 'Erat homo
+ingeniosus acutus acer, et qui plurimum in scribendo et salis haberet
+et fellis nec candoris minus.'
+
+_Martial's Models._--His manner is very original, but some of his
+motives are taken from Greek epigrammatists, especially from
+Lucillius, who flourished under Nero. Thus iv. 53 = Lucill. 30; v. 53
+= L. 93; xii. 23 = L. 34. Many of his pieces are doubtless
+improvisations, and consequently contain careless expressions and
+errors as to facts. Thus, vii. 61, 2,
+
+  'Inque suo nullum limine limen erat';
+
+x. 2, 1,
+
+  'Festinata prior decimi mihi cura libelli
+    elapsum manibus nunc revocavit opus';
+
+x. 93, 5,
+
+  'Ut rosa delectat, metitur quae pollice primo'
+         (= the rose which has not yet been plucked).
+
+In iv. 55, 3, Arpi is given as Cicero's birthplace; in v. 30, 2, etc.,
+Calabria instead of Apulia is given as Horace's native district.
+Catullus is Martial's chief model for hendecasyllabics and
+choliambics. He mentions no other poet so often. Cf. x. 103, 5,
+
+  'Nec sua plus debet tenui Verona Catullo
+    meque velit dici non minus illa suum.'
+
+Ovid, of whom he has more than two hundred reminiscences, is Martial's
+chief pattern for elegiacs. After these Martial's chief model is
+Virgil, chiefly the _Priapea_; then Horace to a less extent;
+Propertius; and Tibullus. Domitius Marsus, Gaetulicus, Calvus, etc.,
+are mentioned frequently, and doubtless imitated.
+
+For Martial's conception of himself as a painter of manners, cf. viii.
+3, 19 (ad Musam),
+
+  'At tu Romano lepidos sale tinge libellos:
+    adgnoscat mores vita legatque suos.
+  Angusta cantare licet videaris avena,
+    dum tua multorum vincat avena tubas.'
+
+x. 4, 7,
+
+  'Quid te vana iuvant miserae ludibria chartae?
+    hoc lege, quod possit dicere vita "Meum est."
+  Non hic Centauros, non Gorgonas, Harpyiasque
+    invenies: hominem pagina nostra sapit.'
+
+Martial satirizes people under manufactured or arbitrarily chosen
+names.
+
+Cf. i. praef., 'Spero me secutum in libellis meis tale temperamentum,
+ut de illis queri non possit, quisquis de se bene senserit, cum salva
+infimarum quoque personarum reverentia ludant.'
+
+Some are tell-tale names, as Vetustilla, 'an old woman,' iii. 93;
+Dento, 'a gourmand,' v. 45; Eulogus, 'a herald,' vi. 8; but the same
+names, _e.g._ Zoilus, are often used to denote different types.
+
+The chief forms of verse used are the elegiac distich (most frequent),
+scazons, and hendecasyllabics. In vi. 65 he apologizes for using the
+pure hexameter, which is found only four times. Other metres are
+extremely rare.
+
+
+
+QUINTILIAN.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+M. Fabius Quintilianus was born at Calagurris in Spain. Auson. _prof._
+i. 7, 'Adserat usque licet Fabium Calagurris alumnum.' Cf. Jerome yr.
+Abr. 2104 (quoted below).
+
+Quintilian came at an early age to Rome, where his father was a
+rhetorician. Cf. his reminiscences:
+
+x. 1, 86, 'Utar verbis isdem quae ex Afro Domitio (died A.D. 59)
+iuvenis excepi.'
+
+v. 7, 7, 'a Domitio Afro quem adulescentulus senem colui.'
+
+vi. 1, 14, 'Nobis adulescentibus accusator Cossutiani Capitonis' (A.D.
+57), etc.
+
+From the above quotations, Quintilian must have been born somewhere
+between A.D. 35 and 40. A.D. 35 is usually given as an approximation.
+For Quintilian's father cf. ix. 3, 73, 'Et cur me prohibeat pudor uti
+domestico exemplo? Pater meus contra eum qui,' etc. He is possibly the
+person mentioned by Seneca, _Contr._ x. praef. 2, 'quo modo ...
+Quintilianus senex declamaverit.'
+
+For Quintilian's teachers of rhetoric, cf. Pliny, _Ep._ ii. 14, 10,
+'Narrabat ille [Quintilianus], Adsectabar Domitium Afrum.' Others were
+Iulius Africanus (Quint. x. 1, 118), Servilius Nonianus (x. 1, 102),
+Galerius Trachalus (x. 1, 119), Iulius Secundus (x. 1, 120), Vibius
+Crispus (xii. 10, 11), Remmius Palaemon (Schol. ad Iuv. 6, 452). After
+his education Quintilian returned to Calagurris, but was brought back
+to Rome by Galba in A.D. 68.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 2084 = A.D. 68, 'M. Fabius Quintilianus Romam a Galba
+perducitur.'
+
+Quintilian engaged as a pleader at Rome, and makes some references to
+his cases. Some of his speeches were published without his consent.
+
+vii. 2, 24, 'In causa Naevi Arpiniani ... cuius actionem et quidem
+solam in hoc tempus emiseram, quod ipsum me fecisse ductum iuvenili
+cupiditate gloriae fateor. Nam ceterae, quae sub nomine meo feruntur,
+neglegentia excipientium in quaestum notariorum corruptae minimam
+partem mei habent.'
+
+iv. 1, 19, 'Ego pro regina Berenice apud ipsam eam causam dixi.'
+
+Cf. also vii. 2, 5; ix. 2, 73-4.
+
+Quintilian was the first person who received an imperial grant as
+teacher of oratory.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 2104 = A.D. 88, 'Quintilianus ex Hispania
+Calagurritanus primus Romae publicam scholam et salarium e fisco
+accepit et claruit.' The date given by Jerome is much too late, as it
+is Quintilian that is alluded to by Sueton. _Vesp._ 18, 'Primus e
+fisco Latinis Graecisque rhetoribus annua centena constituit.' The
+appointment must therefore have been made by A.D. 79. The
+professorship is referred to by Mart. ii. 90, 1,
+
+  'Quintiliane, vagae moderator summe iuventae,
+    gloria Romanae, Quintiliane, togae.'
+
+Cf. Pliny, _Ep._ ii. 14, 10, 'Ita certe ex Quintiliano, praeceptore
+meo, audisse memini.' Quintilian's career as a teacher lasted for
+twenty years.
+
+i. prooem. 1, 'Post impetratam studiis meis quietem, quae per viginti
+annos erudiendis iuvenibus impenderam.'
+
+Teuffel thinks that the _Institutio_ was written A.D. 89-91, in which
+case Quintilian's career as professor was from A.D. 68 to 88;
+Peterson[91] thinks that Quintilian dated his educational work as from
+A.D. 70 to 90, and that the _Institutio_ was begun A.D. 92.
+
+Quintilian grew rich by the practice of his profession, from which he
+ultimately retired. Iuv. 7, 186,
+
+  'Hos inter sumptus sestertia Quintiliano,
+  ut multum, duo sufficient; res nulla minoris
+  constabit patri, quam filius. "Unde igitur tot
+  Quintilianus habet saltus?"'
+
+Quint. ii. 12, 12, 'quando et praecipiendi munus iam pridem deprecati
+sumus et in foro quoque dicendi, quia honestissimum finem putamus,
+desinere dum desideraremur.'
+
+After his retirement Quintilian was appointed tutor of Domitian's
+grandnephews, sons of his niece Flavia Domitilla and his cousin
+Flavius Clemens.
+
+Quint. iv. prooem. 2, 'Cum mihi Domitianus Augustus sororis suae
+nepotum delegaverit curam.'
+
+Through the influence of Clemens, he obtained the consulship.
+
+Auson. _grat. act._ p. 23 (Schenkl), 'Quintilianus consularia per
+Clementem ornamenta sortitus honestamenta potius videtur quam insignia
+potestatis habuisse.'
+
+Cf. Iuv. 7, 197,
+
+  'Si Fortuna volet, fies de rhetore consul;
+  si volet haec eadem, fies de consule rhetor.'
+
+His gratitude led him into fulsome flattery of Domitian.
+
+x. 1, 91, 'Germanicum Augustum ab institutis studiis deflexit cura
+terrarum, parumque dis visum est esse eum maximum poetarum' (cf. iv.
+prooem. 3-5).
+
+Quintilian married late in life. His wife died at the age of eighteen,
+his younger son soon afterwards at the age of five, the elder one
+subsequently at the age of nine.
+
+vi. prooem. � 2, 'Illum, de quo summa conceperam et in quo spem unicam
+senectutis reponebam, repetito volnere orbitatis amisi'; � 9, 'Non
+flosculos, sicut prior, sed iam decimum aetatis ingressus annum,
+certos ac deformatos fructus ostenderat'; � 4, 'erepta prius mihi
+matre eorumdem, quae nondum expleto aetatis undevicesimo anno duos
+enixa filios ...'; � 5, 'cum omni virtute, quae in feminas cadit,
+functa insanabilem adtulit marito dolorem, tum aetate tam puellari,
+praesertim meae comparata, potest et ipsa numerari inter volnera
+orbitatis'; � 6, 'Mihi filius minor quintum egressus annum prior
+alterum ex duobus eruit lumen.'
+
+The date of Quintilian's death is unknown. If he outlived Domitian it
+was not for long, as Pliny in the letters quoted above (the earlier
+written about A.D. 100) does not speak of Quintilian as alive.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+_Earlier works._--Quintilian refers to a work _de causis corruptae
+eloquentiae_, and to an _ars rhetorica_ in two Books. For speeches of
+his taken down and published, see vii. 2, 24, quoted p. 303.
+
+vi. prooem. 3, 'eum librum, quem de causis corruptae eloquentiae
+emisi.'
+
+i. prooem. 7, 'Duo iam sub nomine meo libri ferebantur artis
+rhetoricae neque editi a me neque in hoc comparati. Namque alterum,
+sermone per biduum habito, pueri, quibus id praestabatur, exceperant;
+alterum pluribus sane diebus, quantum notando consequi potuerant,
+interceptum, boni iuvenes sed nimium amantes mei, temerario editionis
+honore volgaverant.'
+
+The _Institutio Oratoria_.--For the date of publication see p. 304.
+The circumstances of publication are given by Quintilian in the
+preface addressed to his bookseller Trypho.
+
+'Efflagitasti cottidiano convicio, ut libros, quos ad Marcellum meum
+de Institutione oratoria scripseram, iam emittere inciperem. Nam ipse
+eos nondum opinabar satis maturuisse, quibus componendis, ut scis,
+paulo plus quam biennium tot alioqui negotiis districtus impendi ...
+Sed si tanto opere efflagitantur quam tu affirmas, permittamus vela
+ventis et oram solventibus bene precemur.'
+
+The work is dedicated to Vitorius Marcellus (to whom Statius'
+_Silvae_, Book iv., is addressed), and was originally written in view
+of the education of his son Geta.
+
+i. prooem. 6, 'Quod opus, Marcelle Vitori, tibi dicamus ... quod
+erudiendo Getae tuo ... non inutiles fore libri videbantur.'
+
+Book iv. prooem. was written when Quintilian had been appointed tutor
+to the young princes, who are mentioned along with Geta and
+Quintilian's elder son; Book vi. prooem. was written not long
+afterwards, and refers to his bereavements; in Book xii. prooem. no
+names are mentioned.
+
+The work deals with the whole education of the future orator.
+
+i. prooem. 5, 'Nec aliter, quam si mihi tradatur educandus orator,
+studia eius formare ab infantia incipiam.'
+
+Quintilian himself gives a sketch of the contents:
+
+i. prooem. 21-2, 'Liber primus ea quae sunt ante officium rhetoris
+continebit [including grammar and philology]. Secundo prima apud
+rhetorem elementa et quae de ipsa rhetorices substantia quaeruntur
+tractabimus. Quinque deinceps (iii.-vii.) inventioni, nam huic et
+dispositio subiungitur, quattuor (viii.-xi.) elocutioni, in cuius
+partem memoria ac pronuntiatio veniunt, dabuntur. Unus (xii.) accedet,
+in quo nobis orator ipse informandus est, ut qui mores eius, quae in
+suscipiendis, discendis, agendis causis ratio, quod eloquentiae genus,
+quis agendi debeat esse finis, quae post finem studia ... disseramus.'
+
+The ordinary handbooks of rhetoric are attacked.
+
+i. prooem. 24-5, 'Nam plerumque nudae illae artes nimia subtilitatis
+affectatione frangunt atque concidunt quidquid est in oratione
+generosius, et omnem sucum ingeni bibunt et ossa detegunt, quae ut
+esse et adstringi nervis suis debent, sic corpore operienda sunt.
+Ideoque nos non particulam illam, sicut plerique, sed quidquid utile
+ad instituendum oratorem putabamus, in hos duodecim libros contulimus
+breviter omnia demonstraturi.'
+
+Quintilian uses his own experience and the best views of different
+authorities.
+
+vi. 2, 25, 'Quod si tradita mihi sequi praecepta sufficeret,
+satisfeceram huic parti, nihil eorum, quae legi vel didici, quod modo
+probabile fuit, omittendo; sed eruere in animo est, quae latent, et
+penitus ipsa huius loci aperire penetralia, quae quidem non aliquo
+tradente sed experimento meo ac natura ipsa duce accepi.'
+
+Quintilian insists that the orator must be a good man (cf. the
+importance he attaches to early education, i. 1, etc.).
+
+xii. 1, 1, 'Sit ergo nobis orator, quem constituimus, is qui a M.
+Catone finitur, vir bonus dicendi peritus; verum, id quod et ille
+posuit prius, et ipsa natura potius ac maius est, utique vir bonus.'
+
+Cf. i. prooem. 9-10; ii. 2 (the whole chapter); ii. 15, 1.
+
+Quintilian's exposition is founded mainly on Cicero, from whom he
+seldom differs. Cf. vii. 3, 8, 'Quamquam dissentire vix audeo a
+Cicerone.'
+
+Quintilian's illustrations are mainly drawn from classical writers.
+Upwards of four hundred and fifty passages of Cicero and about one
+hundred and forty of Virgil are referred to. Quintilian not only
+attacks the modern style, but warns his pupils against the early
+writers.
+
+ii. 5, 21-2, 'Duo autem genera maxime cavenda pueris puto: unum, ne
+quis eos antiquitatis nimius admirator in Graccorum Catonisque et
+aliorum similium lectione durescere velit ... Alterum, quod huic
+diversum est, ne recentis huius lasciviae flosculis capti voluptate
+prava deleniantur, ut praedulce illud genus et puerilibus ingeniis hoc
+gratius, quo propius est, adament.'
+
+For Quintilian's high appreciation of Cicero see x. 1, 105-112; and
+for his antagonism to Seneca, x. 1, 125-131, and to philosophers in
+general, i. prooem. 10.
+
+For Quintilian's authorities see iii. 1, 'Prooemium de scriptoribus
+artis rhetoricae.' They include Dionysius of Halicarnassus; Caecilius;
+Chrysippus (for education; cf. i. 1, 16, etc.); Cicero; _Auctor ad
+Herenn._; Celsus, cf. iii. 1, 21, etc.; Rutilius, cf. ix. 3, 89;
+Remmius Palaemon.
+
+Literary criticism is treated of in Book X. as regards the Greek and
+Latin authors useful to the orator. The principal authority used was
+the +peri mim�se�s+ of Dionysius Halicarnassius. Much of
+Quintilian's criticism is traditional, and the lists of great writers
+came ultimately from the critics of Alexandria. Roman literary critics
+referred to were Cicero (_e.g._ on the Attic orators, x. 1, 76-80) and
+Horace (x. 1, 24; 56, etc.).
+
+_Spurious works._--These include two collections of _declamationes_.
+
+1. Nineteen long pieces, ascribed to Quintilian by Jerome and others,
+but much later than Quintilian's time.
+
+2. One hundred and forty-five shorter pieces out of an original
+collection of three hundred and eighty-eight, the first half being
+lost. Some suppose they are the 'libri artis rhetoricae' (i. prooem.
+7, quoted above), but this is not likely.
+
+
+
+FRONTINUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Iulius Frontinus (as he is called by Tacitus: inscriptions and some
+MSS. give the _praenomen_ Sextus) was born at latest A.D. 41, for he
+was _praetor urbanus_ A.D. 70.
+
+Tac. _Hist._ iv. 39, 'in senatu quem Iulius Frontinus praetor urbanus
+vocaverat ... Mox eiurante Frontino Caesar Domitianus praeturam cepit.'
+
+He served in Gaul during the revolt of Civilis, and received the
+submission of the Lingones (Front. _Strat._ iv. 3, 14[92]). Under
+Vespasian he held the consulship, and preceded Agricola in the command
+in Britain, where he conquered the Silures, probably A.D. 76-78.
+
+Tac. _Agr._ 17, 'Et Cerealis quidem alterius successoris curam
+famamque obruisset: sustinuit molem Iulius Frontinus, vir magnus,
+quantum licebat, validamque et pugnacem Silurum gentem armis subegit,
+super virtutem hostium locorum quoque difficultates eluctatus.'
+
+His knowledge of the tactics of Domitian (_Strat._ i. 1, 8; i. 3, 10;
+ii. 3, 23; ii. 11, 7) makes it probable that he took part in the war
+with the Chatti, A.D. 83. In 97 he became _curator aquarum_ (_Aq._
+102), and at the beginning of the following year was consul for the
+second time (_C.I.L._ iii., p. 862); cf. Martial x. 48, 20, 'bis
+Frontino consule.' In 100 he was once more consul (_C.I.L._ viii.
+7066). He also held the office of augur, in which, A.D. 103 or 104, he
+was succeeded by the younger Pliny; Plin. _Ep._ iv. 8, 'gratularis
+mihi quod acceperim auguratum ... Successi Iulio Frontino, principi
+viro.' His death then may be placed in A.D. 103.
+
+Frontinus was a friend of Martial, who addresses to him _Epig._ x. 58.
+
+We get a glimpse of his character from Pliny's words, _Ep._ ix. 19, 6,
+'Vetuit exstrui monumentum: sed quibus verbis? "Impensa monumenti
+supervacua est: memoria nostri durabit si vita meruimus."'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+During the reign of Domitian (A.D. 81-96) Frontinus composed two
+works. One of these, of which only fragments survive, dealt with the
+art of land-surveying and the laws relating to land. The other,
+written after A.D. 84, when Domitian received the title of Germanicus
+(_Strat._ ii. II, 7, 'eo bello quo victis hostibus cognomen Germanici
+meruit'), is a manual of strategy, in three Books, entitled
+_Strategemata_. It is a sequel to a previous work (now lost) on the
+theory of the art of war, and illustrates its rules by historical
+examples derived chiefly from Sallust, Caesar, and Livy. The purpose
+of the book did not require the citation of authorities, and the
+mention of Livy in ii. 5, 31 and 34, is probably spurious. Frontinus
+gives either a paraphrase retaining some of the expressions of the
+original (cf. _Strat._ i. 5, 16, with Liv. xxxv. 11, 2-13), or a bald
+summary (cf. _Strat._ ii. 5, 1, with Liv. i. 14, 6-11). See G.
+Gundermann, _Jahrb. f. class. Philol._, suppl. xvi., p. 315 _sqq._
+(1888). Some later hand has added a fourth Book, which not only
+presents marked differences in style and tone from the original three,
+but deals with an entirely different subject--the maintenance of
+discipline, and other duties of a commander.
+
+Under Nerva and Trajan (A.D. 97-98) Frontinus wrote his treatise on
+the Roman water-supply, _De Aquis Urbis Romae_. Having been appointed
+_curator aquarum_, he considered it his first duty to acquaint himself
+with the details of his department, and published the result of his
+inquiries in the hope that they might be useful to his successors (cf.
+the preface). The book was begun under Nerva (praef. 'cum ... sit nunc
+mihi ab Nerva Augusto ... aquarum iniunctum officium'), but Nerva had
+been succeeded by Trajan before it was completed (118, 'divus Nerva';
+93, 'Traianum Augustum').
+
+
+
+JUVENAL.
+
+
+The sources for Juvenal's life are (1) his works; (2) an inscription
+found at Aquinum; (3) thirteen extant _vitae_; (4) information of the
+scholiasts; (5) references in Martial and other writers.
+
+The inscription at Aquinum has been much debated; but it is safe to
+follow the opinion of Mommsen, whose experience in identifying people
+mentioned in inscriptions with historical characters depends upon a
+width of knowledge that no other person possesses. The _vitae_ are all
+early mediaeval works, probably founded on a brief account of the
+poet's life composed by some unknown ancient writer, and existing at
+the early Renaissance. The extant _vitae_ contain a very few facts
+which appear to be derived from this source, together with a number of
+inferences gathered, often incorrectly, from Juvenal's works. The most
+important statement is that regarding Juvenal's birth, which is
+contained in the _vita_ in the Codex Barberinus, 8, 18, discovered by
+J. D�rr. The date is given in such precise and accurate terms, and is
+in itself so probable as solving so many of the questions connected
+with the poet's works, that to invent it requires an amount of
+knowledge with which we cannot credit the writer of this otherwise
+very poor account. The statements of the _vitae_ must be carefully
+weighed, and accepted only when rendered probable by other
+considerations.[93]
+
+Juvenal's name is given in some of the MSS. as Decimus Iunius
+Iuvenalis. He was born A.D. 55.
+
+_Codex Barberinus_, 'Iunius Iuvenalis Aquinas Iunio Iuvenale patre,
+matre vero Septumuleia ex Aquinati municipio Claudio Nerone et L.
+Antistio consulibus natus est. Sororem habuit Septumuleiam, quae
+Fuscino nupsit.'
+
+The statement about his sister and mother is very doubtful; that about
+Fuscinus is a bad inference from the fact that _Sat._ 14 (on the
+education of children) is addressed to him. The name _Septumuleia_ may
+be invented from 14, 105, _septima lux_. Juvenal's sister must have
+been called Iunia after her father; the naming of a girl after her
+mother was a mediaeval idea.
+
+Juvenal was born at Aquinum, a town of the Volscians. Twelve of the
+_vitae_ agree in this, and they are confirmed by the poet's own words
+supposed to be addressed to him by his friend Umbricius: 3, 318-21,
+
+                      'Quotiens te
+  Roma tuo refici properantem reddet Aquino,
+  me quoque ad Helvinam Cererem vestramque Dianam
+  converte a Cumis.'
+
+Cf. 6, 57,
+
+  'agello cedo paterno.'
+
+This is corroborated by the inscription found at Aquinum (_C.I.L._ x.
+5382), which gives us other information about the poet:
+
+      _cere_RI � SACRVM
+  _d . iu_NIVS � IVVENALIS
+  _trib_ COH_�i_�DELMATARVM
+    II � VIR � QVINQ � FLAMEN
+         DIVI � VESPASIANI
+    VOVIT � DEDICAV_itq_VE
+    SVA                   PEC
+
+This inscription appears to have stood near the temple of Ceres
+Helvina or Elvina, dedicated by a member of the gens Elvia, references
+to which are found on inscriptions of the district.
+
+The _vitae_ say that Juvenal was the son of a freedman.[94] Cf.
+_Vitae_ i. _a_, i. _b_, ii. _c_ (D�rr): 'libertini locupletis incertum
+filius an alumnus.' _Vita_ v. (D�rr), 'ordinis ut fertur
+libertinorum.' This story is due to a misapprehension of some of
+Juvenal's references. 1, 99-102,
+
+               'Iubet a praecone vocari
+  ipsos Troiugenas (nam vexant limen et ipsi
+  nobiscum): "da praetori, da deinde tribuno."
+  Sed libertinus prior est.'
+
+_Libertinus_ here is not to be taken to mean that the entire set are
+freedmen.
+
+As to 4, 98,
+
+  'unde fit ut malim fraterculus esse gigantis,'
+
+it gives no evidence whatever of Juvenal's position. If it meant
+anything, it would rather imply that Juvenal was the son of a poor
+Italian and not of a foreign slave. So for 11, 145-6. His family was
+respectable, his means were fair, and he could afford to look down on
+upstarts in virtue both of his birth and of his property, although it
+is clear from his own works that he had in Rome the position of a
+rather humble dependent, who would be exposed to insult at the tables
+of the rich and powerful. Cf. 3, 318; 6, 57 (above); 12, 89, 'laribus
+paternis'; 1, 24,
+
+  'patricios omnes opibus cum provocet unus,
+  quo tondente gravis iuveni mihi barba sonabat.'
+
+So 10, 225.
+
+In _vita_ iv. he is said to have attained equestrian rank.
+(Tribunician rank implied equestrian). This, on the whole, is
+confirmed by the inscription, and may be founded on the original
+_vita_.
+
+Juvenal had a full course of education, first under the _litterator_
+and the _grammaticus_, then under the _rhetor._[95] Cf. 1, 15,
+
+  'Et nos ergo manum ferulae subduximus, et nos
+  consilium dedimus Sullae, privatus ut altum
+  dormiret.'
+
+This would imply a good position, and a certain command of money. Such
+_patres libertini_ as Horace's were very rare.
+
+The inscription above quoted (_divi Vespasiani_ shows that its date is
+after A.D. 79, and probably not long after) informs us that Juvenal
+was (1) 'tribunus cohortis I. Delmatarum'[96]; (2) 'duumvir
+quinquennalis'[97] and 'flamen divi Vespasiani' at Aquinum. The dates
+when Juvenal held these posts cannot be determined exactly; but we can
+infer certain points.
+
+(1) There was a _certus ordo honorum_ in municipal life, and Juvenal
+must have held the quaestorship and the aedileship before the
+_duumviratus quinquennalis_. The lower limit of entering on a
+municipal career was twenty-five, according to an order of Augustus,
+and people did not usually begin it much later; we may therefore
+conclude that these municipal posts were held by Juvenal somewhere
+between A.D. 80 and 90. The last year is approximately fixed by the
+way in which Martial in two of his epigrams (vii. 24 and 91) belonging
+to A.D. 91 or 92 speaks of Juvenal; the words show that the latter
+must have been established in Rome for some time.
+
+(2) In ordinary course Juvenal would enter the army after the
+completion of his seventeenth year. The short time he took to arrive
+at the position of tribune, and the statement of _vita_ iv. 'cum ...
+ad dignitatem equestris ordinis pervenire sua virtute meruisset,' make
+it probable that he entered the army as _petitor militiae equestris_,
+as a preliminary step towards entering on a political career.
+
+The cohors Delmatarum I., which Juvenal commanded as tribune, was in
+Britain in A.D. 106, and in A.D. 124.[98] Probably it had been
+stationed there for a period of years, and it is likely that Juvenal
+filled his tribuneship there. Now, all the _vitae_ inform us that
+Juvenal was banished under the pretext of a military command. While
+the other _vitae_ give Egypt as the place of his banishment, _vita_
+iv. gives Scotland; and it seems highly probable that _vita_ iv. has
+confused Juvenal's regular military command in Britain, and his
+banishment, late in life, to Egypt. The words are:
+
+'[Tyrannus] sub honoris praetextu fecit eum praefectum militis contra
+Scotos, qui bellum contra Romanos moverant.'
+
+This is supported by Juvenal's references to Britain. Some of these,
+like his references to Egypt, seem, in contradistinction to most of
+his references to foreign parts, to imply personal knowledge and
+observation. They are as follows:
+
+(1) 2, 159-161,
+
+           'Arma quidem ultra
+  litora Iuvernae promovimus et modo captas
+  Orcadas ac minima contentos nocte Britannos.'
+
+Here 'Iuverna' is the old name of Ireland, which is not mentioned even
+in Tacitus' _Agricola_[99]; for the Orcades cf. Tac. _Agr._ 10; and
+the excessive shortness of the summer nights mentioned in the last
+clause is especially true of the north of Scotland.
+
+(2) 10, 14,
+
+  'Quanto delphinis balaena Britannica maior.'
+
+This is also particularly applicable to the north of Scotland, whales
+being frequently seen off the Orkney and Shetland Islands.
+
+(3) 4, 141,
+
+              'Rutupinove edita fundo
+  ostrea.'
+
+(4) 14, 196,
+
+  'Castella Brigantum.'
+
+(5) 15, 111,
+
+  'Gallia causidicos docuit facunda Britannos,
+  de conducendo loquitur iam rhetore Thule.'
+
+Cf. Tac. _Agr._ 21.
+
+(6) 15, 124, 'Brittones.' This form is rarely found except in military
+inscriptions,[100] and could scarcely have been used except by one
+familiar with the camp in Britain.[101]
+
+That Juvenal came to Rome about A.D. 90 has been shown above. This
+step he may have taken to forward his promotion in the army and
+afterwards in the procuratorial service. His failure in this direction
+may have led to his pessimism. His friendship with Martial (whom,
+however, he does not mention) is shown by Mart. vii. 24 (cf. vii. 91),
+
+  'Cum Iuvenale meo quae me committere temptas,
+  quid non audebis, perfida lingua, loqui?' etc.
+
+That he was still in Rome in B.C. 101, and had the entr�e of the atria
+of rich nobles is shown by Mart. xii. 18, written in that year.
+
+  'Dum tu forsitan inquietus erras
+  clamosa, Iuvenalis, in Subura
+  aut collem dominae teris Dianae,
+  dura per limina te potentiorum
+  sudatrix toga ventilat vagumque
+  maior Caelius et minor fatigant,
+  me multos repetita post Decembres
+  accepit mea rusticumque fecit
+  auro Bilbilis et superba ferro.'
+
+From this we see that he lived in the Subura, the plebeian quarter.
+Cf. 3, 5,
+
+  'ego vel Prochytam praepono Suburae.'
+
+While in Rome he still possessed his land at Aquinum and also a
+property at Tibur; 11, 65,
+
+  'de Tiburtino veniet pinguissimus agro
+  haedulus.'
+
+The statement of the _vitae_ that Juvenal studied rhetoric till middle
+life is, as already stated, improbable, as being inconsistent with his
+military and municipal career; 'facundus,' applied to him by Mart.
+vii. 91, 1, does not mean 'declaiming,' but 'poetical' or
+'oratorical.'
+
+_Vitae_ i. _a_ and _b_ (and other seven) say, 'ad mediam fere aetatem
+declamavit animi magis causa quam quod scholae se aut foro
+praepararet.'
+
+_Juvenal's literary life._--In the MSS. the satires are divided into
+Books, and the division seems ancient. Book i. includes _Sat._ 1-5;
+Book ii. = _Sat._ 6; Book iii. = _Sat._ 7-9; Book iv. = _Sat._ 10-12;
+Book v. = _Sat._ 13-16.
+
+Book i. was written under Trajan; certainly after A.D. 100, the date
+of the trial of Marius Priscus [102]; 1, 49,
+
+  'exul ab octava Marius bibit et fruitur dis
+  iratis.'
+
+Book ii. not earlier than A.D. 116. It is highly probable that 6, 407,
+'instantem regi Armenio Parthoque cometen,' refers to a comet seen at
+Rome in November A.D. 115; and 6, 411, 'nutare urbes, subsidere
+terras,' to the earthquake at Antioch, 13th December, A.D. 115.
+
+Book iii., probably about A.D. 120, was written under Hadrian, who is
+eulogized in 7, 1-35. D�rr thinks it probable that 7, 36-243, was
+written under Trajan, and that the introduction, in praise of Hadrian,
+was written afterwards. This is also Friedl�nder's view; cf. l. 1, 'Et
+spes et ratio studiorum in Caesare tantum,' with Spart. _vit. Hadr._
+14, 8, 'poematum studiosissimus.' This also supports the view that the
+introduction was written not long after Hadrian's accession, when a
+new era for poets was supposed to be beginning.
+
+Book iv. was probably written about A.D. 125.
+
+Book v. A clue to the date is found in 13, 16-7,
+
+         'Stupet haec, qui iam post terga reliquit
+  sexaginta annos, Fonteio consule natus.'
+
+Fonteius Capito and C. Iulius Rufus were consuls A.D. 67, in which
+year the sexagenarian friend whom Juvenal addresses was born. The date
+of writing will therefore be A.D. 127.[103]
+
+Cf. also 15, 27, 'nuper consule Iunco.' Iuncus was consul A.D. 127, so
+that this satire could not have been written before A.D. 128. So 15,
+44,
+
+                 'Horrida sane
+  Aegyptos, sed luxuria, quantum ipse notavi,
+  barbara famoso non cedit turba Canopo.'
+
+Juvenal must have added these lines to the satire while he was an
+exile in Egypt, if he did not write the whole of it there. This is in
+accordance with what _vita_ v. says, 'in exilio ampliavit satyras.'
+Supposing this passage to be an addition, we may conclude that Book v.
+was written about A.D. 128, but not before that year.
+
+_Juvenal's banishment._--As before stated, all the _vitae_ but one
+give Egypt as the place of Juvenal's exile. The exact place, according
+to the scholiast on 1, 1 and 4, 38, was the Great Oasis (Hoasa:
+Hoasis). Three _vitae_ (i. _a_, _b_, iii. _c_) state that he was at
+that time _octogenarius_. This would make the date A.D. 135 or 136.
+Most of the _vitae_ give as the reason of his exile the fact that he
+wrote the lines,[104] 7, 90-2,
+
+  'Quod non dant proceres dabit histrio. Tu Camerinos
+  et Baream, tu nobilium magna atria curas?
+  Praefectos Pelopea facit, Philomela tribunos.'
+
+Now these lines, the first he ever wrote (_vita_ iii. _c_) were
+composed in his youth as an epigram on Paris, Domitian's favourite,
+probably about A.D. 81-3. The true story then is that, when Juvenal in
+A.D. 135 or 136 published a new edition of _Sat._ 7, he added these
+lines (_vitae_ i. _a_, _b_, 'ut ea quoque quae prima fecerat
+inferciret novis scriptis').[105] Now it has been inferred from Spart.
+_vit. Hadr._ 23 _sqq._ that at this time an actor had great influence
+over Hadrian, and the lines were taken as referring to him. The
+emperor in a rage banished Juvenal to Egypt _per honorem militiae_,
+writing maliciously on his commission 'Et te Philomela promovit'
+(_vita_ iv.). The banishment is assigned to the influence of Paris by
+Iohannes Malalas, p. 262 _sqq._ (Dindorf), and by Suidas. Cf. also
+_Sat._ 15, 44 _sqq._, already quoted, and Sidonius Apollinaris 9, 267
+_sqq._,
+
+  'Non qui tempore Caesaris secundi
+  aeterno incoluit Tomos reatu:
+  non qui consimili deinde casu
+  ad volgi tenuem strepentis auram
+  irati fuit histrionis exul.'
+
+_Vita_ iii. _b_, 'Tristitia et angore periit anno aetatis suae altero
+et octuagesimo.'
+
+_Vita_ v., 'Decessit longo senio confectus exul Antonino Pio
+imperatore.'
+
+If this last statement is correct, Juvenal died after reaching the age
+of eighty-two, as Antoninus came to the throne on 10th July, A.D. 138.
+It follows from this also that he must have been born in the second
+half of A.D. 55.
+
+_The Satires._--The following are the more important points regarding
+these:
+
+(1) Juvenal's reasons for writing satire are given in _Sat._ 1, ll.
+1-14. He is wearied with tragedies and epics on mythological subjects,
+'Semper ego auditor tantum?'
+
+He is resolved to follow in the footsteps of Lucilius; ll. 19-21,
+
+  'Cur tamen hoc potius libeat decurrere campo,
+  per quem magnus equos Auruncae flexit alumnus,
+  si vacat ac placidi rationem admittitis, edam.'
+
+His satire is due to indignation at the moral decay of the Roman
+world.
+
+l. 30, 'Difficile est satiram non scribere' (cf. ll. 63, 79).
+
+However, he does not intend to satirize the living, at least under
+their own names; and in fact he has in his mind particularly the times
+of Domitian, while most of his names are those of persons living under
+Claudius or Nero; l. 170,
+
+        'Experiar quid concedatur in illos,
+  quorum Flaminia tegitur cinis atque Latina.'
+
+In the first nine Satires Juvenal's bitterness is directed mainly
+against the senatorial class, possibly because they had given him no
+support in his office-seeking. Even his violent attack on women in
+_Sat._ 6 is launched chiefly against the women of the highest class.
+Note also the unjust way in which he speaks of the government of the
+provinces (_Sat._ 8, 87-139). Juvenal is very bitter against Greeks
+and Orientals, most of all against Egyptians (cf. _Sat._ 15, and his
+attacks on the Egyptian Crispinus in 4, 1-33, etc.). Cf. 3, 119-125,
+for his attacks on foreigners.
+
+(2) He claims a wide scope for his subject; 1, 85,
+
+  'Quidquid agunt homines, votum timor ira voluptas
+  gaudia discursus nostri farrago libelli est.'
+
+(3) His pessimism is very marked; cf. 1, 147,
+
+  'Nil erit ulterius, quod nostris moribus addat
+  posteritas; eadem facient cupientque minores,
+  omne in praecipiti vitium stetit. Utere velis,
+  totos pande sinus.'
+
+So 12, 48-9. His pessimism leads to extravagant language like 6, 29
+_sqq._ He is as hard on trifling foibles as on the most heinous
+offences. Cf. 6, 166 _sqq._, 185 _sqq._, 398 _sqq._, 434-56 (on
+learned ladies).
+
+(4) His rhetorical learning and style (found in all the Satires, but
+particularly in the later ones) are shown by
+
+(_a_) His metre and language. Thus we find rhetorical uses of _ergo_
+(3, 104; 281, etc.); _nunc_ (3, 268; 10, 210); _porro_ (3, 126; 11,
+9); and of other particles.
+
+(_b_) The way in which he chooses themes for his Satires, and
+subdivides them. Several of the Satires, as 5, 8, 10, 14, are
+_theses_, _i.e._ problems of a general character worked out in the
+manner of the rhetorical schools. Thus _Sat._ 5 discusses the
+question, 'Is the position of a client worth having?' _Sat._ 8, 'Has
+high birth a value in itself?' He sometimes uses the commonplaces of
+the schools, as 8, 56,
+
+             'Animalia muta
+  quis generosa putet nisi fortia?'
+
+So 8, 215-6. In the manner of a rhetorician he sometimes gives
+superabundant details. The best example of this is 10, 190-250, on the
+troubles of old age.
+
+(_c_) His knowledge of mythology, history, law, and philosophy. This
+is found mostly in the later Books. In the earlier Satires he dealt
+more with life as he had known it. In the later Satires he has
+recourse to republican times and to foreign history. His historical
+examples Friedl�nder thinks he took mostly from Valerius Maximus.
+Juvenal's knowledge of philosophy was very superficial, and was
+probably got from his rhetorical training. Errors occur; thus in 13,
+121-2, Stoics and Cynics are looked upon as identical.[106]
+
+(_d_) His high-flown language referred to above.
+
+(_e_) His references to previous literature. Thus Horace is often
+referred to (cf. 7, 62 and 227); Virgil with great frequency (cf. 1,
+162; 6, 434 _sqq._; 7, 66 and 227; 7, 233 _sqq._). Mayor mentions
+Homer, Herodotus, Plato, Lucilius, Cicero, Ovid, Manilius, Valerius
+Maximus, Seneca, Lucan, and Martial among the authors imitated by
+Juvenal.
+
+
+
+PLINY THE YOUNGER.
+
+
+Pliny's full name on the inscriptions of the later period of his life
+reads 'C. Plinius L. f. Ouf. Caecilius Secundus.' This name he partly
+got from his mother's brother C. Plinius Secundus (Pliny the elder),
+who adopted him by will: cf. _Ep._ v. 8, 5, 'Avunculus meus idemque
+per adoptionem pater.' Pliny's name before his adoption in A.D. 79
+(see below) was P. Caecilius L. f. Ouf. Secundus. His birthplace was
+Comum, and he belonged to the Oufentina, the tribe of the people of
+Comum, as well on the side of his natural as on that of his adoptive
+father. In an inscription preserved at Como (_C.I.L._ v. 5279) Pliny's
+father, Cilo, is mentioned, and two men who are undoubtedly Cilo's
+sons, the second mentioned being Pliny the younger, who had always
+been called Secundus.
+
+'L. Caecilius L. f. Cilo iiii.vir a(edilicia) p(otestate), qui
+testamento suo (sestertium) n(ummum) xxxx. (milia) municipibus
+Comensibus legavit, ex quorum reditu quotannis per Neptunalia oleum in
+campo et in thermis et in balineis omnibus, quae sunt Comi,
+praeberentur, t(estamento) f(ieri) iussit et L. Caecilio L. f. Valenti
+et P. Caecilio L. f. Secundo et Lutullae Picti f. contubernali.'[107]
+
+For Cilo's bequests here mentioned cf. Pliny, _Ep._ i, 8, 5; Comum is
+referred to as 'patria mea' in _Ep._ iv. 30, 1. The Caecilii were a
+family of station at Comum even in Caesar's time. Cf. Catull. 35,
+
+  'Poetae tenero meo sodali
+  velim Caecilio, papyre, dicas,
+  Veronam veniat Novi relinquens
+  Comi moenia Lariumque litus.'
+
+Pliny inherited landed property there from his father and mother.
+
+_Ep._ vii. 11, 5, 'Indicavit mihi cupere se aliquid circa Larium
+nostrum possidere: ego illi ex praediis meis quod vellet ... optuli,
+exceptis maternis paternisque.'
+
+The above inscription shows that Pliny's father belonged to the
+municipal nobility, and possibly had 'equestris nobilitas.'
+
+Pliny was in his eighteenth year (_Ep._ vi. 20, 5, 'agebam
+duodevicensimum annum') on 24th August, A.D. 79, when his uncle
+perished in the eruption of Vesuvius, and he was therefore born in the
+second half of 61 or in the first half of 62 A.D. Cilo died young,
+before holding the chief municipal post, and before Pliny was of age;
+and Verginius Rufus became Pliny's guardian.
+
+_Ep._ ii. 1, 8, 'Ille mihi tutor relictus adfectum parentis
+exhibuit.' Pliny was removed to Rome with his uncle, probably at the
+end of A.D. 72. While at school he wrote poetry (_Ep._ vii. 4, 2,
+quoted below), and studied philosophy and rhetoric.
+
+_Ep._ vi. 6, 3, 'Quos tunc ego frequentabam, Quintilianum, Niceten
+Sacerdotem.' Cf. also ii. 14, 10; i. 20, 4; vii. 4, etc. For literary
+studies with his uncle cf. _Ep._ vi. 20, 5, 'Posco librum Titi Livi et
+quasi per otium lego, atque etiam, ut coeperam, excerpo.'
+
+His uncle, as above stated, died on 24th August, A.D. 79, and by his
+will adopted Pliny, whose name thereafter was C. Plinius L. f. Ouf.
+Caecilius Secundus. He therefore changed his praenomen to that of his
+adoptive father, and put his former nomen among his cognomina. By his
+contemporaries he is called Plinius (cf. Martial, x. 19), or Secundus,
+as by Trajan. The name Caecilius was confined to formal inscriptions.
+
+In A.D. 80 or 81 Pliny first appeared as an advocate. Cf. _Ep._ v. 8,
+8, 'Undevicensimo aetatis anno dicere in foro coepi.' Before entering
+the Senate, he held (as stated in the chief inscription, given below)
+the decemvirate _litibus iudicandis_, the military tribunate in the
+third Gallic legion, and the title of Sevir in the Roman knighthood.
+Pliny probably held his military tribunate under Domitian (_i.e._,
+after 13th September, A.D. 81) in Syria.
+
+Cf. _Ep._ i. 10, 2, 'Hunc [Euphraten philosophum] ego in Syria, cum
+adulescentulus militarem, penitus et domi inspexi.'
+
+The date of Pliny's praetorship as A.D. 93 is settled by _Ep._ iii.
+11, 2, the events recorded in which passage are known from Tac. _Agr._
+45 to have taken place shortly after Agricola's death in August, A.D.
+93.
+
+'Fui praetor ... cum ... occisis Senecione Rustico Helvidio, relegatis
+Maurico Gratilla Arria Fannia ... mihi quoque impendere idem exitium
+certis quibusdam notis augurarer.'
+
+The words in _Ep._ vii. 16 (of Calestrius Tiro), 'Simul quaestores
+Caesaris fuimus: ille me in tribunatu liberorum iure praecessit, ego
+illum in praetura sum consecutus, cum mihi Caesar annum remisisset,'
+refer to the fact that the emperor did not insist on the year of
+absence from office between the tribunate and the quaestorship. Pliny
+was quaestor from 1st June, 89 to 31st May, 90 A.D., being nominated
+by the emperor, as shown by the above passage. He was _trib. pleb._
+from 10th December, 90 to 9th December, 91 A.D., and during his year
+of office undertook no cases. Cf. _Ep._ i. 23, 2, 'Ipse cum tribunus
+essem ... abstinui causis agendis.' By special favour he was allowed
+to take office as praetor on 1st January, A.D. 93. In this year he
+appeared before the Senate for the people of Baetica against the
+procurator Baebius Massa.
+
+_Ep._ vii. 33, esp. � 4, 'Dederat me senatus cum Herennio Senecione
+advocatum provinciae Baeticae contra Baebium Massam.'
+
+The inscriptions of Pliny show that he was _praefectus aerarii
+militaris_ between his praetorship in 93 and his _praefectura aerarii
+Saturni_ (from 98 onwards), and this office he held either from 94 to
+96 or from 95 to 97 A.D. Pliny tells us that he and Cornutus Tertullus
+were designated consuls, when they had held the _praefectura aerarii
+Saturni_ for less than two years.
+
+_Paneg._ 91, 'Nondum biennium compleveramus in officio laboriosissimo
+et maximo, cum tu nobis ... consulatum obtulisti.'
+
+This _designatio_ took place on 9th January, A.D. 100, whence the
+_praefectura_ must have been entered on shortly after 9th January,
+A.D. 98. Pliny was probably nominated to it by Nerva and Trajan.
+
+Cf. _ad Trai._ 3, 'Ut primum me, domine, indulgentia _vestra_ promovit
+ad praefecturam aerarii Saturni.'
+
+Mommsen[108] believes that this praefectura was held at the same time
+as the consulship, and on to December, A.D. 101, an unusual length of
+tenure. H. F. Stobbe, however, makes the trial of Classicus, on which
+the last date depends, extend from September 99 to July 100 A.D.
+(_Philologus_, xxx. 347 _sqq._).
+
+_Paneg._ 92, 'Nobis praefectis aerarii consulatum ante quam
+successorem dedisti.'
+
+Pliny, along with Cornutus Tertullus, his colleague in the
+_praefectura_, was made consul A.D. 100. He held the office in
+September of that year, and the tenure was either from July 1 to
+September 30, or from September 1 to October 31.
+
+_Paneg._ 92, 'Ei nos potissimum mensi attribuisti quem tuus natalis
+exornat.'
+
+The _Panegyricus_ is a speech of thanks to Trajan spoken on this
+occasion. In A.D. 99 Pliny, along with Tacitus, appeared for the
+Africans against the proconsul Marius Priscus (see _Ep._ ii. 11 quoted
+p. 338); and in A.D. 101, while still _praefectus aerarii_, he
+appeared for the people of Baetica against the proconsul Caecilius
+Classicus.
+
+_Ep._ iii. 4, 2, 'Legati provinciae Baeticae questuri de proconsulatu
+Caecili Classici advocatum me a senatu petierunt.'
+
+Pliny obtained the augurship, probably in 103 or 104, in succession to
+Sex. Iulius Frontinus, who probably died in 102 or 103 A.D. Cf. _Ep._
+iv. 8, 3, 'Successi Iulio Frontino.' In 103 or 104 A.D. he appeared
+against the Bithynians for the proconsul Iulius Bassus (_Ep._ iv. 9
+etc.). He held the _cura alvei Tiberis et riparum et cloacarum urbis_
+probably from 105 to 107 A.D. See Pliny's chief inscription (below),
+and cf. _Ep._ v. 14, 1-2, 'Mihi nuntiatum est Cornutum Tertullum
+accepisse Aemiliae viae curam ... aliquanto magis me delectat mandatum
+mihi officium, postquam par Cornuto datum video.'
+
+About A.D. 106 Pliny appeared against the Bithynians for the proconsul
+Varenus Rufus (_Ep._ vi. 29, 11).
+
+From 111-2 or 112-3 A.D. Pliny was governor of Pontus and Bithynia,
+being sent out for a special purpose by the emperor as _legatus pro
+praetore consulari potestate_. Cf. the chief inscription (below) and
+the words of Trajan.
+
+_Trai._ 32, 'Meminerimus idcirco te in istam provinciam missum, quoniam
+multa in ea emendanda apparuerint.'
+
+The date of Pliny's governorship is fixed by the mention of Calpurnius
+Macer in the letters (_ad Trai._ 42; 61; 62) as the governor of the
+nearest province. Mommsen has identified him with P. Calpurnius Macer
+Caulius Rufus, who is shown by an inscription (_C.I.L._ iii. 7 and 17)
+to have been governor of Lower Moesia in 112 A.D. This is corroborated
+by the fact that no mention is made of Bithynia in the chief
+collection of letters, which was not completed till A.D. 108 at least.
+Therefore the governorship falls after that time. On the other hand,
+Pliny must have been sent out not later than A.D. 113, as in the chief
+inscription _Optimus_ does not appear in Trajan's name, and this
+cognomen he assumed in A.D. 114. Finally, the fact that Trajan was at
+Rome during Pliny's governorship points to a time between the end of
+the second Dacian War in A.D. 107 and the outbreak of the Parthian War
+in A.D. 113.
+
+Our information about Pliny ends with the close of his correspondence
+with Trajan. It is certain that he held no further office, and it is
+probable that he died before A.D. 114 in his province or shortly after
+his return to Rome.
+
+As regards municipal relations, Pliny held the post of _flamen divi
+Augusti_, according to the inscription which the corporation of
+Vercellae erected to him at his own town (_C.I.L._ v. 5667).
+
+'C. Plini[o L. f. O]uf. Caec[ilio] Secundo [c]os. augur. cur. alv.
+Tib. [et ripa]r. et cloac. urb. [praef. a]er. Sat. praef. aer. mil.
+[pr. tr. pl.] imp. sevir. eq. R. tr. m[i]l. leg. iii. Gall. x. viro
+stl. iud. fl. divi T. Aug.'
+
+For bequests to his native town see the chief inscription (below).
+Besides these are mentioned gifts in his life-time. Under Domitian
+Pliny presented his townspeople with a library (_Ep._ i, 8),
+apparently worth 1,000,000 sesterces (v. 7), and endowed it with
+100,000 sesterces. He also gave 500,000 sesterces for the support of
+freeborn boys and girls (_Ep._ i, 8); and promised to pay one-third of
+the salary of the professor of rhetoric at Comum (_Ep._ iv. 13, 5).
+
+The following is the chief inscription of Pliny (as restored by
+Mommsen), which was erected at the _Thermae_ which he presented to
+Comum (_C.I.L._ v. 5262):
+
+'C. Plinius L. f. Ouf. Caecilius _Secundus cos._ augur legat. pro pr.
+provinciae Pon_ti et Bithyniae_ consulari potesta_t_. in eam
+provinciam e_x. s. c. missus ab_ Imp. Caesar. Nerva Traiano Aug.
+German_ico Dacico p.p_. curator alvei Ti_b_eris et riparum e_t
+cloacar. urb_. praef. aerari Satu_r_ni praef. aerari mil_it. pr. trib.
+pl_. quaestor imp. sevir equitum _Romanorum_ trib. milit. leg. _iii_.
+Gallicae _x.vir stli_tib. iudicand. therm_as ex HS_ ... adiectis in
+ornatum HS ccc ... _et eo amp_lius in tutela_m_ HS CC t. f. i. _item
+in alimenta_ libertor. suorum homin. C. HS XVIII LXVI DCLXVI rei_p.
+legavit, quorum inc_rement. postea ad epulum _pl_eb. urban. voluit
+pertin_ere ... item vivus_ dedit in aliment. pueror. et puellar. pleb.
+urban. HS D _item bybliothecam et_ in tutelam bybliothecae HS C.'
+
+Pliny was also patron of Tifernum Tiberinum and of the Baetici.
+
+_Ep._ iv. 1, 4, 'Oppidum est praediis nostris vicinum, nomen Tiferni
+Tiberini, quod me paene adhuc puerum patronum cooptavit ... In hoc ego
+... templum pecunia mea exstruxi, cuius dedicationem ... differre
+longius inreligiosum est.'
+
+_Ep._ iii. 4, 4, 'Legati ... inplorantes fidem meam, quam essent
+contra Massam Baebium experti, adlegantes patrocini foedus.'
+
+Pliny married three times, twice under Domitian. Cf. _ad Trai._ 2,
+'Liberos ... habere etiam tristissimo illo saeculo volui, sicut potes
+duobus matrimoniis meis credere.' For his third wife, Calpurnia, who
+died A.D. 97, see _Ep._ iv. 19. Pliny had no children, but Trajan
+conferred on him the _ius trium liberorum_ in A.D. 98. Cf. _ad Trai._
+2, 'Me dignum putasti iure trium liberorum.'
+
+_Pliny as orator and writer._--Most of Pliny's cases were before the
+_centumviri_, who dealt with inheritances: cf. _Ep._ vi. 12, 2, 'in
+harena mea, hoc est apud centumviros.' So Mart. x. 19, 14 (written
+A.D. 96),
+
+  'Totos dat tetricae dies Minervae
+  dum centum studet auribus virorum
+  hoc quod saecula posterique possint
+  Arpinis quoque comparare chartis.'
+
+For Pliny's five speeches in criminal trials before the Senate see
+above. Cf. _Ep._ vi. 29, 7 _sqq._, 'Egi quasdam a senatu iussus ...
+Adfui Baeticis contra Baebium Massam ... Adfui rursus isdem
+querentibus de Caecilio Classico ... Accusavi Marium Priscum ...
+Tuitus sum Iulium Bassum ... Dixi proxime pro Vareno.'
+
+Pliny recited his speeches before delivering them, and subsequently
+published them, sometimes with additions.
+
+_Ep._ vii. 17, 2, 'Miror quod scribis fuisse quosdam qui
+reprehenderent quod orationes omnino recitarem.'
+
+_Ep._ iii. 18, 1 (of the _Panegyricus_), 'Quod ego in senatu cum ad
+rationem et loci et temporis ex more fecissem, bono civi
+convenientissimum credidi eadem illa spatiosius et uberius volumine
+amplecti.'
+
+Pliny speaks of his early attempts at poetry:
+
+_Ep._ vii. 4, 2-3, 'Numquam a poetice (altius enim repetam) alienus
+fui; quin etiam quattuordecim natus annos Graecam tragoediam scripsi.
+Qualem? inquis: nescio: tragoedia vocabatur.'
+
+In Books i.-iii. he appears only as a lover of poetry and a patron of
+poets (cf. i. 16; iii. 15). From Book iv. (published A.D. 105) onwards
+he appears as a poet. In _Ep._ vii. 4, 6 are thirteen poor hexameter
+lines on Cicero; _ibid._ �� 7-8, 'Transii ad elegos: hos quoque non
+minus celeriter explicui: addidi iambos, facilitate corruptus ...
+Postremo placuit exemplo multorum unum separatim hendecasyllaborum
+volumen absolvere, nec paenitet. Legitur, describitur, cantatur
+etiam.' Pliny defends himself for writing light verses in _Ep._ v. 3,
+etc. In the later books he refers to another proposed collection of
+verses.
+
+_Ep._ viii. 21, 3, 'Liber fuit et opusculis varius et metris.'
+
+Pliny says he did not observe chronological order in publishing his
+letters.
+
+_Ep._ i. 1, 1, 'Collegi non servato temporis ordine (neque enim
+historiam componebam), sed ut quaeque in manus venerat.'
+
+This, however, is not convincing, as it falls in with
+Pliny's wish to give an appearance of negligence to the work, and
+besides it may apply only to Book i. Successive publication of the
+different Books is shown by many references; so _Ep._ ix. 19,
+'Significas legisse te in quadam epistula,' where _Ep._ vi. 10 is
+referred to. So also contemporaneous events are always described in
+the same Book or in two Books close together; and when a subject is
+continued in another letter, the order of the two letters fits in with
+chronology. So iii. 4 and iv. 1 deal with the building of a temple at
+Tifernum; iii. 20 and iv. 25 with ballot at elections.
+
+The following are the probable dates of publication: Book i. in A.D.
+97; Book ii. in A.D. 100; Book iii. in A.D. 101 or 102; Book iv. in
+A.D. 105; Book v. in A.D. 106; Book vi. possibly in A.D. 106; Book
+vii. in A.D. 107; Book viii. not before A.D. 109; Book ix. probably
+about the same time.
+
+The correspondence with Trajan is independent of the nine Books of
+letters. The epistles are roughly in chronological order. _Epp._ 1-14
+range from 98 to 106 A.D. _Epp._ 15 to the end were probably all
+written in Bithynia during Pliny's governorship there. Trajan's reply
+is subjoined to most of the letters. The correspondence extant
+stretches from September A.D. 111 over January A.D. 113.
+
+Pliny had intimate relations with other writers, the principal being
+Tacitus; Martial (cf. _Ep._ iii. 21); Silius Italicus (cf. _Ep._ iii.
+7). See pp. 340, 298, 289. For his literary reputation see _Ep._ ix.
+23, 2, quoted p. 338 and cf. _Ep._ i. 2, 6, 'Libelli quos emisimus
+dicuntur in manibus esse, quamvis iam gratiam novitatis exuerint; nisi
+tamen auribus nostris bibliopolae blandiuntur.'
+
+_Pliny's character._--Pliny, without being a great man, is a more
+favourable specimen of character, feeling, and gentlemanly tone, than
+almost any other Roman author. He avoided censorious writing, and most
+of the people he mentions are praised. The chief exception is Regulus
+(_Ep._ i. 5, etc.), and possibly also Iavolenus Priscus (vi. 15). When
+anybody is blamed, his name is omitted unless he is dead or has been
+banished.
+
+_Ep._ vii. 28, i, 'Ais quosdam apud te reprehendisse, tamquam amicos
+meos ex omni occasione ultra modum laudem. Agnosco crimen, amplector
+etiam. Quid enim honestius culpa benignitatis?'
+
+For his desire of praise cf. _Ep._ ix. 23, 5, 'An ... ego celebritate
+nominis mei gaudere non debeo? Ego vero et gaudeo et gaudere me dico.'
+
+For his kindness to slaves cf. _Ep._ viii. 16, 1, 'Permitto servis
+quoque quasi testamenta facere eaque ut legitima custodio' (and the
+rest of the letter).
+
+For his grief at the loss of friends cf. _Ep._ v. 21, 6, 'Sed quid ego
+indulgeo dolori? cui si frenos remittas, nulla materia non maxima est.
+Finem epistulae faciam, ut facere possim etiam lacrimis quas epistula
+expressit.'
+
+For his love of nature cf. Ep. i. 9, 6, 'O mare, o litus, verum
+secretumque +mouseion+, quam multa invenitis, quam multa
+dictatis!'
+
+Cf. also descriptions of natural scenery, as in _Epp._ ii. 17, 3; v.
+6, 13; vi. 31, 15; viii. 8.
+
+
+
+TACITUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+The historian's full name is uncertain. Other writers, _e.g._ Pliny
+the younger, call him Cornelius Tacitus, or simply Tacitus. His
+praenomen is given as P. in the best Tacitean MS. (Mediceus I.), and
+as C. in later MSS. and by Sidonius Apollinaris (_Ep._ iv. 14;
+22).[109] His birthplace is unknown. The tradition that he was born at
+Interamna in Umbria arose from the fact that the emperor Tacitus (A.D.
+275-6), who claimed descent from the historian (Vopisc. _Tac._ 10, 3),
+was born there.[110] The probable date of his birth is got from a
+comparison of two passages:
+
+_Dial._ 1, 'Disertissimorum ... hominum ... quos eamdem hanc
+quaestionem pertractantes iuvenis admodum audivi.'
+
+Pliny, _Ep._ vii. 20, 3, 'Erit rarum et insigne duos homines aetate
+dignitate propemodum aequales ... alterum alterius studia fovisse.
+Equidem adulescentulus, cum iam tu fama gloriaque floreres, te sequi,
+tibi longo sed proximus intervallo et esse et haberi concupiscebam.'
+
+The dramatic date of the Dialogue is A.D. 75 (_Dial._ 17), and at that
+time Tacitus, as _iuvenis admodum_, must have been between seventeen
+and twenty. From a consideration of the words of Pliny, who was born
+A.D. 61 or 62, the later age seems nearer the mark, and we may
+conclude that Tacitus was born A.D. 55 or 56.
+
+We have no positive information about Tacitus' family, but his
+education, political career, and marriage into a distinguished house,
+prove that he belonged to a family of station. The first person of the
+name we know of is mentioned by Pliny the elder as an _eques_, and may
+have been Tacitus' father.
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ vii. 76, 'Corneli Taciti, equitis Romani, Belgicae
+Galliae rationes procurantis.'
+
+Tacitus received the regular rhetorical training under the best
+masters.
+
+_Dial._ 2, 'M. Aper et Iulius Secundus, celeberrima tum ingenia fori
+nostri, quos ego in iudiciis non modo studiose audiebam, sed domi
+quoque et in publico adsectabar, mira studiorum cupiditate et quodam
+ardore iuvenili, ut fabulas quoque eorum et disputationes et arcana
+semotae dictionis penitus exciperem.'
+
+That Tacitus had a very great reputation as a speaker is seen from
+Pliny, _Ep._ ix. 23, 2, 'Numquam maiorem cepi voluptatem, quam nuper
+ex sermone Corneli Taciti. Narrabat sedisse se cum quodam Circensibus
+proximis: hunc post varios eruditosque sermones requisisse "Italicus
+es an provincialis?" se respondisse "nosti me, et quidem ex studiis."
+Ad hoc illum "Tacitus es an Plinius?"'
+
+In A.D. 98 (according to others, 97) Tacitus delivered the funeral
+oration over Verginius Rufus, and in A.D. 100 he and Pliny prosecuted
+Marius Priscus, proconsul of Africa, for extortion.
+
+Pliny, _Ep._ ii. 1, 6, 'Laudatus est [Verginius Rufus] a consule
+Cornelio Tacito: nam hic supremus felicitati eius cumulus accessit,
+laudator eloquentissimus.'
+
+_Ibid._ ii. 11, 2, 'Ego et Cornelius Tacitus, adesse provincialibus
+iussi.' � 17, 'Respondit Cornelius Tacitus eloquentissime, et quod
+eximium orationi eius inest, +semn�s+.'
+
+In A.D. 77 Tacitus was betrothed to the daughter of Agricola, then
+consul, and in A.D. 78 he married her.
+
+_Agr._ 9, 'Consul egregiae tum spei filiam iuveni mihi despondit ac
+post consulatum collocavit, et statim Britanniae praepositus est.'
+
+Tacitus gives us a clue to his political career in _Hist._ i. 1.
+
+'Dignitatem nostram a Vespasiano incohatam, a Tito auctam, a Domitiano
+longius provectam non abnuerim.'
+
+This probably means that Vespasian granted him the _latus clavus_,
+_i.e._ a place in the _ordo senatorius_, which was followed by the
+_vigintiviratus_ given by the Senate, and a commission in the army as
+_tribunus militum laticlavius_; that Titus appointed him quaestor A.D.
+80-1; and that Domitian made him tribune or aedile (about 84), and in
+A.D. 88 praetor. For the last office cf. _Ann._ xi. 11,
+
+'Is [Domitianus] edidit ludos saeculares, eisque intentius adfui
+sacerdotio quindecimvirali praeditus ac tunc praetor.'
+
+That Tacitus was absent from Rome A.D. 90-93 we may infer from what he
+says of Agricola's death (A.D. 93).
+
+_Agr._ 45, 'Nobis tam longae absentiae condicione ante quadriennium
+amissus est.'
+
+He must have returned to Rome soon afterwards, for he says in the same
+chapter: 'Mox nostrae duxere Helvidium in carcerem manus; nos Maurici
+Rusticique visus, nos innocenti sanguine Senecio perfudit.'
+
+Tacitus was appointed consul suffectus under Trajan A.D. 98 (see
+Pliny, _Ep._ ii. 1, 6, above quoted).
+
+An inscription found at Mylasa in Caria shows that Tacitus was
+proconsul of Asia about 112-116 A.D.[111]
+
+Tacitus probably died soon after the publication of the _Annals_ (A.D.
+115-7), as he did not live to write his contemplated works on the
+Augustan age and the reigns of Nerva and Trajan.
+
+_Hist._ i. 1, 'Quod si vita suppeditet, principatum divi Nervae et
+imperium Traiani ... senectuti seposui.'
+
+_Ann._ iii. 24, 'Cetera illius aetatis [Augusti] memorabo, si effectis
+in quae tetendi, plures ad curas vitam produxero.'
+
+Tacitus was on intimate terms with Pliny, eleven of whose letters are
+addressed to him. From vii. 20 and viii. 7 we see that they were in
+the habit of "exchanging proof-sheets." To the same circle belonged
+Fabius Iustus, to whom the _Dialogus_ is dedicated, and Asinius Rufus.
+
+Pliny, _Ep._ iv. 15, 1, 'Asinium Rufum singulariter amo. ... Idem
+Cornelium Tacitum arta familiaritate complexus est.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Dialogus de Oratoribus_, an inquiry into the causes of the decay
+of eloquence--'cur nostra potissimum aetas deserta et laude
+eloquentiae orbata vix nomen ipsum oratoris retineat' (_Dial._ 1).
+Some critics have supposed that Tacitus meant this work to be an
+_apologia pro vita sua_, a justification of his preference for a
+literary to a rhetorical career, but this cannot be proved. That
+Tacitus is the author is clear from Pliny, _Ep._ ix. 10, 2, 'Itaque
+poemata quiescunt, quae tu inter nemora et lucos commodissime perfici
+putas'--a reference to _Dial._ 9, 'poetis ... in nemora et lucos, id
+est in solitudinem, secedendum est.' The dramatic date is given in
+_Dial._ 17 as A.D. 75; the statement there and in _Dial._ 24 that one
+hundred and twenty years have passed since Cicero's death (which would
+give A.D. 77) is made in round numbers. The date of composition is
+uncertain. It was not under Domitian, as Tacitus remained silent
+during his reign (_Agr._ 2). We can hardly suppose it to have been
+written under Nerva, as its style is so different from that of the
+_Agricola_; but it may have been written under Domitian, and published
+after his death. Some authorities put it as early as A.D. 81.[112]
+
+2. _De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae liber_, an account of the life
+of Cn. Iulius Agricola, Tacitus' father-in-law, and particularly of
+his career in Britain. It was written early in the reign of Trajan,
+and therefore after 27th Jan., 98 A.D., and probably in that year.
+
+_Agr._ 3, 'quamquam primo statim beatissimi saeculi ortu Nerva Caesar
+res olim dissociabiles miscuerit, principatum ac libertatem, augeatque
+cottidie felicitatem temporum Nerva Traianus.'
+
+3. _Germania_.--The Vatican MSS. give the title as _de origine et situ_
+(another MS. adds _moribus ac populis_) Germanorum. The date of
+publication, as seen from _Germ._ 37, was A.D. 98. The book is not
+mentioned in _Agr._ 3 among the proposed works of Tacitus; and it has
+therefore been supposed that the materials were collected for the
+_Histories_, and that the work was published separately on account of
+its length, and also the interest felt in Germany at the time. There
+is nothing in the theory that the book is a political pamphlet, or
+that it contains a moral purpose. Tacitus is by no means blind to the
+faults of the Germans (c. 17 _sqq._, etc.), though he compares them
+favourably in many respects with the Romans.
+
+4. _Historiae_.--The title is guaranteed by Tertull. _apol._ 16,
+'Cornelius Tacitus in quinta historiarum suarum.' The work embraced
+the time from Galba to Domitian, _i.e._ 69-96 A.D. The first four
+Books and part of the fifth are extant, and give the history of 69 and
+most of 70 A.D. In MS. Mediceus II., the only ancient MS. that
+contains _Ann._ xi.-xvi. and the _Histories_, there is no title, but
+the Books are numbered continuously as belonging to the same work. Cf.
+Jerome, _Comm. on Zacharias_, iii. 14, 'Cornelius Tacitus, qui post
+Augustum usque ad mortem Domitiani vitas Caesarum triginta voluminibus
+exaravit.' If, therefore, the _Annals_ contained sixteen Books, the
+_Histories_ must have contained fourteen, supposing Jerome's statement
+to be correct. Some authorities think the numbers were eighteen and
+twelve respectively. The work was written under Trajan (cf. _Hist._ i.
+1, 'principatum divi Nervae et imperium Traiani'), and was probably
+brought out in instalments. Pliny's letters (vi. 16; 20; vii. 33),
+written about A.D. 106-9, contain contributions to it.
+
+5. _Annales_, or rather _Ab excessu divi Augusti_, the title given by
+MS. Med. I. Tacitus often calls his work _annales_ (as in _Ann._ iv.
+32), but uses the word to signify his plan of recording events by
+their years. Cf. _Ann._ iv. 71, 'Ni mihi destinatum foret suum quaeque
+in annum referre, avebat animus antire,' etc.
+
+He occasionally apologises (as in xii. 40) for departing from this
+order for the sake of clearness. The Books, the division into which
+was made by Tacitus himself (cf. vi. 27, 'in prioribus libris'),
+usually, however, end with some important event.
+
+The _Annals_ deal with the time from the death of Augustus to that of
+Nero, _i.e._ from 14 to 68 A.D. There are extant Books i.-iv. and a
+part of v. and vi., and Books xi.-xvi., except the beginning of xi.
+and the end of xvi. We have thus lost the whole of the reign of
+Caligula and the reign of Claudius from 41-47 (part), and Nero's reign
+from the close of 66 to 68. The work was published between A.D. 115
+and 117. This is settled by _Ann._ ii. 61, 'Exin ventum Elephantinen
+ac Syenen, claustra olim Romani imperii, quod nunc rubrum ad mare
+patescit.'
+
+The conquest here spoken of was made by Trajan A.D. 115, and his
+successor Hadrian, soon after coming to the throne (August, A.D. 117),
+gave up the regions beyond the Euphrates and Tigris (Spartianus,
+_Hadri._ 5).[113]
+
+_Tacitus' views on politics, philosophy, and religion._--
+
+(1) The ideal mixed form of government Tacitus considers to be
+impracticable.
+
+_Ann._ iv. 33, 'Cunctas nationes et urbes populus aut primores aut
+singuli regunt: delecta ex eis et consociata rei publicae forma
+laudari facilius quam evenire, vel si evenit, haud diuturna esse
+potest.'
+
+Tacitus is essentially a conservative. Thus he always uses _antiquus_
+and _priscus_ in a good sense (_H._ ii. 5; 64; _Ann._ vi. 32).
+
+In _Ann._ iii. 60 he speaks with pride of the republic: 'Magna eius
+diei species fuit, quo senatus maiorum beneficia, sociorum pacta,
+regum etiam, qui ante vim Romanam valuerant, decreta ipsorumque
+numinum religiones introspexit, libero, ut quondam, quid firmaret
+mutaretve.'
+
+See also the speech of C. Cassius in _Ann._ xiv. 43. As an aristocrat
+Tacitus is sometimes unjust to men of low birth, as in _Ann._ iv. 3,
+where he sneers at Seianus as 'municipali adultero,' and attaches
+great value to high birth (cf. vi. 27). He is prejudiced against
+slaves and barbarians.
+
+Tacitus theoretically prefers a republic (cf. _Ann._ vi. 42, 'Populi
+imperium iuxta libertatem, paucorum dominatio regiae libidini propior
+est'), but admits the impossibility of a restitution of the free state
+(_H._ ii. 37-8) and the necessity of empire. _H._ i. 1 (of Augustus),
+'omnem potentiam ad unum conferri pacis interfuit.'
+
+Cf. also Galba's speech in _H._ i. 16. The problem is to reconcile the
+empire with freedom (see _Agr._ 3 quoted p. 341). One's duty is to
+steer one's course _inter abruptam contumaciam et deforme obsequium_
+(_Ann._ iv. 20). Tacitus gives only modified approval to patriots like
+Paetus Thrasea (_Ann._ xiv. 12; 49) and Helvidius Priscus (_H._ iv.
+6), and on the other hand gives praise for moderation to men like
+Agricola (_Agr._ 42), M. Lepidus (_Ann._ iv. 20), L. Piso (_Ann._ vi.
+10).
+
+_Ann._ xiv. 12, 'Thrasea Paetus ... sibi causam periculi fecit,
+ceteris libertatis initium non praebuit.'
+
+_Agr._ 42, 'Non contumacia neque inani iactatione libertatis famam
+fatumque provocabat.'
+
+Tacitus blames those who despair of their own times. _Ann._ ii. 88,
+'dum vetera extollimus recentium incuriosi.' He thinks that the
+emperors, from their irresponsible position, were often gradually led
+into wickedness, their downward career being helped by flatterers and
+satellites, and draws a moral lesson from the servile Senate and the
+_delatores_, who, like the emperors themselves, received punishment
+for their conduct (_Ann._ i. 74; iii. 65 _sqq._).
+
+_Ann._ vi. 48, 'Cum Tiberius post tantam rerum experientiam vi
+dominationis convulsus et mutatus sit.'
+
+_Ann._ iv. 33, 'Pauci prudentia honesta ab deterioribus utilia ab
+noxiis discernunt, plures aliorum eventis docentur.'
+
+_Ann._ vi. 6, 'Adeo facinora atque flagitia sua ipsi quoque in
+supplicium verterant ... Quippe Tiberium non fortuna, non solitudines
+protegebant, quin tormenta pectoris suasque ipse poenas fateretur.'
+
+(2) Tacitus attaches himself to no particular school of philosophy,
+and deprecates too close an attention to the subject.
+
+_Agr._ 4, 'Memoria teneo solitum ipsum [Agricolam] narrare se prima in
+iuventa studium philosophiae acrius, ultra quam concessum Romano ac
+senatori, hausisse, ni prudentia matris incensum ac flagrantem animum
+coercuisset.'
+
+He cannot make up his mind as to freewill and predestination, but in
+spite of this doubt expressly states his desire to find out the causes
+of events.
+
+_Ann._ vi. 22, 'Sed mihi haec ac talia audienti in incerto iudicium
+est, fatone res mortalium et necessitate immutabili an forte
+volvantur' (and the rest of the chapter, where the Stoic and Epicurean
+views are mentioned). On the other hand, _H._ i. 4, 'Ut non modo casus
+eventusque rerum, qui plerumque fortuiti sunt, sed ratio etiam
+causaeque noscantur.'
+
+He expresses his belief in divine agency, particularly in the
+_Annals_, but sometimes adopts the pessimistic view that the gods take
+little interest in mankind.
+
+_Ann._ xiv. 5, 'Noctem sideribus inlustrem et placido mari quietam,
+quasi convincendum ad scelus, di praebuere.'
+
+_H._ v. 5, 'Pessimus quisque spretis religionibus patriis.'
+
+_H._ i. 3, 'Nec enim umquam atrocioribus populi Romani cladibus
+magisve iustis indiciis adprobatum est non esse curae deis securitatem
+nostram, esse ultionem.'
+
+_Ann._ xvi. 33, 'Aequitate deum erga bona malaque documenta.'
+
+He believes in the science of divination (see especially _Ann._ iv.
+58), but speaks contemptuously of the impostors found among
+soothsayers and astrologers.
+
+_H._ i. 22, 'Mathematicis ... genus hominum potentibus infidum,
+sperantibus fallax, quod in civitate nostra et vetabitur semper et
+retinebitur.'
+
+Prodigies are recognized, but mentioned only in the _Histories_ and
+the last books of the _Annals_ (from A.D. 51 onwards). See especially
+_H._ ii. 50.
+
+_Tacitus as a historian._--As regards his sources, Tacitus makes more
+use of his predecessors than he does of original documents. Among the
+latter he mentions _acta diurna_ (_Ann._ iii. 3) and _commentarii_ or
+_acta senatus_ (_Ann._ xv. 74); but these he did not make much use of,
+as they were apt to be falsified. He also refers to _publica acta_,
+probably inscriptions (_Ann._ xii. 24); Tiberius' speeches (_Ann._ i.
+81); memoirs of Agrippina, Nero's mother (_Ann._ iv. 53); and of
+Domitius Corbulo on his campaigns in Parthia (_Ann._ xv. 16). He also
+refers by name to several historians, especially in dealing with the
+times after Nero, as C. Plinius (_Ann._ i. 69, quoted p. 284),
+Vipstanus Messalla (_H._ iii. 25), Fabius Rusticus,[114] and Cluvius
+Rufus[115] (_Ann._ xiii. 20).
+
+Other writers are sparingly mentioned, as Sisenna (_H._ iii. 51),
+Caesar (_Germ._ 28). It is certain that Tacitus made use of other
+historians, but he generally refers to his sources without mentioning
+names (as _Ann._ i. 29, 'tradunt plerique'). He sometimes weighs the
+value of two conflicting accounts, or mentions a story only to reject
+it.
+
+_Ann._ iv. 11, 'Haec vulgo iactata, super id quod nullo auctore certo
+firmantur, prompte refutaveris.'
+
+Tacitus' credibility has been attacked, particularly as regards his
+representation of the characters of Tiberius and Nero, but not very
+successfully. He has, however, made mistakes, the most striking of
+which are his view of the Christians (_Ann._ xv. 44) and his account
+of the Jews (_H._ v. 2 _sqq._). The explanation is that he held the
+view current in the upper classes, and did not take the trouble to
+investigate these matters, as the Jews and Christians belonged mostly
+to the lower orders.
+
+Tacitus is not free from superstition (_Ann._ xi. 21; _H._ ii. 50,
+etc.), but one must not suppose he believes the fables he relates (as
+_Ann._ vi. 28; _H._ iv. 83) simply because he expresses no opinion of
+them.
+
+Tacitus is free from party spirit (_Ann._ i. 1, 'sine ira et studio,
+quorum causas procul habeo'; cf. _H._ i. 1) and just in his judgment,
+except in a few passages in the _Histories_, where he is rather unfair
+(i. 42, ii. 95). He is milder in the _Annals_ through advancing years,
+and from the better times he lived in. Generally he takes a lenient
+view of things, except (1) in offences against the state (cf. the
+character of Tiberius); (2) when the religious element comes in; cf.
+what he says of Claudius' marriage with his brother's daughter
+Agrippina: _Ann._ xiv. 2, 'Agrippina ... exercita ad omne flagitium
+patrui nuptiis.'
+
+He shows a somewhat lax morality occasionally, as in _Ann._ xiii. 17
+_sqq._, when speaking of Nero's murder of his brother Britannicus. In
+_Ann._ xi. 19 he approves of compassing a barbarian's death by
+treachery.
+
+For Tacitus' conception of history as dealing with great events cf.
+_Ann._ xiii. 31, 'pauca memoria digna evenere, nisi cui libeat
+laudandis fundamentis et trabibus, quis molem amphitheatri apud campum
+Martis Caesar extruxerat, volumina implere, cum ex dignitate populi
+Romani repertum sit res inlustres annalibus, talia diurnis urbis actis
+mandare.'
+
+His complaints as to his subject-matter in _Ann._ iv. 32, 'Nobis in
+arto et inglorius labor,' must not be taken too seriously.
+
+
+
+SUETONIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+C. Suetonius Tranquillus was the son of Suetonius Laetus, a tribune of
+the thirteenth legion, who took part in the battle of Bedriacum, A.D.
+69 (Sueton. _Otho_, 10). His birth seems to have taken place soon
+after that year,[116] for he was 'adulescens' twenty years after
+Nero's death; _Nero_ 57, 'cum post viginti annos, adulescente me,
+exstitisset condicionis incertae qui se Neronem esse iactaret.'
+
+Suetonius was a friend of the younger Pliny, to whom he was indebted
+for a military tribuneship, which he afterwards passed on to a
+relative (Plin. _Ep._ iii. 8), and for assistance in the purchase of a
+small estate (ibid. i. 24). Pliny encouraged him to publish some of
+his writings (v. 10), and obtained for him from Trajan the _ius trium
+liberorum_ (_ad Trai._ 94).
+
+Under Hadrian he was _magister epistularum_, but was dismissed from
+office in A.D. 121. Spartianus, _Hadr._ 11, 3, 'Septicio Claro
+praefecto praetorio et Suetonio Tranquillo epistularum magistro
+multisque aliis, quod apud Sabinam uxorem in usu eius familiarius se
+tunc egerant quam reverentia domus aulicae postulabat, successores
+dedit.' The remainder of his life appears to have been devoted to
+literature.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _De Vita Caesarum_, in eight Books (Books i.-vi. Iulius-Nero; vii.
+Galba, Otho, and Vitellius; viii. Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian). It
+was published A.D. 119-21, as it was dedicated (according to Joannes
+Lydus) to C. Septicius Clarus, praetorian prefect, who held office
+during those years. The preface and the beginning of the life of
+Iulius are wanting. Suetonius is a conscientious and accurate writer
+(cf. his discussion of Caligula's birthplace, _Calig._ 8), and he
+makes use of good sources, e.g. the _Monumentum Ancyranum_, _Acta
+populi_, _Acta senatus_, autograph documents of the emperors (_Aug._
+87, _Nero_ 52); but there is in his work an almost entire absence of
+dates, and the personal element is, from the point of view of history,
+unduly prominent.
+
+2. _De Viris Illustribus_, including poets, orators (beginning with
+Cicero), historians (from Sallust onwards), philosophers, grammarians,
+and rhetoricians. The greater part of the section _De grammaticis et
+rhetoribus_ is extant, as well as lives of Terence, Horace, and Lucan
+from the section _de poetis_, and of Pliny the elder from the section
+_de historicis_. Extracts from the rest of the work are preserved by
+Jerome. In each section there was (1) a list of the authors discussed,
+(2) a general survey of their branch of literature, (3) brief notices
+of the authors in chronological order. The publication took place,
+according to Roth, 106-113 A.D.
+
+3. Minor works, now lost (mentioned by Suidas), on Greek games, Roman
+games, the Roman year, on critical marks, on Cicero's _Republic_, on
+dress, on imprecations (+peri dysph�m�n lexe�n �toi blasph�mi�n kai
+pothen hekast�+), on Roman laws and customs. Some of these were probably
+only sections of the _Prata_, a miscellany in ten Books, which also
+treated of natural science and philology. The books on Greek games and
+on imprecations were almost certainly composed in Greek.
+
+
+
+Footnotes to Chapter IV
+
+
+[72] The praenomen 'Gaius' is rendered highly probable by the reading
+of the _editio princeps_ and by an inscription found in Africa
+(_C.I.L._ viii. 10311).
+
+[73] _Les Po�tes Latins de la D�cadence_, vol. i., p. 8.
+
+[74] Antwerp edition, p. 89.
+
+[75] Tacitus does not say openly that Seneca was privy to the murder.
+On the whole he is favourable to Seneca, either because he followed
+the authority of Fabius Rusticus, a friend of Seneca, or because
+Seneca perished afterwards through Nero's agency, or because he
+thought Seneca deserved his consideration.
+
+[76] Seneca's influence on the Imperial policy, especially in the
+liberal view it took regarding religion, is well brought out by Prof.
+W. M. Ramsay, in his book, _St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman
+Citizen_, pp. 354 _sqq._
+
+[77] See the very large list of parallels collected by Heitland,
+_Introduction_ to Haskins' _Lucan_, � 51.
+
+[78] See under Varro, p. 96.
+
+[79] Ed. of _Cena Trimalchionis_, p. 7.
+
+[80] See O. Hirschfeld's note on this passage in _R�mische
+Verwaltungsgeschichte_, p. 261.
+
+[81] Messalla was a favourite of Gaius, Narcissus of Claudius.
+
+[82] Pomponius was the author of _Aeneas_ and other tragedies. Pliny
+calls him 'consularis poeta,' 'vates civisque clarissimus' (_N.H._
+vii. 80, xiii. 83). Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xii. 28.
+
+[83] Given with other examples by W. C. Summers, _Study of the
+Argonautica_ (Camb. 1894), p. 27.
+
+[84] Summers, _ibid._ p. 56.
+
+[85] Cf. Tac. _Hist._ iii. 65.
+
+[86] Mart. vii. 63.
+
+[87] Mart. xi. 48; 49.
+
+[88] Mart. viii. 66.
+
+[89] Mart. ix. 68.
+
+[90] The references are to L. Friedl�nder's edition (Leipzig, 1886).
+
+[91] Ed. of Book x., Introd. p. 9 (Oxford, 1891).
+
+[92] A passage probably inserted by the pseudo-Frontinus from memoirs
+of the genuine Frontinus to give an air of authenticity to his work.
+
+[93] J. D�rr, _Das Leben Juvenals_ (Ulm, 1888). L. Friedl�nder (ed. of
+Juvenal: Leipzig, 1895) attaches little importance to this and the
+other _vitae_, but his arguments do not appear to us to be convincing.
+
+[94] E. G. Hardy (ed. of Juvenal: London, 1891, introd. p. 8) thinks
+that this is supported by Juvenal's gentile name Iunius. As a
+representative of the middle classes he (thinks Hardy) could not have
+been related by blood to either of the two _gentes_ of that name.
+Hardy also states that Decimus is a common _praenomen_ of the plebeian
+_gens Iunia_, and suggests that Juvenal may have got his _praenomen_
+from them. There is no reason, however, to think that every Iunius
+must be related or associated in some way with one of these two
+_gentes_.
+
+[95] The statement of the _vitae_, 'ad mediam fere aetatem
+declamavit,' may imply no more than that he continued his studies in
+private; but it must be observed that the usual meaning of _declamare_
+is 'to attend college classes'; and the statement, in whatever way it
+is taken, must be looked upon as improbable.
+
+[96] If the number I. is right, and this appears most likely. II. is
+the only other possible reading, and it must be noted that the second
+Dalmatian cohort was in Britain at the beginning of the second
+century, and probably had been there for a considerable time. _Trib._
+in the inscription is a conjecture suggested by the _vitae_: _praef._,
+which is epigraphically possible, is preferred by some authorities.
+
+[97] E. G. Hardy thinks that A.D. 87 was one of the years when
+_duumviri quinquennales_ (appointed every five years) were elected in
+Aquinum, and hypothetically assigns Juvenal's holding of the post to
+that year.
+
+[98] _C.I.L._ vii. 1195.
+
+[99] Cf. E. G. Hardy, ed. of Juvenal.
+
+[100] Cf. E. G. Hardy, _ibid._
+
+[101] The reference in 4, 126, 'De temone Britanno excidet Arviragus,'
+proves nothing. It is the sort of reference that would be made by an
+Italian ignorant of Britain, and is, in fact, put into the mouth of
+one.
+
+[102] The view that _Sat._ i. 33 _sqq._ refers to M. Aquilius Regulus,
+who died probably A.D. 105 (Pliny, _Ep._ i. 5, 14-15), is rejected by
+Friedl�nder _ad loc._
+
+[103] H. Nettleship (_Journal of Philology_, xvi., p. 45) points out
+that C. Vipstanus Apronianus and C. Fonteius Capito were consuls A.D.
+59, and suggests that this may be the year meant. This would give A.D.
+119 as the date of composition.
+
+[104] The scholiast connects with 4, 37-8.
+
+[105] This story is rejected both by Hardy and by Friedl�nder.
+
+[106] Juvenal had a leaning to Stoicism: cf. _Sat._ 10 _ad fin._, and
+his references to fate, _e.g._ 7, 200; 10, 365; 12, 63. He believes in
+the gods (13, 247-9), but disbelieves the doctrines of the popular
+religion (2, 149 _sqq._).
+
+[107] The inscription records the appointment of Cilo's sons and a
+woman Lutulla as trustees of a fund, the interest of which was to be
+disbursed to the people of Comum.
+
+[108] _Hermes_, iii. 31 _sqq._
+
+[109] The inscription in Caria, formerly supposed to give P. as
+praenomen, is now shown to have been misread.
+
+[110] The inhabitants of Terni (Interamna) erected a statue to Tacitus
+as to a fellow-townsman in A.D. 1514.
+
+[111] _Bull. de Corr. Hell._, 1890, p. 621, quoted by Prof. W. M.
+Ramsay, _The Church in the Roman Empire_, p. 228.
+
+[112] One of the speakers in the Dialogue, Curiatius Maternus, was the
+author of tragedies _Medea_ and _Thyestes_, and of praetextae
+_Domitius_ and _Cato_ (_Dial._ 2-3).
+
+[113] Various attempts have been made, especially in a work published
+in London, 1878, to prove, of course unsuccessfully, that the _Annals_
+were forged in the fifteenth century by the Italian scholar Poggio
+Bracciolini.
+
+[114] Fabius Rusticus, a friend of Seneca, quoted also for the shape
+of Britain (_Agr._ 10).
+
+[115] Cluvius Rufus, governor of Hispania Tarraconensis B.C. 69 (_H._
+i. 8). Mommsen considers that he is one of the historians censured in
+_H._ ii. 101.
+
+[116] Roth gives 71, Teuffel 75 at latest.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX A
+
+ON SOME OF THE CHIEF ANCIENT AUTHORITIES FOR THE HISTORY OF ROMAN
+LITERATURE.
+
+
+1. JEROME[117] (HIERONYMUS) was born about A.D. 335 at Stridon, on the
+frontiers of Dalmatia and Pannonia, and died A.D. 420 at the monastery
+of Bethlehem. His contributions to the history of Roman literature are
+to be found in his translation of the Chronicle (+chronikoi
+kanones+) of Eusebius, in which the dates are reckoned from the first
+year of Abraham (= B.C. 2016 according to his chronology), the point
+at which Eusebius commenced. On the period between the Trojan War and
+A.D. 325 Jerome not merely translated the remarks of Eusebius, as he
+had done in the earlier period, but also added numerous extracts from
+authorities on Roman history and literature. The source from which he
+derived nearly all his information on literature is universally
+admitted to have been the work of Suetonius _De Viris Illustribus_.
+With the statements in the surviving sections of that treatise the
+observations of Jerome agree, and there can be no reasonable doubt
+that he made a similar use of the parts no longer extant. It is a
+significant fact that the important authors on whom Jerome is silent,
+_e.g._ Tacitus, Juvenal, and the younger Pliny, are precisely those
+whom Suetonius, as a contemporary, naturally could not discuss.
+
+The statements of Jerome, based as they are on the high authority of
+Suetonius, may be regarded as in the main trustworthy. Some of them,
+however, are doubtful, and others manifestly wrong.
+
+(_a_) Jerome's plan obliged him to fix every event to a definite year;
+and this, in many cases, can only be guess-work, for Suetonius, as may
+be seen from his extant writings, was often vague in his chronology.
+
+(_b_) Comparison with the remains of Suetonius shows that Jerome's
+claim to have made his extracts with care was not always well
+grounded; _e.g._ his statement that Ennius was a native of Tarentum
+(see p. 27).
+
+(_c_) In reckoning, according to his system of dates, events dated by
+one of the many confusing systems of chronology current in ancient
+times, many openings for error presented themselves; _e.g._ he
+sometimes erred through confusing consuls of the same or similar
+names, as in the case of Lucilius (p. 59); or through confusing
+similar events, as in the case of Livius Andronicus, although the
+mistake about the latter was of long standing (p. 2). Once at least he
+seems to have confused the date of an author's _floruit_ and that of
+his death, making Plautus die in B.C. 200 instead of B.C. 184 (p. 8).
+
+2. AULUS GELLIUS[118] was born probably about A.D. 123, and studied
+under the most eminent teachers both at Rome and at Athens. Of his
+subsequent life nothing is known except that he held some judicial
+post at Rome. His work, the _Noctes Atticae_ in twenty Books (of Book
+viii. only the headings of chapters are preserved), is a miscellany of
+information on philology, philosophy, rhetoric, history, biography,
+literary criticism, natural science, and antiquities. The title is due
+to the fact that the book was commenced in the winter evenings during
+the author's residence at Athens. The arrangement of the contents
+simply follows the haphazard order of the notes which Gellius made in
+the course of his reading of Greek and Roman authors. Those authors,
+and the conversation of contemporaries, are Gellius' professed
+sources, but in some cases the author he names is evidently quoted at
+second-hand, and many of the conversations are doubtless quite
+imaginary. Our obligations to Gellius are twofold.
+
+(_a_) Innumerable extracts from ancient authors are preserved by him
+alone. (No quotations are given from post-Augustan writers--a fact
+which accords with the affected archaism of his style.)
+
+(_b_) His remarks on incidents in the lives of the Roman poets are in
+the main derived from Varro, whose work _De Poetis_ is quoted for the
+epitaph of Plautus (see p. 9); elsewhere his source is indicated
+either vaguely or not at all, e.g. iii. 3, 15, 'accepimus'; xii. 4, 5,
+'ferunt.' For literary criticism Varro is quoted: iii. 3, 9, _sqq._;
+vi. 14, 6 (see pp. 10, 51).
+
+3. NONIUS MARCELLUS,[119] a Peripatetic, of Thubursicum in Numidia, is
+identified by Mommsen with the Nonius Marcellus Herculius of _C.I.L._
+viii. 4878 (date A.D. 323); but nothing is known of his life. His
+work, _De Compendiosa Doctrina ad Filium_ in twenty Books (of Book
+xvi. the title only is known; Book xx. is fragmentary), though
+modelled on that of Gellius, is immeasurably inferior in execution.
+According to the theory usually received Nonius borrowed largely from
+Gellius; but it is possible that both compilers made independent use
+of the same authorities, viz., scholars such as Verrius Flaccus,
+Valerius Probus, and Suetonius, whose works they knew either directly
+or through abridgments. The subjects with which Nonius deals are
+grammar, lexicography, and antiquities; and he is often our sole
+authority for the titles of works as well as for brief extracts.
+
+4. AMBROSIUS THEODOSIUS MACROBIUS, doubtless identical with the
+Macrobius who held, among other high offices, the proconsulship of
+Africa A.D. 410, was probably, like Nonius, of African origin. Besides
+his commentary on the _Somnium Scipionis_ of Cicero, Macrobius wrote a
+work in seven Books on Roman literature and antiquities with the title
+of _Saturnalia_. The imaginary conversations of which it consists are
+supposed to take place during the festival of the Saturnalia at Rome
+(hence the title); and the chief subject of discussion is the poetry
+of Virgil. A remarkable feature of the book is its wealth of quotation
+from Greek and Latin authors. Macrobius, like Gellius, bases his work
+on extracts from older authorities; but, unlike him, arranges his
+matter systematically.
+
+5. AELIUS DONATUS, a grammarian who flourished at Rome about A.D. 350,
+and was one of Jerome's teachers, extracted from the lost work of
+Suetonius the Lives of Terence and Virgil, and prefixed them to his
+own commentaries on Terence and on the _Georgics_ and _Aeneid_. The
+latter is lost, and the commentary on Terence contains much that is
+not from the hand of Donatus.
+
+6. SERVIUS.--There are two versions of the Servian commentary on
+Virgil. The shorter is the work of Maurus Servius Honoratus, who was
+born about 350 A.D., and lived at Rome (Macrob. _Saturn._ i. 2, 15);
+his topographical references show that he composed his commentary
+there. Servius, whose notes are chiefly on the language of the poems,
+gives illustrative quotations from Roman authors, in some cases from
+memory and inaccurately. Donatus is the authority whom he mentions
+oftenest, but he undoubtedly made extensive use of Suetonius.
+
+The longer version contains learned additions to the work of Servius
+by an anonymous Christian writer, who deals mainly with the
+subject-matter of Virgil.
+
+7. ACRO and PORPHYRIO.--Helenius Acro (probably about 200 A.D.) was
+the author of commentaries on Horace and Terence, now lost. The
+scholia on Horace extant under Acro's name are, with few exceptions,
+taken from the commentary of Pomponius Porphyrio, which we possess in
+a mutilated form. Porphyrio, who probably belonged to the 4th cent.
+A.D., names among his sources Acro and Suetonius.
+
+For ASCONIUS see p. 77; for VALERIUS PROBUS, p. 147.
+
+
+
+Footnotes to Appendix A
+
+
+[117] See _Quaestiones Suetonianae_ in Reifferscheid's _Suetonius_,
+pp. 363 _sqq._
+
+[118] See H. Nettleship, _Lectures and Essays_ (1885), p. 248 _sqq._
+
+[119] See Nettleship, _ibid._ p. 277 _sqq._
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX B
+
+SELECT LIST OF EDITIONS.
+
+
+NOTE.--All editions mentioned have explanatory notes, except those
+marked "text" (which are merely texts), and those marked "crit." (which
+have an apparatus criticus).
+
+Editions published in England and Germany have English and German
+notes respectively, unless otherwise stated.
+
+F.P.R. = Fragmenta Poetarum Romanorum, ed. E. B�hrens.
+
+  *Livius Andronicus.*
+    Plays--
+      In Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta, ed.
+        O. Ribbeck (vol. i. _Trag._, ii. _Com._) (crit.), Leip. '71-73
+      Do. (with Naevius' plays), L. M�ller,                  Berl. '85
+      Odisia, in E. B�hrens' Frag. Poet. Rom. (crit.),       Leip. '86
+
+  *Naevius.*
+    Bellum Punicum,      J. Vahlen,                          Leip. '54
+          "              F.P.R.
+    Plays (see above)
+
+  *Plautus.*
+    J. L. Ussing (Latin commentary),                    Copenh. '75-87
+    F. Ritschl, revised by G. Loewe, G. Goetz, and F.
+      Sch�ll (crit.),                                        Leip. '94
+    Amphitruo,           A. Palmer,                          Lond. '90
+    Asinaria,            J. H. Gray,                         Camb. '94
+    Aulularia,           W. Wagner,                          Camb. '92
+    Captivi,             J. Brix,                            Leip. '84
+    "                    W. M. Lindsay,                       Oxf. '95
+    "                    E. A. Sonnenschein,                 Lond. '80
+    "                    A. R. S. Hallidie,                  Lond. '95
+    Epidicus,            J. H. Gray,                         Camb. '93
+    Mostellaria,         A. O. F. Lorenz,                    Berl. '83
+    "                    E. A. Sonnenschein,                 Camb. '84
+    Menaechmi,           J. Brix and M. Niemeyer,            Leip. '91
+    "                    W. Wagner,                          Camb. '92
+    Miles,               J. Brix,                            Leip. '82
+    "                    A. O. F. Lorenz,                    Berl. '86
+    "                    R. Y. Tyrrell,                      Lond. '94
+    Pseudolus,           A. O. F. Lorenz,                    Berl. '76
+    Rudens,              E. A. Sonnenschein,                  Oxf. '91
+    Stichus,             C. A. M. Fennell,                   Camb. '93
+    Trinummus,           J. Brix and M. Niemeyer,            Leip. '88
+    "                    W. Wagner,                          Camb. '90
+    "                    C. E. Freeman and A. Sloman,         Oxf. '96
+
+  *Ennius.*
+    F.P.R.
+    J. Vahlen                                                Leip. '54
+    Do. (with Naevius'
+      Bell. Pun.),       L. M�ller,                   St. Petersb. '85
+
+  *Pacuvius* and *Caecilius Statius.*
+    Ribbeck, _Trag._ and _Com._
+
+  *Terence.*
+    K. Dziatzko (text),                                      Leip. '84
+    W. Wagner,                                               Lond. '92
+    Andria,              A. Spengel,                         Berl. '88
+    "                    C. E. Freeman and A. Sloman,         Oxf. '93
+    "  and Eunuchus,     T. L. Papillon,                     Lond. '70
+    Heaut. Tim.,         E. S. Shuckburgh,                   Lond. '94
+    "                    J. H. Gray,                         Camb. '95
+    Phormio,             K. Dziatzko,                        Leip. '85
+    "                    A. Sloman,                           Oxf. '94
+    "                    J. Bond and A. S. Walpole,          Lond. '95
+    Adelphoe,            K. Dziatzko,                        Leip. '81
+    "                    A. Spengel,                         Berl. '79
+    "                    A. Sloman,                           Oxf. '92
+    "                    S. G. Ashmore,                      Lond. '93
+
+  *Cato the Elder.*
+    De Agricultura (and
+      Varro, Res Rusticae), H. Keil (crit.),              Leip. '82-91
+      Other fragments,      H. Jordan (crit.),               Leip. '60
+
+  *Accius.*
+    Ribbeck, and F.P.R.
+
+  *Lucilius.*
+    L. M�ller,                                               Leip. '72
+    C. Lachmann (crit.),                                     Berl. '76
+    F.P.R.
+
+  *Atta, Afranius, Laberius.*
+    Ribbeck.
+
+  *Matius, Laevius, Bibaculus, Calvus, Cinna, Varro Atacinus.*
+    F.P.R.
+
+  *Auctor ad Herennium.*
+    C. L. Kayser,                                            Leip. '54
+    F. Marx (crit.),                                         Leip. '94
+
+  *Varro.*
+    Sat. Menipp., Logistorici,
+      Sententiae Varronis,    A. Riese (crit.),              Leip. '65
+    Sat. Menipp. (text in F. B�cheler's Petronius),          Berl. '95
+    Antiquitates (text in R. Merkel's Ovid, Fasti),          Berl. '41
+    De vita pop. Rom.,        H. Kettner (crit.),           Halle, '63
+    De gente pop. Rom.,       H. Peter (Frag. Hist. Rom.),   Leip. '83
+    De Lingua Latina,         A. Spengel (crit.),            Berl. '85
+    Res Rusticae,             H. Keil (see 'Cato').
+    Grammatical Works
+      (except _De L. L._),    A. Wilmanns (crit.),           Berl. '64
+
+  *Cicero.*
+    1. _Speeches_--
+      Pro Sex. Rosc. Amer.,   E. H. Donkin,                  Lond. '95
+      Pro Sex. Rosc. Amer.,   G. Landgraf,               Erlangen, '84
+      Pro Q. Rosc. Com.,      C. A. Schmidt,                 Leip. '39
+      Verrines,               C. G. Zumpt,                   Berl. '31
+      Div. in Caec. and in
+        Verr., Act. i.,       W. E. Heitland and H. Cowie,   Camb. '95
+        Verr., Act. i.,       J. R. King,                    Lond. '87
+      Div. in Caec. and in Verr.
+        Act ii., 4 and 5,     E. Thomas,                    Paris, '95
+      Pro Caecina,            C. A. Jordan,                  Leip. '47
+      De Imp. Cn. Pompei,     A. S. Wilkins,                 Lond. '94
+      Pro Cluentio,           W. and G. G. Ramsay,            Oxf. '89
+      Pro Cluentio,           W. Y. Fausset,                 Lond. '88
+      De Lege Agraria,        A. W. Zumpt,                   Berl. '61
+      Pro Rab. perd. reo,     W. E. Heitland,                Camb. '82
+      In Catilinam,           A. S. Wilkins,                 Lond. '95
+      Pro Murena,             W. E. Heitland,                Camb. '93
+      Pro Murena,             J. H. Freese,                  Lond. '94
+      Pro Sulla,              J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '91
+      Pro Archia,             J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '95
+      Pro Flacco,             A. du Mesnil,                  Leip. '83
+      Pro Sestio,             H. A. Holden,                  Lond. '95
+      In Vatinium,            C. Halm,                       Leip. '46
+      De Prov. Cons.,         G. Tischer,                    Berl. '61
+      Pro Balbo,              J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '90
+      Pro Plancio,            H. A. Holden,                  Camb. '93
+      Pro Milone,             J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '95
+      Pro Milone,             A. C. Clark,                    Oxf. '95
+      Pro Marcello, Ligario,
+        Deiotaro,             W. Y. Fausset,                  Oxf. '93
+      Philippics,             J. R. King.                     Oxf. '78
+      II. Phil.,              J. E. B. Mayor,                Lond. '93
+      II. Phil.,              A. G. Peskett,                 Camb. '91
+    2. _Rhetorical Works_--
+      De Oratore,             A. S. Wilkins,                  Oxf. '92
+      De Oratore,             G. Sorof,                      Berl. '82
+      De Oratore,             K. W. Piderit
+                                and O. Harnecker,         Leip. '86-90
+      De Inventione,          A. Weidner,                    Berl. '78
+      Brutus,                 K. W. Piderit
+                                and W. Friedrich,            Leip. '89
+      Brutus,                 O. Jahn and A. Eberhard,       Berl. '77
+      Orator,                 J. E. Sandys,                  Camb. '85
+      Orator,                 K. W. Piderit,                 Leip. '76
+      Orator, (with De Opt.
+        Gen. Orat.),          O. Jahn,                       Berl. '69
+      Partit. Orat.,          K. W. Piderit,                 Leip. '67
+    3. _Philosophical Works_--
+      De Re Publica,          F. Osann,                      G�tt. '47
+      De Legibus,             A. du Mesnil,                  Leip. '79
+      Paradoxa,               G. H. Moser,                   G�tt. '46
+      De Finibus,             J. N. Madvig (Lat. comm.),   Copenh. '78
+      "                       H. Holstein,                   Leip. '73
+      Academica,              J. S. Reid,                    Lond. '85
+      Tusc. Disp.,.           R. K�hner (Lat.),           Hanover, '74
+      "                       O. Heine,                   Leip. '92-96
+      "                       G. Tischer and G. Sorof,    Berl. '84-87
+      De Nat. Deor.,          J. B. Mayor,                Camb. '83-91
+      "                       G. F. Sch�mann,                Berl. '76
+      De Senectute,           J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '94
+      " Amicitia,             J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '93
+      " Officiis,             H. A. Holden,                  Camb. '93
+      " Divinatione, De
+        Fato,                 G. H. Moser,                 Frankf. '28
+    4. _Letters_--
+      Correspondence of C.    R. Y. Tyrrell and
+                                L. C. Purser,             Dubl. '85-94
+      Selections,             A. Watson,                      Oxf. '91
+      " (C. in his
+      Letters),               R. Y. Tyrrell,                 Lond. '96
+      Epp. ad Att.,           J. G. C. Boot (Lat.)           Amst. '86
+      Epp. ad Fam.,           L. Mendelssohn (crit.),        Leip. '93
+                              C. F. W. M�ller (crit.),       Leip. '96
+    5. _Poems_--
+      F.P.R.
+      _Complete texts_--
+      J. C. Orelli, J. G. Baiter, and C. Halm,.            Z�r. '45-61
+      C. F. A. Nobbe,                                        Leip. '50
+      C. F. W. M�ller, etc.,                              Leip. '90-96
+      J. G. Baiter and C. L. Kayser,                      Leip. '60-69
+
+  *Caesar.*
+    B. Dinter (text),                                        Leip. '96
+    B. K�bler (text),                                     Leip. '93-94
+    Bell. Gall.,          J. Bond and A. S. Walpole,         Lond. '87
+    "                     A. G. Peskett,                     Camb. '78
+    Bell. Gall.,          C. E. Moberly,                      Oxf. '90
+    Bell. Gall.,          F. Kraner and W. Dittenberger,     Berl. '90
+    Bell. Gall.,          A. Doberenz and B. Dinter,         Leip. '92
+    Bell. Civ.,           C. E. Moberly,                      Oxf. '92
+    Bell. Civ.,           F. Kraner and F. Hofmann,          Berl. '90
+    Bell. Civ.,           A. Doberenz and B. Dinter,         Leip. '84
+    Bell. Civ., (Bk. i.), A. G. Peskett,                     Camb. '90
+    Bell. Alex.,          R. Schneider,                      Berl. '89
+    Bell. Afr.,           E. W�lfflin and A. Miodonski,      Leip. '89
+
+  *Nepos.*
+    C. Nipperdey and B. Lupus,                               Berl. '95
+    J. Siebelis and M. Jancovius,                            Leip. '96
+    O. Browning and W. R. Inge,                               Oxf. '88
+    E. S. Shuckburgh,                                        Camb. '95
+
+  *Lucretius.*
+    H. A. J. Munro,                                       Camb. '91-93
+    C. Lachmann,                                             Berl. '82
+    Books i.-iii.,            J. H. W. Lee,                  Lond. '93
+    Book v.,                  J. D. Duff,                    Camb. '96
+
+  *Sallust.*
+    Cat. and Iug.,            W. W. Capes,                    Oxf. '89
+    Cat. and Iug.,            C. Merivale,                   Lond. '84
+    Cat. and Iug., (and
+      frags. of Hist.),       R. Jacobs and H. Wirz,         Berl. '94
+    Cat.,                     A. M. Cook,                    Lond. '88
+    Hist. (text),             H. Jordan,                     Leip. '87
+    Historiarum Reliquiae,    B. Maurenbrecher,           Leip. '91-93
+
+  *Publilius Syrus.*
+    Sententiae,               W. Meyer (crit.),              Leip. '80
+    Sententiae,               R. A. H. Bickford Smith,       Camb. '95
+
+  *Catullus.*
+    A. Palmer (crit.),                                       Lond. '96
+    R. Ellis (crit.),                                         Oxf. '78
+    R. Ellis (commentary),                                    Oxf. '89
+    B. Schmidt (introd. and text),                           Leip. '87
+    F. P. Simpson (selections),                              Lond. '94
+    (With Tibullus and
+      Propertius), L. M�ller (text),                         Leip. '92
+
+  *Horace.*
+    E. C. Wickham,                                         Oxf. '90-96
+    A. Kiessling,                                         Berl. '89-95
+    J. C. Orelli, W. Hirschfelder, and W. Mewes,          Berl. '86-92
+    Satires,                  A. Palmer,                     Lond. '96
+    Odes and Epodes,          T. E. Page,                    Lond. '95
+    "                         J. Gow,                        Camb. '96
+    Epistles and A.P.,        A. S. Wilkins,                 Lond. '92
+
+  *Virgil.*
+    O. Ribbeck (crit.),                                   Leip. '94-95
+       "       (text only),                                  Leip. '95
+    T. E. Papillon and A. E. Haigh (text only),               Oxf. '92
+           [The above include the minor poems.]
+    J. Conington and H. Nettleship,                       Lond. '83-84
+    T. E. Papillon and A. E. Haigh,                           Oxf. '92
+    A. Sidgwick,                                          Camb. '90-94
+    B. H. Kennedy,                                           Lond. '79
+    T. Ladewig, C. Schaper, and P. Deuticke,                 Berl. '91
+    K. Kappes,                                            Leip. '93-95
+    Aeneid (i.-vi.),          T. E. Page,                    Lond. '94
+
+  *Tibullus.*
+    E. Hiller (text),                                        Leip. '85
+    E. B�hrens (text),                                       Leip. '78
+    L. Dissen,                                               G�tt. '35
+
+  *Propertius.*
+    W. A. Hertzberg,                                     Halle, '43-45
+    F. A. Paley,                                             Lond. '72
+    A. Palmer (text),                                        Lond. '80
+    J. P. Postgate (selections),                             Lond. '94
+    "             (text),                                    Lond. '94
+
+  *Ovid.*
+    A. Riese (introd.),                                   Leip. '71-89
+    Heroides,           A. Palmer,                           Lond. '74
+    "                   E. S. Shuckburgh,                    Lond. '96
+    Metam.,             J. Sibelis and F. Polle,          Leip. '92-96
+    "                   M. Haupt, O. Korn, and H. J. M�ller, Berl. '85
+    Fasti,              G. H. Hallam,                        Lond. '93
+    Fasti,              R. Merkel,                           Berl. '41
+    "                   H. Peter,                            Leip. '89
+    Tristia,            S. G. Owen (crit.),                   Oxf. '89
+    "     (Bks. i., iii.), S. G. Owen,                     Oxf. '90-93
+    "     and Ibis,     R. Merkel,                           Berl. '37
+    Ibis,               R. Ellis (Lat.),                      Oxf. '82
+
+  *Manilius.*
+    F. Jacob,                                                Berl. '46
+       [See also R. Ellis, _Noctes Manilianae_, Oxf. '91.]
+
+  *Livy.*
+    W. Weissenborn and H. J. M�ller,                      Berl. '73-96
+    M. Hertz (introd. and text),                          Leip. '57-63
+    Book i.,                      J. R. Seeley,               Oxf. '81
+    Books iv., vi., ix., xxvii.,  H. M. Stephenson,       Camb. '90-94
+    Book v.,                      L. Whibley,                Camb. '94
+    Books xxi., xxii.,            M. S. Dimsdale,         Camb. '94-95
+    "                             W. W. Capes,               Lond. '95
+
+  *Trogus.*
+    A. Bielowski,                                         Lemberg, '53
+
+  *Verrius Flaccus.*
+    (Festus and Paulus),          C. O. M�ller,              Leip. '80
+
+  *Vitruvius.*
+    V. Rose and H. M�ller-Str�bing (crit.),                  Leip. '67
+
+  *Seneca the Elder.*
+    H. J. M�ller (text),                                   Prague, '87
+    A. Kiessling (text),                                     Leip. '72
+
+  *Velleius.*
+    C. Halm (crit.),                                         Leip. '76
+    D. Ruhnken, ed. C. H. Frotscher,                         Leip. '39
+
+  *Valerius Maximus.*
+    C. Kempf (text),                                         Leip. '88
+
+  *Celsus.*
+    C. Daremberg (text),                                     Leip. '59
+
+  *Phaedrus.*
+    J. Siebelis and F. A. Eckstein,                          Leip. '89
+
+  *Seneca the Younger.*
+   Prose Works,           F. Haase (text),                Leip. '93-95
+   Apocolocyntosis, in F. B�cheler's Petronius (text).
+   Tragedies,             R. Peiper and G. Richter (text),   Leip. '67
+
+  *Curtius Rufus.*
+    T. Vogel,                                                Leip. '93
+
+  *Columella.*
+    In _Scriptores Rei Rusticae_,
+                 ed. I. G. Schneider (Lat.),              Leip. 1794-7
+
+  *Asconius.*
+    A. Kiessling and R. Sch�ll,                              Berl. '75
+
+  *Mela.*
+    C. Frick (text),                                         Leip. '80
+
+  *Persius.*
+    O. Jahn and F. B�cheler (text),                          Berl. '93
+    J. Conington, ed. H. Nettleship,                          Oxf. '93
+
+  *Probus.*
+    H. Keil,                                                Halle, '48
+
+  *Lucan.*
+    C. Hosius (text),                                        Leip. '92
+    C. E. Haskins (introd. by W. E. Heitland),               Lond. '87
+    Book i.,          W. E. Heitland and C. E. Haskins,      Camb. '95
+    "                 Lejay,                                Paris, '94
+    Books i.-v.,      C. M. Francken (Lat.),               Leiden, '96
+
+  *Petronius.*
+    F. B�cheler (text),                                      Berl. '95
+    Cena Trimalchionis, L. Friedl�nder (text, German
+                          trans., and notes),                Leip. '91
+
+  *Calpurnius Siculus.*
+    H. Schenkl (text),                                     Prague, '85
+    C. H. Keene,                                             Lond. '87
+
+  *Aetna.*
+    H. A. J. Munro,                                          'Camb. 67
+
+  *Pliny the Elder.*
+    L. van Jan and Mayhoff (text),                        Leip. '75-92
+    J. Sillig,                                         Hamburg, '51-58
+    J. Hardouin,                                           Paris, 1723
+    D. Detlefsen (crit.),                                 Berl, '66-82
+    (Selections) Chrestomathia
+                 Pliniana,  L. Urlichs,                      Berl. '57
+
+  *Valerius Flaccus.*
+    J. A. Wagner,                                           G�tt. 1805
+    N. E. Lemaire,                                          Paris, '24
+    G. Thilo (text),                                        Halle, '63
+
+  *Silius Italicus.*
+    A. Drakenborch (Lat.),                               Utrecht, 1717
+    G. A. Ruperti, ed. Lemaire,                             Paris, '23
+    L. Bauer (text),                                         Leip. '90
+
+  *Statius.*
+    Silvae,                 E. B�hrens (text),               Leip. '76
+    Achilleis,              P. Kohlmann (text),              Leip. '79
+    Thebais,                                                 Leip. '84
+
+  *Martial.*
+    L. Friedl�nder,                                          Leip. '86
+    (Selections,)           H. M. Stephenson,                Lond. '95
+                            F. A Paley and W. H. Stone,      Lond. '82
+
+  *Quintilian.*
+    G. L. Spalding and C. G. Zumpt,                    Leip. 1798-1834
+    F. Meister (text),                                  Prague, '86-87
+    C. Halm (crit.),                                         Leip. '69
+    Book X.,                J. E. B. Mayor,                  Lond. '72
+    "                       W. Peterson,                      Oxf. '91
+    "                       G. T. A. Kr�ger,                 Leip. '88
+    "                       E. Bonnell and F. Meister,       Berl. '82
+
+  *Frontinus.*
+    A. Dederich (text),                                      Leip. '55
+    Strategemata,           G. Gundermann (text),            Leip. '88
+    De Aquis,               F. B�cheler (text),              Leip. '58
+
+  *Juvenal.*
+    L. Friedl�nder,                                          Leip. '95
+    A. Weidner,                                              Leip. '89
+    XIII. Satires,          J. E. B. Mayor,                  Lond. '93
+    "                       C. H. Pearson and H. A. Strong,   Oxf. '92
+    "                       E. G. Hardy,                     Lond. '95
+
+  *Tacitus.*
+    C. Halm (text),                                       Leip. '89-93
+    Dialogus,            W. Peterson,                         Oxf. '93
+    Germania,            H. Furneaux,                         Oxf. '94
+    " and Agricola,      A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb, Lond. '91-94
+    "     "              H. M. Stephenson,                   Camb. '94
+    Histories,           E. Wolff,                        Berl. '86-88
+    "                    W. A. Spooner,                      Lond. '91
+    " (Books i., ii.),   A. D. Godley,                       Lond. '94
+    Annals,              K. Nipperdey and G. Andresen,    Berl. '84-92
+    "                    A. Dr�ger and F. Becher,         Leip. '82-95
+    "                    H. Furneaux,                      Oxf. '83-91
+    "                    H. Furneaux (Books i.-iv.),          Oxf. '92
+
+  *Pliny the Younger.*
+    H. Keil (text),                                          Leip. '53
+    H. Keil and Th. Mommsen (crit.),                         Leip. '70
+    G. H. Schaefer,                                         Leip. 1805
+    Epistles,         G. Cortius and P. D. Longolius,    Amsterd. 1734
+    " (Book iii.),    J. E. B. Mayor,                        Lond. '89
+    " (to Trajan),    E. G. Hardy,                           Lond. '89
+
+  *Suetonius.*
+    C. L. Roth (text),                                       Leip. '75
+    C. G. Baumgarten-Crusius,                                Leip. '16
+    Julius and Augustus,                H. T. Peck,      New York, '93
+    Augustus,                           E. S. Shuckburgh,    Camb. '96
+    Praeter Caesarum libros reliquiae,  A. Reifferscheid,    Leip. '60
+
+  *Miscellaneous.*
+    Aulus Gellius,                 M. Hertz (text),          Leip. '86
+    Macrobius,                     F. Eyssenhardt (text),    Leip. '93
+    Nonius Marcellus,              L. M�ller (crit.),        Leip. '88
+    Servius,               G. Thilo and H. Hagen (crit.), Leip. '78-94
+    Grammatici Latini, H. Keil (crit.),                   Leip. '56-80
+    Corpus Poetarum Latinorum, ed. J. P. Postgate (crit.),   Lond. '94
+      [Including Ennius, Lucretius, Catullus, Horace, Virgil,
+      Tibullus, Propertius, Ovid; other parts to follow.]
+    Oratorum Romanorum Fragmenta, H. Meyer (text),         Z�rich, '42
+    Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta, H. Peter (text),       Leip. '83
+    Selected Fragments of Roman Poetry, W. W. Merry,          Oxf. '91
+    Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin, J. Wordsworth,    Oxf. '74
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL INDEX
+
+
+  Abuccius, 99.
+
+  Accius,
+    birth, 55;
+    literary activity, friendships with leading men, 56;
+    character, 56;
+    plays and other works, 57;
+    Accius on philology and philosophy, 57;
+    views on Accius, 58;
+    relations with Pacuvius, 35;
+    on the dates of Livius, 1;
+    imit. by Lucr. 121;
+    by Virg. 161.
+
+  Acro, 354.
+
+  Acta diurna and Acta senatus,
+    used by Tac. 346;
+    by Sueton. 349.
+
+  Aedituus, _see_ Valerius.
+
+  Aelius Stilo, 10, 25, 29.
+
+  Aelius Tubero, 220.
+
+  Aemilius Macer, 182.
+
+  Aemilius Scaurus, 58.
+
+  Aeschylus,
+    imit. by Livius, 3;
+    by Accius, 57;
+    by Sen. 253;
+    trans. by Cic. 88.
+
+  Aesop, imit. by Phaedrus, 239.
+
+  Aesopus, actor, 69.
+
+  Aetna, _see_ Lucilius Iunior.
+
+  Afranius, L. 64.
+
+  Agricola, 338, 341.
+
+  Agrippina, 243 _sqq._;
+    her memoirs, 346.
+
+  Albinovanus Celsus, 181.
+
+  Albius, _see_ Tibullus.
+
+  Alcaeus, imit. by Hor. 174 _sqq._
+
+  Alexandrian influence on Catull. 139, 175;
+    on Virg. 157;
+    on Propert. 199;
+    on Ovid, 210.
+
+  Alimentus, Cincius, 53.
+
+  Amafinius, 83.
+
+  Ambivius Turpio, 38, 43 _sqq._
+
+  Amiternum, birthplace of Sallust, 125.
+
+  Anacreon, foll. by Hor. 175.
+
+  Andes,
+    birthplace of Virg. 148;
+    its position, 148 note.
+
+  Andronicus, Livius,
+    dispute as to his dates, 1;
+    facts of life, 2;
+    actor and schoolmaster, 3;
+    plays, 3;
+    Odisia, 3;
+    Hor.'s reference to, 165.
+
+  Annaeus, _see_ Cornutus, Lucanus, Seneca.
+
+  Anser, 184, 141-2.
+
+  Antias, _see_ Valerius.
+
+  Antioch, birthplace of Publilius Syrus, 145.
+
+  Antiochus,
+    teacher of Cicero, 70;
+    of Varro, 91.
+
+  Antipater, _see_ Coelius.
+
+  Antonius, C. Iullus, 181.
+
+  Antonius, M., the orator, 69.
+
+  Antonius Gnipho, rhetorician, 69.
+
+  Apollodorus, imit. by Ter. 46, 47.
+
+  Apollonius Rhodius,
+    trans. by Atac. 144;
+    imit. by Virg. 161;
+    by Val. Flaccus, 287.
+
+  Aquilius, 39.
+
+  Aquinum, birthpl. of Juv. 313.
+
+  Aratus,
+    trans. by Cic. 87;
+    this trans. used by Lucr. 120;
+    imit. by Atac. 145;
+    by Virg. 157;
+    trans. by Germanicus, 281.
+
+  Archias, 69, 75, 89.
+
+  Archilochus, imit. by Hor. 174.
+
+  Argumenta,
+    to Plautus, 18;
+    to Ter. 51;
+    to Livy, 217.
+
+  Aristius Fuscus, 181.
+
+  Aristotle,
+    foll. by Cic. 79, 85;
+    by Hor. 179.
+
+  Arpinum, birthpl. of Cic. 69.
+
+  Asconius Pedianus, 77.
+
+  Asinius, _see_ Pollio.
+
+  Asisium, birthpl. of Propert. 192.
+
+  Atacinus, _see_ Varro.
+
+  Ateius, foll. by Sall. 131.
+
+  Atellana fabula, 67.
+
+  Atilius, 39.
+
+  Atta, T. Quintius, 64.
+
+  Attalus, teacher of Seneca, 241.
+
+  Atticus, T. Pomponius, 90, 85 _sqq._;
+    on chronology, 1;
+    friend of Nepos, 113.
+
+  Attius, _see_ Accius.
+
+  Augustus,
+    works, 152;
+    relations with Virg. 149, 152, 159;
+    with Hor. 166 _sqq._
+    with Gallus, 182;
+    with Propert. 195;
+    with Ovid, 211;
+    with Livy, 215;
+    with Vitruvius, 225.
+
+
+  Bacchanalia, 12.
+
+  Bacchylides, foll. by Hor. 175.
+
+  Bassus, Aufidius, 284.
+
+  Bassus, poet, 196, 206.
+
+  Bavius, 183.
+
+  Bibaculus, _see_ Furius.
+
+  Bilbilis, birthpl. of Martial, 295.
+
+  Britannicus, 245.
+
+  Brundisium, birthpl. of Pacuvius, 34.
+
+  Brutus,
+    relations with Cic. 80 _sqq._;
+    with Hor. 165 _sqq._;
+    Lucan on, 269.
+
+  Burrus, friend of Seneca, 245 _sqq._
+
+
+  Caecilius of Novum Comum, 139.
+
+  Caecilius Statius,
+    dates, 37;
+    comedies, 38;
+    relations with Ter. 38, 42;
+    views on Caecilius, 39;
+    friend of Ennius, 28;
+    imit. by Ter. 43.
+
+  Caelius Rufus,
+    defended by Cic. 76;
+    enemy of Catull. 135.
+
+  Caesar, C. Iulius,
+    birth, 100;
+    early connexion with democrats, 100;
+    military and civil career, 101-2;
+    supports Pompey, 102;
+    first triumvirate, conquest of Gaul, civil war, 103;
+    dictator, death, 104;
+    _De Bello Gallico_, 104;
+    its objects, style, 105;
+    _De Bello Civili_, 106;
+    other works in the Corpus Caesarianum, 106;
+    theories on their authorship, 107;
+    Caesar's lost works, incl. speeches and poems, 109;
+    criticisms on his poems, 111;
+    verses on Ter. 51;
+    relations with Cic. 71, 77, 109, 110;
+    with Varro, 92;
+    with Sall. 127;
+    with Laberius, 97;
+    with Catull. 137;
+    with Calvus, 143;
+    celebrated by Bibaculus, 100;
+    by Atac. 144;
+    Livy on, 223;
+    Lucan on, 268, 270;
+    foll. by Frontinus, 311;
+    by Tac. 346.
+
+  Caesar Strabo, 66.
+
+  Calagurris, birthpl. of Quintilian, 302.
+
+  Calendar, Caesar's reform of, 104, 110.
+
+  Calidus, Iulius, 124.
+
+  Caligula, and Seneca, 242.
+
+  Callimachus,
+    imit. by Catull. 139;
+    by Propert. 198-9;
+    by Ovid, 211-2.
+
+  Calpurnius Piso, 58;
+    foll. by Livy, 220.
+
+  Calpurnius Siculus, T. 275;
+    discussion of his date, 276;
+    _Eclogae_ and sequel by Nemesianus, his models, _De laude Pisonis_,
+      277.
+
+  Calvus, C. Licinius Macer,
+    life, speeches, 142;
+    poems, relations with Caes. 143;
+    with Catull. 138-9, 143;
+    Hor.'s opinion of, 143, 176.
+
+  Canticum, 19, 50.
+
+  Cassius Hemina, 58.
+
+  Catilinarian conspiracy, 70, 75, 102.
+
+  Catius, T. 83, 112.
+
+  Cato, M. Porcius, the censor,
+    date, 53;
+    founder of Latin prose, 53;
+    works, 54-5;
+    patron of Enn. 27;
+    foll. by Nep. 117;
+    by Virg. 157, 161;
+    by Livy, 219;
+    imit, by Sall. 131.
+
+  Cato Uticensis, Lucan on, 269.
+
+  Cato, Valerius, teacher of Catullus, 133, 139.
+
+  Catullus, C. Valerius,
+    birth and dates, 132;
+    family and education, 133;
+    relations with Lesbia, 134;
+    voyage to Bithynia, 136;
+    attacks Caesar's party, 137;
+    relations with contemporaries, 138;
+    longer poems, Alexandrian influence, publication of poems, 139;
+    metre, 175;
+    friend of Nep. 114-5;
+    of Calvus, 138-9, 143;
+    of Cinna, 140;
+    Hor.'s opinion of, 143, 176;
+    imit. by Virg. 154;
+    by Mart. 301.
+
+  Catulus, _see_ Lutatius.
+
+  Celsus, Cornelius,
+    his encyclopaedia, 235;
+    its subdivisions, extant part _De Re Medica_, 236;
+    foll. by Quint. 309.
+
+  Christians, Tacitus' view of, 347.
+
+  Cicero, M. Tullius,
+    birth, education, at the bar, 69;
+    in the East, political career, Catilinarian conspiracy, banishment, 70;
+    recall, proconsul of Cilicia, in civil war, 71;
+    death, 73;
+    speeches, 73;
+    philosophical works, 79;
+    Cic. as a philosopher, 83;
+    rhetorical works, 83;
+    letters, 85;
+    their style, lost prose writings, 86;
+    poems, 87;
+    criticisms of his poetry, 88;
+    on chronology, 1, 9;
+    verses on Ter. 51;
+    conversed with Accius, 56;
+    criticises Sisenna, 67;
+    attacked by Catull. 138;
+    his reference to Lucr. 119;
+    editorship of Lucr. 120;
+    relations with Nep. 114;
+    with Calvus, 142;
+    foll. by Nep. 117;
+    by Lucr. 120;
+    by Hor. 174;
+    by Val. Max. 234;
+    largely quoted by Quint. 308;
+    admired by elder Sen. 228.
+
+  Cicero, Quintus, 89.
+
+  Cincius Alimentus, 53;
+    foll. by Livy, 219.
+
+  Cinna, C. Helvius,
+    friend of Catull. 136-9, 140;
+    partisan of Caesar, discussion of his identity, 141;
+    poems, 141;
+    patronized by Pollio, 112.
+
+  Claudius, emperor,
+    relations with Livy, 216;
+    with Sen. 243 _sqq._
+
+  Claudius Quadrigarius, 67;
+    foll. by Livy, 220.
+
+  Clodia (Lesbia), 76;
+    Catullus' relations with, 134 _sqq._
+
+  Clodius, P. 70, 76.
+
+  Clodius Licinus, 220.
+
+  Cluvius Rufus, foll. by Tac. 346.
+
+  Codrus, 183.
+
+  Coelius Antipater, 58;
+    foll. by Livy, 220.
+
+  Columella,
+    birth, military service, property, date, 258;
+    works, 258-9.
+
+  Comum, birthpl. of the two Plinii, 281, 326.
+
+  Contaminatio, 6, 13, 46 _sqq._
+
+  Corbulo, Domitius, memoirs of, 346.
+
+  Corduba, birthpl. of the two Senecas and Lucan, 226, 240, 264.
+
+  Corinna, celebrated by Ovid, 207.
+
+  Cornelius, _see_ Celsus, Gallus, Nepos, Sisenna, Tacitus.
+
+  Cornificius, 88.
+
+  Cornificius, poet, 139.
+
+  Cornutus, Annaeus,
+    teacher of Persius, 260 _sqq._;
+    of Lucan, 265.
+
+  Corvinus, _see_ Messalla.
+
+  Cremona, birthpl. of Bibaculus, 99.
+
+  Crispus, _see_ Sallustius.
+
+  Curtius Rufus,
+    his date and identity, 256;
+    _Historiae Alexandri_, 257.
+
+  Cynthia (Hostia), Propertius' relations with, 65, 193, 197 _sqq._
+
+
+  Delia (Plania), Tibullus' love for, 188-9.
+
+  Demetrius the Cynic, 251, 254.
+
+  Democritus, imit. by Lucr. 123.
+
+  Demophilus, 11.
+
+  Didascaliae, 15, 17, 44 _sqq._
+
+  Diodotus, teacher of Cic. 69.
+
+  Diphilus,
+    imit. by Plaut. 12, 15, 17;
+    by Ter. 48.
+
+  Diverbium, 19, 50.
+
+  Domitian,
+    patron of Statius, 293;
+    of Mart. 297 _sqq._;
+    of Quint. 305.
+
+  Domitius Marsus, 184;
+    epigram on Tibull. 186.
+
+  Donatus, Aelius, 354, 39, 44, 147 _sqq._
+
+  Dossenus, in fabula Atellana, 25, 67.
+
+
+  Eclecticism,
+    of Enn. 29;
+    of Cic. 83;
+    of Hor. 173.
+
+  Egnatius, 99.
+
+  Empedocles, imit. by Lucr. 122.
+
+  Ennius,
+    birth, 26;
+    in Sardinia, 26;
+    life in Rome, 27;
+    in Aetolia, a Roman citizen, death, 28;
+    character and views, 29;
+    plays, Saturae, etc. 30;
+    _Annals_, 31;
+    services to Latin literature--the hexameter, 32;
+    influence on other poets, 33;
+    views on Ennius, 34;
+    criticised by Lucilius, 62;
+    imit. by Lucr. 121;
+    by Virg. 161;
+    in _Bell. Hisp._ 109;
+    imit. Naevius, 7;
+    quoted by Phaedrus, 237;
+    taught Pacuv. 35.
+
+  Epicureanism, 83;
+    in Enn. 30;
+    discussed by Cic. 80 _sqq._;
+    in Lucr. 120 _sqq._
+    in Virg. 149;
+    in Hor. 170, 173;
+    in _Aetna_, 279.
+
+  Epidius, teacher of Virg. 149.
+
+  Euhemerism, 31, 162.
+
+  Euphorion, 156, 183.
+
+  Euripides,
+    imit. by Enn. 30;
+    by Pacuv. 36;
+    by Accius, 57;
+    by Sen. 253;
+    criticised by Lucilius, 62.
+
+
+  Fabianus, Papirius, 240.
+
+  Fabius, _see_ Quintilianus.
+
+  Fabius Labeo, 42, 52.
+
+  Fabius Pictor, 52;
+    foll. by Livy, 219.
+
+  Fabius Rusticus, 245;
+    foll. by Tac. 346.
+
+  Fannius, 58.
+
+  Fenestella, 40, 224.
+
+  Festus, 8, 224.
+
+  Flaccus, _see_ Horatius, Persius, Valerius, Verrius.
+
+  Florus, Iulius, 181, 172, 179.
+
+  Forum Iulii, birthpl. of Gallus, 182.
+
+  Frontinus, S. Iulius,
+    military and civil career, 310;
+    works, 311-2;
+    friend of Mart. 298.
+
+  Fundanius, 181.
+
+  Furius Antias, 66.
+
+  Furius Bibaculus, 99.
+
+  Furnius, 181.
+
+  Fuscus, _see_ Aristius.
+
+
+  Gades, birthpl. of Columella, 258.
+
+  Gaetulicus, 301.
+
+  Gallio, _see_ Novatus.
+
+  Gallus, Cornelius,
+    life, 182;
+    poems, 183;
+    relations with Virg. 150, 156.
+
+  Gellius, Aulus, 352.
+
+  Geminus, _see_ Tanusius.
+
+  Germanicus Caesar, 281.
+
+  Glycera, _see_ Nemesis.
+
+  Gracci, 58.
+
+  Guilds of poets, 2, 38.
+
+
+  Hadrian,
+    banishes Juv. 322;
+    dismisses Sueton. 349.
+
+  Helvia, 227, 240 _sqq._
+
+  Helvius, _see_ Cinna.
+
+  Hemina, _see_ Cassius.
+
+  Herennium, Rhet. ad, 88;
+    foll. by Quint. 309.
+
+  Hesiod, imit. by Virg. 157.
+
+  Hieronymus, _see_ Jerome.
+
+  Hirtius and the Corpus Caes. 106 _sqq._
+
+  Homer,
+    trans. by Livius, 3;
+    by Matius, 66;
+    by Cic. 88;
+    imit. by Hostius, 65;
+    by Virg. 161;
+    by Val. Flaccus, 288;
+    by Silius, 291;
+    parodied by Petron. 273.
+
+  Horatius Flaccus, Q.,
+    name, birth, 163;
+    parentage, 164;
+    education, in civil war, 165;
+    clerkship, 166;
+    introduction to Maecenas, journey to Brundisium, Sabine farm, 167;
+    relations with imperial house, 168;
+    death, personal appearance, 169;
+    chronology of works, 170;
+    _Satires_, 170, 172;
+    _Odes_ and _Epodes_, 171, 174;
+    _Epistles_, 171, 172, 179;
+    _Carm. Saec._ 171;
+    _Ars Poet._ 172, 179;
+    nature of the Satires, 173;
+    Odes, models of, 174;
+    metre and subjects of, 175;
+    Epistles, subjects of, 179;
+    Hor. and nature, popularity of Hor. 180;
+    relations with Virg. 151;
+    with Tibull. 189;
+    with Propert. 195;
+    patronized by Pollio, 112;
+    on Calvus and Catull. 143, 176;
+    on Atac. 144;
+    imit. Lucilius, 62;
+    Lucr. 125;
+    parodied Bibac. 100;
+    imit. by Persius, 263;
+    by Lucan, 271;
+    by Mart. 301;
+    by Juv. 325;
+    foll. by Quint. 309.
+
+  Hortensius, 74.
+
+  Hostia, _see_ Cynthia.
+
+  Hostius, 65;
+    imit. by Virg. 161.
+
+  Hyginus, C. Iulius, 224;
+    friend of Ovid, 206.
+
+
+  Iambi = satirical verses, 100, 174.
+
+  Imbrex, Licinius, 39.
+
+  Italicus, _see_ Silius.
+
+  Iulia, grand-daughter of Augustus, 203.
+
+  Iulius, _see_ Caesar, Calidus, Florus, Frontinus, Hyginus.
+
+  Iunior, _see_ Lucilius.
+
+  Iuvenalis, D. Iunius,
+    sources for his life, 312;
+    birth, 313;
+    inscription at Aquinum, 314;
+    parentage, position, and education, 314-6;
+    military and civil career, 316;
+    in Britain, 317;
+    references to Britain, 318;
+    life in Rome, 319;
+    dates of Satires, 320;
+    banishment, 322;
+    death, 323;
+    subjects of Satires, 323;
+    pessimism, rhetorical learning and style, 324-6;
+    friend of Mart. 298;
+    imit. Virg. 163.
+
+  Iuventius, 52.
+
+
+  Jerome, 351;
+    mistakes of, 2, 8, 58, 99, 144.
+
+  Jews, Tacitus' view of, 347.
+
+
+  Labeo, Fabius, 42, 52.
+
+  Laberius,
+    dates, 97;
+    contest with Publ. Syrus, 97, 145;
+    mimes, 98;
+    language and views, 99.
+
+  Laelius, literary circle of, 35, 41, 59.
+
+  Laenas, _see_ Popillius.
+
+  Laevius, 66.
+
+  Lanuvinus, _see_ Luscius.
+
+  Latro, Porcius,
+    teacher of Ovid, 201;
+    friend of Sen. 227.
+
+  Lesbia, _see_ Clodia.
+
+  Libri lintei, 68.
+
+  Licinius Imbrex, 39.
+
+  Licinius Tegula, 52.
+
+  Licinius Macer, 67;
+    foll. by Livy, 220.
+
+  Licinius Macer Calvus, _see_ Calvus.
+
+  Licinus, Porcius, 65.
+
+  Livius, _see_ Andronicus.
+
+  Livius, T.,
+    birth, intimacy with imperial house, 215;
+    death, 216;
+    works on philosophy and rhetoric, 216;
+    his history, the _Periochae_, number and scope of books, 217;
+    date of composition, 218;
+    publication, 219;
+    his sources, 68, 319;
+    comparison with Polybius, 220;
+    characteristics of his history, 220-1;
+    views on religion and morality, 222;
+    politics, 223;
+    imit. Virg. 163;
+    foll. by Ovid, 211;
+    by Val. Max. 234;
+    by Lucan, 271;
+    by Silius, 290;
+    by Frontinus, 311.
+
+  Lucanus, M. Annaeus,
+    biographies of, 264;
+    education, _Laudes Neronis_, political advancement, breach with Nero,
+      265;
+    satirizes Nero, joins Piso's conspiracy, suicide, 266;
+    his wife, 267;
+    lost works, 267;
+    _De Bello Civili_ (Pharsalia), 267, 268 _sqq._
+    popularity of his works, 268;
+    his views on politics, 268;
+    on philosophy and religion, 270;
+    rhetorical treatment, 271;
+    his models, 271;
+    criticisms of Lucan, 272;
+    friendship with Persius, 261;
+    imit. Virg. 163;
+    imit. by Juv. 326;
+    admired by Statius, 293;
+    parodied by Petron. 275.
+
+  Lucilius,
+    date, 58;
+    birthpl. and rank, 59;
+    his friends and enemies, 59-60;
+    _Saturae_, dates of composition, 61;
+    subjects of, 62;
+    on philology, 62;
+    style and character, 63;
+    imit. by Lucr. 121;
+    by Virg. 161;
+    by Hor. 173;
+    by Persius, 262-3;
+    by Juv. 326.
+
+  Lucilius Iunior, 277;
+    official career, friendship with Sen. 278;
+    date and authorship of _Aetna_, 279;
+    imit. Sen. and Lucr. 280;
+    imit. Virg. 163.
+
+  Lucillius, epigrammatist, 301.
+
+  Lucretius Carus, T.,
+    his dates, 119;
+    Cic.'s editorship of his works, recently discovered biography, 120;
+    position and character, 121;
+    _De rerum natura_, 122;
+    his ethics and physics, 123;
+    imit. Enn. 33;
+    imit. by Virg. 158, 161;
+    by Hor. 173;
+    in _Aetna_, 280.
+    Lucullus, 68.
+
+  Ludi Megalenses, 15, 17, 44;
+    Romani, 17;
+    plebei, 17.
+
+  Luscius Lanuvinus, 39, 49.
+
+  Lutatius Catulus, 65.
+
+  Lycinna, 193.
+
+  Lygdamus, 190.
+
+  Lynceus, 196.
+
+
+  Maccius, _see_ Plautus.
+
+  Macer, _see_ Aemilius, Calvus, Pompeius.
+
+  Macrobius, 354.
+
+  Maecenas, 166;
+    relations with Virg. 151, 157;
+    with Hor. 166 _sqq._;
+    with Valgius, 180;
+    with Propert. 195, 198.
+
+  Mamurra, Catullus' hostility to, 137.
+
+  Manilius, 213;
+    imit. Lucr. 125;
+    Virg. 163;
+    imit. by Juv. 326.
+
+  Marcellus, nephew of Augustus, 159, 171.
+
+  Maro, _see_ Vergilius.
+
+  Marsus, _see_ Domitius.
+
+  Martialis, M. Valerius,
+    birth, 295;
+    education, life at Rome, patrons, 296;
+    life under Domitian and Titus, 297;
+    friends of Martial, 298;
+    returns to Spain, 299;
+    character, 299;
+    publication of Epigrams, popularity, 300;
+    models, mistakes, 301;
+    satire and versification, 302;
+    imit. Catull. 140;
+    Virg. 163;
+    friend of Lucan, 267;
+    of Silius, 289;
+    of Frontinus, 311;
+    of Juv. 319;
+    of Pliny the younger, 335;
+    imit. by Juv. 326.
+
+  Maternus, Curiatius, 341.
+
+  Matius, Cn. 66.
+
+  Maximus, _see_ Valerius.
+
+  Mediocritas of Terence, 51.
+
+  Mela, Pomponius, 259.
+
+  Melissus, 149, 185.
+
+  Memmius, C. 120, 122, 136.
+
+  Menander,
+    imit. by Plaut. 13, 15, 18;
+    by Caecilius, 38;
+    by Ter. 44 _sqq._;
+    by Turpilius, 52;
+    by Afranius, 65.
+
+  Menippea Satira, 96, 273.
+
+  Messalina, 243.
+
+  Messalla Corvinus, 187;
+    patron of Tibull. 186 _sqq._;
+    relations with Ovid, 205.
+
+  Mevius, 183.
+
+  Molo,
+    teacher of Cic. 69, 70;
+    of Caes. 102.
+
+  Murena, conspiracy of, 171.
+
+
+  Naevius, Cn.,
+    birth, 4;
+    attacks Metelli, 5;
+    banishment and death, 6;
+    plays, 6;
+    _Bellum Punicum_, 7;
+    Plautus' reference to, 14;
+    imit. by Lucr. 121;
+    by Virg. 161.
+
+  Naples, birthpl. of Statius, 291.
+
+  Naso, _see_ Ovidius.
+
+  Nemesianus, 275, 277.
+
+  Nemesis (Glycera), Tibullus' love for, 188, 190.
+
+  Neoptolemus, 179.
+
+  Nepos, Cornelius,
+    discussion of date, 113;
+    intimacy with Atticus, 113;
+    with Catull. 114;
+    character and views, 114;
+    minor works, 115;
+    _De viris illustribus_, 116;
+    sources, 117;
+    value of his work, 117;
+    authenticity of his works, 118;
+    on Terence, 40;
+    on Cato, 54;
+    friend of Catull. 139;
+    foll. by Mela, 259.
+
+  Nero,
+    relations with Sen. 244 _sqq._;
+    with Lucan, 265;
+    with Petron. 272;
+    with Silius, 289;
+    Calp. Sic. on, 276;
+    his poetry parodied by Persius, 262;
+    by Petron. 275.
+
+  Nicander,
+    foll. by Virg. 158;
+    by Macer, 182;
+    by Ovid, 210.
+
+  Nonius Marcellus, 353.
+
+  Novatus, M. Annaeus (= Gallio), 227, 250, 264.
+
+  Novius, 67.
+
+
+  Oppius, and the Corpus Caes. 106.
+
+  Orbilius, 99, 165.
+
+  Ovidius Naso, P.,
+    name and birth, 200;
+    rank and education, 201;
+    official career, 202;
+    travels, 203;
+    banishment, 203;
+    probable reasons for it, 203-4;
+    life at Tomi, 204-5;
+    death, 205;
+    his literary friends, 206;
+    his property, 206;
+    poems, 207;
+    relations with Aemilius Macer, 182;
+    with Tibull. 189;
+    with Propert. 196;
+    imit. Catull. 140;
+    Virg. 163;
+    foll. Propert. 199;
+    Verrius Flaccus, 224;
+    imit. by Sen. 253;
+    by Lucan, 271;
+    in _Aetna_, 279;
+    by Val. Flaccus, 288;
+    by Mart. 301;
+    by Juv. 326;
+    on Varro Atac. 144;
+    on Gallus, 182.
+
+
+  Pacuvius,
+    birth, 34;
+    literary friends, 35;
+    tragedies, saturae, 36;
+    views and style, 36;
+    views on Pacuvius, 37;
+    imit. by Lucr. 121;
+    by Virg. 161.
+
+  Paetus Thrasea,
+    relative of Persius, 261, 286;
+    Tacitus' attitude to, 344.
+
+  Palliata fabula, 6, 10 _sqq._, 39, 44 _sqq._, 52.
+
+  Panaetius, 82.
+
+  Papinius, _see_ Statius.
+
+  Patavinitas, 215, 219.
+
+  Patavium, birthpl. of Livy, 215.
+
+  Paterculus, _see_ Velleius.
+
+  Paul, St., and Seneca, 254.
+
+  Paulus Diaconus, abridged Festus, 224.
+
+  Pedianus, _see_ Asconius.
+
+  Pedum, prob. birthpl. of Tibull. 185.
+
+  Pellio, actor of Plautus, 12.
+
+  Persius Flaccus, A.,
+    dates, birthpl., rank, education, 260;
+    his friends, property, and character, 261;
+    early works, 261;
+    Satires--their nature, 262;
+    obligations to Hor. 263;
+    popularity, 263-4;
+    imit. Lucilius, 63.
+
+  Petronius Arbiter, C.,
+    life, 272;
+    Satirae--their subject, 273;
+    dramatic scene and date, 273-4;
+    style, 274;
+    poems in the book, 275.
+
+  Phaedrus (philosopher), 69.
+
+  Phaedrus (poet),
+    life, 237;
+    persecuted by Seianus, 237;
+    personal points, 238;
+    _fabulae Aesopiae_, 239;
+    the five books, 239.
+
+  Philemon, imit. by Plaut. 14, 15, 17.
+
+  Philetas, imit. by Propert. 199.
+
+  Philo, teacher of Cic. 69.
+
+  Philology, 57, 63, 94, 307.
+
+  Phocas, 147.
+
+  Pictor, Fabius, 52.
+
+  Pindar, foll. by Hor. 175.
+
+  Pisaurum, birthpl. of Accius, 55.
+
+  Piso, _see_ Calpurnius.
+
+  Piso, conspiracy of, 248, 266, 296.
+
+  Plania, _see_ Delia.
+
+  Plato,
+    trans. by Cic. 82;
+    foll. by Nep. 117;
+    by Virg. 162.
+
+  Plautus, T. Maccius,
+    name, 7;
+    date and pl. of birth, 8;
+    varied employments, 8, 9;
+    intimacy with the Scipios, death, 9;
+    Plautine canon, 10;
+    extant plays, 10-18;
+    argumenta, 18;
+    prologues, 18;
+    acts, diverbium, canticum, characters, 19;
+    language, 20;
+    references to Greek and Roman life, 20;
+    prosody, 22;
+    views on Plautus, 25;
+    reference to Naevius, 5.
+
+  Plinius Secundus, C. (the elder), 281;
+    education, 282;
+    military and procuratorial career, 282-3;
+    death, 283;
+    lost works, 284;
+    _Naturae Historiae_, their contents and character, 285;
+    views, 286;
+    foll. by Tac. 346.
+
+  Plinius Secundus, C. (the younger),
+    name and birthpl. 326;
+    date of birth, education, 327;
+    adoption by his uncle, 328;
+    at the bar, civil career, 328;
+    _Panegyricus_, 330;
+    governor of Pontus et Bithynia, correspondence with Trajan,
+      municipal relations, 331-333;
+    as orator and writer, 333;
+    the Epistles, 334;
+    relations with other writers, character, 335;
+    love of nature, 336;
+    friend of Silius, 289;
+    of Mart. 298;
+    of Frontinus, 310;
+    of Tac. 340;
+    of Sueton. 348.
+
+  Polla Argentaria,
+    wife of Lucan, 267;
+    patroness of Mart. 297.
+
+  Pollio, Asinius, 112;
+    criticises Caesar, 105;
+    connexion with Corpus Caes. 107 _sqq._;
+    criticises Livy, 219;
+    friend of Virg. 149, 154 _sqq._
+
+  Pollio, _see_ Vitruvius.
+
+  Polybius,
+    foll. by Nep. 117;
+    by Livy, 220.
+
+  Polybius, favourite of Claudius, 250.
+
+  Pompeius Macer, poet, 203.
+
+  Pompeius Magnus,
+    Livy a supporter of, 219;
+    Lucan's view of, 268-9.
+
+  Pompeius, _see_ Trogus.
+
+  Pompilius, 65.
+
+  Pomponius, _see_ Mela, Atticus.
+
+  Pomponius Bononiensis, 67.
+
+  Pomponius Secundus, 282, 284.
+
+  Ponticus, 196, 206.
+
+  Popillius Laenas, 42, 52.
+
+  Porcius, _see_ Cato, Latro.
+
+  Porcius Licinus, 65.
+
+  Porphyrio, 355.
+
+  Posidippus, 14.
+
+  Posidonius, 70, 82.
+
+  Praetexta fabula, 7, 30, 36, 57, 341.
+
+  Probus, M. Valerius, 147;
+    his life of Persius, 260.
+
+  Probus, Aemilius, falsely credited with Nepos' works, 118.
+
+  Prologues, 18, 49.
+
+  Propertius, Sex.,
+    name, 191;
+    birth, 192;
+    youth and education, 193;
+    relations with Lycinna and Cynthia, 193-4;
+    later life, 194-5;
+    relations with Maecenas, Augustus, and contemporary poets, 195-6;
+    elegies, 196;
+    dates and contents of the four books, 196-9;
+    his archaeological tastes, 198;
+    character, 200;
+    friend of Ovid, 206;
+    imit. Virg. 163;
+    imit. by Mart. 301.
+
+  Prosody, 22, 32.
+
+  Publilius Syrus,
+    life and works, 145;
+    views on, 146;
+    contest with Laberius, 97, 145.
+
+  Pupius, 185.
+
+  Pythagoreanism,
+    in Enn. 30;
+    in Laberius, 99;
+    in Virg. 162.
+
+
+  Quadrigarius, _see_ Claudius.
+
+  Quintilianus, M. Fabius,
+    pl. of birth, 302;
+    probable date of birth, his teachers, at the bar, 303;
+    professor of oratory, date of the _Institutio_, retirement, 304;
+    tutor to Domitian's grandnephews, consul, flattery of Domitian,
+      domestic relations, 305;
+    earlier works, 306;
+    _Institutio_, 306;
+    scope of work, 307;
+    his authorities, 308;
+    spurious works, 309;
+    friend of Martial, 298;
+    teacher of Pliny the younger, 327;
+    views on Roman writers, _passim_.
+
+  Quintius, _see_ Atta.
+
+
+  Rabirius, 83.
+
+  Reate, birthpl. of Varro, 91.
+
+  Religion,
+    in Enn. 29;
+    in Pacuv. 36;
+    in Accius, 57;
+    in Lucr. 122;
+    in Virg. 161;
+    in Livy, 222;
+    in Tac. 343.
+
+  Rhinthonica, 11.
+
+  Roscius, actor, 69, 73.
+
+  Rudiae, birthpl. of Enn. 26.
+
+  Rufus, _see_ Curtius, Valgius, Varius.
+
+  Rusticus, _see_ Fabius.
+
+  Rutilius, 220.
+
+
+  Sallustius Crispus, C.,
+    dates, youth, rank, 125;
+    political and military life, 126-7;
+    retirement, 128;
+    _Bell. Cat._, object of work, 128;
+    _Bell. Iug._, object of work, 129;
+    _Hist._ 129;
+    spurious works, 130;
+    as a historian, 130;
+    authorities and models, 131;
+    style, popularity, 132;
+    criticised by Livy, 216;
+    foll. by Frontinus, 311;
+    by Val. Max. 235;
+    on Sisenna, 67.
+
+  Santra, on Terence, 42.
+
+  Sappho,
+    imit. by Catull. 139;
+    by Hor. 174.
+
+  Sarranae tibiae, 45.
+
+  Sarsina, birthpl. of Plautus, 8.
+
+  Saturae, 30, 36, 61, 64, 172, 262, 320;
+    Menippeae, 96, 273.
+
+  Saturnians, 3, 7.
+
+  Scaurus, _see_ Aemilius.
+
+  Scipio Africanus the elder, friend of Enn. 27.
+
+  Scipio Africanus the younger,
+    friend of Ter. 40;
+    of Lucilius, 59.
+
+  Sedigitus, Volcacius, 66;
+    on Plautus, 10;
+    canon, 39, 66.
+
+  Seianus,
+    praised by Velleius, 234;
+    relations with Phaedrus, 237.
+
+  Seneca, Annaeus, the elder,
+    birth, rank, 226;
+    life in Rome, death, character, 227;
+    _Controversiae_, 228-9;
+    _Suasoriae_, 229;
+    his history, 230.
+
+  Seneca, L. Annaeus, the younger,
+    birth, family, education, 240;
+    voyage to Egypt, 241;
+    political advancement, 242;
+    banishment, recall, 243;
+    tutorship of Nero, privy to Claudius' murder, 244;
+    checks Nero, 245;
+    power and wealth, 246;
+    loss of power, 247;
+    wishes to retire, 248;
+    Piso's conspiracy, death of Seneca, 248;
+    extant prose works, 249;
+    extant poems, incl. tragedies, 252;
+    lost works, 253;
+    spurious works, views and character, 254;
+    style, 255;
+    imit. Curtius Rufus, 257;
+    friend of Persius, 261;
+    of Calp. Sic. 276;
+    of Lucilius Iunior, 277 _sqq._;
+    foll. by Lucan, 271;
+    imit. by Lucilius, 280;
+    by Val. Flaccus, 288;
+    by Juv. 326;
+    patron of Mart. 296;
+    Quintilian's antagonism to, 309.
+
+  Servius, 354, 147 _sqq._
+
+  Sextius, 237, 240 _sqq._
+
+  Siculus, _see_ Calpurnius.
+
+  Silanus, D. 203.
+
+  Silius Italicus,
+    life, 289;
+    _Punica_, 290;
+    models, 291;
+    Homerus Latinus, 291;
+    friend of Mart. 298;
+    of Pliny the younger, 335;
+    on life of Ennius, 26;
+    imit. Virg. 163.
+
+  Siron, 149, 150.
+
+  Sisenna, L. Cornelius, 67;
+    foll. by Sall. 129;
+    by Tac. 346.
+
+  Sophocles,
+    imit. by Pacuv. 36;
+    by Accius, 57;
+    by Virg. 161;
+    by Sen. 253.
+
+  Soranus, _see_ Valerius.
+
+  Sotadean metre, 31, 57.
+
+  Sotion, 240.
+
+  Stataria, 11, 46.
+
+  Statius, _see_ Caecilius.
+
+  Statius, P. Papinius,
+    birth, 291;
+    poetical competitions, 292;
+    patronized by Domitian, admiration for Lucan and Virgil, 293;
+    works, 293-5;
+    imit. Virg. 163;
+    Val. Flaccus, 288;
+    friend of Lucan, 267;
+    sneered at by Mart. 298.
+
+  Stilo, Aelius, 10, 25, 29.
+
+  Stoicism,
+    discussed by Cic. 79 _sqq._;
+    in Virg. 162;
+    Hor.'s attitude to, 173;
+    in Sen. 241, 254;
+    in Persius, 262;
+    in Lucan, 270;
+    in _Aetna_, 279;
+    in Juv. 325.
+
+  Sueius, 66.
+
+  Suessa, birthpl. of Lucilius, 59.
+
+  Suetonius Tranquillus, C.,
+    life, 348;
+    works, 349;
+    biography of Lucan, 264.
+
+  Sulla, 68, 129.
+
+  Sulmo, birthpl. of Ovid, 200.
+
+  Sulpicia, 191.
+
+  Sulpicius, 181.
+
+  Sulpicius Apollinaris, 18, 51.
+
+  Syrus, see Publilius.
+
+
+  Tabernaria fabula, 6, 64.
+
+  Tacitus, Cornelius, 336;
+    birth and rank, 337;
+    reputation as an orator, 338;
+    political career, death, 339;
+    works, 340-3;
+    views, 343;
+    sources, 346;
+    his credibility, 347;
+    friend of Pliny the younger, 335;
+    imit. Sall. 132;
+    Virg. 163;
+    Pliny the elder, 285.
+
+  Tanusius Geminus, 138.
+
+  Tegula, Licinius, 52.
+
+  Terentius Afer, P.,
+    date and pl. of birth, 39, 40;
+    relations with Laelius, Scipio, and Caecilius, 41-2;
+    death, 43;
+    personal appearance, 44;
+    comedies, 44;
+    prologues, representation, 49;
+    names of characters, 50;
+    arguments, prosody, views on Ter. 51;
+    imit. by Afranius, 65;
+    relations with Caecilius, 38;
+    attacks on Luscius, 39.
+
+  Terentius, _see_ Varro.
+
+  Theocritus,
+    imit. by Virg. 156;
+    by Calp. Sic. 277.
+
+  Theophrastus, imit. by Cic. 79, 82.
+
+  Thrasea, _see_ Paetus.
+
+  Thucydides,
+    imit. by Sall. 132;
+    by Lucr. 123;
+    foll. by Nep. 117.
+
+  Tiberius,
+    Tac.'s view of, 344 _sqq._;
+    praised by Hor. 172;
+    by Velleius, 233;
+    by Val. Max. 235.
+
+  Tibiae, 45, 50.
+
+  Tibullus, Albius,
+    birth, 185;
+    rank and wealth, 186;
+    friendship with Messalla, 187;
+    relations with Delia and Nemesis, 188;
+    with other poets, 189;
+    poems, 189;
+    imit. Virg. 163;
+    friend of Ovid, 206;
+    imit. by Mart. 301.
+
+  Ticidas, 140.
+
+  Ticinum, birthpl. of Nepos, 113.
+
+  Tingentera, birthpl. of Mela, 259.
+
+  Tiro, M. Tullius, 90;
+    edits Cicero's works, 78, 85.
+
+  Titinius, 52.
+
+  Titius, 181.
+
+  Togata fabula, 6, 52, 64, 185.
+
+  Trabea, 39.
+
+  Trabeata fabula, 185.
+
+  Tragicomoedia, 10.
+
+  Tranquillus, _see_ Suetonius.
+
+  Trogus, Pompeius, 223;
+    followed by Val. Max. 235.
+
+  Tucca, 154, 160.
+
+  Tullia, 72, 80.
+
+  Tullius, _see_ Cicero, Tiro.
+
+  Turpilius, 52.
+
+  Tusculum, birthpl. of Cato, 53.
+
+
+  Vacca, biographer of Lucan, 264.
+
+  Valerius, _see_ Catullus, Probus, Martialis.
+
+  Valerius, writer of palliatae, 52.
+
+  Valerius Aedituus, 65.
+
+  Valerius Antias, 67;
+    foll. by Livy, 220.
+
+  Valerius Cato, 133.
+
+  Valerius Flaccus,
+    life, 234.
+    the _Argonautica_, 287;
+    imit. Virg. 163.
+
+  Valerius Maximus, 234;
+    his _Facta et Dicta Memorabilia_, 234;
+    foll. by Juv. 325.
+
+  Valerius Soranus, 65.
+
+  Valgius Rufus, 180.
+
+  Varius Rufus, L., 181;
+    friend of Virg. 154, 160;
+    of Horace, 166 _sqq._
+
+  Varro Atacinus, P. Terentius, 144;
+    imit. by Virg. 161.
+
+  Varro, M. Terentius,
+    birth, 91;
+    military and political career, 91-2;
+    death, 93;
+    works, 93-7;
+    on chronology, 5, 6, 26;
+    on criticism, 10, 51;
+    on Sallust, 126;
+    foll. by Virg. 157, 161;
+    by Ovid, 211;
+    friend of Cic. 81, 94.
+
+  Vatinius,
+    attacked by Cic. 76;
+    by Catull. 137;
+    by Calvus, 142.
+
+  Vatronius, 52.
+
+  Velleius Paterculus, C.,
+    military and civil career, 231-2;
+    his _Historia Romana_, 232.
+
+  Venusia, birthpl. of Hor. 163.
+
+  Vergilius Maro, P.,
+    name, 147;
+    parentage and education, 148;
+    evictions from farm, 149, 150;
+    friendship of Augustus, 149;
+    literary life, 151;
+    later years, 152;
+    personal appearance and character, 153;
+    minor poems, 153;
+    _Bucolica_, 154;
+    the separate Eclogues, 155;
+    sources, 156;
+    scenery in the Eclogues, 156;
+    _Georgics_, 157;
+    sources, 157;
+    political purpose, 158;
+    natural scenery, 158;
+    _Aeneid_, 159;
+    method of composition, 159;
+    posthumous publication, subject, why chosen, 160;
+    the Aeneas legend, 161;
+    sources of _Aeneid_, religion in _Aeneid_, 161;
+    political significance, 162;
+    influence of Virg. 163;
+    popularity of Virg. 180;
+    patronized by Pollio, 112;
+    imit. Naevius, 7;
+    Enn. 33;
+    Accius, 58;
+    Lucilius, 62;
+    Hostius, 65;
+    Bibaculus, 100;
+    Lucr. 125;
+    Catull. 140;
+    Atac. 145;
+    Hyginus, 224;
+    relations with Hor. 166 _sqq._;
+    with Aemilius Macer, 182;
+    with Gallus, 183;
+    with Propert. 196;
+    imit. by Manilius, 214;
+    by Lucan, 271;
+    by Calp. Sic. 277;
+    by Val. Flaccus, 288;
+    by Silius, 291;
+    by Statius, 293;
+    by Mart. 301;
+    by Juv. 325;
+    supplemented by Colum. 258;
+    _Aetna_ attributed to, 277;
+    quoted largely by Quint. 308;
+    half-lines in, 144.
+
+  Verona,
+    birthpl. of Catull. 132;
+    of Aemilius Macer, 182.
+
+  Verrius Flaccus, 224.
+
+  Visci, 181.
+
+  Vitruvius Pollio, 224;
+    his _Architectura_, 225.
+
+  Volaterrae, birthpl. of Persius, 260.
+
+  Volcacius, _see_ Sedigitus.
+
+  Volusius, 138.
+
+
+  Xenophon,
+    trans. by Cic. 87;
+    foll. by Nep. 117.
+
+
+  Zeno, 69.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF TITLES
+
+
+  A fine Aufidii Bassi, 284
+  Ab excessu divi Augusti, 342
+  Ab urbe condita, 217
+  Academica, 80
+  Achilleis, 294
+  Achilles, 3
+  Actis Scenicis, De, 95
+  Adelphoe, 48
+  Admiranda, 87
+  Aegisthus, 3
+  Aeneadae, 57
+  Aeneas, 282
+  Aeneid, 159
+  Aethiopis, 100
+  Aetia, 95
+  Aetna, 277
+  Agamemnon, 253
+  Agave, 295
+  Agricola, 341
+  Agricultura, De
+    (Cato), 54
+    (Hyginus), 224
+  Ajax, 152
+  Alexandri Historiae, 256
+  Amazonis, 184
+  Ambracia, 30
+  Amicitia, De
+    (Cic.), 82
+    (Sen.), 253
+  Amores
+    (Marsus), 185
+    (Ovid), 207
+  Amphitruo, 10
+  Analogia, De, 109
+  Andria, 44
+  +Anekdota+, 87
+  Annales of
+    Accius, 57
+    Q. Cicero, 90
+    Ennius, 31
+    Fenestella, 224
+    Hortensius, 74
+    Sueius, 66
+    Tacitus, 342
+    Varro, 95
+  Annalis, 90
+  Anticatones, 110
+  Antiopa, 36
+  Antiquitate litterarum, De, 94
+  Antiquitates, 94
+  Antonianae orationes, 78
+  Apocolocyntosis, 251
+  Apophoreta, 300
+  +Apophthegmata+
+    (Cato), 55
+    (Caes.), 110
+  Aquis urbis Romae, De, 312
+  Arboribus, De, 259
+  Archia, Pro, 75
+  Architectura, De, 225
+  Argonautae, 144
+  Argonautica, 287
+  Ars Amatoria, 209
+  Ars Poetica, 172, 179
+  Asinaria, 11
+  Astris, De, 110
+  Astrologia, De, 95
+  Astronomica, 213
+  Attis, 139
+  Auguriis, De, 82
+  Aulularia, 11
+
+  Bacchides, 13
+  Balbo, Pro, 76
+  Balistam, In, 153
+  Bella Germaniae, 284
+  Bello Civili, De (Lucan), 267
+  Bellum
+    Africum, 106
+    Alexandrinum, 106
+    Civile, 106
+    Gallicum
+      (Bibaculus), 100
+      (Caes.), 104
+    Hispaniense, 106
+    Histricum, 65
+    Iugurthinum, 129
+    Punicum, 7
+    Sequanicum, 144
+  Beneficiis, De, 251
+  Bibliothecis, De, 95
+  Boeotia, 39
+  Brevitate vitae, De, 250
+  Brundusinae, 64
+  Brutus
+    (Accius), 57
+    (Cic.), 84
+  Bucco Adoptatus, 67
+  Bucolica, 154
+
+  Caecilium, Divinatio in, 73
+  Caecina, Pro, 74
+  Caelio, Pro, 76
+  Caesarem, Ad, 87
+  Caesaris, De morte, 181
+  Captivi, 11
+  Carmen Saeculare, 171
+  Carmina
+    (Catull.), 132
+    (Hor.), 171, 172, 174
+  Casina, 12
+  Catachthonion, 267
+  Catalecta, 153
+  Catilinae coniuratione, De, 128
+  Catilinam, In, 75
+  Cato, 341
+  Cato Maior, 82
+  Catonis vita, 115
+  Causis corruptae eloquentiae, De, 306
+  Cena Trimalchionis, 273
+  Chorographia
+    (Atacinus), 145
+    (Cic.), 87
+    (Mela), 259
+  Chronica, 115
+  Ciceronis vita, 116
+  Cicuta, 184
+  Ciris, 154
+  Cistellaria, 12
+  Claris Oratoribus, De, 84
+  Clastidium, 7
+  Clementia, De, 251
+  Cluentio, Pro, 74
+  Coma Berenices, 139
+  Commentarii
+    (Caes.), 104
+    (Donatus, Servius, etc.), 354
+  Commentariolum petitionis, 89
+  Compendiosa doctrina, De, 353
+  Compitalia, 65
+  Consolatio, 80
+  Consolatione, De,
+    ad Marc., 250
+    ad Polyb., 250
+    ad Helv., 251
+  Constantia, De, 250
+  Consulatu, De suo, 87
+  Consulatu Ciceronis, De, 91
+  Controversiae, 228
+  Copa, 154
+  Culex, 154
+  Cum populo gratias egit, 75
+  Cum senatui gratias egit, 75
+  Cupuncula, 30
+  Curculio, 11
+  Cynegetica, 277
+
+  Decius, 57
+  Declamationes, 309
+  Deiotaro, Pro rege, 77
+  Descriptionibus, De, 95
+  Dialogus de oratoribus, 340
+  Didascalica, 57
+  Diomedea, 181
+  Dirae, 154
+  Dis penatibus, De, 224
+  Disciplinae, 95
+  Divinatione, De, 82
+  Domitius, 341
+  Domo sua, De, 76
+  Drusi vita, 152
+  Dubius sermo, 284
+  Duo Dosseni, 67
+
+  Eclogae
+    (Virg), 154
+    (Calp. Sic.), 275
+  +Eisag�gikos+, 95
+  Elegiae--of
+    Atacinus, 145
+    Marsus, 29
+    Propert., 196
+    Tibull., 189
+    Valgius, 180
+    Varius, 182
+  Ephemeris, 145
+  Ephemeris navalis, Eph. rustica, 95
+  Epicharmus, 31
+  Epidicus, 12
+  Epigrammata--of
+    Calvus, 143
+    Ennius, 29
+    Lucan, 267
+    Marsus, 185
+    Martial, 300
+    Seneca, 252
+    Valgius, 181
+    Virgil, 154
+  Epistolicae quaestiones, 97
+  Epistula ad Pisones, 172, 179
+  Epistulae--
+    ad Atticum, 85
+    ad Brutum, 86
+    ad Caesonium, 253
+    ad Familiares, 86
+    ad Novatum, 253
+    ad Paulum, 254
+    ad Quintum fratrem, 86
+    ad Traianum, 335
+    ex Campania, 267
+    ex Ponto, 213
+    Latinae, 97
+    morales, 252
+    of Horace, 171, 172, 179
+    of Ovid, 208
+    of Pliny, 334
+  Epithalamia, 143
+  Epodi, 171, 174
+  Erotopaegnia, 66
+  Euhemerus, 31
+  Excellentibus ducibus, De, 116
+  Exempla
+    (Nepos), 115
+    (Hyginus), 224
+  Exhortationes, 253
+
+  Fabellae, 185
+  Fabulae Aesopiae, 239
+  Facta et dicta memorabilia, 234
+  Familiis Troianis, De
+    (Hyginus), 224
+    (Varro), 95
+  Fasti
+    (Ovid), 210
+    (Verrius), 224
+  Fato, De, 82
+  Finibus, De, 80
+  Flacco, Pro, 75
+  Fonteio, Pro, 74
+  Forma mundi, De, 253
+  Forma philosophiae, De, 95
+  Formula honestae vitae, De, 254
+
+  Gente populi Romani, De, 95
+  Geometria, De, 95
+  Georgica, 157
+  Germania, 341
+  Gloria, De, 82
+
+  Halieuticon, 213
+  Haruspicum responsis, De, 76
+  Heauton Timorumenos, 45
+  Hebdomades, 95
+  Hecuba, 253
+  Hecyra, 47
+  Hedyphagetica 31
+  Herbis, De, 182
+  Hercules Furens; Herc. Oetaeus, 253
+  Heroides, 208
+  Hippolytus, 253
+  Historia Romana, 232
+  Historiae
+    (Sall.), 129
+    (Sisenna), 67
+    (Tac.), 341
+  Homerus Latinus, 291
+  Hortationes ad philosophiam, 152
+  Hortensius, 80
+  Hymenaeus, 141
+
+  Iaculatione equestri, De, 284
+  Ibis, 212
+  Iliacon, 267
+  Imagines, 95
+  Imaginibus, De, 91
+  Immatura morte, De, 253
+  Imperio Cn. Pompei, De, 74
+  Incendio urbis, De, 267
+  Institutio oratoria, 306
+  Inventione, De, 83
+  Io, 143
+  Iocularis libellus, 88
+  Ira, De, 250
+  Iter, 111
+  Iure civili, De, 95
+  Iure civili in artem redigendo, De, 87
+
+  Laelius, 82
+  Lapidum natura, De, 253
+  Lectionibus, De, 95
+  Legationum libri, 95
+  Lege agraria, De, 74
+  Lege Manilia, Pro, 74
+  Legibus, De, 79
+  Ligario, Pro, 77
+  Limon, 88
+  Lingua Latina, De, 94
+  +Logistorikoi+, 96
+  Lucubrationes, 100
+  Lucullus, 81
+  Ludus de morte Claudi, 251
+
+  Maccus Copa, Miles, Sequester, Virgo, 67
+  Marcello, Pro, 77
+  Marius, 88
+  Matrimonio, De, 253
+  Medea
+    (Ennius), 30
+    (Lucan), 267
+    (Maternus), 341
+    (Ovid), 208
+    (Sen.), 253
+  Medicamina, 209
+  Menaechmi, 14
+  Mensuralia, 95
+  Mensuris, De, 95
+  Mercator, 15
+  Metamorphoses, 209
+  Miles Gloriosus, 14
+  Milone, Pro, 77
+  Mimi
+    (Laberius), 97
+    (Syrus), 145
+  Mimiambi, 66
+  Monita, 254
+  Moralis philosophiae libri, 254
+  Moretum
+    (Sueius), 66
+    (Virg.), 154
+  Moribus, De
+    (Cato), 55
+    (Sen.), 254
+  Mostellaria, 14
+  Motu terrarum, De, 253
+  Murena, Pro, 75
+
+  Natura deorum, De, 81
+  Naturae historiae, 285
+  Naturales quaestiones, 252
+  Navales libri, 95
+  Neronem, In, 268
+  Neronis laudes, 267
+  Nidus, 66
+  Niptra, 36
+  Noctes Atticae, 352
+  Numerorum libri, 95
+
+  Octavia, 253
+  Octavium, Or. in, 267
+  Odes (Hor.), 171, 172, 174
+  +Hodoiporika+, 261
+  Odyssea, 3
+  Oedipus
+    (Caes.), 111
+    (Sen.), 253
+  Officiis, De
+    (Cic.), 82
+    (Sen.), 253
+  Optimo genere dicendi, De, 84
+  Optimo genere oratorum, De, 85
+  Ora maritima, De, 95
+  Orator, 84
+  Oratore, De, 84
+  Origine linguae Latinae, De, 94
+  Origines, 54
+  Originibus scenicis, De, 95
+  Ornithogonia, 182
+  Orpheus, 267
+  Otio, De, 250
+
+  Pancratiastes, 30
+  +Pandektai+, 90
+  Panegyricus (Plin.), 330
+  Panegyricus Messallae, 191
+  Paradoxa, 80
+  Partitiones Oratoriae, 85
+  Paulus, 36
+  Paupertate, De, 254
+  Peleus et Thetis, 139
+  +Perialg�s+, 165
+  Persa, 16
+  Personis, De, 95
+  Petitione consulatus, De, 89
+  Phaedra, 253
+  Phaenomena, 281
+  Pharsalia, 267
+  Philippicae Historiae, 223
+  Philippics, 78
+  Philosophia, De, 95
+  Phoenissae, 253
+  Phormio, 46
+  Piscium natura, De, 253
+  Pisonem, In, 77
+  Pisonis, De Laude, 277
+  Plancio, Pro, 77
+  Plocium, 38
+  Poematis, De, 95
+  Poenulus, 16
+  Poetis, De
+    (Sedig.), 66
+    (Varro), 95
+  Pollam, Ad, 268
+  Pompeio, De, 95
+  Pontius Glaucus, 87
+  Ponto, Epp. ex, 213
+  Praecepta, 31
+  Praecepta ad filium, 55
+  Pragmatica, 57
+  Praxidica, 57
+  Priapea, 154, 191
+  Pridie quam in exilium iret, 78
+  Principiis numerorum, De, 95
+  Prognostica, 87, 281
+  Propempticon Pollionis, 142
+  Proprietate Scriptorum, De, 95
+  Protreptica, 31
+  Providentia, De, 250
+  Provinciis consularibus, De, 76
+  Pseudolus, 15
+  Pseudotragoediae, 96
+  Pulli, 66
+  Punica, 290
+
+  Quaestiones Plautinae, 95
+  Quinctio, Pro, 73
+
+  Rabirio Postumo, Pro, 77
+  Rabirio perd. reo, Pro, 74
+  Re medica, De, 236
+  Re militari, De, 55
+  Re publica, De, 79
+  Re rustica, De
+    (Varro), 93
+    (Colum.), 258
+  Remedia Amoris, 209
+  Remediis fortuitorum, De, 254
+  Rerum natura, De
+    (Egnatius), 99
+    (Lucretius), 120
+  Res urbanae, 95
+  Rescripta, 152
+  Rhetorica
+    (Hortens.), 74
+    (Cic.), 83
+    ad Herenn., 88
+    (Varro), 95
+    (Quint.), 306
+  Ritu et sacris Aegyptiorum, De, 253
+  Romulus, 7
+  Roscio, Pro Sex., 73
+  Roscio Comoedo, Pro, 73
+  Rudens, 16
+
+  Sacra Historia, 31
+  Sallustium, In, 78, 130
+  Salticae fabulae, 267
+  Saturae Menippeae, 96
+  Saturae
+    (Enn.), 30
+    (Pacuv.), 36
+    (Lucil.), 61
+    (Atac.), 144
+    (Hor.), 170, 172
+    (Persius), 262
+    (Petron.), 272
+    (Juv.), 320, 323
+  Saturnalia (Lucan.), 267
+  Saturnalia (Macrob.), 354
+  Scenicis actionibus, De, 95
+  Scipio, 31
+  Senectute, De, 82
+  Sententiae (Varro), 97
+  Sententiae (Syrus), 145
+  Sententiae Rufi, 254
+  Sermone Latino, De, 94
+  Sermones (Hor.), 170, 172, 179
+  Sestio, Pro, 76
+  Sicilia, 152
+  Silvae (Lucan), 267
+  Silvae (Statius), 295
+  Similitudine verborum, De, 94
+  Situ Indiae, De, 253
+  Situ urbium Italicarum, De, 224
+  Somnium Scipionis, 79
+  Sota, 31
+  Spectacula, 300
+  Stichus, 17
+  Strategemata, 311
+  Studiosus, 284
+  Suasiones, 97
+  Suasoriae, 229
+  Sulla, Pro, 75
+  Superstitione, De, 253
+
+  Temporibus suis, De, 87
+  Tereus, 56
+  Thebais (Sen.), 253
+  Thebais (Stat.), 293
+  Theriaca, 182
+  Thyestes
+    (Enn.), 30
+    (Varius), 182
+    (Sen.), 253
+    (Maternus), 341
+  Topica, 85
+  Tranquillitate animi, De, 250
+  Tribuum liber, 95
+  +Trikaranos+, 92
+  Trinummus, 17
+  Tristia, 212
+  Troades, 253
+  Truculentus, 17
+  Tullium, invectiva in, 130
+  Tusculanae disputationes, 81
+
+  Urbanitate, De, 185
+  Utilitate sermonis, De, 94
+  Uxorem, Ad, 143
+
+  Vatinium, In, 76
+  Verborum significatu, De, 224
+  Verrem, In, 73
+  Vescia, 261
+  Vidularia, 18
+  Viris illustribus, De
+    (Hyg.), 224
+    (Nep.), 116
+    (Sueton.), 349
+  Virtutibus, De, 82
+  Vita beata, De, 250
+  Vita Caesarum, De, 349
+  Vita patris, De, 253
+  Vita Pomponii, De, 284
+  Vita populi Romani, De, 95
+  Vita sua, De
+    (Varro), 95
+    (Aug.), 152
+
+  Xenia, 300
+  +Charakt�r�n, peri+, 94
+  +Chronikoi kanones+, 351
+
+  Zmyrna, 141
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+GLASGOW: PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND CO.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+    | Transcriber's note:                                          |
+    |                                                              |
+    | Typographical errors corrected in the text:                  |
+    |                                                              |
+    | Page  29: "equs" changed to "equus"                          |
+    | Page  34: single quote added following "clueret."            |
+    | Page 161: period added following "Religion in the Aeneid"    |
+    | Page 218: single quote added following "capit."              |
+    | Page 259: "B.C." changed to "A.D."                           |
+    |           "Claudius" changed to "Caligula"                   |
+    |           "Caligula" changed to "Claudius" (twice)           |
+    | Page 263: single quote added following "ineptis."            |
+    | Page 381: "Octaviam" changed to "Octavium"                   |
+    |                                                              |
+    | Inconsistencies in hyphenation have not been normalized.     |
+    +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Student's Companion to Latin
+Authors, by George Middleton and Thomas R. Mills
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Student's Companion to Latin Authors, by 
+George Middleton and Thomas R. Mills
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Student's Companion to Latin Authors
+
+Author: George Middleton
+        Thomas R. Mills
+
+Release Date: March 25, 2009 [EBook #28413]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDENT'S COMPANION LATIN AUTHORS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Stefan Cramme and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<div class="ctr">
+<h1>The Student&rsquo;s Companion<br />
+to Latin Authors</h1>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+by
+</p>
+
+<p class="big ctr">GEORGE MIDDLETON, M.A.</p>
+
+<p class="small ctr">
+LECTURER IN LATIN, ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY; LATE SCHOLAR OF<br />
+EMMANUEL COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE
+</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+AND
+</p>
+
+<p class="big ctr">THOMAS R. MILLS, M.A.</p>
+
+<p class="small ctr">
+LATE LECTURER IN GREEK, ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY, AND CLASSICAL LECTURER,<br />
+OWENS COLLEGE, MANCHESTER; FORMERLY SCHOLAR OF WADHAM COLLEGE, OXFORD
+</p>
+
+<p class="gap ctr"><i>WITH AN INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="ctr">
+PROF. W. M. RAMSAY, D.C.L., LL.D.
+</p>
+
+<p class="small ctr">
+ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY
+</p>
+
+<p class="gap ctr">London<br />
+Macmillan and Co., Ltd.<br />
+New York: The Macmillan Co.<br />
+1896
+</p>
+<p class="small ctr gap">
+<i>All rights reserved</i>
+</p>
+<p class="small ctr gap">
+GLASGOW: PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS BY<br />
+ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND CO.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="gap" />
+
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>
+The object of this book is to give in a convenient form
+all the facts of importance relating to the lives and works
+of the principal Latin Authors, with full quotation of original
+authorities on all the chief points. It appears to us that
+these facts are not at present readily accessible; for the
+ordinary histories of literature are compelled to sacrifice
+much exact information to the demand for a critical appreciation
+of the authors. The latter aspect does not enter
+into the plan of this book, which may therefore, with
+advantage, be used side by side with any work of the kind
+indicated, the two supplementing one another. The authors
+have been, as far as possible, illustrated from their own
+works. Special attention has been paid to the great writers,
+as the book is meant for use in the upper forms of
+schools and by students at the Universities. We had collected
+a considerable amount of matter upon the minor
+authors, most of which it was thought advisable to omit,
+so as not to extend the book unduly. An attempt, however,
+has been made to retain the most important facts
+about these, whenever they illustrated one of the great
+authors, or whenever it was thought that they ought
+to be in the hands of a student. We have attempted no
+treatment of early Latin as seen in inscriptions and the
+like, but have started with the first literary author, Livius
+Andronicus, and have gone down to Tacitus and the
+younger Pliny, dealing with each author by himself. A
+section has been added on Suetonius. A sketch of the
+chief ancient authorities on Roman writers is given at
+the end of the book, as well as a selected list of editions,
+which, without being exhaustive, will, we hope, be of service
+to the average student.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Apart from our own study of the authors, our principal
+authority has, of course, been the <i>History of Roman Literature</i>
+by Teuffel and Schwabe (translated by Prof. G. C. W.
+Warr), and we have made an extensive use of editions
+and monographs both English and foreign, which are
+mentioned where necessary. Ennius has been quoted from
+Vahlen&rsquo;s edition, Plautus from the new edition of Ritschl,
+the fragments of the tragedians and comedians from Ribbeck,
+of Lucilius from L. Müller, and of the minor poets from
+Bährens, the minor historians from Peter&rsquo;s <i>Fragmenta</i>, and
+Suetonius&rsquo; fragmentary works from Reifferscheid.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Some of our materials were originally prepared for the
+Humanity classes in Aberdeen University, and the Latin
+Literary Club in connexion with the Honours class. We
+have to thank some of our pupils for help and criticism,
+particularly Mr. A. Souter, of Gonville and Caius College,
+Cambridge, and Mr. A. G. Wright, of St. John&rsquo;s College,
+Cambridge, the latter of whom prepared the materials for
+the article on Tibullus, and gave us some useful suggestions.
+We are specially indebted to Professor W. M.
+Ramsay, without whom the book would not have been
+written. Professor Ramsay has read nearly the whole of
+the work as it has passed through the press, and has
+all along given us invaluable assistance and advice. For
+any errors in the following pages we are, of course, solely
+responsible.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="sc">Aberdeen</span>, September, 1896.
+</p>
+
+<hr class="gap" />
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<p>
+<span class="sc">Chapter I.&mdash;Early Poets and Prose Writers</span>, <a href="#p001">1</a>
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+Livius Andronicus, <a href="#p001">1</a>; Naevius, <a href="#p004">4</a>; Plautus, <a href="#p007">7</a>; Ennius, <a href="#p026">26</a>;
+Pacuvius, <a href="#p034">34</a>; Caecilius Statius, <a href="#p037">37</a>; Terence, <a href="#p039">39</a>; Early
+Minor Authors, <a href="#p052">52</a>; Cato, <a href="#p053">53</a>; Accius, <a href="#p055">55</a>; Lucilius, <a href="#p058">58</a>;
+Atta and Afranius, <a href="#p064">64</a>; Minor Poets after Afranius, <a href="#p065">65</a>;
+Authors contemporary with Cicero&rsquo;s youth, <a href="#p067">67</a>.
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<span class="sc">Chapter II.&mdash;The Ciceronian Age</span>, <a href="#p069">69</a>
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+Cicero, <a href="#p069">69</a>; Q. Cicero, <a href="#p089">89</a>; Tiro, <a href="#p090">90</a>; Atticus, <a href="#p090">90</a>; Varro, <a href="#p091">91</a>;
+Laberius, <a href="#p097">97</a>; Bibaculus, <a href="#p099">99</a>; Caesar and the Corpus Caesarianum,
+<a href="#p100">100</a>; Pollio, <a href="#p112">112</a>; Nepos, <a href="#p112">112</a>; Lucretius, <a href="#p119">119</a>;
+Sallust, <a href="#p125">125</a>; Catullus, <a href="#p132">132</a>; Contemporary Poets (Cinna,
+Calvus, Varro Atacinus, Publilius Syrus, etc.), <a href="#p140">140</a>.
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<span class="sc">Chapter III.&mdash;The Augustan Age</span>, <a href="#p147">147</a>
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+Virgil, <a href="#p147">147</a>; Horace, <a href="#p163">163</a>; Contemporary Poets, <a href="#p180">180</a>; Tibullus,
+<a href="#p185">185</a>; Propertius, <a href="#p191">191</a>; Ovid, <a href="#p200">200</a>; Manilius, <a href="#p213">213</a>; Livy, <a href="#p215">215</a>;
+Contemporaries of Livy, <a href="#p223">223</a>; Vitruvius, <a href="#p224">224</a>; Seneca the
+Elder, <a href="#p226">226</a>.
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<span class="sc">Chapter IV.&mdash;Post-Augustan Writers</span>, <a href="#p231">231</a>
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+Velleius Paterculus, <a href="#p231">231</a>; Valerius Maximus, <a href="#p234">234</a>; Celsus, <a href="#p235">235</a>;
+Phaedrus, <a href="#p237">237</a>; Seneca the Younger, <a href="#p240">240</a>; Curtius Rufus,
+<a href="#p256">256</a>; Columella, <a href="#p258">258</a>; Pomponius Mela, <a href="#p259">259</a>; Persius, <a href="#p260">260</a>;
+Lucan, <a href="#p264">264</a>; Petronius, <a href="#p272">272</a>; Calpurnius Siculus, <a href="#p275">275</a>; Aetna
+(Lucilius Iunior), <a href="#p277">277</a>; Pliny the Elder, <a href="#p281">281</a>; Valerius
+Flaccus, <a href="#p286">286</a>; Silius Italicus, <a href="#p289">289</a>; Statius, <a href="#p291">291</a>; Martial,
+<a href="#p295">295</a>; Quintilian, <a href="#p302">302</a>; Frontinus, <a href="#p310">310</a>; Juvenal, <a href="#p312">312</a>; Pliny
+the Younger, <a href="#p326">326</a>; Tacitus, <a href="#p336">336</a>; Suetonius, <a href="#p348">348</a>.
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<span class="sc">Appendix A.</span>, <a href="#p351">351</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="sc">Appendix B.</span>, <a href="#p356">356</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="sc">Index of Subjects</span>, <a href="#p368">368</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="sc">Index of Titles</span>, <a href="#p378">378</a>
+</p>
+
+<hr class="gap" />
+
+<h2>INTRODUCTORY NOTE</h2>
+
+<p>
+The authors ask me to write a word of introduction to
+their book; but an introduction is not needed when the
+book supplies a want and is trustworthy in what it says. As
+to the second point, the text will speak for itself. On the
+first, a word may be permitted about my own experience in
+lecturing. The young student of Latin Literature requires
+help in two ways. In the first place, he needs guidance in
+learning to recognize and appreciate the literary merit of
+the authors. Mr. Cruttwell&rsquo;s, and, still better, Mr. Mackail&rsquo;s
+book, will serve his purpose well. They are interesting to
+read, and they tempt him on to study for himself. Mr.
+Mackail&rsquo;s book, especially, shows delicate literary feeling,
+and a remarkably catholic and true sense of literary merit.
+But, secondly, the student wants a clear statement of the
+facts, certain or probable, about the life of each author, the
+chronology of his works, and their relation to the circumstances
+and personages of the time. Neither of the books
+which I have named is satisfactory in this respect. Both
+of them omit a large number of facts and theories which the
+student ought to have before him: Mr. Cruttwell occasionally
+even sinks to inaccuracy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+About three years ago I suggested to Mr. Middleton that
+he should try to fill up this gap with a book, in which he
+should bring together all the information that a student
+should have ready to his hand in reading the more familiar
+classical authors, that he should keep down the size of his
+book by omitting all that the student does not want, and
+that he should set before his readers the evidence on which
+each fact rests, so that they might be led to form opinions
+and judgments of their own. Teuffel-Schwabe&rsquo;s great work
+contains a vast deal that the ordinary student does not
+want; and it does not contain a certain amount which will,
+I believe, be found in the present book, the materials for
+which have been gathered from a wide range of reading.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I am convinced that much can be done to stimulate and
+invigorate the young student&rsquo;s feeling for Latin literature by
+helping him to feel for himself how each author&rsquo;s words
+spring from his life, and conversely how facts and circumstances
+of his life can be elicited from his words. There
+will always remain doubts as to the facts and dates, <i>e.g.</i>, in
+Horace&rsquo;s or in Catullus&rsquo; life; but any reasoned theory has
+its interest, and is better for the pupil than no theory. The
+present book will, as I hope, be found useful as an aid to
+that method of teaching and of study, provided that both
+teacher and pupil bear in mind that it is a companion to
+other books&mdash;not a book complete in itself.
+</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+W. M. RAMSAY.
+</p>
+
+<hr class="gap" />
+
+<p class="ctr gap">
+COMPANION TO LATIN AUTHORS
+</p>
+
+<hr class="gap" />
+
+<h2 id="p001">CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<h2>EARLY POETS AND PROSE WRITERS.</h2>
+
+<h3>LIVIUS ANDRONICUS.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+L. Livius Andronicus, according to the poet Accius, was
+taken prisoner at the capture of Tarentum by Q. Fabius
+Maximus in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 209, and exhibited his first play in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 197.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 72-3, &lsquo;Accius a Q. Maximo quintum consule
+captum Tarenti scripsit Livium annis xxx. postquam eum
+fabulam docuisse et Atticus scribit et nos in antiquis
+commentariis invenimus: docuisse autem fabulam annis
+post xi., C. Cornelio Q. Minucio coss. ludis Iuventatis,
+quos Salinator Senensi proelio voverat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But ancient evidence is unanimous that he was the
+first literary writer of Rome, and this is confirmed by his
+archaic language. Hence the statement of Cicero <i>ibid.</i>,
+that Livius produced his first play in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 240, must be
+accepted.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Atque hic Livius, qui primus fabulam, C. Claudio
+Caeci filio et M. Tuditano coss., docuit anno ipso antequam
+natus est Ennius; post Romam conditam autem
+quarto decimo et quingentesimo ... In quo tantus error
+Acci fuit, ut his consulibus xl. annos natus Ennius fuerit:
+cui si aequalis fuerit Livius, minor fuit aliquanto is, qui
+primus fabulam dedit, quam ei, qui multas docuerant ante
+hos consules, et Plautus et Naevius.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p002">
+Cf. Cic. <i>Tusc.</i> i. 3, and Gell. xvii. 21, 42.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Probably Accius, finding in his authorities that Livius
+was taken prisoner at the capture of Tarentum (<i>i.e.</i> in
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 272), wrongly thought of the second capture by Fabius.
+In spite of Cicero&rsquo;s correction, the error of Accius was,
+we may infer, reproduced by Suetonius, and thus penetrated
+into Jerome, who says, yr. Abr. 1830 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 187,
+&lsquo;T. [an error] Livius tragoediarum scriptor clarus habetur,
+qui ob ingenii meritum a Livio Salinatore, cuius liberos
+erudiebat, libertate donatus est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is probable that Livius was the slave of C. Livius
+Salinator, the father of the victor of Sena (M. Livius
+Salinator), and taught the latter; for he must have been
+set free before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 240, and the victor of Sena could
+hardly have been born earlier than <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 258. This connexion
+made M. Livius Salinator when consul, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 207,
+select Livius Andronicus to prepare a hymn of expiation
+to the Aventine Juno, and, probably in the same year,
+to compose a hymn of thanksgiving for the success of
+Rome in the Hannibalic War. For his services the privileges
+of a guild were assigned to writers and actors.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Livy xxvii. 37, &lsquo;Decrevere pontifices ut virgines ter
+novenae per urbem euntes carmen canerent ... conditum
+ab Livio poeta ... Carmen in Iunonem reginam canentes
+ibant illa tempestate forsitan laudabile rudibus ingeniis,
+nunc abhorrens et inconditum, si referatur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Fest. p. 333, &lsquo;Cum Livius Andronicus bello Punico secundo
+scripsisset carmen quod a virginibus est cantatum, quia
+prosperius res publica populi Romani geri coepta est, publice
+attributa est ei in Aventino aedis Minervae, in qua
+liceret scribis histrionibusque consistere ac dona ponere,
+in honorem Livi, quia is et scribebat fabulas et agebat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p003">
+Livius had a twofold reason for writing, (<i>a</i>) To assist
+him in his profession as a schoolmaster he published a
+translation of the <i>Odyssey</i>; (<i>b</i>) as an actor, he wrote the
+plays he acted, and afterwards published them.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 1, &lsquo;Livium et Ennium ... quos utraque
+lingua domi forisque docuisse adnotatum est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Livy vii. 2, 8, &lsquo;Livius ... qui ab saturis ausus est primus
+argumento fabulam serere, idem scilicet, id quod omnes
+tum erant, suorum carminum actor.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>Tragedies.</i>&mdash;From the scanty fragments extant and
+from the titles (<i>Achilles</i>, <i>Aegisthus</i>, and six others are
+known) we see that these were close imitations of Greek
+plays. Thus l. 38 (Ribbeck),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quem ego nefrendem alui lacteam immulgens opem,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+is, according to Conington, a rendering of Aesch. <i>Choeph.</i>
+883-4,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p class="greek">
+μαστὸν πρὸς ᾧ σὺ πολλὰ δὴ βρίζων ἅμα<br />
+οὔλοισιν ἐξήμελξας εὐτραφὲς γάλα.
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>Comedies.</i>&mdash;Slight fragments of three of these are
+extant.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. A translation of the <i>Odyssey</i> in Saturnians.<a href="#fn001" id="ref001">[1]</a> This,
+though rough and incorrect, long remained a school-book.
+So Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. I, 69 <i>sqq.</i>,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p004">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Non equidem insector delendave carmina Livi<br />
+esse reor, memini quae plagosum mihi parvo<br />
+Orbilium dictare: sed emendata videri<br />
+pulchraque et exactis minimum distantia miror.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+For examples of translation, of. Gell, xviii. 9, 5,
+&lsquo;Offendi ... librum ... Livi Andronici, qui inscriptus est
+Odyssea, in quo erat versus primus ...,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&ldquo;Virúm mihí Caména | ínsecé versútum,&rdquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+factus ex illo Homeri versu,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p class="greek">
+Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε, Μοῦσα, πολύτροπον.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Fragments 2 and 3,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Meá puer, quid vérbi | éx tuo óre súpera<br />
+fugít?<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;neque ením te oblítus | Lértié, sum, nóster,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+represent <i>Od.</i> i. 64,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p class="greek">
+τέκνον ἐμὸν, ποῖόν σε ἔπος φύγεν ἕρκος ὀδόντων;<br />
+πῶς ἂν ἔπειτ’ Ὀδυσῆος ἐγὼ θείοιο λαθοίμην;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<h3>NAEVIUS.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+Cn. Naevius&rsquo; dates can only be given approximately as
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 269-199. As he served in the First Punic War,
+he cannot in any case have been born later than <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 257.
+He was a Campanian by birth.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Gell. i. 24, 2, &lsquo;Epigramma Naevi plenum superbiae
+Campanae, quod testimonium esse iustum potuisset, nisi
+ab ipso dictum esset,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&ldquo;Inmortales mortales si foret fas flere,<br />
+flerent divae Camenae Naevium poetam.<br />
+Itaque postquam est Orci traditus thesauro,<br />
+obliti sunt Romae loquier lingua Latina.&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p005">
+Naevius&rsquo; first play was produced <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 235; the fact that
+he served as a soldier shows that he was not an actor.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Gell. xvii. 21, 45, &lsquo;Eodem anno (<span class="bcad">A.U.C.</span>
+<span class="bcad">D</span>xix.) Cn. Naevius
+poeta fabulas apud populum dedit, quem M. Varro in
+libris de poetis primo stipendia fecisse ait bello Poenico
+primo, idque ipsum Naevium dicere in eo carmine, quod
+de eodem bello scripsit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In his plays he attacked the senatorial party, particularly
+the Metelli, and was imprisoned, but afterwards released.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Gell. iii. 3, 15, &lsquo;Sicuti de Naevio quoque accepimus,
+fabulas eum in carcere duas scripsisse, Hariolum et
+Leontem, cum ob assiduam maledicentiam et probra in
+principes civitatis de Graecorum poetarum more dicta in
+vincula Romae a triumviris coniectus esset. Unde post a
+tribunis plebis exemptus est, cum in his, quas supra dixi,
+fabulis delicta sua et petulantias dictorum, quibus multos
+ante laeserat, diluisset.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pseud.-Asconius on Cic. <i>in Verr. act. prior</i>, 29. &lsquo;Dictum
+facete et contumeliose in Metellos antiquum Naevii est,
+&ldquo;Fato Metelli Romai fiunt consules,&rdquo; cui tunc Metellus
+consul (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 206) iratus versu responderat ..., &ldquo;Dabunt
+malum Metelli Naevio poetae.&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. the contemporary reference in Plaut. <i>Mil.</i> 212,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nam os columnatum poetae esse indaudivi barbaro,<a href="#fn002" id="ref002">[2]</a><br />
+quoi bini custodes semper totis horis occubant.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+For Naevius&rsquo; freedom of speech cf. his comedies, l. 113
+(Ribbeck),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Libera lingua loquemur ludis Liberalibus&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p006">
+l. 108 (on Scipio),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &lsquo;Etiam qui res magnas manu saepe gessit gloriose,<br />
+  cuius facta viva nunc vigent, qui apud gentes solus praestat,<br />
+  eum suus pater cum palliod unod ab amica abduxit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Naevius was banished and went to Utica, where he
+died, probably about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 199. It must have been after
+peace was concluded (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 202), as otherwise he could have
+reached Utica only by deserting to the enemy.<a href="#fn003" id="ref003">[3]</a> Jerome
+gives <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 201, Cicero <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 204, although he says Varro
+put the date later. The verses on Scipio quoted above
+could hardly have been written before the battle of Zama.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1816 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 201, &lsquo;Naevius comicus Uticae
+moritur, pulsus Roma factione nobilium, ac praecipue
+Metelli.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 60, &lsquo;His consulibus (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 204), ut in veteribus
+commentariis scriptum est, Naevius est mortuus; quamquam
+Varro noster, diligentissimus investigator antiquitatis,
+putat in hoc erratum vitamque Naevi producit longius.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>Tragedies</i>.&mdash;There are extant seven titles and a very
+few fragments.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>Comedies</i>.&mdash;There are titles of about thirty-four
+<i>palliatae</i>,<a href="#fn004" id="ref004">[4]</a> and upwards of one hundred and thirty lines extant.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Naevius seems to have adopted <i>contaminatio</i><a href="#fn005" id="ref005">[5]</a> in his
+plays. Ter. <i>Andr.</i> prol. 15,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p007">
+<p>
+  &lsquo;Id isti vituperant factum atque in eo disputant<br />
+  contaminari non decere fabulas ...<br />
+  qui quom hunc accusant, Naevium Plautum Ennium<br />
+  accusant.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+3. <i>Praetextae</i>.&mdash;Tragedies on Roman subjects, &lsquo;Clastidium&rsquo;
+and &lsquo;Romulus.&rsquo; The <i>praetexta</i> was invented by
+Naevius.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. <i>Bellum Punicum</i>, an epic poem in Saturnians, divided
+later into seven Books. About seventy-four lines are
+extant.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 2, &lsquo;C. Octavius Lampadio Naevii Punicum
+bellum, uno volumine et continenti scriptura expositum,
+divisit in septem libros.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Books i. and ii. contained the mythical origin of Rome
+and Carthage, Aeneas&rsquo; flight from Troy and his sojourn at
+the court of Dido in Carthage. In Book iii. the history
+of the First Punic War commenced. The work was imitated
+by Ennius and Virgil, sometimes closely by the latter. Cf.
+Servius on <i>Aen.</i> i. 198-207, &lsquo;O socii,&rsquo; etc. &lsquo;Et totus hic
+locus de Naevio belli Punici libro translatus est.&rsquo; <i>Ibid.</i>
+i. 273, &lsquo;Naevius et Ennius Aeneae ex filia nepotem Romulum
+conditorem urbis tradunt.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Macrob. <i>Saturn.</i> vi. 2, 31, &lsquo;In principio Aeneidos tempestas
+describitur et Venus apud Iovem queritur.... Hic
+locus totus sumptus a Naevio est ex primo libro belli
+Punici.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h3>PLAUTUS</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+Plautus&rsquo; full name, T. Maccius Plautus, was discovered
+by Ritschl in the Ambrosian (Milan) palimpsest, which
+gives, <i>e.g.</i> after the two plays named: &lsquo;T. Macci Plauti
+Casina explicit&rsquo;: &lsquo;Macci Plauti Epidicus explicit.&rsquo; In
+Plaut. <i>Merc.</i> l. 6, the <span class="bcad">MS.</span> reading <i>Mactici</i> was emended by
+Ritschl to <i>Macci Titi</i>; and in <i>Asin.</i> prol. l. 11, <i>Maccius</i> is
+the right reading. The <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> read <i>Maccus</i>, which Bücheler
+(<i>Rhein. Mus.</i> 41, 12) takes to mean &lsquo;buffoon,&rsquo; or &lsquo;writer
+of comedies,&rsquo; from which Plautus took his family name,
+Maccius, on becoming a Roman citizen. &lsquo;M. Accius,&rsquo;
+formerly supposed to be the name, is found in no <span class="bcad">MS.</span>,
+but &lsquo;Accius&rsquo; is found in <i>Epitome Festi</i>, p. 239, which gives
+us the poet&rsquo;s birthplace, Sarsina in Umbria, and suggests
+another derivation for his name: &lsquo;Ploti appellantur, qui
+sunt planis pedibus, unde et poeta Accius, quia Umber
+Sarsinas erat, a pedum planitie initio Plotus, postea
+Plautus est dictus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p008">
+In the corresponding passage of Festus, we have only
+&lsquo;...us poeta, quia Umber,&rsquo; etc. The name of the poet
+is lost, and the epitomizer has doubtless made a mistake.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sarsina is mentioned once by Plautus, <i>Mostell.</i> 770,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &lsquo;Quid? Sarsinatis ecquast, si Umbram non habes?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The year of his birth can only be conjectured; he
+died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 184.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 60, &lsquo;Plautus P. Claudio L. Porcio coss.
+mortuus est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Jerome erroneously assigns Plautus&rsquo; death to yr. Abr.
+1817 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 200, &lsquo;Plautus ex Umbria Sarsinas Romae
+moritur, qui propter annonae difficultatem ad molas manuarias
+pistori se locaverat; ibi quotiens ab opere vacaret,
+scribere fabulas et vendere sollicitius consueverat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From this notice, and from the passage of Gellius below,
+we learn that Plautus lost in foreign trade the money he
+had made as an assistant to scenic artists, and had to
+work for his living in a flour mill at Rome, during
+which time he wrote plays, and continued to do so
+afterwards.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Gell. iii. 3, 14, &lsquo;Saturionem et Addictum et tertiam
+quamdam, cuius nunc mihi nomen non subpetit, in pistrino
+eum scripsisse, Varro et plerique alii memoriae tradiderunt
+cum, pecunia omni, quam in operis artificum scaenicorum
+pepererat, in mercatibus perdita inops Romam redisset et
+ob quaerendum victum ad circumagendas molas, quae
+&ldquo;trusatiles&rdquo; appellantur, operam pistori locasset.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p009">
+We conclude from these varied employments that
+Plautus can hardly have been less than thirty years old
+when he began to write plays. His intimacy with the
+Scipios (Cic. <i>de Rep.</i> iv., apud Augustin. <i>Civ. D.</i> ii. 9), who
+fell in Spain <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 212, leads to the conclusion that he must
+have been well established as an author by that date,
+though none of his plays can be proved to have been
+written so early. If we suppose that his career as a
+playwright commenced at thirty, and that his acquaintance
+with the Scipios lasted ten years, the year of his birth
+must have been about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 254. This view is supported
+(1) by the notice in Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 73, that Plautus had
+produced many plays by <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 197; (2) by Cic. <i>Cato maior</i>,
+50, &lsquo;quam gaudebat ... Truculento Plautus, quam Pseudolo,&rsquo;
+where Plautus is said to have written these plays as <i>senex</i>.
+Now the <i>Pseudolus</i> was written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 191; and therefore, as
+a man could not be called <i>senex</i> till he was at least sixty,
+his birth must have been not later than <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 251.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Plautus is said to have written his own epitaph.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Gell. i. 24, 3, &lsquo;Epigramma Plauti, quod dubitassemus
+an Plauti foret, nisi a M. Varrone positum esset in libro
+de poetis primo:
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&ldquo;Postquam est mortem aptus Plautus, Comoedia luget,<br />
+Scaena est deserta, ac dein Risus, Ludus Iocusque,<br />
+et Numeri innumeri simul omnes conlacrimarunt.&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<h4 id="p010">(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+Plautus&rsquo; plays were early criticized as to their genuineness.
+Gell. iii. 3, 1-3, after mentioning the canons of Aelius Stilo,
+Sedigitus, etc., says that Varro admitted twenty-one plays
+which were given by all the canons, and added some more.
+&lsquo;Nam praeter illas unam et viginti, quae Varronianae
+vocantur, quas idcirco a ceteris segregavit, quoniam dubiosae
+non erant, set consensu omnium Plauti esse censebantur,
+quasdam item alias probavit adductus filo atque facetia
+sermonis Plauto congruentis easque iam nominibus aliorum
+occupatas Plauto vindicavit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+About one hundred and thirty plays were current under
+the name of Plautus; the theory of Varro (Gell. iii. 3, 10)
+that these were written by a certain Plautius is improbable.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Gell. iii. 3, 11, &lsquo;Feruntur sub Plauti nomine comoediae
+circiter centum atque triginta.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There is little doubt that the &lsquo;fabulae Varronianae&rsquo; are
+those which have come down to us with the addition of
+the <i>Vidularia</i>, which was lost between the sixth and the
+eleventh centuries. The number of Varro&rsquo;s second class,
+consisting of those pieces that stood in most of the indices
+and exhibited Plautine features, Ritschl has fixed at nineteen,
+from citations in Varro <i>de lingua Latina</i>. Besides
+the genuine plays the names of thirty-two others are known.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The extant plays<a href="#fn006" id="ref006">[6]</a> are as follows:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>Amphitruo</i>, a <i>tragicomoedia</i>, the only play of Plautus
+of the kind. Prol. 59,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Faciam ut conmixta sit haec tragicomoedia.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p011">
+The original and the date are unknown. The play shows
+the features of the Sicilian <i>Rhinthonica</i>.<a href="#fn007" id="ref007">[7]</a> About three
+hundred lines have been lost after Act. iv., Scene 2.
+The scene is Thebes, which, with Roman carelessness or
+ignorance, is made a harbour; cf. ll. 629 <i>sqq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>Asinaria</i> (sc. <i>fabula</i>), from the <cite class="greek">᾽Οναγός</cite> of Demophilus,
+supposed to have been a writer of the New Comedy.
+Prol. 10-12,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Huic nomen Graece Onagost fabulae;<br />
+Demophilus scripsit, Maccius vortit barbare.<br />
+Asinariam volt esse, si per vos licet.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Authorities assign the play to about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 194. The scene
+is Athens.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. <i>Aulularia</i> (from <i>aulula</i>, &lsquo;a little pot.&rsquo;)&mdash;Neither the
+original nor the exact time of composition is known. From
+Megadorus&rsquo; tirade against the luxury of women, ll. 478
+<i>sqq.</i>, it has been inferred that the play was written after the
+repeal of the Oppian Law in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 195. The end of the
+play is lost. The scene is Athens.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. <i>Captivi</i>, a piece without active interest (<i>stataria</i>),
+without female characters, and claiming a moral purpose;
+l. 1029,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Spectatores, ad pudicos mores facta haec fabulast.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Some authorities think that the parasite (Ergasilus) is an
+addition to the original play, which may have belonged to
+the New Comedy. The scene is in Aetolia.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+5. <i>Curculio</i>, so called from the name of the parasite.
+The Greek original is unknown; but ll. 462-86 contain a
+speech from the Choragus, in the style of the <span class="greek">παράβασις</span>
+of the Old Comedy. In l. 509,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p012">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Rogitationes plurumas propter vos populus scivit<br />
+quas vos rogatas rumpitis,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+there is probably an allusion to the Lex Sempronia de
+pecunia credita, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 193. The scene is Epidaurus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+6. <i>Casina</i>, so called from a slave-girl introduced. The
+original was the <cite class="greek">Κληρούμενοι</cite> of Diphilus. Prol. 31,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Clerumenoe vocatur haec comoedia<br />
+Graece, Latine Sortientes. Deiphilus<br />
+hanc Graece scripsit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The inference from l. 979, &lsquo;Nam ecastor nunc Bacchae
+nullae ludunt,&rsquo; that the play was written after the S.C. de
+Bacchanalibus in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 186, is improbable; the words rather
+show, as Mommsen<a href="#fn008" id="ref008">[8]</a> believes, an anterior date, when it
+was not yet dangerous to speak of the Bacchanalia. Some
+authorities find support for the latter date in the words
+of the prologue, ll. 9-20 (written after the poet&rsquo;s death).
+The text of the play has suffered greatly. The scene is
+Athens.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+7. <i>Cistellaria</i>.&mdash;This play contains a reference to the
+war against Hannibal then going on; ll. 197 <i>sqq.</i>,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Bene valete, et vincite<br />
+virtute vera, quod fecistis antidhac, ...<br />
+ut vobis victi Poeni poenas sufferant.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+According to Ritschl, about 600 verses have been lost.
+The scene is Sicyon.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+8. <i>Epidicus</i>.&mdash;This play is referred to in the <i>Bacchides</i>,
+ll. 213-5 (spoken by Chrysalus), where the unpopularity of
+the play is attributed to the acting of Pellio.
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p013">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Non res, sed actor mihi cor odio sauciat.<br />
+Etiam Epidicum, quam ego fabulam aeque ac me ipsum amo,<br />
+nullam aeque invitus specto, si agit Pellio.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Epid.</i> 222,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Sed vestita, aurata, ornata ut lepide! ut concinne! ut nove!&rsquo; etc.,
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+shows that the piece was written after the repeal of the
+Lex Oppia Sumptuaria, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 195. The plot is complicated,
+and <i>contaminatio</i> is assumed by some authorities. The
+play contains only seven hundred and thirty-three lines,
+and some believe it to be a stage edition. The scene is
+Athens.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+9. <i>Bacchides</i>.&mdash;The first part of this play, along with the
+last part of the <i>Aulularia</i>,<a href="#fn009" id="ref009">[9]</a> has been lost, as also the prefaces
+of the grammarians, so that we do not know what was in
+the first part. The original was probably Menander&rsquo;s <cite class="greek">Δὶς ἐξαπατῶν</cite>.
+Plautus appears to refer to this twice, l. 1090,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Perii: pudet. Hocine me aetatis <i>ludos bis factum</i> esse indigne&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+l. 1128,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Pol hodie altera iam <i>bis detonsa</i> certost.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The line, <span class="greek">ὃν οἱ θεοὶ φιλοῦσιν, ἀποθνῄσκει νέος</span>, which belongs
+to the same play (Stobaeus, <i>Serm</i>. 120, 8) is translated in
+ll. 816-7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;quem di diligunt<br />
+adulescens moritur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The date is pretty well fixed by l. 1073,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quod non triumpho: pervolgatumst, nil moror.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p014">
+Now, triumphs were not frequent till after the Second Punic
+War, and were especially frequent from <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 197 to 187.
+The play probably refers to the four triumphs of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 189,
+and may have been brought out in that or the following
+year. The scene is Athens.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+10. <i>Mostellaria</i> (sc. <i>fabula</i>, &lsquo;a play dealing with a ghost,&rsquo;
+from <i>mostellum</i>, dim. of <i>monstrum</i>).&mdash;The play is quoted by
+Festus, p. 166, as &lsquo;Mostellaria&rsquo;; pp. 162 and 305, as
+&lsquo;Phasma.&rsquo; According to Ritschl, the <cite class="greek">Φάσμα</cite> of Philemon
+was Plautus&rsquo; model. The reference to <i>unguenta exotica</i>
+(l. 42) points to a late date, when Asiatic luxury was
+growing common. The play is imitated in Ben Jonson&rsquo;s
+<i>Alchemist</i>. The scene is Athens.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+11. <i>Menaechmi</i>.&mdash;If ll. 409 <i>sqq.</i>, &lsquo;Syracusis ... ubi rex ...
+nunc Hierost,&rsquo; were written independently by Plautus, the
+date must be before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 215; but the reference may only
+mean that the Greek original was composed between 275
+and 215 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> It has been conjectured that a comedy by
+Posidippus (possibly called <cite class="greek">Δίδυμοι</cite>) was the original, from
+Athenaeus, xiv. p. 658, <span class="greek">οὐδὲ γὰρ ἂν εὕροι τις ὑμῶν δοῦλόν τινα
+μάγειρον ἐν κωμῳδίᾳ πλὴν παρὰ Ποσειδίππῳ μόνῳ</span>. Now, the
+<i>Menaechmi</i> is the only play of Plautus where a cook is a
+house-slave, Cylindrus being the slave of Erotium; in his
+other plays cooks are hired from the Forum. The scene
+is Epidamnus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+12. <i>Miles Gloriosus</i>.&mdash;In ll. 211-2 (the only personal
+allusion in Plautus),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nam os columnatum poetae esse indaudivi barbaro,<br />
+quoi bini custodes semper totis horis occubant,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+we have a reference to the imprisonment of Naevius, which
+shows that the play was written before his banishment,
+probably <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 206-5 (<a href="#p005">see under &lsquo;Naevius&rsquo;</a>). Line 1016,
+&lsquo;Cedo signum, si harum Baccharum es,&rsquo; shows that the
+play is anterior to <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 186.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p015">
+The original is the <cite class="greek">Ἀλαζών</cite> of some Greek poet. Cf.
+ll. 86-7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Alazon Graece huic nomen est comoediae:<br />
+id nos Latine gloriosum dicimus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The play, however, exhibits <i>contaminatio</i>. Two distinct
+actions, the cheating of Sceledrus (Act i.) and the cheating
+of the Miles (Acts ii. and iii.), are united rather loosely;
+and it has been conjectured that Menander&rsquo;s <cite class="greek">Κόλαξ</cite>, or
+(according to Ritschl) Diphilus&rsquo; <cite class="greek">Αἱρησιτείχης</cite>, was the play
+used. Ritschl&rsquo;s view is perhaps supported by the word
+<i>urbicape</i> in l. 1055. The play is the longest <i>palliata</i> preserved.
+The scene is Ephesus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+13. <i>Mercator</i>.&mdash;The original is Philemon&rsquo;s <cite class="greek">Ἔμπορος</cite>;
+ll. 5-6,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Graece haec vocatur Emporos Philemonis;<br />
+eadem Latine Mercator Macci Titi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Some light is thrown on the date by ll. 524-6.
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;<i>L.</i> Ovem tibi eccillam dabo, natam annos sexaginta,<br />
+peculiarem. <i>P.</i> Mei senex, tam vetulam? <i>L.</i> Generis Graeci est.<br />
+Eam sei curabeis, perbonast; tondetur nimium scite.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+This could not have been written before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 196, the date
+of the settlement of Greece. The play shows traces of
+two distinct editions. The scene is Athens.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+14. <i>Pseudolus</i>.&mdash;The Greek original is unknown. The
+date of production (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 191) is got from the didascalia,
+as restored by Ritschl, &lsquo;M. Iunio M. fil. pr. urb. acta
+Megalesiis.&rsquo; The Megalesian games were held in that
+year in honour of the dedication of the temple which
+had been vowed to Cybele, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 204 (Livy, xxxvi. 36).
+&lsquo;Pseudolus&rsquo; = <cite class="greek">Ψευδύλος</cite>, but is connected by popular etymology
+with <i>dolus</i>. Cf. the puns in l. 1205,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p016">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Edepol hominem verberonem Pseudolum, ut docte dolum<br />
+commentust&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+l. 1244,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Superavit dolum Troianum atque Ulixem Pseudolus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Several references to the play are found in Cicero: <i>Cato
+Maior</i>, 50 (quoted <a href="#p009">p. 9</a>); <i>Phil.</i> ii. 15; <i>pro Rosc. Com.</i>
+20. The scene is Athens.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+15. <i>Poenulus</i>.&mdash;The original was a Greek play, <cite class="greek">Καρχηδόνιος</cite>,
+the author of which is unknown, as the fragments of Menander&rsquo;s
+<cite class="greek">Καρχηδόνιος</cite> do not fit in with Plautus&rsquo; play. The
+play was called by Plautus &lsquo;Patruus,&rsquo; but posterity went
+back to the older name &lsquo;Poenulus.&rsquo; Prol. 53,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Carchedonius vocatur haec comoedia<br />
+Graece, Latine Patruus Pultiphagonidae.&rsquo;<a href="#fn010" id="ref010">[10]</a>
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Authorities assign the play to <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 189. The play is considerably
+interpolated, one ending being at l. 1371, another
+at l. 1422, whence some authorities have considered ll. 1372-1422 as spurious. Ritschl thinks that the two endings are
+about the same age, and compares the double ending of
+the <i>Andria</i> of Terence. The play is noted for the two
+Carthaginian renderings of the soliloquy of Hanno, ll. 930-9,
+and ll. 940-9. The scene is Calydon in Aetolia.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+16. <i>Persa</i>.&mdash;This play, the original of which is unknown,
+has been variously assigned to 197 and 186 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> The play
+shows traces of two distinct editions. The scene is Athens.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+17. <i>Rudens</i>.&mdash;This play has been assigned to about
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 192. The original is by Diphilus; and the scene is
+Cyrene. Prol., 1. 32,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p017">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Primumdum huic esse nomen urbi Diphilus<br />
+Cyrenas voluit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+18. <i>Stichus</i>, performed <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 200 <i>ludis plebeis</i>, as we learn
+from the didascalia, &lsquo;Graeca Adelphoe Menandru acta
+ludis plebeis Cn. Baebio C. Terentio aed. pl. ... C. Sulpicio
+C. Aurelio coss.&rsquo; This cannot be the <i>Adelphi</i> imitated by
+Terence, the fragments of which do not bear the least
+resemblance to the <i>Stichus</i>. It may be a second <i>Adelphi</i>
+by Menander. Others read &lsquo;Philadelphoe&rsquo; in the above
+didascalia. Part of the play has been lost, and it shows
+traces of two distinct editions. The scene is Athens.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+19. <i>Trinummus</i>.&mdash;The original was Philemon&rsquo;s <cite class="greek">Θησαυρός</cite>,
+as seen from the didascalia, &lsquo;Graeca Thensaurus Philemonis
+acta ludis Megalensibus.&rsquo; Some indication of the date is
+got from l. 990,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Vapulabis meo arbitratud et novorum aedilium.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The only festival that would suit the term <i>novi aediles</i> is
+the <i>ludi Megalenses</i><a href="#fn011" id="ref011">[11]</a> as from <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 266 to 153 the new
+magistrates entered on office on the Ides of March. This
+festival was not of a scenic character till <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 194, consequently
+the <i>Trinummus</i> must be after that date. The
+mention of Syrian slaves in l. 542 also makes it probable
+that this is one of the latest works of Plautus. The scene
+is Athens.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+20. <i>Truculentus</i>.&mdash;The original is unknown. The play
+was written in Plautus&rsquo; old age, probably about
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 189. The text has suffered greatly. The scene is
+Athens.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p018">
+21. <i>Vidularia</i>.&mdash;Only fragments are extant. It is thought
+to have been modelled on a play called <cite class="greek">Σχεδία</cite> by Menander.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Argumenta.</i>&mdash;These are in <i>senarii</i>, and give a summary
+of each play. Two sets are found. The first set are
+acrostic, and are extant for all the plays except the <i>Vidularia</i>
+and the <i>Bacchides</i>. The second series was probably
+written by Sulpicius Apollinaris in the second century <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>
+There are only five of them extant in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, and
+fragments of other two.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Prologues.</i>&mdash;These (which were usual in the Old and the
+New Comedy) gave the name of the piece and the author,
+the original and its author, the scene of the play, and a
+partial list of characters. In the Prologue also the poet
+often asked the favour of the audience. Prologues to
+fourteen plays are extant. The part of the prologue Plautus
+(like the New Comedy) assigned either to a god, as in
+the <i>Rudens</i> to Arcturus, or to one of the characters, as
+in the <i>Mercator</i> to a youth (cf. <i>Mil.</i> and <i>Amph.</i>), or to
+an actor addressing the audience in the name of the poet,
+as in the <i>Truculentus</i>. All the prologues have suffered
+from interpolation, but those of <i>Amph.</i>, <i>Merc.</i>, <i>Rud.</i>, and
+<i>Trin.</i>, and the second parts of those of <i>Mil.</i> and <i>Aul.</i>,
+are founded on what Plautus wrote. The prologues in
+<i>Cas.</i>, <i>Poen.</i>, and <i>Capt.</i>, are due to later hands. That the
+prologues are interpolated is shown by their diction; the
+wit is often poor, and the language un-Plautine, or imitated
+closely from Plautus&rsquo; genuine works. The prologues in
+their present form probably date from a period shortly
+after that in which Terence flourished, when there was a
+want of new plays, and people went back to Plautus.
+This is shown by the references to fixed seats for the
+spectators (<i>Poen.</i> 15, <i>Amph.</i> 65, and <i>Capt.</i> 11), which were
+forbidden by a S.C. passed in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 154, when Cassius
+Longinus began to build a theatre of stone&mdash;a law that
+was not repealed till some years later. Cf. <i>Capt.</i> 11,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p019">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Negat hercle ille ultimis accensus. Cedito:<br />
+si non ubi sedeas locus est, est ubi ambules.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>The Acts.</i>&mdash;The plays of Plautus probably went on with
+few breaks, during which the audience were entertained
+with music. Cf. <i>Pseud.</i> 573,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Tibicen vos interea hic delectaverit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Diverbium and Canticum.</i>&mdash;There was no chorus in
+Roman comedy, but part of the play was set to music and
+sung to the flute. Some <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> denote this by C (Canticum);
+while DV (usually placed only over iambic senarii) denotes
+dialogue or soliloquy (Diverbium). Iambic senarii were
+spoken; other metres were sung; but the scenes in septenarii
+stood midway between the dialogue and the <i>canticum</i>.
+Only about a fourth of Plautus&rsquo; verses are in iambic
+senarii, while in Terence, who followed Menander in this
+respect, about half of the verses are in this form.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>The Characters.</i>&mdash;These, with the occasional exception of
+slaves, are un-Roman, and exhibit Greek traits belonging
+to Athens of the time of the New Comedy. Plautus,
+unlike Terence, usually alters the names used in the
+original Greek plays, and substitutes &lsquo;tell-tale names&rsquo;; so
+Parmeno (<span class="greek">παραμένων</span>), &lsquo;the faithful slave&rsquo;; Polemo, &lsquo;the
+soldier&rsquo;; Misargyrides, playfully for the <i>tarpessita</i> (banker).
+The names are often of Latin derivation; thus Saturio, in
+<i>Pers.</i>; Peniculus, in <i>Menaech.</i>; Curculio, in <i>Curc.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p id="p020">
+<i>The Language of Plautus</i>, in spite of the Greek dress
+his plays assume, represents essentially the conversational
+language of his time. Many Greek features in language
+are, however, retained. For words kept in the original
+Greek cf. <span class="greek">παῦσαι</span>, <span class="greek">οἴχεται</span>, <span class="greek">εὖγε</span>, <span class="greek">πάλιν</span>, <span class="greek">ἐπιθήκην</span> (all in the
+<i>Trin.</i>); for Greek words Latinized cf. <i>gynaeceum</i>, <i>parasitus</i>,
+<i>opsonium</i>, <i>dapsilis</i> (= <span class="greek">δαψιλής</span>); for hybrid new formations
+based on Greek cf. <i>thensaurarius</i>, <i>plagipatidae</i>, <i>opsonari</i>,
+<i>pultiphagus</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>References to manners and customs.</i>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) Many references
+to Greek life are retained from the original, especially in
+matters relating to dress, art, and money (Plautus has no
+reference to Roman money). Such are <i>chlamys</i>, <i>petasus</i>,
+<i>pallium</i>, <i>cyathus</i>, <i>cantharus</i>, <i>thermopolium</i>, <i>cerussa</i>, <i>melinum</i>
+(<i>pigmentum</i>), <i>gynaeceum</i>, <i>balineae</i>, <i>ambulacrum</i>, <i>porticus</i>,
+<i>fores Samiae</i> (<i>Menaech.</i> 178), <i>nummus</i> (= drachma or
+didrachma), <i>nummi Philippei</i>, <i>mina</i>, <i>tarpessita</i>, <i>symbolus</i>,
+<i>epistula</i>. Cf. also <i>Pseud.</i> 146-7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ut ne peristromata quidem aeque picta sint Campanica,<br />
+neque Alexandrina beluata tonsilia tappetia.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(<i>b</i>) There are, however, innumerable references to Roman
+public life and manners and customs, even in passages
+manifestly close to the original, although references to
+public events are rare.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>Military expressions.</i>&mdash;These, many of which are
+used metaphorically, were well adapted for an audience
+most of whom had seen service. The following are from
+the <i>Miles</i>: <i>legiones</i>, <i>imperator</i>, <i>peditastelli</i>, <i>rogare</i>, <i>latrocinari</i>,
+<i>stipendium</i>, <i>conscribere</i>, <i>contubernales</i>, <i>eques</i>, <i>pedes</i>, <i>machinas
+parare</i>. Cf. also <i>Pseud.</i> 148,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Dederamque suas provincias&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p021">
+<i>Pseud.</i> 572,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Dum concenturio in corde sycophantias&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Bacch.</i> 709,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;De ducentis nummis primum intendam ballistam in senem:<br />
+ea ballista si pervortam turrim et propugnacula,<br />
+recta porta invadam extemplo in oppidum antiquom et vetus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+All references, however, to the enrolment of mercenaries
+(<i>latrones</i>) are probably Greek and belong to the original
+play.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>Political expressions.</i>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) Names of officials, etc.
+So <i>tresviri</i>, <i>quaestor</i>, <i>aedilis</i>, <i>praetor</i>, <i>senatus</i>. Cf. <i>Trin.</i> 879,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Census quom sum iuratori recte rationem dedi&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Pseud.</i> 1232,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Centuriata habuit capitis comitia.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(<i>b</i>) Law. So <i>advocatus</i> (<i>Mil.</i> 663), <i>festuca</i> (<i>Mil.</i> 961),
+<i>lege agito</i> (<i>Mil.</i> 453). Cf. <i>Menaech.</i> 571-95 (on patrons
+and clients); <i>Trin.</i> 500-4, where Roman terms of <i>stipulatio</i>
+are used.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. <i>Festivals and localities.</i>&mdash;References to these are rarer.
+Examples are: <i>Mil.</i> 691,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Da, mi vir, Calendis meam qui matrem moenerem&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Trin.</i> 545,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Campans genus&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Trin.</i> 609,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Tam modo, inquit Praenestinus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Mil.</i> 359,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Credo ego istoc exemplo tibi esse pereundum extra portam&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+a reference to the Esquiline gate, outside which slaves
+were executed.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p022">
+4. <i>Private life.</i>&mdash;These references are mostly to the
+lower classes, especially slaves, with whom Plautus was
+very familiar. Hence words referring to household duties,
+as <i>promus</i>, <i>suppromus</i>, <i>cella</i>, <i>cellarius</i>, <i>verna</i>, <i>pulmentum</i>
+(from <i>Mil.</i>) To their patois also belong phrases for
+cheating, like <i>emungere</i>, <i>intervortere</i>, <i>sarcinam imponere</i>,
+<i>ducere</i>, <i>ductare</i>, <i>circumducere</i>, and the very large number of
+words relating to punishment, as: <i>furcifer</i>, <i>verbero</i>, <i>supplicium
+virgarum</i>, <i>varius virgis</i>, <i>talos frangere</i>, <i>crux</i>, <i>verberea
+statua</i> (<i>Pseud.</i> 911); <i>gymnasium flagri</i> (<i>Asin.</i> 297). Cf. also
+<i>Epid.</i> 17,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quid ais? perpetuen valuisti?&mdash;Varie.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+From slave life come also terms of abuse like <i>volturius</i>,
+<i>scelus</i>, <i>odium populi</i>, <i>mers mala</i>, <i>lapis</i>, <i>saxum</i>. Note that
+cruelty in the treatment of slaves is peculiarly Roman;
+but their familiarity with their masters and their general
+situation are from Greek life.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Prosody.</i><a href="#fn012" id="ref012">[12]</a>&mdash;Plautine prosody, which reflected the variation
+of quantity found in the popular speech, was not properly
+understood even in Cicero&rsquo;s time.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. Cic. <i>Or.</i> 184, &lsquo;Comicorum senarii propter similitudinem
+sermonis sic saepe sunt abiecti ut non numquam
+vix in eis numerus et versus intellegi possit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The chief points are as follows:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. Final -s is often lost. <i>Rud.</i> 103,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Patér, salveto, ambóque adeo. Et tu sálvŏs sis&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Most.</i> 1124,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quóque modo dominum ádvenientem sérvos ludificátŭs sit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p023">
+2. A mute followed by a liquid does not make the preceding
+vowel long. Thus <i>agris</i>, <i>libros</i>, <i>duplex</i>, are iambi.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. Iambic words may become pyrrhics, on account of
+the stress accent on the first syllable. So <i>dŏmī</i> and <i>căvē</i>
+have the last syllable short.<a href="#fn013" id="ref013">[13]</a> <i>Trin.</i> 868,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Fórĭs pultabo. Ad nóstras aedis híc quidem habet rectám viam&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Stich.</i> 99,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Bónăs ut aequomst fácere facitis, quóm tamen absentís viros.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+4. The stress accent sometimes causes final syllables to
+be dropped, and so to have no effect on quantity, as in
+<i>enim</i>, <i>apud</i>, <i>quidem</i>, <i>parum</i>, <i>soror</i>, <i>caput</i>, <i>amant</i>, <i>habent</i>,
+etc. <i>Trin.</i> 77,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Qui in méntem venĭt tibi ístaec dicta dícere?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Stich.</i> 18 (anapaestic),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Haec rés vitae me, sórŏr, saturant.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+No shortening, however, takes place when the accent goes
+back to the antepenult (cf. <i>continē</i>), nor in words like <i>aetas</i>,
+<i>mores</i>, where the first syllable is long, nor even in <i>abi</i>, <i>tene</i>,
+<i>tace</i>, and the like, when the chief accent is weakened,
+i.e., where these words are pronounced slowly and emphatically
+(especially before a pause). <i>Asin.</i> 543,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Intro abī: nam té quidem edepol níhil est inpudéntius.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+5. This influence of the chief accent affects also combinations
+of two monosyllabic words which make an iambus,
+and combinations like <i>ego illi</i>, <i>age ergo</i>, in which the second
+syllable of the second word is elided. <i>Trin.</i> 354,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Is ĕst inmunis, quoí nihil est qui múnus fungatúr suom&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p024">
+<i>Trin.</i> 133,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Non égo ĭlli argentum rédderem? Non rédderes&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Stich.</i> 237,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Adíbo ad hominem. Quís haĕc est quae advorsúm venit?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+6. The chief accent could also affect a preceding syllable.
+In polysyllables or polysyllabic combinations, when the
+chief accent was on the third syllable, the second syllable,
+if long, could be shortened, provided the first syllable were
+short. <i>Trin.</i> 456,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ferĕntárium esse amícum inventum intéllego&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Stich.</i> 59,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Néc volŭntate id fácere meminit,&rsquo; etc.;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Stich.</i> 179,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Per ănnónam caram díxit me natúm pater.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+7. The following common words have to be separately
+considered, <i>ille</i>, <i>iste</i>, <i>unde</i>, <i>inde</i>, <i>nempe</i>. In the last three
+the liquid was practically dropped; <i>iste</i> was pronounced
+as <i>ste</i>; and in <i>ille</i> only one <i>l</i> was heard, cf. <i>ellum</i>, <i>ellam</i>
+(<i>en-illum</i> = <i>en-ilum</i> = <i>en-lum</i> = <i>ellum</i>). <i>Frustra</i> is a trochee,
+as in <i>Menaech.</i> 692 (at the end of a line), <i>frústră sis</i>; and
+the first <i>i</i> of <i>fieri</i> is long. Cf. <i>Trin.</i> 532,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&rsquo;Si in ópserendo possint interfīeri.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+8. An original long vowel is sometimes kept when later
+authors have it short. Examples are, <i>es</i> (from <i>esse</i>), final
+<i>-or</i>, as <i>exertitor</i>, <i>fateor</i>, <i>ecastor</i>; verbal endings, as <i>eris</i>,
+<i>eget</i>, <i>sit</i>, <i>det</i>, <i>fuat</i>, <i>velit</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+9. <i>Synizesis.</i> <i>Deus</i>, <i>meus</i>, <i>tuos</i>, <i>suos</i> (nom.), <i>eius</i>, <i>ei</i>, <i>eum</i>,
+<i>quoius</i>, <i>quoi</i>, <i>huius</i>, <i>huic</i>, <i>rei</i>, etc., may be monosyllables;
+<i>deorum</i>, <i>meorum</i>, <i>duorum</i>, <i>fuisti</i>, etc., may be dissyllables;
+<i>diutius</i>, <i>exeundum</i>, etc., may be trisyllables. Other examples
+are <i>proin</i>, <i>proinde</i>, <i>praeoptare</i>, <i>dehortor</i>, <i>aibam</i>, <i>quator</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p025">
+10. <i>Hiatus.</i> This occurs, though not frequently, (<i>a</i>) at
+the natural division of the metre. <i>Menaech.</i> 219,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Spórtulam cape átque argentum. | éccos treis nummós habes.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(<i>b</i>) At the natural break in the sense, especially with
+change of speakers. <i>Trin.</i> 432,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+<i>PH.</i> &lsquo;Tempúst adeundi.&rsquo; <i>LE.</i> &lsquo;Éstne hic Philto qui ádvenit?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The hiatus is commonest in monosyllabic words, or words
+ending in a short syllable followed by <i>m</i>, making the first
+syllable of an arsis resolved into two shorts. <i>Trin.</i> 433,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Is hérclest ipsus. Édepol <i>ne ego</i> istúm velim&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Trin.</i> 305,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quí homo cum animo inde áb ineunte aetáte depugnát suo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Views on Plautus.</i>&mdash;For Cicero&rsquo;s high opinion of Plautus
+cf. <i>de Off.</i> i. 104, &lsquo;Duplex omnino est iocandi genus: unum
+inliberale petulans, flagitiosum obscaenum, alterum elegans
+urbanum, ingeniosum facetum. Quo genere non modo
+Plautus noster et Atticorum antiqua comoedia, sed etiam
+philosophorum Socraticorum libri referti sunt.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Horace&rsquo;s unfavourable judgment is well known.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> ii, 1, 170,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Adspice Plautus<br />
+quo pacto partis tutetur amantis ephebi,<br />
+ut patris attenti, lenonis ut insidiosi,<br />
+quantus sit Dossenus edacibus in parasitis,<br />
+quam non adstricto percurrat pulpita socco.<br />
+Gestit enim nummum in loculos demittere, post hoc<br />
+securus cadat an recto stet fabula talo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. <i>A.P.</i> 270-4. Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 99, &lsquo;In comoedia
+maxime claudicamus, licet Varro Musas, Aelii Stilonis
+sententia, Plautino dicat sermone locuturas fuisse, si Latine
+loqui vellent.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h3 id="p026">ENNIUS.<a href="#fn014" id="ref014">[14]</a></h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+Q. Ennius was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 239 at Rudiae in Calabria
+(about nineteen miles south of Brundisium).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Gell. xvii. 21, 43, &lsquo;Consoles secuntur Q. Valerius et
+C. Mamilius, quibus natum esse Q. Ennium poetam M.
+Varro in primo de poetis libro scripsit eumque, cum septimum
+et sexagesimum annum haberet, duodecimum annalem
+scripsisse, idque ipsum Ennium in eodem libro dicere.&rsquo;
+(Cf. Cic. <i>Tusc.</i> i. 3.) Enn. <i>Ann.</i> l. 440,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nos sumus Romani qui fuimus ante Rudini.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Servius, <i>in Aen.</i> vii. 691, &lsquo;(At Messapus equom domitor):
+Ab hoc Ennius dicit se originem ducere.&rsquo; (Enn. <i>Ann.</i> xviii.
+fr. 6.)
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Ennius knew Greek, Latin, and Oscan. Latin he may
+have known as a boy, since the colony of Brundisium was
+founded <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 244; the use of Greek had been widely spread
+in South Italy through the influence of the Greek colonies.<a href="#fn015" id="ref015">[15]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Gell. xvii. 17, 1, &lsquo;Q. Ennius tria corda habere sese dicebat,
+quod loqui Graece et Osce et Latine sciret.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Ennius came to Sardinia during the Second Punic War,
+probably with other Calabrian auxiliaries, but in what year
+is doubtful. Silius Italicus xii. 387 <i>sqq.</i>, says he was
+centurion <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 215, and distinguished himself greatly; but
+his account is quite untrustworthy. In Sardinia he made
+the acquaintance of M. Porcius Cato, then quaestor, who
+induced him to come to Rome <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 204.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p027">
+Nep. <i>Cato</i>, i. 4, &lsquo;Praetor (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 198) provinciam obtinuit
+Sardiniam, ex qua, quaestor superiore tempore ex Africa
+decedens, Q. Ennium poetam deduxerat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The poet&rsquo;s Graecizing influence seems to have led afterwards
+to hostility between him and his patron, but in spite
+of this, Ennius appears to have cherished warm feelings
+towards Cato, and praised his exploits in the <i>Annals</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>Tusc.</i> i. 3, &lsquo;Oratio Catonis, in qua obiecit ut probrum
+M. Nobiliori quod is in provinciam poetas duxisset. Duxerat
+autem consul ille in Aetoliam, ut scimus, Ennium.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>pro Arch.</i> 22, &lsquo;In caelum huius proavus Cato
+tollitur: magnus honos populi Romani rebus adiungitur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So far as is known, Ennius was at Rome <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 204-189.
+He lived plainly, and supported himself by teaching Latin
+and Greek.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1777 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 240, &lsquo;Q. Ennius poeta Tarenti
+[an error] nascitur, qui a Catone quaestore Romam translatus
+habitavit in monte Aventino, parco admodum sumptu
+contentus, et unius ancillae ministerio.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 1, &lsquo;Livium et Ennium, quos utraque
+lingua domi forisque docuisse adnotatum est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+At Rome he was on familiar terms with the elder Scipio
+Africanus and his brother Cornelius Nasica, and their
+circle.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>pro Arch.</i> 22, &lsquo;Carus fuit Africano superiori noster
+Ennius; itaque etiam in sepulchro Scipionum putatur is
+esse constitutus ex marmore.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A pleasant story of his relations with Nasica is given
+by Cic. <i>de Or.</i> ii. 276. Two epigrams on Scipio (Nos. 2
+and 3) are extant.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 189 Ennius accepted an invitation from M.
+Fulvius Nobilior to accompany him in his campaign
+against the Aetolians, and be a witness of his exploits.
+Fulvius&rsquo; victory gave the poet materials for the praetexta
+<i>Ambracia</i>, and Book xv. of the <i>Annals</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>pro Arch.</i> 27, &lsquo;Ille qui cum Aetolis Ennio comite
+bellavit Fulvius.&rsquo; Cf. Cic. <i>Tusc.</i> i. 3 (above).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 184 the poet received the Roman citizenship
+through the son of Fulvius, Q. Nobilior. Hence &lsquo;nos
+sumus Romani, qui fuimus ante Rudini&rsquo; (above). He
+also received a grant of land at Potentia or Pisaurum
+from Fulvius, who was then <i>triumvir coloniae deducendae</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 79, &lsquo;Q. Nobiliorem M. f. ..., qui etiam Q.
+Ennium, qui cum patre eius in Aetolia militaverat, civitate
+donavit, cum triumvir coloniam deduxisset.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Ennius probably spent the greater part of his days, after
+returning from the Aetolian war, at Rome; and during this
+period he was on intimate terms with the comic poet
+Caecilius Statius (see <a href="#p037">p. 37</a>). He was often in indifferent
+circumstances, in spite of the grant of land he had received.
+Ennius died of gout <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 169.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>Cato Maior</i>, 14, &lsquo;Annos septuaginta natus&mdash;tot enim
+vixit Ennius&mdash;ita ferebat duo quae maxima putantur onera,
+paupertatem et senectutem, ut eis paene delectari videretur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p028">
+Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 78, &lsquo;Hoc [C. Sulpicio Gallo] praetore ludos
+Apollini faciente, cum Thyesten fabulam docuisset, Q.
+Marcio Cn. Servilio coss. (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 169) mortem obiit Ennius.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1849 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 168, &lsquo;Ennius poeta septuagenario
+maior articulari morbo periit, sepultusque est in
+Scipionis monumento via Appia intra primum ab urbe
+miliarium. Quidam ossa eius Rudiam ex Ianiculo translata
+affirmant.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p029">
+For his gout cf. Enn. <i>Sat.</i> 1. 8,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Numquam poetor nisi si podager&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Hor. <i>Ep.</i> i. 19, 7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ennius ipse pater numquam nisi potus ad arma<br />
+prosiluit dicenda.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ennius &ldquo;equi fortis et victoris senectuti comparat
+suam&rdquo;&rsquo; (Cic. <i>Cato Maior</i>, 14).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The lines are <i>Ann.</i> xviii. fr. 7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Sic ut fortis <ins class="correction"
+title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'equs'" id="corr1">equus</ins>, spatio qui saepe supremo<br />
+vicit Olimpia, nunc senio confectus quiescit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+His epitaph (<i>Epigr.</i> i) is quoted by Cic. <i>Tusc.</i> i. 34 and
+117,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Aspicite, o cives, senis Enni imaginis formam!<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;hic vestrum panxit maxima facta patrum;<br />
+Nemo me dacrumis decoret nec funera fletu<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;faxit. Cur? Volito vivus per ora virum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+According to Aelius Stilo, Ennius has depicted his own
+character in <i>Ann.</i> vii. fr. 10, wherein he portrays Servilius
+Geminus, the trusty companion of a man of position
+(Gell. xii. 4). For Ennius&rsquo; self-appreciation cf. also his
+epitaph (if by himself) quoted above, and <i>Ann.</i> i. fr. 4,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Latos per populos terrasque poemata nostra<br />
+clara cluebunt.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+In philosophy Ennius was an eclectic. Cf. <i>Trag.</i> 1. 417,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Philosophari est mihi necesse, at paucis: nam omnino haut placet.<br />
+Degustandum ex ea, non in eam ingurgitandum censeo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+His rationalism is seen in <i>Telamo</i>, fr. 1,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ego deum genus esse semper dixi et dicam caelitum,<br />
+sed eos non curare opinor, quid agat humanum genus:<br />
+nam si curent, bene bonis sit, male malis, quod nunc abest&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p030">
+<i>ibid.</i>, fr. 2,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Sed superstitiosi vates inpudentesque arioli,<br />
+aut inertes aut insani aut quibus egestas imperat,<br />
+qui sibi semitam non sapiunt, alteri monstrant viam,<br />
+quibus divitias pollicentur, ab eis drachumam ipsi petunt.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Traces of Epicureanism are seen in <i>Ann.</i> i. fr. 13,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Terraque corpus<br />
+quae dedit ipsa capit neque dispendi facit hilum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Ennius also believed in the Pythagorean theory of
+metempsychosis, and considered that his soul had animated
+the body of a peacock. <i>Ann.</i> i. fr. 14,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Memini me fiere pavom.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Persius 6, 10,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Cor iubet hoc Enni postquam destertuit esse<br />
+Maeonides Quintus pavone e Pythagoreo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. also Lucr. i. 120-6.
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>Tragedies.</i>&mdash;Of those founded on mythology we have
+fragments of twenty-two, eight at least of which were
+borrowed from Euripides. The <i>Auct. ad Herenn.</i> ii. 34,
+quotes nine lines which are a literal translation of the
+beginning of the <i>Medea</i>. The date of the <i>Thyestes</i>,
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 169, is the only one known (Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 78, quoted
+<a href="#p028">p. 28</a>). Besides these, Ennius probably wrote a praetexta
+on &lsquo;the Rape of the Sabines&rsquo;; and his <i>Ambracia</i> is probably
+a praetexta on the capture of the town by M. Fulvius
+Nobilior in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 189 (L. Müller includes it in the <i>Saturae</i>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>Comedies.</i>&mdash;There are very slight fragments of the
+<i>Cupuncula</i> and the <i>Pancratiastes</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. <i>Saturae.</i>&mdash;A miscellaneous collection of poems.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p031">
+Porphyr. ad Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 47, &lsquo;Ennius quattuor libros
+saturarum reliquit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The reference in Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 66,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quam rudis et Graecis intacti carminis auctor,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+is not to Ennius, as some have supposed, but to the
+inventor of <i>satura</i>, whoever he may have been.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Saturae</i> include (<i>a</i>) <i>Scipio</i>, probably a short epic.
+It was mostly written in trochaic septenarii. (<i>b</i>) <i>Epicharmus</i>
+(in trochaic tetrameters), dealing with Pythagoreanism in
+the department of physics. (<i>c</i>) <i>Euhemerus</i> or <i>Sacra Historia</i>,
+modelled on Euhemerus&rsquo; <cite class="greek">ἱερὰ ἀναγραφή</cite>,<a href="#fn016" id="ref016">[16]</a> the doctrines of
+which were applied to the religion of Rome.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>N.D.</i> i. 119, &lsquo;Euhemerus, quem noster et interpretatus
+et secutus est praeter ceteros Ennius.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>d</i>) <i>Protreptica</i> or <i>Praecepta</i>, containing moral maxims.
+(<i>e</i>) <i>Hedyphagetica</i>, &lsquo;On Gastronomy,&rsquo; modelled on a hexameter
+poem by Archestratus (about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 310). (<i>f</i>) <i>Sota</i>,
+so called from <span class="greek">Σωτάδης</span>, after whom the Sotadean metre
+has been named. The book was probably of a lascivious
+nature. (<i>g</i>) Epigrams; the chief of which are mentioned
+above.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. The <i>Annales</i>, an epic poem in hexameters, which
+dealt with the history of Rome down to the beginning
+of the Third Macedonian War. It contained eighteen
+Books; there are about six hundred lines extant. The
+following is a sketch of the contents:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Book i., from Aeneas to the death of Romulus; ii., reigns
+of Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Martius;
+iii., the last three kings; iv.-v., the republic down to the
+war with Pyrrhus; vi., the war with Pyrrhus; vii., First
+Punic War, etc.; viii.-ix., Second Punic War; x.-xii.,
+Second Macedonian War, Cato&rsquo;s consulship; xiii.-xv., War
+with Antiochus, subjugation of the Aetolians; xvi.-xviii.,
+from Istrian War to beginning of Third Macedonian War.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p032">
+<i>Ennius&rsquo; services</i> to Latin literature lay partly in
+introducing the use of the hexameter and other metres from
+Greek in place of the old Saturnian metre. His versification
+is, of course, rough in comparison with that of
+later writers, the principal points being
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(1) Harsh elisions. <i>Ann.</i> l. 199,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Hos et ego in pugna vici victusque sum ab isdem.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(2) Quadrisyllable endings; l. 23,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Est locus Hesperiam quam mortales perhibebant.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(3) Absence of caesura, or abrupt break, l. 188,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Bellipotentes sunt magis quam sapientipotentes&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+l. 511,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Cui par imber et ignis, spiritus et gravis terra.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(4) Omission of <i>-s</i> in scansion, as in the last two
+examples.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(5) Short vowels sometimes lengthened; l. 86,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Omnibus cura viris uter esset induperator.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(6) Prosaic lines (often spondaic); l. 34,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Olli respondit rex Albai longai&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+l. 174,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Cives Romani tunc facti sunt Campani.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(7) Harsh instances of tmesis; l. 586,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Saxo cere comminuit brum&rsquo;:
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p033">
+l. 605,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Massili portabant iuvenes ad litora tanas.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(8) Apocope; l. 451
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;replet te laetificum <i>gau</i>&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+l. 561,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;divom domus altisonum <i>cael</i>&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+l. 563,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;endo suam <i>do</i>&rsquo; (= in suam domum).
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(9) Alliteration used freely; l. 113,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;O Tite tute Tati tibi tanta tiranne tulisti&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+l. 452,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;At tuba terribili sonitu taratantara dixit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(10) Non-elision; l. 275,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Miscent inter sese inimicitiam agitantes.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Influence of Ennius.</i>&mdash;This is seen in Lucretius, and to
+a very great extent in Virgil. For Lucretius&rsquo; appreciation
+of Ennius see Lucr. i. 117-9. Cf. also <i>Ann.</i> l. 150,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Postquam lumina sis oculis bonus Ancus reliquit,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+and Lucr. iii. 1025,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Lumina sis oculis etiam bonus Ancus reliquit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Servius on Verg. <i>Aen.</i> viii. 630-4, says &lsquo;Sane totus hic
+locus Ennianus est.&rsquo; Cf. Servius also on <i>Aen.</i> i. 20;
+xi. 608, etc. A large number of imitations are quoted
+by Macrobius, especially in <i>Saturn.</i> Book vi. Virgil
+modified and refined many of Ennius&rsquo; rough expressions. Thus
+<i>Ann.</i> l. 452 (above quoted), becomes, in Verg. <i>Aen.</i> ix. 503,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;At tuba terribilem sonitum procul aere sonoro<br />
+increpuit&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ann.</i> l. 464,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;irarumque effunde quadrigas&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+becomes in Verg. <i>Aen.</i> xii. 499,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p034">
+<p>
+&lsquo;irarumque omnes effundit habenas.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Views on Ennius.</i>&mdash;A very few of these may be quoted.
+Lucr. i. 117-9,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ennius ut noster cecinit qui primus amoeno<br />
+detulit ex Helicone perenni fronde coronam,<br />
+per gentes Italas hominum quae clara <ins class="correction"
+title="Transcriber's note: quote mark added" id="corrp34">clueret.&rsquo;</ins>
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>Opt. Gen. Or.</i> 2, &lsquo;Licet dicere Ennium summum epicum
+poetam, si cui ita videtur.&rsquo; Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 50,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ennius et sapiens et fortis et alter Homerus,<br />
+ut critici dicunt, leviter curare videtur<br />
+quo promissa cadant et somnia Pythagorea.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Propert. v. 1, 61,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ennius hirsuta cingat sua dicta corona.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Quint. x. 1, 88, &lsquo;Ennium sicut sacros vetustate lucos
+adoremus, in quibus grandia et antiqua robora iam non
+tantam habent speciem quantam religionem.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h3>PACUVIUS.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+M. Pacuvius, the son (not grandson as Jerome states) of
+Ennius&rsquo; sister, was born at Brundisium, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 220, spent
+most of his life at Rome, and died at Tarentum shortly
+before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 130. He was a painter as well as a poet.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1863 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 154, &lsquo;Pacuvius Brundusinus
+tragoediarum scriptor clarus habetur, Ennii poetae ex filia
+nepos, vixitque Romae quoad picturam exercuit ac fabulas
+venditavit, deinde Tarentum transgressus prope nonagenarius
+diem obiit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> xxxv. 19, &lsquo;Celebrata est in foro boario, aede
+Herculis, Pacuvii poetae pictura. Ennii sorore genitus hic
+fuit, clarioremque eam artem Romae fecit gloria scaenae.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p035">
+Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 229, &lsquo;Accius isdem aedilibus ait se et Pacuvium
+docuisse fabulam, cum ille octoginta, ipse triginta annos
+natus esset.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As Accius was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 170, Cicero&rsquo;s words imply that
+Pacuvius was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 220, and produced plays as late
+as <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 140, while from Jerome we may conclude that he
+died shortly before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 130. That Pacuvius was taught by
+his uncle Ennius is shown by Varro, <i>Sat. Menipp.</i> 356
+(Bücheler),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &lsquo;Pacvi<a href="#fn017" id="ref017">[17]</a> discipulus dicor, porro is fuit Enni,<br />
+   Ennius Musarum: Pompilius clueor.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+He was a member of the literary circle of Laelius. Cf.
+Laelius&rsquo; words in Cic. <i>Lael.</i> 24, &lsquo;In hospitis et amici mei
+M. Pacuvi nova fabula.&rsquo; In his last years he was intimate
+with Accius: cf. Gell. xiii. 2, &lsquo;Cum Pacuvius, inquiunt,
+grandi iam aetate et morbo corporis diutino adfectus,
+Tarentum ex urbe Roma concessisset, Accius tunc, haut parvo
+iunior, proficiscens in Asiam, cum in oppidum venisset,
+devertit ad Pacuvium comiterque invitatus plusculisque ab
+eo diebus retentus, tragoediam suam, cui Atreus nomen
+est, desideranti legit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Gell. i. 24, 4, gives Pacuvius&rsquo; epitaph, as written by
+himself, &lsquo;Epigramma Pacuvii verecundissimum et purissimum,
+dignumque eius elegantissima gravitate:
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &ldquo;Adulescens, tam etsi properas, te hoc saxum rogat,<br />
+   ut sese aspicias, deinde quod scriptum est legas.<br />
+   Hic sunt poetae Pacuvi Marci sita<br />
+   ossa. Hoc volebam nescius ne esses. Vale.&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<h4 id="p036">(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>Tragedies.</i>&mdash;Titles of twelve are known, and over
+four hundred lines of fragments are extant. The <i>Antiopa</i>,
+which is the best known, was from Euripides.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>de Fin.</i> i. 4, &lsquo;Quis enim tam inimicus paene nomini
+Romano est, qui Enni Medeam aut Antiopam Pacuvi
+spernat aut reiciat quod se eisdem Euripidis fabulis delectari
+dicat?&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Niptra</i> is from Sophocles. Cic. <i>T.D.</i> ii. 49,
+speaking of ll. 256-8 (Ribbeck), says, &lsquo;Pacuvius melius
+quam Sophocles.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pacuvius also wrote one praetexta, <i>Paulus</i>, doubtless on
+L. Aemilius Paulus, the victor of Pydna.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>Saturae</i> (lost).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. p. 20 <span class="sc">R.</span>, &lsquo;Carmen quod ex variis poematibus
+constabat satura vocabatur, quale scripserunt Pacuvius et
+Ennius.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pacuvius, like Ennius, shows interest in philosophy, and
+attacks superstition; l. 93,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+    &lsquo;Mater est terra: ea parit corpus, animam aeter adiugat&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+ll. 366-75; cf. l. 372,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+    &lsquo;Sunt autem alii philosophi, qui contra fortunam negant<br />
+     esse ullam, sed temeritate res regi omnis autumant&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+ll. 83-5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Nam isti qui linguam avium intellegunt<br />
+     plusque ex alieno iecore sapiunt quam ex suo,<br />
+     magis audiendum quam auscultandum censeo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+For Pacuvius&rsquo; stilted expressions, cf. Quint. i. 5, 67,
+&lsquo;Ceterum etiam ex praepositione et duobus vocabulis dure
+videtur struxisse Pacuvius
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+    &ldquo;Nerei repandirostrum, incurvicervicum pecus&rdquo;&rsquo; (l. 408);
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p037">
+<i>Paulus</i>, l. 5
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+    &lsquo;Qua vix caprigeno generi gradilis gressio est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Some views on Pacuvius may be referred to:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>de Opt. Gen. Or.</i> 1, &lsquo;Itaque licet dicere et Ennium
+summum epicum poetam et Pacuvium tragicum et Caecilium
+fortasse comicum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p037b">
+Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 55,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ambigitur quotiens uter utro sit prior, aufert<br />
+Pacuvius docti<a href="#fn018" id="ref018">[18]</a> famam senis, Accius alti&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Mart. xi. 90, 5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+    &lsquo;Attonitusque legis &ldquo;terrai frugiferai,&rdquo;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Accius et quidquid Pacuviusque vomunt.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. also Gell. vi. 14, 6; Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 258; <i>Or.</i> 36; Quint.
+x. 1, 97; Persius, 1. 76-8; Tac. <i>Dial.</i> 20.
+</p>
+
+<h3>CAECILIUS STATIUS.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1838 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 179, &lsquo;Statius Caecilius
+comoediarum scriptor clarus habetur, natione Insuber
+Gallus et Ennii primum contubernalis. Quidam Mediolanensem
+ferunt. Mortuus est anno post mortem Ennii
+[iii.] et iuxta eum in Ianiculo sepultus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+iii. is an addition by Ritschl, as we know Caecilius to
+have been alive in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 166, when Terence&rsquo;s <i>Andria</i> was
+performed. Some read iv. The date of his death will
+then be <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 166 or 165. Caecilius probably came to Rome
+among the Insubrian prisoners of war at some time between
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 200 and 194. The year of his birth is unknown; he
+is never mentioned, like other old writers, such as Plautus
+and Ennius, as having lived to a great age. If he died
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 166, we might suppose that he was born about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>
+219, as that would make him of military age when the
+Insubrian war began in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 200. His name as a slave
+was Statius. His patron is unknown.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p038">
+Gell. iv. 20, 13, &lsquo;Statius servile nomen fuit ... Caecilius
+quoque ille comoediarum poeta inclutus servus fuit; et
+propterea nomen habuit &ldquo;Statius.&rdquo; Sed postea versum
+est quasi in cognomentum: appellatusque est Caecilius
+Statius.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Elsewhere he is sometimes called merely Caecilius (as
+Cic. <i>de Or.</i> ii. 40), but never Statius alone.
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+Caecilius&rsquo; works were at first unsuccessful; cf. the actor
+Ambivius&rsquo; words in Ter. <i>Hec.</i> prol. ii. 6-7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;In eis quas primum Caecili didici novas,<br />
+partim sum earum exactus, partim vix steti.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Later he examined plays before they were acted, as, <i>e.g.</i>
+Terence&rsquo;s <i>Andria</i> in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 166 (see under &lsquo;Terence,&rsquo; <a href="#p042">p. 42</a>).
+This implies that he occupied a responsible and leading
+position in the guild of poets.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have two hundred and ninety lines of fragments, and
+titles of forty-two comedies, sixteen of which correspond
+with those of plays by Menander. For Caecilius&rsquo;
+imitation of Menander see Gell. ii. 23. Cf., <i>e.g.</i>,
+&lsquo;Caecilii Plocium legebamus; hautquaquam mihi et
+qui aderant displicebat... Sed enim postquam in manus
+Menander venit, a principio statim, di boni, quantum
+stupere atque frigere quantumque mutare a Menandro
+Caecilius visus est!&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p039">
+Among the views on Caecilius are:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> vii. 3, 10, &lsquo;(Caecilius) malus auctor
+Latinitatis est&rsquo; (probably because he was an Insubrian).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>de Opt. Gen. Or.</i> 1, &lsquo;fortasse summus comicus.&rsquo;
+Sedigitus ap. Gell. xv. 24,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Caecilio palmam Statio do mimico.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 59,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;(dicitur) vincere Caecilius gravitate.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The contemporaries of Caecilius include <i>Trabea</i>, <i>Atilius</i>
+(&lsquo;poeta durissimus,&rsquo; Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> xiv. 20, 3), <i>Aquilius</i>
+(possibly the author of the <i>Boeotia</i>, attributed by Varro to
+Plautus, Gell. iii. 3, 4), <i>Licinius Imbrex</i>, <i>Luscius Lanuvinus</i>,
+all writers of <i>palliatae</i>. Our chief information about
+Luscius Lanuvinus is got from the prologues to Terence&rsquo;s
+plays (in all of which, except that of the <i>Hecyra</i>, he is
+attacked), and from Donatus&rsquo; commentary on these passages.
+From Ter. <i>Eun.</i> prol. 9-13, we see that he did
+not tone down his originals to suit a Roman audience,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Idem Menandri Phasma nuper perdidit<br />
+atque in Thensauro scripsit, causam dicere<br />
+prius unde petitur, aurum qua re sit suom,<br />
+quam illic qui petit, unde is sit thensaurus sibi<br />
+aut unde in patrium monumentum pervenerit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Donatus <i>ad loc.</i>, &lsquo;Arguit Terentius quod Luscius contra
+consuetudinem litigantium defensionem ante accusationem
+induxerit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h3>TERENCE.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+Our chief source of information is Suetonius&rsquo; life of
+Terence, preserved by Donatus, who also makes a slight
+addition of his own. Jerome&rsquo;s notice is also based on
+Suetonius.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p040">
+P. Terentius Afer was born in Africa, and was brought in
+early life to Rome, where he was a slave of P. Terentius
+Lucanus, by whom he was educated and subsequently
+manumitted.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>vit. Ter.</i> p. 26 <span class="sc">R.</span>, &lsquo;P. Terentius Afer, Karthagine
+natus, serviit Romae Terentio Lucano senatori, a quo ob
+ingenium et formam non institutus modo liberaliter, sed
+et mature manu missus est. Quidam captum esse existumant:
+quod fieri nullo modo potuisse Fenestella docet,
+cum inter finem secundi Punici belli et initium tertii et
+natus sit et mortuus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Terence&rsquo;s cognomen probably shows that he belonged to
+one of the African peoples subdued by Carthage. It may
+be taken as certain that he was not of Punic birth, and that
+he was brought to Rome in the ordinary course of the
+slave trade.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The date of Terence&rsquo;s birth is not accurately known.
+Sueton. <i>ibid.</i> p. 32, &lsquo;Nondum quintum atque vicesimum
+ingressus annum ... egressus urbe est neque amplius rediit,&rsquo;
+which refers to his voyage to Greece in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 160, would
+make the year of his birth to be <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 185. This, however,
+is an improbable assumption, which rests on the fact that
+Roman scholars attributed to him the age of his intimate
+friend, P. Scipio Africanus the younger. Thus Sueton.
+<i>ibid.</i> p. 27 (of Terence, Scipio, Laelius), says, &lsquo;quamvis et
+Nepos aequales omnes fuisse tradat&rsquo;; with which contrast
+<i>ibid.</i> &lsquo;Fenestella ... contendens utroque maiorem natu
+fuisse.&rsquo; Terence must have been some years older, as
+his first piece, the <i>Andria</i>, was produced <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 166. A
+successful piece like it makes it probable that he had
+then passed his boyhood, and it is likely that he was
+born about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 190. The reproach of his adversary in
+<i>Heaut. Tim.</i> prol. 23,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p041">
+<p>
+&lsquo;<i>repente</i> ad studium hunc se adplicasse <i>musicum</i>,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+means only that he had not made himself prominent by
+previous exercises in play-writing. Further in <i>H.T.</i> prol.
+51-2, he describes his opponents as <i>adulescentuli</i>,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Exemplum statuite in me, ut adulescentuli<br />
+vobis placere studeant potius quam sibi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Terence was on intimate terms with P. Scipio Africanus
+and C. Laelius, who were supposed to have helped him
+in the composition of his plays.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>ibid.</i> p. 30, &lsquo;Non obscura fama est adiutum
+Terentium in scriptis a Laelio et Scipione: eamque ipse
+auxit, numquam nisi leviter se tutari conatus, ut in prologo
+Adelphorum (ll. 15-21),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&ldquo;Nam quod isti dicunt malivoli, homines nobiles<br />
+hunc adiutare adsidueque una scribere,<br />
+quod illi maledictum vehemens esse existumant:<br />
+eam laudem hic ducit maxumam, quom illis placet<br />
+qui vobis univorsis et populo placent,<br />
+quorum opera in bello, in otio, in negotio<br />
+suo quisque tempore usust sine superbia.&rdquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+... Sciebat Laelio et Scipioni non ingratam esse hanc
+opinionem, quae tum magis et usque ad posteriora tempora valuit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. p. 31, also repeats a story that C. Laelius was
+the author of the lines <i>H.T.</i> 723 <i>sqq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. also Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> vii. 3, 10, &lsquo;Terentium, cuius fabellae
+propter elegantiam sermonis putabantur a C. Laelio scribi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Quint. x. 1, 99, &lsquo;Licet Terentii scripta ad Scipionem
+Africanum referantur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The remark that ll. 20-1 of the above extract from the
+<i>Adelph.</i> could not refer to young men like Scipio and
+Laelius was made even in antiquity.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>ibid.</i> p. 31, &lsquo;Santra (a grammarian of the time
+of Augustus) Terentium existimat, si modo in scribendo
+adiutoribus indiguerit, non tam Scipione et Laelio uti
+potuisse, qui tunc adulescentuli fuerint, quam C. Sulpicio
+Gallo, homine docto, quo console Megalensibus ludis
+initium fabularum dandarum fecerit, vel Q. Fabio Labeone
+et M. Popillio, consulari utroque ac poeta. Ideo ipsum
+non iuvenes designare qui se adiuvare dicantur, sed viros
+quorum operam et in bello et in otio et in negotio populus
+sit expertus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In K. Dziatzko&rsquo;s opinion (second edition of <i>Phormio</i>,
+p. 10, Leipzig, 1885), the expression &lsquo;homines nobiles&rsquo;
+points to the literary circle of Terence, including old as
+well as young men, while in what follows he touches upon
+the general reputation of those noble families among the
+Roman people. There is nothing to show that Terence
+got more than general support and advice from his friends.
+That his diction reflects the conversational language of
+the better classes is recognized.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p042">
+In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 166, Terence submitted to Caecilius Statius, the
+examiner of plays, his first work, the <i>Andria</i>, which was
+accepted, and performed in that year.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>ibid.</i> pp. 28-9, &lsquo;Scripsit comoedias sex. Ex
+quibus primam Andriam cum aedilibus daret, iussus ante
+Caecilio recitare ad cenantem cum venisset, dicitur initium
+quidem fabulae, quod erat contemptiore vestitu, in subsellio
+iuxta lectulum residens legisse, post paucos vero
+versus invitatus ut accumberet cenasse una, dein cetera
+percucurrisse non sine magna Caecilii admiratione.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p043">
+From the fact of Caecilius&rsquo; not recognizing him we may
+conclude that Terence had as yet no connexion with the
+guild of poets. This fits in with <i>H.T.</i> prol. 23-4,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &lsquo;Repente ad studium hunc se adplicasse musicum,<br />
+  amicum ingenio fretum, haud natura sua.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Hence probably arose the hatred of other writers, referred
+to as <i>isti</i> (<i>Andr.</i> 15; 21); <i>iniqui</i> (<i>H.T.</i> 27); cf. also <i>Hec.</i>
+prol. ii. 38,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &lsquo;Nolite sinere per vos artem musicam<br />
+  recidere ad paucos.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+As to further connexion between Caecilius and Terence,
+note (1) that they had a common actor Ambivius; (2) that
+Terence sometimes imitates Caecilius. Thus, according to
+Donatus, <i>Andr.</i> 805,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &lsquo;ut quimus, aiunt, quando ut volumus non licet&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+is from Caecilius (l. 177 R.),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &lsquo;vivas ut possis quando nec quis ut velis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. also <i>Adelph.</i> 985,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &lsquo;Quod prolubium? quae istaec subitast largitas?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+and Caecilius (l. 91 R.),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &lsquo;Quod prolubium, quae voluptas, quae te lactat largitas?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Terence died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 159, on his way home from Greece,
+where he had probably gone the year before. The place
+of his death is uncertain. Whatever plays he may have
+written while in Greece are lost.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>ibid.</i> p. 32, &lsquo;Post editas comoedias, nondum
+quintum atque vicesimum ingressus annum, causa vitandae
+opinionis qua videbatur aliena pro suis edere, seu percipiendi
+Graecorum instituta moresque quos non perinde
+exprimeret in scriptis, egressus urbe est neque amplius
+rediit.... Q. Cosconius redeuntem e Graecia perisse in
+mari dicit cum fabulis conversis a Menandro: ceteri mortuum
+esse in Arcadia sive Leucadiae tradunt, Cn. Cornelio
+Dolabella M. Fulvio Nobiliore coss., morbo implicatum
+ex dolore ac taedio amissarum sarcinarum quas in nave
+praemiserat, ac simul fabularum quas novas fecerat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p044">
+Terence&rsquo;s personal appearance is mentioned by Sueton.
+p. 33, who also states that he had property, and left
+a daughter who afterwards married a Roman knight.
+&lsquo;Fuisse dicitur mediocri statura, gracili corpore, colore
+fusco. Reliquit filiam, quae post equiti Romano nupsit:
+item hortulos xx. iugerum via Appia ad Martis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>Andria</i>.&mdash;The particulars of its production are given
+above. Of its success, Donatus in his commentary says,
+&lsquo;Successu adspecta prospero hortamento poetae fuit ad
+alias conscribendas.&rsquo; The didascalia to the <i>Andria</i> is
+lost, but we can restore it as follows from Donatus&rsquo; information,
+&lsquo;Incipit Andria Terenti. Acta ludis Megalensib.
+M. Fulvio M&rsquo; Glabrione aedil. curul. Egit L. Ambivius
+Turpio.<a href="#fn019" id="ref019">[19]</a> Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis paribus tota.
+Graeca Menandru. Facta i. M. Marcello C. Sulpicio cos.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The meaning of the didascalia is as follows: The piece
+was produced at the Megalesian games (held at the beginning
+of April) under the curule aediles mentioned;
+L. Ambivius Turpio undertook the representation; the
+music was composed (as in all Terence&rsquo;s comedies) by
+Flaccus, slave of Claudius, and given throughout <i>tibiis
+paribus</i>.<a href="#fn020" id="ref020">[20]</a> The Greek original was by Menander; it was
+the first work of Terence, and the year of production
+was <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 166.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p045">
+The play is adapted from Menander&rsquo;s <cite class="greek">Ἀνδρία</cite> with
+additions from his <cite class="greek">Περινθία</cite>. <i>Andr.</i> prol. 13,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quae convenere in Andriam ex Perinthia<br />
+fatetur transtulisse atque usum pro suis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The prologue dates from the first performance, though
+Wagner and Ribbeck have inferred from l. 5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nam in prologis scribundis operam abutitur,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+that it was written for a second representation, possibly
+in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 164. There are two endings to the play; the
+shorter one is genuine, the longer spurious, and omitted
+in the best <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>Heauton Timorumenos</i> is from Menander&rsquo;s <cite class="greek">Ἡαυτὸν τιμωρούμενος</cite>,
+&lsquo;self tormentor.&rsquo; The title is referred to in
+l. 146,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;hic me exerceo,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+l. 81,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;An quoiquamst usus homini, se ut cruciet?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+and prol. 5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ex integra Graeca integram comoediam<br />
+hodie sum acturus Heauton timorumenon.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The play was produced at the Ludi Megalenses in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>
+163, as is seen from the didascalia, &lsquo;Incipit Heauton
+Timorumenos Terenti. Acta ludis Megalensib. L. Cornelio
+Lentulo L. Valerio Flacco aedilib. curulib. Egit Ambivius
+Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Acta primum
+tibis inparib., deinde duabus dextris. Graeca Menandru.
+Facta ii. M&rsquo; Iuventio Ti. Sempronio cos.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p046">
+The play is called &lsquo;stataria&rsquo; in prol. 36,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Date potestatem mihi<br />
+  statariam agere ut liceat per silentium.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+3. <i>Eunuchus</i>, &lsquo;contaminated&rsquo; from Menander&rsquo;s <cite class="greek">Εὐνοῦχος</cite>
+and his <cite class="greek">Κόλαξ</cite>. <i>Eun.</i> prol. 19,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Nunc acturi sumus<br />
+  Menandri Eunuchum&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>ibid.</i> 30,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &lsquo;Colax Menandrist: in east parasitus colax<br />
+  et miles gloriosus: eas se non negat<br />
+  personas transtulisse in Eunuchum suam<br />
+  ex Graeca: sed eas ab aliis factas prius<br />
+  Latinas scisse sese, id vero pernegat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The didascalia shows that the piece was produced at the
+Ludi Megalenses in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 161, and from the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> we may
+conclude that it was also acted in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 146. The didascalia
+is, &lsquo;Incipit Eunuchus Terenti. Acta ludis Megalensib.
+L. Postumio Albino L. Cornelio Merula aedilib. curulib.
+Egit Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis
+duabus dextris <i>tota</i>. Graeca Menandru. Facta <i>iii.</i> M.
+Valerio C. Fannio cos.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>vit. Ter.</i> p. 29, speaks of the success of the
+play, &lsquo;Eunuchus quidem his deinceps acta est meruitque
+pretium quantum nulla antea cuiusquam comoedia, octo
+milia nummum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. <i>Phormio</i>, the fifth comedy Terence composed, and
+the fourth completely represented. It was first performed
+at the Ludi Romani, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 161. The Greek original was
+the <cite class="greek">Ἐπιδικαζόμενος</cite> of Apollodorus of Carystus. <i>Phorm.</i>
+prol. 24,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p047">
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Adporto novam<br />
+  Epidicazomenon quam vocant comoediam<br />
+  Graeci, Latini Phormionem nominant,<br />
+  quia primas partis qui aget, is erit Phormio<br />
+  parasitus, per quem res geretur maxume,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The didascalia is, &lsquo;Incipit Terenti Phormio. Acta ludis
+Romanis. L. Postumio Albino L. Cornelio Merula aedilib.
+curulib. Egit L. Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus
+Claudi. Tibis imparib. tota. Graeca Apollodoru Epidicazomenos.
+Facta iiii. C. Fannio M. Valerio cos.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From notices in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> it is probable that a second
+representation took place in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 141 at the Megalesian
+games.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+5. <i>Hecyra</i> is founded on a play by Apollodorus of
+Carystus, doubtless called <cite class="greek">Ἡκυρά</cite>; cf. Donatus&rsquo; preface,
+&lsquo;fabula Apollodori dicitur esse Graeca.&rsquo; The first attempted
+representation was in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 165, at the Ludi Megalenses.
+<i>Hec.</i> prol. i. 1,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Hecyra quom datast<br />
+  nova, ei novom intervenit vitium et calamitas,<br />
+  ut neque spectari neque cognosci potuerit:<br />
+  ita populus studio stupidus in funambulo<br />
+  animum occuparat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The second (unsuccessful) representation was at the ludi
+funerales of Aemilius Paulus in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 160. <i>Hec.</i> prol. ii. 38,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Refero denuo.<br />
+  Primo actu placeo. Quom interea rumor venit<br />
+  datum iri gladiatores, populus convolat,<br />
+  tumultuantur clamant pugnant de loco:<br />
+  ego interea meum non potui tutari locum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. <i>Phorm.</i> prol. 31,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &lsquo;Ne simili utamur fortuna, atque usi sumus<br />
+  quom per tumultum noster grex motus locost.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p048">
+The first prologue was written for the second performance;
+the second (spoken by the actor Ambivius) for the third
+performance, also in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 160. The didascalia is, &lsquo;Incipit
+Terenti Hecyra. Acta ludis Megalensib. S. Iulio Caesare
+Cn. Cornelio Dolabella aedilib. curulib. Egit L. Ambivius
+Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis paribus tota.
+Graeca <i>Apollodoru</i>. Facta v. Cn. Octavio T. Manlio cos.
+Relata est L. Aemelio Paulo ludis funeralib. Non est
+placita. Tertio relata est Q. Fulvio L. Marcio aedilib.
+curulib.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+6. <i>Adelphoe</i> is founded on Menander&rsquo;s <cite class="greek">Ἀδελφοί</cite> with a
+scene added from Diphilus&rsquo; <cite class="greek">Συναποθνῄσκοντες</cite>. <i>Adelph.</i>
+prol. 6,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+Synapothnescontes Diphili comoediast;<br />
+eam Commorientis Plautus fecit fabulam.<br />
+In Graeca adulescens est, qui lenoni eripit<br />
+meretricem in prima fabula: eum Plautus locum<br />
+reliquit integrum; eum hic locum sumpsit sibi<br />
+in Adelphos, verbum de verbo expressum extulit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+That this was the first performance is shown by <i>novam</i> in
+l. 12. The part from Diphilus is Act ii., Scene 1. The
+play was produced in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 160 at the ludi funerales of L.
+Aemilius Paulus, as shown by the didascalia, &lsquo;Incipit
+Terenti Adelphoe. Acta ludis funeralib. L. Aemelio
+Paulo. Fecere Q. Fabius Maxumus P. Cornelius Africanus.
+Egit L. Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi.
+Tibis Sarranis tota. Graeca Menandru. Facta vi. M.
+Cornelio Cethego L. Anicio Gallo cos.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The order given above agrees essentially with the numbers
+denoting the order of production, as given in the
+didascaliae. We must, however, assume that the first
+representation of the <i>Hecyra</i> remained unnoticed, and must
+give the second place (instead of the third) to the <i>H.T.</i>,
+with a section of the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, and the third place to the
+<i>Eun.</i> with Donatus against the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p id="p049">
+<i>Prologues.</i>&mdash;Terence uses these as weapons against his
+enemies, the chief of whom was Luscius Lanuvinus (<a href="#p039">see
+under his name</a>), who attacked Terence for &lsquo;contaminatio&rsquo;
+and for want of spirit in his plays. Cf. <i>H.T.</i> prol. 17,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Multas contaminasse Graecas, dum facit<br />
+paucas Latinas&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Phorm.</i> prol. 5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;tenui esse oratione et scriptura levi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Terence justifies repeatedly his use of &lsquo;contaminatio.&rsquo;
+<i>H.T.</i> prol. 16,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nam quod rumores distulerunt malivoli,<br />
+multas contaminasse Graecas, dum facit<br />
+paucas Latinas: id esse factum hic non negat,<br />
+neque se pigere et deinde facturum autumat.<br />
+Habet bonorum exemplum, quo exemplo sibi<br />
+licere id facere quod illi fecerunt putat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. <i>Andria</i>, prol. 15-21; <i>Adelph.</i> prol. 1-14; <i>Eun.</i> prol.
+31-3. Luscius also attacked him for not adhering more
+closely to his Greek originals, in spite of the fact that,
+generally speaking, Terence translated closely from these.
+Cf. <i>Adelph.</i> prol. 10-11, quoted above. A piece was
+considered to be new if it had not previously been presented
+to a Roman audience. So Terence justifies his
+originality in <i>Adelph.</i> prol. 6-14, or excuses himself on
+the ground that he did not know that a piece had been
+previously used: <i>Eun.</i> prol. 19-34.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Representation of the plays.</i>&mdash;Ambivius was the chief
+actor in all the plays. He is the speaker of the prologue
+of <i>H.T.</i> and of the second prologue of <i>Hec.</i> He calls
+himself <i>senex</i>, cf. <i>H.T.</i> prol. 1. For his popularity cf.
+<i>Hec.</i> prol. ii. 55,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p050">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Mea causa causam accipite et date silentium.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The music was provided by Flaccus, slave of Claudius.
+The composer himself was probably the instrumentalist.
+Four kinds of flutes are mentioned as used by him:
+<i>tibiae pares</i>, <i>impares</i>, <i>sarranae</i>, and <i>duae dextrae</i> (see <a href="#fn020">note
+p. 45</a>). The scene of all the plays is at Athens. There
+is no chorus. The form of the plays is modelled closely
+on Greek. More than half of the verses are iambic
+senarii, the next commonest being troch. septen. and
+iamb. octon. These are used in dialogue. Trochaic
+octonarii are used in lyrical parts, other lyrical metres
+being rare, and the anapaestic metre not being used.
+Short lines are also found in the middle of lyrical pieces,
+or at the end of pieces of dialogue. <i>Andr.</i> 605,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Sed eccum video ipsum: occidi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Single words sometimes stand at the head of a lyrical
+piece, as <i>Phorm.</i> 485 &lsquo;Dorio,&rsquo; which makes a line.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The different kinds of scenes are under the same conditions
+as in Plautus. We have (1) scenes provided
+with music, probably represented in <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> by C (Canticum).
+(2) Scenes sung as recitative, with musical accompaniment,
+in <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> denoted by M.M.C. (perhaps for
+&lsquo;Modi Mutati Cantici&rsquo;). (3) Scenes in senarii, without
+music, in <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> denoted by DV (Diverbium). The division
+into scenes is very ancient; but the division into
+acts, though existing in the time of Terence (cf. <i>Hec.</i>
+prol. 39, &lsquo;primo actu placeo,&rsquo;), is not marked in the
+<span class="bcad">MSS.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Names of characters.</i>&mdash;Terence uses only Greek names,
+which often suit the characters of the persons, and many
+of which are repeated in the different plays. Cf. Pamphilus
+and Glycerium, of the lovers in the <i>Andr.</i>; Chremes
+(<span class="greek">χρέμπτομαι</span>, &lsquo;cough&rsquo;), for an old man, in <i>Andr.</i>,
+<i>H.T.</i>,
+<i>Phorm.</i>; Crito (<span class="greek">κρνίω</span>, &lsquo;judge&rsquo;), for an old man,
+in <i>Andr.</i>,
+<i>Phorm.</i>; Sosia (<span class="greek">σῴζειν</span>), for a freedman, in
+<i>Andr.</i>, <i>Hec.</i>
+So names of slaves as Davus (<span class="greek">Δᾶος</span>, &lsquo;Dacian&rsquo;), Dromo,
+Geta, Syrus, all in several plays.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>The arguments</i>, consisting of twelve senarii each, were
+composed by C. Sulpicius Apollinaris in the second
+century <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Prosody.</i>&mdash;For the variations from later usage, <a href="#p039">see under
+&lsquo;Plautus.&rsquo;</a> Terence is, of course, more regular in this
+respect than Plautus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Views on Terence.</i>&mdash;To those given above the following
+may be added:
+</p>
+
+<p id="p051">
+Gell. vi. 14, 6, &lsquo;Exempla in Latina lingua M. Varro
+esse dicit ubertatis Pacuvium, gracilitatis Lucilium, mediocritatis
+Terentium.&rsquo;<a href="#fn021" id="ref021">[21]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>vit. Ter.</i> p. 34, &lsquo;Cicero in Limone hactenus
+laudat,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&ldquo;Tu quoque, qui solus lecto sermone, Terenti,<br />
+conversum expressumque Latina voce Menandrum<br />
+in medium nobis sedatis motibus effers,<br />
+quiddam come loquens atque omnia dulcia miscens&rdquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+item C. Caesar,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&ldquo;Tu quoque, tu in summis, o dimidiate Menander,<br />
+poneris, et merito, puri sermonis amator.<br />
+Lenibus atque utinam scriptis adiuncta foret vis,<br />
+comica ut aequato virtus polleret honore<br />
+cum Graecis, neve hac despectus parte iaceres.<br />
+Unum hoc maceror ac doleo tibi desse, Terenti.&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<h3 id="p052">EARLY MINOR AUTHORS.</h3>
+
+<h4>(<i>a</i>) POETS:</h4>
+
+<p>
+The poetical contemporaries of Terence were:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>Titinius</i>, the first writer of <i>togatae</i>; fifteen titles and
+about one hundred and eighty lines of fragments are
+extant. He probably began to write after Terence&rsquo;s death.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>Sextus Turpilius.</i>&mdash;We have titles of thirteen of his
+<i>palliatae</i>, six of which are probably from Menander. He
+died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 103, probably about eighty.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1914 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 103, &lsquo;Turpilius comicus senex
+admodum Sinuessae moritur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. <i>Iuventius</i>, <i>Valerius</i>, and <i>Vatronius</i> wrote <i>palliatae</i>;
+<i>P. Licinius Tegula</i> a hymn to Juno, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 200 (Livy xxxi.
+12); <i>Q. Fabius Labeo</i> (cos. <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 183) and <i>M. Popillius
+Laenas</i> (cos. 173) were poets.
+</p>
+
+<h4>(<i>b</i>) PROSE WRITERS:</h4>
+
+<p>
+<i>Fabius Pictor</i> was the earliest Roman historian: Liv.
+i. 44, 2, &lsquo;scriptorum antiquissimus Fabius Pictor.&rsquo; A
+relative of Q. Fabius Maximus Cunctator (Plut. <i>Fab. Max.</i>
+18), he took part in the war with the Cisalpine Gauls,
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 225 (Eutropius, iii. 5), and after the battle of Cannae
+was sent by the Senate on a mission to the oracle of
+Delphi (Liv. xxii. 57, 5).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Fabius wrote in Greek an account of the Second Punic
+War, prefixed to which was a sketch of the history of Rome
+from its foundation: Liv. xxii. 7, 4, &lsquo;Fabium aequalem
+temporibus huiusce belli potissimum auctorem habui.&rsquo;
+There was also a Latin version, made either by Fabius
+Pictor or by a namesake (Gell. v. 4, 3).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p053">
+The same subject was treated by <i>L. Cincius Alimentus</i>,
+who was praetor <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 210 (Liv. xxvi. 23, i), and took an
+active part in the war in Sicily during the next two years
+(Liv. xxvii. 7, 12, and throughout that Book). He was
+taken prisoner by Hannibal, and conversed with him:
+Liv. xxi. 38, 3, &lsquo;L. Cincius Alimentus, qui captum se ab
+Hannibale scribit, maxime auctor moveret ...&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Both Fabius and Cincius wrote in Greek, and both
+gave a cursory view of the earlier history: Dion. Hal. i. 6,
+<span class="greek">῾Ρωμαίων ὅσοι τὰ παλαιὰ ἔργα τῆς πόλεως Ἑλληνικῇ διαλέκτῳ
+συνέγραψαν, ὧν εἰσι πρεσβύτατοι Κόϊντός τε Φάβιος
+καὶ Λεύκιος Κίγκιος ... τούτων δὲ τῶν ἀνδρῶν ἑκατέρος οἷς
+μὲν αὐτὸς ἕργοις παρεγένετο, διὰ τὴν ἐμπειρίαν ἀκριβῶς
+ἀνέγραψε, τὰ δὲ ἀρχαῖα τὰ μετὰ τὴν κτίσιν τῆς πόλεως
+γενόμενα κεφαλαιωδῶς ἐπέδραμεν.</span>
+</p>
+
+<h3>CATO.</h3>
+
+<p>
+M. Porcius Cato, the Censor (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 234-149), born at
+Tusculum, of a yeoman stock, was one of the most prominent
+figures of his time. For the best account of his
+military and political career, including his advancement to
+the Consulship (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 195) and Censorship (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 184), and
+his economic and social reforms, the reader may be referred
+to Mommsen, <i>R.H.</i>, vol. ii. <i>passim</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cato was the founder of Latin prose, and the chief
+opponent of the exaggerated Hellenism that was finding
+its way into Roman life and literature (cf. his own words
+quoted by Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> xxix. 14, &lsquo;Quandoque ista gens
+suas litteras dabit, omnia corrumpet&rsquo;); but even he shows
+traces of Greek influence. Cato is represented now only
+by (1) his treatise <i>De Agri Cultura</i>, the earliest extant
+work in Latin prose, which, besides giving instruction for
+the husbandman, deals with housekeeping, cookery, and
+medicine.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p054">
+(2) His great work was the <i>Origines</i>, the earliest history
+in Latin prose, the contents of which are enumerated by
+Nepos, <i>Cato</i>, 3, 3, &lsquo;Senex historias scribere instituit. Earum
+sunt libri vii. Primus continet res gestas regum populi
+Romani, secundus et tertius unde quaeque civitas orta sit
+Italica (ob quam rem omnes Origines videtur appellasse);
+in quarto autem bellum Poenicum est primum, in quinto
+secundum. Atque haec omnia capitulatim sunt dicta.
+Reliqua quoque bella pari modo persecutus est usque ad
+praeturam Ser. Galbae, qui diripuit Lusitanos (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 151).
+Atque horum bellorum duces non nominavit, sed sine
+nominibus res notavit.<a href="#fn022" id="ref022">[22]</a> In eisdem exposuit quae in Italia
+Hispaniisque aut fierent aut viderentur admiranda: in
+quibus multa industria et diligentia comparet, nulla doctrina.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+An attempt has been made by A. Bormann (<i>M. Porcii
+Catonis Originum Libri vii.</i>, Brandenburg 1858, p. 38) to
+prove that the principle of division was geographical, and
+that history only came in incidentally in connexion with
+the reduction of provinces; but as Nepos was writing to
+an eminent authority on antiquities, his account is likely
+to be right. The period between the kings and the Punic
+Wars was probably omitted by Cato through want of
+authorities.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The title <i>Origines</i> fails to indicate the scope of the work,
+which was chiefly occupied with general history; it was
+probably taken, as Nepos suggests, from the contents of
+Books ii. and iii., which seem to have been the most
+novel and valuable part of the undertaking. (Jordan, however,
+takes &lsquo;Origines&rsquo; as equivalent, not to the Greek <span class="greek">κτίσεις</span>,
+but to &lsquo;res Romanae ab origine repetitae.&rsquo;)
+</p>
+
+<p id="p055">
+(3) <i>Praecepta ad Filium</i> was the general title of a didactic
+work containing rules for medicine, husbandry, and rhetoric
+(<i>e.g.</i> &lsquo;Rem tene, verba sequentur&rsquo;). Cf. Quint. iii. 1, 19,
+&lsquo;Romanorum primus, quantum ego quidem sciam, condidit
+aliqua in hanc materiam (rhetoric) M. Cato ille Censorius.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(4) <i>Speeches.</i>&mdash;Fragments of eighty speeches, out of about
+two hundred and thirty, are collected by Jordan. They are
+almost equally divided between forensic and deliberative
+speeches: none is known of earlier date than <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 195.
+Cato incorporated some of them in the <i>Origines</i>, <i>e.g.</i> For
+the Rhodians (Gell. vi. 3, 7), and Against Galba (Cic.
+<i>Brut.</i> 89).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Works on civil law are attributed to Cato, and we hear
+also of <span class="greek">ἀποφθέγματα</span> (Cic. <i>de Off.</i> i. 104), <i>Liber de re militari</i>
+(Gell. vi. 4, 5), and <i>Carmen de moribus</i> (Gell. xi. 2, 2).
+</p>
+
+<h3>ACCIUS.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+The forms Accius and Attius are both found on inscriptions,
+<i>e.g.</i> from Pisaurum; but in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> of Nonius
+Marcellus, who often quotes Accius, and who is careful
+about his forms, &lsquo;Accius&rsquo; is always found, and generally
+in <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> of other authors.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+L. Accius was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 170 at Pisaurum (of. Pliny, <i>N.H.</i>
+vii. 128, &lsquo;Attio Pisaurense&rsquo;).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1878 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 139, &lsquo;L. Accius tragoediarum
+scriptor clarus habetur, natus Mancino et Serrano
+coss. (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 170) parentibus libertinis et seni iam Pacuvio
+Tarenti sua scripta recitavit. A quo et fundus Accianus
+iuxta Pisaurum dicitur, quia illuc inter colonos fuerat ex
+urbe deductus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This last statement must refer to Accius&rsquo; father, as the
+colony of Pisaurum was founded <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 184. Jerome&rsquo;s
+chronology is corroborated by
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 229, &lsquo;Accius isdem aedilibus (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 140) ait
+se et Pacuvium docuisse fabulam, cum ille lxxx., ipse xxx.
+annos natus esset.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p056">
+Accius&rsquo; friendship and influence with leading men is
+shown by Cic. <i>pro Arch.</i> 27, &lsquo;D. Brutus, summus vir et
+imperator (cons. <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 138) Acci amicissimi sui carminibus
+templorum ac monumentorum aditus exornavit suorum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Auct. ad Herenn.</i> i. 24, &lsquo;Mimus quidam nominatim
+Accium poetam compellavit in scaena. Cum eo Accius
+iniuriarum egit&rsquo;; ii. 19, &lsquo;P. Mucius eum qui L. Accium
+poetam nominaverat condemnavit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The above shows his self-consciousness; cf. also Pliny
+<i>N.H.</i> xxxiv. 19, &lsquo;Notatum ab auctoribus et L. Accium
+poetam in Camenarum aede maxima forma statuam sibi
+posuisse, cum brevis admodum fuisset.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For Accius&rsquo; friendship with Pacuvius, see <a href="#p035">p. 35</a>. Accius
+must have lived to about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 86, as Cicero (born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 106)
+talked with him on literary subjects.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 107, &lsquo;D. Brutus M. filius, ut ex familiari eius
+L. Accio poeta sum audire solitus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His <i>Tereus</i> was produced in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 104, as is seen from
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>Phil.</i> i. 36 (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44), &lsquo;Nisi forte Accio tum plaudi
+et sexagesimo post anno palmam dari, non Bruto, putabatis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h4 id="p057">(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>Tragedies.</i>&mdash;Titles of about forty-five plays, and about
+seven hundred lines of fragments are extant. The fragments
+show imitation of Aeschylus as well as of Sophocles and
+Euripides.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>Praetextae.</i>&mdash;<i>Aeneadae</i> or <i>Decius</i>, and <i>Brutus</i>. <i>Decius</i>
+treated of the self-sacrifice of P. Decius Mus at Sentinum,
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 295. Cf. l. 15, &lsquo;Patrio exemplo et me dicabo atque
+animam devoro (= devovero) hostibus.&rsquo; <i>Brutus</i> treated
+of the overthrow of Tarquinius Superbus and the establishment
+of the consulship.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. <i>Didascalica</i>, in at least nine books, a history of Greek
+and Latin poetry, with special attention to the drama. The
+few fragments are mostly in Sotadean metre. Cf. Gell. vi.
+9, 16, &lsquo;L. Accius in Sotadicorum libro I.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. <i>Pragmaticon libri</i> (in trochaic tetrameters) on literary
+subjects.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+5. <i>Praxidica</i>, on agriculture. Two lines on ploughing
+are quoted from &lsquo;liber parergon,&rsquo; i., but it is not certain
+whether this is an independent work.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+6. <i>Annales</i>, in hexameters.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+7. A work in Saturnians.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Accius gave attention to points of language. Cf. Quint.
+i. 7, 14, &lsquo;Semivocales geminare diu non fuit usitatissimi
+moris, atque e contrario usque ad Accium et ultra porrectas
+syllabas geminis, ut dixi, vocalibus scripserunt.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Accius, like Ennius and Pacuvius, attacks superstition.
+Cf. ll. 169-70,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &lsquo;Nil credo auguribus, qui auris verbis divitant<br />
+  alienas, suas ut auro locupletent domos.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p058">
+That Virgil imitated Accius is mentioned by Macrob.
+vi. 1, 58, who compares, <i>e.g.</i>, l. 156,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &lsquo;Virtuti sis par, dispar fortunis patris,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+and <i>Aen.</i> xii. 435-6,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &lsquo;Disce, puer, virtutem ex me verumque laborem,<br />
+  fortunam ex aliis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Views on Accius.</i>&mdash;A few of these may be referred to.
+Cic. <i>pro Sest.</i> 120, &lsquo;Summi poetae ingenium.&rsquo;
+Ovid. <i>Am.</i> i. 15, 19,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &lsquo;Animosi Accius oris.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 97; Tac. <i>Dial.</i> 20; and Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii.
+1, 55 (see &lsquo;Pacuvius,&rsquo; <a href="#p037b">p. 37</a>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of the prose writers contemporary with Accius, the most
+important were the annalists <i>L. Cassius Hemina</i> and <i>L.
+Calpurnius Piso Frugi</i>; the orators <i>Ti.</i> and <i>C. Graccus</i>,
+and their opponent <i>C. Fannius</i>, and <i>M. Aemilius Scaurus</i>,
+the <i>princeps senatus</i>, who also wrote an autobiography (Cic.
+<i>Brut.</i> 112). <i>L. Coelius Antipater</i> wrote a history of the
+Second Punic War in seven Books, making use of Silenus,
+whose account was favourable to the Carthaginians (Cic.
+<i>de Div.</i> i. 49). His strength lay in style (Cic. <i>de Or.</i> ii. 53);
+though painstaking, he was apt to exaggerate (Liv. xxvii.
+27, 12; xxix, 25, 3).
+</p>
+
+<h3>LUCILIUS.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+C. Lucilius&rsquo; dates are given by Jerome as <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 148-103.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+yr. Abr. 1869 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 148, &lsquo;Lucilius poeta nascitur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+yr. Abr. 1914 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 103, &lsquo;C. Lucilius satirarum scriptor
+Neapoli moritur, ac publico funere effertur anno aetatis xlvi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+If Jerome&rsquo;s notice were correct, Lucilius would have been
+only thirteen years old at the time of the Numantine War
+(<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 134) in which he served.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p059">
+Velleius ii. 9, 4, &lsquo;Celebre et Lucili nomen fuit qui sub
+P. Africano Numantino bello eques militaverat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is probable that Jerome has confused the consuls of
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 180, A. Postumius Albinus and C. Calpurnius Piso,
+with those of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 148, Sp. Postumius Albinus and L.
+Calpurnius Piso, and that Lucilius was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 180. No
+reference is found in Lucilius to any event after <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 103,
+so that Jerome may be right in giving that as the year of
+his death. In Hor. <i>Sat.</i> ii. 1, 34, Lucilius is called <i>senex</i>,
+which shows that he lived a long life.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Lucilius was born at Suessa in Campania. He was an
+<i>eques</i>, and was the great-uncle of Pompey. Juv. 1, 19,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Cur tamen hoc potius libeat decurrere campo,<br />
+per quem magnus equos Auruncae flexit alumnus,<br />
+si vacat ac placidi rationem admittitis, edam.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Porphyr. ad Hor. <i>Sat.</i> ii. 1, 75, &lsquo;&ldquo;infra Lucili censum&rdquo;:
+Constat enim Lucilium avonculum maiorem Pompei fuisse:
+etenim avia Pompei Lucilii soror fuerat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Velleius ii. 29, 2, &lsquo;Fuit [Cn. Pompeius] genitus matre
+Lucilia, stirpis senatoriae.&rsquo; This Lucilia was Lucilius&rsquo; niece,
+and her father, Lucilius&rsquo; brother, was a senator.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Lucilius was very intimate with Africanus the younger
+and Laelius, and celebrated them in his works. Hor. <i>Sat.</i>
+ii. 1, 71,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quin ubi se a volgo et scaena in secreta remorant<br />
+virtus Scipiadae et mitis sapientia Laeli,<br />
+nugari cum illo et discincti ludere, donec<br />
+decoqueretur olus, soliti.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Schol. Cruq. <i>ad loc.</i>, &lsquo;Scipio Africanus et Laelius feruntur
+tam fuisse familiares et amici Lucilio, ut quodam tempore
+Laelio circum lectos triclinii fugienti Lucilius superveniens
+eum obtorta mappa quasi feriturus sequeretur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p060">
+Hor. <i>Sat.</i> ii. 1, 16,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Attamen et iustum poteras et scribere fortem,<br />
+Scipiadam ut sapiens Lucilius.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Lucil. <i>Sat.</i> xxx. 5 (of Scipio),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Sicubi ad auris<br />
+fama tuam pugnam clarans adlata dicasset.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Such intimate association could not have existed if
+Lucilius had been, as Jerome implies, only nineteen at
+Scipio&rsquo;s death in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 129.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There are many references to Lucilius&rsquo; attacks on public
+men. Cf. Hor. <i>Sat.</i> ii. 1, 62,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Quid? cum est Lucilius ausus<br />
+primus in hunc operis componere carmina morem,<br />
+detrahere et pellem, nitidus qua quisque per ora<br />
+cederet, introrsum turpis, num Laelius et qui<br />
+duxit ab oppressa meritum Carthagine nomen<br />
+ingenio offensi aut laeso doluere Metello<br />
+famosisque Lupo cooperto versibus? atqui<br />
+primores populi arripuit populumque tributim,<br />
+scilicet uni aequus virtuti atque eius amicis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Lucil. lib. incert., ll. 63-4, quoted by Cic. <i>N.D.</i> i. 64,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &lsquo;&ldquo;Tubulus si Lucius umquam,<br />
+si Lupus aut Carbo, Neptuni filius,&rdquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+ut ait Lucilius, putasset esse deos, tam periurus aut tam
+impurus fuisset?&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pers. 1, 114,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Secuit Lucilius urbem,<br />
+te Lupe, te Muci, et genuinum fregit in illis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Juv. 1, 165,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ense velut stricto quotiens Lucilius ardens<br />
+infremuit, rubet auditor cui frigida mens est<br />
+criminibus, tacita sudant praecordia culpa.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p061">
+<i>The Saturae.</i>&mdash;There were thirty Books altogether, by
+whom arranged is unknown. Fragments are extant from
+all the Books, except xxi. and xxiv. (and possibly xxiii. and
+xxv.). Books i.-xx. and xxx. were in hexameters; xxii. in
+elegiacs; xxvi.-xxvii. in trochaic septenarii; and the next
+two in trochaic septenarii, iambic senarii, and hexameters.
+Books xxvi.-xxix. were published first, then Book xxx. In
+Book xxvi. Lucilius states his views of life, his poetic
+principles, what led him to write satire, etc. Cf. l. 3,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nunc itidem populum aucupamur istis cum scriptoribus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Lines 7-20 contain a conversation between Lucilius and a
+friend who wishes him to engage in public life. Cf. ll. 16-7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Publicanu&rsquo; vero ut Asiae fiam scripturarius<br />
+pro Lucilio, id ego nolo, et uno hoc non muto omnia.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Two divisions of the work may be recognized&mdash;(i) Books
+i.-xxi. (to which xxii.-xxv. may be an addition) in hexameters;
+these Books are referred to as one collection by Varro, <i>L.L.</i>
+v. 17. (2) Books xxvi.-xxx. in various metres.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Dates of Composition.</i>&mdash;Hor. <i>Sat.</i> ii. 1, 62-70 (quoted
+above), shows that Lucilius attacked Lupus and Metellus
+while Scipio and Laelius were still alive, <i>i.e.</i> not after
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 129; xxvi., ll. 88-9, in which Lucilius sneers at marriage,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Homines ipsi hanc sibi molestiam ultro atque aerumnam offerunt.<br />
+Ducunt uxores, producunt, quibus haec faveant, liberos,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+may have special reference to the attempts of Metellus in
+his censorship (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 131) to encourage it. If this is so, Books
+xxvi.-xxx. were composed about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 131-129. Book i. was
+composed after the death of Carneades in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 129 (cf. l. 12,
+&lsquo;nec si Carneaden ipsum Orcu&rsquo; remittat&rsquo;), and probably soon
+after the death of Lupus, on whom the gods are represented
+as sitting in judgment.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p062">
+Serv. ad <i>Aen.</i> x. 104, &lsquo;Totus hic locus de primo Lucili
+translatus est libro; ubi inducuntur di habere concilium et
+agere primo de interitu Lupi cuiusdam ducis in re publica,
+postea sententias dicere.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 126 Lucilius was probably, along with other
+<i>peregrini</i>, banished under the law of M. Iunius Pennus,
+trib. pl. in that year. He probably returned in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 124,
+when the law was repealed by C. Graccus. Bk. xi. was
+composed after the condemnation of L. Opimius in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>
+110. Cf. ll. 19-21,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quintus Opimius ille, Iugurtini pater huius,<br />
+et formosus homo fuit et famosus, utrumque<br />
+primo adulescens, posterius dat rectiu&rsquo; sese.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Subjects of the Satires.</i>&mdash;These were very varied. Besides
+personal satire, we have (1) ethical criticism, as ridicule
+of philosophers and attacks on luxury.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Lib. incert. ll. 134-5 (imitated by Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 3, 132
+<i>sqq.</i>; <i>Ep.</i> i. 1, 106-8),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nondum etiam, qui haec omnia habebit,<br />
+formonsus, dives, liber, rex solu&rsquo; feretur?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+iv. 4-6 (cf. Hor. <i>Sat.</i> ii. 2, 46-8),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;O Publi, o gurges, Galloni: es homo miser, inquit,<br />
+cenasti in vita numquam bene, cum omnia in ista<br />
+consumis squilla atque acupensere cum in decimano.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(2) Travels, as the account of the journey to the Sicilian
+Strait, imitated by Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 5.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(3) Literary criticism. Lucilius jeers at Ennius&rsquo; line,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Sparsis hastis longis campus splendet et horret,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+according to Servius ad <i>Aen.</i> xi. 601, &lsquo;Est versus Ennianus
+vituperatus a Lucilio dicente per irrisionem eum debuisse
+dicere &ldquo;horret et alget.&rdquo;&rsquo; Euripides is criticised in xxix.,
+frag. 9. Points of orthography and the like are also treated
+of, cf. ix. 11,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p063">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Iam puerei venere. E postremum facito atque i,<br />
+ut pueri plures fiant. I si faci&rsquo; solum,<br />
+pupilli, pueri, Lucili hoc uniu&rsquo; fiet.&rsquo;<a href="#fn023" id="ref023">[23]</a>
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Some other points may be noted:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(1) He addresses a large circle of readers, xxix. 99,
+</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Persium non curo legere: Laelium Decumum volo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+Cf. Cic. <i>de Or.</i> ii. 25, &lsquo;Hic [Persius] fuit enim, ut noramus,<br />
+omnium fere nostrorum hominum doctissimus: &ldquo;Laelium<br />
+Decimum volo,&rdquo; quem cognovimus virum bonum et non<br />
+inlitteratum sed nihil ad Persium.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(2) For his self-esteem of. xxvi. 16, (quoted above).
+So xxx. 1,
+</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quoi sua conmittunt mortali claustra Camenae.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(3) He often mixes Greek words with Latin. Cf. v. 12,
+</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Hoc nolueris et debueris te<br />
+si minu&rsquo; delectat, quod <span class="greek">τεχνίον</span> Eisocratiumst<br />
+<span class="greek">ληρῶδες</span>que totum ac <span class="greek">συμμειρακιῶδες</span>,<br />
+non operam perdo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(4) For his carelessness as to style of. Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 4, 9,
+</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;In hora saepe ducentos,<br />
+ut magnum, versus dictabat, stans pede in uno:<br />
+cum flueret lutulentus, erat quod tollere velles;<br />
+garrulus atque piger scribendi ferre laborem,<br />
+scribendi recte; nam ut multum, nil moror.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+For Lucilius&rsquo; influence on other poets, see above; also
+under &lsquo;Persius,&rsquo; <a href="#p262">p. 262</a>. For Horace&rsquo;s views on Lucilius, see
+above; also <i>Sat.</i> i. 4; i. 10; ii. 1.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p064">
+Cf. Quint. x. 1, 93, &lsquo;Satira quidem tota nostra est, in
+qua primus insignem laudem adeptus Lucilius quosdam ita
+deditos sibi adhuc habet amatores, ut eum non eiusdem
+modo operis auctoribus sed omnibus poetis praeferre non
+dubitent. Ego quantum ab illis tantum ab Horatio dissentio,
+qui Lucilium &ldquo;fluere lutulentum&rdquo; et &ldquo;esse aliquid,
+quod tollere possis&rdquo; putat. Nam eruditio in eo mira et
+libertas atque inde acerbitas et abundantia salis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h3>ATTA AND AFRANIUS.</h3>
+
+<p>
+Writers of <i>togatae</i> were Atta and Afranius.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. p. 15 <span class="sc">R.</span>, &lsquo;Togatas tabernarias in scaenam dataverunt
+praecipue duo, L. Afranius et T. Quintius.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+T. Quintius Atta died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 77, according to Jerome yr.
+Abr. 1940, &lsquo;T. Quintius Atta, scriptor togatarum, Romae
+moritur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Eleven titles and about twenty lines of fragments are
+extant. Horace refers to Atta in <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 79 <i>sqq.</i>,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Recte necne crocum floresque perambulet Attae<br />
+fabula si dubitem, clament periisse pudorem<br />
+cuncti paene patres, ea cum reprendere coner<br />
+quae gravis Aesopus, quae doctus Roscius egit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+L. Afranius was probably born between <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 154 and 144.
+He was the chief writer of <i>togatae</i> (Quint. x. 1, 100, &lsquo;Togatis
+excellit Afranius&rsquo;), and also an orator.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 167, &lsquo;L. Afranius poeta, homo perargutus, in
+fabulis quidem etiam ut scitis disertus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There are extant forty-two titles (with Latin names) and
+more than four hundred lines of fragments. The plays
+exhibit Roman surroundings, and describe low life, especially
+of the provincial towns. Cf. the title <i>Brundusinae</i>,
+also l. 136,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ubi hice Moschis, quaeso, habet, meretrix Neapolitis?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p065">
+Afranius imitated Menander, and probably Terence.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 57,
+</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Dicitur Afrani toga convenisse Menandro.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Macrob. <i>Saturn.</i> vi. 1, 4, &lsquo;Afranius togatarum scriptor in
+ea togata, quae Compitalia inscribitur, non inverecunde
+respondens arguentibus, quod plura sumpsisset a Menandro,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&ldquo;Fateor&rdquo; inquit &ldquo;sumpsi non ab illo modo,<br />
+sed ut quisque habuit conveniret quod mihi,<br />
+quod me non posse melius facere credidi<br />
+etiam a Latino&rdquo;&rsquo; (ll. 25-8).
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>vit. Ter.</i> p. 33 <span class="sc">R.</span>, &lsquo;Terentium Afranius omnibus
+comicis praefert.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h3>MINOR POETS:</h3>
+
+<p>
+(<i>a</i>) The poets immediately after Afranius include
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(1) Hostius.&mdash;He was perhaps the grandfather of Cynthia
+(Hostia), Propertius&rsquo; mistress. Prop. iv. 20, 7,
+</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Est tibi forma potens; sunt castae Palladis artes,<br />
+splendidaque a docto fama refulget avo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+There are nine lines extant from his epic poem <i>Bellum
+Histricum</i>, which was probably on the war of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 125.
+Frag. 5 (Bährens),
+</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Non si mihi linguae<br />
+centum atque ora sient totidem vocesque liquatae,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+is from <i>Il.</i> ii. 489, and is imitated by Verg. <i>Aen.</i> vi. 625
+(as noticed by Macrob. <i>Saturn.</i> vi. 3, 6).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(2) Writers of epigrams&mdash;Pompilius, Valerius Aedituus,
+Porcius Licinus, and Q. Lutatius Catulus (cons. <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 102).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(3) Q. Valerius Soranus wrote verse on philology and
+archaeology.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p066">
+(4) Volcacius Sedigitus wrote verse on literary history
+up to the time of the <i>fabula palliata</i>. He wrote <i>indices</i>
+of Plautus (Gell. iii. 3, 1), and a work <i>De Poetis</i>, which
+included his canon on the comic poets (Gell. xv. 24).
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Caecilio palmam Statio do mimico.<br />
+Plautus secundus facile exuperat ceteros.<br />
+Dein Naevius, qui fervet, pretio in tertiost.<br />
+Si erit, quod quarto detur, dabitur Licinio.<br />
+Post insequi Licinium facio Atilium.<br />
+In sexto consequetur hos Terentius,<br />
+Turpilius septimum, Trabea octavum optinet,<br />
+nono loco esse facile facio Luscium.<br />
+Decimum addo causa antiquitatis Ennium.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(<i>b</i>) The following poets wrote during Cicero&rsquo;s youth, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>
+106-84:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(1) Cn. Matius, author of <i>Mimiambi</i>, and a translation
+of the <i>Iliad</i>. An example of the last is Frag. I (Bährens) =
+<i>Il.</i> i. 56,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Corpora Graiorum maerebat mandier igni.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(2) Laevius, author of <i>Erotopaegnia</i>, of a lyrical character.
+Porphyr. ad Hor. <i>Od.</i> iii. 1, 2, &lsquo;Romanis utique
+non prius audita, quamvis Laevius lyrica ante Horatium
+scripserit; sed videntur illa non Graecorum lege ad lyricum
+characterem exacta.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+About sixty lines are extant. Gell. xix. 7 speaks of
+Laevius&rsquo; curious vocabulary, and instances <i>oblittera</i> for
+<i>oblitterata</i>; <i>trisaeclisenex</i>, <i>dulciorelocus</i>, etc.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(3) A. Furius of Antium. Only six lines are extant.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(4) C. Iulius Caesar Strabo, a tragic writer and orator.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(5) Sueius. His works are (<i>a</i>) <i>Moretum</i>, an idyll; (<i>b</i>)
+<i>Pulli</i>, on the breeding of fowls; (<i>c</i>) <i>Nidus</i>; (<i>d</i>) an epic
+poem, <i>Annales</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p067">
+(6) Writers of <i>fabula Atellana</i>;<a href="#fn024" id="ref024">[24]</a> Novius and L. Pomponius
+(Bononiensis). Fronto p. 62 (ed. Naber), &lsquo;Elegantis
+Novium et Pomponium et id genus in verbis rusticanis et
+iocularibus ac ridiculariis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of Novius forty-three titles and over one hundred lines
+are preserved, and of Pomponius about seventy titles and
+two hundred lines. The well-known characters of the <i>fabula
+Atellana</i> are retained, as is seen from the titles. Cf. <i>Duo
+Dosseni</i>, <i>Maccus Copa</i> of Novius; <i>Bucco Adoptatus</i>, <i>Maccus
+Miles</i>, <i>Maccus Sequester</i>, <i>Maccus Virgo</i> of Pomponius.
+</p>
+
+<h3>PROSE WRITERS OF THE SAME PERIOD:</h3>
+
+<p>
+<i>L. Cornelius Sisenna</i> (praetor <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 78), author of <i>Historiae</i>
+of the Social and Civil Wars (Vell. Pat. ii. 9). Cicero
+thought him superior to his predecessors, but childish
+(<i>Brut.</i> 228, <i>De Leg.</i> i. 7), and Sallust remarks his want
+of frankness in speaking of Sulla&rsquo;s career (<i>Iug.</i> 95). He
+avoided a piecemeal and desultory treatment of events;
+cf. his own words quoted by Gell. xii. 15, 2, &lsquo;Nos una
+aestate in Asia et Graecia gesta litteris idcirco continentia
+mandavimus, ne vellicatim aut saltuatim scribendo lectorum
+animos impediremus.&rsquo; His translation of the <cite class="greek">Μιλησιακά</cite>
+of Aristides is mentioned by Ovid, <i>Tr.</i> ii. 443.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Contemporary with Sisenna were <i>Q. Claudius Quadrigarius</i>,
+and <i>Valerius Antias</i>, whose narrative was coloured
+by partiality for the Valerii and for Scipio Africanus (<a href="#p220">see
+under &lsquo;Livy&rsquo;</a>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>C. Licinius Macer</i>, father of the poet Calvus, was one
+of Livy&rsquo;s sources for the early history. Dion. Hal. (vi. 11
+and vii. 1) complains of his carelessness and the weakness
+of his chronology. He claimed that he used original
+authorities, <i>e.g.</i> the <i>libri lintei</i>, lists of magistrates written
+on linen. He was a strong democrat, and is looked upon
+by Mommsen (<i>R.H.</i> iv., p. 602) as manufacturing authorities
+in support of his political views.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p068">
+<i>Sulla</i> wrote memoirs of his own life (Plut. <i>Lucull.</i> 1),
+and <i>Lucullus</i> composed in Greek a history of the Marsian
+War (<i>ibid.</i>).
+</p>
+
+<h2 id="p069">CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h2>THE CICERONIAN AGE.</h2>
+
+<h3>CICERO.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+M. Tullius Cicero, the son of a Roman knight, was born
+at Arpinum on 3rd January, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 106. Jerome yr. Abr.
+1911, &lsquo;M. Tullius Cicero Arpini nascitur matre Helvia,
+patre equestris ordinis ex regio Volscorum genere.&rsquo; Cic.
+<i>ad Att.</i> xiii. 42, 3, &lsquo;Diem meum scis esse iii. Non. Ian.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He gives an account of his education in <i>Brut.</i> 306 <i>sqq.</i>
+In civil law he was a pupil, in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 89, of Q. Scaevola
+the Augur, and afterwards of the pontifex of the same
+name (<i>de Am.</i> 1). In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 88 he studied philosophy under
+Philo the Academic, and rhetoric under Molo of Rhodes.
+Dialectic he practised with the Stoic Diodotus, who lived
+and died in Cicero&rsquo;s house (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 87-5). Other teachers of
+Cicero were the poet Archias (<i>pro Arch.</i> 1), the orator
+Antonius (<i>de Or.</i> ii. 3), the actors Roscius and Aesopus
+(Plut. <i>Cic.</i> 5), the rhetorician M. Antonius Gnipho (Sueton.
+<i>Gramm.</i> 7), and the philosophers Phaedrus and Zeno.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After establishing a reputation at the bar by his defence
+of Quinctius and of Roscius of Ameria, he visited Asia
+to recruit his health and improve his oratorical style.
+On his way to the East he stayed six months at Athens,
+where he renewed his philosophical studies under Antiochus
+the Academic. In Asia he attended the leading rhetoricians,
+especially his old teacher Molo at Rhodes, who
+endeavoured to chasten the exuberance of his manner.
+At Rhodes he also made the acquaintance of the famous
+Stoic Posidonius (<i>de Fin.</i> i. 6). After an absence of two
+years he returned to Rome <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 77, and shortly afterwards
+married Terentia.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p070">
+Cicero, who had served in the Social War, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 89
+(<i>Phil.</i> xii. 27), began his official career in 75 as quaestor
+of the district of Lilybaeum in Sicily, where he won
+golden opinions from all classes (<i>pro Planc.</i> 64). He
+headed the poll at the election of aediles for 69, and of
+praetors for 66 (<i>in Pis.</i> 2); as praetor he presided over
+the court for the trial of cases of <i>repetundae</i> (<i>pro Clu.</i> 147).
+His canvass for the consulship of 63 began as
+early as July 65 (<i>ad Att.</i> i. 1, 1); he was returned with
+C. Antonius as his colleague (<i>in Pis.</i> 3). His services to
+the State in 63 in the crushing of the Catilinarian conspiracy
+need not be dwelt on here: his activity as an
+orator in that year was great, and he passed a law against
+undue influence by candidates, &lsquo;Lex Tullia de ambitu&rsquo;
+(<i>in Vat.</i> 37). He waived his right to a province, allowing
+Metellus Celer to take Gaul.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 58 the hostility of P. Clodius effected Cicero&rsquo;s banishment,
+on the ground that he had put the Catilinarian
+conspirators to death without trial. Retiring at first
+to Vibo, in Lucania, he moved successively to Sicily,
+Thurii, Tarentum, Brundisium, Dyrrhachium, Thessalonica,
+and Athens. At Dyrrhachium he resided from November
+58 to August 57, when, after several unsuccessful efforts
+by his friends, a law was passed for his recall.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p071">
+In 53 he was chosen augur in succession to the younger
+Crassus (Plut. <i>Cic.</i> 36), and two years later was appointed
+proconsul of Cilicia, under the new arrangement providing
+for an interval of five years between office in Rome and
+the government of a province. There he carried on a
+petty warfare with the mountaineers, and captured the fort
+of Pindenissus (a success for which the Senate decreed
+a <i>supplicatio</i>), occupying the winter with judicial business
+in the towns. His absence from the centre of affairs,
+though it lasted only a year, was most distasteful to him;
+cf. <i>ad Att.</i> v. 11, 1, &lsquo;Ne provincia nobis prorogetur, per
+fortunas! dum ades, quidquid provideri potest, provide:
+non dici potest quam flagrem desiderio urbis, quam vix
+harum rerum insulsitatem feram.&rsquo; For his just dealing
+with the provincials, cf. <i>ad Att.</i> v. 21, 5.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In November, 50, Cicero returned to Italy, to find a
+crisis imminent, and finally cast in his lot with the senatorial
+party. He left Rome with the consuls and the
+leading <i>optimates</i>, and for some time had charge of the
+district of Capua (<i>ad Fam.</i> xvi. 11, 3, &lsquo;nos Capuam
+sumpsimus&rsquo;). On 7th June, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 49, he embarked to
+join Pompey in Epirus, though far from enthusiastic for
+his leadership (<i>ad Fam.</i> vii. 3, 2, &lsquo;mei facti poenituit...
+Nihil boni praeter causam.&rsquo;) The chiefs of the party
+looked upon him with suspicion, and he was not present
+at the battle of Pharsalus. After Pompey&rsquo;s overthrow he
+returned to Brundisium, and in 47 was allowed by Caesar
+to return to Rome (<i>ad Fam.</i> xiv. 23). His mode of life
+at this time he thus describes (<i>ad Fam.</i> ix. 20, 3), &lsquo;Ubi
+salutatio defluxit, litteris me involvo, aut scribo aut lego.
+Veniunt etiam qui me audiant quasi doctum hominem,
+quia paullo sum quam ipsi doctior.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p072">
+In 46 he divorced his wife Terentia, of whose neglect
+he complains, <i>ad Fam.</i> iv. 14, 3; and married Publilia,
+with whom he parted in the following year. In 45 he
+lost his only daughter Tullia, who had been thrice married;
+he tried to drown his grief by close application to literary
+work, moving about from villa to villa, and it is to this
+period that most of his philosophical works belong. In
+44 he appeared once more in Rome, and took a prominent
+part in the proceedings which followed upon Caesar&rsquo;s death.
+April to July he spent at his various villas (<i>ad Att.</i> xiv.
+<i>passim</i>), and then decided to visit Athens, where his son
+(born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 65) was studying. On 1st August he reached
+Syracuse, but hearing at Leucopetra that his presence was
+required at Rome, he gave up his plan of travel and
+returned to the city. With the series of <i>Philippics</i> against
+Antony (44-3) Cicero&rsquo;s career closes. In the proscription
+agreed on by the triumvirs he was marked out as one
+of the chief victims. A fragment of Livy, quoted by
+Seneca, <i>Suas.</i> 6, 17, states that he fled first to Tusculum,
+then to Formiae, and took ship from Caieta, but returned
+to land, exclaiming, &lsquo;Moriar in patria saepe servata.&rsquo; On
+his way from the shore to his villa he was slain by a
+party of Antony&rsquo;s soldiers, and his head was carried to
+Rome and exposed on the Rostra. The date of the
+assassination was 7th December, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43 (Tiro quoted by
+Tac. <i>Dial.</i> 17).
+</p>
+
+<h4 id="p073">(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<h5>(a) Speeches.</h5>
+
+<p>
+1. The earliest extant speech is that <i>Pro Quinctio</i>,
+delivered <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 81 (Gell. xv. 28, 3) in an action before a
+iudex for restitution of property. This was not Cicero&rsquo;s
+first appearance as an advocate: § 4, &lsquo;quod mihi consuevit
+in ceteris causis esse adiumento.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. Next year (cf. Gell. <i>ibid.</i>) Cicero made his first speech
+in a criminal case, defending Sex. Roscius of Ameria on a
+charge of parricide. By so doing he incurred the risk of
+Sulla&rsquo;s enmity, but at the same time established his own
+position. <i>De Off.</i> ii. 51, &lsquo;contra L. Sullae dominantis opes
+pro S. Roscio Amerino&rsquo;; <i>Brut.</i> 312, &lsquo;prima causa publica,
+pro Sex. Roscio dicta, tantum commendationis habuit, ut
+non ulla esset quae non digna nostro patrocinio videretur.&rsquo;
+In later years he criticized the &lsquo;iuvenilis redundantia&rsquo; of
+this speech (<i>Orat.</i> 108).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. The speech <i>Pro Roscio Comoedo</i>, usually assigned to
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 76, was a defence of the famous actor in a civil case.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. The year 70 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> is memorable for the group of
+speeches (&lsquo;accusationis vii. libri,&rsquo; <i>Orat.</i> 103), against Verres,
+accused of <i>repetundae</i> by the Sicilians, at whose urgent
+entreaty Cicero undertook the prosecution. The preliminary
+question, who should conduct the prosecution, is
+argued in the <i>Divinatio in Caecilium</i>. Q. Caecilius Niger,
+Verres&rsquo; quaestor, claimed the right to prosecute, but this
+manoeuvre failed. Of the six speeches <i>in Verrem</i> only
+one, the <i>Actio Prima</i>, was delivered: Cicero, seeing that
+the other side were anxious to carry the trial over into
+the next year, confined himself to this short introductory
+speech (on 5th August, cf. § 31), after which he called his
+witnesses. Their evidence was so damaging that Hortensius<a href="#fn025" id="ref025">[25]</a>
+threw up the defence, and Verres was sentenced
+to banishment and his property confiscated. The five
+Books of the <i>Actio Secunda</i> were published afterwards
+in order that the facts might be thoroughly known.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p074">
+5. <i>Pro M. Fonteio</i> (incomplete), for Fonteius, propraetor
+of Gallia Narbonensis <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 75-3, on a charge of <i>repetundae</i>.
+This trial perhaps took place <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 69, certainly after the
+equites had been placed on the <i>iudicia</i> by the Lex Aurelia
+of 70 (cf. § 26).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+6. To the same year probably belongs the speech <i>Pro
+Caecina</i> in a civil case.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+7. In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 66 Cicero made his first political speech,
+<i>Pro Lege Manilia</i>, or <i>De Imperio Cn. Pompei</i>, in support
+of the bill of the tribune Manilius for conferring on Pompey
+the command against Mithradates.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+8. In the same year he defended Cluentius, charged
+with murder, in the speech <i>Pro A. Cluentio Habito</i>. The
+date is fixed as the year of Cicero&rsquo;s praetorship by § 147,
+&lsquo;mea quaestio de pecuniis repetundis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+9. The three speeches <i>De Lege Agraria</i> are concerned
+with the bill of P. Servilius Rullus for the appointment of
+<i>decemviri</i> with full power to buy and sell land and to
+establish colonies. The first speech (incomplete) was made
+in the Senate on 1st January, the second and third before
+<i>contiones</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+10. The speech <i>Pro C. Rabirio perduellionis reo</i> was
+delivered on behalf of Rabirius, charged before the <i>comitia</i>
+with the murder of the tribune Saturninus in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 100. The
+prosecution had been instituted by the democratic party
+to vindicate the old right of <i>provocatio ad populum</i>, and to
+establish the inviolability of the tribunes.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p075">
+11. Of the four speeches <i>In Catilinam</i>, i. was delivered
+in the Senate on 8th November, and followed by Catiline&rsquo;s
+flight from Rome; ii. to the people on 9th November;
+iii. to the people on 3rd December, when the Allobroges
+gave their evidence about the conspiracy; iv. in the Senate,
+on 5th December, calling for the capital punishment of the
+conspirators.<a href="#fn026" id="ref026">[26]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+12. In this crisis Cicero made one of his most graceful
+and witty speeches, the <i>Pro Murena</i>. The defendant was
+charged with bribery in his candidature for the consulship,
+and among the prosecutors was Cato.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+13-14. In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 62 Cicero defended P. Sulla, who was
+accused of complicity with Catiline (<i>Pro Sulla</i>), and
+delivered the speech <i>Pro Archia</i> in support of his friend&rsquo;s
+title to the Roman citizenship.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+15. In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 59 L. Flaccus was accused of <i>repetundae</i> as
+propraetor of Asia 62-60, and defended by Cicero in the
+speech <i>Pro Flacco</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+16-19. After Cicero&rsquo;s return from exile he returned thanks
+to the Senate in the speech <i>Cum Senatui gratias egit</i>, 5th September
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 57 (<i>ad Att.</i> iv. 1, 5), delivered from manuscript
+(&lsquo;propter rei magnitudinem dicta de scripto,&rsquo; <i>Pro Planc.</i>
+74). The genuineness of the corresponding speech to
+the people, <i>Cum populo gratias egit</i>, is suspected; it is
+mentioned by Dio. xxxix. 9, 1, but not by Cicero himself.
+On 30th September (<i>ad Att.</i> iv. 2, 2) the speech <i>De Domo
+Sua</i> was delivered before the <i>pontifices</i>, who decided that
+the site of Cicero&rsquo;s house, which Clodius had consecrated,
+should be restored to its owner. Connected with this is
+the speech <i>De Haruspicum Responsis</i>, of the year 56, rebutting
+the argument of Clodius that the declaration of the
+<i>haruspices</i>, &lsquo;loca sacra et religiosa profana haberi&rsquo; (§ 9)
+referred to the restitution of Cicero&rsquo;s house.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p076">
+20. The speech <i>Pro Sestio</i> is in defence of one of Cicero&rsquo;s
+friends who, as tribune, had worked energetically for his
+recall from exile, and was now accused <i>de vi</i> at the instigation
+of Clodius. Sestius was acquitted in March, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>
+56 (<i>ad Q.F.</i> ii. 4, 1).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+21. The <i>Interrogatio in P. Vatinium testem</i> was a successful
+attack on the credibility of Vatinius, who had been one
+of the chief witnesses against Sestius.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+22. <i>Pro M. Caelio</i>.&mdash;The prosecution of Caelius on a
+charge of poisoning was instigated by his former mistress,
+Clodia; it took place in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 56, for Cn. Domitius, who
+tried the case (§ 32), was praetor in that year (<i>ad Q.F.</i> ii. 3, 6).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+23. The speech <i>De Provinciis Consularibus</i>, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 56, argues
+that Caesar should be allowed to continue as proconsul
+of Gaul, and that Syria and Macedonia should be taken
+away from Gabinius and Piso. Mommsen<a href="#fn027" id="ref027">[27]</a> regards it as
+the <span class="greek">παλινῳδία</span> of <i>ad Att.</i> iv. 5, 1, and contrasts Cicero&rsquo;s
+tone to Caesar in this speech with his attitude in the <i>Pro
+Sestio</i>, <i>In Vatinium</i>, and <i>De Haruspicum Responsis</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+24. The speech <i>Pro Balbo</i> deals with a case similar to
+that of Archias. L. Cornelius Balbus, a native of Gades,
+and the trusted friend of Caesar, had received the <i>civitas</i>
+from Pompey, and this speech is in defence of his right
+thereto (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 56).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p077">
+25. <i>In Pisonem</i>, an attack on Cicero&rsquo;s enemy (consul
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 58), delivered in the Senate <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+26. <i>Pro Plancio</i>, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 54, on behalf of Cn. Plancius,
+accused of organizing clubs to secure by bribery his election
+to the aedileship.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+27. <i>Pro Rabirio Postumo</i>, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 54. Rabirius was charged
+with extortion in Egypt.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+28. <i>Pro Milone</i>.&mdash;At the trial of Milo <i>de vi</i> in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 52
+Cicero was so intimidated by the uproar of the rabble
+that his speech was a failure, and Milo was condemned.
+The speech now extant was written by Cicero at his leisure.
+Both were known to Asconius,<a href="#fn028" id="ref028">[28]</a> who supplies a valuable
+introduction.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+29. For six years we have no speech; but in 46 Cicero
+broke his rule of silence (&lsquo;in perpetuum tacere,&rsquo; <i>ad Fam.</i>
+iv. 4, 4), and in the speech <i>Pro Marcello</i> thanked Caesar
+for allowing Marcellus, the consul of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 51, to return to
+Rome.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+30. On 26th November <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46 he pleaded before Caesar
+the cause of Q. Ligarius (<i>Pro Ligario</i>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+31. In the latter part of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 45 he delivered in Caesar&rsquo;s
+house the speech <i>Pro Rege Deiotaro</i> on behalf of his
+&lsquo;hospes vetus et amicus,&rsquo; the tetrarch of Galatia, accused
+of treachery to Caesar.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p078">
+32. Cicero&rsquo;s oratorical career closes with the fourteen
+speeches against Antony, called <i>Philippics</i>, after the
+speeches of Demosthenes. This title was suggested by
+the author himself; cf. the letter of Brutus (<i>ad Brut.</i> ii. 5, 4),
+&lsquo;iam concedo ut vel Philippicae vocentur, quod tu quadam
+epistula iocans scripsisti.&rsquo; It was the usual title in
+antiquity, though Gellius (xiii. 1, 1) uses the alternative
+<i>Antonianae</i>. The <i>Philippics</i> cover the period from 2nd
+September 44 to 22nd April 43. They were all delivered
+in the Senate, except iv. and vi., which are <i>contiones</i>, and
+ii., which was never spoken, but published as a political
+pamphlet after Antony had left Rome: for its fame cf.
+Juv. 10, 125,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Te conspicuae, divina Philippica, famae,<br />
+ volveris a prima quae proxima.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+There are fragments of about twenty speeches, and the
+titles of thirty others are known. The invective <i>in Sallustium</i>,
+and the speech <i>Pridie quam in exilium iret</i>, are
+undoubtedly spurious.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Many of the speeches were to a large extent extempore,
+the heads only being committed to writing. These notes
+were afterwards collected by Tiro (Quint. x. 7, 30-1). In
+publishing, Cicero occasionally omitted some passages of
+the spoken oration, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Pro Mur.</i> 57 only the headings
+appear, &lsquo;De Postumi criminibus.&rsquo; &lsquo;De Servi adulescentis&rsquo;:
+cf. Plin. <i>Ep.</i> i. 20, 7, &lsquo;ex his apparet illum permulta dixisse,
+cum ederet omisisse.&rsquo; For the practice of reporting his
+speeches in shorthand cf. Ascon. <i>in Mil.</i> &lsquo;manet illa quoque
+excepta eius oratio&rsquo; (his speech at Milo&rsquo;s trial). The only
+case in which Cicero appeared for the prosecution was that
+of Verres: the part of an accuser was generally distasteful
+to him; cf. <i>De Off.</i> ii. 50, &lsquo;duri hominis vel potius vix
+hominis videtur, periculum capitis inferre multis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h5 id="p079">(b) Philosophical Works.</h5>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>De Re Publica</i>, a discussion of the ideal state and the
+ideal citizen, was published before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 51, for Caelius
+writes to Cicero in Cilicia, &lsquo;tui politici libri omnibus vigent&rsquo;
+(<i>ad Fam.</i> viii. 1, 4). In this treatise Cicero made use of
+Plato, and of Aristotle, Theophrastus, and other Peripatetics
+(<i>de Div.</i> ii. 3). There were six Books; but until 1822 the
+<i>Somnium Scipionis</i>, extracted by Macrobius from Book vi.,
+was the only portion of the work known to exist, with the
+exception of a few fragments. In that year Mai published
+at Rome, from a Vatican palimpsest, remains which make
+up about one-third of the whole.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. The <i>De Legibus</i> succeeded the <i>De Re Publica</i>, as
+Plato&rsquo;s <i>Laws</i> came after the <i>Republic</i>. The speakers in
+this dialogue are Atticus, Cicero, and his brother Quintus.
+Book i. expounds the Stoic position that the laws of the
+ideal state are made by the wise man in accordance with
+the mind of God; this position is worked out in Book ii.
+in the regulations for religion, and in iii. on the duties of
+magistrates. The treatise was never completed, and was
+perhaps a posthumous publication: it is not mentioned in
+the list in <i>De Divinatione</i> ii. 1-3, and there is no preface,
+though Cicero says (<i>ad Att.</i> iv. 16, 2) &lsquo;in singulis libris
+utor prooemiis.&rsquo; Certainly it had not appeared in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46,
+the year of the <i>Brutus</i> (<i>Brut.</i> 19). It was composed after
+the murder of Clodius in January, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 52 (ii. 42), and in
+Pompey&rsquo;s lifetime (iii. 22): probably in 52, as the government
+of Cilicia and the civil war left Cicero no time for
+literature during the years 51-48.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p080">
+3. In the spring of 46 was written the short tract
+<i>Paradoxa</i>, a discussion of six Stoic paradoxes (<i>e.g.</i> that
+the wise man alone is free). It was addressed to Brutus,
+and was later than the dialogue which bears his name;
+cf. the preface, &lsquo;accipies hoc parvum opusculum, lucubratum
+his iam contractioribus noctibus, quoniam illud
+maiorum vigiliarum munus in tuo nomine apparuit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. The death of Tullia in February, 45, led Cicero to
+write, at Astura, a <i>Consolatio</i>, of which only fragments
+survive. Plin. <i>N.H.</i> praef. 22, quotes Cicero as saying
+that he here followed the Greek philosopher, Crantor, <cite class="greek">περὶ πένθους</cite>.
+It contained notices of the deaths of great men,
+<i>De Div.</i> ii. 22, &lsquo;clarissimorum hominum nostrae civitatis
+gravissimos exitus in Consolatione collegimus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+5. In the <i>Hortensius</i> Cicero appeared as the champion
+of philosophy: <i>De Fin.</i> i. 2, &lsquo;philosophiae vituperatoribus
+satis responsum est eo libro, quo a nobis philosophia defensa
+et collaudata est, cum esset accusata et vituperata
+ab Hortensio.&rsquo; It cannot be traced beyond the seventh
+century, and is now represented by a few fragments. In
+the Middle Ages it was confounded with the <i>Prior
+Academics</i>, the speakers in both dialogues being the same.
+The <i>Hortensius</i> seems to have been written before Cicero
+went to Astura in March, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 45: there is no allusion to
+it in his letters.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+6. The treatise <i>De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum</i> discusses
+various theories of the <i>summum bonum</i>&mdash;the Epicurean
+in Books i.-ii., the Stoic in iii.-iv., the Peripatetic
+in v. The scene of the dialogue changes from Cumae to
+Tusculum and then to the Academy at Athens. The work
+was dedicated to Brutus in June, 45 (<i>ad Att.</i> xiii. 12, 3).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+7. The <i>Academics</i> appeared in two editions. Of the
+original edition Book ii., entitled <i>Lucullus</i>, has survived;
+the speakers in it are Lucullus, Catulus, Hortensius, and
+Cicero, and the scene, Hortensius&rsquo; villa. Cicero was not
+satisfied with this arrangement (<i>ad Att.</i> xiii. 12, 3, &lsquo;homines
+nobiles illi quidem, sed nullo modo philologi, nimis acute
+locuntur&rsquo;), and after provisionally transferring the parts
+of Lucullus, Catulus, and Hortensius, to Cato and Brutus,
+he finally adopted the suggestion of Atticus to gratify
+Varro by giving him a share in the dialogue together
+with Atticus and himself (<i>ad Att.</i> xiii. 13, 1, &lsquo;commotus
+tuis litteris, quod ad me de Varrone scripseras, totam
+Academiam ab hominibus nobilissimis abstuli transtulique
+ad nostrum sodalem et ex duobus libris contuli
+in quattuor&rsquo;). Of this second edition in four Books we
+possess only Book i. (incomplete), and fragments of the
+others; the scene is at Cumae. The dedicatory epistle
+to Varro is still preserved (<i>ad Fam.</i> ix. 8).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p081">
+8. In the five Books of <i>Tusculanae Disputationes</i>, conversations
+between Cicero and a friend at his Tusculan
+villa, the subject is the chief essentials for happiness.
+Book i. inculcates the proper attitude towards death, ii. to
+grief, iii. to pain, iv. to other trials, v. asserts the sufficiency of virtue for happiness. The treatise is dedicated
+to Brutus, and was finished by <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44, in which year
+(<i>ad Att.</i> xv. 2, 4) the first Book is known to Atticus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+9. <i>De Natura Deorum</i>, in three Books, is also addressed
+to Brutus. The Epicurean, Stoic, and Peripatetic doctrines
+are represented by C. Velleius, Q. Lucilius Balbus, and
+C. Aurelius Cotta, respectively. This treatise was written
+after the <i>Tusculans</i> (<i>de Div.</i> ii. 3): in July 45 (<i>ad Att.</i>
+xiii. 39, 2) Atticus is asked for the loan of <cite class="greek">Φαίδρου περὶ θεῶν</cite> and <cite class="greek">περὶ Παλλάδος</cite>.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p082">
+10. The essay <i>De Senectute</i>, called also <i>Cato Maior</i> after
+the principal speaker in the dialogue, was addressed to
+Atticus at the end of 45 or early in 44 (<i>de Div.</i> ii. 3;
+<i>ad Att.</i> xiv. 21, 3).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+11. To a later date in the same year belongs the <i>Laelius</i>,
+or <i>De Amicitia</i> (<i>de Am.</i> 4 mentions the <i>de Sen.</i>), in which
+Laelius discourses on friendship. In this book, according
+to Gell. i. 3, 10-11, Cicero was under obligations to
+Theophrastus <cite class="greek">περὶ φιλίας</cite>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+12. <i>De Divinatione</i>, in two Books, forms a supplement
+to the <i>De Natura Deorum</i>. Cicero and his brother discuss,
+at Tusculum, the nature and validity of &lsquo;divinatio,&rsquo;
+which is defined (i. 9) as &lsquo;earum rerum quae fortuitae
+putantur praedictio atque praesensio.&rsquo; The date is 44.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+13. The incomplete essay <i>De Fato</i> was written in 44,
+after Caesar&rsquo;s death (cf. § 2). The conversation takes place
+at Puteoli, between Cicero and the consul-designate Hirtius.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+14. On 11th July of the same year Cicero sent to
+Atticus his treatise <i>De Gloria</i>, in two Books, now lost
+(<i>ad Att.</i> xvi. 2, 6; <i>de Off.</i> ii. 31).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+15. The latest of the extant philosophical works is the
+<i>De Officiis</i>, written for the instruction of the author&rsquo;s son.
+Cicero had completed two Books by November, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44
+(xvi. 11, 4), following the treatment of Panaetius, and
+discussing in Book i. the issue between vice and virtue,
+in Book ii. the expediency of a given action. In Book iii.
+he was indebted to Posidonius, for the discussion of
+apparent conflict between virtue and expediency.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There are traces of two other treatises, <i>De Virtutibus</i>
+and <i>De Auguriis</i>; and we possess fragments of a translation
+of Plato&rsquo;s <i>Protagoras</i> and <i>Timaeus</i>, which cannot
+be earlier than <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 45 (<i>de Fin.</i> i. 7).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p083">
+Cicero propounds no original scheme of philosophy,
+claiming only that he renders the conclusions of Greek
+thinkers accessible to his own countrymen. This sort of
+work cost him little trouble: <i>ad Att.</i> xii. 52, 3, &lsquo;<span class="greek">ἀπόγραφα</span>
+sunt; minore labore fiunt: verba tantum affero, quibus
+abundo.&rsquo; At the same time he is not a mere translator:
+<i>de Fin.</i> i. 6, &lsquo;nos non interpretum fungimur munere, sed
+tuemur ea quae dicta sunt ab eis quos probamus, eisque
+nostrum iudicium et nostrum scribendi ordinem adiungimus.&rsquo;
+His motives for entering upon this task are explained
+in <i>De Nat. Deor.</i> i. 7-9: (1) he desired to do a
+service to his country: &lsquo;ipsius rei publicae causa philosophiam nostris hominibus explicandam putavi&rsquo;; (2) he
+sought relief for his own mind: &lsquo;hortata etiam est ut me
+ad haec conferrem animi aegritudo, fortunae magna et
+gravi conmota iniuria.&rsquo; Cicero is an eclectic, with a
+leaning to the New Academy: <i>Tusc.</i> iv. 7, &lsquo;nullis unius
+disciplinae legibus adstricti, quibus in philosophia necessario
+pareamus.&rsquo; Probability is all that he expects to reach:
+<i>ibid.</i>, &lsquo;quid sit in quaque re maxime probabile semper
+requiremus.&rsquo; The philosophy most attractive to him is
+that which best called forth the oratorical faculty: <i>Tusc.</i>
+ii. 9, &lsquo;mihi semper Peripateticorum Academiaeque consuetudo
+de omnibus rebus in contrarias partes differendi
+... placuit ... quod esset ea maxima dicendi exercitatio.&rsquo;<a href="#fn029" id="ref029">[29]</a>
+</p>
+
+<h5>(c) Rhetorical Treatises.</h5>
+
+<p>
+I. The earliest of these is <i>De Inventione</i>, or <i>Rhetorica</i>,
+in two Books, written probably for the author&rsquo;s own use
+during Sulla&rsquo;s absence in Asia <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 87-83. In his mature
+years Cicero looked back with contempt on this youthful
+effort: <i>de Or.</i> i. 5, &lsquo;quae pueris aut adulescentulis nobis ex
+commentariolis nostris incohata ac rudia exciderunt.&rsquo; He
+borrows much from the <i>Rhet. ad Herenn.</i>, and frequently
+mentions and criticises the views of Hermagoras; but all
+the best writers on rhetoric were laid under contribution:
+ii. 4, &lsquo;omnibus unum in locum coactis scriptoribus,
+quod quisque commodissime praecipere videbatur, excerpsimus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p084">
+2. The three Books <i>De Oratore</i> were finished in 55:
+<i>ad Att.</i> iv. 13, 2, &lsquo;de libris oratoriis factum est a me
+diligenter: diu multumque in manibus fuerunt: describas
+licet.&rsquo; They were written at a time when Cicero&rsquo;s voice
+was seldom heard: <i>ad Fam.</i> i. 9, 23, &lsquo;ab orationibus
+diiungo me fere referoque ad mansuetiores Musas.&rsquo; The
+dialogue takes place in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 91, at the Tusculan villa of
+L. Licinius Crassus; he and the rival orator, M. Antonius,
+are the chief speakers.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. The dialogue <i>Brutus</i>, or <i>De Claris Oratoribus</i>, after
+a brief survey of Greek oratory, criticises the Roman
+orators from L. Brutus to Cicero&rsquo;s own time. In spite of
+his intention to omit living persons (§ 231), he discusses
+Caesar, M. Marcellus, and himself. The speakers are
+Brutus, Atticus, and Cicero; and the date is probably 46,
+for the <i>Brutus</i> is earlier than the <i>Orator</i>, which refers
+to it (§ 23).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. The <i>Orator</i> or <i>De Optimo Genere Dicendi</i> is a sequel
+to the <i>De Oratore</i> and the <i>Brutus</i>, adding practical rules
+to the exposition of theory (<i>de Div.</i> ii. 4). It was written
+at the request of Brutus, to whom it is addressed, in the
+year 46 (<i>ad Fam.</i> xii. 17, 2).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p085">
+5. <i>Partitiones Oratoriae</i> is a catechism on rhetoric, in
+which the questions are put to Cicero by his son.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+6. The <i>Topica</i> was written in response to repeated requests
+from Trebatius for explanation of Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Topics</i>.
+It was done by Cicero, without the aid of books, on his
+voyage from Velia to Rhegium in July, 44 (<i>Top.</i> 5; <i>ad
+Fam.</i> vii. 19).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+7. The short treatise <i>De Optimo Genere Oratorum</i> was
+introductory to a version of the speeches of Demosthenes
+and Aeschines &lsquo;on the Crown,&rsquo; designed to show the
+Romans what the best Attic oratory was like.
+</p>
+
+<h5>(d) Letters.</h5>
+
+<p>
+Cicero&rsquo;s correspondence begins <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 68 with <i>ad Att.</i> i. 5,
+and ends 28th July, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43. Besides seven hundred and
+seventy-four letters written by Cicero, we have ninety addressed
+to him by friends. The collection was made by
+friends like Tiro and Atticus: cf. <i>ad Att.</i> xvi. 5, 5 (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44),
+&lsquo;Mearum epistularum nulla est <span class="greek">συναγωγή</span>, sed habet Tiro
+instar septuaginta, et quidem sunt a te quaedam sumendae:
+eas ego oportet perspiciam, corrigam; tum denique edentur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The letters now extant fall into four groups.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+i. <i>Epistulae ad Atticum</i>, in sixteen Books, belonging to
+the years <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 68-43, and valuable for their thorough frankness
+(<i>ad Att.</i> viii. 14, 2, &lsquo;ego tecum tamquam mecum
+loquor&rsquo;). Nepos appreciates their supreme importance
+for the history of Cicero&rsquo;s time, although he dates the
+commencement of the correspondence wrongly: <i>Att.</i> 16,
+&lsquo;xvi. volumina epistularum ab consulatu eius usque ad extremum
+tempus ad Atticum missarum; quae qui legat, non
+multum desideret historiam contextam eorum temporum.&rsquo;
+Atticus&rsquo; own letters were not published, though Cicero
+preserved them: <i>ad Att.</i> ix. 10, 4, &lsquo;Evolvi volumen epistularum,
+quod ego sub signo habeo servoque
+diligentissime.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p086">
+2. <i>Epistulae ad Quintum Fratrem</i>, in three Books, of
+the years <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 60-54.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. <i>Epistulae ad Brutum</i>, originally in nine Books, of
+which only two remain. The present Book i. was really
+Book ix., and Book ii., which contains letters earlier than
+those in Book i., may have formed part of the original
+Book viii.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. <i>Epistulae ad Familiares</i>, in sixteen Books, letters to
+and from friends, written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 62-43. This title is not found
+in any <span class="bcad">MS.</span> Late <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> and old editions have &lsquo;Epistulae
+Familiares&rsquo;: for the title &lsquo;Ad Diversos&rsquo; there is no
+authority. In the best <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> the Books are titled separately
+by the name of the person to whom the first letter in each
+is written, <i>e.g.</i> &lsquo;M. Tulli Ciceronis epistularum ad P. Lentulum
+liber i.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For the colloquial style of the letters cf. <i>ad Fam.</i> ix. 21, 1
+(to Paetus), &lsquo;Quid tibi ego in epistulis videor? nonne
+plebeio sermone agere tecum? nec enim semper eodem
+modo: quid enim simile habet epistula aut iudicio aut
+contioni? ... epistulas vero cottidianis verbis texere solemus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The following works are now lost: (<i>a</i>) <i>Miscellaneous
+prose writings.</i>&mdash;1. Panegyrics on Porcia (<i>ad Att.</i> xiii. 37, 3)
+and Cato, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 45; and funeral orations written for other
+people to deliver (<i>ad Q.F.</i> iii. 8, 5, &lsquo;laudavit pater scripto
+meo&rsquo;).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. Memoirs of Cicero&rsquo;s consulship, written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 60, in
+both Greek and Latin (<i>ad. Att.</i> i. 19, 10). He took great
+pains with this book, and was anxious that it should be
+well circulated (<i>ad Att.</i> ii. 1, 1).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p087">
+3. A secret history, <i>Anekdota</i>, mentioned in letters of
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 59 and 44 (<i>ad Att.</i> ii. 6, 2; xiv. 17, 6).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. <i>Admiranda</i>, a collection of wonders (Pliny, <i>N.H.</i>
+xxxi. 51).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+5. <i>Chorographia</i>, a book on geography, mentioned by
+Priscian. The letters to Atticus show that Cicero was
+studying the subject in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 59.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+6. A work on law, <i>De iure civili in artem redigendo</i>
+(Gell. i. 22, 7).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+7. A translation of Xenophon&rsquo;s <i>Oeconomicus</i>, made when
+Cicero was about the age of twenty (<i>de Off.</i> ii. 87).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>b</i>) <i>Poems.</i>&mdash;1. Cicero&rsquo;s earliest effort in verse was a poem
+in tetrameters, entitled <i>Pontius Glaucus</i>: Plut. <i>Cic.</i> 2,
+<span class="greek">καὶ τι ποιημάτιον ἔτι παιδὸς αὐτοῦ διασῴζεται Πόντιος Γλαῦκος ἐν τετραμέτρῳ
+πεποιημένον</span>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 60 he made a verse translation of the astronomical
+poems of Aratus, <i>ad Att.</i> ii. 1, 2, &lsquo;Prognostica
+mea ... propediem exspecta.&rsquo; Quotations are given in <i>De
+Nat. Deor.</i> ii. 104 <i>sqq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. In the same year he wrote a poem <i>De Suo Consulatu</i>,
+in three Books: <i>ad Att.</i> i. 19, 10, &lsquo;poema exspectato, ne
+quod genus a me ipso laudis meae praetermittatur.&rsquo; A
+long passage from Book ii., spoken by the Muse Urania,
+is recited by Q. Cicero in <i>De Div.</i> i. 17 <i>sqq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. Another poem in three Books, <i>De Temporibus Suis</i>,
+belonged probably to the year 55. Cicero writes to Lentulus
+in 54 (<i>ad Fam.</i> i. 9, 23), &lsquo;scripsi versibus tres libros
+de temporibus meis, quos iam pridem ad te misissem, si
+esse edendos putassem.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+5. In the letters to Quintus from June to December,
+54, there is frequent mention of a poem <i>Ad Caesarem</i>.
+Quintus is consulted for information about Britain: <i>ad
+Q.F.</i> ii. 15, 2, &lsquo;mihi date Britanniam, quam pingam
+coloribus tuis, penicillo meo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p088">
+6. A poem on Cicero&rsquo;s great townsman Marius is quoted,
+<i>De Div.</i> i. 106.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Among others quoted are <i>Limon</i>, in which Terence was
+praised (see <a href="#p051">p. 51</a>), and <i>iocularis libellus</i> (Quint. viii. 6,
+73). Translations from Greek poets occur in the philosophical
+works, e.g. <i>de Fin.</i> v. 49, from Homer, <i>Odys.</i> xii.
+184-191; <i>Tusc.</i> ii. 23, from various parts of Aeschylus,
+<i>Prom. Vinct.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The ancient criticisms on Cicero&rsquo;s poetry are all unfavourable:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>De Off.</i> i. 77, &lsquo;Illud optimum est, in quo invadi solere ab
+improbis et invidis audio:
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&ldquo;Cedant arma togae, concedat laurea laudi.&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Juv. 10, 122,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;&ldquo;O fortunatam natam me consule Romam!&rdquo;<br />
+Antoni gladios potuit contemnere, si sic<br />
+omnia dixisset.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Tac. <i>Dial.</i> 21 (quoted <a href="#p111">p. 111</a>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Quint. xi. 1, 24, &lsquo;In carminibus utinam pepercisset, quae
+non desierunt carpere maligni.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Rhetorica ad Herennium</i>.&mdash;This treatise on rhetoric in
+four Books, addressed to the author&rsquo;s relative C. Herennius,
+is usually printed among Cicero&rsquo;s works, and is attributed
+to him by the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> and by Jerome and Priscian. But it
+is clearly not by Cicero, for (<i>a</i>) it does not agree with his
+own description of his early rhetorical writings as &lsquo;incohata
+ac rudia&rsquo;; (<i>b</i>) the author&rsquo;s position, as described by himself,
+is not Cicero&rsquo;s. It is generally held that one Cornificius
+was the author; Quintilian (<i>e.g.</i> v. 10, 2) attributes to a person
+of that name several expressions found in the <i>ad Herennium</i>.
+He may have been the Q. Cornificius who opposed
+Cicero for the consulship in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 64. The date of the
+treatise is probably <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 86-84.
+</p>
+
+<h3 id="p089">QUINTUS CICERO.</h3>
+
+<p>
+Q. Tullius Cicero, the brother of the orator, was born
+probably <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 102. He was aedile in 65 (<i>ad Att.</i> i. 4, 1);
+praetor in 62, when he tried the case of Archias; propraetor
+of Asia 61-58 (<i>ad Q.F.</i> i. 1, 2). He acted as
+<i>legatus</i> of Pompey in Sardinia <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 56 (<i>pro Scauro</i>, 39); of
+Caesar in Gaul, taking part in the second invasion of
+Britain (Caes. <i>B.G.</i> v.); and of his brother in Cilicia
+(<i>ad Fam.</i> xv. 4, 8). At the outbreak of the civil war he
+was with Marcus at Formiae and Capua; but after the
+death of Pompey there was a breach between them. Being
+proscribed by the triumvirs he took flight, but was betrayed
+by his slaves and put to death, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43 (Plut. <i>Cic.</i> 47).
+His wife was Pomponia, the sister of Atticus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For the benefit of M. Cicero in his candidature for the
+consulship, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 64, Quintus wrote the <i>Commentariolum
+Petitionis</i> (the title in § 58) or <i>De Petitione Consulatus</i>. It
+is in the form of a letter, and is headed in the best <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>
+&lsquo;Q. M. Fratri S. D.&rsquo; Quintus writes with special reference
+to his brother&rsquo;s circumstances, but most of the rules which
+he lays down are of general application. The authenticity
+of this treatise has been called in question by Eussner,
+who ascribes it to a clever imitator, partly on the ground
+of coincidences of expression with Cicero&rsquo;s speech <i>in Toga
+Candida</i>; but his arguments are refuted by Prof. Tyrrell
+(<i>Cicero&rsquo;s Correspondence</i>, i. pp. 110-121).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There are also extant three letters to Tiro and one to M.
+Cicero. Quintus&rsquo; poetry is now represented only by twenty
+hexameters on the signs of the zodiac; but he wrote an
+epic poem, <i>Annales</i> (<i>ad Att.</i> ii. 16, 4 [Quintus] &lsquo;ita remittit
+ut me roget ut annales suos emendem et edam&rsquo;), and
+composed tragedies with great rapidity (<i>ad Q.F.</i> iii. 6, 7,
+&lsquo;quattuor tragoedias xvi. diebus absolvisse cum scribas,
+tu quidquam ab alio mutuaris?&rsquo;). His admiration for
+Sophocles and Euripides appears in <i>De Fin.</i> v. 3;
+<i>ad Fam.</i> xvi. 8, 2.
+</p>
+
+<h3 id="p090">TIRO.</h3>
+
+<p>
+M. Tullius Tiro, the freedman of Cicero, who had a
+high opinion of his worth and ability (<i>ad Fam.</i> xvi. 4, 3;
+<i>ad Att.</i> vii. 5, 2), wrote (1) a biography of his patron:
+Ascon. p. 49, &lsquo;ut legimus apud Tironem libertum Ciceronis
+in libro iiii. de vita eius.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(2) Editions of Cicero&rsquo;s speeches and letters: Gell. i. 7, 1,
+&lsquo;in oratione Ciceronis v. in Verrem, libro spectatae fidei,
+Tironiana cura atque disciplina facto.&rsquo; (See also <a href="#p085">p. 85</a>.)
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(3) A collection of Cicero&rsquo;s witticisms: Quint. vi. 3, 5,
+&lsquo;utinam libertus eius Tiro aut alius, quisquis fuit, qui
+iii. hac de re libros edidit, parcius dictorum numero indulsissent.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(4) Grammatical works, as <span class="greek">πανδέκται</span>, mentioned by
+Gell. xiii. 9, 2.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For his system of shorthand, cf. Sueton. p. 136 <span class="sc">R.</span>,
+&lsquo;Romae primus Tullius Tiro, Ciceronis libertus, commentatus
+est notas, sed tantum praepositionum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h3>T. POMPONIUS ATTICUS (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 109-32).</h3>
+
+<p>
+Author of (1) <i>Annalis</i>, a chronological table of the chief
+events in Roman and foreign history, accompanied by
+genealogies (Nepos, <i>Att.</i> 18, 1). As it was Cicero&rsquo;s <i>De Re
+Publica</i> that suggested its composition (Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 19), its
+date cannot be earlier than <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 54. (2) Family histories,
+<i>e.g.</i> of the Iunii (Nepos, <i>Att.</i> 18, 3), published separately.
+(3) <i>De Imaginibus</i>, a collection of inscriptions in verse
+for the busts of celebrated men (Nepos, <i>Att.</i> 18, 5). (4) <i>De
+Consulatu Ciceronis</i>, in Greek (Nepos, <i>Att.</i> 18, 6), written
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 60 (Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> ii. 1, 1).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p091">
+Atticus is an interesting figure on account of the large
+publishing business which he conducted (Nepos, <i>Att.</i> 13, 3);
+and the great care with which he sought out good <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>
+to reproduce in his establishment makes him important
+in the history of the preservation of ancient literature.
+</p>
+
+<h3>M. TERENTIUS VARRO.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+M. Terentius Varro was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 116 at Reate in the
+Sabine country.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1901, &lsquo;M. Terentius Varro philosophus et
+poeta nascitur.&rsquo; Symmachus, <i>Ep.</i> i. 2, calls him &lsquo;Terentius
+Reatinus&rsquo;; and he owned property in that district: <i>R.R.</i> ii.
+praef. 6, &lsquo;ipse pecuarias habui grandes, in Apulia oviarias,
+et in Reatino equarias.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of his family nothing is known except that he had an
+uncle belonging to the equestrian order (Plin. <i>N.H.</i> vii. 176).
+His philosophical education was received at Athens, where
+he was a disciple of Antiochus of Ascalon: Cic. <i>Ac. Post.</i>
+12, &lsquo;Aristum Athenis [Brutus] audivit aliquamdiu, cuius tu
+[Varro] fratrem Antiochum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He took part in the war with Sertorius in Spain, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 76
+(Sall. <i>Hist.</i> ii. fr. 69). In the war with the pirates, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 67,
+he was one of Pompeius&rsquo; lieutenants, and received a <i>corona
+navalis</i> for his services. Varro <i>R.R.</i> ii. praef. 7, &lsquo;cum
+piratico bello inter Delum et Ciliciam Graeciae classibus
+praeessem.&rsquo; Plin. <i>N.H.</i> vii. 115, &lsquo;[Varroni] Magnus Pompeius piratico ex bello navalem [coronam] dedit.&rsquo; Probably
+he was also with Pompeius in the war with Mithradates
+(Plin. <i>N.H.</i> xxxiii. 136, xxxvii. 11; knowledge of the Caspian,
+vi. 38). To the coalition of Pompeius, Caesar, and Crassus
+he was originally hostile, going so far as to write one of his
+satires, <cite class="greek">Τρικάρανος</cite>, against them (Appian <i><span class="bcad">B.C.</span></i> ii. 9); but
+in 59 he was a member of the commission appointed to
+establish Caesar&rsquo;s veterans in Campania: Plin. <i>N.H.</i> vii. 176,
+&lsquo;Varro auctor est xx. viro se agros dividente Capuae,&rsquo; etc.
+He also held the office of tribune (Gell. xiii. 12, 6), and
+was aedile with Murena (Plin. xxxv. 173).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p092">
+When the civil war broke out he was one of Pompeius&rsquo;
+lieutenants in Farther Spain, and resisted Caesar without
+success (Caes. <i><span class="bcad">B.C.</span></i> ii. 17-20). From Spain he withdrew to
+Epirus, where he was coldly received by the Pompeians
+(Cic. <i>ad Fam.</i> ix. 6, 3, &lsquo;crudeliter otiosis minabantur, eratque
+eis et tua invisa voluntas et mea oratio&rsquo;). We hear of
+him at Corcyra (<i>R.R.</i> i. 4), and at Dyrrhachium a few
+days before the battle of Pharsalus (Cic. <i>de Div.</i> i. 68).
+After Caesar&rsquo;s victory he lived quietly at his Tusculan villa
+(Cic. <i>ad Fam.</i> ix. 6, 4, &lsquo;his tempestatibus es prope solus in
+portu ... equidem hos tuos Tusculanenses dies instar esse
+vitae puto&rsquo;). He was more easily reconciled than Cicero
+to the new government, and was made librarian by Caesar:
+Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 44, &lsquo;Destinabat bibliothecas Graecas Latinasque
+quas maximas posset publicare, data M. Varroni cura comparandarum
+ac digerendarum.&rsquo; This, however, did not
+prevent him writing a funeral oration on Cato&rsquo;s sister Porcia
+(Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> xiii. 48, 2).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p093">
+After Caesar&rsquo;s death Varro was exposed to the persecution
+of Antonius, whose raid on his villa at Casinum is vividly
+described by Cicero (<i>Phil.</i> ii. 103 <i>sqq.</i>). He was proscribed,
+but the devotion of his friends secured his escape (Appian
+<i><span class="bcad">B.C.</span></i> iv. 47).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His old age was spent in peace, the literary activity for
+which his whole life was remarkable being maintained to the
+end. At the age of eighty-three he was still writing: Plin.
+<i>N.H.</i> xxix. 65, &lsquo;Cunctarer in proferendo ex his remedio,
+ni M. Varro lxxxiii vitae anno prodidisset,&rsquo; etc.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Varro&rsquo;s death took place in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 27, in his ninetieth year.
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1990, &lsquo;M. Terentius Varro philosophus
+prope nonagenarius moritur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+Cicero (<i>ad Att.</i> xiii. 18) calls Varro &lsquo;homo <span class="greek">πολυγραφώτατος</span>,&rsquo;
+and Varro himself said that he had written four
+hundred and ninety Books by the end of his seventy-seventh
+year: Gell. iii. 10, 17, &lsquo;Addit se quoque iam duodecimam
+annorum hebdomadam ingressum esse et ad eum diem
+septuaginta hebdomadas librorum conscripsisse.&rsquo; A letter
+of Jerome<a href="#fn030" id="ref030">[30]</a> gives a list of thirty-nine works in four hundred
+and ninety Books, admitting at the same time that these
+were only half of the total number (&lsquo;vix medium descripsi
+indicem&rsquo;). The titles of twenty-one other works are known
+from various sources.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;Of this enormous number only one has
+survived in a complete form, the treatise <i>De Re Rustica</i> in
+three Books, in the form of a dialogue. Book i. treats of
+agriculture; ii. of stock-raising; iii. of poultry, game, and
+fish. It was written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 37-6: <i>R.R.</i> i. 1, 1, &lsquo;Annus
+octogesimus admonet me ut sarcinas colligam ante quam
+proficiscar e vita.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p094">
+2. <i>Grammar.</i>&mdash;Of the twenty-five books <i>De Lingua
+Latina</i>, only v.-x. have been preserved, but the scope of
+the whole is known from Varro&rsquo;s own words. Book i. was
+introductory; ii.-vii. dealt with etymology; viii.-xiii. with
+inflexions; xiv.-xxv. with syntax. Varro&rsquo;s derivations are
+ridiculed by Quintilian i. 6, 37, &lsquo;Sed cui non post Varronem
+sit venia, qui <i>agrum</i> quia in eo <i>agatur</i> aliquid, et <i>graculos</i>
+quia <i>gregatim</i> volent dictos voluit persuadere Ciceroni?&rsquo;
+From Book v. onwards the work was dedicated to Cicero,
+in return for his <i>Academics</i>; it is announced in Cic. <i>Ac.</i>
+i. 2, where Varro says, &lsquo;Habeo opus magnum in manibus,
+idque iam pridem: ad hunc enim ipsum (me autem dicebat)
+quaedam institui, quae et sunt magna sane et limantur a
+me politius.&rsquo; The date of publication was probably <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>
+45-3.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of the minor works on grammar, some at least were prior
+to the <i>De Lingua Latina</i>: Cic. <i>Ac.</i> i. 9, &lsquo;Plurimum poetis
+nostris omninoque Latinis et litteris luminis et verbis attulisti.&rsquo;
+The titles known are, <i>De sermone Latino</i>, <i>De origine
+linguae Latinae</i>, <i>De similitudine verborum</i>, <i>De utilitate sermonis</i>,
+<i>De antiquitate litterarum</i>, <cite class="greek">Περὶ χαρακτήρων</cite>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. <i>Roman History and Antiquities.</i> Varro&rsquo;s great work
+in this department was the <i>Antiquitates rerum divinarum
+humanarumque</i>, in forty-one Books. The arrangement,
+according to Augustine <i>De Civ. Dei</i>, vi. 3, was as follows:
+(<i>a</i>) i.-xxv. <i>res humanae</i>; i. introductory, ii.-vii. history of
+Rome down to its capture by the Gauls, viii.-xiii. geography
+of Italy, xiv.-xix. Roman Calendar, with dates of the chief
+historical events, xx.-xxv. Roman institutions, (<i>b</i>) xxvi.-xli.
+<i>res divinae</i>; the persons who sacrifice, the places, the times,
+the rites, and the gods were discussed in three Books each,
+xxvi. being introductory. The second part, at least, was
+addressed to Caesar as <i>pontifex maximus</i>. As it is mentioned by Cic. <i>Ac.</i> i. 9, it must have been published before
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 45.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p095">
+Minor works under this head were <i>Annales</i>, <i>Res urbanae</i>,
+<i>De gente populi Romani</i>, <i>De vita populi Romani</i>, <i>De familiis
+Troianis</i>, <i>Tribuum Liber</i>; <i>Aetia</i> (<span class="greek">αἴτια</span>), explaining Roman
+usages, in the form of a catechism; <cite class="greek">Εἰσαγωγικός</cite> to Pompey
+on the duties of a consul (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 71), Gell. xiv. 7, 1; <i>De
+Pompeio</i>, <i>Legationum Libri</i>, <i>De sua vita</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. <i>Geography.</i>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <i>Ephemeris navalis</i>, addressed to Pompey
+before his departure for Spain about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 77, a weather
+almanack for sailors; <i>Ephemeris rustica</i> or <i>agrestis</i>, for
+farmers. (<i>b</i>) <i>Libri navales</i>, perhaps identical with the
+above, (<i>c</i>) <i>De ora maritima</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+5. <i>Law.</i>&mdash;<i>De iure civili</i> in fifteen Books.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+6. <i>Rhetoric.</i>&mdash;<i>Rhetorica</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+7. <i>Philosophy.</i>&mdash;<i>De Forma Philosophiae</i>, <i>De Philosophia</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+8. <i>Mathematics</i>, etc.&mdash;<i>De mensuris</i>, <i>Mensuralia</i>, <i>De principiis
+numerorum</i>, <i>Libri numerorum</i>, <i>De geometria</i>, <i>De
+astrologia</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+9. <i>Disciplinae</i> in nine Books, forming a complete course
+of education in the liberal arts.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+10. <i>History of Literature and the Drama.</i>&mdash;<i>De poetis</i>, <i>De
+poematis</i>, <i>De lectionibus</i>, <i>De bibliothecis</i>, <i>De proprietate scriptorum</i>,
+<i>De personis</i>, <i>De descriptionibus</i>, <i>De actis scenicis</i>,
+<i>De scenicis actionibus</i>, <i>De originibus scenicis</i>, <i>Quaestiones
+Plautinae.</i> In the <i>Hebdomades</i> or <i>Imaginum Libri</i> xv.
+Varro gave short accounts in prose and verse of seven
+hundred famous Greeks and Romans, with their portraits
+(Plin. <i>N.H.</i> xxxv. 11), the title being derived from the
+arrangement in groups of seven. Aristotle&rsquo;s <cite class="greek">Πέπλος</cite> had
+dealt similarly with the heroes of the Trojan War, and
+the &lsquo;<span class="greek">Πεπλογραφία</span> Varronis&rsquo; of Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> xvi. 11, 3 is
+usually identified with the <i>Hebdomades</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+11. <cite class="greek">Λογιστορικοί</cite>, in seventy-six Books, were probably not
+a mixture of fable and history, but essays enlivened by
+historical examples. The titles were double, the chief
+speaker being named as well as the subject of the essay,
+<i>e.g.</i> <i>Catus de liberis educandis</i>. To this work Cicero probably
+refers, <i>Ac.</i> i. 9, &lsquo;Philosophiam multis locis incohasti,
+ad impellendum satis, ad edocendum parum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p096">
+12. Varro&rsquo;s poetical works are now represented only by
+fragments of the <i>Saturae Menippeae</i>, a medley of prose
+and verse in one hundred and fifty books (Cic. <i>Ac.</i> i. 9,
+&lsquo;Varium et elegans omni fere numero poema fecisti&rsquo;).
+They were so called by Varro himself (Gell. ii. 18, 7, &lsquo;In
+satiris quas alii Cynicas, ipse appellat Menippeas&rsquo;), being
+founded on the dialogues of Menippus, the Cynic of Gadara,
+of the third century <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> Their object was to present philosophy
+in a popular dress: Cic. <i>Ac.</i> i. 8, &lsquo;Quae cum facilius
+minus docti intellegerent, iucunditate quadam ad legendum
+invitati.&rsquo; From the way in which they are spoken of in the
+same passage (&lsquo;in illis veteribus nostris&rsquo;), most of them
+must have been among Varro&rsquo;s earliest writings. The titles
+are extremely curious, <i>e.g.</i> &lsquo;<cite class="greek">Δὶς παῖδες οἱ γέροντες</cite>,&rsquo; &lsquo;Longe
+fugit qui suos fugit.&rsquo; Quintilian considers Varro as the
+founder of a type of satire distinct from that of Lucilius,
+Horace, and Persius: x. 1, 95, &lsquo;Alterum illud etiam prius
+satirae genus sed non sola carminum varietate mixtum
+condidit Terentius Varro, vir Romanorum eruditissimus.&rsquo;
+His other poetical works were ten books of <i>Poemata</i>, four
+of <i>Satires</i>, and six of <i>Pseudotragoediae</i> (tragi-comedy).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+13. <i>Oratory.</i>&mdash;Varro left twenty-two Books of <i>Orationes</i>
+and three of <i>Suasiones</i>, but he had no fame as an orator:
+Quint. x. 1, 95, &lsquo;Plus scientiae collaturus quam eloquentiae.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+14. <i>Letters.</i>&mdash;Of these there seem to have been two
+collections: (<i>a</i>) <i>Epistulae Latinae</i>, real letters to acquaintances;
+(<i>b</i>) <i>Epistolicae Quaestiones</i>, discussing in epistolary
+form points of history, grammar, etc.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The collection of maxims which passes under the name
+<i>Sententiae Varronis</i> is of uncertain authenticity.
+</p>
+
+<h3 id="p097">LABERIUS.</h3>
+
+<p>
+The date of D. Laberius&rsquo; birth is got from Sueton. <i>Iul.</i>
+39, &lsquo;Ludis D. Laberius eques Romanus mimum suum
+egit.&rsquo; This event took place in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 45, and in the prologue
+to the piece (quoted below), l. 109, Laberius says he is
+sixty years old; hence he was born about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 105. He
+died in January, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1974 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43, &lsquo;Laberius mimorum
+scriptor decimo mense post C. Caesaris interitum Puteolis
+moritur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 45 Laberius, although an <i>eques</i>, was, as a punishment
+for his political opinions, compelled by Caesar to
+perform in one of his own mimes, and was beaten by
+Publilius Syrus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Macrob. <i>Saturn.</i> ii. 7, 2 <i>sqq.</i>, &lsquo;Laberium asperae libertatis
+equitem Romanum Caesar quingentis milibus invitavit, ut
+prodiret in scaenam et ipse ageret mimos, quos scriptitabat.
+Sed potestas non solum si invitet sed etiam si supplicet
+cogit, unde se et Laberius a Caesare coactum in prologo
+testatur his versibus:
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&ldquo;Necessitas, cuius cursus transversi impetum<br />
+voluerunt multi effugere, pauci potuerunt,<br />
+quo me detrusit paene extremis sensibus!<br />
+Quem nulla ambitio, nulla umquam largitio,<br />
+nullus timor, vis nulla, nulla auctoritas<br />
+movere potuit in iuventa de statu:<br />
+ecce in senecta ut facile labefecit loco<br />
+viri excellentis mente clemente edita<br />
+summissa placide blandiloquens oratio!<br />
+Etenim ipsi di negare cui nil potuerunt,<br />
+hominem me denegare quis posset pati?<br />
+Ego bis tricenis annis actis sine nota<br />
+eques Romanus e Lare egressus meo<br />
+domum revertar mimus,&rdquo; etc.
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p098">
+In ipsa quoque actione subinde se, qua poterat, ulciscebatur
+inducto habitu Syri, qui velut flagris caesus praeripientique
+similis exclamabat
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&ldquo;Porro Quirites libertatem perdimus&rdquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+et paulo post adiecit
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&ldquo;Necesse est multos timeat quem multi timent.&rdquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Quo dicto universitas populi ad solum Caesarem oculos
+et ora convertit, notantes inpotentiam eius hac dicacitate
+lapidatam. Ob haec in Publilium vertit favorem ... [Publilius
+Syrus] cum mimos componeret ingentique adsensu
+in Italiae oppidis agere coepisset, productus Romae per
+Caesaris ludos, omnes qui tunc scripta et operas suas in
+scaenam locaverant provocavit ut singuli secum posita in
+vicem materia pro tempore contenderent. Nec ullo recusante
+superavit omnes, in quis et Laberium. Unde Caesar
+adridens hoc modo pronuntiavit
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&ldquo;Favente tibi me victus es, Laberi, a Syro&rdquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+statimque Publilio palmam et Laberio anulum aureum cum
+quingentis sestertiis dedit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have forty-three titles of mimes by Laberius, and
+about one hundred and fifty lines of fragments. From
+the above we see that Laberius criticized contemporary
+society with great vigour. Other features are
+</p>
+
+<p id="p099">
+(<i>a</i>) His invention of words.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Gell. xvi. 7, 1, &lsquo;Laberius in mimis, quos scriptitavit,
+oppido quam verba finxit praelicenter.&rsquo; Examples are
+<i>manuatus est</i> for <i>furatus est</i>; <i>abluvium</i> for <i>diluvium</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>b</i>) His use of plebeian expressions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Gell. xix. 13, 3, &lsquo;quae a Laberio ignobilia nimis et sordentia
+in usum linguae Latinae intromissa sunt.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>c</i>) His references to philosophy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. l. 17,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;nec Pythagoream dogmam doctus&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+l. 72,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Democritus Abderites physicus philosophus,&rsquo; etc.
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+For views on Laberius cf. Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i, 10, 5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &lsquo;Nam sic
+et Laberi mimos ut pulchra poemata mirer.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>ad Fam.</i> xii. 18, 2 (written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46), &lsquo;Equidem sic
+iam obdurui ut ludis Caesaris nostri animo aequissimo
+viderem T. Plancum, audirem Laberi et Publili poemata.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Contemporaries of Laberius were the satirist Abuccius,
+and Egnatius, who wrote a didactic poem <i>de rerum natura</i>.
+</p>
+
+<h3>M. FURIUS BIBACULUS.</h3>
+
+<p>
+According to Jerome, Bibaculus was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 103, but,
+as he laughs at the old age of the grammarian Orbilius
+(114-c. 17 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>), authorities put the date twenty years later.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1914, &lsquo;M. Furius poeta cognomento
+Bibaculus Cremonae nascitur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 9, &lsquo;[Orbilius] vixit prope ad centesimum
+aetatis annum, amissa iam pridem memoria, ut versus
+Bibaculi docet,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p100">
+<p>
+&ldquo;Orbilius ubinam est, litterarum oblivio?&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Bibaculus wrote poems against the monarchical party;
+these are referred to as <i>iambi</i> by Quintilian, x. 1, 96.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tac. <i>Ann.</i> iv. 34, &lsquo;Carmina Bibaculi et Catulli referta
+contumeliis Caesarum leguntur: sed ipse divus Iulius, ipse
+divus Augustus et tulere ista et reliquere.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Two epics, <i>Aethiopis</i> and <i>Bellum Gallicum</i> (on Iulius
+Caesar&rsquo;s exploits), are probably referred to by Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i.
+10, 36,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Turgidus Alpinus iugulat dum Memnona, dumque<br />
+diffingit Rheni luteum caput.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Acron <i>ad loc.</i>, &lsquo;Bibaculum quemdam poetam Gallum
+tangit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. Hor. <i>Sat.</i> ii. 5, 40,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Seu pingui tentus omaso<br />
+Furius hibernas cana nive conspuet Alpes.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Acron <i>ad loc.</i>, &lsquo;Furius Bibaculus in pragmatia belli
+Gallici: Iuppiter hibernas,&rsquo; etc.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is probably from this epic that Macrob. <i>Saturn.</i> vi. 1,
+31-4, quotes passages imitated by Virgil. So, &lsquo;Furius in
+primo annali &ldquo;Interea Oceani linquens Aurora cubile.&rdquo;&rsquo;
+(Cf. Virg. <i>Aen.</i> iv. 585.)
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Bibaculus also wrote a prose work <i>Lucubrationes</i>. (Pliny
+<i>N.H.</i> xxiv. praef.)
+</p>
+
+<h3>CAESAR.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+The main facts of C. Iulius Caesar&rsquo;s life are found in a
+compendious form in the Life by Suetonius. The ancient
+authorities, who are unanimous in stating that at the time of
+his death (15th March, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44) Caesar was in his fifty-sixth
+year (Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 88, Appian <i><span class="bcad">B.C.</span></i> ii. 149, Plut. <i>Caes.</i> 69),
+must have placed his birth in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 100. But if this date
+were correct Caesar must have held the various magistracies
+two years before the legal time&mdash;a fact nowhere mentioned,
+and in itself improbable; it is therefore natural to hold
+that he was born in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 102 (Mommsen, <i>R.H.</i> iv., p. 15,
+note). His birthday was 12th July (Macrob. <i>Saturn.</i> i,
+12, 34).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p101">
+His father, C. Iulius Caesar, was praetor in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 84,
+and died in the same year; Aurelia, his mother, took
+great interest in his education (Tac. <i>Dial.</i> 28).
+From the first Caesar was connected with the leaders
+of the democratic party in the State. Marius, who had
+married his father&rsquo;s sister Julia, conferred on him the office
+of <i>flamen Dialis</i> before he was sixteen years of age; and
+his first wife was Cornelia, daughter of Cinna. His refusal
+to divorce her at the bidding of Sulla drew down upon
+him the enmity of the dictator; and he fled in disguise
+to the Sabine mountains, where he remained until Sulla
+reluctantly consented to spare his life.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Caesar obtained his first experience of military service
+as a member of the staff of M. Thermus, propraetor of
+Asia, who conferred on him the <i>civica corona</i> for saving
+the life of a fellow-soldier at the siege of Mytilene. After
+serving for a short time under Servilius Isauricus against
+the pirates in Cilicia, he returned to Rome on the news
+of Sulla&rsquo;s death in 78, and in the following year commenced
+his career as an orator with the prosecution of Cn. Cornelius
+Dolabella, proconsul of Macedonia, for extortion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Towards the end of that year Caesar left Rome for
+Rhodes&mdash;on his way thither being captured by pirates near
+Miletus&mdash;and studied for a year under the famous rhetorician
+Molo, taking part also in some operations on the mainland
+against one of the officials of Mithradates. Having been
+elected one of the <i>pontifices</i> in the room of his uncle, C.
+Aurelius Cotta, he returned to Rome in 74, and soon
+became a <i>tribunus militum</i>. In the agitation for the restoration
+of the powers of the tribunes of the <i>plebs</i>, Caesar
+took a prominent part; he also supported the <i>Lex Aurelia</i>
+of 70, which gave the <i>equites</i> a share in the <i>iudicia</i>, and
+the <i>Lex Plautia</i>, granting an amnesty to the adherents of
+Lepidus and Sertorius.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p102">
+The year 68 he spent as quaestor in Farther Spain, and
+on his return to Rome strenuously advocated the claims
+of the Transpadane Gauls to the Roman franchise. His
+first wife having died, he married Pompeia, daughter of
+Q. Pompeius Rufus, and granddaughter of Sulla, whom
+he divorced five years later on account of her alleged
+adultery with P. Clodius. In 67 and 66 the bills of
+Gabinius and Manilius, conferring extensive military powers
+upon Pompey, were supported by Caesar and the other
+leading democrats.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p103">
+Whether Caesar was concerned in the abortive attempt
+of Catiline at revolution in 65, is a moot point. He was
+now aedile, and acquired great popularity by the splendid
+shows which he gave to the people, and by his restoration of
+the statue and trophies of Marius. In 64, as president of the
+<i>quaestio de sicariis</i>, he condemned some of the most active
+agents in Sulla&rsquo;s proscriptions. In 63 he supported the
+<i>lex agraria</i> of P. Servilius Rullus, and brought about the
+prosecution of C. Rabirius for the murder of the tribune
+Saturninus. On the re-enactment of the <i>Lex Domitia de
+sacerdotiis</i>, Caesar was elected <i>pontifex maximus</i>. He was
+again suspected, probably with good ground, of complicity
+with Catiline&rsquo;s designs; he certainly proposed in the Senate
+that the conspirators should be punished with imprisonment
+instead of death. Praetor in 62, he worked in Pompey&rsquo;s
+cause by proposing that the charge of rebuilding the
+Capitoline temple should be transferred to him from the
+aristocratic champion Catulus, and by supporting the bill
+of the tribune Metellus Nepos for electing Pompey consul
+in absence. Next year Caesar was propraetor of Farther
+Spain, where he conquered the Lusitanians and Gallaecians,
+and amassed considerable wealth. His coalition
+with Pompey and Crassus procured for him the consulship
+of 59, rendered notable by the <i>Leges Iuliae</i>; and before
+he went out of office his position was secured by the
+<i>Lex Vatinia</i>, conferring on him the government of Cisalpine
+Gaul and Illyricum for five years, with the command of
+three legions; Transalpine Gaul and another legion were
+added by the Senate. The following nine years (58-50)
+were occupied with the subjugation of Gaul and the two
+invasions of Britain (55 and 54). At the conference at
+Luca, in the winter of 57-56, it was agreed that Caesar
+should be continued in office for a second period of five
+years, and be allowed to increase the number of his legions
+to ten. In 50, realizing the danger of his position if he
+returned to Rome as a private person, he was anxious
+to be a candidate for the consulship <i>in absentia</i>; but
+Pompey thwarted his plan. Caesar refused to disband
+his army at the bidding of the Senate, and crossed the
+Rubicon early in 49. Italy soon submitted; he defeated
+the Pompeians in Spain, captured Massilia, and secured
+Sicily and Sardinia. Landing in Epirus in 48, he was
+defeated at Dyrrhachium, and retreated to Thessaly, where
+he overthrew Pompey at Pharsalus. Then followed his
+victories over the king of Egypt in the Alexandrian war
+(48), Pharnaces in Asia Minor (47), the Pompeians and
+Juba at Thapsus (46), and C. and Sex. Pompeius at
+Munda (45).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p104">
+He had been created dictator in 49 and 48, with the
+tribunician power in perpetuity; and on his return to
+Rome in 45 he was made consul for ten years, dictator,
+and <i>praefectus morum</i>, with the title of <i>imperator</i> for life.
+In the intervals between his campaigns he carried out
+numerous reforms, including the rectification of the calendar,
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46 (see <a href="#p110">p. 110</a>). His assassination by Brutus and
+Cassius and the other conspirators took place on 15th
+March, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44.
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>De Bello Gallico</i>, in seven Books. The title used
+by Caesar himself was probably <i>Commentarii rerum suarum</i>
+(as in Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 262, and Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 56; cf. Strabo,
+iv. 1, 1 <span class="greek">ὑπομνήματα</span>), although this does not appear in the
+best <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, which give variously <i>libri</i>, <i>historiae</i>, or <i>ephemeris
+rerum gestarum belli Gallici</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The work describes Caesar&rsquo;s operations in Gaul, Germany,
+and Britain during the years <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 58-52, the events
+of each year occupying a separate Book. It was written
+and published as a whole, not in parts at the end of each
+year&rsquo;s campaign. Otherwise it is difficult to see why Cicero
+should not have heard of it from his brother Quintus or
+his friend Trebatius, both of whom were with Caesar; or
+why Hirtius should have spoken of the rapidity with which
+the work was composed (<i>B.G.</i> viii. praef. 6, &lsquo;Ceteri quam
+bene atque emendate, nos etiam quam facile atque celeriter
+eos perfecerit, scimus&rsquo;). This view is corroborated by the
+statement of Asinius Pollio, that there were mistakes in
+the work due to defective memory (Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 56, &lsquo;quae ...
+memoria lapsus perperam ediderit&rsquo;); and by some expressions
+in the earlier Books pointing forward to events mentioned
+later (i. 28 compared with vii. 9, and iv. 21 with
+vii. 76).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p105">
+The time of composition was probably the winter after
+the last campaign narrated in the Book (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 52-51). It
+was certainly published before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46, the date of Cicero&rsquo;s
+<i>Brutus</i>, and probably before the rupture with Pompey, of
+whom Caesar speaks with approbation (vii. 6, &lsquo;Cum iam
+ille urbanas res virtute Cn. Pompei commodiorem in
+statum pervenisse intellegeret&rsquo;).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The aim of the book was twofold: (1) to provide
+material for professed historians: Hirt. <i>B.G.</i> viii. praef. 5,
+&lsquo;qui sunt editi, ne scientia tantarum rerum scriptoribus
+deesset&rsquo;; (2) to furnish a defence of the author&rsquo;s own conduct&mdash;an object carefully kept in the background. It has
+been proved that Caesar suppressed facts which would have
+told against him at Rome (<i>e.g.</i> his rapacity, Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 54),
+and the plausible motives which he assigns for some of
+his actions cannot be accepted as genuine. Cf. the criticism
+of Asinius Pollio, Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 56, &lsquo;Pollio Asinius
+parum diligenter parumque integra veritate compositos
+putat, cum Caesar pleraque et quae per alios erant gesta
+temere crediderit, et quae per se vel consulto vel etiam
+memoria lapsus perperam ediderit, existimatque rescripturum
+et correcturum fuisse.&rsquo; The style is remarkable
+for its brevity, directness, and the absence of ornament
+and emotion (Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 262, &lsquo;Nudi sunt, recti et venusti,
+omni ornatu orationis, tamquam veste, detracto&rsquo;).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p106">
+Among the materials used by Caesar in writing the
+<i>Commentarii</i> were his own despatches to the Senate (ii. 35,
+iv. 38, vii. 90) and the reports of his <i>legati</i>. Late writers
+speak of his <span class="greek">ἐφημερίδες</span> (<i>e.g.</i> Plut. <i>Caes.</i> 22), but there is
+no ground for supposing that he kept a regular diary.
+He depended to a great extent on his own memory (cf.
+Pollio&rsquo;s criticism, above).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>De Bello Civili</i>, in three Books, similar in plan to
+the <i>Bell. Gall.</i> Book iii. ends abruptly with an event
+of no great importance, and, as the death of Pompey
+would have formed a natural ending, we must suppose
+that Caesar had intended to continue the narrative with
+the Alexandrian, Spanish, and African wars, but was prevented
+from carrying out his plan. The work was published
+after his death, without undergoing revision (Sueton.
+<i>Iul.</i> 56, &lsquo;Pollio existimat rescripturum et correcturum
+fuisse&rsquo;).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Other works in the Corpus Caesarianum</i>.&mdash;Sueton. <i>Iul.</i>
+56 says, &lsquo;Alexandrini Africique et Hispaniensis [belli]
+incertus auctor est. Alii Oppium putant, alii Hirtium,
+qui etiam Gallici belli novissimum imperfectumque librum
+suppleverit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Suetonius evidently believed that Hirtius was the author
+of <i>B.G.</i> viii., for he introduces a quotation from the preface
+to that Book with the words, &lsquo;Hirtius ita praedicat&rsquo; (<i>ibid.</i>).
+Hirtius is also mentioned in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> as the author of
+<i>B.G.</i> viii., and there is no reason to doubt that this is
+the case. That he is the author of any of the others is
+rendered doubtful by the fact that his bad health (which
+lasted to November, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44) and his position as consul
+would leave him little time for literature between the death
+of Caesar (15th March, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44) and his own death at
+Mutina (27th April, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43). Hirtius was thus able to
+carry out only the first part of the plan sketched in <i>B.G.</i>
+viii. praef. 2, &lsquo;Caesaris nostri commentarios rerum gestarum,
+non cohaerentibus superioribus atque insequentibus
+eius scriptis, contexui, novissimumque imperfectum ab
+rebus gestis Alexandriae confeci usque ad exitum non
+quidem civilis dissensionis, cuius finem nullum videmus,
+sed vitae Caesaris.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p107">
+G. Landgraf, <i>Untersuchungen zu Caesar und seinen
+Fortsetzern</i> (Erlangen, 1888), arrives at the following conclusions:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. In the <i>Bellum Africum</i> we possess the notes of
+Asinius Pollio, who took part in the war. That the
+work partook of the nature of a journal is shown by the
+style; <i>e.g.</i> <i>interim</i> is used about eighty times as a connecting
+link, and dates and hours of the day are given
+carefully. Landgraf supports his position by instancing
+similarities of expression in the <i>Bell. Afr.</i> and in three
+letters from Pollio to Cicero (<i>ad Fam.</i> x. 31; 32; 33).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. Ch. 48-64 of the <i>Bell. Alex.</i> on events in Spain in
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 48-7 were sent to Hirtius by Pollio, who was governor
+of Hispania Ulterior in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 45, and as such was best
+acquainted with these incidents.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. On the death of Hirtius, Pollio, on searching for
+his own papers (which he had lent Hirtius to help him
+in his work), found Hirtius&rsquo; <i>Bell. Gall.</i> viii., and made
+some additions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. The <i>Bell. Civ.</i> was in Hirtius&rsquo; possession unedited
+at his death. Hirtius evidently intended to publish it
+along with <i>B.G.</i> viii. The third Book had been left
+unfinished by Caesar, whose notes, some of which were
+very brief, Hirtius had extended, and filled up the gaps
+in the narrative. There were also some notes on the
+<i>Bell. Alex.</i> The <i>Bell. Alex.</i> in the narrower sense (cc.
+1-33) Hirtius began with, and in the early chapters contented
+himself with making small additions. In the later
+parts are found considerable additions both by Hirtius
+and by Pollio. Landgraf attempts to distinguish the work
+of the two: cc. 34-41, on the Bellum Ponticum, being
+mostly by Pollio, and cc. 65-76, on the wars in Illyria
+and against Pharnaces, mostly by Hirtius.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p108">
+5. The authorship of the <i>Bellum Hispaniense</i>, which in
+style is far below the <i>Bellum Africum</i>, Landgraf leaves
+an open question.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+E. Wölfflin (<i>Sitzungsberichte der k. b. Akad. der Wissenschaften zu München</i>, 1889, pp. 323 <i>sqq.</i>, and ed. of the
+<i>Bell. Afr.</i>, 1889) holds the same views as Landgraf, and
+gives many instances of difference in diction between <i>Bell.
+Afr.</i> on the one hand, and <i>Gall.</i> viii. and <i>Alex.</i> on the
+other; <i>e.g.</i>
+</p>
+
+<pre>
+                <i>Bell. Afr.     Bell. Gall.</i> viii.; <i>Bell. Alex.</i>
+<i>suppetiae</i>,      -   7 times    -   never.
+<i>convallis</i>,      -   5   "      -   <i>vallis</i>, 10 times.
+<i>convulnero</i>,     -   9   "      -   <i>vulnero</i> (as in Caesar).
+<i>contendo</i> + infin., 20   "      -   never.
+<i>adorior</i>,        -  14   "      -   only in <i>Gall.</i> viii. 34.
+<i>adgredior</i>,      -  never       -   14 times.
+<i>grandis</i>,        -   7 times    -   <i>magnus</i>.
+<i>subito</i>,         -  22   "      -   never.
+<i>repente</i>,        -  never       -   16 times.
+<i>postquam</i>,       -  34   "      -   not in <i>Gall.</i> viii.
+hist. infin.,   -  24   "      -   never.
+</pre>
+
+<p>
+On the other hand, Widmann, <i>Philologus</i>, L. (1891),
+p. 565, proves that the author of the note-book worked
+up in the <i>Bell. Afr.</i> was an officer of the 5th legion,
+that Pollio was not connected with the 5th legion, and
+probably did not go through the whole African war, as
+the author clearly must have done. This, of course, also
+proves that Hirtius cannot have been the author.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p109">
+On the whole, we think it proved that the <i>Bell. Afr.</i>
+was not written by the author of <i>B. Gall.</i> viii. and <i>B. Alex.</i>,
+and that the author was not in any case Pollio. The
+<i>B. Alex.</i> is probably worked up from note-books written
+by several hands. The attempt to distinguish the work
+of Hirtius and another hand in <i>B. Gall.</i> viii. is against
+the evidence of Suetonius; and though several hands have
+co-operated in <i>B. Alex.</i>, it is hardly possible to distinguish
+them precisely.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Bell. Hisp.</i> is evidently the work of an eye-witness,
+cf. c. 29, &lsquo;nostri ad dimicandum procedunt, id quod
+adversarios existimabamus esse facturos.&rsquo; He is apt to
+be bombastic (c. 5, &lsquo;hic alternis non solum morti mortem
+exaggerabant, sed tumulos tumulis exaequabant&rsquo;), and
+makes a ridiculous show of learning (quoting the combat
+of Achilles and Memnon, c. 25, and Ennius, c. 23,
+&lsquo;nostri cessere parumper&rsquo;; c. 31, &lsquo;pes pede premitur,
+armis teruntur arma.&rsquo;)
+</p>
+
+<h4>(3) CAESAR&rsquo;S LOST WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>De Analogia</i>, a treatise on grammar in two Books,
+dedicated to Cicero (Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 253) and composed in
+the interval between two of the campaigns in Gaul.
+Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 56, &lsquo;Reliquit et de Analogia duos libros ...
+In transitu Alpium, cum ex citeriore Gallia conventibus
+peractis ad exercitum rediret ... fecit.&rsquo; It supported the
+view that <i>analogia</i>, not <i>anomalia</i>, should be the governing
+principle in grammar, <i>i.e.</i> that order should be introduced
+into the chaos of varying usages. Gellius i. 10, 4 has a
+notable quotation from the first Book, &lsquo;Habe semper in
+memoria atque in pectore, ut tamquam scopulum sic fugias
+inauditum atque insolens verbum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p110">
+2. <i>De Astris</i>, a book on astronomy, written apparently
+in connexion with the rectification of the calendar, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46,
+perhaps in Greek. Suetonius says nothing about it, but
+it was known to Macrobius, <i>Saturn.</i>, i. 16, 39, &lsquo;Iulius
+Caesar ... siderum motus, de quibus non indoctos libros
+reliquit, ab Aegyptiis disciplinis hausit.&rsquo; The <i>liber de computatione</i>
+and <i>liber fastorum</i>, attributed to Caesar by the
+Scholiast on Lucan, x. 185, 187, may have formed part
+of the <i>De Astris</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. <i>Anticatones</i>, written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 45, in reply to Cicero&rsquo;s panegyric
+on Cato, with flattering references to Cicero himself.
+Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 56, &lsquo;Reliquit et de Analogia duos libros et
+Anticatones totidem. ... Sub tempus Mundensis proelii
+fecit.&rsquo; Cicero expresses himself as highly pleased with
+the book, <i>ad Att.</i> xiii. 51, &lsquo;bene existimo de illis libris,
+ut tibi coram&rsquo;; but his tone is different in <i>Topica</i>, 94,
+&lsquo;quibus omnibus generibus usus est nimis impudenter
+Caesar contra Catonem meum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. <i>Apophthegmata</i>, a collection of notable sayings, probably
+growing out of the <i>Dicta Collectanea</i> of Sueton.
+<i>Iul.</i> 56, and completed <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46-5. Cic. <i>ad Fam.</i> ix. 16, 4,
+&lsquo;audio Caesarem, cum volumina iam confecerit <span class="greek">ἀποφθεγμάτων</span>,
+si quod afferatur ad eum pro meo, quod meum non
+sit, reicere solere.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+5. <i>Letters.</i>&mdash;In the time of Suetonius, Caesar&rsquo;s official
+despatches to the Senate were extant, and also private
+letters to Cicero and other friends, <i>e.g.</i> his confidants
+Balbus and Oppius. In these a cypher was, where
+necessary, employed. Cf. Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 56, and Gell.
+xvii. 9, 1.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p111">
+6. <i>Speeches.</i>&mdash;About a dozen titles of speeches are known,
+but only a few detached words and phrases survive. As
+an orator, Caesar stood in the front rank (Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 55).
+For encomiums on his style see Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 252, and
+Quintilian, x. 1, 114, who considered him second only to
+Cicero, and remarkable for <i>vis</i>, <i>acumen</i>, <i>concitatio</i>, and
+<i>elegantia</i>. The language of Tac. <i>Dial.</i> 21 is less complimentary,
+&lsquo;Nisi forte quisquam aut Caesaris pro Decio
+Samnite aut Bruti pro Deiotaro rege ceterosque eiusdem
+lentitudinis ac teporis libros legit, nisi qui et carmina
+eorumdem miratur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+7. <i>Poems.</i>&mdash;Caesar in his youth composed a poem in
+praise of Hercules, and a tragedy, <i>Oedipus</i>. Plutarch
+(<i>Caes.</i> 2) speaks of him as reciting poems of his own
+composition to the pirates who took him prisoner. On
+his journey from Rome to Spain, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46, he wrote a
+descriptive poem with the title of <i>Iter</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 56, &lsquo;Reliquit ... poema quod inscribitur
+Iter ... [fecit] dum ab urbe in Hispaniam ulteriorem quarto
+et vicensimo die pervenit ... Feruntur et a puero et ab
+adulescentulo quaedam scripta, ut Laudes Herculis, tragoedia
+Oedipus, item Dicta Collectanea: quos omnes
+libellos vetuit Augustus publicari, in epistula quam brevem
+admodum ac simplicem ad Pompeium Macrum, cui ordinandas
+bibliothecas delegaverat, misit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pliny the younger mentions Caesar as a love poet (<i>Ep.</i>
+v. 3, 5). His poetry is spoken of by Tacitus in no
+flattering terms, <i>Dial.</i> 21, &lsquo;fecerunt enim [Caesar et Brutus]
+et carmina et in bibliothecas rettulerunt, non melius quam
+Cicero, sed felicius, quia illos fecisse pauciores sciunt.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p112">
+The only extant lines are those on Terence (<i>q.v.</i>).
+</p>
+
+<h3>C. ASINIUS POLLIO.</h3>
+
+<p>
+C. Asinius Pollio (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 76-<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 5), governor of Farther
+Spain <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44, consul <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 40, retired from public life after his
+Dalmatian triumph, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 39. He was famous as an orator,
+and was the author of (1) A history of the civil wars from
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 60 (Hor. <i>Od.</i> ii. 1, 1 <i>sqq.</i>). (2) Tragedies (Verg.
+<i>Ecl.</i> 8, 10; Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 42; <i>Od.</i> ii. 1, 9 <i>sqq.</i>) and
+love poems (Plin. <i>Ep.</i> v. 3, 5). (3) A work in which
+the style of Sallust was criticized (Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 10).
+His remarks on Caesar, Cicero, and Livy may be from
+the same book (Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 56; Quint. xii. 1, 22; i. 5, 56).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For Pollio&rsquo;s style, cf. Quint. x. 1, 113, &lsquo;A nitore et iucunditate
+Ciceronis ita longe abest ut videri possit saeculo
+prior.&rsquo; Pollio founded the first public library at Rome, in
+the <i>Atrium Libertatis</i>, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 38 (Plin. <i>N.H.</i> xxxv. 10), For
+his intimacy with the poet Cinna, who wrote the <i>Propempticon
+Pollionis</i> in his honour, see <a href="#p142">p. 142</a>; and for his
+patronage of Virgil and Horace, see Verg. <i>Ecl.</i> 3, 84;
+8, 6-13; Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 42. Pollio, of course, belongs
+to the Augustan Age, but is mentioned here because of
+his connexion with the <i>Corpus Caesarianum</i>.
+</p>
+
+<h3>CORNELIUS NEPOS.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+The praenomen of Cornelius Nepos is unknown. In
+Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> iii. 127, he is called &lsquo;Padi adcola,&rsquo; and in
+Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> iv. 28, 1 (to Vibius Severus), he is mentioned as
+a townsman of T. Catius, &lsquo;Imagines municipum tuorum,
+Cornelii Nepotis et T. Cati.&rsquo; Now T. Catius was an Insubrian
+(Cic. <i>ad Fam.</i> xv. 16, 1), and as the only Insubrian
+town on the Padus was Ticinum, Nepos was probably born
+there.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p113">
+There is no direct evidence as to the date of his birth
+but we may infer from the following facts that he was
+born not long before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 100.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. Jerome puts his literary activity under <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 40 = yr.
+Abr. 1977, &lsquo;Cornelius Nepos scriptor historicus clarus
+habetur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. A son of his died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44 while a boy, and unknown
+to Cicero.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> xvi. 14, 4, &lsquo;Male narras de Nepotis filio:
+valde mehercule moveor et moleste fero; nescieram omnino
+esse istum puerum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. The respect with which he looks up to Atticus, who
+was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 109.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. A fragment of his <i>Exempla</i> quoted by Pliny, <i>N.H.</i>
+ix. 136, regarding the changes of fashion in purple robes:
+&lsquo;Nepos Cornelius, qui divi Augusti principatu obiit, &ldquo;Me,&rdquo;
+inquit, &ldquo;iuvene violacea purpura vigebat, ... nec multo
+post rubra Tarentina. Huic successit dibapha Tyria... Hac
+P. Lentulus Spinther aedilis curulis (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 63) primus in
+praetexta usus improbabatur. Qua purpura quis non iam,&rdquo;
+inquit, &ldquo;triclinaria facit?&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nepos held no public office, but confined himself to
+literature, in which he was associated with Atticus. Their
+intimacy must have begun after <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 65, when Atticus
+returned to Rome from Athens, where he had lived more
+than twenty years.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> v. 3, 6, &lsquo;P. Vergilius, Cornelius Nepos ... Non
+quidem hi senatores.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nep. <i>Att.</i> 13, 7, &lsquo;Atque hoc non auditum, sed cognitum
+praedicamus: saepe enim propter familiaritatem domesticis
+rebus interfuimus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p114">
+Nepos knew Cicero, doubtless, through Atticus, but there
+is no evidence that they were intimate, except Gell. xv. 28, 1,
+who is probably mistaken, &lsquo;Cornelius Nepos ... M. Ciceronis
+ut qui maxime amicus familiaris fuit.&rsquo; A fragment
+of a letter from Cicero to Nepos is quoted by Sueton.
+<i>Iul.</i> 55; from Nepos to Cicero by Lactant. <i>inst. div.</i>
+iii. 15, 10; and Fronto (p. 20, ed. Naber) speaks of a
+collection of Cicero&rsquo;s works revised by Nepos and Atticus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nepos was on intimate terms with Catullus, whom, as
+coming from Verona, he may have known in early life.
+Catullus, who is mentioned by Nepos (<i>Att.</i> 12, 4), dedicated
+a collection of poems to him (Catull. 1). Nepos was alive
+in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 29, in which, or the following year, he completed the
+life of Atticus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As regards Nepos&rsquo; character and views, Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> v. 3, 6,
+attributes to him <i>sanctitas morum</i>. The words of Cicero,
+<i>ad Att.</i> xvi. 5, 5, imply only a playful compliment, &lsquo;Et
+ais, &ldquo;<span class="greek">μετ&rsquo; ἀμύμονα</span>.&rdquo; Tu vero <span class="greek">ἀμύμων</span>, ille [Nepos] quidem
+<span class="greek">ἄμβροτος</span>.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nepos&rsquo; slight regard for philosophy is shown by a letter
+to Cicero quoted by Lactant. <i>inst. div.</i> iii. 15, 10, &lsquo;Tantum
+abest, ut ego magistram esse putem vitae philosophiam
+beataeque vitae perfectricem, ut nullis magis existimem
+opus esse magistris vivendi quam plerisque, qui in ea
+disputanda versantur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. also Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> xvi. 5, 5, &lsquo;Nepotis epistulam
+exspecto. Cupidus ille meorum? qui ea, quibus maxime
+<span class="greek">γαυριῶ</span>, legenda non putet.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Philosophy, according to Nepos, ought to be practical.</p>
+
+<p>
+Nep. <i>Att.</i> 17, 3, &lsquo;Nam principum philosophorum ita
+percepta habuit praecepta, ut his ad vitam agendam, non
+ad ostentationem uteretur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p115">
+Nepos, as is shown by his works, supported government
+by the Senate.
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+1. Erotic poems; mentioned by Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> v. 3, 6.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>Chronica</i>, in three books, embracing universal history.
+Catull. 1,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quoi dono lepidum novom libellum<br />
+arida modo pumice expolitum?<br />
+Corneli, tibi; namque tu solebas<br />
+meas esse aliquid putare nugas<br />
+iam tum, cum ausus es unus Italorum<br />
+omne aevom tribus explicare chartis,<br />
+doctis, Iuppiter, et laboriosis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+It is clear, from the above, that Nepos had mentioned
+Catullus in the work. That the mythical period was treated
+of is shown by Ausonius, <i>Ep.</i> 16, &lsquo;Apologos Titiani et
+Nepotis chronica quasi alios apologos (nam et ipsa instar
+sunt fabularum) ... misi ... ad institutionem tuorum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From Catullus we may possibly infer that the <i>Chronica</i>
+were written before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 63<a href="#fn031" id="ref031">[31]</a>; <i>unus Italorum</i> would imply
+that they were written before the similar works of Varro
+and Atticus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. <i>Exempla</i>, in at least five Books, treating of the history
+of Roman manners.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Gell. vi. 18, 11, &lsquo;Cornelius Nepos in libro exemplorum
+quinto.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. <i>Life of the elder Cato.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p id="p116">
+Nep. <i>Cat.</i> 3, 5, &lsquo;Huius de vita et moribus plura in eo
+libro persecuti sumus, quem separatim de eo fecimus rogatu
+T. Pomponii Attici. Quare studiosos Catonis ad illud
+volumen delegamus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+5. <i>Life of Cicero</i>, written after his death (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43).
+Gell. xv. 28, 2, &lsquo;in primo librorum, quos de vita illius
+composuit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+6. <i>A geographical work</i>, referred to by Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> v. 4,
+etc. All the above works are lost.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+7. <i>De Viris Illustribus</i>, his last work, was dedicated to
+Atticus (praef. i); an addition to the life of Atticus was
+made after his death.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Att.</i> 19, 1, &lsquo;Hactenus Attico vivo edita a nobis sunt.
+Nunc, quoniam fortuna nos superstites ei esse voluit,
+reliqua persequemur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From <i>Att.</i> 12, 1-2, we may conclude that the publication
+took place between <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 35 and 33. The addition to the
+life of Atticus was written at some time between <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 31
+and 27, as in <i>Att.</i> 19, 2, Octavian is called <i>imperator</i>,
+but not <i>Augustus</i>, a title which he received in the last-mentioned
+year.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The work contained at least sixteen Books: cf. Charis.
+<i>G.L.</i> i. 141 (ed. Keil), &lsquo;Cornelius Nepos illustrium virorum
+libro xvi.&rsquo;; and was divided into sections of two Books each,
+the first on distinguished foreigners, the second on distinguished
+Romans of the same class. We possess the book
+<i>de excellentibus ducibus exterarum gentium</i>; from <i>de historicis
+Latinis</i> the lives of Cato the Censor and Atticus, and fragments
+of the letters of Cornelia, mother of the Gracci.
+There are also mentioned the books <i>de regibus</i> (Nep. <i>de reg.</i>
+1, 1; 3, 5); <i>de excellentibus ducibus Romanorum</i> (Nep. <i>Hann.</i>
+13, 4); <i>de historicis Graecis</i> (Nep. <i>Dion,</i> 3, 2); <i>de poetis</i>
+(Sueton. p. 31 <span class="sc">R.</span>); <i>de grammaticis</i> (Sueton. p. 103 <span class="sc">R.</span>). The
+work probably dealt also with <i>iurisconsulti</i>, <i>oratores</i>, and
+<i>philosophi</i>. The book is biographical rather than historical,
+and is designed to compare foreigners with Romans, and to
+please, as well as instruct, those ignorant of Greek culture.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p117">
+<i>Pel.</i> 1, 1, &lsquo;Vereor ... ne non vitam eius enarrare, sed
+historiam videar scribere.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Hann.</i> 13, 4, &lsquo;Tempus est ... Romanorum explicare imperatores,
+quo facilius collatis utrorumque factis, qui viri
+praeferendi sint, possit iudicari.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Pel.</i> 1, 1, &lsquo;Medebor cum satietati tum ignorantiae lectorum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Praef.</i> 2, &lsquo;Hi erunt fere, qui expertes litterarum Graecarum,&rsquo;
+etc.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Besides tradition and his own recollection, Nepos mentions
+the following sources: Thucydides (<i>Them.</i> 1, 4, etc.);
+Xenophon (<i>Ag.</i> 1, 1); Plato&rsquo;s <i>Symposium</i> (<i>Alc.</i> 2, 2);
+Theopompus (<i>Alc.</i> 11, 1); Dinon (<i>Con.</i> 5, 4); Timaeus
+(<i>Alc.</i> 11, 1); Silenus, Sosilus, Polybius, Sulpicius Blitho,
+Atticus (<i>Hann.</i> 13, 1 and 3); the writings of Hannibal
+(<i>Hann.</i> 13, 2); Speeches and <i>Origines</i> of Cato (<i>Cat.</i> 3, 2);
+Cicero&rsquo;s works, especially <i>Epp. ad Att.</i> (<i>Att.</i> 16, 3). The
+book contains lives of twenty Greek generals from the
+Persian wars to the time of Alexander&rsquo;s successors; a short
+article on Persian and Macedonian kings who were also
+generals; and the lives of Hamilcar and Hannibal, Cato
+and Atticus. The work possesses little independent value,
+and the following are the chief faults:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. There are many mistakes in history and geography.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. The biographies, and the events recorded in them,
+are badly arranged; eulogy is employed indiscriminately,
+and petty anecdotes are too frequent.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p118">
+3. Important names, as Cimon and Lysander, are dismissed
+too briefly; others, as Atticus and Datames, are
+treated too fully. Many are left out altogether, as some
+of the leaders in the Peloponnesian war.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. Important authorities are not used: so Herodotus,
+for Miltiades, Themistocles, and Pausanias. No use is
+made of the <i>Hellenica</i> of Xenophon.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For views on Nepos, cf. Gell. xv. 28, 1, &lsquo;Cornelius
+Nepos rerum memoriae non indiligens.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> v. 4, &lsquo;Portentosa Graeciae mendacia ... quaeque alia Cornelius Nepos avidissime credidit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nepos is not mentioned by Quintilian in his list of
+Roman historians.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> only the <i>Atticus</i> and the <i>Cato</i> are ascribed to
+Nepos, the rest being entitled <i>Liber Aemilii Probi de
+excellentibus ducibus exterarum gentium</i>. It has been suggested
+that this arose from a misapprehension of <i>em</i>(<i>endavi</i>)
+<i>Probus</i>. There is an epigram by this Probus in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>,
+referring to poems of his and standing after the Life of
+Hannibal, which informs us that he was a contemporary
+of Theodosius (probably Theodosius I., <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 379-395).
+That the work cannot be by him is shown by the political
+references, which suit only the beginning of the empire,
+by the mention of Atticus in the preface, and by the
+correspondence in style between the book and the lives
+of Atticus and Cato, admittedly the work of Nepos; also
+by the fact that L. Ampelius, who probably wrote before
+the time of Diocletian, used the work in his <i>Liber Memorialis</i>.
+</p>
+
+<h3 id="p119">LUCRETIUS.</h3>
+
+<p>
+Our information about Lucretius&rsquo; life is very scanty.
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1922 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 95, &lsquo;T. Lucretius poeta
+nascitur, qui postea amatorio poculo in furorem versus,
+cum aliquot libros per intervalla insaniae conscripsisset,
+quos postea Cicero emendavit, propria se manu interfecit
+anno aetatis xliiii.&rsquo; (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 52 or 51).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Donatus, <i>vit. Verg.</i> 2, &lsquo;Initia aetatis Cremonae egit
+[Vergilius] usque ad virilem togam, quam xv. anno natali
+suo accepit isdem illis consulibus iterum duobus quibus
+erat natus, evenitque ut eo ipso die Lucretius poeta
+decederet&rsquo; (October 15).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Teuffel thinks xliiii. is wrong, and would read xlii., thus
+giving the dates as <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 96-55, as he thinks that Jerome
+has fixed the date of birth one year too late. Munro (vol.
+ii. p. 1) accepts xliiii., but thinks that Jerome (as elsewhere)
+is a few years wrong in the date of Lucretius&rsquo;
+birth, and gives the dates as <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 99-55. It is impossible
+to decide as to the date of birth, but most authorities agree
+on <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55 as the date of death, a view which is supported
+by the only contemporary reference to the poet: Cic. <i>ad
+Q.F.</i> ii. 11, 4 (written in February, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 54), &lsquo;Lucreti
+poemata, ut scribis, ita sunt: multis luminibus ingeni,
+multae tamen artis; sed cum veneris. Virum te putabo,
+si Sallusti Empedoclea legeris, hominem non putabo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The above extract is given in the reading of the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>
+Some editors read <i>non</i> before <i>multis</i>, others <i>non</i> before
+<i>multae</i>, but it is best to follow the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> (with Tyrrell),
+translating &ldquo;But when you come (we shall talk about it).
+I shall consider you a hero, if you read Sallust&rsquo;s <i>Empedoclea</i>;
+I shall not consider you a human being.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p120">
+As regards Lucretius&rsquo; madness, there is no absolute
+impossibility in the story. Munro (vol. ii. pp. 2, 3)
+accepts Jerome&rsquo;s account of Cicero&rsquo;s editorship; others,
+less probably, believe that Q. Cicero was editor. The first
+view is rendered probable by the high opinion Lucretius
+had of Cicero, as seen from the frequency with which he
+imitates his <i>Aratea</i> (Munro on Lucr. v. 619), and from
+the knowledge Cicero shows of Lucretius&rsquo; work, as in
+<i>Tusc.</i> i. 48.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The poet&rsquo;s full name is given in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> as T. Lucretius
+Carus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This is all the direct evidence regarding Lucretius&rsquo;
+life.<a href="#fn032" id="ref032">[32]</a> The <i>de rerum natura</i> is addressed to C. Memmius.<a href="#fn033" id="ref033">[33]</a>
+From Cic. <i>ad Fam.</i> xiii. 1 (where Cicero tells us he
+employed his good offices with Memmius on behalf of
+Patro for the preservation of the gardens of Epicurus), it
+appears that he was not an Epicurean. Memmius is the
+only contemporary mentioned by Lucretius; i. 24,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Te sociam studeo scribendis versibus esse<br />
+quos ego de rerum natura pangere conor<br />
+Memmiadae nostro, quem tu, dea, tempore in omni<br />
+omnibus ornatum voluisti excellere rebus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p121">
+Many, arguing from the fact that Carus is not known
+elsewhere as a cognomen of the gens Lucretia, think that
+the poet was a freedman or a freedman&rsquo;s son, but from
+the tone of equality in which he addresses Memmius, it
+is more probable that he was a patrician; cf. i. 140,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Sed tua me virtus tamen et sperata voluptas<br />
+suavis amicitiae quemvis sufferre laborem<br />
+suadet.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Several personal characteristics may be inferred from the
+poem:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. His earnestness and sincerity; iii. 28,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;His ibi me rebus quaedam divina voluptas<br />
+percipit atque horror,&rsquo; etc.
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. the importance he attaches to his subject, i. 926,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Avia Pieridum peragro loca nullius ante<br />
+trita solo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+2. His admiration for the great men of the past. Cf.
+iii. 1024-52, where Ancus, the Scipios, Homer, Democritus,
+and Epicurus are praised; the introductions to Books i.,
+iii., v., vi., on Epicurus; i. 716-33 on Empedocles; i. 117-9
+on Ennius.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. His powers of observation and love of nature. Cf.
+i. 716-25; ii. 29 <i>sqq.</i>, 40 <i>sqq.</i>; 323-32; iv. 572 <i>sqq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. His experience of women. Book iv. 1037-the end.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+5. His wide reading. The poem shows knowledge of
+Epicurus, Empedocles, Democritus, Anaxagoras, Heraclitus,
+Plato, the Stoic writers, Thucydides, Hippocrates, Homer,
+Euripides. Among Latin writers Ennius, Naevius, Pacuvius,
+Lucilius, and Accius are all imitated.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p122">
+There is a reference to contemporary history in i. 41-3,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nam neque nos agere hoc patriai tempore iniquo<br />
+possumus aequo animo nec Memmi clara propago<br />
+talibus in rebus communi desse saluti.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Munro thinks that these lines were written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 59, when
+Memmius was <i>praetor designatus</i>, in fierce opposition to
+Caesar, and on the side of the Senate. If this is so, the
+poem was probably written between <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 60 and 55. The
+lines on ambition and its attendant evils (as iii. 931 <i>sqq.</i>,
+v. 1117-35, etc.) may have been written with a special
+view to the facts of Memmius&rsquo; life. Lucretius may refer
+to his recollection of the civil wars in v. 999,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;At non multa virum sub signis milia ducta<br />
+una dies dabat exitio.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+In ii. 40 <i>sqq.</i> there is perhaps a reference to Caesar&rsquo;s
+army in the Campus Martius at the beginning of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 58.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <i>de rerum natura</i> is an exposition of Epicureanism,
+especially on its physical side; i. 54,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nam tibi de summa caeli ratione deumque<br />
+disserere incipiam et rerum primordia pandam,&rsquo; etc.
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The title is taken from Epicurus&rsquo; <cite class="greek">περὶ φύσεως</cite>, which
+Lucretius followed closely, as is evident from the account
+of the Epicurean philosophy in Diogenes Laertius, x., and
+from the fragments of Epicurean writers discovered at
+Herculaneum in 1752. He probably used as his model
+Empedocles&rsquo; poem <cite class="greek">περὶ φύσεως</cite>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The object of the poem is to deliver men from the fear
+of death and of the gods; iii. 37,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Et metus ille foras praeceps Acheruntis agendus&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+i. 62-101; cf. l. 101,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Tantum religio potuit suadere malorum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p123">
+Note that the invocation to Venus at the beginning of
+the poem is not inconsistent, but is an address to the
+universal principle of generation; cf. i. 21,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quae quoniam rerum naturam sola gubernas.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The scope of the Books is as follows: Books i. and ii.
+state the physical theories of Democritus and Epicurus.
+Book i. states the Atomic Theory of Democritus, held
+by Epicurus, that the world consists of atoms and void.
+The theories of Heraclitus, Empedocles, Anaxagoras, etc.
+are refuted; i. 740,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Principiis tamen in rerum fecere ruinas<br />
+et graviter magni magno cecidere ibi casu.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Book ii. treats of the combinations of atoms, and the
+principle of the swerve introduced to explain free-will. The
+varieties of atoms are shown to be limited. In Book iii.
+the nature of the mind and life is shown to be material.
+<i>Religio</i> and the fear of death (cf. ll. 978 <i>sqq.</i>) are attacked
+principally in this Book; iii. 830,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nil igitur mors est ad nos neque pertinet hilum,<br />
+quandoquidem natura animi mortalis habetur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Book iv. treats of the theory of <i>simulacra</i> or images, of
+the senses, and particularly of love. Book v. treats of the
+formation of the earth and the heavenly bodies, the origin
+of life, and the progress of civilization. It is shown that
+nothing has been created, and that everything must perish.
+Book vi. treats of abnormal phenomena, such as thunder
+and lightning, tempests, volcanoes, earthquakes, etc. The
+plague at Athens is described (from Thucydides). Books
+v. and vi. are unfinished.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Ethical views are given only by the way, the poem being
+primarily on physics. Pleasure is the end of action: ii.
+172, &lsquo;dux vitae dia voluptas.&rsquo; This pleasure is the absence
+of disturbance (<span class="greek">ἀταραξία</span>), hence all passion (as of love,
+iv. 1121-40) is deprecated; ii. 14,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;O miseras hominum mentes, o pectora caeca!<br />
+qualibus in tenebris vitae quantisque periclis<br />
+degitur hoc aevi quodcumque est! nonne videre<br />
+nil aliud sibi naturam latrare, nisi utqui<br />
+corpore seiunctus dolor absit, mente fruatur<br />
+iucundo sensu cura semota metuque?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Lucretius, as Epicurus, is often weak in physics. Cf.
+v. 564 <i>sqq.</i>, of the sun&rsquo;s size,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nec nimio solis maior rota nec minor ardor<br />
+esse potest, nostris quam sensibus esse videtur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+In i. 1052 <i>sqq.</i> he states well the theory of the antipodes
+but his dependence on Epicurus will not allow him to
+accept it. Reasons are sometimes given for a thing that
+never existed, as in iv. 710-21 for the fear that a lion has
+for a cock. Some passages come near the results of modern
+science, cf. v. 837 <i>sqq.</i> on extinct species; v. 855 <i>sqq.</i> on
+the struggle for existence; v. 610-3, on the invisible rays
+of the sun.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p124">
+The references to Lucretius by name are few.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nep. <i>Att.</i> 12, 4, &lsquo;L. Iulium Calidum, quem post Lucreti
+Catullique mortem multo elegantissimum poetam nostram
+tulisse aetatem vere videor posse contendere.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Ovid, <i>Am.</i> i. 15, 23,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Carmina sublimis tunc sunt peritura Lucreti,<br />
+exitio terras cum dabit una dies.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Trist.</i> ii. 425,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Explicat ut causas rapidi Lucretius ignis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Stat. <i>Silv.</i> ii. 7, 76,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;docti furor arduus Lucreti.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p125">
+Quint. x. 1, 87, &lsquo;Macer et Lucretius legendi quidem, sed
+non ut phrasin, id est, corpus eloquentiae faciant; elegantes
+in sua quisque materia, sed alter humilis alter difficilis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. Tac. <i>Dial.</i> 23.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His influence on Virgil is seen <i>passim</i>. Cf. Gell. i. 21, 7,
+&lsquo;Non verba sola sed versus prope totos et locos quoque
+Lucreti plurimos sectatum esse Vergilium videmus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Verg. <i>Georg.</i> ii. 490 <i>sqq.</i> and <i>Ecl.</i> 6, 31 <i>sqq.</i> refer to
+Lucretius. <i>Georg.</i> ii. 490,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas<br />
+atque metus omnes et inexorabile fatum<br />
+subiecit pedibus strepitumque Acherontis avari.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Horace has also imitated him in several places: so <i>Sat.</i> i.
+3, 99-110 (on primitive man) = Lucr. v. 1028 <i>sqq.</i>; <i>Sat.</i> i. 5,
+101 <i>sqq.</i> = Lucr. v. 82 <i>sqq.</i> Most of the poets after him,
+particularly Manilius, came under his influence.
+</p>
+
+<h3>SALLUST.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+C. Sallustius Crispus was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 86 at Amiternum,
+in the country of the Sabines, and died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 35.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1931 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 86, &lsquo;Sallustius Crispus,
+scriptor historicus, in Sabinis Amiterni nascitur.&rsquo; <i>Ibid.</i>
+1982 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 35, &lsquo;Sallustius diem obiit, quadriennio ante
+Actiacum bellum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sallust was of plebeian family, as is seen from the fact
+that he was afterwards <i>tribunus plebis</i>. According to the
+Pseud.-Cic. <i>in Sallustium declamatio</i>, 13-14, he led an
+evil life in youth, and brought his father with sorrow to
+the grave.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. § 14, &lsquo;Cuiquam dubium potest esse, quin mori
+coegerit eum [patrem]?&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p126">
+There is a story that Milo punished him for an amour
+with his wife.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Gell. xvii. 18, &lsquo;M. Varro ... in libro quem scripsit &ldquo;Pius
+aut de pace,&rdquo; C. Sallustium scriptorem seriae illius et
+severae orationis, in cuius historia notiones censorias fieri
+atque exerceri videmus, in adulterio deprehensum ab Annio
+Milone loris bene caesum dicit et, cum dedisset pecuniam,
+dimissum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The story is corroborated by Pseud.-Cic. <i>in Sall.</i> 15;
+by Macrob. iii. 13, 9, &lsquo;<i>alienae</i> luxuriae obiurgator et
+censor,&rsquo; and others; and Sallust himself appears to admit
+that there was something wrong; <i>Cat.</i> 4, &lsquo;a quo incepto
+studioque me ambitio mala detinuerat.&rsquo;<a href="#fn034" id="ref034">[34]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sallust speaks of the political offices he filled, and of
+the class of men who were unsuccessful candidates about
+the same time&mdash;a supposed reference to M. Cato&rsquo;s candidature
+for the praetorship, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Iug.</i> 4, &lsquo;Qui si reputaverint, et quibus ego temporibus
+magistratus adeptus sim et quales viri idem adsequi
+nequiverint,&rsquo; etc.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After being quaestor (Pseud.-Cic. <i>in Sall.</i> 15), he was,
+in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 52, <i>tribunus plebis</i>, when he and other two tribunes
+opposed Cicero in his defence of Milo.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Ascon. <i>in Cic. pro Mil.</i> p. 33 (Kiessl. and Schöll), &lsquo;C.
+Sallustius et T. Munatius Plancus tr. pleb. inimicissimas
+contiones de Milone habebant.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 50, Sallust was <i>legatus pro quaestore</i> to Bibulus
+in Syria, according to Mommsen (<i>Hermes</i>, i. 171), who
+thinks that the Sallust to whom Cicero writes <i>ad Fam.</i> ii. 17
+is the historian. In the same year he was expelled from
+the Senate by the censors, Appius Claudius and L. Piso.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p127">
+Pseud.-Cic. <i>in Sall.</i> 16, &lsquo;neque post illum delectum
+senatus vidimus te.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 49, Caesar reappointed him quaestor, and he
+resumed his place in the Senate.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pseud.-Cic. <i>in Sall.</i> 17, &lsquo;in senatum post quaesturam est
+reductus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 48, he commanded a legion in Illyria without
+distinction (Orosius vi, 15, 8), and next year he was
+Caesar&rsquo;s agent with the insurgent legions in Campania
+(Appian, <i><span class="bcad">B.C.</span></i> ii. 92). In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46 he was praetor, and as
+such commanded successfully an expedition to seize the
+enemy&rsquo;s stores in Cercina.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Bell. Afr.</i> 8, &lsquo;Item C. Sallustium Crispum praetorem ad
+Cercinam insulam versus, quam adversarii tenebant, cum
+parte navium ire iubet.&rsquo; (See also c. 34.)
+</p>
+
+<p>
+At the end of the year he was appointed proconsul of
+Numidia.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ibid.</i> 97, &lsquo;Ibi Sallustio pro consule cum imperio relicto
+ipse Zama egressus Uticam se recepit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As proconsul, he plundered the province, and bought,
+probably with the spoils, the <i>horti Sallustiani</i>, which afterwards
+belonged to the Roman emperors (see Tac. <i>Ann.</i>
+xiii. 47; <i>Hist.</i> iii. 82).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pseud.-Cic. <i>in Sall.</i> 19, &lsquo;Nonne ita provinciam vastavit,
+ut nihil neque passi sint neque exspectaverint gravius in
+bello socii nostri, quam experti sint in pace hoc Africam
+interiorem obtinente?&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sallust is said to have married Terentia, whom Cicero
+had divorced (Jerome <i>adv. Iov.</i> 1). Probably he had no
+son, as he adopted a grandson of his sister.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p128">
+Tac. <i>Ann.</i> iii. 30, &lsquo;Crispum equestri ortum loco C.
+Sallustius, rerum Romanarum florentissimus auctor, sororis
+nepotem in nomen adscivit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After Caesar&rsquo;s death, Sallust retired from public life,
+and, having no taste for sport or agriculture, spent his
+leisure in writing history.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Cat.</i> 4, &lsquo;Ubi ... mihi reliquam aetatem a re publica procul
+habendam decrevi, non fuit consilium socordia atque
+desidia bonum otium conterere, neque vero agrum colundo
+aut venando servilibus officiis intentum aetatem agere;
+sed ... statui res gestas populi Romani carptim, ut quaeque
+memoria digna videbantur, perscribere.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sallust, as above stated, died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 35.
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>De Catilinae Coniuratione</i> (so <i>Cat.</i> 4). The book is
+called <i>bellum Catilinae</i> by Quint. iii. 8, 9, and in some
+<span class="bcad">MSS.</span>; in <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> also <i>bellum Catilinarium</i>. The work was
+written after Caesar&rsquo;s death (<i>Cat.</i> 53-4). It is, as Mommsen
+(<i>R.H.</i> iv. 184, note) states, a political pamphlet in the
+interests of the democratic party (on which the monarchy
+was based), and tries to clear Caesar from the charge of
+being implicated in the Catilinarian conspiracy, and collaterally
+performing the same service for C. Antonius, the
+uncle of the triumvir.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. <i>Cat.</i> 49, &lsquo;Sed isdem temporibus Q. Catulus et C.
+Piso neque pretio neque gratia Ciceronem inpellere potuere,
+uti per Allobroges aut alium indicem C. Caesar falso
+nominaretur. Nam uterque cum illo gravis inimicitias
+exercebant ... Sed ubi consulem ad tantum facinus inpellere
+nequeunt,&rsquo; etc. (Cf. also Caesar&rsquo;s speech in
+<i>Cat.</i> 51.)
+</p>
+
+<p id="p129">
+<i>Cat.</i> 59, &lsquo;At ex altera parte C. Antonius pedibus aeger,
+quod proelio adesse nequibat, M. Petreio legato exercitum
+permittit.&rsquo; Dion Cassius, xxxvii. 39, on the other hand,
+says that this was a pretence, Antonius being unwilling
+to fight against his old confederate.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>Bellum Iugurthinum</i>. (So in <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> and Quint. iii. 8, 9.)
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Iug.</i> 5, &lsquo;Bellum scripturus sum, quod populus Romanus
+cum Iugurtha rege Numidarum gessit, primum quia
+magnum et atrox variaque victoria fuit, dehinc quia tunc
+primum superbiae nobilitatis obviam itum est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The object of the book is to give a picture of the low
+state of the oligarchical government (cf. <i>Iug.</i> 8, &lsquo;Romae
+omnia venalia esse&rsquo;), and to glorify Marius, the chief of
+the democratic party.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of his sources, Sallust mentions Sisenna (<i>Iug.</i> 95) for
+information about Sulla, and native authorities for African
+ethnography.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Iug.</i> 17, &lsquo;Sed qui mortales initio Africam habuerint,
+quique postea adcesserint, aut quo modo inter se permixti
+sint ... uti ex libris Punicis, qui regis Hiempsalis dicebantur,
+interpretatum nobis est ... dicam.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sallust probably also used the memoirs of Scaurus, Sulla,
+and Catulus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. <i>Historiae</i>.&mdash;This work dealt with the events from
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 78 to 67. Cf. Ausonius, p. 264 (ed. Peiper),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ab Lepido et Catulo iam res et tempora Romae<br />
+orsus his senos seriem conecto per annos.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+There is no reference in the fragments to any event
+after <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 67. The book took up the history where Sisenna
+had left off, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 78. Cf. i. <i>frag.</i> 1 (ed. Maurenbrecher),
+&lsquo;Res populi Romani M. Lepido Q. Catulo coss. ac deinde
+militiae et domi gestas composui.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p130">
+Four speeches and two letters from the <i>Histories</i> have
+been preserved in a collection of Sallustian speeches and
+letters made for rhetorical purposes, probably in the second
+century <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> Besides these there are considerable fragments,
+chiefly from Books ii. and iii. We may conclude
+from <i>Iug.</i> 95, &lsquo;neque enim alio loco de Sullae rebus
+dicturi sumus,&rsquo; that the career of Sulla was not treated
+of in the <i>Histories</i>. He is, however, repeatedly mentioned.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Two works are falsely attributed to Sallust:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>Oratio invectiva in Tullium</i>, composed, along with
+an <i>Oratio invectiva in Sallustium</i> falsely ascribed to Cicero,
+by the same ancient rhetorician. The <i>Or. in Tull.</i> is
+quoted by Quintilian, if the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> are right, <i>e.g.</i> iv. 1, 68.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. An oration and an epistle <i>ad Caesarem senem de re
+publica</i>, both probably belonging to the imperial period.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Sallust as a historian.</i>&mdash;1. He departed from the
+annalistic arrangement, and took a broader view of his
+subject, endeavouring to connect events together, and to
+trace the motives of actions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. He shows a want of precision in his facts. Instead
+of giving dates, he often says vaguely <i>interea</i>; <i>isdem
+temporibus</i>; <i>dum haec aguntur</i>. One year in the Jugurthine
+war is left unaccounted for, and Marius is represented as
+consul in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 105. So in geography and ethnography (as in
+the <i>Iugurtha</i>) he is not to be trusted. In <i>Iug.</i> 21 he
+forgets that Cirta is fifty miles from the sea, and that
+city is besieged in the usual way, though surrounded on
+three sides by gorges.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He prides himself on his impartiality.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Cat.</i> 4, &lsquo;Mihi a spe, metu, partibus rei publicae animus
+liber erat.&rsquo; So <i>Hist.</i> i. fr. 6.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p131">
+His leaning to the popular party, however, has been
+shown above.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. His speeches do not always suit the speaker or his
+audience, and are not historical. Thus the speech of Catiline
+(<i>Cat.</i> 20) does not suit his audience and is not authentic,
+and that of Marius (<i>Iug.</i> 85) is too learned for the speaker.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. His prefaces have little to do with what follows. Cf.
+Quint. iii. 8, 9, &lsquo;C. Sallustius in bello Iugurthino et Catilinae
+nihil ad historiam pertinentibus principiis orsus est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+5. He is too fond of hackneyed moral maxims and trite
+sayings. Thus:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Cat.</i> i, &lsquo;Sed nostra omnis vis in animo et corpore sita
+est,&rsquo; etc.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Iug.</i> 2, &lsquo;Nam uti genus hominum compositum ex corpore
+et anima est, ita res cunctae studiaque omnia nostra corporis
+alia, alia animi naturam secuntur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His tone is that of a severe moralist.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Cat.</i> 3, &lsquo;Sed ego adulescentulus initio sicuti plerique
+studio ad rem publicam latus sum, ibique mihi multa advorsa
+fuere. Nam pro pudore, pro abstinentia, pro virtute audacia,
+largitio, avaritia vigebant,&rsquo; etc.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As this moralizing did not fit in with the facts of his life
+he was censured for it, as shown above.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Sallust&rsquo;s authorities and models.</i>&mdash;Besides the authorities
+mentioned above, he used a <i>breviarium rerum omnium
+Romanarum</i> prepared for him by the grammarian Ateius
+(Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 10). He is said to have borrowed phrases
+from Cato.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Quint. viii. 3, 29, &lsquo;Nec minus noto Sallustius epigrammate
+incessitur:
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&ldquo;Et verba antiqui multum furate Catonis,<br />
+Crispe, Iugurthinae conditor historiae.&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p132">
+The similarity of Sallust&rsquo;s style to that of Thucydides, whom
+he tried to emulate, was remarked by the ancients.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Quint. ix. 3, 17, &lsquo;Ex Graeco vero translata vel Sallustii
+plurima, quale est &ldquo;volgus amat fieri&rdquo;&rsquo; [<i>Iug.</i> 34, a poor
+instance, and wrongly quoted]. Cf. <i>Cat.</i> 6, &lsquo;magisque
+dandis quam accipiundis beneficiis amicitias parabant,&rsquo; and
+Thuc. ii. 40, 4, <span class="greek">οὐ γὰρ πάσχοντες εὖ ἀλλὰ δρῶντες κτώμεθα τοὺς φίλους</span>:
+<i>Iug.</i> 73, &lsquo;in maius celebrare,&rsquo; and Thuc.
+i. 10, 3, <span class="greek">ἐπὶ τὸ μεῖζον κοσμῆσαι</span>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sallust&rsquo;s popularity is shown by the numerous references
+to him, particularly in Quintilian. Cf. Quint. x. 1, 101,
+&lsquo;At non historia cesserit Graecis, nec opponere Thucydidi
+Sallustium verear&rsquo;; § 102, &lsquo;immortalem illam Sallustii velocitatem.&rsquo;
+Cf. also Martial, xiv. 191, &lsquo;primus Romana Crispus
+in historia.&rsquo; Tacitus is the most important writer influenced
+by Sallust. For imitations cf. Tac. <i>Agr.</i> 37, where part of
+the description of a battle is modelled on <i>Iug.</i> 101. Cf.
+also <i>Cat.</i> 43, &lsquo;facto non consulto in tali periculo opus esse,&rsquo;
+and Tac. <i>Hist.</i> i. 62, &lsquo;ubi facto magis quam consulto opus
+esset.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h3>CATULLUS.</h3>
+
+<p>
+The poet&rsquo;s full name, C.<a href="#fn035" id="ref035">[35]</a> Valerius Catullus, is got from
+Jerome and other authorities quoted below, as also his
+birthplace, Verona, to which Catullus himself refers
+(c. 67, 34, &lsquo;Veronae meae&rsquo;; 68, 27; 100, 2). The dates
+of his birth and death are uncertain. Jerome gives them
+as <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 87-58.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Yr. Abr. 1930 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 87, &lsquo;Gaius Valerius Catullus scriptor
+lyricus Veronae nascitur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p133">
+Yr. Abr. 1959 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 58, &lsquo;Catullus xxx. aetatis anno
+Romae moritur.&rsquo; His early death is referred to by Ovid,
+<i>Am.</i> iii. 9, 61,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Obvius huic [Tibullo] venias hedera iuvenilia cinctus<br />
+tempora, cum Calvo, docte Catulle, tuo&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+but it is quite certain that the year of his death given by
+Jerome as <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 58 is wrong. In c. 113, 2, the second consulship
+of Pompeius in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55 is referred to, and cc. 11
+and 29 were written after Caesar&rsquo;s expedition to Britain
+in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55. C. 52 used to be taken as referring to <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 47,
+from l. 3, &lsquo;per consulatum perierat Vatinius,&rsquo; but, as shown
+below, was written in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55 or 54. As no clear reference
+is found to any event after <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 54 (a highly important time,
+which would have been likely to produce some sarcastic
+poetry from Catullus), it is best to accept the view that
+Catullus lived from 87 to 54 or 53 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> B. Schmidt (ed.
+mai. 1887, prolegomena), on the other hand, fixes the dates
+as 82-52 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> (accepting Jerome&rsquo;s account of Catullus&rsquo; age),
+and attributes c. 38 (to Cornificius) to the latter year.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Catullus&rsquo; family was wealthy and of good position, as is
+seen from his having estates at Sirmio (c. 31) and Tibur
+(c. 44), and from the fact that his father was a friend of
+Julius Caesar.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 73, &lsquo;Hospitioque patris eius [Catulli], sicut
+consueverat, uti perseveravit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Catullus went to Rome early, and there, as Schmidt
+thinks, was taught by the grammarian Valerius Cato, to
+whom c. 56 is probably addressed. From c. 68, 34-5, we
+see that he was settled at Rome.
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Romae vivimus: illa domus,<br />
+illa mihi sedes, illic mea carpitur aetas.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p134">
+Catullus wrote love-poetry soon after taking the <i>toga
+virilis</i>; c. 68, 15,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Tempore quo primum vestis mihi tradita purast,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;iucundum cum aetas florida ver ageret,<br />
+multa satis lusi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Catullus&rsquo; love for Lesbia is the outstanding fact of his life.
+Her real name was Clodia, the sister of P. Clodius, nicknamed
+for her immorality &lsquo;quadrantaria.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Apuleius, <i>Apol.</i> 10, &lsquo;Accusent C. Catullum quod Lesbiam
+pro Clodia nominarit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Ovid, <i>Trist.</i> ii. 427,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Sic sua lascivo cantata est saepe Catullo<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;femina, cui falsum Lesbia nomen erat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The name Lesbia (which scans like Clodia) may be got
+from Sappho, the Lesbian poetess, on whom c. 51 (probably
+the first addressed to Clodia) is modelled. The facts known
+about Clodia all fit in with what Catullus tells us of Lesbia.
+For Lesbia&rsquo;s beauty, cf. cc. 43 and 86; Clodia was called
+<span class="greek">βοῶπις</span> from her large and lustrous eyes (Cic. <i>ad Att.</i>
+ii. 9, 1; 12, 2, etc.). For her relations with her husband,
+cf. Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> ii. 1, 5 (written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 60), &lsquo;Est enim seditiosa:
+cum viro bellum gerit.&rsquo; A hint of the real name is got from
+c. 79, where the Lesbius mentioned is Clodius, just as
+Lesbia is Clodia,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Lesbius est pulcer: quid ni? quem Lesbia malit<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;quam te cum tota gente, Catulle, tua.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+It is probable that the acquaintance began in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 61.
+In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 62 Clodia was the wife of Q. Caecilius Metellus
+Celer (Cic. <i>ad Fam.</i> v. 2, 6), and in that year Metellus was
+governor of Gallia Cisalpina. Now from c. 83 it is evident
+that Lesbia&rsquo;s husband was in Rome when she began to be
+annoyed by Catullus&rsquo; attentions. We may conclude from
+c. 30 that P. Alfenus Varus introduced Catullus to Lesbia.
+In that poem Catullus blames Varus for leading him on
+and then leaving him in the lurch. M&rsquo;. Allius is next mentioned
+(c. 68) as a friend in whose house Catullus met
+Lesbia; and cc. 2, 3, 5, and 7 probably belong to this
+fortunate period of the poet&rsquo;s love. C. 8 speaks of Lesbia&rsquo;s
+leaving him (cf. c. 92), probably on account of her husband&rsquo;s
+suspicions. Cf. c. 5, 1,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p135">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Vivamus, mea Lesbia, atque amemus,<br />
+rumoresque senum severiorum<br />
+omnes unius aestimemus assis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+C. 107 speaks of an unexpected reconciliation (celebrated
+in c. 36). C. 107, 5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Restituis cupido atque insperanti, ipsa refers te<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;nobis. O lucem candidiore nota!&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+When Catullus, on account of his brother&rsquo;s death, left
+Rome for Verona, he already knew that Lesbia had other
+lovers (c. 68, ll. 27 <i>sqq.</i>, 135 <i>sqq.</i>). There are many poems
+against his rivals: c. 82, against Quintius; c. 40, against
+Ravidus; cc. 74, 80, 88-91, 116, against Gellius; c. 77,
+against Rufus, who is attacked also in cc. 59 and 69 (this is
+M. Caelius Rufus, the orator, who intrigued with Clodia:
+Cic. <i>pro Cael.</i> 17, etc.); c. 79, against Lesbius (see above).
+After Catullus returned to Rome, he found that he had lost
+Lesbia&rsquo;s affections. C. 70 was then written,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nulli se dicit mulier mea nubere malle<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;quam mihi, non si se Iuppiter ipse petat.<br />
+Dicit: sed mulier cupido quod dicit amanti,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in vento et rapida scribere oportet aqua.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The words of this poem show that it must have been
+written after the death of Clodia&rsquo;s husband Metellus, which
+took place in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 59, and it was probably written soon after
+that event, when Catullus had returned to Rome from
+Verona.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p136">
+Nos. 72, 85, and especially 58, show increasing bitterness,
+and must, with the possible exception of 58, be assigned
+to the years <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 59 or 58. In c. 76 he prays for power
+to give Lesbia up; cf. ll. 23-6,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Non iam illud quaero, contra ut me diligat illa,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;aut, quod non potis est, esse pudica velit:<br />
+ipse valere opto et taetrum hunc deponere morbum.<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;O di, reddite mi hoc pro pietate mea.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+It is probable that the separation between the lovers
+occurred not later than <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 58; otherwise Catullus would not
+have left for Bithynia in the next year. In c. 11, the last
+poem that refers to Lesbia, which, from the reference to
+Britain in l. 12, cannot have been written before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55,
+we see that Catullus is cured of his passion; cf. ll. 21-4,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nec meum respectet, ut ante, amorem,<br />
+qui illius culpa cecidit velut prati<br />
+ultimi flos, praetereunte postquam<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;tactus aratro est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+In the spring of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 57 Catullus went to Bithynia on the
+staff of the propraetor C. Memmius (cc. 10 and 28). From
+c. 10, 29, &lsquo;meus sodalis Cinna est Gaius,&rsquo; we see that C.
+Helvius Cinna accompanied him. In c. 46, 9 he speaks
+of the pleasant meetings of the staff, &lsquo;O dulces comitum
+valete coetus.&rsquo; C. 46 shows that Catullus left Bithynia in
+the spring of the following year: ll. 1-4,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Iam ver egelidos refert tepores ...<br />
+Linquantur Phrygii, Catulle, campi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The dirge in c. 101 shows that Catullus, on his way to
+Italy, visited his brother&rsquo;s tomb in the Troad, and paid
+the last rites to it. C. 4, written soon after his return to
+Sirmio, tells us how he made his way home again. About
+the same time was composed the address to Sirmio in c.
+31; c. 10 proves that he soon went back to Rome.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p137">
+The poems against Caesar&rsquo;s party belong to the years
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55 and 54. In cc. 41 and 43 Catullus calls a Transpadane
+girl &lsquo;decoctoris amica Formiani,&rsquo; the reference being
+to Mamurra, &lsquo;the bankrupt from Formiae,&rsquo; who had been
+Caesar&rsquo;s <i>praefectus fabrum</i> in Gaul, and who may have been
+a successful rival of Catullus in love. C. 29, written probably
+in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 54, attacked Mamurra, and also his patrons,
+Caesar and Pompey. From l. 24, &lsquo;socer generque, perdidistis
+omnia,&rsquo; it is clear that the poem was written before
+Julia&rsquo;s death in September, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 54; and from ll. 11-12,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;eone nomine, imperator unice,<br />
+fuisti in ultima occidentis insula,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+that it was written after Caesar&rsquo;s first expedition to Britain
+in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55. The poem is referred to by Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 73,
+&lsquo;Valerium Catullum, a quo sibi versiculis de Mamurra
+perpetua stigmata imposita non dissimulaverat, satis facientem
+eadem die adhibuit cenae hospitioque patris eius sicut
+consueverat uti perseveravit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+C. 52 (against Vatinius) was written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55 or 54. It
+used to be assigned to <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 47, when Vatinius was consul,
+but l. 3, &lsquo;per consulatum perierat Vatinius&rsquo; means &lsquo;Vatinius
+perjures himself by his hope of the consulship&rsquo; (his name
+stood on the list agreed on at Luca, which is mentioned by
+Cic. <i>ad Att.</i> iv. 8<i>b</i>, 2); and l. 2, &lsquo;Sella in curuli struma
+Nonius sedet,&rsquo; cannot refer to <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 47, as the only ordinary
+curule magistrates in that year were P. Vatinius and Q. Fufius
+Calenus. Among other poems against personal enemies are
+c. 98, against Vettius, and c. 108, against Cominius, both
+of them informers; and c. 84, against Arrius, who aspirated
+his words wrongly, and who, from l. 7, &lsquo;hoc misso in Syriam,&rsquo;
+is supposed to have gone out to Syria as <i>legatus</i> to Crassus
+in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55. C. 49 is an attack on Cicero:
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p138">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Disertissime Romuli nepotum,<br />
+quot sunt quotque fuere, Marce Tulli,<br />
+quotque post aliis erunt in annis,<br />
+gratias tibi maximas Catullus<br />
+agit, pessimus omnium poeta,<br />
+tanto pessimus omnium poeta<br />
+quanto tu optimus omnium patronus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The sting lies in the <i>double entendre</i> in the last two lines,
+which really mean &lsquo;so much the worst poet of all poets,
+as you are the best advocate of all clients, good and bad.&rsquo;
+So Cicero is called in a good sense <i>omnium patronus</i> by
+Caecina in Cic. <i>ad Fam.</i> vi. 7, 4. The poem has special
+reference to <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 54, when Cicero defended Vatinius (whom
+he had reviled two years before in the speech <i>Pro Sestio</i>), when
+prosecuted by Catullus&rsquo; friend, Calvus (cf. c. 14, 1-3); and
+thanks Cicero ironically for some criticism he had passed
+on his poems. Catullus attacks several contemporary poets;
+so in c. 22, Suffenus, who in c. 14 is coupled with Caesius
+and Aquinus; Volusius in cc. 36 and 95; cf. 36, 1, &lsquo;Annales
+Volusi, cacata charta.&rsquo;<a href="#fn036" id="ref036">[36]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Among Catullus&rsquo; friends were Veranius and Fabullus
+(cc. 9, 28, etc.); P. Alfenus Varus of Cremona (cc. 10, 22,
+30), consul <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 39, and a famous <i>iurisconsultus</i>. C. 61
+celebrates the marriage of L. Manlius Torquatus (who was
+praetor <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 49) and Vinia Aurunculeia. Several poems are
+addressed to brother poets; c. 35 is to Caecilius of Novum
+Comum; c. 38 to Cornificius, a writer of slight love poems
+(Ovid, <i>Trist.</i> ii. 436) who died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 41; c. 95 is on Cinna&rsquo;s
+<i>Zmyrna</i>; cc. 14, 50, and 96 are addressed to C. Licinius
+Calvus; c. 56 to Valerius Cato (see above); c. 65 to
+Hortensius Ortalus, who asked Catullus to translate
+Callimachus; c. 1, and possibly c. 102, to Cornelius
+Nepos.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p139">
+<i>Catullus&rsquo; longer poems.</i>&mdash;These, unlike the shorter personal
+poems, are mostly due to Alexandrian influence, to which
+Catullus may have been introduced by his teacher, Valerius
+Cato. To these poems Catullus owes his title <i>doctus</i> (Tibull.
+iii. 6, 41; Martial, i. 62, 1, etc.). They include: c. 66,
+&lsquo;coma Berenices,&rsquo; from Callimachus; cf. c. 65, ll. 15-6,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Sed tamen in tantis maeroribus, Ortale, mitto<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;haec expressa tibi carmina Battiadae&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+c. 68 to Allius, also Alexandrian; c. 64, the &lsquo;Nuptials of
+Peleus and Thetis,&rsquo; l. 30 of which,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Oceanusque, mari totum qui amplectitur orbem,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+is from Euphorion, fr. 158 (Meineke), <span class="greek">Ὠκεανὸς, τῷ πᾶσα περίρρυτος
+ἐνδέδεται χθών</span>; c. 63, the &lsquo;Attis&rsquo; in Galliambic
+metre; c. 62, a translation of a Sapphic epithalamium.
+C. 51, and possibly some parts of c. 61, are from Sappho.
+Catullus was the first Roman to use the Sapphic measure
+(in cc. 11 and 51).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Publication of the Poems.</i>&mdash;From the arrangement of the
+poems, which accords neither with chronology nor with
+subjects, and from the large number of lines extant (2286),
+which does not suit <i>libellus</i> (c. i. 1), it is highly probable
+that they were not left by Catullus as we find them. C. 2,
+beginning &lsquo;Passer, deliciae meae puellae,&rsquo; was the first of
+a series of short poems. Cf. Martial, iv. 14, 13,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p140">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Sic forsan tener ausus est Catullus<br />
+magno mittere passerem Maroni&rsquo;;<a href="#fn037" id="ref037">[37]</a>
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+the book being named from its first word, like <i>Arma virumque</i>
+of the <i>Aeneid</i>. C. 1 (to Cornelius Nepos) is the
+first of another series of short pieces (cf. the epithet <i>nugae</i>
+in l. 4). Catullus doubtless published his larger pieces
+together. The traditional arrangement, due to a later hand,
+is as follows: (1) The lyric poems in various metres; (2)
+the larger poems and the elegies; (3) the shorter poems
+written in elegiacs. Catullus began to be popular as soon
+as his works were published; cf. Nep. <i>Att.</i> 12, 4 (quoted
+<a href="#p124">p. 124</a>). He is imitated in the <i>Priapea</i>, in Ovid, in
+Ausonius, in the <i>Ciris</i>, in Martial, etc. C. 4 is closely
+parodied in Verg. <i>Catal.</i> 8.
+</p>
+
+<h3>CONTEMPORARY POETS:</h3>
+
+<p>
+(<i>a</i>) <i>Ticidas</i> wrote the Hymenaeus and love-poems on
+Perilla. For the latter cf. Ovid, <i>Trist.</i> ii. 433-4 and 437-8
+(read by Riese immediately after),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quid referam Ticidae, quid Memmi carmen, apud quos<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;rebus adest nomen nominibusque pudor,<br />
+et quorum libris modo dissimulata Perillae<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;nomine nunc legitur dicta, Metelle, tuo?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(<i>b</i>) <i>C. Helvius Cinna</i> was intimate with Catullus, who
+refers to him in c. 10 as being along with him in Bithynia
+in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 57. See <a href="#p136">p. 136</a>. From the reference to Gallia
+Cisalpina in Cinna, frag. I (Bährens), we might conclude
+that he was a countryman of Catullus,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p141">
+<p>
+&lsquo;At nunc me Cenumana per salicta<br />
+bigis raeda rapit citata nanis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+In Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 52, Cinna is spoken of as a partisan of
+Caesar: &lsquo;Helvius Cinna tribunus plebis,&rsquo; etc.; and he is
+probably identical with the person mentioned <i>ibid.</i> 85,
+as put to death in mistake for a man of the same name
+shortly after the murder of Caesar: &lsquo;Plebs statim a funere
+ad domum Bruti et Cassii cum facibus tetendit, atque aegre
+repulsa, obvium sibi Helvium Cinnam per errorem nominis,
+quasi Cornelius is esset, quem graviter pridie contionatum
+de Caesare requirebat, occidit caputque eius praefixum
+hastae circumtulit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. especially Plutarch, <i>Brut.</i> 20, <span class="greek">ἦν δέ τις Κίννας, ποιητικὸς
+ἀνὴρ, οὐδὲν τῆς αἰτίας μετέχων, ἀλλὰ καὶ φίλος Καίσαρος
+γεγονὼς</span>, etc.<a href="#fn038" id="ref038">[38]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Weichert (<i>Poet. Lat. Rell.</i> p. 157) thinks that Plutarch
+has confused the tr. pleb. with the poet, and that Virgil&rsquo;s
+words (below) imply that Helvius Cinna was alive when
+the <i>Eclogue</i> was written (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 41-39). The latest authorities,
+however, identify the two persons. Verg. <i>Ecl.</i> 9, 35,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nam neque adhuc Vario videor nec dicere Cinna<br />
+digna, sed argutos inter strepere anser<a href="#fn039" id="ref039">[39]</a> olores.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cinna&rsquo;s works were:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>Zmyrna</i>, on the incestuous love of Myrrha for Cinyras.
+Cinna spent nine years on this poem, which was very
+obscure. Catull. 95,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p142">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Zmyrna mei Cinnae nonam post denique messem<br />
+quam coeptast nonamque edita post hiemem.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Philargyrius ad Verg. <i>Ecl.</i> 9, 35, &lsquo;Fuit autem liber obscurus
+adeo ut et nonnulli eius aetatis grammatici in eum
+scripserint magnamque ex eius enarratione sint gloriam
+consecuti.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>Propempticon Pollionis</i>, written on the occasion of
+Asinius Pollio&rsquo;s visit to Greece.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. <i>Epigrams and Love Poems.</i>&mdash;For the latter cf. Ovid,
+<i>Trist.</i> ii. 435 (on the erotic poets),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Cinna quoque his comes est, Cinnaque procacior Anser,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;et leve Cornifici parque Catonis opus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(<i>c</i>) <i>C. Licinius Macer Calvus</i> was the son of the annalist
+C. Licinius Macer, and was born 28th May, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 82.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cic. <i>ad Q.F.</i> ii. 4, 1, &lsquo;Macer Licinius.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Valer. Max. ix. 12, 7, &lsquo;C. Licinius Macer, Calvi pater.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> vii. 165, &lsquo;C. Mario Cn. Carbone iii. coss.
+a. d. v. Kal. Iun. M. Caelius Rufus et C. Licinius Calvus
+eadem die geniti sunt.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Calvus probably died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 47. Cf. Cic. <i>ad Fam.</i> xv.
+21, 4, written to C. Trebonius towards the end of that
+year. The letter refers to correspondence with Calvus,
+and criticizes his oratory.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+See also Cic. <i>Brut.</i> 279 and 283-4; and, for his relations
+with Cicero, Tac. <i>Dial.</i> 18. Calvus vied with Cicero for
+the first place in the forum. His best known speeches
+were <i>in Vatinium</i>, whom he prosecuted at least three times
+(<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 58-54).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Seneca, <i>Controv.</i> vii. 4, 6-8, &lsquo;Calvus, qui diu cum Cicerone
+iniquissimam litem de principatu eloquentiae habuit, usque
+eo violentus actor et concitatus fuit, ut in media eius actione
+surgeret Vatinius reus et exclamaret: Rogo vos, iudices, num
+si iste disertus est, ideo me damnari oportet? Idem postea
+cum videret a clientibus Catonis, rei sui, Pollionem Asinium
+circumventum in foro caedi, imponi se supra cippum iussit;
+erat enim parvolus statura, propter quod etiam Catullus in
+hendecasyllabis (c. 53) vocat illum &ldquo;salaputtium disertum.&rdquo;
+... Solebat praeterea excedere subsellia sua et impetu
+latus usque in adversariorum partem transcurrere. Et
+carmina quoque eius, quamvis iocosa sint, plena sunt
+ingentis animi ... Compositio quoque eius in actionibus ad
+exemplum Demosthenis riget: nihil in illa placidum, nihil
+lene est, omnia excitata et fluctuantia.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p143">
+Catullus also refers to Calvus in c. 14, and in c. 96,
+where he speaks of the &lsquo;mors immatura Quintiliae,&rsquo; probably
+Calvus&rsquo; wife.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of the poems about nineteen lines are extant. They
+included: (1) <i>ludicra</i> (in hendecasyllables); (2) <i>epithalamia</i>;
+(3) <i>Io</i>; (4) <i>ad uxorem</i>; (5) <i>epigrammata</i>. For the last cf.
+Sueton. <i>Iul.</i> 73, &lsquo;C. Calvo post famosa epigrammata de
+reconciliatione per amicos agenti ultro ac prior scripsit.&rsquo;
+(6) &lsquo;Calvi de aquae frigidae usu,&rsquo; which forms the title of
+Martial xiv. 196, may have been a didactic poem. Other
+references to Calvus&rsquo; poetry are: Ovid, <i>Trist.</i> ii. 431,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Par fuit exigui similisque licentia Calvi,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;detexit variis qui sua furta modis&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Propert. iii. 34, 89,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Haec etiam docti confessast pagina Calvi<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;cum caneret miserae funera Quintiliae&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 16,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Illi, scripta quibus comoedia prisca viris est,<br />
+hoc stabant, hoc sunt imitandi: quos neque pulcher<br />
+Hermogenes umquam legit, neque simius iste<br />
+nil praeter Calvum et doctus cantare Catullum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p144">
+(<i>d</i>) <i>P. Terentius Varro Atacinus</i> was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 82 in
+Gallia Narbonensis near Atax (a river, not a town, as
+Jerome states).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1935 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 82, &lsquo;P. Terentius Varro vico
+Atace in provincia Narbonensi nascitur; qui postea xxxv.
+annum agens Graecas litteras cum summo studio didicit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Porphyr. ad Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 46, &lsquo;Terentius Varro Narbonensis,
+qui Atacinus ab Atace fluvio dictus est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Varro must have died before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 35, when Horace,
+speaking of satire, wrote, <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 46,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Hoc erat, experto frustra Varrone Atacino<br />
+atque quibusdam aliis melius quod scribere possem.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Varro&rsquo;s works were:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>Bellum Sequanicum</i>, probably an epic on Caesar&rsquo;s
+war with Ariovistus in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 58.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>Saturae</i>, mentioned only in the above passage of
+Horace.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. <i>Argonautae</i>, a translation from Apollonius Rhodius
+in four Books. Probus ad Verg. <i>Georg.</i> ii. 126, &lsquo;Varro
+qui quattuor libros de Argonautis edidit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. Sen. <i>Controv.</i> vii. 1, 27, &lsquo;Illos optimos versus Varronis
+(= Apoll. iii. 749-50),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&ldquo;Desierant latrare canes urbesque silebant;<br />
+omnia noctis erant placida composta quiete.&rdquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Solebat Ovidius de his versibus dicere, potuisse fieri longe
+meliores, si secundi versus ultima pars abscideretur et sic
+desineret &ldquo;omnia noctis erant.&rdquo;&rsquo;<a href="#fn040" id="ref040">[40]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p id="p145">
+Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 87; Ovid, <i>Am.</i> i. 15, 21; Stat.
+<i>Silv.</i> ii. 7, 77.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. <i>Chorographia</i>, a geographical work, as the fragments
+show.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+5. <i>Ephemeris</i>.&mdash;Serv. ad Verg. <i>Georg.</i> i. 375, &lsquo;Hic locus
+omnis de Varrone est; nam et Varro et Vergilius Aratum
+secuti sunt.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+6. <i>Elegies.</i>&mdash;One line is given by Bährens. Cf. Propert.
+iii. 34, 85,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Haec quoque perfecto ludebat Iasone Varro,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Varro Leucadiae maxima flamma suae.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(<i>e</i>) <i>Publilius Syrus</i> was a manumitted slave, a native of
+Syria, probably of Antioch.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1974 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43, &lsquo;Publilius mimographus
+natione Syrus Romae scaenam tenet.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> xxxv. 199, &lsquo;Est et vilissima [creta] qua
+circum praeducere ad victoriae notam pedesque venalium
+trans maria advectorum denotare instituerunt maiores
+talemque Publilium Antiochium (<span class="bcad">MSS.</span> lochium) mimicae
+scaenae conditorem et astrologiae consobrinum eius Manilium
+Antiochum, item grammaticae Staberium Erotem
+eadem nave advectos videre proavi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+An account of Publilius&rsquo; manumission, and his contest
+with Laberius in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 45, is given by Macrob. <i>Saturn.</i> ii.
+7, 4-8, and is quoted under &lsquo;Laberius,&rsquo; <a href="#p097">p. 97</a>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Publilius&rsquo; works were:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>Mimi.</i>&mdash;Two titles are quoted.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>Sententiae.</i>&mdash;Six hundred and ninety-seven lines from
+his mimes (unconnected and alphabetically arranged) are
+preserved from different sources. Most are iambic senarii,
+some trochaic septenarii.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p146">
+Macrob. <i>Saturn.</i> ii. 7, 10, &lsquo;Publili sententiae feruntur
+lepidae et ad communem usum adcommodatissimae.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cicero heard his and Laberius&rsquo; plays in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46. See
+<i>ad Fam.</i> xii. 18, 2, quoted under &lsquo;Laberius,&rsquo; <a href="#p099">p. 99</a>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sen. <i>de tranquill.</i> 11, 8, &lsquo;Publilius, tragicis comicisque
+vehementior ingeniis, quotiens mimicas ineptias et verba
+ad summam caveam spectantia reliquit, inter multa alia
+cothurno, non tantum sipario fortiora, et hoc ait,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&ldquo;Cuivis potest accidere quod cuiquam potest.&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The lines are, like the above, proverbs of worldly wisdom,
+and seem to have been used in schools.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Jerome <i>Ep. ad Laetam</i>, 107, &lsquo;Legi quondam in scholis
+puer,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&ldquo;Aegre reprendas quod sinas consuescere.&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<h2 id="p147">CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h2>THE AUGUSTAN AGE.</h2>
+
+<h3>VIRGIL.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+Our chief authority for the life of Virgil, apart from his
+own writings and those of his contemporaries, is Donatus,
+whose work is probably based on Suetonius&rsquo; <i>De Poetis</i>.
+Donatus&rsquo; work, though not free from romance, is much
+more valuable than the Life by Probus<a href="#fn041" id="ref041">[41]</a> or the metrical
+account given by Phocas.<a href="#fn042" id="ref042">[42]</a> Some important details are
+given in the Life wrongly attributed to Servius, and in an
+account preserved in a Berne <span class="bcad">MS.</span> of the tenth century.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The poet&rsquo;s name is correctly given as P. Vergilius Maro
+in all the Lives. The balance of authority is decidedly
+in favour of the spelling &lsquo;Vergilius&rsquo;; it is always so written
+in the early <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> and in inscriptions of the Republic and
+of the early centuries <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> The traditional form in modern
+literature, &lsquo;Virgil,&rsquo; is here retained.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p148">
+Virgil was born 15th October, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 70, at Andes (identified
+traditionally with Pietole)<a href="#fn043" id="ref043">[43]</a> near Mantua. Donatus,
+<i>vit. Verg.</i>, &lsquo;Natus est Cn. Pompeio Magno et M. Licinio
+Crasso primum coss. iduum Octobrium die, in pago qui
+Andes dicitur et abest a Mantua non procul.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He was of humble extraction, his father being originally
+either a potter or a day-labourer.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Probus, <i>vit. Verg.</i>, &lsquo;Matre Magia Polla, patre rustico.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Donatus, &lsquo;Parentibus modicis fuit ac praecipue patre,
+quem quidam opificem figulum, plures Magi cuiusdam
+viatoris initio mercennarium mox ob industriam generum
+tradiderunt egregieque substantiae silvis coemendis et
+apibus curandis auxisse reculam.&rsquo; (Cf. Virgil&rsquo;s treatment
+of bees in <i>Georgic</i> iv.)
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His early years were spent at Cremona, whence in
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55 he went to Mediolanum and then to Rome for
+his higher education. He studied philosophy, medicine,
+mathematics, and rhetoric; but his shyness prevented his
+being a success at the bar, where, we are told, he appeared
+only once.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Donatus, &lsquo;Initia aetatis Cremonae egit usque ad virilem
+togam, quam xv. anno natali suo accepit isdem illis consulibus
+iterum duobus quibus erat natus, evenitque ut eo
+ipso die Lucretius poeta decederet. De Cremona Mediolanum
+et inde paulo post transiit in urbem ... Inter cetera
+studia medicinae quoque ac maxime mathematicae<a href="#fn044" id="ref044">[44]</a> operam
+dedit. Egit et causam apud iudices unam omnino nec
+amplius quam semel; nam et in sermone tardissimum
+ac paene indocto similem fuisse Melissus [a freedman of
+Maecenas] tradidit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p149">
+The Berne <span class="bcad">MS.</span> above referred to says: &lsquo;Ut primum se
+contulit Romam, studuit apud Epidium oratorem cum
+Caesare Augusto.&rsquo;<a href="#fn045" id="ref045">[45]</a> For his studies under the Epicurean
+Siron cf. <i>Catal.</i> 7, 8,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nos ad beatos vela mittimus portus,<br />
+magni petentes docta dicta Sironis,<br />
+vitamque ab omni vindicabimus cura.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. also <i>Ecl.</i> 6, 31-40, where a brief sketch is given of
+the Epicurean theory of creation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For a few years we hear nothing of his life, but we may
+suppose that he continued his studies in literature and
+philosophy, probably at his farm, if we can draw any inference
+from the language of <i>Ecl.</i> 1, especially l. 19 <i>sqq.</i>
+So far as is known, he took no part in the civil wars. In
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 41, when lands were assigned to the troops of Antonius,
+Virgil was dispossessed of his property. On the recommendation
+of Asinius Pollio, who was <i>legatus</i> of Gallia
+Transpadana, he went to Rome and obtained from Octavian
+the restitution of his land. The poet expresses his gratitude
+in <i>Ecl.</i> 1, 42,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p150">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Hic illum vidi iuvenem, Meliboee, quotannis<br />
+bis senos cui nostra dies altaria fumant.<br />
+Hic mihi responsum primus dedit ille petenti:<br />
+&ldquo;Pascite ut ante boves, pueri, submittite tauros.&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. also ll. 70-3.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Donatus, &lsquo;Ad bucolica transiit maxime ut Asinium
+Pollionem, Alphenum Varum, et Cornelium Gallum celebraret,
+quia in distributione agrorum qui post Philippensem
+victoriam<a href="#fn046" id="ref046">[46]</a> veteranis triumvirorum iussu trans Padum dividebantur,
+indemnem se praestitissent.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Virgil was evicted a second time in the following year,
+after the Bellum Perusinum, by the troops of Octavian.
+Conflicting accounts are given by the Lives regarding the
+persons who seized his land.<a href="#fn047" id="ref047">[47]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Servius, <i>vit. Verg.</i>, &lsquo;Postea ortis bellis civilibus inter
+Antonium et Augustum, Augustus victor Cremonensium
+agros, quia pro Antonio senserant, dedit militibus suis.
+Qui cum non sufficerent, his addidit agros Mantuanos,
+sublatos non propter civium culpam, sed propter vicinitatem
+Cremonensium: unde ipse in Bucolicis (9, 28),
+&ldquo;Mantua vae miserae nimium vicina Cremonae.&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Virgil and his household found refuge on an estate which
+had once belonged to his old master Siron: <i>Catal.</i> 10,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Villula, quae Sironis eras, et pauper agelle ...<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Tu nunc eris illi [patri]<br />
+Mantua quod fuerat quodque Cremona prius.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p151">
+Whether he recovered his old farm is uncertain: at all
+events he spent most of his time in the south of Italy.
+Besides a house in Rome, he seems to have had a country
+house near Nola, and we know that the <i>Georgics</i> (cf. iv. 563)
+were written at Naples.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Donatus, &lsquo;Habuit domum Romae Esquiliis iuxta hortos
+Maecenatis, quamquam secessu Campaniae Siciliaeque
+plurimum uteretur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Gell. vi. 20, 1, &lsquo;Scriptum in quodam commentario
+repperi ... Vergilium petivisse a Nolanis, aquam uti duceret
+in propinquum rus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He lived a retired life, seldom visiting Rome, and devoting
+most of his time to poetical composition, in which
+he was regular and painstaking.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tac. <i>Dial.</i> 13, &lsquo;Securum et quietum Vergilii secessum,
+in quo tamen neque apud divum Augustum gratia
+caruit neque apud populum Romanum notitia: testes
+Augusti epistulae, testis ipse populus, qui auditis in
+theatro Vergilii versibus surrexit universus et forte praesentem
+spectantemque Vergilium veneratus est sic quasi
+Augustum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Quint. x. 3, 8, &lsquo;Vergilium paucissimos die composuisse
+versus auctor est Varius.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. his own expression, quoted by Gell. xvii. 10, 2,
+&lsquo;parere se versus more atque ritu ursino&rsquo; (alluding
+to the notion that the bear licked its young into
+shape).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He was already an influential member of Maecenas&rsquo;
+literary circle, to which, in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 39, he introduced Horace.
+Cf. Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 6, 54,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p152">
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;optimus olim<br />
+Vergilius, post hunc Varius dixere quid essem.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+By Maecenas he was introduced to Augustus,<a href="#fn048" id="ref048">[48]</a> who treated
+him with liberality. Cf. Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 246,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Munera quae multa dantis cum laude tulerunt<br />
+dilecti tibi Vergilius Variusque poetae.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+He was on intimate terms with Horace, who addresses
+<i>Od.</i> i. 3 to him on the occasion of a proposed visit to
+Greece. Cf. ll. 5-8,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Navis, quae tibi creditum<br />
+debes Vergilium, finibus Atticis<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;reddas incolumem, precor,<br />
+et serves animae dimidium meae.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 37 he formed one of the party who travelled
+with Horace to Brundisium: Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 5, 40 (see under
+&lsquo;Horace,&rsquo; <a href="#p167">p. 167</a>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For the rest of his life we hear little of Virgil in any
+public connexion. In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 19 he started on a voyage to
+Greece and Asia, intending to spend three years on the
+revision of the <i>Aeneid</i>, but returned from Athens in
+bad health, and died at Brundisium on 21st September.
+His remains were buried near Naples. The epitaph
+quoted by Donatus is obviously not by Virgil: &lsquo;Anno
+aetatis lii. impositurus Aeneidi summam manum, statuit
+in Graeciam et in Asiam secedere triennioque continuo
+nihil amplius quam emendare, ut reliqua vita tantum
+philosophiae vacaret: sed cum ingressus iter Athenis occurrisset Augusto ab oriente Romam revertenti destinaretque
+non absistere atque etiam una redire, dum Megara vicinum
+oppidum ferventissimo sole cognoscit, languorem nactus
+est eumque non intermissa navigatione auxit, ita ut gravior
+aliquanto Brundisium appelleret, ubi diebus paucis obiit xi.
+Kal. Octobr. Cn. Sentio Q. Lucretio coss. (21st September,
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 19). Ossa eius Neapolim translata sunt tumuloque
+condita ... in quo distichon fecit tale:
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p153">
+<p>
+&ldquo;Mantua me genuit, Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Parthenope: cecini pascua, rura, duces.&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+His personal appearance and character are thus described
+by Donatus: &lsquo;Corpore et statura fuit grandis, aquilo colore,
+facie rusticana, valetudine varia: nam plerumque a
+stomacho et a faucibus ac dolore capitis laborabat, sanguinem
+etiam saepe reiecit.&rsquo; (Cf. Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 5, 48,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Lusum it Maecenas, dormitum ego Vergiliusque;<br />
+namque pila lippis inimicum et ludere crudis.&rsquo;)
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Cibi vinique minimi, libidinis pronior ... cetera sane
+vita et ore et animo tam probum constat, ut Neapoli
+Parthenias volgo appellatus sit, ac si quando Romae, quo
+rarissime commeabat, viseretur in publico, sectantes demonstrantesque
+se suffugeret in proximum tectum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+<span class="sc">Minor Poems</span>.&mdash;According to Donatus, these were: &lsquo;In
+Balistam ... deinde Catalecton et Priapia et Epigrammata
+et Diras, item Cirim et Culicem, cum esset annorum xvi.&rsquo;
+Servius omits the boyish production &lsquo;in Balistam,&rsquo; and
+adds the &lsquo;Copa.&rsquo; The &lsquo;Aetna,&rsquo; mentioned with doubt by
+Donatus, is, of course, not by Virgil. (1) <i>Catalecta</i>.-This
+seems better than <i>Catalecton</i>; either would mean &ldquo;a collection
+of poems.&rdquo; Some give <i>Catalepton</i> (= &ldquo;trifles,&rdquo; like
+Aratus&rsquo; work <cite class="greek">τὰ κατὰ λεπτόν</cite>). Ribbeck thinks <i>Catalecta</i>
+originally included the <i>Priapea</i>, <i>Epigrammata</i>, and <i>Dirae</i>,
+but came to be restricted to the fourteen short pieces
+given in our <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> under that title. Some of these, <i>e.g.</i>
+No. 5, are spurious. Quint. viii. 3, 28 vouches for No. 2.
+Virgil&rsquo;s friends, Tucca and Varius, are addressed in 1 and
+9, and 10 (on Siron&rsquo;s villa) refers to an event in Virgil&rsquo;s
+life. In the vein of Catullus are 3, 4, and 8, the last being
+an extremely close parody of Catullus, c. 4. (2) <i>Priapea</i>,
+three in number. (3) <i>Dirae</i>, spurious. (4) <i>Ciris</i>. The
+writer&rsquo;s reference to himself in l. 2, &lsquo;Irritaque expertum
+fallacis praemia volgi,&rsquo; shows that Virgil is not the author.
+(5) <i>Culex</i>. That Virgil wrote a poem with this title is
+attested by Suetonius, Statius, and Martial; <i>e.g.</i> Mart. viii.
+56, 19,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p154">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Protinus Italiam concepit et arma virumque<br />
+qui modo vix Culicem fleverat ore rudi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The poem in its present form is accepted by Ribbeck, but
+it does not correspond exactly to the account given by
+Donatus of the contents. (6) The <i>Copa</i> Ribbeck accepts
+as genuine, but other critics find in it characteristics rather
+of Ovid or of Propertius. (7) The <i>Moretum</i>, though found
+in <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, is not mentioned by Donatus or Servius, a strong
+argument against its being genuine.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="sc">Bucolica</span>.&mdash;These ten poems are called in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>
+<i>Eclogae</i> (&ldquo;selected pieces&rdquo;), and were composed <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43-39.
+Probus, &lsquo;Scripsit Bucolica annos natus xxviii., Theocritum
+secutus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Servius, &lsquo;Tunc ei proposuit Pollio ut carmen bucolicum
+scriberet, quod eum constat triennio<a href="#fn049" id="ref049">[49]</a> scripsisse et emendasse.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p155">
+They were doubtless published separately as they were
+written, and afterwards collected into a volume with <i>Ecl.</i> 1
+(Tityrus) coming first. Cf. <i>Georg.</i> iv. 565,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Carmina qui lusi pastorum, audaxque iuventa,<br />
+Tityre, te patulae cecini sub tegmine fagi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The present order is certainly not the chronological order.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ecl.</i> 1 was written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 41 as a thanksgiving to Augustus
+(see <a href="#p150">p. 150</a>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ecl.</i> 2 cannot be earlier than the end of 43 when Pollio
+was made governor of Gallia Transpadana, and possibly
+should not be put earlier than the summer of 42. The
+poem is written on his favourite slave Alexis (see Serv.
+<i>ad loc.</i>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ecl.</i> 3 was probably written soon afterwards. Virgil
+refers in l. 84 to his intimacy with Pollio,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Pollio amat nostram, quamvis est rustica, Musam.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ecl.</i> 2 and 3 are earlier than 5. Cf. 5, 86-7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Haec nos &ldquo;Formosum Corydon ardebat Alexim,&rdquo;<br />
+haec eadem docuit &ldquo;Cuium pecus? an Meliboei?&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ecl.</i> 4. The date is clear from l. 3,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Si canimus silvas, silvae sint <i>consule</i> dignae.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+It must have been written in 40, when Pollio was consul.
+This eclogue, which in the Middle Age was believed to be
+a prophecy of the Messiah&rsquo;s coming, cannot be satisfactorily
+explained as referring to Pollio&rsquo;s son Saloninus, or to the
+expected child of Augustus, Julia.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ecl.</i> 5. Spohn&rsquo;s view is highly probable, that it was
+written for the first celebration of Caesar&rsquo;s birthday in
+July, 42.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ecl.</i> 6, to Varus, probably written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 40 from Siron&rsquo;s villa.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p156">
+<i>Ecl.</i> 7 contains no allusion to contemporary events: the
+tone is purely pastoral.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ecl.</i> 8 was written while Pollio was on his way back to
+Rome from his victory over the Parthini in Illyricum, for
+his triumph in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 39. Cf. ll. 6 and 12.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <i>Ecl.</i> 9, written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 40 at Siron&rsquo;s villa, the poet
+expresses his grief at the second expulsion from his farm.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ecl.</i> 10 entitled &lsquo;Gallus&rsquo; was written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 39. For details
+see under &lsquo;Gallus,&rsquo; <a href="#p182">p. 182</a>.<a href="#fn050" id="ref050">[50]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Sources of the Eclogues.</i>&mdash;Several of the Eclogues are
+modelled on Theocritus (cf. &lsquo;Sicelides Musae&rsquo; 4, 1; &lsquo;Syracosius
+versus&rsquo; 6, 1), <i>e.g.</i> <i>Ecl.</i> 8 on Theocr. 2 and 3;
+and close imitations are found throughout. The poet
+Euphorion of Chalcis (of third century <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>) is alluded to in
+<i>Ecl.</i> 10, 50 in connection with Gallus. The names of the
+shepherds are mostly from Theocritus, as Tityrus, Mopsus,
+Damoetas. They are &lsquo;Arcades&rsquo; (7, 4, etc.), but, like the
+scenery, exhibit traits both of Sicily and of North Italy.
+Thus the scenery never gives an accurate picture of any
+one locality: <i>e.g.</i> <i>Ecl.</i> 9, ll. 1-10, 26-7, 36, 59-60, present
+features of the district around Mantua, while in ll. 39-43
+a Sicilian scene is introduced from Theocritus. The lofty
+mountains, <i>e.g.</i> 1, 84, are Sicilian, and so are many of the
+trees, as chestnut and pine, which are said not to be found
+near Mantua. For Mantuan scenery cf. <i>e.g.</i> 7, 12,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Hic virides tenera praetexit harundine ripas<br />
+Mincius.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The <span class="sc">Georgics</span> were written from <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 37 to 30 at the
+suggestion of Maecenas. Cf. i. 1.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Serv. <i>vit. Verg.</i> &lsquo;Item proposuit Maecenas Georgica,
+quae scripsit emendavitque septem annis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The poem was finished by <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 29. Cf. Donatus,
+&lsquo;Georgica reverso post Actiacam victoriam Augusto atque
+Atellae ... commoranti per continuum quadriduum legit.&rsquo;
+It was written at Naples. Cf. iv. 559,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Haec super arvorum cultu pecorumque canebam ...<br />
+Illo Vergilium me tempore dulcis alebat<br />
+Parthenope, studiis florentem ignobilis oti.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p157">
+The concluding part of Book iv., originally a dirge on
+Cornelius Gallus, was afterwards altered for the myth of
+Aristaeus, to please Augustus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Serv. <i>ad Ecl.</i> 10, 1, &lsquo;Fuit Cornelius Gallus amicus
+Vergilii, adeo ut quartus Georgicorum a medio usque ad
+finem eius laudes teneret, quas postea iubente Augusto
+in Aristaei fabulam commutavit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Sources of the Georgics.</i>&mdash;Besides his own observation,
+Virgil used the following authorities:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. Hesiod&mdash;mostly in Book i., <i>e.g.</i> ll. 276-286 (lucky
+and unlucky days). Cf. ii. 176,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ascraeumque cano Romana per oppida carmen.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+2. Books of the priests; <i>e.g.</i> i. 269 <i>sqq.</i> (what is lawful
+on holy days), i. 338 <i>sqq.</i> (Ambarvalia).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. For agriculture and natural history&mdash;Greek writers
+like Aristotle, Theophrastus, Democritus, and Xenophon;
+and Latin writers like Cato and Varro.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p158">
+4. Alexandrian writers for science and mythology; <i>e.g.</i>
+Eratosthenes for i. 233, &lsquo;quinque tenent caelum zonae,&rsquo; etc.;
+i. 351-465, signs of weather, from the <cite class="greek">Διοσημεῖα</cite> of Aratus;
+iii. 425 <i>sqq.</i>, the Calabrian serpent, from the <cite class="greek">Θηριακά</cite> of
+Nicander, whose writings were also used for the subject
+of bees in Book iv.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+5. Lucretius, to whom Virgil is chiefly indebted, ii. 475
+<i>sqq.</i>, especially 490 <i>sqq.</i>, &lsquo;felix qui potuit,&rsquo; etc., refers to
+Lucretius. The idea of Lucretius, cf. v. 206-217, that
+man has a perpetual struggle with nature, is reflected in
+Virgil, but modified by his acceptance of the argument
+from design. Cf. i. 99,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;<i>Exercet</i>que frequens tellurem atque <i>imperat</i> arvis,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+and the whole passage i. 118-159. Lucretian science is
+borrowed in passages like i. 89,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Seu pluris calor ille vias et caeca relaxat<br />
+spiramenta, novas veniat qua sucus in herbas&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+l. 415-423 (of the habits of birds); iii. 242 <i>sqq.</i> (on the
+passion of love). Notice also, with Munro, Lucretian
+phrases like <i>principio</i>, <i>quod superest</i>, <i>his animadversis</i>, <i>nunc
+age</i>, <i>praeterea</i>, <i>nonne vides</i>, <i>contemplator</i>, <i>genitalia semina</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Political purpose of the Georgics.</i>&mdash;The political purpose
+of the Georgics is to help the policy of Augustus, which
+aimed at checking the depopulation of the country districts.
+Cf. i. 498-514, and especially ll. 506-7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Non ullus aratro<br />
+dignus honos: squalent abductis arva colonis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The Emperor is introduced throughout as the object of
+veneration. Cf. i. 24-42.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Natural scenery.</i>&mdash;Virgil dwells on Nature in her softer
+aspects. Cf. phrases like ii. 470, &lsquo;mollesque sub arbore
+somni,&rsquo; and the passage ii. 458-540 in praise of a country
+life. For the praise of Italy see the beautiful passage
+ii. 136-176, where special districts are mentioned.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p159">
+<span class="sc">Aeneid</span>.&mdash;Even before the <i>Eclogues</i> were written, Virgil
+had meditated the composition of an epic, perhaps, as
+Servius suggests, on the kings of Alba. Cf. <i>Ecl.</i> 6, 3,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Cum canerem reges et proelia, Cynthius aurem<br />
+vellit et admonuit: &ldquo;pastorem, Tityre, pingues<br />
+pascere oportet oves, deductum dicere carmen.&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The idea of a poem in honour of Augustus was present
+to his mind when he wrote <i>Georg.</i> iii. 46,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Mox tamen ardentes accingar dicere pugnas<br />
+Caesaris.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Aeneid</i> was commenced <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 29, and remained
+unfinished at Virgil&rsquo;s death.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Servius, <i>vit. Verg.</i>, &lsquo;postea ab Augusto Aeneidem propositam
+scripsit annis undecim, sed nec emendavit nec
+edidit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His method of working at the poem is thus described
+by Donatus, &lsquo;Aeneida prosa prius oratione formatam digestamque
+in xii. libros particulatim componere instituit, prout
+liberet quidque et nihil in ordinem arripiens. Ut ne quid
+impetum moraretur, quaedam imperfecta transmisit, alia
+levissimis verbis veluti fulsit, quae per iocum pro tibicinibus
+interponi aiebat ad sustinendum opus donec solidae columnae
+advenirent.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In what order the Books were written it is impossible to
+decide; but Book vi. was not read to Augustus till after
+the death of the young Marcellus, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 23.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Donatus, &lsquo;Cui [Augusto] multo post perfectaque demum
+materia tres omnino libros recitavit, secundum quartum
+sextum, sed hunc notabili Octaviae adfectione, quae cum
+recitationi interesset ad illos de filio suo versus, &ldquo;Tu Marcellus
+eris,&rdquo; defecisse fertur atque aegre focillata est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p160">
+Virgil, writing to the emperor, insists on the magnitude
+of the task he had rashly undertaken.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Macrob. <i>Saturn.</i> i. 24, 11, &lsquo;Tanta incohata res est, ut
+paene vitio mentis tantum opus ingressus mihi videar, cum
+praesertim, ut scis, alia quoque studia ad id opus multoque
+potiora impertiar.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Although in his will Virgil left instructions to Varius (and
+Tucca) to destroy all his unpublished manuscripts, Varius
+was expressly desired by Augustus to revise and publish
+the <i>Aeneid</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Donatus, &lsquo;Egerat cum Vario, priusquam Italia decederet,
+ut si quid sibi accidisset Aeneida combureret; sed is
+facturum se pernegarat ... Edidit autem auctore Augusto
+Varius, sed summatim emendata, ut qui versus etiam imperfectos
+sicut erant reliquerit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This account is corroborated by Pliny the elder, <i>N.H.</i>
+vii. 114, Gellius, and Macrobius.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The rules laid down to the editors by the Emperor were,
+according to Servius, &lsquo;ut superflua demerent, nihil adderent
+tamen.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It seems probable that the <i>Aeneid</i> was published <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 17,
+for it is in the <i>Carmen Saeculare</i> of that year that Horace
+first alludes to the story of Aeneas (cf. l. 50, &lsquo;clarus Anchisae
+Venerisque sanguis&rsquo;), and in the fourth Book of the <i>Odes</i>
+(four years later) it is more than once introduced.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <i>choice of the subject</i> was influenced (1) by the personal
+desire of the Emperor; (2) by the connexion of the
+Caesarian house with Venus, through Iulus;<a href="#fn051" id="ref051">[51]</a> cf. the
+invention of Atys (<i>Aen.</i> v. 568) by Virgil to please Augustus,
+whose mother was Atia; (3) by Virgil&rsquo;s design to write
+an epic on the greatness of Rome, in the manner of
+Homer.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>The Aeneas Legend.</i>&mdash;Stesichorus of Himera, among
+other writers, made Aeneas, a Homeric hero (cf. <i>Il.</i> xx.
+307-8), settle in Italy; and Naevius is said to have adopted
+the legend in the form given by Timaeus, the Sicilian
+historian of the third century <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> The legend probably
+arose from the worship of Aphrodite on the coasts of Italy,
+and was disseminated by the Greeks of Cumae to please
+the Romans. The connexion of Rome with Troy had
+been officially recognized for two hundred years (cf. Sueton.
+<i>Claud.</i> 25), and, though not a popular belief, had been
+accepted in literature from the time of Naevius.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p161">
+<i>Sources of the Aeneid.</i>&mdash;1. Earlier Roman poets as Naevius,
+Ennius, Pacuvius, Accius, Lucilius, Hostius, Varro Atacinus,
+Lucretius. For details see under these names.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. Cato&rsquo;s <i>Origines</i> and Varro&rsquo;s <i>Antiquitates</i>, for Italian
+legends and peoples.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. <i>Ius pontificium</i> and <i>ius augurale</i>, as found in the books
+of sacred colleges (Macrob. i. 24, 16). Cf. the ritual
+meaning of <i>porricio</i> (v. 776), <i>porrigo</i> (viii. 274), the habit
+of praying with veiled head (iii. 405), prayer to Apollo of
+Soracte (xi. 785).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. Greek sources: (<i>a</i>) particularly the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>,
+but also the Homeric Hymns and Cyclic Poems. Thus
+the games in Book v. = the games in honour of Patroclus
+in <i>Il.</i> xxiii.; the shield of Aeneas (viii. 626-731) = the shield
+of Achilles in <i>Il.</i> xviii.; (<i>b</i>) Apollonius Rhodius, for the
+passion of Dido = that of Medea; (<i>c</i>) Greek tragedies, <i>e.g.</i>
+the lost <i>Laocoon</i> of Sophocles for ii. 40 <i>sqq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Religion in the <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: period added"
+id="corr7">Aeneid.</ins></i>&mdash;1. The mythology is mainly from
+Homer. From Latin myths come Faunus, Saturnus, Janus,
+Picus. Euhemerism is shown by the last three being represented
+as originally kings of Rome.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p162">
+2. The power of the gods is denoted by <i>fatum</i> or <i>fata</i>;
+cf. x. 112-3,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;rex Iuppiter omnibus idem:<br />
+fata viam invenient.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+3. The description of the lower world in Book vi. is
+from the descent into Hades in <i>Od.</i> xi., but is modified
+by Pythagorean ideas (vi. 748-751, metempsychosis), Stoic
+ideas (vi. 724 <i>sqq.</i>, pantheism, cf. <i>Georg.</i> iv. 219-227)
+and Platonic myths (<i>e.g.</i> in the <i>Gorgias</i>, <i>Phaedo</i>, and
+<i>Republic</i>), and rendered more definite by the introduction
+of heroes of the Republic. Note that Virgil emphasizes
+its mythical nature by dismissing Aeneas through the ivory
+gate (of false dreams).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. Other beliefs: (<i>a</i>) The golden bough (vi. 203-9)
+compared to the mistletoe, the symbol of the lower world
+with many Indo-European peoples; (<i>b</i>) Divinities attached
+to special places, <i>e.g.</i> viii. 349-354 of the <i>religio</i> attaching
+to the Capitol, ii. 351-2 guardian deities: cf. Carmentis,
+pater Tiberinus, etc.; (<i>c</i>) Worship of the dead, and belief
+in their continued influence on human affairs, iii. 66-8,
+301-5.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Political significance.</i>&mdash;1. The pre-eminence of the Julian
+race and of Augustus himself. Cf. i. 286,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nascetur pulchra Troianus origine Caesar,<br />
+imperium Oceano, famam qui terminet astris,<br />
+Iulius, a magno demissum nomen Iulo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+So vi. 789 <i>sqq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. The idea of empire: cf. i. 33,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Tantae molis erat Romanam condere gentem&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p163">
+and of Rome as the conqueror and civilizer of the world:
+vi. 851,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento:<br />
+hae tibi erunt artes, pacisque imponere morem,<br />
+parcere subiectis et debellare superbos.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+3. The unity of Italy with Rome is seen in Aeneas
+and Turnus, representing respectively the <i>pietas</i> and the
+martial courage of a past age. This is brought out also
+by the introduction of local names. Cf. vii. 682-5, 710-7,
+797-802.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. Virgil shows here and there contempt for pure democracy:
+vi. 815,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;iactantior Ancus<br />
+nunc quoque iam nimium gaudens popularibus auris.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. also i. 148-9.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Authors influenced by Virgil.</i>&mdash;Livy, Tacitus, Ovid,
+Tibullus, Propertius, Manilius, Lucan, Silius Italicus,
+Statius, Valerius Flaccus, Martial, Juvenal, the author of
+<i>Aetna</i>. See under each.
+</p>
+
+<h3>HORACE.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+Our chief source of information about Horace is his
+own works, and some important details are added in a
+life of him by Suetonius.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Horace&rsquo;s full name is Quintus (<i>Sat.</i> ii. 6, 37) Horatius
+(<i>Od.</i> iv. 6, 44) Flaccus (<i>Sat.</i> ii. 1, 18). He was born
+8th December, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 65, at Venusia in Apulia, on the frontier
+of Lucania.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>vit. Hor.</i>, &lsquo;Natus est vi. Id. Decembr. L. Cotta
+et L. Torquato coss.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p164">
+<i>Ep.</i> i. 20, 26-8,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Forte meum siquis te percontabitur aevum,<br />
+me quater undenos sciat inplevisse Decembris<br />
+collegam Lepidum quo duxit Lollius anno.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Sat.</i> i. 1, 34,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Lucanus an Appulus anceps:<br />
+nam Venusinus arat finem sub utrumque colonus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+There are a great many references to Apulia in Horace.
+So <i>Od.</i> iii. 4, 9 <i>sqq.</i>,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Me fabulosae Volture in Appulo<br />
+nutricis extra limina Pulliae&rsquo; (his nurse&rsquo;s name), etc.
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+All Roman virtues are attributed to the Apulians, as in
+<i>Od.</i> i. 22, 13; iii. 5, 9; <i>Epod.</i> ii. 39-42.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Horace, though free-born (<i>Sat.</i> i. 6, 7) was the son of
+a freedman, who was by profession a collector of debts,
+or, according to others, a fishmonger. To this last
+story Horace probably refers with proud humility in
+<i>Ep.</i> ii. 2, 60,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Bioneis sermonibus et sale nigro.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>vit. Hor.</i>, &lsquo;Patre, ut ipse tradit, libertino et
+auctionum coactore, ut vero creditum est, salsamentario.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Sat.</i> i. 6, 6,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ut me libertino patre natum&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>ibid.</i> 85,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nec timuit, sibi ne vitio quis verteret olim,<br />
+si praeco parvas aut, ut fuit ipse, coactor<br />
+mercedes sequerer.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Stories of his childhood are given, <i>Od.</i> iii. 4, 9 <i>sqq.</i>;
+<i>Sat.</i> i. 9, 29 <i>sqq.</i>; <i>Sat.</i> ii. 2, 112 <i>sqq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Horace speaks highly of his father, who took him from
+the village school to Rome for his education. After
+speaking of his own freedom from vice he says (<i>Sat.</i>
+i. 6, 71 <i>sqq.</i>),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p165">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Causa fuit pater his, qui macro pauper agello<br />
+noluit in Flavi ludum me mittere, ...<br />
+sed puerum est ausus Romam portare docendum<br />
+artis quas doceat quivis eques atque senator<br />
+semet prognatos. Vestem servosque sequentis,<br />
+in magno ut populo, si qui vidisset, avita<br />
+ex re praeberi sumptus mihi crederet illos.<br />
+Ipse mihi custos incorruptissimus omnis<br />
+circum doctores aderat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+He received instruction, both in Latin and Greek, from
+Orbilius,<a href="#fn052" id="ref052">[52]</a> a teacher of conservative tendencies. <i>Ep.</i>
+ii. 1, 69,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Non equidem insector delendave carmina Livi<br />
+esse reor, memini quae plagosum mihi parvo<br />
+Orbilium dictare.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> ii. 2, 41,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Romae nutriri mihi contigit atque doceri<br />
+iratus Graiis quantum nocuisset Achilles.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+His education was continued at Athens. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 2, 43,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Adiecere bonae paulo plus artis Athenae,<br />
+scilicet ut vellem curvo dignoscere rectum<br />
+atque inter silvas Academi quaerere verum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+His studies were interrupted by the civil war; he joined
+Brutus (who came to Athens in August, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44), was by
+him appointed <i>tribunus militum</i>, and took part in the
+battle of Philippi, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 42. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 2, 46,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Dura sed emovere loco me tempora grato<br />
+civilisque rudem belli tulit aestus in arma<br />
+Caesaris Augusti non responsura lacertis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p166">
+<i>Od.</i> ii. 7, 9,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Philippos et celerem fugam<br />
+sensi, relicta non bene parmula.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+In <i>Sat.</i> i. 7 Horace relates a scene at Clazomenae before
+Brutus and his staff; and in <i>Ep.</i> i. 11 he speaks, as if with
+personal knowledge, of places in Asia Minor and the
+islands of the Aegean, which he probably visited then.
+He refers to the hardships of war in <i>Od.</i> ii. 6, 7; ii. 7, 1;
+iii. 4, 26.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After the civil war his paternal property was confiscated,
+probably in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 41, and his poverty compelled him to
+seek the post of a clerk in the quaestor&rsquo;s office, and, as
+he says, to write verses. (Some satires and epodes were
+then written.)
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>vit. Hor.</i>, &lsquo;Victis partibus, venia inpetrata,
+scriptum quaestorium comparavit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Sat.</i> ii. 6, 36,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;De re communi scribae magna atque nova te<br />
+orabant hodie meminisses, Quinte, reverti.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> ii. 2, 49,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Unde simul primum me dimisere Philippi,<br />
+decisis humilem pennis inopemque paterni<br />
+et laris et fundi paupertas inpulit, audax<br />
+ut versus facerem.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+In the spring of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 38 Horace was introduced to
+Maecenas<a href="#fn053" id="ref053">[53]</a> by Varius and Virgil, and became intimate
+with him in the winter of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 38-7.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>vit. Hor.</i>, &lsquo;Primo Maecenati, mox Augusto insinuatus
+non mediocrem in amborum amicitia locum tenuit.
+Maecenas quanto opere eum dilexerit satis testatur illo
+epigrammate:
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&ldquo;Ni te visceribus meis, Horati,<br />
+plus iam diligo, tu tuum sodalem<br />
+Ninnio videas strigosiorem&rdquo;:
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+sed multo magis extremis iudiciis tali ad Augustum elogio:
+&ldquo;Horati Flacci ut mei esto memor!&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Sat.</i> i. 6, 54,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Optimus olim<br />
+Vergilius, post hunc Varius dixere quid essem ...<br />
+Abeo, et revocas nono post mense iubesque&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(l. 61)<br />
+esse in amicorum numero.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p167">
+In <i>Sat.</i> ii. 6, 40-58 Horace describes how intimate he
+was socially with Maecenas, who, however, did not make
+him a confidant in political matters. The most noteworthy
+event of this period is described in <i>Sat.</i> i. 5, viz. Horace&rsquo;s
+journey to Brundisium in the train of Maecenas and
+Cocceius, who went to arrange some matters between
+Augustus and Antony. His companions were Virgil,
+Varius, Plotius, and the Greek rhetorician, Heliodorus.
+Plotius, Virgil, and Varius are thus referred to (<i>Sat.</i> i.
+5, 41):
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Animae quales neque candidiores<br />
+terra tulit neque quis me sit devinctior alter.&rsquo;<a href="#fn054" id="ref054">[54]</a>
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 34 Maecenas gave Horace an estate in the
+country of the Sabines. The question of its position was
+settled last century by the abbé Capmartin de Chaupy.
+The only place that suits Horace&rsquo;s description is east of
+Tivoli, and in the neighbourhood of Vicovaro, which is
+the same as the Varia of Horace (<i>Ep.</i> i. 14, 3), the market-town
+of his tenants. Near it is the stream Licenza, the
+Digentia of Horace, on which stands Bardela (the Mandela
+of Hor.). <i>Ep.</i> i. 18, 104,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p168">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Me quotiens reficit gelidus Digentia rivus,<br />
+quem Mandela bibit, rugosus frigore pagus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The site of his villa may be pretty closely determined
+from <i>Ep.</i> i. 10, 49,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Haec tibi dictabam post fanum putre Vacunae.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Vacuna is a Sabine goddess, identified with Victoria: near
+the village an inscription has been found which was erected
+by Vespasian, &lsquo;Aedem Victoriae vetustate dilapsam sua
+impensa restituit,&rsquo; and the natural inference is that this is
+the temple mentioned by Horace.<a href="#fn055" id="ref055">[55]</a> Horace stayed a great
+deal at his country-house, and his works contain many
+references to it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>vit. Hor.</i>, &lsquo;Vixit plurimum in secessu ruris sui
+Sabini aut Tiburtini, domusque eius ostenditur circa
+Tiburni luculum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Sat.</i> ii. 6, 16,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ubi me in mentis et in arcem ex urbe removi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Other references are <i>Ep.</i> i. 16, 1-14; <i>Od.</i> ii. 18, 14.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Augustus having tried unsuccessfully to induce Horace to
+become his secretary, was not offended at the poet&rsquo;s refusal,
+but continued to bestow his favour upon him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>vit. Hor.</i>, &lsquo;Augustus epistularum quoque ei
+officium obtulit, ut hoc ad Maecenatem scripto significat:
+&ldquo;Ante ipse sufficiebam scribendis epistulis amicorum, nunc
+occupatissimus et infirmus Horatium nostrum a te cupio
+abducere. Veniet ergo ab ista parasitica mensa ad hanc
+regiam et nos in epistulis scribendis adiuvabit.&rdquo; Ac ne
+recusanti quidem aut succensuit quicquam aut amicitiam
+suam ingerere desiit ... unaque et altera liberalitate locupletavit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p169">
+Horace composed for Augustus the <i>Carmen Saeculare</i>;
+<i>Od.</i> iv. 4; iv. 14, celebrating the victories of Augustus&rsquo;
+step-sons over the Rhaetians and the Vindelici; also
+<i>Ep.</i> ii. 1.
+</p>
+
+<p id="carmsaec">
+Sueton. <i>vit. Hor.</i>, &lsquo;Scripta quidem eius usque adeo
+probavit mansuraque perpetuo opinatus est, ut non modo
+Saeculare carmen componendum iniunxerit sed et Vindelicam
+victoriam Tiberii Drusique privignorum suorum eumque
+coegerit propter hoc tribus carminum libris ex longo intervallo
+quartum addere; post sermones vero quosdam lectos
+nullam sui mentionem habitam ita sit questus: &ldquo;Irasci me
+tibi scito, quod non in plerisque eius modi scriptis mecum
+potissimum loquaris; an vereris ne apud posteros infame
+tibi sit, quod videaris familiaris nobis esse?&rdquo; expresseritque
+eclogam ad se, cuius initium est:
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&ldquo;Cum tot sustineas et tanta negotia solus,&rdquo;&rsquo; etc. (<i>Ep.</i> ii. 1).
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Horace died 27th November, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 8, and was buried near
+Maecenas. He appointed Augustus his heir.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>vit. Hor.</i>, &lsquo;Decessit v. Kal. Decembris C. Marcio
+Censorino et C. Asinio Gallo coss. lvii. aetatis anno, herede
+Augusto palam nuncupato; ... et conditus est extremis
+Esquiliis iuxta Maecenatis tumulum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In personal appearance Horace was &lsquo;brevis atque obesus,&rsquo;
+according to Suetonius, who quotes a joke of Augustus on
+the subject: &lsquo;Vereri autem mihi videris ne maiores libelli
+tui sint, quam ipse es; sed tibi statura deest, corpusculum
+non deest.&rsquo; Cf. Hor. <i>Ep.</i> i. 20, 24,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p170">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Corporis exigui, praecanum, solibus aptum,<br />
+irasci celerem, tamen ut placabilis essem&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> i. 4, 15,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Me pinguem et nitidum bene curata cute vises,<br />
+cum ridere voles, Epicuri de grege porcum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. also <i>Ep.</i> i. 7, 25; <i>Od.</i> iii. 14, 25.
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+<i>Chronology of the Works.</i>&mdash;(1) <i>Satirae</i>, in two Books
+(called <i>Sermones</i> in all the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Book i. It is clear from <i>Sat.</i> ii. 6, 40 that Horace was
+introduced to Maecenas in the spring of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 38. Now all
+the references to Maecenas, with the exception of the prologue
+in <i>Sat.</i> 1 (written last), are in the second half of the
+book, there being no mention of him in <i>Sat.</i> 2; 3; and 4.
+It is therefore probable that these three Satires were written
+when Horace knew Varius and Virgil, but not Maecenas,
+<i>i.e.</i> <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 40-38. <i>Sat.</i> 2 is probably the oldest we have, as
+is shown by other considerations, and by the number of
+archaisms it contains. <i>Sat.</i> 5 (on the journey to Brundisium)
+was written shortly after the spring of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 37, when
+the events recorded took place. The date of the publication
+of the book cannot be exactly fixed, the only clue we have
+being the reference in <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 86, to Bibulus, the political
+agent of Antony, whose presence in Rome <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 35
+may be referred to. It cannot be proved that <i>Sat.</i> i. 1,
+114 <i>sqq.</i>, is imitated from Verg. <i>Georg.</i> i. 512 <i>sqq.</i>, published
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 35.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Book ii. and the <i>Epodes</i> were published in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 30 about
+the same time. We have references to Actium (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 31),
+as in <i>Sat.</i> ii. 5, 63; and <i>Sat.</i> ii. 1 (written last) speaks
+of Augustus (ll. 11-15) as the hero in war, not yet the
+bringer of peace, and was probably therefore composed
+before the temple of Janus was shut in the beginning of
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 29.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p171">
+(2) <i>Epodon liber</i>, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 30, as above. <i>Epod.</i> 9 was written
+shortly after the battle of Actium, 2nd September, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 31,
+before it was known whither Antony had fled.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(3) <i>Carmina</i> (Odes) Books i.-iii., published <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 23. In
+<i>Od.</i> i. 12, 45,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Crescit occulto velut arbor aevo<br />
+fama Marcellis,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+we have a reference to the marriage in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 25 of Augustus&rsquo;
+daughter, Julia, to his nephew, Marcellus. Marcellus died
+in the autumn of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 23, and the lines must have been
+written before his death. <i>Od.</i> ii. 10 and iii. 19 contain
+references to Licinius Murena, brother of Terentia, Maecenas&rsquo;
+wife. Murena was executed for his share in the
+conspiracy of Fannius Caepio in the end of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 23, and
+it is improbable that Horace could have made these
+references after that event.<a href="#fn056" id="ref056">[56]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(4) <i>Epistles</i>, Book i., published <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 20. The date is
+fixed by <i>Ep.</i> i. 20, 26-8, already quoted, <a href="#p164">p. 164</a>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The year referred to is <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 21, and the book was therefore
+composed in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 20, before December of that year.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(5) <i>Carmen Saeculare</i>, composed for the <i>Ludi Saeculares</i>
+of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 17 (see Sueton. <a href="#carmsaec">quoted above</a>). An inscription
+commemorating these games was discovered in 1890 on
+the left bank of the Tiber, and in it Horace is mentioned:
+&lsquo;Sacrificioque perfecto pueri xxvi. quibus denuntiatum erat
+patrimi et matrimi et puellae totidem carmen cecinerunt
+eodemque modo in Capitolio. Carmen composuit Q.
+Horatius Flaccus.&rsquo;<a href="#fn057" id="ref057">[57]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p id="p172">
+(6) <i>Odes</i>, Book iv., published <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 13. <i>Od.</i> 4 and 14
+celebrate the campaign of Drusus and Tiberius in Rhaetia
+and Vindelicia <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 15. <i>Od.</i> 2 and 5 were written just
+before Augustus&rsquo; return, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 13, from Gaul, where he had
+been since <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 16.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(7) <i>Epistles</i>, Book ii. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, to Augustus, was written
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 14 in response (see the quotation from Suetonius above)
+to the emperor&rsquo;s request for a poem addressed to himself,
+after seeing that no mention was made of him in <i>Ep.</i> ii. 2
+and the <i>Epistula ad Pisones</i>. These are the <i>sermones
+quidam</i> (both, like <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, on literary criticism) referred
+to by Suetonius, and not Book i. of the Epistles, where
+Augustus is frequently mentioned. The date is fixed by
+l. 15, &lsquo;praesenti tibi maturos largimur honores,&rsquo; etc., referring
+to the worship of the <i>numen Augusti</i>, which was legalized
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 14, and by the reference in ll. 252 <i>sqq.</i> to the victories
+of Drusus and Tiberius, and their celebration in <i>Od.</i> iv.
+4; iv. 14. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 2 (to Iulius Florus) was written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 18.
+Horace hints (l. 25, ll. 84-6) that he has not yet returned
+to lyric poetry; the epistle was therefore written before
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 17. The <i>Epistula ad Pisones</i> or <i>De Arte Poetica</i> was
+probably written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 17 or 16 after the <i>Carmen Saeculare</i>,
+but before Horace had entered on the composition of the
+fourth Book of the Odes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Satires</i> are called <i>Sermones</i> in all the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, but as
+Horace gave this name both to his Satires (<i>Sat.</i> i. 4, 42)
+and to his Epistles (<i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 4; 250) it is convenient to
+call them <i>Satirae</i>, the name which Horace also gives them
+(<i>Sat.</i> ii. 1, 1; 6, 17), and which represent their intended
+scope. Horace&rsquo;s chief model is Lucilius, whom he wished
+to adapt to the Augustan age. <i>Sat.</i> i. 4, 56,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p173">
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;his, ego quae nunc,<br />
+olim quae scripsit Lucilius.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+So <i>Sat.</i> ii. 1, 28 and 74. Lucilius&rsquo; influence is seen most
+in <i>Sat.</i> i. 2; 5; 7; 8; ii. 2; 3; 4; 8. Horace, after the
+reception <i>Sat.</i> i. 2 met with, did not, like Lucilius, attack
+individuals; nor did his position as a dependent (<i>Sat.</i> ii. 1,
+60-79) allow him to do so. We find, therefore, no political
+satire in Horace, who confines himself to social and literary
+topics. He does not attack his contemporaries by name,
+but (<i>a</i>) takes some names from Lucilius, as Albucius (<i>Sat.</i>
+ii. 1, 48), Opimius (<i>Sat.</i> ii. 3, 142); (<i>b</i>) invents &lsquo;tell-tale-names,&rsquo;
+as Pantolabus (<i>Sat.</i> i. 8, 11), Novius (<i>Sat.</i> i. 3, 21).
+In <i>Sat.</i> i. 4 and ii. 1 he defines the moral and social aim
+of his satire. In <i>Sat.</i> i. 4, 1-13 he criticizes Lucilius&rsquo; style;
+this seems to have given offence, and in <i>Sat.</i> i. 10 he gives
+reasons for his former criticism. Horace&rsquo;s Epicureanism
+is more pronounced in Book i. than in Book ii. In <i>Sat.</i> i.
+1 and i. 3 (cf. ll. 99-124) the influence of Lucretius is seen.
+In i. 3 he takes up an antagonistic position to Stoicism
+(cf. ll. 124-142). In ii. 3 he shows less hostility to Stoicism
+though he still criticizes it.<a href="#fn058" id="ref058">[58]</a> In <i>Sat.</i> ii. 7, where the slave
+Davus enunciates the Stoic doctrine, <span class="greek">ὅτι μόνος ὁ σοφὸς ἐλεύθερος</span>,
+Davus&rsquo; arguments from l. 75 onwards have been
+taken by Horace from Cic. <i>Parad.</i> 5.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p174">
+Horace does not pretend that his Satires (or Epistles)
+are poetry, and makes several statements to that effect.
+<i>Sat.</i> ii. 6, 17,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quid prius inlustrem satiris musaque pedestri?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 250,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Sermones ... repentes per humum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+So <i>Sat.</i> i. 4, 39-44.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Epodes</i> are called <i>Epodi</i> in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> <span class="greek">Ἐπῳδός</span> was
+the name given to a piece composed of couplets, the first
+line of which is longer than the second. Horace calls
+them <i>iambi</i> (<i>Epod.</i> 14, 7; <i>Od.</i> i. 16, 3). Their style is an
+imitation of that of Archilochus of Paros. <i>Ep.</i> i. 19, 23-5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Parios ego primus iambos<br />
+ostendi Latio, numeros animosque secutus<br />
+Archilochi, non res et agentia verba Lycamben.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+This is seen in the personal attacks made in many of
+them, as well as in the <span class="greek">αἰσχρολογία</span> employed, and also in
+the versification. The dates of several can be fixed. <i>Epod.</i>
+16 was written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 41, and refers to the Perusian war.
+Horace takes no part with either side, but advises his
+countrymen to leave Rome, like the Phocaeans of old.
+<i>Epod.</i> 7 was written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 39; and <i>Epod.</i> 1, 9, and 14,
+about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 31. The order is strictly metrical. Epodes
+1-10 are simple iambics (trimeter and dimeter alternately);
+11-16 more complicated forms; 17, the last, in iambic trimeters.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Odes</i> Horace himself calls <i>carmina</i>. The metres
+are nearly all taken from Sappho and Alcaeus, the two
+poets whose works Horace wished to present to his countrymen
+in a Roman dress. Cf. <i>Od.</i> iii. 30, 13-4,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p175">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Princeps Aeolium carmen ad Italos<br />
+deduxisse modos.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The metrical differences between himself and his originals
+are due to the difference in the genius of the two languages
+and to the fact that he adopted the views on metre
+current in his time. Catullus&rsquo; metre, on the other hand,
+was closely modelled on that of the Alexandrian poets.
+The odes are largely founded on the best Greek lyric
+poetry, with which Horace was thoroughly familiar; cf.
+his first intention to write in Greek (<i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 31-5).
+Alexandrian influence is little seen, and his mythological
+allusions are seldom obscure. Examples of imitation
+(which is commonest in Book i.) are: <i>Od.</i> i. 9, the
+beginning of which is from Alcaeus (so i. 10; 11; 18);
+i. 12 (beginning) is from Pindar; i. 27 from Anacreon.
+Bacchylides is imitated, <i>e.g.</i> in ii. 18.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Subjects of the Odes.</i>&mdash;1. Love and wine form the themes
+of many. <i>Od.</i> i. 6, 17,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nos convivia, nos proelia virginum<br />
+sectis in iuvenes unguibus acrium<br />
+cantamus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. <i>Od.</i> ii. 1, 37-40; iii. 3, 69-72.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The love-poems show no trace of personal passion, and
+the names of the women whose charms are sung are taken
+from Greek; thus Pyrrha (a well-known name from Attic
+comedy) i. 5; Lydia, i. 13, etc.; Lalage, i. 22; ii. 5.
+Cinara (iv. 1; iv. 13) is probably the only one that
+represents a real person. Wine is celebrated, <i>e.g.</i> in i. 9;
+18; 27; ii. 7; iii. 21. A tone of moderation is observed
+throughout the drinking-songs. It is highly probable<a href="#fn059" id="ref059">[59]</a> that
+in <i>Od.</i> i. 27, 1-4 the unrestrained bacchanalian spirit of
+Catullus (cf. c. 27) is reproved,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p176">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Natis in usum laetitiae scyphis<br />
+pugnare Thracum est. Tollite barbarum<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;morem verecundumque Bacchum<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;sanguineis prohibete rixis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+2. In <i>Od.</i> i. 24 we have the beautiful dirge on the
+death of Quintilius Varus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. <i>On political subjects.</i>&mdash;The chief of these are as
+follows: i. 2 (towards the end of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 28); i. 12; i. 14;
+i. 35 (in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 26); i. 37 (in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 30); ii. 1. The most
+important, however, are <i>Od.</i> iii. 1-6, which form one whole,
+and are written on the new name of Augustus, and the
+ideas therewith connected. They were all written about
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 27.<a href="#fn060" id="ref060">[60]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In iii. 1, which is general, the rising generation is
+addressed by the prophet of the empire; ll. 3, 4,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Musarum sacerdos<br />
+virginibus puerisque canto.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The lesson of the ode is &lsquo;A moderate life is the best.
+Lucky is the man who is spared the trouble of managing
+the State.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+iii. 2 praises courage and honesty, but with special
+reference to two institutions of Augustus: (1) the professional
+soldier as opposed to the citizen-soldier of the
+republic. The officers were taken from the two privileged
+classes, and there was no promotion from the ranks. This
+is the explanation of ll. 1-4,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p177">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Angustam amice pauperiem pati<br />
+robustus acri militia puer<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;condiscat et Parthos ferocis<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;vexet eques,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+lines which also refer to the resuscitation by Augustus
+of the citizen-cavalry. The soldier is not to trouble
+about politics (ll. 17-20), and must not fear death (l. 13).
+(2) The new imperial administrative officers, employed
+not only in collecting taxes, but in administrative business
+of every kind. Speaking of them, Horace pays a tribute to
+loyal silence, and emphasizes the curse that clings to breach
+of faith; l. 25,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Est et fideli tuta silentio<br />
+ merces&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+l. 31,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Raro antecedentem scelestum<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;deseruit pede Poena claudo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+iii. 3 touches intimately the political questions of the
+day. Pointed reference is made to Cleopatra; she is the
+<i>mulier peregrina</i> (l. 20), the <i>Lacaena adultera</i> (l. 25), who
+brought Troy low, and would bring Rome low, if she
+and her <i>famosus hospes</i> (l. 26) could raise Troy again.
+The reference here is to a report current about Antony,
+that he intended to make Troy the capital. It is certain
+that he intended to restore to Cleopatra her kingdom with
+extended frontiers, and to make himself ruler of the Eastern
+empire. This, which would have meant the subjection of
+Rome to the Greeks and half-Greeks, was prevented by
+the &lsquo;iustum et tenacem propositi virum&rsquo; (l. i), who for his
+services is honoured as one of the gods; ll. 11-12,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p178">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quos inter Augustus recumbens<br />
+purpureo bibit ore nectar.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+In iii. 4 the poet&rsquo;s personality comes out strongest. He
+describes his protection by the Muses in his early years,
+and this leads him to speak of one of the monarch&rsquo;s chief
+works of peace, his encouragement of literature; ll. 37-40,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Vos Caesarem altum, militia simul<br />
+fessas cohortes abdidit oppidis,<br />
+finire quaerentem labores<br />
+Pierio recreatis antro.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+iii. 5 is a defence of Augustus&rsquo; foreign policy. Publicly
+he kept up Caesar&rsquo;s war policy, hence ll. 2-5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Praesens divus habebitur<br />
+Augustus adiectis Britannis<br />
+imperio gravibusque Persis&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+but that this concealed his real policy of non-intervention
+is shown by his action regarding Parthia. Hence Horace,
+by a speech put into the mouth of Regulus (l. 18 <i>sqq.</i>)
+warns the Romans against trying to rescue the survivors
+of Crassus&rsquo; army, who, by becoming captives, had ceased
+to be citizens. That some of the Senate wished to interfere
+in this matter is probably shown by ll. 45-6,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Donec labantis consilio patres<br />
+firmaret auctor numquam alias dato.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+iii. 6 refers (ll. 1-8) to Augustus&rsquo; policy in restoring the
+ancient religion, as is seen by the fact that he rebuilt
+82 temples. Lines 21-32 refer to a law of Augustus on
+adultery, the date of which is unknown.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p179">
+In Book iv., Odes 2, 4, 5, 6, 14, 15, are political. They
+show traces of adulation, and sing the praises rather of
+the imperial family than of the nation. Cf. iv. 2, 37
+(of Augustus),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &lsquo;Quo nihil maius meliusve terris<br />
+  fata donavere bonique divi,&rsquo; etc.
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Epistles</i>.&mdash;<i>Sermones</i> is the name given them by
+Horace; they are also called <i>Epistulae</i> in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> Social,
+ethical, and literary questions are treated of, and the style
+is much more careful than that of the Satires. The motto,
+one might say, of the book is <i>Ep.</i> i. 1, 10.
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nunc itaque et versus et cetera ludicra pono:<br />
+quid verum atque decens, curo et rogo et omnis in hoc sum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The dates of <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 2, have already been mentioned.
+Both treat of literary criticism, and the first deals particularly
+with that of the drama. Iulius Florus, to whom
+<i>Ep.</i> ii. 2 is addressed, was the representative of the younger
+literary school at Rome. The <i>Epistula ad Pisones</i> or
+<i>De Arte Poetica</i> is an essay in verse on literary criticism,
+specially pointing out how necessary art is to composition.
+In it, according to Porphyrion, Horace &lsquo;congessit praecepta
+Neoptolemi <span class="greek">τοῦ Παριανοῦ</span><a href="#fn061" id="ref061">[61]</a> de arte poetica, non
+quidem omnia, sed eminentissima.&rsquo; Horace probably was
+also indebted to Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Poetics</i>. Porphyrion says that
+Horace wrote the <i>Ars Poetica</i> &lsquo;ad L. Pisonem qui postea
+urbis custos fuit eiusque liberos.&rsquo; This does not fit in
+with the probable date, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 17 or 16, as L. Piso was born
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 49, and his sons could not have been old enough for
+the letter to be addressed to them. It is probable that
+Porphyrion is wrong, and that the <i>A.P.</i> was addressed to
+Cn. Piso, who served with Horace under Brutus, and his
+two sons.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p180">
+<i>Horace and nature.</i>&mdash;Besides references to his Sabine
+villa, Horace refers to natural scenery in many passages.
+Such are <i>Epod.</i> 2; <i>Od.</i> i. 7, 10; ii. 6, 13; iii. 13, 9; <i>Sat.</i> ii.
+6, 1 <i>sqq.</i>; <i>Ep.</i> i. 10, 6 <i>sqq.</i>, i. 16, 1 <i>sqq.</i><a href="#fn062" id="ref062">[62]</a> Horace is fond
+of comparing dangers to the plague of floods,<a href="#fn063" id="ref063">[63]</a> a plague
+from which Italy has always suffered. Cf. <i>Od.</i> i. 31, 7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;rura quae Liris quieta<br />
+mordet aqua taciturnus amnis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+So <i>Od.</i> iii. 29, 32 <i>sqq.</i>, and many other passages.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Popularity of Horace.</i>&mdash;Horace&rsquo;s prediction that his works
+would become school-books, <i>Ep.</i> i. 20, 17,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Hoc quoque te manet, ut pueros elementa docentem<br />
+occupet extremis in vicis balba senectus,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+was early fulfilled. Cf. Iuv. 7, 226,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quot stabant pueri, cum totus decolor esset<br />
+Flaccus et haereret nigro fuligo Maroni.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<h3>CONTEMPORARY POETS:</h3>
+
+<p>
+The following writers were friends of Horace:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>a</i>) <i>C. Valgius Rufus</i>, consul suffectus <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 12, belonged
+to the circle of Maecenas (Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 82).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Valgius&rsquo; works, of which only a few lines are extant,
+included (1) Elegiae. Cf. Hor. <i>Od.</i> ii. 9, 9-12,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Tu semper urges flebilibus modis<br />
+Mysten ademptum, nec tibi Vespero<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;surgente decedunt amores<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;nec rapidum fugiente solem.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p181">
+(2) Epigrammata, (3) Miscellanies, (4) A translation of
+Apollodorus&rsquo; <span class="greek">τέχνη</span>. (See Quint. iii. 1, 18.) (5) A book
+on herbs. (Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> xxv. 4.) An epic was also expected
+of him, but whether written is unknown. Tibull. iv. 1, 179,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Est tibi, qui possit magnis se adcingere rebus,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Valgius; aeterno propior non alter Homero.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(<i>b</i>) <i>M. Aristius Fuscus</i>, a poet and grammarian (Porphyr. <i>ad
+Sat.</i> i. 9, 60); <i>Od.</i> i. 22, and <i>Ep.</i> i. 10, are addressed to him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>c</i>) The <i>Visci</i>. Comm. Cruq. <i>ad Sat.</i> i. 10, 83, &lsquo;Visci
+duo fratres fuerunt optimi poetae et iudices critici.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>d</i>) <i>C. Fundanius</i>, wrote comedies (Porphyr. <i>ad Sat.</i> i.
+10, 40).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>e</i>) <i>Servius Sulpicius</i>, a love poet (Ovid, <i>Trist.</i> ii. 441;
+Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 86).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>f</i>) <i>Iulius Florus</i> was &lsquo;saturarum scriptor&rsquo; (Porphyr. <i>ad
+Hor. Ep.</i> i. 3, 1). Hor. <i>Ep.</i> i. 3 and ii. 2, are addressed
+to him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>g</i>) <i>Titius</i> wrote Pindaric odes, and tragedies, Hor. <i>Ep.</i>
+i. 3, 9-14.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>h</i>) <i>Albinovanus Celsus</i>. See Hor. <i>Ep.</i> i. 3, 15-7.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>i</i>) <i>C. Iullus Antonius</i>, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 44-<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 2, was a son of the
+triumvir M. Antonius. The Schol. on Hor. <i>Od.</i> iv. 2, 2,
+says of him, &ldquo;Heroico metro Diomedeam scripsit et nonnulla
+alia soluta oratione.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>k</i>) <i>Furnius</i>, an orator; died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 37. He is mentioned
+by Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 86.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Other poets contemporary with Virgil and Horace are:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>a</i>) <i>L. Varius Rufus</i> (cf. Verg. <i>Ecl.</i> 9, 35). His works
+were:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(1) Epics (<i>a</i>) on the death of Julius Caesar (Macrob.
+<i>Saturn.</i> vi. 1, 39), (<i>b</i>) in praise of Augustus. Hor. <i>Ep.</i>
+i. 16, 27-29 is a quotation from this poem (Acron <i>ad loc.</i>),
+and it is probably referred to in <i>Od.</i> i. 6, 1 (to Agrippa),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p182">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Scriberis Vario fortis et hostium<br />
+victor Maeonii carminis aliti,<br />
+quam rem cumque ferox navibus aut equis<br />
+miles te duce gesserit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(2) A tragedy, <i>Thyestes</i>, praised by Quint. x. 1, 98,
+&lsquo;iam Varii Thyestes cuilibet Graecarum comparari potest.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(3) Elegies: Porphyr. ad Hor. <i>Od.</i> i. 6, 1, &lsquo;fuit L. Varius
+et ipse carminis et tragoediarum et elegiorum auctor.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>b</i>) <i>Aemilius Macer</i> was a native of Verona, and died
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 16: Jerome yr. Abr. 2001, &lsquo;Aemilius Macer Veronensis
+poeta in Asia moritur.&rsquo; He was a friend of Virgil, and
+was the &lsquo;Mopsus&rsquo; of <i>Ecl.</i> 5, according to Serv. <i>ad loc.</i>
+Ovid in his youth enjoyed his acquaintance; cf. <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10,
+43, where three didactic poems are referred to: (1) <i>Ornithogonia</i>,
+on birds; (2) <i>Theriaca</i>, on venomous serpents;
+(3) <i>De Herbis</i>, on plants.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For his obligations to Nicander, see under &lsquo;Virgil,&rsquo; <a href="#p158">p. 158</a>.
+Quintilian calls him &lsquo;humilis&rsquo; (x. 1, 87).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>c</i>) <i>C. Cornelius Gallus</i> was born at Forum Iulii <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 70,
+and died by his own hand <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 27. Jerome yr. Abr. 1990,
+&lsquo;Cornelius Gallus Foroiuliensis poeta ... xliii. aetatis suae
+anno propria se manu interficit.&rsquo; Having commanded a
+division in the war against Antony, he was appointed by
+Octavian the first prefect of Egypt, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 30, but incurred
+his anger and was banished from Caesar&rsquo;s house and
+provinces (Sueton. <i>Aug.</i> 66). The cause of his downfall
+was indiscreet language about Augustus, according to
+Ovid, <i>Tr.</i> ii. 445,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Non fuit opprobrio celebrasse Lycorida Gallo,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;sed linguam nimio non tenuisse mero&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+and <i>Am.</i> iii. 9, 63,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p183">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Tu quoque, si falsum est temerati crimen amici,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;sanguinis atque animae prodige, Galle, tuae.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The tenth eclogue of Virgil is a testimony to his friendship
+for Gallus, l. 2,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Pauca meo Gallo, sed quae legat ipsa Lycoris,<br />
+carmina sunt dicenda; neget quis carmina Gallo?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Lines 44-49 are said by Servius, <i>ad loc.</i>, to be quoted from
+Gallus (&lsquo;de ipsius translati carminibus&rsquo;). For the tribute
+to Gallus in the original draft of <i>Georgic</i> iv. see under
+&lsquo;Virgil,&rsquo; <a href="#p157">p. 157</a>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He wrote four Books of love-poems to Cytheris, the <i>liberta</i>
+who afterwards deserted him for Antony: Serv. <i>ad Ecl.</i> x. 1,
+&lsquo;amorum suorum de Cytheride scripsit libros iv.&rsquo; According
+to Servius he also translated the poems of Euphorion of
+Chalcis. Cf. Verg. <i>Ecl.</i> x. 50,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ibo et Chalcidico quae sunt mihi condita versu<br />
+carmina pastoris Siculi modulabor avena.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Compared with Tibullus and Propertius, he was &lsquo;durior&rsquo;
+(Quint. x. 1, 93).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>d</i>) <i>Codrus</i>, mentioned by Virgil, <i>Ecl.</i> 7, 22 and 26; 5, 11,
+was a contemporary poet (Serv. <i>ad Ecl.</i> 7), and was praised
+by Valgius (Schol. Veron. <i>ad loc.</i>), but nothing is known
+of his writings. The name is not Roman, and is probably
+a disguised form of Cordus. He is sometimes identified
+with the Iarbitas of Hor. <i>Ep.</i> i. 19, 15.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>e</i>) <i>Bavius</i> and <i>Mevius</i> were enemies of Virgil and
+Horace. Verg. <i>Ecl.</i> 3, 90,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Qui Bavium non odit, amet tua carmina, Mevi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Horace, <i>Epod.</i> 10, prays for the shipwreck of Mevius. He
+wrote about the prodigal son of the actor Aesopus (Porphyr.
+ad Hor. <i>Sat.</i> ii. 3, 239). Bavius died <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 35, according
+to Jerome.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p184">
+(<i>f</i>) <i>Anser</i> wrote a poem in praise of Antony, and was
+rewarded with a grant of land (Serv. <i>ad Ecl.</i> 9, 36; Cic.
+<i>Phil.</i> xiii. 11). He is mentioned by Ovid, <i>Tr.</i> ii. 435,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Cinna quoque his comes est, Cinnaque procacior Anser.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Servius sees an allusion to him in <i>Ecl.</i> 9, 36,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Argutos inter strepere anser olores.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(<i>g</i>) <i>Domitius Marsus</i>. His epigram on Tibullus (see
+<a href="#p186">p. 186</a>) shows that he was alive in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 19; he was, however,
+dead when Ovid was exiled in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 8.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Ovid, <i>Ex Pont.</i> iv. 16, 3,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Famaque post cineres maior venit; et mihi nomen<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;tunc quoque, cum vivis adnumerarer, erat,<br />
+cum foret et Marsus, magnique Rabirius oris,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Iliacusque Macer sidereusque Pedo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+He was a member of Augustus&rsquo; literary circle. Mart. viii.
+56, 21,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quid Varios Marsosque loquar, ditataque vatum<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;nomina, magnus erit quos numerare labor?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+His works were:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>Cicuta</i>, a collection of epigrams, often referred to
+by Martial. Cf. ii. 71, 3,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;aut Marsi recitas aut scripta Catulli.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>Amazonis</i>, an epic poem.<a href="#fn064" id="ref064">[64]</a> Mart. iv. 29, 7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Saepius in libro memoratur Persius uno<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;quam levis in tota Marsus Amazonide.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p185">
+3. <i>Amores</i> or <i>Elegiae</i>. Mart. vii. 29, 7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Et Maecenati, Maro cum cantaret Alexin,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;nota tamen Marsi fusca Melaenis erat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+4. <i>Fabellae</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+5. <i>De Urbanitate</i> (in prose). Quint. vi. 3, 102,
+&lsquo;Domitius Marsus, qui de urbanitate diligentissime
+scripsit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>h</i>) <i>Pupius</i>, a tragedian, sneered at by Hor. <i>Ep.</i> i. 1, 67,
+&lsquo;lacrimosa poemata Pupi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>i</i>) <i>C. Melissus</i>, a freedman of Maecenas, invented the
+<i>trabeata</i>, a variety of the <i>togata</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 21, &lsquo;Fecit et novum genus togatarum
+inscripsitque trabeatas.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h3>TIBULLUS.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+Albius Tibullus (his praenomen was perhaps Aulus,
+which, from the abbreviation A. being followed by Albius,
+was lost in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>) seems to have been born near Pedum
+in Latium. (1) Horace, in <i>Ep.</i> i. 4, 2, addressed to
+Tibullus, asks, &lsquo;Quid nunc te dicam facere in regione
+Pedana?&rsquo; apparently referring to the &lsquo;sedes avitae&rsquo; of
+Tibullus (Tibull. ii. 4, 53). (2) The Life contained in the
+best <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, and probably to be attributed to Suetonius, calls
+him &lsquo;Albius Tibullus, eques Romanus&rsquo; (codd. Paris. and
+Lips. &lsquo;regulis&rsquo;). Bährens (<i>Tibullische Blätter</i>) holds that
+<i>Romanus</i> is an erroneous correction of <i>regulis</i>, for which
+he proposes to read <i>R.</i> (= Romanus) <i>e Gabis</i> (= Gabiis).
+Gabii was within a short distance of Pedum.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The date of his birth can be fixed only by indirect
+evidence.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p186">
+(1) The Life says &lsquo;obiit adulescens,&rsquo; and the epigram of
+Domitius Marsus, found in the best <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, calls Tibullus
+&lsquo;iuvenis&rsquo; at the time of his death, which must have occurred
+about the same time as Virgil&rsquo;s, in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 19,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Te quoque Vergilio comitem non aequa, Tibulle,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;mors iuvenem campos misit ad Elysios,<br />
+ne foret aut elegis molles qui fleret amores<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;aut caneret forti regia bella pede.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(2) Ovid (<i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 53) says of Tibullus,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Successor fuit hic tibi, Galle, Propertius illi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Since Gallus was born <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 70, and Propertius about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 49,
+the birth of Tibullus must have fallen between those years.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(3) Tibullus accompanied Messalla when he left for
+Aquitania, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 30 or 29, according to the Life: &lsquo;Ante
+alios Corvinum Messallam oratorem dilexit, cuius etiam
+contubernalis Aquitanico bello militaribus donis donatus
+est.&rsquo; Cf. Tibull. i. 7, 9,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Non sine me est tibi partus honos; Tarbella Pyrene<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;testis et Oceani litora Santonici.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Putting together these references we may place the date
+of Tibullus&rsquo; birth in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 54. (The statement of the Life
+in the Codex Guelferbytanus, &lsquo;Natus est Hyrtio et Pansa
+coss.&rsquo; is clearly wrong).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He was of equestrian rank, and at one time possessed
+considerable wealth, apparently inherited from a long line
+of ancestors; i. 1, 41,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Non ego divitias patrum fructusque requiro<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;quos tulit antiquo condita messis avo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. ii. 1, 1; ii. 4, 53; Hor. <i>Ep.</i> i. 4, 7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Di tibi divitias dederunt.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p187">
+His family property, however, had been greatly diminished;
+i. 1, 19,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Vos quoque, felicis quondam nunc pauperis agri<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;custodes, fertis munera vestra, lares:<br />
+tunc vitula innumeros lustrabat caesa iuvencos;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;nunc agna exigui est hostia parva soli.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. i. 1, 5 and 37.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It has been supposed that Tibullus suffered these losses
+in the agrarian disturbances of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 41, and that his lands,
+like those of Virgil and Propertius, were confiscated. No
+town in Latium, however, is mentioned by Appian as
+having its territory thus assigned. Tibullus&rsquo; property may
+possibly have been restored to him through the influence
+of Messalla.<a href="#fn065" id="ref065">[65]</a> Cf. Hor. <i>Ep.</i> i. 4, 11,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Et mundus victus non deficiente crumena&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+also Tibull. i. 1, 77,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Ego composito securus acervo<br />
+despiciam dites despiciamque famem.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Of Messalla Tibullus always speaks with the greatest affection.
+He refused at first to accompany him to the East after
+the battle of Actium, but afterwards followed him, and was
+forced through illness to remain at Corcyra: i. 1, 53,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Te bellare decet terra, Messalla, marique,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ut domus hostiles praeferat exuvias:<br />
+me retinent vinctum formosae vincla puellae&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+i, 3, 3,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Me tenet ignotis aegrum Phaeacia terris.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p188">
+In the Aquitanian campaign he was Messalla&rsquo;s <i>contubernalis</i>,
+and had military distinctions conferred on him (see
+<a href="#p186">p. 186</a>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+No further particulars of Tibullus are known, save his
+love for his mistresses Delia and Nemesis, and the fact
+mentioned by Ovid, in a poem on his death, that his mother
+and sister survived him; <i>Amor.</i> iii. 9, 50,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Mater et in cineres ultima dona tulit.<br />
+Hinc soror in partem misera cum matre doloris<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;venit inornatas dilaniata comas.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Delia&rsquo;s real name was Plania (<span class="greek">δῆλος</span> = <i>planus</i>): cf.
+Apuleius, <i>Apol.</i> 10, &lsquo;eadem igitur opera accusent ...
+Tibullum quod ei sit Plania in animo Delia in versu.&rsquo; She
+was a <i>libertina</i>, for the name is not known as a <i>nomen
+gentilicium</i>, and she had had a husband (i. 2, 41, &lsquo;coniunx
+tuus&rsquo;), who appears to have been serving with the army
+in Cilicia: i. 2, 65,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ferreus ille fuit, qui te cum posset habere,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;maluerit praedas stultus et arma sequi.<br />
+Ille licet Cilicum victas agat ante catervas,&rsquo; etc.
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+A divorce had probably taken place, as she was not entitled
+to wear the distinctive dress of the Roman matron; i. 6, 67,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Sit modo casta, doce, quamvis non vitta ligatos<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;impediat crines nec stola longa pedes.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Nemesis was a <i>meretrix</i>; ii. 4, 14,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Illa cava pretium flagitat usque manu.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+She appears to be the &lsquo;immitis Glycera&rsquo; of Hor. <i>Od.</i> i. 33, 2,
+addressed to Albius (so Kiessling <i>ad loc.</i>). Both Delia
+and Nemesis are represented by Ovid as present at the
+funeral of Tibullus. <i>Amor.</i> iii. 9, 53,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Cumque tuis sua iunxerunt Nemesisque priorque<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;oscula nec solos destituere rogos.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p189">
+Tibullus was on friendly terms with Horace, who
+addressed to him <i>Od.</i> i. 33 and <i>Ep.</i> i. 4. Horace was
+doubtless attracted by the frank nature of Tibullus (<i>Ep.</i>
+i. 4, 1, &lsquo;Albi, nostrorum sermonum candide iudex&rsquo;), and
+by the community of taste which led them both to imitate
+the classical Ionic rather than the Alexandrian elegy.
+Horace corroborates the statement of Life i. (&lsquo;insignis
+forma cultuque corporis observabilis&rsquo;) that Tibullus had a
+fine presence; <i>ibid.</i> 1. 6,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Non tu corpus eras sine pectore: di tibi formam,<br />
+di tibi divitias dederunt artemque fruendi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Ovid had met and admired him, and has numerous
+imitations of him in his poems; but the difference of age
+and the early death of Tibullus prevented any long
+acquaintance; Ovid, <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 51,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Nec amara Tibullo<br />
+tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Of friendship between Propertius and Tibullus there is no
+evidence: they never mention one another.
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+Four Books of elegiac poems are attributed to Tibullus,
+who ranks first among Roman elegists in the view of Quintilian,
+x. 1, 93, &lsquo;Elegia quoque Graecos provocamus, cuius
+mihi tersus atque elegans maxime videtur auctor Tibullus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Book i., on the poet&rsquo;s love for Delia and Marathus
+(<i>El.</i> 7 is to Messalla), was published by himself, and was
+apparently composed in the years <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 31-27. This agrees
+with Ovid, <i>Tr.</i> ii. 463,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Legiturque Tibullus<br />
+et placet, et iam te principe notus erat,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p190">
+if we assume that &lsquo;principe&rsquo; refers to the title of
+Augustus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Book ii., the chief subject of which is Nemesis,
+appears to have been written several years later. It is
+unfinished, not having received the author&rsquo;s final revision,
+and was probably published soon after his death,
+certainly several years before Ovid&rsquo;s <i>Ars Amatoria</i> (cf.
+<i>A.A.</i> 535 <i>sqq.</i>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Book iii. (six Elegies) is professedly the work of Lygdamus.
+No poet of that name is mentioned in ancient
+literature, and it has been suggested that the author may
+have been a young relative of Tibullus who used a Greek
+adaptation of the gentile name Albius (<span class="greek">λύγδος</span> = white
+marble). He speaks as a man of good social position
+(iii. 2, 22). From the fact that he belonged to the circle
+of Messalla, his poems came to be added to those of
+Tibullus, whom he constantly imitates. There are also
+many reminiscences of Horace, Ovid, and Propertius. The
+six Elegies are addressed to Neaera, who was probably
+the poet&rsquo;s cousin and was married or betrothed to him
+(iii. 1, 23; 2, 12). Lygdamus was born in the same year
+as Ovid, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43; iii. 5, 17,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Natalem primo nostrum videre parentes,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;cum cecidit fato consul uterque pari.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The remarkable coincidence between iii. 5, 15-20, and
+Ovid, <i>A.A.</i> ii. 669-70, <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 6, <i>Amor.</i> ii. 14, 23-4, is
+best explained by Hiller (<i>Hermes</i>, xviii. 360-1), who suggests
+that Lygdamus may have composed the poem in his earlier
+years merely to amuse Neaera, without publishing it, and
+that after Ovid&rsquo;s works had appeared he may, to oblige a
+friend or patron (<i>e.g.</i> Messalinus), have published his collection
+of elegies, adding in the process of revision the
+lines copied from Ovid.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p191">
+The remaining poems belong to Book iii. in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>,
+but in most editions are printed as a separate Book iv.
+iv. 1, in hexameters, is the <i>Panegyricus Messallae</i>, written
+in honour of Messalla&rsquo;s consulship, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 31. Its rhetorical
+exaggeration and want of taste forbid its being attributed
+to Tibullus, written, as it was, so shortly before he reached
+the summit of his powers. Its date puts Lygdamus out of
+question: doubtless it is by some young member of
+Messalla&rsquo;s circle.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The rest of the Book has for its theme the love of
+Sulpicia, the daughter of Servius Sulpicius and Valeria,
+the sister of Messalla, for a young Greek named Cerinthus.
+<i>El.</i> 2-6 are apparently by Tibullus himself, who may
+have amused himself by turning into verse the letters of
+the young lovers. <i>El.</i> 7 is of disputed authorship; but
+it resembles the work of Sulpicia rather than that of
+Tibullus. <i>El.</i> 8-12 are by Sulpicia to Cerinthus. <i>El.</i> 13
+purports to be by Tibullus. <i>El.</i> 14 is an epigram, of
+doubtful authorship.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Two <i>Priapea</i> are found in <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> of Tibullus, but probably
+neither of them is by him.
+</p>
+
+<h3>PROPERTIUS.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+The name by which the poet designates himself is Propertius
+simply; the praenomen Sextus rests on the authority
+of Donatus. The additions in some <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, &lsquo;Aurelius&rsquo; and
+&lsquo;Nauta,&rsquo; are clearly erroneous.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He was certainly a native of the district of Umbria, and
+probably of the town of Asisium (the modern Assisi). Cf.
+iv. 1, 121,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p192">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Umbria te notis antiqua penatibus edit,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(mentior? an patriae tangitur ora tuae?)<br />
+qua nebulosa cavo rorat Mevania campo,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;et lacus aestivis intepet Umber aquis,<br />
+scandentisque Asisi consurgit vertice murus,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;murus ab ingenio notior ille tuo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Asisi&rsquo; in l. 125 is Lachmann&rsquo;s emendation for &lsquo;Asis&rsquo; of
+the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, and is rendered almost certain by the topography
+of the district. Asisium agrees better than Hispellum (the
+modern Spello) with the description in the passage quoted;
+with iv. 1, 65,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Scandentes quisquis cernet de vallibus arces,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ingenio muros aestimet ille meo&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+and with the epithet &lsquo;proxima&rsquo; in i. 22, 9, as Asisium is
+nearer than Hispellum to Perusia. Cf. i. 22, 3-10,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Si Perusina tibi patriae sunt nota sepulcra,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Italiae duris funera temporibus, ...<br />
+proxima supposito contingens Umbria campo<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;me genuit terris fertilis uberibus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+At Assisi, moreover, have been found several inscriptions
+of the Propertii, one of which, C. PASSENNO | C. F. SERG. |,
+PAULLO | PROPERTIO | BLAESO,<a href="#fn066" id="ref066">[66]</a> probably refers to the Passennus
+Paullus mentioned by Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> vi. 15, as &lsquo;municeps
+Propertii.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Propertius was younger than Tibullus, and older than
+Ovid. His birth, therefore, took place between <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 54
+and 43 (Hertzberg gives 46, Postgate prefers 50). Cf. Ovid,
+<i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 53,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p193">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Successor fuit hic [Tibullus] tibi, Galle; Propertius illi;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;quartus ab his serie temporis ipse fui.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+He came of a family well known in the neighbourhood
+(cf. iv. 1, 121, &lsquo;notis penatibus,&rsquo; already quoted), but not
+&lsquo;noble&rsquo; in the technical sense; ii. 34, 55,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Aspice me, cui parva domi fortuna relictast,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;nullus et antiquo Marte triumphus avi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+His childhood was clouded by the early death of his
+father, and by the confiscation of his estate in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 41;
+iv. 1, 127,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ossaque legisti non illa aetate legenda<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;patris; et in tenues cogeris ipse lares,<br />
+nam tua cum multi versarent rura iuvenci,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;abstulit excultas pertica tristis opes.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+His mother then took him to Rome, where he studied law
+for a short time after assuming the <i>toga virilis</i>, but abandoned
+it in favour of poetry; iv. 1, 131,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Mox ubi bulla rudi demissast aurea collo,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;matris et ante deos libera sumpta toga,<br />
+tum tibi pauca suo de carmine dictat Apollo<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;et vetat insano verba tonare foro.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Meanwhile he was engaged in his first love affair with
+Lycinna, who is otherwise unknown (iii. 15, 3 <i>sqq.</i>). In
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 29 or 28 his acquaintance with Cynthia began. Her
+real name was Hostia (Apuleius, <i>Apol.</i> 10, &lsquo;Accusent ...
+Propertium, qui Cynthiam dicat, Hostiam dissimulet&rsquo;), and
+she was possibly a grand-daughter of the poet Hostius
+(<a href="#p065">p. 65</a>). Cf. iii. 20, 8,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Splendidaque a docto fama refulget avo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p194">
+A courtesan of the higher class, she is represented by
+Propertius as possessed of great personal charms and varied
+accomplishments (i. 2, 30, &lsquo;Omnia quaeque Venus quaeque
+Minerva probat&rsquo;), combined with many faults of temper
+and character. She had a house at Rome in the Subura,
+and we hear of her also at Tibur, where she was buried
+(iv. 7, 15; 85). She was considerably older than Propertius;
+ii. 18, 19,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;At tu etiam iuvenem odisti me, perfida, cum sis<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ipsa anus haud longa curva futura die.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+At the end of two years the unfaithfulness of Propertius
+led to twelve months of estrangement; iii. 16, 9,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Peccaram semel, et totum sum pulsus in annum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cynthia was reconciled to him about the beginning of
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 25; but the passion on both sides gradually cooled
+until, in 23, Propertius harshly cast her off (iii. 24 and 25).
+Possibly there was a second reconciliation before her death
+(iv. 7). The five years of bondage (iii. 25, 3, &lsquo;Quinque
+tibi potui servire fideliter annos,&rsquo;) will thus be <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 28, 27,
+25-23.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Propertius lived chiefly at Rome; but i. 18 was written
+near the Clitumnus, and in ii. 19 he promises to join
+Cynthia in that region. In iii. 21 he contemplates a voyage
+to Athens; l. 1,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Magnum iter ad doctas proficisci cogor Athenas,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ut me longa gravi solvat amore via.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+A few years earlier he had refused to accompany his friend
+Tullus to Athens and Asia (i. 6).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nothing is known of the subsequent life of Propertius,
+but from two passages in the younger Pliny it is natural
+to infer that he married, in obedience to the <i>Lex Iulia</i> of
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 18, and had issue. Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> vi. 15, &lsquo;Passennus
+Paullus ... inter maiores suos Propertium numerat&rsquo;; ix. 22,
+&lsquo;Propertium ... a quo genus ducit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p195">
+We cannot tell even when he died. He must have been
+alive in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 16, because iv. 6 was written for the <i>ludi
+quinquennales</i>, which were held for the first time in that
+year; and iv. 11. 65, is an allusion to the consulship of
+P. Cornelius Scipio, also in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 16.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In personal appearance Propertius was pale and thin,
+and rather fond of dress; i. 5, 21,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nec iam pallorem totiens mirabere nostrum,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;aut cur sim toto corpore nullus ego&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+ii. 4, 5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nequiquam perfusa meis unguenta capillis,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ibat et expenso planta morata gradu.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+He had been introduced to Maecenas after the publication
+of his first Book, but naturally was not on such
+intimate terms with him as older men like Virgil and
+Horace were. ii. 1 and iii. 9 are addressed to Maecenas.
+In the first of these poems Propertius declares that he is
+unequal to the composition of an epic, which his patron
+had urged upon him, but adds (l. 17)
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quod mihi si tantum, Maecenas, fata dedissent<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ut possem heroas ducere in arma manus, ...<br />
+bellaque resque tui memorarem Caesaris, et tu<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Caesare sub magno cura secunda fores.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+For poems referring to Augustus cf. ii. 10, iv. 6 (on
+Actium), iii. 18 (on the death of Marcellus).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p196">
+Horace and Propertius do not mention each other by
+name. Chronology forbids the identification of the bore
+in Hor. <i>Sat.</i> i. 9 with Propertius, who, on the same ground,
+cannot be meant in <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 18,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Neque simius iste,<br />
+nil praeter Calvum et doctus cantare Catullum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+But Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 2, 87-101, is undoubtedly aimed at Propertius.
+Cf. especially l. 99,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Discedo Alcaeus puncto illius; ille meo quis?<br />
+quis nisi Callimachus? Si plus adposcere visus,<br />
+fit Mimnermus et optivo cognomine crescit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Though both poets belonged to the same literary circle,
+they differed widely in temperament as well as in age.
+With Tibullus, who was a member of Messalla&rsquo;s circle,
+Propertius may have had no personal acquaintance; at all
+events, neither alludes to the other.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For Virgil Propertius expresses warm admiration in ii. 34,
+written during the composition of the <i>Aeneid</i>. Ovid, who
+calls him &lsquo;blandus&rsquo; (<i>Tr.</i> ii. 465) and &lsquo;tener&rsquo; (<i>A.A.</i>
+iii. 333), was an intimate friend of his; cf. <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 45
+(quoted <a href="#p206">p. 206</a>). The minor poets to whom he writes
+are Ponticus (i. 7 and 9), Bassus (i. 4), and a tragic poet,
+Lynceus (a pseudonym, ii. 34, 25).
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+The extant Elegies, divided in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> into four Books,
+are probably all that Propertius ever wrote. On account
+of the disproportionate length of Book ii., and the number
+&lsquo;tres&rsquo; (which, however, may be said in anticipation) in
+ii. 13, 25,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Sat mea sat magna est si tres sint pompa libelli,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;quos ego Persephonae maxima dona feram,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+some editors make Book ii. consist only of <i>El.</i> 1-9, and
+assign the remainder (10-34) to a new Book iii. Books iii.
+and iv. of the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> then become iv. and v. respectively.
+In the most recent editions, however, the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> arrangement
+is retained, and it is here followed.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p197">
+<i>Book</i> i.&mdash;All the Elegies in Book i., except the last two,
+are amatory. <i>El.</i> 2-10 belong to the first months of the
+poet&rsquo;s love, when Cynthia was gracious, though capricious.
+She had refused to accompany a rival of his, who was going
+to Illyricum as praetor (<i>El.</i> 8); but afterwards she left Rome
+for Baiae, and the rest of the Book is full of complaints
+of her harshness. <i>El.</i> 1, written after the year of separation,
+introduces the whole Book in a melancholy strain.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The clearest indication of date in Book i. is 8, 21, &lsquo;Nam
+me non ullae poterunt corrumpere taedae,&rsquo; where Propertius
+protests that he will never marry, in spite of the <i>Lex Iulia</i>
+of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 27. (He could not legally marry a woman of
+Cynthia&rsquo;s class.) The Book was published probably in
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 25, under the title of &lsquo;Cynthia.&rsquo; Cf. ii. 24, 1,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Cum sis iam noto fabula libro<br />
+et tua sit toto Cynthia lecta foro.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Her name was a recommendation for the Book, and it was
+probably her satisfaction at the fame which it brought her
+that caused her to relent towards Propertius. Cf. Mart.
+xiv. 189,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Cynthia, facundi carmen iuvenile Properti,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;accepit famam, nec minus ipsa dedit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+At all events, a few months afterwards we find the old
+relations re-established; ii. 3, 3,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Vix unum potes, infelix, requiescere mensem,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;et turpis de te iam liber alter erit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Book</i> ii.&mdash;Cynthia is the theme of nearly all the thirty-four
+poems of Book ii., which give lively expression to her
+lover&rsquo;s varying moods. Only three Elegies (1, 10, and 31)
+are given to other subjects.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p198">
+Of the few poems to which dates can be assigned, the
+earliest is <i>El.</i> 31 (on the dedication of the temple of the
+Palatine Apollo, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 28), and the latest is <i>El.</i> 10, to
+Augustus (written shortly before the invasion of Arabia
+by Aelius Gallus in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 24. Cf. l. 16, &lsquo;et domus intactae
+te tremit Arabiae&rsquo;). The Book was therefore published
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 24 at the earliest.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Book</i> iii.&mdash;In this Book the poems on Cynthia form a
+far smaller proportion; 7, 12, and 22 show the warmth
+of the poet&rsquo;s friendship; events of national interest are
+treated in 4, 11, and 18. In 5, 23-47, Propertius looks
+forward to spending his later years in the study of natural
+science (&lsquo;naturae perdiscere mores,&rsquo; l. 25).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There are few hints of the date of any of the poems
+in iii. <i>El.</i> 20 is apparently as early as <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 28; 18 certainly
+belongs to <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 23; 4 perhaps refers to the expedition
+against the Parthians planned in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 22. The last-mentioned
+year is the earliest possible date of publication.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Book</i> iv., in which there is no principle of arrangement,
+probably appeared after the author&rsquo;s death. His archaeological
+tastes come out in four Elegies written, in imitation
+of the <cite class="greek">Αἴτια</cite> of Callimachus, on Roman antiquities&mdash;<i>El.</i> 2
+on Vertumnus, 4 on Tarpeia, 9 on Cacus, 10 on Jupiter
+Feretrius. In this way Propertius fulfilled his promise to
+Maecenas, iii. 9, 49,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Celsaque Romanis decerpta Palatia tauris<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ordiar et caeso moenia firma Remo,<br />
+eductosque pares silvestri ex ubere reges,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;crescet et ingenium sub tua iussa meum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p199">
+<i>El.</i> 7 and 8 relate to Cynthia; in 7 her ghost appears
+to the poet. <i>El.</i> 3, a letter from Arethusa to Lycotas,
+possibly suggested to Ovid the plan of his <i>Heroides</i>, just
+as the antiquarian poems already mentioned may have
+suggested the <i>Fasti</i>. The Book ends with a lament for
+Cornelia, daughter of Scribonia, Augustus&rsquo; first wife
+(<i>El.</i> 11).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The date of 6 and 11 is certainly not earlier than
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 16, while 8 seems to have been written before the
+rupture with Cynthia. The antiquarian poems are considered
+by some to have been among Propertius&rsquo; earliest
+efforts.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Propertius was familiar with the whole range of Greek
+poetry&mdash;Homer (iii. 1, 25-34), Mimnermus (i. 9, 11),
+Pindar (iii. 17, 40), the dramatists, Theocritus, and Apollonius
+Rhodius. As his models he names especially the
+Alexandrians Callimachus and Philetas, whom he claims
+to follow more closely than any of his predecessors;
+iii. 1, 1,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Callimachi Manes et Coi sacra Philetae,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in vestrum, quaeso, me sinite ire nemus.<br />
+Primus ego ingredior puro de fonte sacerdos<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Itala per Graios orgia ferre choros.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. iv. 1, 64,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Umbria Romani patria Callimachi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+In wealth of mythological illustration Propertius is
+peculiarly Alexandrian. He is continually drawing parallels
+and contrasts from Greek legend; <i>e.g.</i> i. 15, Cynthia how
+unlike Calypso! iii. 12, Aelia Galla a modern Penelope.
+Of Roman poets, he names as his predecessors in amatory
+verse Virgil, Varro Atacinus, Catullus, Calvus, and Cornelius
+Gallus (ii 34, 61-92). Once he dreams of writing an
+epic on the Alban kings in the vein of Ennius; iii. 3, 5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p200">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Parvaque tam magnis admoram fontibus ora,<br />
+unde pater sitiens Ennius ante bibit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+In Propertius love of social pleasures appears side by
+side with a strain of deep melancholy <i>e.g.</i> in. 5, 21,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+Me iuvat et multo mentem vincire Lyaeo<br />
+et caput in verna semper habere rosa,
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+contrasted with the numerous passages where he is thinking
+of the grave, <i>e.g.</i> ii. 1, 71,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quandocumque igitur vitam mea fata reposcent,<br />
+et breve in exiguo marmore nomen ero.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+There is no greater patriot than Propertius. Cf. the
+denunciation of Cleopatra (iii. 11) and the frequency of
+the epithet &lsquo;Romanus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h3>OVID.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+Ovid&rsquo;s own writings (especially <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10) supply nearly
+all the information we possess regarding his life. The
+biographies in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> are valueless.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+P. Ovidius Naso was his full name, in which the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>
+agree. He speaks of himself as Naso simply, and Statius
+and Martial refer to him by that name; Tacitus and the
+two Senecas use the <i>nomen</i> Ovidius.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He was born in Sulmo, one of the three divisions of
+the Paelignian country, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 43&mdash;the year in which Hirtius
+and Pansa fell at Mutina. <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 3,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Sulmo mihi patria est, gelidis uberrimus undis,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;milia qui novies distat ab urbe decem.<br />
+Editus hic ego sum; nec non ut tempora noris,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;cum cecidit fato consul uterque pari.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p201">
+His birthday was 20th March&mdash;the second day of the
+festival of the Quinquatria (cf. <i>Fast.</i> iii. 809-814), l. 13,
+</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Haec est armiferae festis de quinque Minervae,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;quae fieri pugna prima cruenta solet.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+He belonged to an equestrian family, and he frequently
+contrasts himself with those who had reached that dignity
+by military service or by possessing the requisite fortune;
+<i>ibid.</i> l. 7,
+</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Si quid id est, usque a proavis vetus ordinis heres,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;non sum fortunae munere factus eques.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. <i>Am.</i> i. 3, 7; iii. 8, 9; iii. 15, 5; <i>Pont.</i> iv. 8, 17.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Along with his elder brother, he received a careful
+education at Rome, and studied also at Athens. He
+practised rhetoric under Arellius Fuscus and Porcius Latro.
+<i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 15,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Protinus excolimur teneri, curaque parentis<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;imus ad insignes urbis ab arte viros.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+<i>Tr.</i> i. 2, 77,
+</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Non peto quas quondam petii studiosus Athenas.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Sen. <i>Contr.</i> ii. 10, 8, &lsquo;Hanc controversiam memini ab
+Ovidio Nasone declamari apud rhetorem Arellium Fuscum,
+cuius auditor fuit, nam Latronis admirator erat, cum diversum
+sequeretur dicendi genus.&rsquo; Seneca says that <i>Met.</i> xiii.
+121, and <i>Am.</i> i. 2, 11, were borrowed from Latro.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But, in spite of his father&rsquo;s remonstrances, Ovid preferred
+poetry to public life. <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 19,
+</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;At mihi iam parvo caelestia sacra placebant,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;inque suum furtim Musa trahebat opus.<br />
+Saepe pater dixit, &ldquo;studium quid inutile temptas?<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Maeonides nullas ipse reliquit opes.&rdquo;<br />
+Motus eram dictis totoque Helicone relicto<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;scribere conabar verba soluta modis:<br />
+sponte sua carmen numeros veniebat ad aptos;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;quicquid temptabam dicere, versus erat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p202">
+In due time he assumed the <i>toga virilis</i>, and with it the
+broad purple stripe worn by prospective senators. He also
+held two of the minor offices of the <i>vigintiviratus</i>, the
+preliminary to a senatorial career, being (1) triumvir capitalis
+or else triumvir monetalis, (2) decemvir stlitibus
+iudicandis. <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 28,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Liberior fratri sumpta mihique toga est,<br />
+induiturque umeris cum lato purpura clavo&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+l. 33,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Cepimus et tenerae primos aetatis honores,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;deque viris quondam pars tribus una fui.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Fast.</i> iv. 384,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Inter bis quinos usus honore viros.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+In virtue of this second office he sat in the centumviral
+court;<a href="#fn067" id="ref067">[67]</a> and he also acted as an arbitrator. <i>Tr.</i> ii. 93,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nec male commissa est nobis fortuna reorum<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;lisque decem deciens inspicienda viris.<br />
+Res quoque privatas statui sine crimine iudex.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+He sought no higher office, having neither strength nor
+inclination for the Senate; he assumed the narrow stripe
+of the <i>eques</i>, and devoted himself to poetry and pleasure.
+<i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 35,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Curia restabat: clavi mensura coacta est:<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;maius erat nostris viribus illud onus.<br />
+Nec patiens corpus, nec mens fuit apta labori,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;sollicitaeque fugax ambitionis eram.<br />
+Et petere Aoniae suadebant tuta sorores<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;otia, iudicio semper amata meo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p203">
+He made a tour in Asia (including Troy) and Sicily in
+the company of the poet Pompeius Macer: the date of
+this journey is unknown, but he was almost a year in
+Sicily. <i>Pont.</i> ii. 10, 21-29 (to Macer),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Te duce magnificas Asiae perspeximus urbes,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Trinacris est oculis te duce nota meis, ...<br />
+Hic mihi labentis pars anni magna peracta est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Fast.</i> vi. 423,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Cura videre fuit: vidi templumque locumque,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(of the temple of Pallas at Troy).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Towards the end of <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 8, Ovid was banished by
+imperial edict to Tomi, on the Black Sea, near the mouth
+of the Danube, the cause alleged being the publication
+of the <i>Ars Amatoria</i>. Ovid mentions this edict, but also
+hints at another reason, connected with the imperial family.
+<i>Tr.</i> ii. 207,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Perdiderint cum me duo crimina, carmen et error,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;alterius facti culpa silenda mihi;<br />
+nam non sum tanti renovem ut tua vulnera, Caesar,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;quem nimio plus est indoluisse semel.<br />
+Altera pars superest, qua turpi carmine factus<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;arguor obscaeni doctor adulterii.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+He was guilty of no crime of his own, but was banished for
+witnessing the crime of another. Cf. <i>Tr.</i> iii. 5, 49,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Inscia quod crimen viderunt lumina, plector,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;peccatumque oculos est habuisse meum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+It is probable that the real reason<a href="#fn068" id="ref068">[68]</a> of Ovid&rsquo;s banishment
+was that he was privy to a guilty intrigue between
+D. Silanus and Julia, the grand-daughter of Augustus.
+Julia was banished in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 9, and Tacitus (<i>Ann.</i> iii. 24)
+tells us of the intrigue, for which Silanus (like Ovid) suffered
+<i>relegatio</i>. His knowledge of the offence was betrayed by
+friends and domestics. Cf. <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 101,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p204">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quid referam comitumque nefas famulosque nocentes?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The date of his banishment is given <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 95,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Postque meos ortus Pisaea vinctus oliva<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;abstulerat decies praemia victor equus,<br />
+cum maris Euxini positos ad laeva Tomitas<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;quaerere me laesi principis ira iubet.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+[Here an Olympiad is reckoned as five years.] His punishment was
+<i>relegatio</i>, involving banishment to a fixed spot,
+but not confiscation of property; <i>Tr.</i> ii. 135,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Adde quod edictum, quamvis immite minaxque,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;attamen in poenae nomine lene fuit;<br />
+quippe relegatus, non exul, dicor in illo,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;privaque fortunae sunt ibi verba meae.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+In Tomi he spent the remaining years of his life, far
+from friends and books; <i>Tr.</i> v. 12, 53,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Non liber hic ullus, non qui mihi commodet aurem,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;verbaque significent quid mea norit, adest&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+suffering from illness (<i>Tr.</i> iii. 3) and the climate, and
+fighting against the barbarians; <i>Tr.</i> iv. 1, 71,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Aspera militiae iuvenis certamina fugi,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;nec nisi lusura movimus arma manu:<br />
+nunc senior gladioque latus scutoque sinistram,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;canitiem galeae subicioque meam.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+On the other hand he learned the language of the people,
+and actually wrote poems in it; <i>Tr.</i> v. 12, 57,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ipse mihi videor iam dedidicisse Latine:<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;nam didici Getice Sarmaticeque loqui.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p205">
+<i>Pont.</i> iv. 13, 19,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;A! pudet, et Getico scripsi sermone libellum,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;structaque sunt nostris barbara verba modis,<br />
+et placui&mdash;gratare mihi&mdash;coepique poetae<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;inter inhumanos nomen habere Getas!<br />
+materiam quaeris? laudes de Caesare dixi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+For his popularity with the natives cf. <i>Pont.</i> iv. 14, 53,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Solus adhuc ego sum vestris immunis in oris,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;exceptis si qui munera legis habent.<br />
+Tempora sacrata mea sunt velata corona,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;publicus invito quam favor imposuit&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+also <i>Pont.</i> iv. 9, 101.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Ovid&rsquo;s death took place in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 18: Jerome yr. Abr.
+2033, &lsquo;Ovidius poeta in exilio diem obiit et iuxta oppidum
+Tomos sepelitur.&rsquo; He was thrice married; <i>Tr.</i> iv.
+10, 69,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Paene mihi puero nec digna nec utilis uxor<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;est data, quae tempus per breve nupta fuit;<br />
+illi successit quamvis sine crimine coniunx,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;non tamen in nostro firma futura toro;<br />
+ultima, quae mecum seros permansit in annos,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;sustinuit coniunx exulis esse viri.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+His third wife belonged to the <i>gens Fabia</i>. Cf. <i>Pont.</i> i. 2,
+138 (to Fabius Maximus),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ille ego, de vestra cui data nupta domo est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The <i>filia</i> mentioned <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 75, may have been either
+a daughter or step-daughter of Ovid&rsquo;s. Some think that
+she is the Perilla of <i>Tr.</i> iii. 7.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Ovid&rsquo;s social position was of the highest, as may be inferred
+from his relations with the palace. He was intimate
+with Messalla, the patron of Tibullus, and wrote an elegy
+on him (now lost). Cf. <i>Pont.</i> i. 7, 27 (to Messalinus),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p206">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nec tuus est genitor nos infitiatus amicos,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;hortator studii causaque faxque mei:<br />
+cui nos et lacrimas, supremum in funere munus,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;et dedimus medio scripta canenda foro.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Among the friends to whom the <i>Epp. ex Ponto</i> are written
+may be mentioned Albinovanus, Carus, Rufus, Severus,
+Fabius Maximus Cotta, Tuticanus, the younger Macer, all
+poets; and other literary men of distinction, <i>e.g.</i> Graecinus,
+Atticus, Brutus, Sex. Pompeius, Gallio. For his intimacy
+with the learned Hyginus cf. Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 20, &lsquo;fuit
+familiarissimus Ovidio poetae.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He was old enough to have seen Virgil, and hear Aemilius
+Macer and Horace recite; with Propertius, Tibullus, Ponticus,
+and Bassus he was on terms of close intimacy (<i>Am.</i> iii.
+9 is a lament for Tibullus), <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 41-52,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Temporis illius colui fovique poetas,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;quotque aderant vates, rebar adesse deos.<br />
+Saepe suas volucres legit mihi grandior aevo,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;quaeque necet serpens, quae iuvet herba, Macer.<br />
+Saepe suos solitus recitare Propertius ignes,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;iure sodalicii qui mihi iunctus erat.<br />
+Ponticus heroo, Bassus quoque clarus iambis<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;dulcia convictus membra fuere mei.<br />
+Detinuit nostras numerosus Horatius aures,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;dum ferit Ausonia carmina culta lyra.<br />
+Vergilium vidi tantum; nec amara Tibullo<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Besides the <i>rura paterna</i> at Sulmo, Ovid possessed an
+estate on the <i>via Clodia</i>, near Rome; <i>Pont.</i> i. 8, 41,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Non meus amissos animus desiderat agros<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ruraque Paeligno conspicienda solo,<br />
+nec quos piniferis positos in collibus hortos<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;spectat Flaminiae Clodia iuncta viae.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+He cannot have been poor, in spite of his complaints, <i>e.g.</i>
+<i>Pont.</i> iv. 8, 32,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p207">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Carpsit opes illa ruina meas.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>Amores</i>, at first in five Books, but in a second
+edition reduced to three; cf. the motto prefixed to the
+Book,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Qui modo Nasonis fueramus quinque libelli,<br />
+Tres sumus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The poems are nearly all on Corinna, a name which
+probably does not stand for any real person, but merely
+for an abstraction around which Ovid groups his own
+fancies. To suppose, as Sidonius Apollinaris did (23,
+157)<a href="#fn069" id="ref069">[69]</a> that Augustus&rsquo; daughter Julia was meant, is absurd,
+for Corinna is a <i>meretrix</i>. The identity of Corinna was
+unknown; <i>Am.</i> ii. 17, 28,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Et multae per me nomen habere volunt.<br />
+Novi aliquam, quae se circumferat esse Corinnam&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+and twenty years afterwards Ovid could write (<i>A.A.</i> iii. 538),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Et multi, quae sit nostra Corinna, rogant.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Amores</i>, in their original form, constituted Ovid&rsquo;s
+earliest work, written in his youth. The extant poems are
+not all that he wrote on Corinna; <i>Tr.</i> iv. 10, 57,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Carmina cum primum populo iuvenilia legi,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;barba resecta mihi bisve semelve fuit.<br />
+Moverat ingenium totam cantata per urbem<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;nomine non vero dicta Corinna mihi.<br />
+Multa quidem scripsi; sed quae vitiosa putavi,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;emendaturis ignibus ipse dedi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p208">
+The lament for Tibullus (iii. 9) must have been written
+in Ovid&rsquo;s twenty-fourth year.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>Heroides</i>.&mdash;Some of these at least were written before
+the second edition of the <i>Amores</i>, for in <i>Am.</i> ii. 18, 21-6
+nine of them are mentioned by name. The title <i>Heroides</i>
+is due to the grammarian Priscian; in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> they are
+called <i>Epistulae</i>, and so Ovid himself refers to them,
+<i>A.A.</i> iii. 345,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Vel tibi composita cantetur epistula voce:<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ignotum hoc aliis ille novavit opus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Of the twenty letters in our collection 1-14 are letters
+from heroines to their lovers; 15-20 are in pairs, <i>e.g.</i> Paris
+to Helen and Helen to Paris. The authenticity of these
+last six is doubted, partly because the title <i>Heroides</i> cannot
+apply to half of them, and also because of their inferiority
+in style. In the use of the epistolary form in love poetry
+Ovid had no predecessor, and he himself calls attention
+to the novelty (<i>A.A.</i> above). The style shows the influence
+of Ovid&rsquo;s rhetorical training: the Epistles are <i>suasoriae</i> in
+verse, and of <i>suasoriae</i> we know that he was particularly
+fond (Sen. <i>Contr.</i> ii. 10, 12, &lsquo;Declamabat Naso raro
+controversias et non nisi ethicas: libentius dicebat suasorias.
+Molesta illi erat omnis argumentatio.&rsquo;). His matter he
+would naturally draw from Homer, the <i>Cypria</i>, Apollonius
+Rhodius, and the Greek tragedians.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. Between the two editions of the <i>Amores</i> he wrote the
+lost tragedy <i>Medea</i>. It was later than <i>Am.</i> iii. 1, where
+he pictures the Muses of Elegy and Tragedy as contending
+for his homage, and he finally decides (ll. 67-8),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Exiguum vati concede, Tragoedia, tempus:<br />
+tu labor aeternus; quod petit illa breve est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p209">
+On the other hand, it was earlier than <i>Am.</i> ii. 18, 13,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Sceptra tamen sumpsi, curaque tragoedia nostra<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;crevit, et huic operi quamlibet aptus eram.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The drama enjoyed a high reputation in antiquity. Cf.
+Quint. x. 1, 98, &lsquo;Ovidii Medea videtur mihi ostendere,
+quantum ille vir praestare potuerit, si ingenio suo imperare
+quam indulgere maluisset.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. <i>Medicamina Faciei Femineae</i>, an incomplete poem of
+100 lines, giving directions for the toilet. Cf. <i>A.A.</i> iii. 205,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Est mihi, quo dixi vestrae medicamina formae,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;parvus, sed cura grande, libellus, opus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+5. <i>Ars Amatoria</i>, a didactic poem in three Books, on
+the art of love-intrigue. The title given by the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> is
+doubtless correct: Ovid himself speaks of &lsquo;ars amandi,&rsquo; or
+simply &lsquo;ars&rsquo; or &lsquo;artes.&rsquo; It was written about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 2, from
+the allusion, i. 171, to the &lsquo;naumachia&rsquo; in that year,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quid, modo cum belli navalis imagine Caesar<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Persidas induxit Cecropiasque rates?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Ars</i> must have been in view when he wrote <i>Am.</i> ii.
+18, 19,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quod licet, aut artes teneri profitemur amoris&mdash;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ei mihi, praeceptis urgeor ipse meis!&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+6. <i>Remedia Amoris</i>, written next, while professing to be
+a recantation of the last-named work, exhibits, if possible,
+a more immoral tone. Cf. l. 487,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quaeris, ubi invenias? artes, i, perlege nostras.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+7. Ovid now produced a work of greater compass, the
+<i>Metamorphoses</i>, in fifteen Books of heroic verse. When
+it was composed is not known, but he had the idea of it
+in his mind when he wrote <i>Am.</i> iii. 12, 21-40. At the
+time of his banishment the poem had been written, but
+not revised. He committed his <span class="bcad">MS.</span> to the flames, but
+copies were in the hands of friends; <i>Tr.</i> i. 7, 13-16,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p210">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Carmina mutatas hominum dicentia formas,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;infelix domini quod fuga rupit opus.<br />
+Haec ego discedens, sicut bene multa meorum,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ipse mea posui maestus in igne manu.
+</p>
+<p>
+Quae quoniam non sunt penitus sublata, sed extant,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(l. 23)<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;pluribus exemplis scripta fuisse reor.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Ablatum mediis opus est incudibus illud,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(l. 29)<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;defuit et scriptis ultima lima meis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The poem consists of a collection of stories of the transformation
+of human beings into animals. Cf. i. 1,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;In nova fert animus mutatas dicere formas<br />
+corpora.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The idea, title, and much of the subject-matter was
+borrowed from the Alexandrians, <i>e.g.</i> the <cite class="greek">Μεταμορφώσεις</cite>
+of Parthenius, the <cite class="greek">Ἑτεροιούμενα</cite> of Nicander.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+8. In the <i>Fasti</i>, in six Books, Ovid furnishes a poetical
+calendar of the Roman year. Each month has a Book
+allotted to it, and he speaks of having written twelve
+Books; <i>Tr.</i> ii. 549,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Sex ego Fastorum scripsi totidemque libellos,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;cumque suo finem mense volumen habet.<br />
+Idque tuo nuper scriptum sub nomine, Caesar,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;et tibi sacratum sors mea rupit opus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Probably the second six Books were never completed;
+but there are references to portions of them, <i>e.g.</i> iii. 57,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Vester honos veniet, cum Larentalia dicam;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;acceptus Geniis illa December habet.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Fasti</i> had been written side by side with the <i>Metam.</i>
+and interrupted at the sixth Book by Ovid&rsquo;s banishment.
+During his exile he added some passages, but found that
+his Muse was fit only for melancholy themes; iv. 81,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p211">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Sulmonis gelidi&mdash;patriae, Germanice, nostrae&mdash;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;me miserum, Scythico quam procul illa solo est!&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+i. 540,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Felix, exilium cui locus ille fuit!&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The design is stated at the outset, i. 1-8,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Tempora cum causis Latium digesta per annum<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;lapsaque sub terras ortaque signa canam ...<br />
+Sacra recognosces annalibus eruta priscis,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;et quo sit merito quaeque notata dies.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The work is thus a medley of religion, history, and astrology,
+and in its explanations of customs may be compared to
+the <cite class="greek">Αἴτια</cite> of Callimachus. For information about religious
+rites, and for derivations of names (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Agnalia</i>, i. 317-332),
+he would have recourse to Varro; for history, to Livy
+(cf. ii. 193-242, the story of the Fabii, from Livy, ii. 49,
+and vi. 587, etc., the story of Tullia, from Livy, i. 48);
+for astronomy, to Clodius Tuscus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It was begun some time after Augustus regulated the
+Julian calendar in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 8, and was originally addressed to
+Augustus, as Ovid himself says (<i>Tr.</i> ii. 552 above);
+&lsquo;Caesar&rsquo; is addressed ii. 15, vi. 763, and elsewhere.
+After the death of Augustus, Ovid began to remodel it
+and dedicate it to Germanicus. Cf. i. 3,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Excipe pacato, Caesar Germanice, voltu<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;hoc opus et timidae dirige navis iter.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+But the task was stopped by his death; and while Book i.
+has the remodelled form, Books ii.-vi. remain as first
+written.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p212">
+<i>Poems written in exile.</i>&mdash;9. <i>Tristia</i>, five Books of letters
+to Augustus, to Ovid&rsquo;s wife and friends (who, however, are
+not named), praying for pardon or for a place of exile
+nearer Rome. Book i. was written on the journey to
+Tomi, the other books not after <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 11 or 12, Cf. v. 10, 1,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ut sumus in Ponto, ter frigore constitit Hister.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+10. The <i>Ibis</i> was written at the beginning of his exile.
+Cf. l. 1,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Tempus ad hoc, lustris bis iam mihi quinque peractis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The title was taken from the poem in which Callimachus
+attacked Apollonius Rhodius under the name of Ibis.
+Cf. l. 55,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nunc, quo Battiades inimicum devovet Ibin,<br />
+hoc ego devoveo teque tuosque modo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Ovid studiously conceals the identity of the enemy whom
+he attacks; l. 61,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Et quoniam, qui sis, nondum quaerentibus edo,<br />
+Ibidis interea tu quoque nomen habe.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+He had once been a friend of the poet, but had proved
+false to him, doubtless in connexion with the circumstances
+which caused his banishment; cf. l. 85, &lsquo;capiti male fido,&rsquo;
+l. 130, &lsquo;perfide.&rsquo; He persecuted Ovid&rsquo;s wife, and tried to
+get possession of his property.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The conjectures that the unknown was Messalla Corvinus
+or the poet Manilius may be dismissed at once. Many
+hold that Hyginus is meant; Prof. Ellis suggests the <i>delator</i>
+Cassius Severus (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> iv. 21), or T. Labienus (Sen.
+<i>Contr.</i> x. praef. 4), or the astrologer Thrasyllus (Tac.
+<i>Ann.</i> vi. 20). To the same person probably are addressed
+<i>Tr.</i> iii. 11, iv. 9, v. 8; <i>Pont.</i> iv. 3.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p213">
+11. The <i>Epistulae ex Ponto</i>, in four Books, were written
+<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 12-16. In tone they resemble the <i>Tristia</i>, but the
+composition is more careless, and the friends to whom he
+writes are mentioned by name.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+12. <i>Halieuticon</i>, a poem on fish, in hexameters, in a
+fragmentary condition. Ovid wrote this towards the end
+of his life.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> xxxii. 152, &lsquo;His adiciemus ab Ovidio posita
+nomina quae apud neminem alium reperiuntur, sed fortassis
+in Ponto nascentium, ubi id volumen supremis suis
+temporibus incohavit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h3>MANILIUS.</h3>
+
+<p>
+Manilius is not mentioned by any other writer, and his
+own poem gives no particulars of his life. There is uncertainty
+even as to the true form of his name, the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>
+giving variously M. Mallius, Manlius, or Manilius, with
+the addition in one case of EQOM (probably = equitis
+Romani). In some <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> the poem is wrongly attributed
+to Aratus or Boetius, both of whom wrote on the same
+subject as Manilius.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Bentley conjectured that Manilius was an Asiatic Greek,
+but the poet speaks of Latin as &lsquo;nostra lingua&rsquo; (ii. 889),
+while Greek is &lsquo;externa lingua&rsquo; (iii. 40), and he uses no
+Greek constructions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His poem, the <i>Astronomica</i>, in its present form, consists
+of five Books of hexameter verse: probably a sixth Book
+has been lost. It may have been wholly composed in the
+reign of Tiberius, or begun under Augustus. Book v. was
+written under Tiberius, if the burning of Pompey&rsquo;s theatre
+in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 22 is alluded to in ll. 513-515. The earlier Books
+contain nothing which might not have been written after
+the death of Augustus&mdash;the allusions to the disaster of
+Varus in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 9 (i. 899), and to the sojourn of Tiberius
+at Rhodes (iv. 764). Either Augustus or Tiberius may be
+the &lsquo;Caesar&rsquo; of i. 7 and i. 386. On the other hand,
+if Ovid is referring to Manilius (as Prof. Ellis suggests) in
+<i>Tr.</i> ii. 485,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p214">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ecce canit formas alius iactusque pilarum,<br />
+hic artem nandi praecipit, ille trochi,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+it would follow that the whole poem had been published
+before the death of Augustus, for the descriptions of
+ball-play and swimming occur in v. 165-171 and
+420-431.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Astronomy is treated only in Book i.; the rest of the
+poem is devoted to astrology. This is in accordance with
+the author&rsquo;s statement of his theme (i. 1-3), which he was
+the first Roman to treat in verse (i. 4, 113, ii. 57). As
+his object is to convey instruction rather than to give
+pleasure (iii. 36-39), he does not scruple to use Greek
+technical terms (ii. 693, 829, 897, iii. 40). The subject
+does not lend itself readily to verse (i. 20, iii. 31), and
+the poem is intolerably dry, except the introductions to
+each Book, which reveal considerable poetical power. The
+chief peculiarities of Manilius&rsquo; language are his strange use
+of prepositions and his fondness for alliteration; imitations
+of Virgil are found throughout.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Manilius is a fatalist (iv. 14 and 22): still fate does not
+abolish the moral quality of actions (iv. 108-118). The
+universe is directed by a &lsquo;vis animae divina&rsquo; or &lsquo;divinum
+numen&rsquo; (i. 250, 491).
+</p>
+
+<h3 id="p215">LIVY.</h3>
+
+<p>
+There is no ancient biography of Livy, and very little
+light is thrown on his life by his own writings or by
+allusions in other authors.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Titus Livius was born at Patavium (the modern Padua)
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 59: Jerome yr. Abr. 1958, &lsquo;T. Livius Patavinus
+scriptor historicus nascitur.&rsquo; (The Armenian version gives
+<i>Ol.</i> 180, 4 = <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 57.) Near Patavium there was a famous
+sulphur spring known as Aponus or Aponi fons, whence
+Martial calls the district Apona tellus (i. 61, 3, &lsquo;Censetur
+Apona Livio suo tellus&rsquo;). There is no reason to suppose
+from this that Livy&rsquo;s birthplace was not Patavium itself,
+but a village Aponus, which is nowhere mentioned. Statius
+(<i>Silv.</i> iv. 7, 55) calls him &lsquo;Timavi alumnus.&rsquo; For Livy&rsquo;s
+acquaintance with Patavium cf. x. 2, 14 and 15.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From his tone we may infer that he came of a good
+family, and he must have possessed a fair income. The
+charge against his style of <i>Patavinitas</i> implies that he
+spent a considerable part of his life in his native town,
+but he probably settled at Rome about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 30. That he
+took no part in public life is clear from his own words:
+i. praef. 5, &lsquo;Hoc laboris praemium petam, ut me a conspectu malorum, quae nostra tot per annos vidit aetas,
+tantisper certe, dum prisca illa tota mente repeto, avertam,
+omnis expers curae, quae scribentis animum etsi non
+flectere a vero, sollicitum tamen efficere posset.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He enjoyed the intimacy of Augustus, whom he himself mentions, iv. 20, 7, &lsquo;hoc ego cum Augustum Caesarem ... se
+ipsum ... legisse audissem.&rsquo; Tac. <i>Ann.</i> iv. 34, &lsquo;T.
+Livius, eloquentiae ac fidei praeclarus in primis, Cn. Pompeium
+tantis laudibus tulit, ut Pompeianum eum Augustus
+appellaret; neque id amicitiae eorum offecit.&rsquo; It was at
+Livy&rsquo;s suggestion that the future emperor, Claudius, started
+to compose a history: Sueton. <i>Claud.</i> 41, &lsquo;historiam in
+adulescentia, hortante T. Livio, Sulpicio vero Flavo etiam
+adiuvante, scribere adgressus est.&rsquo; On the other hand,
+Caligula would have liked to remove Livy&rsquo;s writings and
+his bust from all the libraries, calling him &lsquo;verbosum in
+historia neglegentemque&rsquo; (Sueton. <i>Calig.</i> 34).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p216">
+Nothing more is known of his life, except that he visited
+Campania, xxxviii. 56, 3, &lsquo;Nam et Literni monumentum
+monumentoque statua superimposita fuit, quam tempestate
+disiectam nuper vidimus ipsi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He died at his native town, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 17: Jerome yr. Abr.
+2033, &lsquo;Livius historicus Patavii moritur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He had at least one son (Quint. x. 1, 39, &lsquo;apud Livium
+in epistula ad filium scripta&rsquo;), and one daughter (Sen.
+<i>Contr.</i> x. praef. 2, &lsquo;L. Magius gener T. Livi&rsquo;).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Livy wrote philosophical works, probably popular
+treatises like Cicero&rsquo;s, some of them in the form of
+dialogues.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sen. <i>Ep.</i> 100, 9, &lsquo;Nomina adhuc T. Livium. Scripsit
+enim et dialogos, quos non magis philosophiae adnumerare
+possis quam historiae, et ex professo philosophiam continentis
+libros.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A book on rhetoric was known to Quintilian and Seneca
+the elder, apparently in the form of a letter addressed to
+the author&rsquo;s son (Quint. x. 1, 39, above).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Quint. ii. 5, 20, &lsquo;quemadmodum Livius praecipit&rsquo; (on
+models of style); Sen. <i>Contr.</i> ix. 2, 26, &lsquo;Livius de
+oratoribus ... aiebat&rsquo; (on obscurity of expression); Sen.
+<i>Contr.</i> ix. 1, 14, &lsquo;T. Livius tam iniquus Sallustio fuit ut
+hanc ipsam sententiam ... obiceret Sallustio.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p217">
+These minor works have perished, and of his great
+history only a portion survives.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Its title, according to the oldest <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, the summaries
+of the lost Books, and the grammarians, was <i>Ab urbe
+condita libri</i>; and this is corroborated by Livy&rsquo;s own
+language: i. praef. 1, &lsquo;si a primordio urbis res populi
+Romani perscripserim&rsquo;; and by Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> praef. 16,
+&lsquo;T. Livium ... in historiarum suarum, quas repetit ab
+origine urbis, quodam volumine.&rsquo; Livy refers to it loosely
+as <i>meos annales</i> (xliii. 13, 2). Separate parts may have
+had special titles: thus Books cix-cxvi. were known as
+<i>Civilis belli libri</i> viii. (Codex Nazarenus of the Periochae).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The number of Books now extant is thirty-five, viz.,
+i.-x., which carry the history down to <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 293, and xxi.-xlv.,
+covering the period <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 218-167. Of these xli. and xliii.
+are incomplete. But we possess summaries (<i>Periochae</i> or
+<i>Argumenta</i>) of Books i.-cxlii., except cxxxvi. and cxxxvii.,
+which show that the narrative was continued to the death
+of Drusus in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 9. There is no evidence that it actually
+went further; but as the death of Drusus is hardly an
+event of sufficient importance to form the conclusion of
+so great a work, it has been thought that Livy may
+have intended to finish with the death of Augustus&mdash;the
+point from which Tacitus starts. The total number of
+Books would then have been probably one hundred and
+fifty.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The division into Books (<i>libri</i> or <i>volumina</i>) is due to
+the author: vi. 1, 1, &lsquo;quae ab condita urbe Romani
+gessere quinque libris exposui.&rsquo; The division into decades
+(<i>i.e.</i> sets of ten Books) is first mentioned towards the end
+of the fifth century; it is merely a conventional arrangement,
+the subject-matter falling naturally into sets of fifteen
+Books, which again sometimes embrace three sub-divisions
+each a half-decade, or two, a half-decade and a decade.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p218">
+An epitome was known to Martial, xiv. 190,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Pellibus exiguis artatur Livius ingens,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;quem mea non totum bibliotheca <ins class="correction"
+  title="Transcriber's note: quote mark added" id="corrp218">capit.&rsquo;</ins>
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The evidence of the date of composition is as follows:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>a</i>) i. 19, 3, &lsquo;Bis deinde post Numae regnum [Ianus]
+clausus fuit, semel T. Manlio consule post Punicum primum
+perfectum bellum, iterum, quod nostrae aetati dei dederunt
+ut videremus, post bellum Actiacum ab imperatore Caesare
+Augusto pace terra marique parta.&rsquo; Now, as the first closing
+of the temple of Janus by Augustus was in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 29,
+and as Livy is silent as to the second closing after the
+Cantabrian war in 25, it follows that this passage was
+written <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 29-25. The use of the title Augustus, conferred
+on Octavian in 27, puts the earliest possible date
+two years later. The history therefore was not begun
+before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 27.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>b</i>) ix. 36, 1, &lsquo;Silva erat Ciminia magis tum invia atque
+horrenda quam nuper fuere Germanici saltus.&rsquo; In this
+Niebuhr found an allusion to the campaigns of Drusus,
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 12-9, and accordingly assumed that the first decade
+was not published till <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 9. But the passage may equally
+well refer to earlier campaigns, <i>e.g.</i> of Julius Caesar. Nor
+can it be shown that the history of Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
+published <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 7, was used by Livy for Books
+viii.-x. Book ix. must have been written before <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 20,
+or Livy would have mentioned the recovery of the standards
+from the Parthians in ix. 18, 9.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>c</i>) xxviii. 12, 12, &lsquo;Hispania prima Romanis inita provinciarum,
+quae quidem continentis sint, postrema omnium
+nostra demum aetate ductu auspicioque Augusti Caesaris
+perdomita.&rsquo; This was written not earlier than <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 19, if it
+refers to Agrippa&rsquo;s victory over the Cantabrians.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p219">
+(<i>d</i>) Book lix. mentioned the <i>lex de maritandis ordinibus</i>,
+and consequently cannot have been earlier than <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 18.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>e</i>) The books in which Pompeius figured were composed
+in the lifetime of Augustus (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> iv. 34, above).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>f</i>) Book cxxi., according to the oldest <span class="bcad">MS.</span> of the
+Periochae, was published after the death of Augustus; so
+doubtless were the remaining Books (<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 14-17).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A work of such compass, and occupying so many years
+of the author&rsquo;s life, would naturally be published in sections.
+This <i>a priori</i> view is corroborated by several considerations:
+(<i>a</i>) There are separate prefaces to various sections (vi. 1;
+xxi. 1; xxxi. 1); (<i>b</i>) Livy&rsquo;s style was censured<a href="#fn070" id="ref070">[70]</a> by Asinius
+Pollio, who died <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 5; (<i>c</i>) Augustus was acquainted with
+Livy&rsquo;s sympathetic treatment of Pompeius (see above); (<i>d</i>)
+Livy had great fame in his lifetime: Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> ii. 3, 8,
+&lsquo;Numquamne legisti Gaditanum quemdam T. Livi nomine
+gloriaque commotum ad visendum eum ab ultimo terrarum
+orbe venisse statimque ut viderat abisse?&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The historians from whom Livy derived his materials,
+and whom he himself mentions are: <i>Fabius Pictor</i> (i. 44, 2,
+etc.). Livy refers to him six times, but it may be questioned
+whether he used him at first-hand. More probably he took
+his opinions on the authority of later annalists like Macer,
+Antias, and Tubero. <i>Cincius Alimentus</i> (xxi. 38, 3): the
+Cincius quoted in vii. 3, 7, may be the same, or an antiquarian
+of the Ciceronian or Augustan age; <i>Cato</i> (xxxiv.
+15, 9); <i>Calpurnius Piso</i> (xxv. 39, 15); <i>Coelius Antipater</i>
+(xxix. 25, 3); <i>Claudius Quadrigarius</i> (vi. 42, 5, etc.);
+<i>Valerius Antias</i>, quoted thirty-five times&mdash;far more frequently
+than any other authority; <i>Licinius Macer</i>; <i>Aelius
+Tubero</i> (iv. 23, 1); <i>Clodius Licinus</i> (xxix. 22, 10); <i>Rutilius</i>
+(xxxix. 52, 1); <i>Polybius</i>; <i>Silenus</i> (xxvi. 49, 3), a Greek,
+whose account of the Second Punic War was favourable
+to the Carthaginians.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p220">
+A criticism of Livy&rsquo;s use of these sources is impossible,
+except in the case of Polybius, all the others having
+perished. His tone in alluding to the Greek historian is
+remarkable for its coldness: xxx. 45, 5, &lsquo;Polybius haudquaquam
+spernendus auctor&rsquo;; cf. xxxiii. 10, 8. Although
+Polybius is not mentioned till Book xxx., he was undoubtedly
+used throughout the third decade, as well as in
+the fourth and fifth. Livy follows him very closely. Where
+Livy differs from Polybius he is probably following the
+account of Coelius Antipater, who is his leading authority
+for the Second Punic War.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Livy is not careful to reconcile his sources, and so
+frequently contradicts himself. His way of explaining a
+discrepancy between his authorities is by striking an average
+(xxvi. 49, 6, &lsquo;si aliquis adsentiri necesse est, media simillima
+veris sunt&rsquo;). His irresolution was noted by Quintilian,
+ii. 4, 19, &lsquo;saepe quaeri solet de tempore, de loco, quo
+gesta res dicitur, nonnumquam de persona quoque, sicut
+Livius frequentissime dubitat.&rsquo; This of course has its good
+side: it saves him from dogmatizing on uncertain points,
+and he has a hearty appreciation of the confusion in his
+authorities: xxxvii. 34, 5, &lsquo;is ubi et quando et quo casu
+captus sit, sicut pleraque alia, parum inter auctores constat.&rsquo;
+He recognizes the value of contemporary evidence: xxii. 7, 4,
+&lsquo;Fabium aequalem temporibus huiusce belli potissimum
+auctorem habui&rsquo;; xxi. 38, 3, &lsquo;L. Cincius Alimentus, qui
+captum se ab Hannibale scribit, maxime auctor moveret.&rsquo;
+Criticism of his authorities is most conspicuous in the
+case of Valerius Antias, whom at first he followed in good
+faith; he condemns him again and again for exaggeration
+and credulity, <i>e.g.</i> xxxiii. 10, 8, &lsquo;si Valerio qui credat,
+omnium rerum immodice numerum augenti&rsquo;; xxxix. 43, 1,
+&lsquo;Valerius Antias, ut qui nec orationem Catonis legisset et
+fabulae tantum sine auctore editae credidisset.&rsquo; He also
+recognizes the bias of Licinius Macer: vii. 9, 5, &lsquo;quaesita
+ea propriae familiae laus leviorem auctorem Licinium facit.&rsquo;
+For the untrustworthiness of family records, cf. viii. 40, 4,
+&lsquo;vitiatam memoriam funebribus laudibus reor falsisque
+imaginum titulis, dum familiae ad se quaeque famam rerum
+gestarum honorumque fallenti mendacio trahunt.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p221">
+Livy often refers to authorities whom he does not name:
+&lsquo;invenio apud quosdam,&rsquo; &lsquo;satis constat&rsquo;; and to tradition:
+&lsquo;fama est,&rsquo; &lsquo;dicitur,&rsquo; &lsquo;fertur,&rsquo; &lsquo;traditur.&rsquo; Tradition was the
+sole source for events prior to the sack of Rome by the
+Gauls, cf. vi. 12, 2 <i>sqq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There is no trace in Livy of any use of original documents.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He constantly resists the temptation to digress from
+his proper theme: <i>e.g.</i> xxxix. 48, 6, &lsquo;cuius belli et causas
+et ordinem si expromere velim, immemor sim propositi,
+quo statui non ultra attingere externa, nisi qua Romanis
+cohaererent rebus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In spite of his love of truth (xxii. 7, 4, &lsquo;nihil haustum
+ex vano velim, quo nimis inclinant ferme scribentium animi&rsquo;:
+cf. Tac. <i>Ann.</i> iv. 34, &lsquo;fidei praeclarus&rsquo;), partiality blinds
+him to the faults of his own countrymen, and he fails to
+do justice to opponents like the Samnites and Carthaginians.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p222">
+In dealing with the legendary period he admits that
+his narrative has no trustworthy foundation, and gives it
+merely for what it is worth: Praef. 6, &lsquo;Quae ante conditam
+condendamve urbem poeticis magis decora fabulis quam
+incorruptis rerum gestarum monumentis traduntur, ea nec
+adfirmare nec refellere in animo est. Datur haec venia
+antiquitati, ut miscendo humana divinis primordia urbium
+augustiora faciat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The numerous speeches exemplify Livy&rsquo;s rhetorical tendency,
+representing what he thought the speaker would
+have said under the given circumstances: iii. 67, 1, &lsquo;ibi
+in hanc sententiam locutum accipio.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His power of describing character is noted by Seneca,
+<i>Suas.</i> vi. 21, &lsquo;Quoties magni alicuius viri mors ab historicis
+narrata est, toties fere consummatio totius vitae et quasi
+funebris laudatio redditur. Hoc ... T. Livius benignius
+omnibus magnis viris praestitit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Religion and morality.</i>&mdash;Livy believes in the influence
+of the gods on human affairs: ix. 1, 11, &lsquo;cum rerum
+humanarum maximum momentum sit, quam propitiis rem,
+quam adversis agant dis.&rsquo; Superior to the gods is <i>necessitas</i>
+(ix. 4, 16), and <i>fortuna</i> is also powerful (ix. 17, 3; v. 37, 1).
+He condemns the irreligion of his own day (x. 40, 10,
+&lsquo;iuvenis ante doctrinam deos spernentem natus&rsquo;), cf. iii. 20, 5;
+viii. 11, 1. He retains the old belief in prodigies and
+portents, every war being introduced by a list of them,
+but recognizes that many reported instances were fictitious:
+xxi. 62, 1, &lsquo;Multa ea hieme prodigia facta, aut, quod
+evenire solet motis semel in religionem animis, multa
+nuntiata et temere credita sunt.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He condemns the vices of his own age, and lauds the
+old Romans: Praef. 12, &lsquo;Nuper divitiae avaritiam et
+abundantes voluptates desiderium per luxum atque libidinem
+pereundi perdendique omnia invexere.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p223">
+<i>Politics.</i>&mdash;Livy is an aristocrat, with a poor opinion of
+the lower orders: <i>e.g.</i> xxiv. 25, 8, &lsquo;Ea natura multitudinis
+est: aut servit humiliter aut superbe dominatur; libertatem,
+quae media est, nec cupere modice nec habere sciunt.&rsquo;
+His political attitude is influenced to a great extent by the
+earlier historians, who had mostly been on the aristocratic
+side. Yet he is not a defender of the aristocratic party
+through thick and thin; and though he admired the
+character of some leading republicans, there can be no
+question of his loyalty to the Empire. Cf. Tac. <i>Ann.</i> iv. 34,
+&lsquo;Scipionem, Afranium, hunc ipsum Cassium, hunc Brutum
+nusquam latrones et parricidas, quae nunc vocabula imponuntur,
+saepe ut insignes viros nominat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Livy&rsquo;s view of Caesar is quoted by Seneca, <i>N.Q.</i> v. 18, 4,
+&lsquo;in incerto esse utrum illum nasci magis rei publicae
+profuerit, an non nasci?&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Contemporaries of Livy.</i>&mdash;1. <i>Pompeius Trogus</i>, whose
+history is known to us only through the abridgment
+made by M. Iunianus Iustinus, probably in the time of
+the Antonines. Trogus was of Gallic descent. His grandfather
+had received the Roman <i>civitas</i> from Pompey; his
+father was one of Caesar&rsquo;s officers, and is possibly to be
+identified with the Cn. Pompeius of Caes. <i>B.G.</i> v. 36
+(Iustin. xliii. 5, 11). His chief work, <i>Historiae Philippicae</i>,
+in forty-four Books, was concerned chiefly with the history
+of Macedonia and the Diadochi; but it embraced also the
+empires of the East and the history of Greece down to the
+time of Philip, as well as Parthia, Spain, Carthage, and the
+early history of Rome.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p224">
+2. <i>Fenestella</i>, who died, according to Jerome, in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 19
+at the age of seventy. Nothing is known of his life, or of
+the poems which Jerome attributes to him; but he certainly
+wrote <i>Annales</i> (Nonius, p. 154). He is also quoted
+as an authority on miscellaneous antiquarian and constitutional
+points.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. <i>M. Verrius Flaccus</i>, tutor to the grandsons of Augustus
+(Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 17), was the author of <i>Fasti</i>, fragments of
+which have been discovered near Praeneste, and which were
+used by Ovid for his poem of that name. Of Verrius&rsquo;
+grammatical works, the greatest was that entitled <i>De verborum
+significatu</i> (Gell. v. 17, 1), arranged alphabetically.
+It is lost, but we possess part of an abridgment (nine out of
+sixteen Books) made by <i>Sex. Pompeius Festus</i> before the
+third century <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> The abridgment of Festus was in turn
+epitomized by <i>Paulus Diaconus</i> in the time of Charlemagne,
+and his work is extant in a complete form.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. <i>C. Iulius Hyginus</i>, a freedman of Augustus and librarian
+of the Palatine library (Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 20), wrote
+<i>De vita rebusque illustrium virorum</i> (Gell. i. 14, 1);
+<i>Exempla</i> (Gell. x. 18, 7); <i>De situ urbium Italicarum</i>
+(Serv. <i>ad Verg. Aen.</i> iii. 553); <i>De familiis Troianis</i> (ibid.
+v. 389); theological works, <i>e.g.</i> <i>De dis Penatibus</i> (Macrob.
+<i>Saturn.</i> iii. 4, 13); commentaries on Virgil and Helvius
+Cinna; and <i>De Agricultura</i>, a treatise to which Virgil was
+indebted (Colum. i. 1, 13). The Hyginus who wrote
+<i>Fabulae</i> and <i>De Astrologia</i> probably lived in the second
+century <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>
+</p>
+
+<h3>VITRUVIUS.</h3>
+
+<p>
+Vitruvius Pollio (the cognomen appears only in the
+abridgment of his book) served under Caesar in Africa
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 46; viii. 3, 25, &lsquo;C. Iulius Masinissae filius ... cum
+patre Caesari militavit. Is hospitio meo est usus. Ita
+cottidiano convictu necesse fuerat de philologia disputare ...&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p225">
+Under Augustus he was an officer of engineers, and was
+enabled to spend the rest of his life in comfort through the
+liberality of that prince and his sister Octavia: i. praef. 2,
+&lsquo;Cum M. Aurelio et P. Minidio et Cn. Cornelio ad
+apparationem ballistarum et scorpionum reliquorumque
+tormentorum refectionem fui praesto et cum eis commoda
+accepi. Quae cum primo mihi tribuisti, recognitionem per
+sororis commendationem servasti. Cum ergo eo beneficio
+essem obligatus, ut ad exitum vitae non haberem inopiae
+timorem ...&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He wrote the treatise <i>De Architectura</i>, in ten Books,
+when he was no longer young (ii. praef. 4, &lsquo;faciem deformavit
+aetas&rsquo;), between the years <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 16 and 13. The
+temple of Quirinus, mentioned iii. 2, 7, was built in the
+former year; and he speaks of only one stone theatre in
+Rome (iii. 2, 2), whereas in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 13 there were three.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The arrangement of the subject-matter is as follows:
+Book i., sciences on which architecture is based, chief
+divisions of the subject, choice of site, and method of
+laying out a town; ii., building materials; iii., temples&mdash;Ionic order; iv., Doric and Corinthian orders; v., public
+buildings, <i>e.g.</i>, forum, theatre; vi., private houses&mdash;construction;
+vii., decoration; viii., water-supply; ix., methods
+of measuring time, <i>e.g.</i>, sun-dials; x., engines and machines
+used in war and in the arts.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The work is dedicated to Augustus, who is addressed
+throughout, and is meant to be of practical use to him in
+his building operations.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The body of the work is severely technical; the introductions
+to the Books are in a more ambitious style.
+Vitruvius writes as a professional man, not as a scholar:
+i. 1, 17, &lsquo;Non uti summus philosophus nec rhetor disertus
+nec grammaticus summis rationibus artis exercitatus, sed
+ut architectus his litteris imbutus haec nisus sum scribere.&rsquo;
+He freely confesses his obligations to Greek authors, whom
+he enumerates vii. praef. 10-14. Diagrams were appended
+to the text: i. 6, 12, &lsquo;Quoniam haec a nobis sunt breviter
+exposita, ut facilius intellegantur visum est mihi in extremo
+volumine formas, sive uti Graeci <span class="greek">σχήματα</span> dicunt duo explicare.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h3 id="p226">SENECA THE ELDER.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+Annaeus Seneca (for the praenomen Marcus, usually
+given, there is no authority: in the best <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> it is Lucius,
+possibly through confusion with his son) was a native of
+Corduba: Mart. i. 62, 7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Duosque Senecas unicumque Lucanum<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;facunda loquitur Corduba.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The date of his birth is probably about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 55, for he
+was old enough to have heard Cicero if the civil wars
+had not prevented him leaving his native town: <i>Contr.</i> i.
+praef. 11, &lsquo;Omnes magni in eloquentia nominis excepto
+Cicerone videor audisse: ne Ciceronem quidem aetas
+mihi eripuerat, sed bellorum civilium furor, qui tunc
+orbem totum pervagabatur, intra coloniam meam me continuit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He was of equestrian rank; cf. the speech of Seneca
+the younger, Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiv. 53, &lsquo;Egone, equestri et provinciali
+loco ortus, proceribus civitatis adnumeror?&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p227">
+Most of his life appears to have been spent in Rome,
+where alone he could have acquired his vast knowledge
+of contemporary rhetoric. Together with his countryman
+Porcius Latro, he attended the lectures of the rhetorician
+Marullus: <i>Contr.</i> i. praef. 22, &lsquo;Hoc Latro meus faciebat,
+ut sententias amaret. Cum condiscipuli essemus apud
+Marullum rhetorem ...&rsquo; Asinius Pollio he had heard at
+two different periods: <i>Contr.</i> iv. praef. 3, &lsquo;audivi illum et
+viridem et postea iam senem.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Seneca&rsquo;s wife was Helvia, whose noble character is described
+by her son (<i>ad Helv.</i> 14, 3; 16, 3): by her he had
+three sons, M. Annaeus Novatus, L. Annaeus Seneca, and
+M. Annaeus Mela.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He survived Tiberius; for (1) he alludes to events which
+happened after his reign, (2) Sueton. <i>Tib.</i> 73, quotes
+from &lsquo;Seneca&rsquo; an account of the death of Tiberius, and
+we know that the elder Seneca wrote history: that his son
+did likewise there is nothing to show. Hence he was
+alive after <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 37. On the other hand, he was dead
+before his son&rsquo;s exile in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 43, for Sen. <i>ad Helv.</i> 2, 5,
+after enumerating the calamities which had befallen his
+mother&mdash;among them his father&rsquo;s death&mdash;concludes with
+the words &lsquo;raptum me audisti: hoc adhuc defuerat tibi,
+lugere vivos.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Seneca was a man of stern character: for his old-world
+views and dislike of innovation cf. his son&rsquo;s words (<i>ad
+Helv.</i> 17, 3), &lsquo;Patris mei antiquus rigor.... Virorum
+optimus, pater meus, maiorum consuetudini deditus.&rsquo; He
+disapproved of the higher education of women, &lsquo;propter
+istas quae litteris non ad sapientiam utuntur, sed ad luxuriam
+instruuntur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h4 id="p228">(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+The only extant works of Seneca are <i>Oratorum et
+Rhetorum Sententiae, Divisiones, Colores Controversiarum
+et Suasoriarum</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. The <i>Controversiae</i> were written at the request of his
+three sons, but were intended for a wider circle of readers:
+i. praef. 10, &lsquo;Quaecumque a celeberrimis viris facunde
+dicta teneo, ne ad quemquam privatim pertineant, populo
+dedicabo.&rsquo; Seneca here gives a criticism of the rhetoricians
+of his time, with specimens of the style of each: i. praef. 1,
+&lsquo;Exigitis rem magis iucundam mihi quam facilem; iubetis
+enim quid de his declamatoribus sentiam qui in aetatem
+meam inciderunt indicare, et si qua memoriae meae nondum
+elapsa sunt ab illis dicta colligere, ut quamvis notitiae
+vestrae subducti sint, tamen non credatis tantum de illis,
+sed et iudicetis.&rsquo; The specimens are given from memory,
+and the arrangement is not systematic: i. praef. 4, &lsquo;Illud
+necesse est impetrem, ne me quasi certum aliquem ordinem
+velitis sequi in contrahendis quae mihi occurrent.&rsquo; Seneca
+treats only of those rhetoricians whom his sons had not
+themselves heard: i. praef. 4, &lsquo;Neque de his me interrogatis
+quos ipsi audistis, sed de his qui ad vos usque non
+pervenerunt.&rsquo; His hero is Cicero, since whose time oratory
+has steadily degenerated: i. praef. 11, &lsquo;Illud ingenium
+quod solum populus Romanus par imperio suo habuit&rsquo;;
+<i>ibid.</i> 7, &lsquo;Omnia ingenia quae lucem studiis nostris attulerunt
+tunc nata sunt: in deterius deinde cottidie data res est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of the ten Books of <i>Controversiae</i> only five have come
+down to us, viz., i., ii., vii., ix., and x. The deficiency is to
+some extent supplied by an abridgment (<i>Excerpta</i>) made
+in the fourth or fifth century <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>, which adds thirty-nine
+themes to the thirty-five contained in the surviving part
+of the original work. Each Book had a separate preface.
+Those to v., vi., and viii. are entirely wanting; for the prefaces
+to ii., iii., and iv. we are indebted to the abridgment.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p229">
+The <i>Controversiae</i> were written when Seneca was an
+old man, and when his two elder sons were preparing for
+public life, probably about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 20: x. praef. 1, &lsquo;Sinite me
+ab istis iuvenilibus studiis ad senectutem meam reverti&rsquo;;
+ii. praef. 4 (to Mela), &lsquo;Fratribus tuis ambitiosa curae sunt
+foroque se et honoribus parant.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As to the date of publication, it has been argued<a href="#fn071" id="ref071">[71]</a> that
+they appeared after the fall of Seianus and before the death
+of Mamercus Scaurus, <i>i.e.</i>, between <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 31 and 34. Probably,
+however, the publication did not take place till after
+the death of Tiberius, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 37; the protest against the
+burning of books (x. praef. 6-7) would have been as
+offensive to him as to Seianus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. There is only one book of <i>Suasoriae</i>, and the beginning
+of it is lost. It gives specimens of the treatment
+of seven themes, <i>e.g.</i>, 3, &lsquo;Deliberat Agamemnon an Iphigeniam
+immolet negante Calchante aliter navigari fas esse.&rsquo;
+It is certainly later than the <i>Controversiae</i>: <i>Contr.</i> ii. 4, 8,
+&lsquo;Quae dixerit suo loco reddam, cum ad suasorias venero.&rsquo;
+One passage cannot have been written before <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 34:
+2, 22, &lsquo;Scaurum Mamercum, in quo Scaurorum familia
+exstincta est.&rsquo; It was not published in the lifetime of
+Tiberius, for Seneca calls the accuser of Scaurus &lsquo;homo
+quam improbi animi tam infelicis ingenii&rsquo; (2, 22), and
+quotes Cremutius Cordus (6, 19) whose books had been
+burned in Tiberius&rsquo; time.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p230">
+3. Seneca wrote also on Roman history from the commencement
+of the civil wars to his own time, but left
+the work of publication to his son.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+L. Seneca <i>de vita patris</i> (Haase, vol. iii. p. 436), &lsquo;Si
+quaecumque composuit pater meus et edi voluit iam in
+manus populi emisissem, ad claritatem nominis sui satis
+sibi ipsi prospexerat ... Quisquis legisset eius historias ab
+initio bellorum civilium, unde primum veritas retro abiit,
+paene usque ad mortis suae diem,&rsquo; etc.
+</p>
+
+<h2 id="p231">CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<h2>POST-AUGUSTAN WRITERS.</h2>
+
+<h3>VELLEIUS PATERCULUS.</h3>
+
+<p>
+C.<a href="#fn072" id="ref072">[72]</a> Velleius Paterculus was born at latest <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 19, as
+he was quaestor-elect <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 6. He was descended from a
+distinguished family in Campania (Vell. ii. 16, 2; Liv. xxiii.
+7 <i>sqq.</i>). His father was a <i>praefectus equitum</i> (ii. 104, 3).
+After some military experience in Thrace and Macedonia,
+Velleius accompanied C. Caesar, the grandson of Augustus,
+on his mission to the East, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 1. His rank at this
+time was <i>tribunus militum</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+ii. 101, 2 (of the meeting of C. Caesar and the Parthian
+king), &lsquo;Sub initia stipendiorum meorum tribuno militum
+mihi visere contigit: quem militiae gradum ante sub patre
+tuo, M. Vinici, et P. Silio auspicatus in Thracia Macedoniaque,
+mox Achaia Asiaque et omnibus ad Orientem
+visis provinciis et ore atque utroque maris Pontici latere,
+haud iniucunda tot rerum, locorum, gentium, urbium recordatione
+fruor.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p232">
+In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 4, as <i>praefectus equitum</i>, he accompanied Tiberius
+to Germany: ii. 104, 3, &lsquo;Hoc tempus me, functum ante
+tribunatu, castrorum Ti. Caesaris militem fecit; quippe
+protinus ab adoptione missus cum eo praefectus equitum
+in Germaniam, successor officii patris mei, caelestissimorum
+eius operum per annos continuos viii. praefectus aut legatus
+spectator et pro captu mediocritatis meae adiutor fui.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 6, when quaestor-elect, he commanded reinforcements
+sent from Rome to Tiberius in Pannonia, and at
+the expiration of his term of office as quaestor in Rome,
+he returned to Tiberius as a <i>legatus</i>: ii. 111, 3, &lsquo;Habuit
+in hoc quoque bello mediocritas nostra speciosi ministerii
+locum. Finita equestri militia designatus quaestor necdum
+senator aequatus senatoribus, etiam designatis tribunis
+plebei, partem exercitus ab urbe traditi ab Augusto perduxi
+ad filium eius. In quaestura deinde remissa sorte
+provinciae legatus eiusdem ad eumdem missus sum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 9 Velleius served in Dalmatia (ii. 115, 5), afterwards
+spending two years in Germany (ii. 104, 3 above).
+In the winter of <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 12-13 he took part in the triumph
+of Tiberius: ii. 121, 2, &lsquo;Ex Pannoniis Delmatisque egit
+triumphum ... quem mihi fratrique meo inter praecipuos
+praecipuisque donis adornatos viros comitari contigit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Velleius was praetor-elect in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 14: ii. 124, 4, &lsquo;Quo
+tempore mihi fratrique meo, candidatis Caesaris, proxime
+a nobilissimis ac sacerdotalibus viris destinari praetoribus
+contigit, consecutis ut neque post nos quemquam divus
+Augustus neque ante nos Caesar commendaret Tiberius.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The publication of his history, sixteen years later, is
+the only circumstance recorded of Velleius after this date.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Historia Romana</i>, in two Books, was published
+<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 30, in the consulship of M. Vinicius, to whom the
+book is addressed (i. 8, 1, and often). The beginning of
+Book i. is lost; the first eight chapters in our text are
+occupied with a rapid survey of the history of Greece
+since the Trojan war, the Phoenician settlements in the
+Mediterranean, and the chief events in the history of the
+world before the foundation of Rome. C. 8 breaks off at
+the rape of the Sabine women, and there is a great lacuna
+before we reach, in c. 9, the defeat of Perseus at Pydna
+in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 168. Ch. 9-13 carry the narrative down to the
+destruction of Carthage and Corinth. Book ii. commences
+at that point, and ends with the death of Livia, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 29
+(ii. 130, 5, &lsquo;cuius temporis aegritudinem auxit amissa
+mater&rsquo;).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p233">
+Velleius is constantly calling attention to the brevity and
+compression of his treatment, in such phrases as &lsquo;omnia
+transcursu dicenda&rsquo; (ii. 55), &lsquo;artatum opus&rsquo; (ii. 86), &lsquo;recisum
+opus&rsquo; (ii. 89). Much that the plan of his book compels
+him to omit, he promises to publish later in a larger work,
+<i>e.g.</i> ii. 99, 3, &lsquo;iusto servemus operi,&rsquo; ii. 114, 4, &lsquo;iustis
+voluminibus ordine narrabimus.&rsquo; Even as it is, he occasionally
+pauses to describe a great character (ii. 41, Caesar),
+or to express his personal opinion (ii. 66, 3, denunciation
+of Antony for Cicero&rsquo;s murder). Specially noticeable are
+the digressions on the Roman colonies (i. 14-15) and provinces
+(ii. 38-39), on the prominence of different types of
+genius at certain epochs (i. 16-18), and on literary history
+(ii. 9, the chief writers of the time of the Gracci; ii. 36,
+of the Ciceronian and Augustan ages; i. 5, praise of
+Homer; i. 7, of Hesiod). As is natural in so short a
+book, Velleius names very few authorities.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The motive of the history is evidently the glorification
+of the author&rsquo;s old general, Tiberius, whose actual reign,
+however, he dismisses in eight chapters. Probably he felt
+the subject too risky, and devoted his strength to the
+earlier life of Tiberius, which occupies the greater part
+even of the chapters nominally devoted to the reign of
+Augustus (ii. 59-123). Tiberius is spoken of throughout
+in terms of unqualified praise, and no hint is given of
+the darker side of his character. Seianus also is extolled
+(ii. 127-8), as he was in high favour at the time when
+Velleius wrote.
+</p>
+
+<h3 id="p234">VALERIUS MAXIMUS.</h3>
+
+<p>
+Nothing is known of the life of Valerius Maximus beyond
+the fact that he visited Asia in company with Sex. Pompeius,
+the friend of Ovid and of Germanicus. Pompeius
+was consul <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 14, and between <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 27 and 30 became proconsul
+of Asia.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Val. Max. ii. 6, 8, &lsquo;Consuetudinem ... illam etiam in insula
+Cea servari animadverti, quo tempore Asiam cum Sex.
+Pompeio petens Iulidem oppidum intravi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Valerius dwells on his obligations to Pompeius in his
+chapter on friendship (iv. 7, <i>ext.</i> 2).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His sole work, <i>Facta et Dicta Memorabilia</i>, in nine
+books, is a collection of notable incidents and sayings,
+classified under appropriate headings, for the convenience
+of speakers seeking illustrations for their subject-matter.
+Cf. the preface, &lsquo;Urbis Romae exterarumque gentium facta
+simul ac dicta memoratu digna, quae apud alios latius
+diffusa sunt quam ut breviter cognosci possint, ab illustribus
+electa auctoribus digerere constitui, ut documenta
+sumere volentibus longae inquisitionis labor absit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <i>illustres auctores</i> from whom he draws most of his
+material are Livy, Cicero (each mentioned only once),
+Sallust, and Trogus; but thirteen Latin and twenty Greek
+authors are mentioned by name. He frequently misrepresents
+his authorities.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p235">
+Each book is divided into chapters on separate topics
+(<i>e.g.</i> <i>De Pudicitia</i>), under each of which he gives (1) illustrations
+from Roman history, (2) those from the history of
+other nations. The latter of course are few in comparison.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Although Iulius Paris, the epitomizer of Valerius, speaks
+of ten books, only nine are extant, and it may be doubted
+whether there ever was a tenth. Book i. is mutilated.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There are only two passages which throw any light on
+the date of composition&mdash;viii. 11, <i>ext.</i> 4, a denunciation of
+Seianus, obviously written after his fall in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 31; and
+vi. 1 praef., before the death of Livia, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 29. The work
+was published at latest in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 37, for it is dedicated to
+Tiberius, who is the object of the most servile flattery
+(<i>e.g.</i> ii. 9, 6); similar language is used of Iulius Caesar
+(iv. 5, 6), and Augustus (i. 7, 1), while Brutus and Cassius
+are denounced as parricides (i. 5, 7; i. 8, 8).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Two abridgments of Valerius Maximus are extant.
+</p>
+
+<h3>CELSUS.</h3>
+
+<p>
+Of the life of Celsus nothing is known; but he was an
+older contemporary of Columella. Colum. iii. 17, 4, &lsquo;Iulius
+Atticus et Cornelius Celsus, aetatis nostrae celeberrimi
+auctores, patrem atque filium Sasernam secuti.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He wrote an encyclopaedic work on agriculture, medicine,
+war, rhetoric, and philosophy, but only the section
+on medicine is extant.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Quint. xi. 12, 24, &lsquo;Cum etiam Cornelius Celsus, mediocri
+vir ingenio, non solum de his omnibus conscripserit
+artibus sed amplius rei militaris et rusticae et medicinae
+praecepta reliquerit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p236">
+The first part consisted of five books on agriculture: cf.
+Colum. i. 1, 14, &lsquo;Cornelius totum corpus disciplinae
+quinque libris complexus est.&rsquo; This section of the work
+was probably written in the reign of Tiberius, for it was
+known to Iulius Graecinus, whose execution took place
+under Caligula. Plin. <i>N.H.</i> xiv. 33, &lsquo;Graecinus, qui alioqui
+Cornelium Celsum transcripsit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There are eight books <i>De Re Medica</i>. The only indication
+of their date is in iv. 7, where Celsus mentions a prescription
+as not found &lsquo;in monumentis medicorum.&rsquo; As
+this prescription is given by Scribonius Largus, who wrote
+about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 47, Celsus must have written before that year.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The section on war was used by Vegetius (<i>De Re
+Mil.</i> i. 8).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Rhetoric was also treated in the encyclopaedia. Quintilian,
+who mentions him as one of the more careful writers
+on that subject (iii. 1, 21, &lsquo;accuratius scripsit Celsus&rsquo;),
+frequently combats his opinions and speaks of him rather
+contemptuously: <i>e.g.</i> ix. 1, 18, &lsquo;Cornelius Celsus nimia
+profecto novitatis cupidine ductus. Nam quis ignorasse
+eruditum alioqui virum credat,&rsquo; etc. He may be the Celsus
+of Juv. 6, 245, who (according to the Scholiast) wrote a
+manual of rhetoric in seven books.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There were also six books on the history of philosophy.
+Augustine <i>de haeres. prol.</i>, &lsquo;Opiniones omnium philosophorum
+qui sectas varias condiderunt usque ad tempora sua vi.
+non parvis voluminibus quidam Celsus absolvit; nec
+redarguit aliquem, sed tantum quid sentirent aperuit. Cum
+ferme centum philosophos nominasset,&rsquo; etc.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Celsus also wrote separate treatises (1) on philosophy,
+Quint. x. 1, 24, &lsquo;Scripsit non parum multa Cornelius
+Celsus, Sextios secutus, non sine cultu ac nitore&rsquo;; (2) on
+strategy (Lydus <i>de mag.</i> i. 47).
+</p>
+
+<h3 id="p237">PHAEDRUS.</h3>
+
+<p>
+The title of Phaedrus&rsquo; work, &lsquo;Phaedri Augusti liberti
+fabularum Aesopiarum libri,&rsquo; probably means that he was
+a freedman of Augustus. Tiberius is called &lsquo;Caesar
+Tiberius&rsquo; in ii. 6, 7; contrast the reference to Augustus,
+iii. 10, 39, &lsquo;a divo Augusto.&rsquo; Phaedrus was born in Thrace,
+possibly in the district of Pieria; but the date is unknown;
+iii. prol. 17,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ego, quem Pierio mater enixa est iugo,<br />
+in quo tonanti sancta Mnemosyne Iovi<br />
+fecunda novies artium peperit chorum&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>ibid.</i> 54,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ego, litteratae qui sum propior Graeciae,<br />
+cur somno inerti deseram patriae decus?<br />
+Threissa cum gens numeret auctores suos,<br />
+Linoque Apollo sit parens, Musa Orpheo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Some wrongly take these allusions to mean that he belongs
+to the realm of poesy. That he came to Rome early is
+shown by the knowledge of Latin literature he acquired in
+his boyhood. Cf. iii. epil. 33, where he quotes Ennius,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ego, quondam legi quam puer sententiam,<br />
+&ldquo;Palam mutire plebeio piaculum est,&rdquo;<br />
+dum sanitas constabit, pulchre meminero.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+After publishing two books of fables, Phaedrus was
+persecuted by Seianus, in some way unknown; iii. prol. 38,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ego porro illius [Aesopi] semita feci viam,<br />
+et cogitavi plura quam reliquerat,<br />
+in calamitatem deligens quaedam meam.<br />
+Quod si accusator alius Seiano foret,<br />
+si testis alius, index alius denique,<br />
+dignum faterer esse me tantis malis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p238">
+This persecution may have arisen from references in his
+fables, such as i. 1 (Lupus et agnus), l. 14,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Haec propter illos scripta est homines fabula,<br />
+qui fictis causis innocentes opprimunt&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+i. 6 (Ranae ad solem), which Nisard<a href="#fn073" id="ref073">[73]</a> thinks refers to
+the ambitious marriage which Seianus projected with Livia,
+daughter of Germanicus, &lsquo;The sun dries up the ponds;
+what will happen if the sun marries and has children?&rsquo; l. 9,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quidnam futurum est, si crearit liberos?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Phaedrus survived the attacks made on him, and Book v.
+was written in his old age (see below).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Several personal points are clear from his writings:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(1) He had to meet the attacks of critics; ii. epil. 10,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Si livor obtrectare curam voluerit,<br />
+non tamen eripiet laudis conscientiam.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(2) His desire for fame and his self-consciousness; iii.
+prol. 60,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ergo hinc abesto livor, ne frustra gemas,<br />
+quoniam sollemnis mihi debetur gloria.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(3) His contempt for money; iii. prol. 21,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Curamque habendi penitus corde eraserim&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+v. 4, 7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Huius respectu fabulae deterritus<br />
+periculosum semper vitavi lucrum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p239">
+Phaedrus wrote five Books of fables. Many have certainly
+been lost. Cf. his reference to tree-fables, none of
+which we have; i. prol. 6,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;quod arbores loquantur, non tantum ferae.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+There are, besides the five Books, thirty fables usually
+printed as an appendix, and probably composed by
+Phaedrus. The fables are all in &lsquo;impure&rsquo; iambic senarii,
+like those of Terence and Publius Syrus. Phaedrus followed
+Aesop, but, as he affirms, not slavishly; i. prol. 1,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Aesopus auctor quam materiam repperit,<br />
+hanc ego polivi versibus senariis&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+iv. prol. 10,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;fabulis<br />
+quas Aesopias, non Aesopi, nomino.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+We have the Greek originals for about a third of the
+fables; but Phaedrus speaks of his additions to Aesop;
+ii. prol. 8,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Equidem omni cura morem servabo senis;<br />
+sed si libuerit aliquid interponere,<br />
+dictorum sensus ut delectet varietas,<br />
+bonas in partes, lector, accipias velim.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Stories from contemporary or recent history are given
+in ii. 6, 7; iii. 10; v. 7.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Books i. and ii. were published under Tiberius; Book iii.
+was published after Tiberius&rsquo; death (cf. iii. prol. 33), and
+is dedicated to Eutychus, who has been identified with a
+favourite slave of Caligula. Book iv. followed, addressed
+to Particulo (iv. prol. 10). Book v., addressed to Philetes,
+was written in the poet&rsquo;s old age; v. 10, 7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Cui senex contra Lacon:<br />
+&ldquo;Non te destituit animus, sed vires meae.<br />
+Quod fuimus, lauda, si iam damnas, quod sumus.&rdquo;<br />
+Hoc cur, Philete, scripserim, pulchre vides.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p240">
+Martial is the only classical writer who refers to Phaedrus;
+iii. 20, 5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;An aemulatur improbi iocos Phaedri?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<h3>SENECA THE YOUNGER.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+L. Annaeus Seneca, the son of Annaeus Seneca, the
+rhetor, was born at Corduba in Spain. For information
+about his family see under &lsquo;Seneca the elder,&rsquo; <a href="#p226">pp. 226-7</a>.
+He was probably born about the beginning of our era, as he
+seems to have remembered Asinius Pollio, who died <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 5,
+and had passed his boyhood in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 19, when the Jewish
+and Egyptian rites were expelled from Rome.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sen. <i>de tranquill. animi</i>, 17, 7, &lsquo;Qualem Pollionem Asinium
+meminimus, quem nulla res ultra decimam [horam] retinuit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> 108, 22, &lsquo;In Tiberii Caesaris principatum iuventae
+tempus inciderat: alienigena tum sacra movebantur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+At an early age Seneca was brought to Rome by his
+mother&rsquo;s sister, who was probably the wife of Vitrasius
+Pollio, prefect of Egypt for sixteen years.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ad Helv.</i> 19, 2, &lsquo;Illius manibus in urbem perlatus sum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Seneca&rsquo;s mother took a great interest in his education,
+which was conducted under Fabianus Papirius (cf. <i>Ep.</i> 100,
+9, etc.) and Sotion the Pythagorean, of Alexandria, pupils
+of Sextius (for Seneca&rsquo;s study of whom see <i>Ep.</i> 64).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ad Helv.</i> 15, 1, &lsquo;Vera vis materni doloris oritur ... &ldquo;ubi
+studia, quibus libentius quam femina, familiarius quam
+mater intereram?&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p241">
+<i>Ep.</i> 108, 17, &lsquo;Dicebat [Sotion] quare ille animalibus
+abstinuisset, quare postea Sextius ... § 22. His ego instinctus
+abstinere animalibus coepi et anno peracto non tantum
+facilis erat mihi consuetudo, sed dulcis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The elder Seneca put an end to this abstinence, which was
+associated in the popular view with foreign superstitions (see
+<i>Ep.</i> 108, 17-23). This must have happened about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 19.
+The influence of Sotion is seen in passages imitated from
+his book <i>de ira cohibenda</i> by Seneca. Seneca also studied
+under Attalus, a Greek Stoic, possibly about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 20.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> 108, 13-15, &lsquo;Ego certe cum Attalum audirem in
+vitia, in errores, in mala vitae perorantem, saepe misertus
+sum generis humani et illum sublimem altioremque humano
+fastigio credidi ... Inde mihi quaedam permansere, Lucili.
+Magno enim in omnia inceptu veneram. Deinde ad
+civitatis vitam reductus ex bene coeptis pauca servavi:
+inde ostreis boletisque in omnem vitam renuntiatum est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Seneca speaks of his change of studies and occupations
+in <i>Ep.</i> 49, 2, &lsquo;Modo apud Sotionem philosophum puer
+sedi. Modo causas agere coepi. Modo desii velle agere,
+modo desii posse.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 31 Seneca was probably still at Rome; cf.
+<i>N.Q.</i> i. 1, 3, &lsquo;Vidimus [prodigium] eo tempore, quo de
+Seiano actum est.&rsquo; Lipsius&rsquo; inference<a href="#fn074" id="ref074">[74]</a> that Seneca made a
+voyage to Egypt about this time is probable, though Seneca
+himself gives no direct information about it. According
+to this theory his host was Vitrasius Pollio, prefect of Egypt.
+While in Egypt, Seneca was attacked by illness, and escaped
+death by his aunt&rsquo;s care. Cf. <i>ad Helv.</i> 19, 2, &lsquo;Illius pio
+maternoque nutricio per longum tempus aeger convalui.&rsquo;
+Seneca accompanied Vitrasius when he resigned his office
+and returned with his wife to Italy <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 32 (Dio, lviii. 19, 6).
+They suffered shipwreck, and Vitrasius perished.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p242">
+<i>Ad Helv.</i> 19, 4, &lsquo;Sed si prudentiam perfectissimae feminae
+novi, non patietur te nihil profuturo maerore consumi et
+exemplum tibi suum, cuius ego etiam spectator fui, narrabit.
+Carissimum virum amiserat, avunculum nostrum, cui virgo
+nupserat, in ipsa quidem navigatione: tulit tamen eodem
+tempore et luctum et metum evictisque tempestatibus
+corpus eius naufraga evexit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This theory is supported by the fact that Seneca wrote
+a work &lsquo;de ritu (al., situ) et sacris Aegyptiorum&rsquo; (Serv. <i>ad
+Aen.</i> vi. 154).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Through his aunt&rsquo;s influence Seneca obtained the quaestorship.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ad Helv.</i> 19, 2, &lsquo;Illa pro quaestura mea gratiam suam
+extendit, et quae ne sermonis quidem aut clarae salutationis
+sustinuit audaciam, pro me vicit indulgentia verecundiam.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Seneca&rsquo;s quaestorship must have been after the death
+of his aunt&rsquo;s husband, in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 32, as the above passage
+shows, and before the death of Tiberius in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 37, as it was
+with Tiberius that his aunt&rsquo;s influence lay, on account of
+her husband&rsquo;s services. After his quaestorship Seneca
+appears to have married (cf. <i>de ira</i>, iii. 36, 3, etc.). His
+wife must have died before <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 57, as in that year Seneca
+married Pompeia Paulina; cf. Dio, lxi. 10, 3, <span class="greek">γάμον ἐπιφανέστατον ἔγημε</span>.
+By his first wife he had three sons
+(<i>ad Helv.</i> 2, 5).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+While senator, Seneca incurred the jealousy of Caligula,
+and in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 39 narrowly escaped death.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dio, lix. 19, 7, <span class="greek">ὁ δὲ δὴ Σενέκας ... διεφθάρη παρ&rsquo; ὀλίγον,
+μήτ&rsquo; ἀδικήσας τι, μήτε δόξας, ὅτι δίκην τινὰ ἐν τῷ συνεδρίῳ
+παρόντος αὐτοῦ καλῶς εἴπε</span>. For Seneca&rsquo;s attacks on Caligula
+cf. <i>ad Helv.</i> 10, 4; <i>Apocol.</i> 15, etc.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p243">
+Sueton. <i>Cal.</i> 53, &lsquo;Peroraturus &ldquo;stricturum se lucubrationis
+suae telum&rdquo; minabatur; lenius comtiusque scribendi
+genus adeo contemnens, ut Senecam, tum maxime placentem,
+&ldquo;commissiones meras&rdquo; componere, et &ldquo;harenam esse sine
+calce&rdquo; diceret.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 41 Seneca was banished to Corsica, through the
+agency of Messalina, on the charge of adultery with Iulia
+Livilla, sister of Caligula, but really because he was suspected
+of belonging to the faction of Agrippina.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 42, &lsquo;Nec Suillius questu aut exprobratione
+abstinebat ... et Senecam increpans infensum amicis Claudii,
+sub quo iustissimum exilium pertulisset ... Se quaestorem
+Germanici, illum domus eius adulterum fuisse.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Seneca was tried before the Senate, and Claudius prevented
+his execution.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ad Polyb.</i> 13, 2, &lsquo;Deprecatus est pro me senatum, et
+vitam mihi non tantum dedit, sed etiam petiit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+While in Corsica he devoted himself to literature and
+science. Cf. <i>ad Helv.</i> 20, 1 (written in exile), &lsquo;Animus
+omnis occupationis expers operibus suis vacat et modo se
+levioribus studiis oblectat, modo ad considerandam suam
+universique naturam veri avidus insurgit: terras primum
+situmque earum quaerit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Consolatio ad Polybium</i>, written during this time,
+is full of flattery of Claudius.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dio, lxi. 10, 2, <span class="greek">τὴν Μεσσαλίναν καὶ τοὺς τοὺ Κλαυδίου
+ἐξελευθέρους ἐθώπευεν ὥστε καὶ βιβλίον σφίσιν ἐκ τῆς νήσου
+πέμψαι ἐπαίνους αὐτῶν ἔχον, ὃ μετὰ ταῦτα ὑπ&rsquo; αἰσχύνης
+ἀπήλειψε</span>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Seneca was recalled at the beginning of <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 49, became
+Nero&rsquo;s tutor (although he wished to visit Athens), and
+obtained the praetorship through the influence of Agrippina,
+with whom his name was coupled by popular rumour.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p244">
+Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xii. 8, &lsquo;At Agrippina, ne malis tantum
+facinoribus notesceret, veniam exilii pro Annaeo Seneca,
+simul praeturam inpetrat, laetum in publicum rata ob claritudinem
+studiorum eius, utque Domitii pueritia tali magistro
+adulesceret et consiliis eiusdem ad spem dominationis uterentur,
+quia Seneca fidus in Agrippinam memoria beneficii
+et infensus Claudio dolore iniuriae credebatur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Schol. on <i>Iuv.</i> 5, 105, &lsquo;Revocatus ... etsi magno desiderio
+Athenas intenderet ab Agrippina tamen in palatium
+adductus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dio, lxi. 10, 1, <span class="greek">οὐ γὰρ ἀπέχρῃσεν αὐτῷ τὴν Ἰουλίαν μοιχεῦσαι,
+οὐδὲ βελτίων ἐκ τῆς φυγῆς ἐγένετο, ἀλλὰ καὶ τῇ Ἀγριππίνῃ
+ἐπλῃσίαζεν</span>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For Seneca&rsquo;s tutorship cf. also Sueton. <i>Nero</i>, 52, &lsquo;Liberales
+disciplinas omnes fere puer attigit. Sed a philosophia eum
+mater avertit, monens imperaturo contrariam esse: a cognitione
+veterum oratorum Seneca praeceptor, quo diutius
+in admiratione sui detineret.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is probable that Seneca was, like Nero, privy to the
+murder of Claudius in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 54. Cf. his sarcasms against
+Claudius in his <i>Apocolocyntosis</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>Nero</i> 33 (of Nero), &lsquo;Cuius [Claudi] necis etsi
+non auctor, at conscius fuit: neque dissimulanter, ut qui
+boletos, in quo cibi genere venenum is acceperat, quasi
+deorum cibum, posthac proverbio Graeco conlaudare sit
+solitus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Seneca wrote for Nero a speech which he delivered on
+the occasion of Claudius&rsquo; death.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 3, &lsquo;Die funeris laudationem eius princeps
+exorsus est; dum antiquitatem generis, consulatus ac
+triumphos maiorum enumerabat, intentus ipse et ceteri;
+liberalium quoque artium commemoratio, et nihil regente
+eo triste rei publicae ab externis accidisse, pronis animis
+audita. Postquam ad providentiam sapientiamque flexit,
+nemo risui temperare, quamquam oratio a Seneca composita
+multum cultus praeferret, ut fuit illi viro ingenium
+amoenum et temporis eius auribus accommodatum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p245">
+He acted as a check on Nero (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 6; 11),
+and baffled Agrippina&rsquo;s vengeance and ambition.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 2, &lsquo;Ibaturque in caedes, nisi Afranius
+Burrus et Annaeus Seneca obviam issent. (Ch. 5) Quin
+et legatis Armeniorum causam gentis apud Neronem
+orantibus escendere suggestum imperatoris et praesidere
+simul parabat, nisi ceteris pavore defixis Seneca admonuisset,
+venienti matri occurreret.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Seneca interfered to shelter Nero in his amour with
+Acte, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 55, and used the occasion to stir up feud
+between Agrippina and Nero (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 13). Hence
+followed an attack by Agrippina on Seneca.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 14, &lsquo;Audiretur hinc Germanici filia, inde
+debilis rursus Burrus et exsul Seneca, trunca scilicet manu
+et professoria lingua generis humani regimen expostulantes.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is unlikely that Seneca opposed the murder of Britannicus
+(Feb. <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 55). Cf. Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 17, &lsquo;Facinus cui
+plerique iam hominum ignoscebant, antiquas fratrum
+discordias et insociabile regnum aestimantes.&rsquo;<a href="#fn075" id="ref075">[75]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p id="p246">
+Seneca took part shortly afterwards in the trial in which
+Agrippina was found not guilty (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 20-21).
+There are many references to Seneca&rsquo;s great power and
+wealth at this time.<a href="#fn076" id="ref076">[76]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. Dio, lxi. 4, 1, <span class="greek">αὐτοὶ</span> (Seneca and Burrus) <span class="greek">τὴν ἀρχὴν
+ἅπασαν παρέλαβον καὶ διῴκησαν ἐφ&rsquo; ὅσον ἠδυνήθησαν ἄριστα
+καὶ δικαιότατα</span>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiv. 53 (Seneca addressing Nero in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 62),
+&lsquo;Quartus decimus annus est, Caesar, ex quo spei tuae
+admotus sum, octavus, ut imperium obtines: medio
+temporis tantum honorum atque opum in me cumulasti,
+ut nihil felicitati meae desit nisi moderatio eius... At tu
+gratiam immensam, innumeram pecuniam circumdedisti,
+adeo ut plerumque intra me ipse volvam, &ldquo;Egone, equestri
+et provinciali loco ortus, proceribus civitatis adnumeror? ...
+Talis hortos extruit, et per haec suburbana incedit, et
+tantis agrorum spatiis, tam lato faenore exuberat?&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 42 (speech of Suillius, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 58), &lsquo;Qua
+sapientia, quibus philosophorum praeceptis, intra quadriennium
+regiae amicitiae ter miliens sestertium paravisset?&rsquo;
+(Dio, lxi. 10, 2, gives his wealth as 75,000,000 denarii).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Seneca had many estates both in Italy (<i>Ep.</i> 123, 1, etc.)
+and abroad, and lent money abroad, even in Britain. His
+attraction to finance is seen in the number of metaphors
+he draws from that subject.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sen. <i>vit. beat.</i> 17, 2, &lsquo;Cur trans mare possides? cur
+plura quam nosti?&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dio, lxii. 2, 1 (of the rising of the Britons under Boudicca),
+<span class="greek">ὁ Σενέκας χιλίας σφίσι μυριάδας ἄκουσιν ἐπὶ χρησταῖς ἐλπίσι
+τόκων δανείσας, ἔπειτ&rsquo; ἀθρόας τε ἅμα αὐτὰς καὶ βιαίως
+εἰσέπρασσεν</span>.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p247">
+His attack on usury (<i>de ben.</i> vii. 10, 3) is a piece of
+theoretic philosophy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 57 Seneca was consul suffectus (Ulpian, <i>Dig.</i>
+xxxvi. 1). In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 58 he brought about the downfall of
+the former delator, P. Suillius. Cf. Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 42,
+&lsquo;Variis deinde casibus iactatus et multorum odia meritus
+reus, haud tamen sine invidia Senecae damnatur. Is fuit
+P. Suillius.&rsquo; Seneca is thought to have been implicated in
+Agrippina&rsquo;s murder in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 59. He wrote to the Senate
+for Nero an account of her death.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiv. 7 (Nero says after the fruitless attempt of
+Anicetus to kill Agrippina), &lsquo;Quod contra subsidium sibi
+nisi quid Burrus et Seneca expedirent? Quos statim
+acciverat, incertum an aperiens, et ante ignaros. Igitur
+longum utriusque silentium, ne inriti dissuaderent; an eo
+descensum credebant, ut, nisi praeveniretur Agrippina,
+pereundum Neroni esset? Post Seneca, hactenus promptius,
+ut respiceret Burrum, ac sciscitaretur an militi imperanda
+caedes esset. (Ch. 11) Ergo non iam Nero, cuius
+immanitas omnium questus anteibat, sed Seneca adverso
+rumore erat, quod oratione tali confessionem scripsisset.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The death of Burrus in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 62 weakened the power of
+Seneca, who resolved to retire. His request, however, was
+not granted by Nero (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiv. 55-6), but he reduced
+his establishment, and lived in semi-privacy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiv. 52, &lsquo;Mors Burri infregit Senecae potentiam,
+quia nec bonis artibus idem virium erat altero velut
+duce amoto, et Nero ad deteriores inclinabat. Hi variis
+criminationibus Senecam adoriuntur ... Certe finitam
+Neronis pueritiam, et robur iuventae adesse. Exueret
+magistrum, satis amplis doctoribus instructus maioribus
+suis. (Ch. 56) Instituta prioris potentiae commutat, prohibet
+coetus salutantium, vitat comitantis, rarus per urbem, quasi
+valetudine infensa aut sapientiae studiis domi attineretur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p248">
+Later in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 62, came an unsuccessful attempt to ruin
+Seneca. Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiv. 65, &lsquo;Romanus secretis criminationibus
+incusaverat Senecam ut Gai Pisonis socium;
+sed validius a Seneca eodem crimine perculsus est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 64, on the occasion of the burning of Rome by
+Nero, Seneca wished to retire. He is said to have offered
+money to repair the disasters of the fire.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xv. 45, &lsquo;Ferebatur Seneca, quo invidiam
+sacrilegii a semet averteret, longinqui ruris secessum oravisse,
+et postquam non concedebatur, ficta valetudine, quasi
+aeger nervis, cubiculum non egressus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dio, lxii. 25, 3, <span class="greek">πᾶσαν αὐτῷ τὴν οὐσίαν ἐπὶ τῇ τῶν
+οἰκοδομουμένων προφάσει κεχαρισμένος</span>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The story given in Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xv. 45 of the attempt to
+poison Seneca probably arose from his abstemious habits.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Tradidere quidam venenum ei per libertum ipsius cui
+nomen Cleonicus paratum iussu Neronis, vitatumque a
+Seneca proditione liberti seu propria formidine, dum persimplici
+victu et agrestibus pomis, ac si sitis admoneret,
+profluente aqua vitam tolerat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 65 Seneca was implicated in the conspiracy of
+Piso, and was forced to commit suicide. His wife wished
+to die with him, but was prevented by Nero&rsquo;s orders.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xv. 60, &lsquo;Sequitur caedes Annaei Senecae,
+laetissima principi, non quia coniurationis manifestum
+compererat, sed ut ferro grassaretur, quando veneno non
+processerat ... (Ch. 63) Post quae eodem ictu brachia
+ferro exsolvunt. Seneca, quoniam senile corpus et parco
+victu tenuatum lenta effugia sanguini praebebat, crurum
+quoque et poplitum venas abrumpit. Saevisque cruciatibus
+defessus, ne dolore suo animum uxoris infringeret atque
+ipse visendo eius tormenta ad impatientiam delaberetur,
+suadet in aliud cubiculum abscedere. Et novissimo quoque
+momento suppeditante eloquentia advocatis scriptoribus
+pleraque tradidit ... (Ch. 64) At Nero nullo in Paulinam
+proprio odio, ac ne glisceret invidia crudelitatis, inhibere
+mortem. ... Seneca interim, durante tractu et lentitudine
+mortis, Statium Annaeum, diu sibi amicitiae fide et arte
+medicinae probatum, orat, provisum pridem venenum, quo
+damnati publico Atheniensium iudicio exstinguerentur, promeret;
+adlatumque hausit frustra, frigidus iam artus, et
+cluso corpore adversum vim veneni. Postremo stagnum
+calidae aquae introiit, respergens proximos servorum, addita
+voce, libare se liquorem illum Iovi liberatori. Exin balneo
+inlatus, et vapore eius exanimatus, sine ullo funeris sollemni
+crematur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p249">
+There was a rumour that some of the conspirators intended
+to make Seneca emperor.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xv. 65, &lsquo;Fama fuit Subrium Flavum cum
+centurionibus occulto consilio, neque tamen ignorante
+Seneca, destinavisse, ut post occisum opera Pisonis Neronem
+Piso quoque interficeretur, tradereturque imperium
+Senecae, quasi insontibus claritudine virtutum ad summum
+fastigium delecto.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>The following prose works are extant:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>Dialogorum libri</i> xii.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(1) <i>ad Lucilium: quare aliqua incommoda bonis viris
+accidant cum providentia sit; sive de providentia</i>. This
+was probably a late work.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p250">
+(2) <i>ad Serenum: nec iniuriam nec contumeliam accipere
+sapientem; sive de constantia sapientis</i>: written in the first
+years of Nero&rsquo;s reign.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(3-5) <i>ad Novatum de ira libri</i> iii., probably written in
+the first year of Claudius&rsquo; reign.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(6) <i>ad Marciam de consolatione</i>: written to console Marcia,
+the daughter of Cremutius Cordus, for the death of her son
+Metilius. The work may have been written in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 41, as
+Caligula&rsquo;s name is studiously avoided.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(7) <i>ad Gallionem de vita beata</i>. This book, addressed
+to Seneca&rsquo;s brother Gallio (Novatus), was probably written
+shortly after <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 58, and justifies his having wealth though a
+philosopher.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(8) <i>ad Serenum de otio</i>. This work, like the next, was
+addressed to Annaeus Serenus, and was written probably
+about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 62. Only a part of it is extant. The book
+discusses whether a wise man should engage in state affairs.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(9) <i>ad Serenum de tranquillitate animi</i>, probably written
+soon after Seneca&rsquo;s recall.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(10) <i>ad Paulinum de brevitate vitae</i>. For the date cf.
+13, 8, &lsquo;Sullam ultimum Romanorum protulisse pomoerium.&rsquo;
+Now, Claudius extended the pomoerium in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 50, so
+this must have been written in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 49, as the book was
+brought out after Seneca&rsquo;s return from exile.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(11) <i>ad Polybium de consolatione</i>. This book was addressed
+in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 43 or 44 to Polybius, a favourite of Claudius, on the
+occasion of his brother&rsquo;s death. The date is fixed by the
+reference to Claudius&rsquo; expedition to Britain in 12, 2-3.
+Cf. § 3, &lsquo;Non desinam totiens tibi offerre Caesarem. Illo
+moderante terras et ostendente, quanto melius beneficiis
+imperium custodiatur quam armis, illo rebus humanis
+praeside non est periculum, ne quid perdidisse te sentias.&rsquo;
+For similar flattery of Claudius, cf. 7,4; 12,5.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p251">
+(12) <i>ad Helviam matrem de consolatione</i>, written during
+his banishment.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>ad Neronem Caesarem de clementia</i>, in three Books,
+two of which are extant. The work was written in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>
+55-6, doubtless to show the public what sort of instruction
+Seneca had given Nero, and what sort of emperor they
+had to expect (cf. i, 1, 1). The date is settled by i. 9, 1,
+&lsquo;[divus Augustus] cum hoc aetatis esset quod tu nunc es,
+duodevicesimum egressus annum,&rsquo; Nero having been born
+15th December, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 37. The flattery contained in ii. 1,
+1-2, and elsewhere, can be justified to some extent by
+Nero&rsquo;s conduct at that time. Cf. Sueton. <i>Nero</i>, 10, &lsquo;Neque
+liberalitatis, neque clementiae, ne comitatis quidem exhibendae
+ullam occasionem omisit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. <i>De Beneficiis</i> in seven Books, addressed to Aebutius
+Liberalis of Lugdunum. It is probable that Books i.-iv.
+were published first, shortly after the death of Claudius
+(who is sneered at in i. 15, 6). Books v.-vii. are probably
+a later addition. Cf. v. 1, 1, &lsquo;In prioribus libris videbar consummasse
+propositum ... Quidquid ultra moror, non servio
+materiae, sed indulgeo ... Verum quia ita vis, perseveremus
+peractis.&rsquo; The eulogy of Demetrius the Cynic in vii. 8-12,
+makes it probable that Book vii. at least was written in
+Seneca&rsquo;s last years.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. <i>Apocolocyntosis</i>, a political satire on Claudius, written
+shortly after his death in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 54. The explanation of
+the title is given by Dio, lx. 35, 2, <span class="greek">Ἀγριππίνα καὶ ὁ
+Νέρων ... ἐς τὸν οὐρανὸν ἀνήγαγον ὃν ἐκ τοῦ συμποσίου
+φοράδην ἐξενηνόχεσαν. ὅθευπερ Λούκιος Ἰούνιος Γαλλίων ὁ
+τοῦ Σενέκα ἀδελφὸς ἀστειότατόν τι ἀπεφθέγξατο· συνέθηκε
+μὲν γὰρ καὶ ὁ Σενέκας σύγγραμμα, ἀποκολοκύντωσιν αὐτὸ
+ὥσπερ τινὰ ἀπαθανάτισιν ὀνομάσας, ἐκεῖνος δὲ ἐν βραχυτάτῳ
+πολλὰ εἰπὼν ἀπομνημονεύεται ... ἔφη τὸν Κλαύδιον ἀγκίστρῳ
+ἐς τὸν οὐρανὸν ἀνενεχθῆναι</span>. The work does not bear this
+title in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, and there is no hint of the witticism in
+the book itself; the St. Gall <span class="bcad">MS.</span>, however, has &lsquo;Divi
+Claudii <span class="greek">ΑΠΟΘΗΟΣΙΣ</span> Annei Senecae per Saturam,&rsquo; which
+may be a corruption of the proper title. The title is
+derived from <span class="greek">κολοκύντη</span>, &lsquo;a gourd,&rsquo; which was used to
+denote a fool. Seneca (<i>Apocol.</i> 6) takes the official view
+that Claudius died of a fever. The work may have been
+published at the Saturnalia, and written shortly before, as
+Narcissus is represented as having just arrived in Orcus.
+The personal animosity of Seneca against Caligula and
+Claudius is everywhere apparent.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p252">
+5. <i>Naturales Quaestiones</i> in seven Books, addressed to
+Lucilius. Book ii. was written after <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 57, as in ii. 9, 2 an
+amphitheatre is mentioned which was built by Nero in that
+year. The work was finished before the end of <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 64, for
+in Book vii. there is no mention among other prodigies of
+the comet which appeared again at the end of that year.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+6. <i>Epistulae morales ad Lucilium</i>. These were addressed
+to Lucilius Iunior, the author of &lsquo;Aetna&rsquo; (see <a href="#p277">p. 277</a>).
+There are extant one hundred and twenty four letters, in
+twenty Books, but some Books have been lost, as Gell. xii.
+2, 3 quotes from Book xxii. Books i.-iii. were probably
+published by Seneca, the rest after his death, generally in
+chronological order.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The following poetical works are extant:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>Epigrams.</i>&mdash;Nine on his exile are given in the
+editions; probably only Nos. 1, 2, and 7 are genuine.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p253">
+2. <i>Tragedies.</i>&mdash;Some of these may have been composed
+during Seneca&rsquo;s exile in Corsica. See <i>ad Helv.</i> 20 (quoted
+<a href="#p243">p. 243</a>). The metrical treatment is strict, especially in the
+senarii. Anapaestic, glyconic, sapphic lines, etc., are used
+in the choral odes. There are only three actors, except
+in the spurious <i>Octavia</i>. The plays are: (1) <i>Hercules
+Furens</i> and (2) <i>Troades</i> or <i>Hecuba</i>, founded on Euripides.
+(3) <i>Phoenissae</i> or <i>Thebais</i>. The two parts do not
+correspond. In ll. 1-362, Oedipus and Antigone are on
+their way to Cithaeron; from l. 363 to the end we find
+Iocasta and Antigone in Thebes while it is besieged by
+the Seven. (4) <i>Medea</i>, founded on Euripides. Ovid has also
+been imitated; so ll. 56 <i>sqq.</i> from Ovid, <i>Heroides</i>, 12, 137.
+(5) <i>Phaedra</i> or <i>Hippolytus</i>. (6) <i>Oedipus</i>, after Sophocles.
+(7) <i>Agamemnon</i>, after Aeschylus. (8) <i>Thyestes</i>. (9) <i>Hercules
+Oetaeus</i>, of which the second part, at least, is spurious.
+(10) <i>Octavia</i>, a praetexta, describing the death of Octavia,
+Nero&rsquo;s wife (<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 62). Seneca himself appears in it. It
+cannot be by Seneca, as Nero&rsquo;s downfall (<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 68) is
+mentioned in ll. 628-36.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The following works are lost or exist only in fragments:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+i. Poems of a light nature (Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> v. 3). 2. <i>De
+motu terrarum</i>, afterwards incorporated in <i>N.Q.</i> vi. (see
+<i>N.Q.</i> vi. 4, 2). 3. <i>De lapidum natura</i>. 4. <i>De piscium
+natura</i>. 5. <i>De ritu et sacris Aegyptiorum</i> (see <a href="#p242">p. 242</a>).
+6. <i>De situ Indiae</i>. 7. <i>De forma mundi</i>. 8. <i>Exhortationes</i>.
+9. <i>De officiis</i>. 10. <i>De immatura morte</i>. 11. <i>De superstitione
+dialogus</i>. 12. <i>De matrimonio</i>. 13. <i>De amicitia</i>.
+14. <i>De vita patris</i>, along with an edition of his works.
+15. Speeches by himself or by Nero. 16. <i>Epistulae</i> (a) <i>ad
+Novatum</i>, probably written from Corsica, (b) <i>ad Caesonium
+Maximum</i>. 17. A book in praise of Messalina, afterwards
+withdrawn (see <a href="#p243">p. 243</a>). 18. <i>Moralis philosophiae libri</i> (see
+<i>Ep.</i> 106, 2). 19. <i>De remediis fortuitorum</i>, addressed to
+Gallio. A synopsis with additions is extant. 20. <i>De
+paupertate</i>. 21. <i>De formula honestae vitae</i>, probably founded
+on one of Seneca&rsquo;s works. 22. <i>Notae</i> (see Sueton. pp.
+135-6 <span class="sc">R.</span>).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p254">
+The following are spurious works:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. &lsquo;Epistulae Senecae, Neronis imperatoris magistri, ad
+Paulum Apostolum et Pauli Apostoli ad Senecam.&rsquo; These
+letters, fourteen in all, are accepted as genuine by Jerome,
+<i>de vir. illustr.</i> 12. &lsquo;Seneca ... quem non ponerem in
+catalogo sanctorum, nisi me epistulae illae provocarent,
+quae leguntur a plurimis, Pauli ad Senecam et Senecae
+ad Paulum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. A work extant under the title of <i>Sententiae Rufi</i> has
+been wrongly thought to correspond to Seneca&rsquo;s dying
+words mentioned in Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xv. 63.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. The book <i>De moribus</i> or <i>Monita</i> contains maxims
+by Christian writers.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Views and Character.</i>&mdash;For Seneca&rsquo;s training in Stoic
+doctrines see <i>Ep.</i> 108, 13 (quoted <a href="#p241">p. 241</a>). With these
+views he generally associates himself (cf. <i>Ep.</i> 113, 1;
+117, 1), but does not bind himself to one school.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. <i>Ep.</i> 45, 4, &lsquo;Non enim me cuiquam emancipavi,
+nullius nomen fero. Multum magnorum virorum iudicio
+credo, aliquid et meo vindico.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Especially towards the end of his life, he came under
+the influence of Demetrius the Cynic.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> 62, 3, &lsquo;Demetrium, virorum optimum, mecum circumfero
+et relictis conchyliatis cum illo seminudo loquor,
+ilium admiror. Quidni admirer? vidi nihil ei deesse.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p255">
+In <i>de provid.</i> 5, 7, after quoting Demetrius&rsquo; fatalistic
+views, Seneca adds, &lsquo;Fata nos ducunt, et quantum cuique
+temporis restat, prima nascentium hora disposuit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Seneca was one of the few Romans who condemned
+the butcheries practised in the arena, and his views doubtless
+influenced Nero&rsquo;s conduct in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 58.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> 95, 33, &lsquo;Homo, sacra res homini, iam per lusum
+ac iocum occiditur et quem erudiri ad inferenda accipiendaque
+volnera nefas erat, is iam nudus inermisque producitur
+satisque spectaculi ex homine mors est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 31, &lsquo;Edixit Caesar ne quis magistratus
+aut procurator, qui provinciam obtineret, spectaculum
+gladiatorum aut ferarum aut quod aliud ludicrum ederet.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For Seneca&rsquo;s love of wealth see <a href="#p246">p. 246</a>. For his estimate
+of riches cf. <i>De vita beata</i>, 22, 5. &lsquo;Apud me divitiae aliquem
+locum habent, apud te summum ac postremum. Divitiae
+meae sunt, tu divitiarum es.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His simplicity of life has been already dealt with.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dio, lxi. 10, 2, gives a most unjust account of Seneca&rsquo;s
+character:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="greek">πάντα τὰ ἐναντιώτατα οἷς ἐφιλοσόφει ποιῶν ἠλέγχθη. καὶ
+γὰρ τυραννίδος κατηγορῶν τυραννοδιδάσκαλος ἐγίνετο, καὶ
+τῶν συνόντων τοῖς δυνάσταις κατατρέχων οὐκ ἀφίστατο τοῦ
+παλατίου ... τοῖς τε πλουσίοις ἐγκαλῶν οὐσίαν ἑπτακισχιλίων
+καὶ πεντακοσίων μυριάδων ἐκτήσατο</span>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Seneca followed no traditional style. Cf. <i>Ep.</i> 100, 6,
+&lsquo;De compositione non constat&rsquo;; <i>Ep.</i> 114, 13, &lsquo;Oratio
+certam regulam non habet.&rsquo; Quintilian, x. 1, 125-131, attacks
+his style, though admitting his great powers.
+</p>
+
+<h3 id="p256">CURTIUS RUFUS.</h3>
+
+<p>
+The full name is Q. Curtius Rufus, given in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>
+of his work, &lsquo;Historiarum Alexandri Magni Macedonis
+Libri x.&rsquo;, the first two Books of which are lost. Curtius
+is not referred to by name by any ancient writer, but is
+probably identical with the Q. Curtius Rufus mentioned in
+the list prefixed to Sueton. <i>de claris oratoribus</i> between
+M. Porcius Latro and L. Valerius Primanus. This order
+favours the view that he belonged to the reign of Claudius,
+a view supported by the two contemporary references in
+Curtius:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+iv. 4, 21 (of Tyre), &lsquo;nunc tandem longa pace cuncta
+refovente sub tutela Romanae mansuetudinis adquiescit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+x. 9, 3-6, &lsquo;Quod imperium sub uno stare potuisset,
+dum a pluribus sustinetur, ruit. Proinde iure meritoque
+populus Romanus salutem se principi suo debere profitetur,
+qui noctis, quam paene supremam habuimus, novum sidus
+inluxit. Huius hercule, non solis ortus lucem caliganti
+reddidit mundo, cum sine suo capite discordia membra
+trepidarent,&rsquo; etc.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This passage probably refers to the tumultuous scene
+on the night between 24th and 25th Jan., <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 41, before
+Claudius&rsquo; accession, after the murder of Caligula (cf. the
+pun in <i>caliganti</i>), when rival claimants to the throne were
+put forward, and the Senate wished to restore the republic
+(cf. <i>discordia membra trepidarent</i>). Sen. <i>ad Polyb.</i> 13, 1,
+uses similar language of Claudius, &lsquo;Sidus hoc, quod praecipitato
+in profundum et demerso in tenebras orbi refulsit,
+semper luceat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As Curtius says nothing but good about the reign of
+Claudius, he probably wrote shortly after his accession.
+The passage in iv. 4, 21 (above) also fits in with this view,
+as there was little fighting in the Roman world from 17 to
+43 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> His bold tone with regard to rulers would also
+suit this time, while it would have been dangerous under
+Caligula, or from 43 to 54 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p id="p257">
+Cf. viii. 5, 6, &lsquo;Non deerat talia concupiscenti perniciosa
+adulatio, perpetuum malum regum, quorum opes saepius
+adsentatio quam hostis evertit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This tone also renders it impossible to identify him with
+Curtius Rufus, mentioned in Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xi. 21, as governor
+of Africa, and as &lsquo;adversus superiores tristi adulatione,
+adrogans minoribus, inter pares difficilis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Seneca is supposed to have quoted his contemporary
+Curtius once or twice. Cf. Sen. <i>Ep.</i> 56, 9, &lsquo;Nihil tam
+certum est quam otii vitia negotio discuti&rsquo;; and Curt.
+vii. 1, 4, &lsquo;Satis prudens, otii vitia negotio discuti.&rsquo; Cf.
+also viii. 10, 29 with Sen. <i>Ep.</i> 59, 12.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Curtius claims to transcribe his authorities carefully.
+Cf. ix. 1, 34, &lsquo;Equidem plura transscribo quam credo:
+nam nec adfirmare sustineo, de quibus dubito, nec subducere
+quae accepi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Curtius&rsquo; statements are usually parallel to those of one
+or other of the historians of Alexander, but he appeals
+only twice to other authorities by name.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+ix. 8, 15, &lsquo;Clitarchus (c. 300 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>) est auctor.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+ix. 5, 21, &lsquo;Ptolemaeum (c. 300 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>), qui postea regnavit,
+huic pugnae adfuisse auctor est Clitarchus et Timagenes
+(c. 55 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>). Sed ipse ... afuisse se missum in expeditionem
+memoriae tradidit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The rhetorical tone of the work is seen in the speeches
+and letters. For the latter cf. iv. 1, 10-74. Curtius has
+little technical knowledge of war or politics. Thus Alexander&rsquo;s
+assumption of oriental pomp to conciliate the
+Asiatics is looked on as <span class="greek">ὕβρις</span>. Cf. iii. 12, 18. Like Livy,
+he attempts to depreciate Alexander&rsquo;s abilities by unduly
+accentuating his good fortune.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p258">
+Cf. viii. 3, 1, &lsquo;Sed hanc quoque expeditionem, ut pleraque
+alia, fortuna indulgendo ei numquam fatigata pro absente
+transegit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h3>COLUMELLA.</h3>
+
+<p>
+L. Iunius Moderatus Columella was a native of Gades:
+x. 185, &lsquo;mea [lactuca] quam generant Tartessi littore
+Gades.&rsquo; On an inscription he is styled &lsquo;trib. mil. leg. vi.
+ferratae&rsquo; (<i>C.I.L.</i> ix. 325), and it was probably in the course
+of his military service that he visited Cilicia and Syria:
+ii. 10, 18, &lsquo;hoc semen Ciliciae Syriaeque regionibus ipse
+vidi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His uncle, M. Columella, was a leading man in the
+province of Baetica (v. 5, 15); and he himself possessed land
+in Italy: iii. 9, 2, &lsquo;cum et in Ardeatino agro, quem multis
+temporibus ipsi ante possedimus, et in Carseolano itemque
+in Albano generis Aminei vites huius modi notae habuerimus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He was a contemporary of the younger Seneca, who is
+spoken of as alive (iii. 3, 3).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His chief work is <i>De Re Rustica</i> in twelve Books, dedicated
+to P. Silvinus&mdash;a practical treatise on husbandry for
+&lsquo;negotiosi agricolae&rsquo; (ix. 2, 5). Book x., on gardening,
+is in hexameter verse, and was written at the suggestion
+of Silvinus and another friend, to fill the gap which Virgil
+had left in the Georgics (iv. 147-8); cf. the preface, &lsquo;Cultus
+hortorum ... sicut institueram, prosa oratione prioribus
+subnecteretur exordiis, nisi propositum expugnasset frequens
+postulatio tua, quae pervicit, ut poeticis numeris explerem
+Georgici carminis omissas partes, quas tamen et ipse
+Vergilius significaverat, posteris se memorandas relinquere.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p259">
+The last two Books were added as an afterthought;
+xi. 1, 2, &lsquo;numerum quem iam quasi consummaveram
+voluminum excessi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Columella wrote before <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'B.C.'" id="corr2">
+<span class="bcad">A.D.</span></ins> 65 (see above); later than
+Celsus, but earlier than the elder Pliny.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There is also extant a book <i>De Arboribus</i>, which formed
+Book ii. of an earlier treatise on agriculture: cf. i. 1, &lsquo;Quoniam
+de cultu agrorum abunde primo volumine praecepisse
+videmur, non intempestiva erit arborum virgultorumque
+cura.&rsquo; It covers the same ground as <i>De R.R.</i> iii.-v.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Columella also wrote &lsquo;adversus astrologos&rsquo; (xi. 1, 31),
+and projected a treatise on the religious rites connected
+with agriculture (ii. 22, 5, &lsquo;lustrationum ceterorumque sacrificiorum,
+quae pro frugibus fiunt, morem priscis
+usurpatum&rsquo;).
+</p>
+
+<h3>POMPONIUS MELA.</h3>
+
+<p>
+The geographer Pomponius Mela was a native of Tingentera in Spain (ii.
+96). His date can be inferred from iii. 49; the &lsquo;principum maximus&rsquo;
+mentioned there as triumphing over Britain might be either
+<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'Claudius'" id="corr3">
+Caligula
+</ins>
+(in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 40) or
+<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'Caligula'" id="corr4">
+Claudius
+</ins>
+(in 44); but the earlier date is favoured by Mela&rsquo;s division of Africa
+according to the system abolished by
+<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'Caligula'" id="corr5">
+Claudius
+</ins>
+in 42 (i. 25-30). The title of his work is <i>De Chorographia</i>, in
+three Books: the dryness of its details (i. 1, &lsquo;opus impeditum et
+facundiae minime capax&rsquo;) is relieved by word-painting, <i>e.g.</i> the
+description of Britain, iii. 49. The only authors to whom he
+acknowledges obligations are Nepos (iii. 45) and Hanno (iii. 90).
+</p>
+
+<h3 id="p260">PERSIUS.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+We possess a very full account of the life of Persius,
+which, according to the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, is taken from Probus&rsquo; commentary
+on the poet, and may therefore be looked upon
+as trustworthy. According to Probus (from whom are
+taken the quotations throughout), he lived from 34 to
+62 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>: &lsquo;Aulus Persius Flaccus natus est pridie Non.
+Decembr. Fabio Persico L. Vitellio coss., decessit viii.
+Kal. Decembr. Rubrio Mario Asinio Gallo coss.&rsquo; These
+dates are confirmed by Jerome.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He was born at Volaterrae in Etruria, and was the son of
+a Roman knight who died when Persius was quite young:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Natus in Etruria Volaterris, eques Romanus, sanguine
+et affinitate primi ordinis viris coniunctus. Pater eum
+Flaccus pupillum reliquit moriens annorum fere sex.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Fulvia Sisennia (his mother) nupsit postea Fuscio
+equiti Romano.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After the completion of his early education (for which
+see <i>Sat.</i> 3, 44-51) he studied at Rome, where he came
+under the influence of the Stoic Annaeus Cornutus:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Studuit Flaccus usque ad annum xii. aetatis suae
+Volaterris, inde Romae apud grammaticum Remmium
+Palaemonem et apud rhetorem Verginium Flavum. Cum
+esset annorum xvi., amicitia coepit uti Annaei Cornuti, ita
+ut nusquam ab eo discederet; inductus aliquatenus in
+philosophiam est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <i>Sat.</i> 5, 21-24 and 30-51, he speaks in the highest
+terms of Cornutus as his guide in life and close friend:
+cf. esp. ll. 36-7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;teneros tu suspicis annos,<br />
+Socratico, Cornute, sinu.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p261">
+Among his other friends were Caesius Bassus (to whom
+<i>Sat.</i> 6 is addressed), Lucan, Seneca, and his own relative,
+Paetus Thrasea:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Cognovit per Cornutum etiam Annaeum Lucanum,
+aequaevum auditorem Cornuti. Lucanus adeo mirabatur
+scripta Flacci ut vix retineret se recitante eo cum clamore
+quin illa esse vera poemata diceret, sua ipse ludos faceret.
+Sero cognovit et Senecam, sed non ut caperetur eius
+ingenio ... Idem decem fere annis summe dilectus a Paeto
+Thrasea est, ita ut peregrinaretur quoque cum eo aliquando,
+cognatam eius Arriam uxorem habente.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Persius was a man of considerable means, as is shown
+by his will and his landed property:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Reliquit circa HS vicies matri et sorori; scriptis
+tamen ad matrem codicillis Cornuto rogavit ut daret sestertia
+ut quidam centum, ut alii volunt ..., et argenti facti
+pondo viginti, et libros circa septingentos sive bibliothecam
+suam omnem. Verum a Cornuto sublatis libris, pecuniam
+sororibus, quas heredes frater fecerat, reliquit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Decessit ad octavum miliarium via Appia in praediis
+suis ... vitio stomachi anno aetatis xxviii.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His character was lofty and disinterested:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Fuit morum lenissimorum, verecundiae virginalis, formae
+pulchrae, pietatis erga matrem et sororem et amitam exemplo
+sufficientis. Fuit frugi, pudicus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+1. His early works, which Cornutus caused to be
+destroyed at his death, were:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>a</i>) A praetexta, called <i>Vescia</i> (?).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>b</i>) One Book of <span class="greek">ὁδοιπορικά</span>, no doubt referring to his
+travels with Thrasea.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p262">
+(<i>c</i>) Some verses on Arria, the wife of Paetus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Scripserat in pueritia Flaccus etiam praetextam Vesciam,
+et <span class="greek">ὁδοιπορικῶν</span> librum unum, et paucos in socrum Thraseae
+in Arriam matrem versus ... Omnia ea auctor fuit
+Cornutus matri eius ut aboleret.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>Satires.</i> There are six of these (in hexameters), with
+a prologue (in scazons). Persius wrote slowly, and the
+Book was left unfinished:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Et raro et tarde scripsit. Hunc ipsum librum imperfectum
+reliquit. Versus aliqui dempti sunt ultimo libro,
+ut quasi finitus esset. Leviter retractavit Cornutus, et
+Caesio Basso petenti, ut ipsi cederet, tradidit edendum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The prologue, and the first satire (on literary criticism)&mdash;the only real satire he wrote&mdash;are said to be imitated
+from Lucilius. The other five are largely Stoic dissertations
+in verse, and show throughout the influence of Cornutus
+and Persius&rsquo; other Stoic friends. Probus says he attacked
+Nero&rsquo;s poetry in <i>Sat.</i> 1.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Lecto Lucilii libro x. vehementer satiras componere
+instituit, cuius libri principium imitatus est ... cum tanta
+recentium poetarum et oratorum insectatione, ut etiam
+Neronem ... culpaverit, cuius versus in Neronem cum ita
+se haberet:
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Auriculas asini Mida rex habet,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+in eum modum a Cornuto, ipso iam tum mortuo, est
+emendatus:
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Auriculas asini quis non habet?&rsquo; [1, 121]
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+ne hoc Nero in se dictum arbitraretur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Sat.</i> 1, 99-102 is said to be a travesty of Nero&rsquo;s poetry.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Very few passages, however, are quoted by the Scholiasts
+as modelled on Lucilius.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p263">
+Persius refers to Lucilius and Horace in 1, 114-8:
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Secuit Lucilius urbem,<br />
+te, Lupe, te, Muci, et genuinum fregit in illis;<br />
+omne vafer vitium ridenti Flaccus amico<br />
+tangit, et admissus circum praecordia ludit,<br />
+callidus excusso populum suspendere naso.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+His obligations to Horace are paramount, imitations&mdash;often unintentional burlesques&mdash;occurring everywhere. Examples
+are: 1, 42,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;cedro digna locutus,<br />
+linquere nec scombros metuentia carmina nec tus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+from Hor. <i>A.P.</i> 331,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;carmina ... linenda cedro&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+and Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 269,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Deferar in vicum vendentem tus et odores<br />
+et piper et quidquid chartis amicitur
+    <ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: quote mark added" id="corrp263">ineptis.&rsquo;</ins>
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Again, 5, 103,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;exclamet Melicerta perisse<br />
+frontem de rebus&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+from Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 80,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;clament periise pudorem<br />
+cuncti paene patres.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+He even borrows Horace&rsquo;s names: Pedius (1, 85), Natta
+(3, 31), Nerius (2, 14), Craterus (3, 65), Bestius (6, 37).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The statement of Joannes Lydus (i. 41) that Persius
+imitated the mimic writer, Sophron, has little to support it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Probus says the work became immediately popular:
+&lsquo;Editum librum continuo mirari homines et diripere
+coeperunt.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p264">
+Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 94, &lsquo;multum et verae gloriae quamvis
+uno libro Persius meruit&rsquo;; Mart. iv. 29, 7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Saepius in libro memoratur Persius uno<br />
+quam levis in tota Marsus Amazonide.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<h3>LUCAN.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+Besides references to Lucan in other writers, especially
+Statius, Martial, and Tacitus, we have three biographies of
+him: (1) a short and defective life, probably by Suetonius,
+and showing his well-known hatred of the Annaei; (2) one
+by Vacca, a commentator on Lucan, who lived probably
+in the sixth century, complete and favourable; (3) one in
+Codex Vossianus ii. The last two are in part derived
+from the first.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+M. Annaeus Lucanus was born at Corduba in Hispania
+Baetica, and was the son of M. Annaeus Mela, a Roman
+knight, and nephew of M. Annaeus Novatus (the Gallio
+of Acts 18, 12-17) and L. Annaeus Seneca the philosopher.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Vacca, <i>vit. Luc.</i>, &lsquo;M. Annaeus Lucanus patrem habuit
+M. Annaeum Melam ex provincia Baetica Hispaniae interioris
+Cordubensem equitem Romanum, illustrem inter suos,
+notum Romae et propter Senecam fratrem, clarum per
+omnes virtutes virum, et propter studium vitae quietioris ...
+Matrem habuit et regionis eiusdem et urbis Aciliam
+nomine, Acilii Lucani filiam ... cuius cognomen huic
+inditum apparet.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xvi. 17, &lsquo;Mela, quibus Gallio et Seneca,
+parentibus natus ... Idem Annaeum Lucanum genuerat,
+grande adiumentum claritudinis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p265">
+Lucan was born Nov. 3, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 39, and was removed to
+Rome when eight months old.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Vacca, <i>ibid.</i>, &lsquo;Natus est iii. Non. Novembr. C. Caesare
+Germanico ii. L. Apronio Caesiano coss. Octavum mensem
+agens Romam translatus est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He had a successful school and college career. One of
+his teachers was Cornutus, through whom he knew Persius
+(see <a href="#p261">p. 261</a>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Vacca, <i>ibid.</i>, &lsquo;A praeceptoribus tunc eminentissimis est
+eruditus eosque intra breve temporis spatium ingenio
+adaequavit ... Declamavit et graece et latine cum magna
+admiratione audientium.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His first literary success was the <i>laudes Neronis</i> in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>
+60; this led to his political advancement.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>vit. Luc.</i>, &lsquo;Prima ingenii experimenta in Neronis
+laudibus dedit quinquennali certamine.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Vacca, <i>ibid.</i>, &lsquo;Ob quod puerili mutato in senatorium
+cultum et in notitiam Caesaris Neronis facile pervenit et
+honore vixdum aetati debito dignus iudicatus est. Gessit
+autem quaesturam, in qua cum collegis more tunc usitato
+munus gladiatorium edidit secundo populi favore; sacerdotium
+etiam accepit auguratus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Similarly Suetonius, who also tells us that Lucan had
+been in Athens.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>ibid.</i>, &lsquo;Revocatus Athenis a Nerone cohortique
+amicorum additus atque etiam quaestura honoratus, non
+tamen permansit in gratia.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The reason of the strained relations between Lucan and
+the emperor was, according to Suetonius, that Lucan had
+behaved rudely when reciting in public. Vacca says the
+reason lay in the jealousy felt by Nero, who forbade Lucan
+to write poetry or to plead causes.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p266">
+Vacca, <i>ibid.</i>, &lsquo;Quippe et certamine pentaeterico acto in
+Pompei theatro laudibus recitatis in Neronem fuerat coronatus
+et ex tempore Orphea scriptum in experimentum
+adversum conplures ediderat poetas et tres libros, quales
+videmus. Quare inimicum sibi fecerat imperatorem. Quo
+ambitiosa vanitate, non hominum tantum, sed et artium
+sibi principatum vindicante interdictum est ei poetica,
+interdictum est etiam causarum actionibus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xv. 49, &lsquo;Famam carminum eius premebat
+Nero prohibueratque ostentare, vanus adsimulatione.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Lucan replied by a poem satirizing Nero and his court.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>ibid.</i>, &lsquo;Sed et famoso carmine cum ipsum tum
+potentissimos amicorum gravissime proscidit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Lucan joined the conspiracy of Piso which was started
+<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 62, but was discovered, and compelled to commit
+suicide, 30th April, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 65.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>ibid.</i>, &lsquo;Paene signifer Pisonianae coniurationis
+extitit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Vacca, <i>ibid.</i>, &lsquo;A coniuratis in caedem Neronis socius
+adsumptus est, sed parum fauste. Deceptus est a Pisone ...
+Sua sponte coactus vita excedere venas sibi praecidit
+periitque pridie Kal. Maias Attico Vestino et Nerva Siliano
+coss., xxvi. aetatis annum agens.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xv. 70, &lsquo;Exin Annaei Lucani caedem imperat.
+Is, profluente sanguine, ubi frigescere pedes manusque et
+paulatim ab extremis cedere spiritum fervido adhuc et
+compote mentis pectore intellegit, recordatus carmen a se
+compositum, quo volneratum militem per eius modi mortis
+imaginem obisse tradiderat, versus ipsos rettulit, eaque illi
+suprema vox fuit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Suetonius (corroborated by Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xv. 56) says that
+Lucan named his mother as a fellow-conspirator.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p267">
+&lsquo;Verum detecta coniuratione nequaquam parem animi
+constantiam praestitit. Facile enim confessus et ad humillimas
+devolutus preces matrem quoque innoxiam inter
+socios nominavit, sperans impietatem sibi apud parricidam
+principem profuturam.... Epulatus largiter brachia ad
+secandas venas praebuit medico.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Lucan married Polla Argentaria. Statius and Martial
+were her friends, and seem to have kept up an observance
+of Lucan&rsquo;s birthday.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. especially Statius, <i>Silvae</i>, ii. 7, on which the author,
+in his preface to the book, says, &lsquo;Cludit volumen genethliacon
+Lucani, quod Polla Argentaria, clarissima uxorum,
+cum hunc diem forte consecraremus, imputari sibi
+voluit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Martial vii. 21, 22, and 23 are written on the subject of
+Lucan&rsquo;s birthday.
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+1. The only extant work of Lucan is <i>De Bello Civili.</i>
+This is the title in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, and in Petron. 118. The
+usual title comes from ix. 985, &lsquo;Pharsalia nostra vivet,&rsquo;
+words which come after a list of places in Greece and Asia
+immortalized by the poets, and which mean &lsquo;My story of
+Pharsalus shall live.&rsquo; There is no evidence that Lucan
+gave the poem this title.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>Lost works.</i> Vacca mentions the following:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>a</i>) In verse: Orpheus; Iliacon; Saturnalia; Catachthonion;
+Silvarum x.; tragoedia Medea (imperfecta):
+Salticae Fabulae, xiv.; epigrammata.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>b</i>) In prose: Oratio in Octavium Sagittam et pro eo;
+de incendio urbis; epistulae ex Campania.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Suetonius also mentions &lsquo;Neronis laudes; famosum
+carmen in Neronem.&rsquo; Stat. <i>Silv.</i> ii. 7, 62, mentions another
+work&mdash;&lsquo;allocutio ad Pollam&rsquo; (his wife).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p268">
+Lucan&rsquo;s works became immediately popular.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sueton. <i>ibid.</i>, &lsquo;Poemata eius etiam praelegi memini,
+confici vero ac proponi, non tantum operose et diligenter,
+sed et inepte quoque.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mart. xiv. 194,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Sunt quidam qui me dicunt non esse poetam:<br />
+sed qui me vendit bibliopola putat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The epic poem <i>De Bello Civili</i> in ten Books (the last
+incomplete) carries the story of the Civil War down to the
+point where Caesar is besieged in Alexandria. Vacca informs
+us that Lucan did not live to correct the last seven
+Books.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ediderat ... tres libros quales videmus ... Reliqui vii.
+belli civilis libri locum calumniantibus tamquam mendosi
+non darent, qui tametsi sub vero crimine non egent patrocinio:
+in isdem dici, quod in Ovidii libris praescribitur,
+potest: &ldquo;emendaturus, si licuisset, erat.&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Lucan&rsquo;s political views.</i>&mdash;The first three Books were
+published when Lucan was still on good terms with Nero
+(cf. the gross flattery in i. 33-66), but practically the same
+view of the empire is taken throughout the poem; only Lucan
+expresses his views with greater vigour in the last seven
+Books; and, while in Books i.-iii. the question is one
+between Caesar and Pompey, afterwards it is one between
+Caesar and liberty. Even in Books i.-iii. Caesar is the
+villain of the piece; Pompey embodies all that is good;
+Cato and Brutus are highly spoken of; the former stands as
+the ideal Stoic. The Senate, except in Book v. <i>ad init.</i>,
+appears in a rather unfavourable light, and so does the
+plebs. Lucan did not want the re-establishment of the
+republican oligarchy, but acquiesced in the empire as being
+ordained by fate. This is borne out by what we know of
+the Pisonian conspiracy, the object of which was not to
+re-establish the republic, but to put some leading man like
+Seneca on the throne. A few quotations will exemplify
+these points:
+</p>
+
+<p id="p269">
+(1) The empire; iv. 691,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Libyamque auferre tyranno<br />
+dum regnum te, Roma, facit&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+vii. 432,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quod fugiens civile nefas redituraque nunquam<br />
+libertas ultra Tigrim Rhenumque recessit&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+vii. 442,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Felices Arabes Medique eoaque tellus,<br />
+quam sub perpetuis tenuerunt fata tyrannis.<br />
+Ex populis qui regna ferunt, sors ultima nostra est,<br />
+quos servire pudet.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(2) Pompeius; ii. 732-6,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Non quia te superi patrio privare sepulchro<br />
+maluerint, Phariae busto damnantur harenae:<br />
+parcitur Hesperiae; procul hoc et in orbe remoto<br />
+abscondat fortuna nefas, Romanaque tellus<br />
+inmaculata sui servetur sanguine Magni.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. ix. 601-4 (where apotheosis is assigned him).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(3) Cato (the hero of Book ix.) and Brutus; ii. 234,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;At non magnanimi percussit pectora Bruti<br />
+terror&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+ix. 554,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nam cui crediderim superos arcana daturos<br />
+dicturosque magis quam sancto vera Catoni?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. ix. 186-9.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p270">
+(4) Caesar; ii. 439,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Caesar in arma furens nullas nisi sanguine fuso<br />
+gaudet habere vias&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+v. 242,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;perdere successus scelerum&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+vii. 593,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;nondum attigit arcem<br />
+iuris et humanum columen, quo cuncta premuntur,<br />
+egressus meruit fatis tam nobile letum.<br />
+Vivat et, ut Bruti procumbat victima, regnet.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Caesar&rsquo;s acts are sometimes unfairly represented, as in
+vii. 798 <i>sqq.</i>, ix. 1035 <i>sqq.</i> (on viewing Pompeius&rsquo; corpse);
+ll. 1038-9,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;lacrimas non sponte cadentis<br />
+effudit gemitusque expressit pectore laeto.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Lucan&rsquo;s philosophical and religious views.</i>&mdash;His Stoicism
+comes out strongly in the poem, ix. 566-84 (speech of Cato),
+especially 578-80,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Estque dei sedes, nisi terra et pontus et aër<br />
+et caelum et virtus? Superos quid quaerimus ultra?<br />
+Iuppiter est, quodcumque vides, quodcumque moveris?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+vii. 814,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Communis mundo superest rogus ossibus astra<br />
+mixturus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Note especially the very frequent references to fate; i. 263-4,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;cunctasque pudoris<br />
+rumpunt fata moras.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The gods are not introduced as chief agents; cf. the
+censure of Petronius quoted below. Lucan prides himself
+on despising the gods, and substitutes for them his favourite
+divinity, Fortuna; i. 128,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p271">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Victrix causa deis placuit, sed victa Catoni&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+vii. 445,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Sunt nobis nulla profecto<br />
+numina; cum caeco rapiantur saecula casu,<br />
+mentimur regnare Iovem.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Rhetorical treatment</i> is seen in (1) the vast amount of
+hyperbole employed; cf. the account of the siege of
+Massilia, iii. 538-762; (2) the geographical and mythological
+learning introduced. This is sometimes inaccurate;
+the best known instance is his confusion of Pharsalus and
+Philippi; cf. i. 1 and 688.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Lucan&rsquo;s models.</i>&mdash;(1) For diction, chiefly Virgil.<a href="#fn077" id="ref077">[77]</a> Horace
+and Ovid are also imitated.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(2) For history Lucan is supposed to have used Livy
+mostly. How far he used other authorities is unknown.
+His history is sometimes inexact. In ii. 478 <i>sqq.</i> the
+character of L. Domitius Ahenobarbus is falsely portrayed.
+So the journey of Cato to the shrine of Hammon, ix. 511 <i>sqq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(3) Seneca is one of his authorities for science and philosophy.
+Thus in describing the Nile, x. 194-331, Lucan
+has used Seneca, <i>Nat. Quaest.</i> iv. 1-2. The biographer of
+the <i>Codex Vossianus</i> ii. attributes (probably wrongly) the
+first seven verses of Book i. to Seneca.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Seneca, qui fuit avonculus eius, quia ex abrupto incohabat,
+hos vii. versus addidit: &ldquo;Bella per Emathios&rdquo; usque &ldquo;et
+pila minantia pilis.&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p272">
+<i>Criticisms of Lucan.</i>&mdash;Petronius, in introducing his parody
+of Lucan, says, § 118, &lsquo;Ecce belli civilis ingens opus quisquis
+attigerit, nisi plenus litteris, sub onere labetur. Non
+enim res gestae versibus comprehendendae sunt, quod longe
+melius historici faciunt, sed per ambages deorumque ministeria
+et fabulosum sententiarum tormentum praecipitandus
+est liber spiritus.&rsquo; See <a href="#p275">p. 275</a>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Quint. x. 1, 90, &lsquo;Lucanus ardens et concitatus et sententiis
+clarissimus et, ut dicam quod sentio, magis oratoribus quam
+poetis imitandus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h3>PETRONIUS.</h3>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Satirae</i> of Petronius are attributed in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> to
+Petronius Arbiter. It is practically certain that the author
+was C. Petronius, once proconsul of Bithynia and afterwards
+consul, who was long a member of Nero&rsquo;s inner
+circle, and who, in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 66, when accused by Tigellinus,
+anticipated execution by suicide.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xvi. 18, &lsquo;Proconsul Bithyniae, et mox consul,
+vigentem se ac parem negotiis ostendit. Dein revolutus
+ad vitia, seu vitiorum imitatione, inter paucos familiarium
+Neroni adsumptus est, elegantiae arbiter, dum nihil
+amoenum et molle adfluentia putat, nisi quod ei Petronius
+adprobavisset. Unde invidia Tigellini ... (Ch. 19) Forte ...
+Campaniam petiverat Caesar, et Cumas usque progressus
+Petronius illic attinebatur. Nec tulit ultra timoris aut spei
+moras. Neque tamen praeceps vitam expulit, sed incisas
+venas, ut libitum, obligatas aperire rursum, et adloqui
+amicos, non per seria aut quibus gloriam constantiae
+peteret ... Flagitia principis sub nominibus exoletorum
+feminarumque et novitatem cuiusque stupri perscripsit,
+atque obsignata misit Neroni.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p273">
+The document mentioned above as sent to Nero has
+nothing to do with the extant <i>Satirae</i>. That C. Petronius
+is the author of the work is rendered even more certain
+from the fact that it was obviously written in Nero&rsquo;s time by
+a man of high culture and knowledge of the world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The novel contains an account of the adventures of a
+certain Encolpius, as told by himself. Encolpius comes in
+contact with Priapus in Massilia, Cumae, and Croton; and
+probably the wrath of Priapus (a parody of the wrath of
+Poseidon in the Odyssey) is the leading motive that binds
+the disjointed parts. Cf. ch. 139,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Me quoque per terras, per cani Nereos aequor<br />
+Hellespontiaci sequitur gravis ira Priapi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The work, the extant parts of which are from Books xv.
+and xvi., is in form a Satira Menippea,<a href="#fn078" id="ref078">[78]</a> alternately prose
+and verse. The longer episodes, as the supper of Trimalchio
+and the story of the matron of Ephesus, are exclusively
+prose. In the <i>Cena Trimalchionis</i>, where Encolpius and his
+company are entertained by a rich freedman, Petronius has
+given us a correct account of provincial life in South Italy.
+Mommsen (<i>Hermes</i>, xiii. 106) has shown that Cumae was
+the town where Trimalchio lived. It is a &lsquo;Graeca urbs&rsquo;
+(ch. 81), and a Roman colony (ch. 44, etc.), so that it
+cannot be Naples. The chief magistrates are called
+<i>praetores</i> (ch. 65), which suits Cumae alone of the towns
+of this district. The only objection to Cumae being the
+place is the passage in ch. 48, where an event at Cumae
+is given as something wonderful and unusual:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nam Sibyllam quidem Cumis ego ipse oculis meis vidi
+in ampulla pendere, et cum illi pueri dicerent: <span class="greek">Σίβυλλα,
+τί θέλεις;</span> respondebat illa: <span class="greek">ἀποθανεῖν θέλω</span>.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p274">
+This, however, may simply be given for comic effect.
+Friedländer thinks <i>Cumis</i> is a wrong reading. The date
+of Encolpius&rsquo; adventures cannot be under Tiberius, for the
+emperor is called &lsquo;pater patriae&rsquo; (ch. 60), a title which
+Tiberius refused. Mommsen thinks the dramatic date is
+under Augustus; Friedländer,<a href="#fn079" id="ref079">[79]</a> towards the end of Claudius&rsquo;
+or the beginning of Nero&rsquo;s reign. The cognomen of Trimalchio,
+Maecenatianus (ch. 71), means that he was a freedman
+of the well-known Maecenas. Trimalchio, therefore, came
+to Rome as a boy (ch. 29; 75) before Maecenas&rsquo; death
+(<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 8), and was probably born about <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 18. He is
+represented as &lsquo;senex&rsquo; (ch. 27), <i>i.e.</i> at least sixty, but may
+have been over seventy. <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 57 is probably the later limit
+of date. Mommsen thinks that the words (ch. 57), &lsquo;puer
+capillatus in hanc coloniam veni: adhuc basilica non erat
+facta,&rsquo; mean that when Trimalchio came to Cumae it was
+not a Roman colony. Now, Cumae became a colony
+between 43 and 27 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>, and, on this supposition, the
+supper of Trimalchio would have to be placed between
+<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 7 and <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 23, as it is about fifty years since Trimalchio
+came to Cumae. Friedländer, however, thinks that the
+basilica would not have been put up immediately the town
+became a colony.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The language of the narrative is that of the educated
+classes of the time, and is in close agreement with the style
+of Seneca the younger. The diction of Trimalchio and his
+fellow-freedman is the South Italian popular speech of the
+time, filled with grammatical mistakes and provincialisms,
+and rich in proverbial expressions. The longest poems in
+the work are: (1) <i>Troiae halosis</i> (ch. 89), 65 senarii,
+supposed to be a parody of Nero&rsquo;s poem of the same name;
+(2) <i>De bello civili</i> (ch. 119-124), 295 hexameters, in which
+Lucan&rsquo;s style is imitated and sometimes parodied. Cf.
+ll. 26-7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p275">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Et laxi crines et tot nova nomina vestis,<br />
+quaeque virum quaerunt,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+with Lucan, i. 164-5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Cultus gestare decoros<br />
+vix nuribus rapuere mares&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+and ll. 51-2,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Praeterea gemino deprensam gurgite plebem<br />
+faenoris illuvies ususque exederat aeris,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+with Lucan, i. 181,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Hinc usura vorax, avidumque in tempora faenus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<h3>CALPURNIUS SICULUS.</h3>
+
+<p>
+Eleven eclogues used to be attributed to T. Calpurnius
+Siculus, but only the first seven are his work, the last four
+being written by M. Aurelius Olympius Nemesianus in the
+second half of the 3rd century <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> A <span class="bcad">MS.</span> now lost gave
+before <i>Ecl.</i> 1, &lsquo;Titi Calphurnii Siculi bucolicum carmen ...
+incipit&rsquo;; and before <i>Ecl.</i> 8, &lsquo;Aurelii Nemesiani poetae
+Carthaginiensis ecloga prima incipit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Some information about Calpurnius&rsquo; life is got from his
+works. In 4, 17-8, he (as Corydon) mentions a brother;
+in 4, 155-6, he speaks of his poverty; and in 4, 29 <i>sqq.</i>, of
+Meliboeus as having come to his assistance when about to
+leave for Spain; cf. <i>Ecl.</i> 4, 36-42,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p276">
+<p>
+Ecce nihil querulum per te, Meliboee, sonamus;<br />
+per te secura saturi recubamus in umbra,<br />
+et fruimur silvis Amaryllidos, ultima nuper<br />
+litora terrarum, nisi tu, Meliboee, fuisses,<br />
+ultima visuri, trucibusque obnoxia Mauris
+pascua Geryonis.
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The old theory was that Calpurnius lived in the time of
+Carus and his sons (in the second half of the 3rd century
+<span class="bcad">A.D.</span>), but the facts fit in best with the view that he lived at
+the beginning of Nero&rsquo;s reign. (1) Meliboeus in <i>Ecl.</i> 4
+probably stands for Seneca (others suppose Calpurnius
+Piso to be meant); 4, 53-7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+Nam tibi non tantum venturos discere nimbos<br />
+agricolis qualemque ferat sol aureus ortum,<br />
+attribuere dei, sed dulcia carmina saepe<br />
+concinis.
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+These lines agree with the fact of Seneca&rsquo;s being the author
+of <i>Naturales Quaestiones</i> and of tragedies. (2) <i>Ecl.</i> i. 77-83
+refers to the comet which appeared at the beginning of
+Nero&rsquo;s reign. (3) References to Nero&rsquo;s youth and beauty,
+poetical gifts, the games he gave, and the new era of peace
+he introduced; 1, 42-5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+Aurea secura cum pace renascitur aetas,<br />
+et redit ad terras tandem squalore situque<br />
+alma Themis posito, iuvenemque beata secuntur<br />
+saecula, maternis causam qui vicit in ulnis
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+7, 6,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+quae patula iuvenis deus edit harena.
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. also 1, 84-8; 4, 84-9; 7, 83-4. <i>Ecl.</i> 7 used to be taken
+as referring to the Colosseum, which was not commenced
+till about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 77; but the games may be those mentioned
+in Sueton. <i>Nero</i>, 11, and the wooden amphitheatre in 7,
+23-4, may be that mentioned by Sueton. <i>Nero</i>, 12, and Tac.
+<i>Ann.</i> xiii. 31.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p277">
+The difference of authorship of <i>Ecl.</i> 1-7 and of <i>Ecl.</i> 8-11
+is shown by the following: (1) Final <i>ŏ</i>
+shows classical usage
+in 1-7, but in 8-11 we have <i>expectŏ</i> (9, 26), <i>coniungŏ</i> (10, 14),
+<i>ambŏ</i> (9, 17), and the like; (2) 1-7 show only eight elisions,
+7-11 show thirty-nine; (3) no ending like <i>montivagus Pan</i>
+(10, 17) is found in 1-7; (4) <i>fateor</i> and <i>memini</i> used parenthetically
+are common in 1-7, and not found in 8-11; (5)
+there are no allusions to the emperor in 8-11; (6) <i>Ecl.</i> 9
+shows imitations of <i>Ecl.</i> 2 and 3; (7) 8-11 agree in many
+points with Nemesianus&rsquo; <i>Cynegetica</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Eclogues</i> are modelled chiefly on Virgil and Theocritus,
+<i>e.g.</i> <i>Ecl.</i> 3 on Verg. <i>Ecl.</i> 7 and Theocr. 3, 14,
+and 23.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The poem <i>de laude Pisonis</i> is now generally attributed to
+Calpurnius Siculus. One point of similarity with Calpurnius&rsquo;
+other poems is the rareness of elision, there being only two
+instances (ll. 24, 259). The description of Piso&rsquo;s liberality
+and eloquence (ll. 32, 88, 97 <i>sqq.</i>) and of his skill in
+draughts (ll. 178-96) corresponds with the information
+given by Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xv. 48 and the Schol. on Iuv. 5, 109,
+about Calpurnius Piso, who flourished under Claudius.
+</p>
+
+<h3>AETNA.</h3>
+
+<p>
+This poem, in 645 hexameter lines, is attributed to
+Virgil in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>, but is probably by Lucilius Iunior,
+to whom Seneca addresses his <i>Epistulae Morales</i>, <i>De
+Providentia</i>, and <i>Quaestiones Naturales</i>. Lucilius was
+younger than Seneca (Sen. <i>Ep.</i> 26, 7, &lsquo;iuvenior es&rsquo;), and
+was born at Naples or Pompeii.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p278">
+Sen. <i>Ep.</i> 49, 1, &lsquo;Ecce Campania et maxime Neapolis
+ad Pompeiorum tuorum conspectum incredibile est quam
+recens desiderium tui fecerint.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Lucilius had held procuratorial offices in Alpes Graiae
+et Poeninae, Epirus, Creta et Cyrene, and Sicily.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ibid.</i> 44, 2, &lsquo;Eques Romanus es et ad hunc ordinem
+tua te perduxit industria.&rsquo; <i>Ibid.</i> 31, 9, &lsquo;Quo modo,
+inquis, isto pervenitur? Non per Poeninum Graiumve
+montem, nec per deserta Candaviae, nec Syrtes tibi nec
+Scylla aut Charybdis adeundae sunt, quae tamen omnia
+transisti procuratiunculae pretio.&rsquo;<a href="#fn080" id="ref080">[80]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sen. <i>N.Q.</i> iv. praef. 1, &lsquo;Delectat te, Lucili, Sicilia et
+officium procurationis otiosae.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For his life cf. also the words put into his mouth by
+Sen. <i>N.Q.</i> iv. praef. 15-17, which show his loyalty to his
+friends, &lsquo;Non mihi in amicitia Gaetulici (died <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 39) vel
+Gaius fidem eripuit, non in aliorum persona infeliciter
+amatorum Messalla et Narcissus ... propositum meum
+avertere potuerunt.... videbam apud Gaium tormenta, videbam
+ignes.&rsquo;<a href="#fn081" id="ref081">[81]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Seneca speaks of him as a pupil in philosophy in <i>Ep.</i>
+34, 2, &lsquo;Adsero te mihi: meum opus es.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A literary work of his is spoken of by Seneca, also a
+poem in which he mentions Alpheus and Arethusa:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> 46, 1, &lsquo;Librum tuum, quem mihi promiseras, accepi.
+Levis mihi visus est, cum esset nec mei nec tui corporis,
+sed qui primo adspectu aut T. Livi aut Epicuri posset
+videri.... Non tantum delectatus, sed gavisus sum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p279">
+<i>N.Q.</i> iii. 26, 6, &lsquo;Hoc et a te traditum est ut in
+poemate, Lucili carissime, et a Vergilio, qui adloquitur
+Arethusam.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A poem on Aetna is referred to in <i>Ep.</i> 79, 5-7, &lsquo;Donec
+pudor obstet, ne Aetnam describas in tuo carmine et hunc
+sollemnem omnibus poetis locum adtingas; quem quo
+minus Ovidius tractaret, nihil obstitit, quod iam Vergilius
+impleverat ... Aut ego te non novi aut Aetna tibi salivam
+movet: iam cupis grande aliquid et par prioribus scribere.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Some authorities think that Lucilius had meant to
+incorporate this description in a larger poem, but changed
+his mind, and wrote a poem on Aetna alone.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As regards the date of the poem: (1) It was written
+at a time when imitation of Ovid was common. Cf. Sen.
+<i>N.Q.</i> iv. 2, 2, &lsquo;Quare non cum poeta meo iocor et illi
+Ovidium suum impingo?&rsquo; (2) There is no mention of
+Vesuvius in the list of volcanoes in 1. 425 <i>sqq.</i> The
+poem must therefore have been written before <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 79.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The following are the arguments for Lucilius having
+been the author:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(1) The poem was written by one who knew Aetna
+and the vicinity. Now Lucilius was long procurator of
+Sicily.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(2) Military metaphors, as ll. 464-74, would fit in
+with his having been a soldier.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(3) The author speaks as if he knew the neighbourhood
+of Naples well.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(4) However, the argument that the writer shows
+Epicurean views, and that Lucilius was an Epicurean,
+has little weight. (<i>a</i>) There are Stoical doctrines in the
+poem. Cf. ll. 33-5, 68-70, on the divinity of the stars;
+ll. 173-4, which maintain that the world would come
+back to its former state; ll. 536-9, where Heraclitus&rsquo;
+doctrine of fire is recommended. (<i>b</i>) The <i>Epistulae
+Morales</i> only show that Lucilius had a leaning to
+Epicureanism, not that he was an Epicurean.
+Cf. <i>Ep.</i> 23, 9, &lsquo;Vocem tibi Epicuri tui reddere,&rsquo;
+and other playful references.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p280">
+(5) The views on natural science given in the poem
+are sometimes the same as those in Sen. <i>N.Q.</i> This
+would fix the date of the poem between 65 and 79 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>
+Cf. <i>Aetna</i>, 123,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &lsquo;Flumina quin etiam latis currentia rivis<br />
+   occasus habuere suos: aut illa vorago<br />
+   derepta in praeceps fatali condidit ore<br />
+   aut occulta fluunt tectis adoperta cavernis<br />
+   atque inopinatos referunt procul edita cursus&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>
+and Sen. <i>N.Q.</i> iii. 26, 3, &lsquo;Quaedam flumina palam in
+aliquem specum decidunt et sic ex oculis auferuntur,
+quaedam consumuntur paulatim et intercidunt. Eadem
+ex intervallo revertuntur recipiuntque et nomen et cursum.&rsquo;
+Cf. also <i>Aetna</i>, 96,
+</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Defit namque omnis hiatu,<br />
+  secta est omnis humus penitusque cavata latebris<br />
+  exiles suspensa vias agit&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+and Sen. <i>N.Q.</i> v. 14, 1, &lsquo;Non tota solido contextu terra
+in imum usque fundatur, sed multis partibus cava et
+caecis suspensa latebris.&rsquo; So the story of the Catanian
+brothers (ll. 624-45) is told by Sen. <i>De Benef.</i> iii. 37, 2-3.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Imitations of Lucretius abound. Cf. ll. 219 <i>sqq.</i>,
+</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &lsquo;Nunc quoniam in promptu est operis natura solique,<br />
+   unde ipsi venti, quae res incendia pascit,&rsquo; etc.
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p281">
+For the author&rsquo;s attacks on superstition, cf. ll. 91-3,
+</p>
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+  &lsquo;Debita carminibus libertas ista; sed omnis<br />
+   in vero mihi cura: canam quo fervida motu<br />
+   aestuet Aetna novosque rapax sibi congerat ignes.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+A version of the <i>Phaenomena</i> of Aratus is extant, the
+author of which is called in the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> &lsquo;Claudius Caesar,&rsquo;
+or &lsquo;Germanicus.&rsquo; He is generally identified with
+Germanicus, the adopted son of Tiberius (so Jerome and
+Lactantius), though in modern times the poem has been
+ascribed to Domitian, who had the title of &lsquo;Germanicus&rsquo;
+from <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 84. There are also fragments of <i>Prognostica</i>,
+which are independent of Aratus.
+</p>
+
+<h3>PLINY THE ELDER.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+There is a very brief life of Pliny by Suetonius, but most
+of our information about him is derived from his own writings
+and the letters of his nephew (Plin. <i>Ep.</i> iii. 5;
+v. 8; vi. 16; vi. 20).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+C. Plinius Secundus was born <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 23 or 24, for at the
+time of his death in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 79 he was in his fifty-sixth year
+(Plin. <i>Ep.</i> iii. 5, 7, &lsquo;decessisse anno sexto et
+quinquagesimo&rsquo;). His birthplace was Comum in Cisalpine Gaul,
+according to Sueton. <i>vit. Plin.</i> In an anonymous Life
+he is styled &lsquo;Veronensis,&rsquo; probably on account of the phrase
+in <i>N.H.</i> praef. 1, &lsquo;Catullum conterraneum meum,&rsquo; where,
+however, <i>terra</i> means Gallia, the province, not the city.</p>
+
+<p>
+Pliny was the son of an <i>eques</i>, and had a sister
+married to L. Caecilius of Novum Comum (see <a href="#p139">p. 139</a>).
+He came to Rome not later than <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 35 (<i>N.H.</i>
+xxxvii. 81, &lsquo;Servilii Noniani quem consulem vidimus&rsquo;),
+and was trained in poetry and literature, probably by
+P. Pomponius Secundus<a href="#fn082" id="ref082">[82]</a>; his instructors in rhetoric
+are not known, but he mentions as rhetoricians Remmius
+Palaemon (xiv. 49) and Arellius Fuscus (xxxiii. 152). In
+botany he learned much from Antonius Castor (xxv. 9).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p282">
+At the beginning of the reign of Claudius, Pliny was an
+eye-witness of the building operations at the harbour of
+Ostia, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 42 (ix. 14): in 44 he practised in the law
+courts. Having decided on a military career, he would
+begin, according to the regulation of Claudius (Sueton.
+<i>Claud.</i> 25), with the command of a cohort of infantry.
+He was next <i>praefectus alae</i> (Plin. <i>Ep.</i> iii. 5, 3) under
+Corbulo, who was <i>legatus</i> of Germania Inferior, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 47,
+in his campaign against the Chauci: cf. <i>N.H.</i> xvi. 2, &lsquo;Sunt
+vero in septemtrione visae nobis Chaucorum [gentes]&rsquo;;
+and in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 50 fought under Pomponius against the Chatti.
+His &lsquo;castrense contubernium&rsquo; with Titus (born <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 41)
+was probably in 55 or 56, when he was in the army of
+Pompeius Paulinus: cf. xxxiii. 143, &lsquo;Pompeium Paulinum
+XII pondo argenti habuisse apud exercitum ferocissimis
+gentibus oppositum scimus.&rsquo; Personal knowledge of Germany
+appears in several passages of the <i>N.H.</i>, e.g. xii. 98,
+&lsquo;extremo in margine imperii, qua Rhenus adluit, vidi&rsquo;;
+xxii. 8, &lsquo;quem morem etiam nunc durare apud Germanos
+scio.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pliny was present at the festivities at Lake Fucinus in
+<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 52 (xxxiii. 63). During Nero&rsquo;s reign he spent some
+time in Campania (ii. 180) and Cisalpine Gaul (xxxv. 20),
+was a spectator at the Vatican games in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 59, and saw
+the building of Nero&rsquo;s golden house after the fire of <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 64
+(xxxvi. iii).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p283">
+Under Vespasian Pliny was procurator in Italy, and in
+several of the provinces: Sueton. <i>vit.</i>, &lsquo;Procurationes
+splendidissimas et continuas summa integritate administravit.&rsquo;
+(<i>a</i>) Hispania Tarraconensis: Plin. <i>Ep.</i> iii. 5, 17,
+&lsquo;cum procuraret in Hispania&rsquo;; (<i>b</i>) Gallia Narbonensis:
+<i>N.H.</i> ii. 150, &lsquo;ego vidi in Vocontiorum agro&rsquo;; (<i>c</i>) Gallia
+Belgica: xviii. 183, &lsquo;nec recens subtrahemus exemplum in
+Treverico agro tertio ante hoc anno compertum&rsquo;; (<i>d</i>)
+Africa: vii. 36, &lsquo;ipse in Africa vidi.&rsquo; For his intimacy
+with Vespasian cf. Plin. <i>Ep.</i> iii. 5, 9, &lsquo;ante lucem ibat ad
+Vespasianum imperatorem ... inde ad delegatum sibi
+officium.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 79 Pliny was in command of the fleet at
+Misenum, when his scientific interest in the eruption of
+Vesuvius led him to approach too near the volcano, with
+the result that he was suffocated by the ashes (24th
+August). For a detailed account of his death, see Plin.
+<i>Ep.</i> vi. 16 (to Tacitus). Cf. Sueton. <i>vit.</i>, &lsquo;Periit clade
+Campaniae. Cum enim Misenensi classi praeesset, et
+flagrante Vesuvio ad explorandas propius causas liburnica
+pertendisset, neque adversantibus ventis remeare posset, vi
+pulveris ac favillae oppressus est, vel, ut quidam existimant,
+a servo suo occisus, quem aestu deficiens ut necem sibi
+maturaret oraverit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+A chronological list of Pliny&rsquo;s writings is given by his
+nephew (<i>Ep.</i> iii. 5).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p284">
+1. <i>De iaculatione equestri</i>.&mdash;&lsquo;Hunc, cum praefectus alae
+militaret, pari ingenio curaque composuit.&rsquo; This manual
+on the javelin as a cavalry weapon is mentioned by Pliny
+himself, <i>N.H.</i> viii. 162, &lsquo;Nos diximus in libro de iaculatione
+equestri condito.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>De vita Pomponii Secundi</i>, in two Books, a tribute to
+the memory of a valued friend, the tragic poet Pomponius.
+Cf. <i>N.H.</i> xiv. 56, &lsquo;referentes vitam Pomponii Secundi vatis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. <i>Bella Germaniae</i>, in twenty Books, a narrative of the
+Roman wars in Germany; begun by Pliny when serving
+in that country, the apparition of Drusus having besought
+him to rescue his name from oblivion (so Pliny the
+younger). Cf. Tac. <i>Ann.</i> i. 69, &lsquo;Tradit C. Plinius, Germanicorum
+bellorum scriptor.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. <i>Studiosus</i>, in three Books or six parts, a treatise on
+rhetoric from the very rudiments. Quintilian, though surprised
+at some of Pliny&rsquo;s views (xi. 3, 143; 148), numbers
+him among the more careful exponents of the subject (iii. 1,
+21, &lsquo;accuratius scripsit&rsquo;). The book contained models of
+good style: Gell. ix. 16, 1, &lsquo;refert plerasque sententias
+quas in declamandis controversiis lepide arguteque dictas
+putat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+5. <i>Dubius Sermo</i>, in eight Books, published <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 67,
+towards the end of Nero&rsquo;s reign, when purely technical
+subjects alone could be treated without danger to an
+author. Cf. <i>N.H.</i> praef. 28, &lsquo;libellos quos de grammatica
+edidi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+6. <i>A fine Aufidii Bassi</i>, in thirty-one Books. At what
+point Bassus&rsquo; history ended and Pliny&rsquo;s began is not known:
+but the latter certainly dealt with the closing years of Nero&rsquo;s
+reign (<i>N.H.</i> ii. 199, &lsquo;anno Neronis principis supremo, sicut
+in rebus eius exposuimus&rsquo;), as well as with the times of
+Vespasian and Titus (<i>N.H.</i> praef. 20, &lsquo;Vos omnes, patrem
+te fratremque diximus opere iusto, temporum nostrorum
+historiam orsi a fine Aufidii Bassi&rsquo;). The work was completed
+in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 77, but not published till after the author&rsquo;s
+death. His nephew says he wrote with scrupulous care:
+<i>Ep.</i> v. 8, 5, &lsquo;historias et quidem religiosissime scripsit.&rsquo;
+The book was used by Tacitus (<i>Ann.</i> xiii. 20; xv. 53;
+<i>Hist.</i> iii. 28).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p285">
+7. <i>Naturae Historiae</i>, in thirty-seven Books, is Pliny&rsquo;s
+only extant work. As he speaks of Titus as &lsquo;sexies consul,&rsquo;
+the date of its presentation to him was <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 77. Book i.
+consists of a dedicatory epistle to Titus and a table of
+contents. The body of the work is arranged as follows:
+Book ii., the universe and the elements; iii.-vi., geography
+of Europe, Asia, and Africa; vii., anthropology and human
+physiology; viii.-xi., zoology; xii.-xix., botany; xx.-xxvii.,
+the use of vegetable substances in medicine; xxviii.-xxxii.,
+the use of animal substances in medicine; xxxiii.-xxxvii.,
+mineralogy applied to medicine and the fine arts.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This work, which was meant not for continuous perusal,
+but for consultation as a book of reference, contained twenty
+thousand facts; and its preparation involved the reading
+of about two thousand volumes by one hundred authors
+(see <i>N.H.</i> praef. 17). The extracts he had made from
+these sources Pliny bequeathed to his nephew in one
+hundred and sixty volumes. He makes a point of acknowledging
+his obligations to other writers (praef. 21, &lsquo;in his
+voluminibus auctorum nomina praetexui, est enim benignum ... et
+plenum ingenui pudoris fateri per quos profeceris&rsquo;);
+cf. the lists of authorities, Roman and foreign, prefixed to
+the work. Such devotion to natural science was unusual
+in men of Pliny&rsquo;s class, and not generally appreciated; cf.
+xxii. 15, &lsquo;Plerisque ultro etiam irrisui sumus ista commentantes
+atque frivoli operis arguimur.&rsquo; As a scientific
+writer Pliny fails because he is not an original investigator,
+and because he lacks the critical faculty. For his method
+of working see Plin. <i>Ep.</i> iii. 5.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p286">
+Politically, Pliny recognizes the necessity of the empire,
+but his heroes are old Romans such as Cincinnatus and
+Cato. His Roman and Italian feeling is intense: cf. xxxvii.
+201, &lsquo;In toto orbe ... pulcherrima omnium est in rebusque
+merito principatum naturae obtinet Italia, rectrix parensque
+mundi altera.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His view of life is gloomy (<i>N.H.</i> ii. 25, &lsquo;nec quidquam
+miserius homine&rsquo;), and through the <i>Naturae Historiae</i> there
+runs a monotonous strain of condemnation of the immorality
+of his day. He is uncertain as to divine providence, but
+considers the belief in it salutary, and he accepts portents
+(ii. 92). His tendency is, in the main, Stoic; he was probably
+acquainted with Paetus Thrasea, who corresponded
+with Pomponius.
+</p>
+
+<h3>VALERIUS FLACCUS.</h3>
+
+<p>
+His full name is given in the Vatican <span class="bcad">MS.</span> as C. Valerius
+Flaccus Setinus Balbus. It is doubtful (even if the last
+two names really belong to the poet) whether <i>Setinus</i>
+means from Setia in Italy or from Setia in Spain. The
+poet&rsquo;s Latinity gives no evidence on the point. Quintilian
+is the only Roman writer who refers to him; x. 1, 90,
+&lsquo;Multum in Valerio Flacco nuper amisimus&rsquo;; which shows
+that he must have died about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 90. In the beginning
+of the first Book of the <i>Argonautica</i> (written shortly after
+<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 70), Valerius addresses Vespasian, referring to his
+exploits in Britain, and to the capture of Jerusalem by
+Titus; i. 7 <i>sqq.</i>,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p287">
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Tuque o, pelagi cui maior aperti<br />
+fama, Caledonius postquam tua carbasa vexit<br />
+oceanus Phrygios prius indignatus Iulos,<br />
+eripe me populis et habenti nubila terrae,<br />
+sancte pater, veterumque fave veneranda canenti<br />
+facta virum. Versam proles tua pandet Idumen<br />
+(namque potest), Solymo nigrantem pulvere fratrem<br />
+spargentemque faces et in omni turre furentem.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+i. 5 <i>sqq.</i> probably shows that Valerius was a quindecimvir
+sacris faciundis,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Phoebe, mone, si Cymaeae mihi conscia vatis<br />
+stat casta cortina domo, si laurea digna<br />
+fronte viret.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. the allusion in viii. 239 <i>sqq.</i> to Cybele&rsquo;s bath, which
+was under the management of the xv.viri; and to the
+rites of lustration, iii. 417 <i>sqq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There are several allusions to the eruption of Mt.
+Vesuvius in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 79, <i>e.g.</i> iv. 507.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Argonautica</i> is in eight Books, the last being incomplete, and the story breaking off shortly before the death
+of Medea&rsquo;s brother, Absyrtus. Valerius probably meant to
+write twelve Books, but it is not known how much farther
+he actually proceeded in his work. There is evidence to
+show that the last Books would have differed considerably
+from the story as given by Apollonius Rhodius; <i>e.g.</i> the
+visit to Phaeacia was probably omitted, as Jason was
+married at Peuce (Book viii.).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Apollonius is followed very closely, many passages being
+translated from him; thus iv. 236 = Apoll. ii. 38; vii.
+404 = Apoll. in. 966. Valerius, however, amplifies where
+Apollonius is brief, and vice versa. Thus Apoll. ii. 948
+<i>sqq.</i> is dismissed by Valerius v. 110 <i>sqq.</i> in a few words.
+The character painting of Valerius is superior to that of
+the original, cf. the character of Jason and of Aeetes.
+So for his artistic work; thus his portraiture of the gradual
+progress of Medea&rsquo;s love is superior to Apollonius&rsquo; description,
+and to Virgil&rsquo;s of Dido.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p288">
+The obligations to Virgil are paramount.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(1) Verbal; as i. 55,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Tu, cui iam curaeque vigent animique viriles,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+from <i>Aen.</i> ix. 311,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ante annos animumque gerens curamque virilem.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. &lsquo;horrentem iaculis, nec credere quivi, heu quid agat,
+libans carchesia, summa dies, miscere polum, rumpere
+questus,&rsquo; in Book i.<a href="#fn083" id="ref083">[83]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(2) In matter. The description of Fame, ii. 116 <i>sqq.</i>,
+is from <i>Aen.</i> iv. The character of Styrus, the betrothed
+of Medea, is modelled on that of Turnus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After Virgil, Homer (esp. in Book vi.), Ovid, and
+Seneca&rsquo;s tragedies are chiefly imitated. Statius is full of
+imitations of Valerius.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Valerius often tries to connect his subject with Rome.<a href="#fn084" id="ref084">[84]</a>
+Cf. ii. 304,
+</p>
+
+ <blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Iam nemus Egeriae, iam te ciet altus ab Alba<br />
+Iuppiter et soli non mitis Aricia regi&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+ii 573,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;genus Aeneadum et Troiae melioris honores.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<h3 id="p289">SILIUS ITALICUS.</h3>
+
+<p>
+The full name of Silius is got from an inscription
+(<i>C.I.L.</i> vi. 1984), and is Ti. Catius Silius Italicus. Our
+chief information about his life is found in Pliny, <i>Epist.</i>
+iii. 7, where his recent death is mentioned. It was
+probably written <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 101, and as it states that Silius was
+then 75 years old, the year of his birth was <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 25.
+His birthplace is unknown, but was not Italica in Spain,
+otherwise Martial would have claimed him as a countryman.
+Pliny tells us that Silius had risen by acting as
+a <i>delator</i> under Nero, who made him consul <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 68.
+He had taken the side of Vitellius in the war of the
+succession <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 69<a href="#fn085" id="ref085">[85]</a> and had afterwards, as proconsul,
+governed Asia with success (under Vespasian). After this
+he possessed great social influence. Towards the end of
+his life, he retired to Campania, and gave himself up to
+study. The account of his learned retirement,<a href="#fn086" id="ref086">[86]</a> his
+reverence for Virgil,<a href="#fn087" id="ref087">[87]</a> the consulship of his son,<a href="#fn088" id="ref088">[88]</a> the
+death of his younger son,<a href="#fn089" id="ref089">[89]</a> and other details, are corroborated
+by his contemporary Martial.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The passage of Pliny is as follows:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Modo nuntiatus est Silius Italicus in Neapolitano suo
+inedia finisse vitam. Causa mortis valetudo. Erat illi
+natus insanabilis clavus, cuius taedio ad mortem inrevocabili
+constantia decucurrit, usque ad supremum diem
+beatus et felix, nisi quod minorem ex liberis duobus
+amisit, sed maiorem melioremque florentem atque etiam
+consularem reliquit. Laeserat famam suam sub Nerone,
+credebatur sponte accusasse: sed in Vitelli amicitia
+sapienter se et comiter gesserat, ex proconsulatu Asiae
+gloriam reportaverat, maculam veteris industriae laudabili
+otio abluerat. Fuit inter principes civitatis sine potentia,
+sine invidia: salutabatur, colebatur, multumque in lectulo
+iacens cubiculo semper non ex fortuna frequenti doctissimis
+sermonibus dies transigebat, cum a scribendo vacaret.
+Scribebat carmina maiore cura quam ingenio, non numquam
+iudicia hominum recitationibus experiebatur. Novissime
+ita suadentibus annis ab urbe secessit, seque in
+Campania tenuit, ac ne adventu quidem novi principis
+inde commotus est ... Erat <span class="greek">φιλόκαλος</span> usque ad emacitatis
+reprehensionem. Plures isdem in locis villas possidebat
+adamatisque novis priores neglegebat. Multum ubique
+librorum, multum statuarum, multum imaginum, quas non
+habebat modo verum etiam venerabatur, Vergilii ante
+omnes, cuius natalem religiosius quam suum celebrabat,
+Neapoli maxime, ubi monimentum eius adire ut templum
+solebat. In hac tranquillitate annum quintum et septuagensimum excessit, delicato magis corpore quam infirmo;
+utque novissimus a Nerone factus est consul, ita postremus
+ex omnibus quos Nero consules fecerat decessit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p290">
+Silius&rsquo; career as an orator is mentioned by Martial
+vii. 63, 5-8,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Sacra cothurnati non attigit ante Maronis,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;implevit magni quam Ciceronis opus.<br />
+Hunc miratur adhuc centum gravis hasta virorum,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;hunc loquitur grato plurimus ore cliens.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Punica</i> is an Epic in seventeen Books on the
+Second Punic War, and treats of events down to the
+battle of Zama, <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 202. The historical treatment is
+founded mainly on Livy, and in point of style Silius has
+followed Homer and Virgil, imitations of whom are found
+on every page. For Silius&rsquo; reverence for Virgil, see
+above, and cf. viii. 593,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p291">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Mantua Musarum domus, atque ad sidera cantu<br />
+evecta Aonio, et Smyrnaeis aemula plectris.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Silius also follows Homer and Virgil in their mythology,
+bringing in supernatural motives in a way unsuitable to
+a historical subject, <i>e.g.</i> in xv. 20, where Scipio has, like
+Hercules, to choose between Voluptas and Virtus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The example of Hannibal&rsquo;s dream, iii. 163-182, will show
+these different points. The story of the dream is got
+from Livy xxi. 22, but, for <i>iuvenis divina specie</i>, Silius,
+like Virg. <i>Aen.</i> iv. 222 <i>sqq.</i> and 259 <i>sqq.</i> substitutes Mercury.
+Individual imitations in the passage are: l. 172, &lsquo;Turpe
+duci totam somno consumere noctem,&rsquo; from <i>Il.</i> ii. 24,
+<span class="greek">οὐ χρὴ παννύχιον εὕδειν βουληφόρον ἄνδρα</span>; l. 168, &lsquo;umentem
+noctis umbram&rsquo; is from <i>Aen.</i> iv. 7, &lsquo;umentemque
+Aurora polo dimoverat umbram&rsquo;; l. 174, &lsquo;iam maria
+effusas cernes turbare carinas,&rsquo; from <i>Aen.</i> iv. 566, &lsquo;iam
+mare turbari trabibus ... videbis&rsquo;; l. 182, &lsquo;altae moenia
+Romae&rsquo; is from <i>Aen.</i> i. 7; l. 181, &lsquo;respexisse veto&rsquo; from
+<i>Ecl.</i> 8, 102, &lsquo;nec respexeris.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Epitome of the Iliad (in 1075 hexameters), which
+passes under the name of <i>Homerus Latinus</i>, has been
+attributed to Silius. It is a close adaptation from the
+original.
+</p>
+
+<h3>STATIUS.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+P. Papinius Statius was born at Naples (<i>Silv.</i> i. 2, 260,
+&lsquo;mea Parthenope&rsquo;), probably about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 60, for he speaks
+of himself as on the threshold of life at the time of his
+father&rsquo;s death, about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 80 (&lsquo;limine primo fatorum,&rsquo; <i>Silv.</i>
+v. 3, 72). The apparent discrepancy in <i>Silv.</i> iv. 4, 69
+(written <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 94-5), &lsquo;Nos facta aliena canendo vergimur
+in senium,&rsquo; may be explained by observing that &lsquo;senium&rsquo;
+is very often used for premature age induced by study
+(cf. &lsquo;insenuit,&rsquo; Hor. <i>Ep.</i> ii. 2, 82).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p292">
+The father of Statius came of a distinguished but not
+wealthy family: <i>Silv.</i> v. 3, 116,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Non tibi deformes obscuri sanguinis ortus<br />
+nec sine luce genus, quamquam fortuna parentum<br />
+artior expensis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+He taught first at Naples (<i>ibid.</i> l. 146) and then at Rome
+(l. 176); and died at the age of sixty-five (l. 252) soon after
+the eruption of Vesuvius, which he had intended to
+make the subject of a poem (l. 205). It was from his
+learned father (&lsquo;genitor perdocte,&rsquo; l. 3) that Statius derived
+his first impulse towards poetry, and to his training he
+acknowledges deep obligations (ll. 209-214).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Statius won two prizes for poetry, at the <i>Augustalia</i> in
+Naples and at Alba; but was unsuccessful at the Capitoline competition, probably in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 94 (<i>ibid.</i> 225-232). In
+that year he seems to have removed from Rome to
+Naples, and spent there the remainder of his days:
+<i>Silv.</i> iii. 5, 12,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Anne quod Euboicos fessus remeare penates<br />
+auguror et patria senium componere terra?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The date of his death is unknown. The latest event
+mentioned in his poems is the seventeenth consulship
+of Domitian, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 95 (<i>Silv.</i> iv. 1).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Statius was married to a widow named Claudia (<i>Silv.</i>
+iii. 5, 51 <i>sqq.</i>), but had no children (v. 5, 79).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p293">
+He enjoyed the favour of Domitian (&lsquo;indulgentissimus
+imperator,&rsquo; <i>Silv.</i> i. praef.) who granted him a supply of
+water for his country house at Alba, and occasionally
+invited him to his table: <i>Silv.</i> iii. 1, 61,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ast ego, Dardaniae quamvis sub collibus Albae<br />
+rus proprium magnique ducis mihi munere currens<br />
+unda domi curas mulcere aestusque levare<br />
+sufficerent.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Silv.</i> iv. praef., &lsquo;Sacratissimis eius epulis honoratus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He more than once promises to write an epic on
+Domitian&rsquo;s career (e.g. <i>Theb.</i> i. 32). The emperor&rsquo;s freedman
+Earinus (<i>Silv.</i> iii. 4) was one of Statius&rsquo; patrons.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His regard for the poet Lucan produced <i>Silv.</i> ii. 7,
+which is a poem on Lucan&rsquo;s birthday, addressed to his
+widow (see <a href="#p267">p. 267</a>). But his chief admiration was
+reserved for the memory of Virgil: Naples and Alba
+were endeared to him by their associations with the
+&lsquo;great master&rsquo; and the story of Aeneas: <i>Silv.</i> iv. 4, 53,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Tenues ignavo pollice chordas<br />
+pulso, Maroneique sedens in margine templi<br />
+sumo animum et magni tumulis adcanto magistri.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+For Alba cf. <i>Silv.</i> v. 3, 37. The <i>Thebais</i> must recognize its
+inferiority to the <i>Aeneid</i>: <i>Theb.</i> xii. 816,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Vive, precor; nec tu divinam Aeneida tempta,<br />
+sed longe sequere et vestigia semper adora.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+1. The <i>Thebais</i>, an epic poem in twelve Books, occupied
+Statius for twelve years: xii. 811,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;O mihi bis senos multum vigilata per annos<br />
+Thebai.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p294">
+Cf. <i>Silv.</i> iv. 7, 26,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Thebais multa cruciata lima.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The twelve years were probably 79-91 or 80-92 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>
+<i>Silv.</i> i. praef. (written 91 or 92), &lsquo;Adhuc pro Thebaide mea,
+quamvis me reliquerit, timeo.&rsquo; The publication apparently
+did not take place till <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 95 (cf. <i>Silv.</i> iv. 4, 87 <i>sqq.</i>
+written in that year).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The subject of the poem is the strife between the
+brothers Eteocles and Polynices, and the subsequent
+history of Thebes to the death of Creon. The dedication
+is to Domitian. For the popularity of the <i>Thebais</i> cf.
+Juv. <i>Sat.</i> 7, 82,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Curritur ad vocem iucundam et carmen amicae<br />
+Thebaidos, laetam cum fecit Statius urbem<br />
+promisitque diem. Tanta dulcedine captos<br />
+afficit ille animos tantaque libidine volgi<br />
+auditur; sed, cum fregit subsellia versu,<br />
+esurit, intactam Paridi nisi vendit Agaven.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+2. The <i>Achilleis</i>, also dedicated to Domitian, is an incomplete
+epic, consisting of one Book and part of a
+second. It was later than the Thebaid, for Statius was
+working at it in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 95: <i>Silv.</i> iv. 4, 93,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nunc vacuos crines alio subit infula nexu:<br />
+Troia quidem magnusque mihi temptatur Achilles.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The poem was intended to cover the whole career of
+Achilles, including his retreat in Scyros before the Trojan
+War, and his exploits after the death of Hector, which
+did not enter into the plan of the <i>Iliad</i>: cf. l. 3,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Quamquam acta viri multum inclita cantu<br />
+Maeonio, sed plura vacant: nos ire per omnem<br />
+(sic amor est) heroa velis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p295">
+3. The <i>Silvae</i>, which represent the poet in his less
+serious mood, are occasional poems on miscellaneous
+subjects, published in five separate Books. Cf. 1, praef.
+&lsquo;Diu multumque dubitavi ... an hos libellos, ... cum
+singuli de sinu meo prodierint, congregates ipse dimitterem.&rsquo;
+Many of them were thrown off in haste at the command
+of the Emperor or the request of friends: cf. such expressions
+as &lsquo;stili facilitas&rsquo; (ii. praef.), &lsquo;libellorum temeritas,&rsquo;
+&lsquo;hanc audaciam stili nostri&rsquo; (iii. praef.). Of the
+poems in Book i. he says, &lsquo;nullum ex illis biduo longius
+tractum, quaedam et in singulis diebus effusa&rsquo; (i. praef.).
+Each of the Books is introduced by a prose preface.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+None of the <i>Silvae</i> appeared before <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 92; for
+Rutilius Gallicus, for whom i. 4 was written, died in
+that year, and the poem was not published till after his
+death (i. praef.). Book v. was probably a posthumous
+work: there is no proper preface, and the third and fifth
+poems are incomplete.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Hexameter verse is employed for all the <i>Silvae</i> except
+six. Of these, four are in hendecasyllabics, one in the
+Alcaic and one in the Sapphic stanza.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. The only other poem of which there is distinct
+evidence is the pantomime <i>Agave</i>, written not later than
+<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 84, the year in which the player Paris was put to
+death (Juv. <i>Sat.</i> 7, 86, quoted above).
+</p>
+
+<h3>MARTIAL.<a href="#fn090" id="ref090">[90]</a></h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+M. Valerius Martialis (Coquus is added in the old
+glossaries) was born at Bilbilis in Hispania Tarraconensis
+on 1st March in one of the years <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 38-41. His tenth
+Book, written <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 95-8, contains a poem (x. 24) written
+on his fifty-seventh birthday. Cf. ll. 4-5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p296">
+<p>
+&lsquo;quinquagesima liba septimamque<br />
+vestris addimus hanc focis acerram&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+ix. 52, 3,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;ut nostras amo Martias Kalendas&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+x. 103, 1,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Municipes, Augusta mihi quos Bilbilis acri<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;monte creat, rapidis quem Salo cingit aquis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+His parents&rsquo; names are given, v. 34, 1, &lsquo;Fronto pater,
+genetrix Flaccilla.&rsquo; Martial went through the usual education
+at Bilbilis or at a neighbouring town; ix. 73, 7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;At me litterulas stulti docuere parentes:<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;quid cum grammaticis rhetoribusque mihi?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Martial went to Rome <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 64, for in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 98, when he
+left Rome, he gives the length of his stay as thirty-four
+years; x. 103, 7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quattuor accessit tricesima messibus aestas,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ut sine me Cereri rustica liba datis,<br />
+moenia dum colimus dominae pulcherrima Romae.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+At Rome Martial became the client of the house of the
+Senecas, and was on intimate terms with L. Calpurnius
+Piso, Memmius Gemellus, and Vibius Crispus; xii. 36, 8,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Pisones Senecasque Memmiosque<br />
+et Crispos mihi redde sed priores.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The failure of Piso&rsquo;s conspiracy in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 65 and the consequent
+downfall of the Senecas must have affected Martial&rsquo;s
+position. In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 96 Martial addresses as his patroness
+Argentaria Polla, Lucan&rsquo;s widow, the only surviving member
+of the family; x. 64, 1,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p297">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Contigeris regina meos si Polla libellos,&rsquo; etc.
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+From her he may have got the small vineyard near Nomentum
+which he possessed by <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 84 (xiii. 42 and 119).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Little is known of Martial&rsquo;s life before the reign of
+Domitian. He may have practised at the bar; cf. ii. 30, 5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Is mihi &ldquo;dives eris, si causas egeris&rdquo; inquit&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+and Quintilian appears to have advised this course
+(ii. 90). He probably lived as a client of great houses
+to which he was recommended by his early-developed
+poetical talents. Cf. i. 113, 1,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quaecumque lusi iuvenis et puer quondam.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 80 he commemorated the opening by Titus of the
+Flavian Amphitheatre by a collection of poems sent to the
+emperor. Cf. <i>Spectac.</i> 32,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Da veniam subitis: non displicuisse meretur,<br />
+festinat, Caesar, qui placuisse tibi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Martial received the &lsquo;ius trium liberorum&rsquo; from two of the
+emperors. This probably means that Titus bestowed it
+and Domitian ratified it. Cf. ix. 97, 5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;tribuit quod Caesar uterque<br />
+ius mihi natorum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Martial became a titular tribune, and consequently an
+<i>eques</i>, an honour probably given him by Titus; iii. 95, 9
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;vidit me Roma tribunum&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+v. 13, 1,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Sum, fateor, semperque fui, Callistrate, pauper,<br />
+sed non obscurus nec male notus eques.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p298">
+Martial is unsparing in his flattery of Domitian and his
+freedmen. Cf. ix. 79, iv. 45, of Parthenius, the emperor&rsquo;s
+chamberlain; vii. 99, viii. 48, of Crispinus, the emperor&rsquo;s
+favourite. In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 86 we find his poems eagerly read by
+the emperor. Cf. iv. 27,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Saepe meos laudare soles, Auguste, libellos.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+He obtained citizen rights for several applicants; cf. ix.
+95. 11,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quot mihi Caesareo facti sunt munere cives&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+and was occasionally invited to the emperor&rsquo;s table; cf. ix.
+91. Domitian, however, refused to assist him pecuniarily
+(vi. 10). A description of Martial&rsquo;s life as a client of great
+houses is found, <i>e.g.</i>, in v. 20. Among the friends of high
+rank whom Martial made after <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 86 were the poet Silius
+Italicus (iv. 14), the future emperor Nerva (v. 28), the
+author S. Iulius Frontinus (x. 58), the younger Pliny (x. 19).
+Martial also mentions Quintilian (ii. 90) and other literary
+men from Spain, and Juvenal (vii. 24, etc.). Statius he
+never mentions, and was probably at enmity with him;
+cf. his sneers at mythological epics (x. 4, etc.), which hint
+indirectly at the <i>Thebais</i>. Martial also attacks his critics
+(i. 3; xi. 20, etc.), plagiarists (<i>e.g.</i> xi. 94), and those who
+wrote scurrilous verses in his name (<i>e.g.</i> x. 3).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Martial received rewards in return for his poetry, and
+often begs for gifts, and complains of his poverty and the
+unproductiveness of his estate at Nomentum (xii. 57); v. 36,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Laudatus nostro quidam, Faustina, libello<br />
+   dissimulat, quasi nil debeat: imposuit&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+vii. 16,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Aera domi non sunt, superest hoc, Regule, solum,<br />
+ut tua vendamus munera: numquid emis?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p299">
+From 86 to 90 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> Martial lived in lodgings on the Quirinal,
+three stairs up; i. 117, 6,
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Longum est, si velit ad Pirum venire,
+et scalis habito tribus, sed altis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Later he had a house of his own (ix. 18, 2, etc.), and
+mentions his slaves (i. 101; v. 34, etc.). That he was
+still poor in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 98 is evident from Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> iii. 21, 2,
+&lsquo;Prosecutus eram viatico secedentem: dederam hoc
+amicitiae, dederam etiam versiculis quos de me composuit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Martial was evidently never married (ii. 92). In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 98
+he left Rome and went to Spain, where he had liberal
+friends, as Terentius Priscus (xii. 4), and Marcella (xii. 21),
+who gave him an estate, described in xii. 18. From xii.
+praef. we see his longing for Rome:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;In hac provinciali solitudine ... bibliothecas, theatra,
+convictus ... desideramus quasi destituti. Accedit his municipalium
+robigo dentium et iudici loco livor,&rsquo; etc.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Martial died, at latest, about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 104, being from 63
+to 66 years old.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pliny <i>Ep.</i> iii. 21 (written not after <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 104), &lsquo;Audio
+Valerium Martialem decessisse et moleste fero.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Martial does not disguise the bad points of his character.
+Cf. his flattery of Domitian, and his continual begging
+(<i>passim</i>), his cynical reasons for giving panegyrics (v. 36,
+quoted above); the number of indecent poems he wrote,
+for which he apologizes (<i>e.g.</i> i. praef.). Among his good
+points are his &lsquo;candor,&rsquo; mentioned by Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> iii. 21;
+his love of unadorned nature, <i>e.g.</i> iii. 58; his love for
+his friends, <i>e.g.</i> i. 15.
+</p>
+
+<h4 id="p300">(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+<i>Publication of the Poems.</i>—<i>Liber Spectaculorum</i> was published <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 80, on the opening of Titus&rsquo; Amphitheatre.
+The <i>Xenia</i> and <i>Apophoreta</i> were two collections of inscriptions
+for presents at the <i>Saturnalia</i> in December 84 or
+85 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> The numbering of these as Books xiii. and xiv.
+has no ancient authority. Martial furnished the other Books
+with numbers (cf. ii. 92, 1, &lsquo;primus liber&rsquo;). Books i., ii.,
+appeared together <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 86. Then came Books iii.-xi. at
+intervals of about a year to December, 96 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> Martial
+prepared a selection from Books x. and xi. for Nerva&rsquo;s
+use (no longer extant). This was presented along with
+xii. 5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Longior undecimi nobis decimique libelli<br />
+artatus labor est, et breve rasit opus.<br />
+Plura legant vacui, quibus otia tuta dedisti;<br />
+haec lege tu Caesar; forsan et illa leges.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Book xii. appeared at the beginning of <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 102. and shortly
+afterwards in an enlarged edition. An edition of all the
+Books probably did not appear till after Martial&rsquo;s death.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For Martial&rsquo;s immediate popularity, cf. vi. 61,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Laudat, amat, cantat nostros mea Roma libellos,<br />
+meque sinus omnis, me manus omnis habet&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+xi. 3, 3,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Sed meus in Geticis ad Martia signa pruinis<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;a rigido teritur centurione liber,<br />
+dicitur et nostros cantare Britannia versus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Pliny <i>Ep.</i> iii. 21 (written just after Martial&rsquo;s death),
+&lsquo;Erat homo ingeniosus acutus acer, et qui plurimum in
+scribendo et salis haberet et fellis nec candoris minus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p301">
+<i>Martial&rsquo;s Models.</i>&mdash;His manner is very original, but
+some of his motives are taken from Greek epigrammatists,
+especially from Lucillius, who flourished under Nero.
+Thus iv. 53 = Lucill. 30; v. 53 = L. 93; xii. 23 = L. 34.
+Many of his pieces are doubtless improvisations, and consequently
+contain careless expressions and errors as to
+facts. Thus, vii. 61, 2,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Inque suo nullum limine limen erat&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+x. 2, 1,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Festinata prior decimi mihi cura libelli<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;elapsum manibus nunc revocavit opus&rsquo;;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+x. 93, 5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Ut rosa delectat, metitur quae pollice primo&rsquo;<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(= the rose which has not yet been plucked).
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+In iv. 55, 3, Arpi is given as Cicero&rsquo;s birthplace; in v. 30,
+2, etc., Calabria instead of Apulia is given as Horace&rsquo;s
+native district. Catullus is Martial&rsquo;s chief model for
+hendecasyllabics and choliambics. He mentions no other
+poet so often. Cf. x. 103, 5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nec sua plus debet tenui Verona Catullo<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;meque velit dici non minus illa suum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Ovid, of whom he has more than two hundred
+reminiscences, is Martial&rsquo;s chief pattern for elegiacs. After
+these Martial&rsquo;s chief model is Virgil, chiefly the <i>Priapea</i>;
+then Horace to a less extent; Propertius; and Tibullus.
+Domitius Marsus, Gaetulicus, Calvus, etc., are mentioned
+frequently, and doubtless imitated.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For Martial&rsquo;s conception of himself as a painter of
+manners, cf. viii. 3, 19 (ad Musam),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;At tu Romano lepidos sale tinge libellos:<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;adgnoscat mores vita legatque suos.<br />
+Angusta cantare licet videaris avena,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;dum tua multorum vincat avena tubas.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p302">
+x. 4, 7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quid te vana iuvant miserae ludibria chartae?<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;hoc lege, quod possit dicere vita &ldquo;Meum est.&rdquo;<br />
+Non hic Centauros, non Gorgonas, Harpyiasque<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;invenies: hominem pagina nostra sapit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Martial satirizes people under manufactured or arbitrarily
+chosen names.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. i. praef., &lsquo;Spero me secutum in libellis meis tale
+temperamentum, ut de illis queri non possit, quisquis de
+se bene senserit, cum salva infimarum quoque personarum
+reverentia ludant.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Some are tell-tale names, as Vetustilla, &lsquo;an old woman,&rsquo;
+iii. 93; Dento, &lsquo;a gourmand,&rsquo; v. 45; Eulogus, &lsquo;a herald,&rsquo;
+vi. 8; but the same names, <i>e.g.</i> Zoilus, are often used to
+denote different types.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The chief forms of verse used are the elegiac distich
+(most frequent), scazons, and hendecasyllabics. In vi. 65
+he apologizes for using the pure hexameter, which is
+found only four times. Other metres are extremely rare.
+</p>
+
+<h3>QUINTILIAN.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+M. Fabius Quintilianus was born at Calagurris in Spain.
+Auson. <i>prof.</i> i. 7, &lsquo;Adserat usque licet Fabium Calagurris
+alumnum.&rsquo; Cf. Jerome yr. Abr. 2104 (quoted below).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Quintilian came at an early age to Rome, where his
+father was a rhetorician. Cf. his reminiscences:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+x. 1, 86, &lsquo;Utar verbis isdem quae ex Afro Domitio (died
+<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 59) iuvenis excepi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p303">
+v. 7, 7, &lsquo;a Domitio Afro quem adulescentulus senem
+colui.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+vi. 1, 14, &lsquo;Nobis adulescentibus accusator Cossutiani
+Capitonis&rsquo; (<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 57), etc.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From the above quotations, Quintilian must have been
+born somewhere between <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 35 and 40. <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 35 is usually
+given as an approximation. For Quintilian&rsquo;s father cf.
+ix. 3, 73, &lsquo;Et cur me prohibeat pudor uti domestico
+exemplo? Pater meus contra eum qui,&rsquo; etc. He is possibly
+the person mentioned by Seneca, <i>Contr.</i> x. praef. 2,
+&lsquo;quo modo ... Quintilianus senex declamaverit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For Quintilian&rsquo;s teachers of rhetoric, cf. Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> ii.
+14, 10, &lsquo;Narrabat ille [Quintilianus], Adsectabar Domitium
+Afrum.&rsquo; Others were Iulius Africanus (Quint. x. 1, 118),
+Servilius Nonianus (x. 1, 102), Galerius Trachalus (x. 1,
+119), Iulius Secundus (x. 1, 120), Vibius Crispus (xii. 10,
+11), Remmius Palaemon (Schol. ad Iuv. 6, 452). After
+his education Quintilian returned to Calagurris, but was
+brought back to Rome by Galba in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 68.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Jerome yr. Abr. 2084 = <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 68, &lsquo;M. Fabius Quintilianus
+Romam a Galba perducitur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Quintilian engaged as a pleader at Rome, and makes
+some references to his cases. Some of his speeches were
+published without his consent.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+vii. 2, 24, &lsquo;In causa Naevi Arpiniani ... cuius actionem
+et quidem solam in hoc tempus emiseram, quod ipsum
+me fecisse ductum iuvenili cupiditate gloriae fateor. Nam
+ceterae, quae sub nomine meo feruntur, neglegentia excipientium
+in quaestum notariorum corruptae minimam
+partem mei habent.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+iv. 1, 19, &lsquo;Ego pro regina Berenice apud ipsam eam
+causam dixi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p304">
+Cf. also vii. 2, 5; ix. 2, 73-4.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Quintilian was the first person who received an imperial
+grant as teacher of oratory.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Jerome yr. Abr. 2104 = <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 88, &lsquo;Quintilianus ex Hispania
+Calagurritanus primus Romae publicam scholam et salarium
+e fisco accepit et claruit.&rsquo; The date given by Jerome is
+much too late, as it is Quintilian that is alluded to by
+Sueton. <i>Vesp.</i> 18, &lsquo;Primus e fisco Latinis Graecisque rhetoribus
+annua centena constituit.&rsquo; The appointment must
+therefore have been made by <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 79. The professorship
+is referred to by Mart. ii. 90, 1,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quintiliane, vagae moderator summe iuventae,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;gloria Romanae, Quintiliane, togae.&rsquo;<br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> ii. 14, 10, &lsquo;Ita certe ex Quintiliano, praeceptore
+meo, audisse memini.&rsquo; Quintilian&rsquo;s career as a
+teacher lasted for twenty years.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+i. prooem. 1, &lsquo;Post impetratam studiis meis quietem,
+quae per viginti annos erudiendis iuvenibus impenderam.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Teuffel thinks that the <i>Institutio</i> was written <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 89-91,
+in which case Quintilian&rsquo;s career as professor was from
+<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 68 to 88; Peterson<a href="#fn091" id="ref091">[91]</a> thinks that Quintilian dated his
+educational work as from <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 70 to 90, and that the
+<i>Institutio</i> was begun <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 92.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Quintilian grew rich by the practice of his profession,
+from which he ultimately retired. Iuv. 7, 186,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Hos inter sumptus sestertia Quintiliano,<br />
+ut multum, duo sufficient; res nulla minoris<br />
+constabit patri, quam filius. &ldquo;Unde igitur tot<br />
+Quintilianus habet saltus?&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p305">
+Quint. ii. 12, 12, &lsquo;quando et praecipiendi munus iam
+pridem deprecati sumus et in foro quoque dicendi, quia
+honestissimum finem putamus, desinere dum desideraremur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After his retirement Quintilian was appointed tutor of
+Domitian&rsquo;s grandnephews, sons of his niece Flavia Domitilla
+and his cousin Flavius Clemens.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Quint. iv. prooem. 2, &lsquo;Cum mihi Domitianus Augustus
+sororis suae nepotum delegaverit curam.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Through the influence of Clemens, he obtained the
+consulship.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Auson. <i>grat. act.</i> p. 23 (Schenkl), &lsquo;Quintilianus consularia
+per Clementem ornamenta sortitus honestamenta potius
+videtur quam insignia potestatis habuisse.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. Iuv. 7, 197,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Si Fortuna volet, fies de rhetore consul;<br />
+si volet haec eadem, fies de consule rhetor.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+His gratitude led him into fulsome flattery of Domitian.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+x. 1, 91, &lsquo;Germanicum Augustum ab institutis studiis
+deflexit cura terrarum, parumque dis visum est esse eum
+maximum poetarum&rsquo; (cf. iv. prooem. 3-5).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Quintilian married late in life. His wife died at the
+age of eighteen, his younger son soon afterwards at the
+age of five, the elder one subsequently at the age of nine.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+vi. prooem. § 2, &lsquo;Illum, de quo summa conceperam et
+in quo spem unicam senectutis reponebam, repetito volnere
+orbitatis amisi&rsquo;; § 9, &lsquo;Non flosculos, sicut prior, sed iam
+decimum aetatis ingressus annum, certos ac deformatos
+fructus ostenderat&rsquo;; § 4, &lsquo;erepta prius mihi matre eorumdem,
+quae nondum expleto aetatis undevicesimo anno
+duos enixa filios ...&rsquo;; § 5, &lsquo;cum omni virtute, quae in
+feminas cadit, functa insanabilem adtulit marito dolorem,
+tum aetate tam puellari, praesertim meae comparata, potest
+et ipsa numerari inter volnera orbitatis&rsquo;; § 6, &lsquo;Mihi filius
+minor quintum egressus annum prior alterum ex duobus
+eruit lumen.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p306">
+The date of Quintilian&rsquo;s death is unknown. If he outlived
+Domitian it was not for long, as Pliny in the letters
+quoted above (the earlier written about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 100) does
+not speak of Quintilian as alive.
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+<i>Earlier works.</i>&mdash;Quintilian refers to a work <i>de causis
+corruptae eloquentiae</i>, and to an <i>ars rhetorica</i> in two Books.
+For speeches of his taken down and published, see vii. 2,
+24, quoted <a href="#p303">p. 303</a>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+vi. prooem. 3, &lsquo;eum librum, quem de causis corruptae
+eloquentiae emisi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+i. prooem. 7, &lsquo;Duo iam sub nomine meo libri ferebantur
+artis rhetoricae neque editi a me neque in hoc comparati.
+Namque alterum, sermone per biduum habito, pueri, quibus
+id praestabatur, exceperant; alterum pluribus sane diebus,
+quantum notando consequi potuerant, interceptum, boni
+iuvenes sed nimium amantes mei, temerario editionis honore
+volgaverant.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Institutio Oratoria</i>.&mdash;For the date of publication
+see <a href="#p304">p. 304</a>. The circumstances of publication are given
+by Quintilian in the preface addressed to his bookseller
+Trypho.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Efflagitasti cottidiano convicio, ut libros, quos ad Marcellum
+meum de Institutione oratoria scripseram, iam
+emittere inciperem. Nam ipse eos nondum opinabar satis
+maturuisse, quibus componendis, ut scis, paulo plus quam
+biennium tot alioqui negotiis districtus impendi ... Sed
+si tanto opere efflagitantur quam tu affirmas, permittamus
+vela ventis et oram solventibus bene precemur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p307">
+The work is dedicated to Vitorius Marcellus (to whom
+Statius&rsquo; <i>Silvae</i>, Book iv., is addressed), and was originally
+written in view of the education of his son Geta.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+i. prooem. 6, &lsquo;Quod opus, Marcelle Vitori, tibi dicamus
+... quod erudiendo Getae tuo ... non inutiles fore libri
+videbantur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Book iv. prooem. was written when Quintilian had been
+appointed tutor to the young princes, who are mentioned
+along with Geta and Quintilian&rsquo;s elder son; Book vi.
+prooem. was written not long afterwards, and refers to
+his bereavements; in Book xii. prooem. no names are
+mentioned.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The work deals with the whole education of the future
+orator.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+i. prooem. 5, &lsquo;Nec aliter, quam si mihi tradatur educandus
+orator, studia eius formare ab infantia incipiam.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Quintilian himself gives a sketch of the contents:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+i. prooem. 21-2, &lsquo;Liber primus ea quae sunt ante
+officium rhetoris continebit [including grammar and philology].
+Secundo prima apud rhetorem elementa et quae de
+ipsa rhetorices substantia quaeruntur tractabimus. Quinque
+deinceps (iii.-vii.) inventioni, nam huic et dispositio subiungitur,
+quattuor (viii.-xi.) elocutioni, in cuius partem
+memoria ac pronuntiatio veniunt, dabuntur. Unus (xii.)
+accedet, in quo nobis orator ipse informandus est, ut qui
+mores eius, quae in suscipiendis, discendis, agendis causis
+ratio, quod eloquentiae genus, quis agendi debeat esse
+finis, quae post finem studia ... disseramus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p308">
+The ordinary handbooks of rhetoric are attacked.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+i. prooem. 24-5, &lsquo;Nam plerumque nudae illae artes nimia
+subtilitatis affectatione frangunt atque concidunt quidquid
+est in oratione generosius, et omnem sucum ingeni bibunt
+et ossa detegunt, quae ut esse et adstringi nervis suis
+debent, sic corpore operienda sunt. Ideoque nos non
+particulam illam, sicut plerique, sed quidquid utile ad
+instituendum oratorem putabamus, in hos duodecim libros
+contulimus breviter omnia demonstraturi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Quintilian uses his own experience and the best views
+of different authorities.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+vi. 2, 25, &lsquo;Quod si tradita mihi sequi praecepta sufficeret,
+satisfeceram huic parti, nihil eorum, quae legi vel didici,
+quod modo probabile fuit, omittendo; sed eruere in animo
+est, quae latent, et penitus ipsa huius loci aperire penetralia,
+quae quidem non aliquo tradente sed experimento meo ac
+natura ipsa duce accepi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Quintilian insists that the orator must be a good man
+(cf. the importance he attaches to early education, i. 1, etc.).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+xii. 1, 1, &lsquo;Sit ergo nobis orator, quem constituimus, is
+qui a M. Catone finitur, vir bonus dicendi peritus; verum,
+id quod et ille posuit prius, et ipsa natura potius ac maius
+est, utique vir bonus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. i. prooem. 9-10; ii. 2 (the whole chapter); ii. 15, 1.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Quintilian&rsquo;s exposition is founded mainly on Cicero, from
+whom he seldom differs. Cf. vii. 3, 8, &lsquo;Quamquam dissentire
+vix audeo a Cicerone.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Quintilian&rsquo;s illustrations are mainly drawn from classical
+writers. Upwards of four hundred and fifty passages of
+Cicero and about one hundred and forty of Virgil are
+referred to. Quintilian not only attacks the modern style,
+but warns his pupils against the early writers.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p309">
+ii. 5, 21-2, &lsquo;Duo autem genera maxime cavenda pueris
+puto: unum, ne quis eos antiquitatis nimius admirator in
+Graccorum Catonisque et aliorum similium lectione durescere
+velit ... Alterum, quod huic diversum est, ne
+recentis huius lasciviae flosculis capti voluptate prava deleniantur,
+ut praedulce illud genus et puerilibus ingeniis hoc
+gratius, quo propius est, adament.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For Quintilian&rsquo;s high appreciation of Cicero see x. 1,
+105-112; and for his antagonism to Seneca, x. 1, 125-131,
+and to philosophers in general, i. prooem. 10.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For Quintilian&rsquo;s authorities see iii. 1, &lsquo;Prooemium de
+scriptoribus artis rhetoricae.&rsquo; They include Dionysius of
+Halicarnassus; Caecilius; Chrysippus (for education; cf. i.
+1, 16, etc.); Cicero; <i>Auctor ad Herenn.</i>; Celsus, cf. iii. 1, 21,
+etc.; Rutilius, cf. ix. 3, 89; Remmius Palaemon.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Literary criticism is treated of in Book X. as regards the
+Greek and Latin authors useful to the orator. The principal
+authority used was the <span class="greek">περὶ μιμήσεως</span> of Dionysius
+Halicarnassius. Much of Quintilian&rsquo;s criticism is traditional,
+and the lists of great writers came ultimately from the
+critics of Alexandria. Roman literary critics referred to
+were Cicero (<i>e.g.</i> on the Attic orators, x. 1, 76-80) and
+Horace (x. 1, 24; 56, etc.).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Spurious works.</i>&mdash;These include two collections of
+<i>declamationes</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. Nineteen long pieces, ascribed to Quintilian by Jerome
+and others, but much later than Quintilian&rsquo;s time.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. One hundred and forty-five shorter pieces out of an
+original collection of three hundred and eighty-eight, the
+first half being lost. Some suppose they are the &lsquo;libri
+artis rhetoricae&rsquo; (i. prooem. 7, quoted above), but this is
+not likely.
+</p>
+
+<h3 id="p310">FRONTINUS.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+Iulius Frontinus (as he is called by Tacitus: inscriptions
+and some <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> give the <i>praenomen</i> Sextus) was born at
+latest <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 41, for he was <i>praetor urbanus</i> <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 70.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tac. <i>Hist.</i> iv. 39, &lsquo;in senatu quem Iulius Frontinus
+praetor urbanus vocaverat ... Mox eiurante Frontino
+Caesar Domitianus praeturam cepit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He served in Gaul during the revolt of Civilis, and
+received the submission of the Lingones (Front. <i>Strat.</i> iv.
+3, 14<a href="#fn092" id="ref092">[92]</a>). Under Vespasian he held the consulship, and
+preceded Agricola in the command in Britain, where he
+conquered the Silures, probably <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 76-78.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tac. <i>Agr.</i> 17, &lsquo;Et Cerealis quidem alterius successoris
+curam famamque obruisset: sustinuit molem Iulius Frontinus,
+vir magnus, quantum licebat, validamque et pugnacem
+Silurum gentem armis subegit, super virtutem hostium
+locorum quoque difficultates eluctatus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His knowledge of the tactics of Domitian (<i>Strat.</i> i. 1, 8;
+i. 3, 10; ii. 3, 23; ii. 11, 7) makes it probable that he took
+part in the war with the Chatti, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 83. In 97 he became
+<i>curator aquarum</i> (<i>Aq.</i> 102), and at the beginning of the
+following year was consul for the second time (<i>C.I.L.</i> iii.,
+p. 862); cf. Martial x. 48, 20, &lsquo;bis Frontino consule.&rsquo; In
+100 he was once more consul (<i>C.I.L.</i> viii. 7066). He also
+held the office of augur, in which, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 103 or 104, he
+was succeeded by the younger Pliny; Plin. <i>Ep.</i> iv. 8,
+&lsquo;gratularis mihi quod acceperim auguratum ... Successi
+Iulio Frontino, principi viro.&rsquo; His death then may be
+placed in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 103.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p311">
+Frontinus was a friend of Martial, who addresses to him
+<i>Epig.</i> x. 58.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We get a glimpse of his character from Pliny&rsquo;s words,
+<i>Ep.</i> ix. 19, 6, &lsquo;Vetuit exstrui monumentum: sed quibus
+verbis? &ldquo;Impensa monumenti supervacua est: memoria
+nostri durabit si vita meruimus.&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+During the reign of Domitian (<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 81-96) Frontinus
+composed two works. One of these, of which only fragments
+survive, dealt with the art of land-surveying and the
+laws relating to land. The other, written after <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 84,
+when Domitian received the title of Germanicus (<i>Strat.</i>
+ii. II, 7, &lsquo;eo bello quo victis hostibus cognomen Germanici
+meruit&rsquo;), is a manual of strategy, in three Books, entitled
+<i>Strategemata</i>. It is a sequel to a previous work (now lost)
+on the theory of the art of war, and illustrates its rules
+by historical examples derived chiefly from Sallust, Caesar,
+and Livy. The purpose of the book did not require the
+citation of authorities, and the mention of Livy in ii. 5,
+31 and 34, is probably spurious. Frontinus gives either a
+paraphrase retaining some of the expressions of the original
+(cf. <i>Strat.</i> i. 5, 16, with Liv. xxxv. 11, 2-13), or a bald
+summary (cf. <i>Strat.</i> ii. 5, 1, with Liv. i. 14, 6-11). See
+G. Gundermann, <i>Jahrb. f. class. Philol.</i>, suppl. xvi., p. 315
+<i>sqq.</i> (1888). Some later hand has added a fourth Book,
+which not only presents marked differences in style and
+tone from the original three, but deals with an entirely
+different subject&mdash;the maintenance of discipline, and other
+duties of a commander.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p312">
+Under Nerva and Trajan (<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 97-98) Frontinus wrote
+his treatise on the Roman water-supply, <i>De Aquis Urbis
+Romae</i>. Having been appointed <i>curator aquarum</i>, he considered
+it his first duty to acquaint himself with the details
+of his department, and published the result of his inquiries
+in the hope that they might be useful to his successors
+(cf. the preface). The book was begun under Nerva (praef.
+&lsquo;cum ... sit nunc mihi ab Nerva Augusto ... aquarum
+iniunctum officium&rsquo;), but Nerva had been succeeded by
+Trajan before it was completed (118, &lsquo;divus Nerva&rsquo;; 93,
+&lsquo;Traianum Augustum&rsquo;).
+</p>
+
+<h3>JUVENAL.</h3>
+
+<p>
+The sources for Juvenal&rsquo;s life are (1) his works; (2)
+an inscription found at Aquinum; (3) thirteen extant
+<i>vitae</i>; (4) information of the scholiasts; (5) references
+in Martial and other writers.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The inscription at Aquinum has been much debated;
+but it is safe to follow the opinion of Mommsen, whose
+experience in identifying people mentioned in inscriptions
+with historical characters depends upon a width of knowledge
+that no other person possesses. The <i>vitae</i> are all
+early mediaeval works, probably founded on a brief account
+of the poet&rsquo;s life composed by some unknown ancient
+writer, and existing at the early Renaissance. The extant
+<i>vitae</i> contain a very few facts which appear to be derived
+from this source, together with a number of inferences
+gathered, often incorrectly, from Juvenal&rsquo;s works. The
+most important statement is that regarding Juvenal&rsquo;s
+birth, which is contained in the <i>vita</i> in the Codex Barberinus,
+8, 18, discovered by J. Dürr. The date is given
+in such precise and accurate terms, and is in itself so
+probable as solving so many of the questions connected
+with the poet&rsquo;s works, that to invent it requires an amount
+of knowledge with which we cannot credit the writer of
+this otherwise very poor account. The statements of the
+<i>vitae</i> must be carefully weighed, and accepted only when
+rendered probable by other considerations.<a href="#fn093" id="ref093">[93]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p id="p313">
+Juvenal&rsquo;s name is given in some of the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> as Decimus
+Iunius Iuvenalis. He was born <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 55.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Codex Barberinus</i>, &lsquo;Iunius Iuvenalis Aquinas Iunio
+Iuvenale patre, matre vero Septumuleia ex Aquinati municipio
+Claudio Nerone et L. Antistio consulibus natus est.
+Sororem habuit Septumuleiam, quae Fuscino nupsit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The statement about his sister and mother is very
+doubtful; that about Fuscinus is a bad inference from
+the fact that <i>Sat.</i> 14 (on the education of children) is
+addressed to him. The name <i>Septumuleia</i> may be invented
+from 14, 105, <i>septima lux</i>. Juvenal&rsquo;s sister must have
+been called Iunia after her father; the naming of a girl
+after her mother was a mediaeval idea.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Juvenal was born at Aquinum, a town of the Volscians.
+Twelve of the <i>vitae</i> agree in this, and they are confirmed
+by the poet&rsquo;s own words supposed to be addressed to
+him by his friend Umbricius: 3, 318-21,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Quotiens te<br />
+Roma tuo refici properantem reddet Aquino,<br />
+me quoque ad Helvinam Cererem vestramque Dianam<br />
+converte a Cumis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p314">
+Cf. 6, 57,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;agello cedo paterno.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+This is corroborated by the inscription found at Aquinum
+(<i>C.I.L.</i> x. 5382), which gives us other information about
+the poet:
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>cere</i>RI · SACRVM<br />
+<i>d . iu</i>NIVS · IVVENALIS<br />
+<i>trib</i> COH·<i>i</i>·DELMATARVM<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;II · VIR · QVINQ · FLAMEN<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;DIVI · VESPASIANI<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;VOVIT · DEDICAV<i>itq</i>VE<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;SVA&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;PEC
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+This inscription appears to have stood near the temple
+of Ceres Helvina or Elvina, dedicated by a member of
+the gens Elvia, references to which are found on inscriptions
+of the district.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <i>vitae</i> say that Juvenal was the son of a freedman.<a href="#fn094" id="ref094">[94]</a>
+Cf. <i>Vitae</i> i. <i>a</i>, i. <i>b</i>, ii. <i>c</i> (Dürr): &lsquo;libertini locupletis incertum
+filius an alumnus.&rsquo; <i>Vita</i> v. (Dürr), &lsquo;ordinis ut fertur
+libertinorum.&rsquo; This story is due to a misapprehension of
+some of Juvenal&rsquo;s references. 1, 99-102,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Iubet a praecone vocari<br />
+ipsos Troiugenas (nam vexant limen et ipsi<br />
+nobiscum): &ldquo;da praetori, da deinde tribuno.&rdquo;<br />
+Sed libertinus prior est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p315">
+<i>Libertinus</i> here is not to be taken to mean that the
+entire set are freedmen.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As to 4, 98,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;unde fit ut malim fraterculus esse gigantis,&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+it gives no evidence whatever of Juvenal&rsquo;s position. If it
+meant anything, it would rather imply that Juvenal was
+the son of a poor Italian and not of a foreign slave. So
+for 11, 145-6. His family was respectable, his means
+were fair, and he could afford to look down on upstarts
+in virtue both of his birth and of his property, although
+it is clear from his own works that he had in Rome the
+position of a rather humble dependent, who would be
+exposed to insult at the tables of the rich and powerful.
+Cf. 3, 318; 6, 57 (above); 12, 89, &lsquo;laribus paternis&rsquo;; 1, 24,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;patricios omnes opibus cum provocet unus,<br />
+quo tondente gravis iuveni mihi barba sonabat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+So 10, 225.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <i>vita</i> iv. he is said to have attained equestrian rank.
+(Tribunician rank implied equestrian). This, on the whole,
+is confirmed by the inscription, and may be founded on
+the original <i>vita</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Juvenal had a full course of education, first under the
+<i>litterator</i> and the <i>grammaticus</i>, then under the <i>rhetor</i>.<a href="#fn095" id="ref095">[95]</a>
+Cf. 1, 15,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p316">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Et nos ergo manum ferulae subduximus, et nos<br />
+consilium dedimus Sullae, privatus ut altum<br />
+dormiret.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+This would imply a good position, and a certain command
+of money. Such <i>patres libertini</i> as Horace&rsquo;s were
+very rare.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The inscription above quoted (<i>divi Vespasiani</i> shows
+that its date is after <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 79, and probably not long after)
+informs us that Juvenal was (1) &lsquo;tribunus cohortis I.
+Delmatarum&rsquo;<a href="#fn096" id="ref096">[96]</a>; (2) &lsquo;duumvir quinquennalis&rsquo;<a href="#fn097" id="ref097">[97]</a> and &lsquo;flamen
+divi Vespasiani&rsquo; at Aquinum. The dates when Juvenal
+held these posts cannot be determined exactly; but we
+can infer certain points.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(1) There was a <i>certus ordo honorum</i> in municipal life,
+and Juvenal must have held the quaestorship and the
+aedileship before the <i>duumviratus quinquennalis</i>. The
+lower limit of entering on a municipal career was twenty-five,
+according to an order of Augustus, and people did
+not usually begin it much later; we may therefore conclude
+that these municipal posts were held by Juvenal
+somewhere between <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 80 and 90. The last year is
+approximately fixed by the way in which Martial in two
+of his epigrams (vii. 24 and 91) belonging to <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 91
+or 92 speaks of Juvenal; the words show that the
+latter must have been established in Rome for some
+time.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p317">
+(2) In ordinary course Juvenal would enter the army
+after the completion of his seventeenth year. The short
+time he took to arrive at the position of tribune, and the
+statement of <i>vita</i> iv. &lsquo;cum ... ad dignitatem equestris
+ordinis pervenire sua virtute meruisset,&rsquo; make it probable
+that he entered the army as <i>petitor militiae equestris</i>,
+as a preliminary step towards entering on a political
+career.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The cohors Delmatarum I., which Juvenal commanded
+as tribune, was in Britain in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 106, and in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 124.<a href="#fn098" id="ref098">[98]</a>
+Probably it had been stationed there for a period of
+years, and it is likely that Juvenal filled his tribuneship
+there. Now, all the <i>vitae</i> inform us that Juvenal was
+banished under the pretext of a military command. While
+the other <i>vitae</i> give Egypt as the place of his banishment,
+<i>vita</i> iv. gives Scotland; and it seems highly probable that
+<i>vita</i> iv. has confused Juvenal&rsquo;s regular military command
+in Britain, and his banishment, late in life, to Egypt.
+The words are:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;[Tyrannus] sub honoris praetextu fecit eum praefectum
+militis contra Scotos, qui bellum contra Romanos
+moverant.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This is supported by Juvenal&rsquo;s references to Britain.
+Some of these, like his references to Egypt, seem, in
+contradistinction to most of his references to foreign parts,
+to imply personal knowledge and observation. They are
+as follows:
+</p>
+
+<p id="p318">
+(1) 2, 159-161,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Arma quidem ultra<br />
+litora Iuvernae promovimus et modo captas<br />
+Orcadas ac minima contentos nocte Britannos.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Here &lsquo;Iuverna&rsquo; is the old name of Ireland, which is not
+mentioned even in Tacitus&rsquo; <i>Agricola</i><a href="#fn099" id="ref099">[99]</a>; for the Orcades
+cf. Tac. <i>Agr.</i> 10; and the excessive shortness of the
+summer nights mentioned in the last clause is especially
+true of the north of Scotland.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(2) 10, 14,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quanto delphinis balaena Britannica maior.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+This is also particularly applicable to the north of Scotland,
+whales being frequently seen off the Orkney and
+Shetland Islands.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(3) 4, 141,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Rutupinove edita fundo<br />
+ostrea.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(4) 14, 196,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Castella Brigantum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(5) 15, 111,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Gallia causidicos docuit facunda Britannos,<br />
+de conducendo loquitur iam rhetore Thule.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Cf. Tac. <i>Agr.</i> 21.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(6) 15, 124, &lsquo;Brittones.&rsquo; This form is rarely found
+except in military inscriptions,<a href="#fn100" id="ref100">[100]</a> and could scarcely have
+been used except by one familiar with the camp in
+Britain.<a href="#fn101" id="ref101">[101]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p id="p319">
+That Juvenal came to Rome about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 90 has been
+shown above. This step he may have taken to forward
+his promotion in the army and afterwards in the procuratorial
+service. His failure in this direction may have
+led to his pessimism. His friendship with Martial (whom,
+however, he does not mention) is shown by Mart. vii.
+24 (cf. vii. 91),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Cum Iuvenale meo quae me committere temptas,<br />
+quid non audebis, perfida lingua, loqui?&rsquo; etc.
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+That he was still in Rome in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 101, and had the
+entrée of the atria of rich nobles is shown by Mart. xii.
+18, written in that year.
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Dum tu forsitan inquietus erras<br />
+clamosa, Iuvenalis, in Subura<br />
+aut collem dominae teris Dianae,<br />
+dura per limina te potentiorum<br />
+sudatrix toga ventilat vagumque<br />
+maior Caelius et minor fatigant,<br />
+me multos repetita post Decembres<br />
+accepit mea rusticumque fecit<br />
+auro Bilbilis et superba ferro.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+From this we see that he lived in the Subura, the plebeian
+quarter. Cf. 3, 5,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;ego vel Prochytam praepono Suburae.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p id="p320">
+While in Rome he still possessed his land at Aquinum
+and also a property at Tibur; 11, 65,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;de Tiburtino veniet pinguissimus agro<br />
+haedulus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+The statement of the <i>vitae</i> that Juvenal studied rhetoric
+till middle life is, as already stated, improbable, as
+being inconsistent with his military and municipal career;
+&lsquo;facundus,&rsquo; applied to him by Mart. vii. 91, 1, does not
+mean &lsquo;declaiming,&rsquo; but &lsquo;poetical&rsquo; or &lsquo;oratorical.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Vitae</i> i. <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> (and other seven) say, &lsquo;ad mediam fere
+aetatem declamavit animi magis causa quam quod scholae
+se aut foro praepararet.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Juvenal&rsquo;s literary life.</i>&mdash;In the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> the satires are divided
+into Books, and the division seems ancient. Book i. includes
+<i>Sat.</i> 1-5; Book ii. = <i>Sat.</i> 6; Book iii. = <i>Sat.</i> 7-9;
+Book iv. = <i>Sat.</i> 10-12; Book v. = <i>Sat.</i> 13-16.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Book i. was written under Trajan; certainly after <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 100,
+the date of the trial of Marius Priscus <a href="#fn102" id="ref102">[102]</a>; 1, 49,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;exul ab octava Marius bibit et fruitur dis<br />
+iratis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Book ii. not earlier than <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 116. It is highly probable
+that 6, 407, &lsquo;instantem regi Armenio Parthoque cometen,&rsquo;
+refers to a comet seen at Rome in November <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 115;
+and 6, 411, &lsquo;nutare urbes, subsidere terras,&rsquo; to the earthquake
+at Antioch, 13th December, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 115.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Book iii., probably about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 120, was written under
+Hadrian, who is eulogized in 7, 1-35. Dürr thinks it
+probable that 7, 36-243, was written under Trajan, and
+that the introduction, in praise of Hadrian, was written
+afterwards. This is also Friedländer&rsquo;s view; cf. l. 1, &lsquo;Et
+spes et ratio studiorum in Caesare tantum,&rsquo; with Spart. <i>vit.
+Hadr.</i> 14, 8, &lsquo;poematum studiosissimus.&rsquo; This also supports
+the view that the introduction was written not long after
+Hadrian&rsquo;s accession, when a new era for poets was supposed
+to be beginning.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p321">
+Book iv. was probably written about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 125.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Book v. A clue to the date is found in 13, 16-7,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Stupet haec, qui iam post terga reliquit<br />
+sexaginta annos, Fonteio consule natus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Fonteius Capito and C. Iulius Rufus were consuls <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 67,
+in which year the sexagenarian friend whom Juvenal
+addresses was born. The date of writing will therefore
+be <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 127.<a href="#fn103" id="ref103">[103]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. also 15, 27, &lsquo;nuper consule Iunco.&rsquo; Iuncus was
+consul <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 127, so that this satire could not have been
+written before <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 128. So 15, 44,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Horrida sane<br />
+Aegyptos, sed luxuria, quantum ipse notavi,<br />
+barbara famoso non cedit turba Canopo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Juvenal must have added these lines to the satire while
+he was an exile in Egypt, if he did not write the whole
+of it there. This is in accordance with what <i>vita</i> v. says,
+&lsquo;in exilio ampliavit satyras.&rsquo; Supposing this passage to be
+an addition, we may conclude that Book v. was written
+about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 128, but not before that year.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p322">
+<i>Juvenal&rsquo;s banishment.</i>&mdash;As before stated, all the <i>vitae</i> but
+one give Egypt as the place of Juvenal&rsquo;s exile. The exact
+place, according to the scholiast on 1, 1 and 4, 38, was
+the Great Oasis (Hoasa: Hoasis). Three <i>vitae</i> (i. <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>,
+iii. <i>c</i>) state that he was at that time <i>octogenarius</i>. This
+would make the date <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 135 or 136. Most of the <i>vitae</i>
+give as the reason of his exile the fact that he wrote the
+lines,<a href="#fn104" id="ref104">[104]</a> 7, 90-2,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quod non dant proceres dabit histrio. Tu Camerinos<br />
+et Baream, tu nobilium magna atria curas?<br />
+Praefectos Pelopea facit, Philomela tribunos.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Now these lines, the first he ever wrote (<i>vita</i> iii. <i>c</i>) were
+composed in his youth as an epigram on Paris, Domitian&rsquo;s
+favourite, probably about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 81-3. The true story then
+is that, when Juvenal in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 135 or 136 published a new
+edition of <i>Sat.</i> 7, he added these lines (<i>vitae</i> i. <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, &lsquo;ut ea
+quoque quae prima fecerat inferciret novis scriptis&rsquo;).<a href="#fn105" id="ref105">[105]</a> Now
+it has been inferred from Spart. <i>vit. Hadr.</i> 23 <i>sqq.</i> that at
+this time an actor had great influence over Hadrian, and
+the lines were taken as referring to him. The emperor in
+a rage banished Juvenal to Egypt <i>per honorem militiae</i>,
+writing maliciously on his commission &lsquo;Et te Philomela
+promovit&rsquo; (<i>vita</i> iv.). The banishment is assigned to the
+influence of Paris by Iohannes Malalas, p. 262 <i>sqq.</i>
+(Dindorf), and by Suidas. Cf. also <i>Sat.</i> 15, 44 <i>sqq.</i>,
+already quoted, and Sidonius Apollinaris 9, 267 <i>sqq.</i>,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p323">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Non qui tempore Caesaris secundi<br />
+aeterno incoluit Tomos reatu:<br />
+non qui consimili deinde casu<br />
+ad volgi tenuem strepentis auram<br />
+irati fuit histrionis exul.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Vita</i> iii. <i>b</i>, &lsquo;Tristitia et angore periit anno aetatis suae
+altero et octuagesimo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Vita</i> v., &lsquo;Decessit longo senio confectus exul Antonino
+Pio imperatore.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+If this last statement is correct, Juvenal died after
+reaching the age of eighty-two, as Antoninus came to the
+throne on 10th July, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 138. It follows from this also
+that he must have been born in the second half of <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 55.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>The Satires.</i>&mdash;The following are the more important
+points regarding these:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(1) Juvenal&rsquo;s reasons for writing satire are given in <i>Sat.</i> 1,
+ll. 1-14. He is wearied with tragedies and epics on mythological
+subjects, &lsquo;Semper ego auditor tantum?&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He is resolved to follow in the footsteps of Lucilius;
+ll. 19-21,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Cur tamen hoc potius libeat decurrere campo,<br />
+per quem magnus equos Auruncae flexit alumnus,<br />
+si vacat ac placidi rationem admittitis, edam.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+His satire is due to indignation at the moral decay of the
+Roman world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+l. 30, &lsquo;Difficile est satiram non scribere&rsquo; (cf. ll. 63,
+79).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+However, he does not intend to satirize the living, at
+least under their own names; and in fact he has in his
+mind particularly the times of Domitian, while most of
+his names are those of persons living under Claudius or
+Nero; l. 170,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p324">
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Experiar quid concedatur in illos,<br />
+quorum Flaminia tegitur cinis atque Latina.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+In the first nine Satires Juvenal&rsquo;s bitterness is directed
+mainly against the senatorial class, possibly because they
+had given him no support in his office-seeking. Even his
+violent attack on women in <i>Sat.</i> 6 is launched chiefly
+against the women of the highest class. Note also the
+unjust way in which he speaks of the government of the
+provinces (<i>Sat.</i> 8, 87-139). Juvenal is very bitter against
+Greeks and Orientals, most of all against Egyptians (cf.
+<i>Sat.</i> 15, and his attacks on the Egyptian Crispinus in 4,
+1-33, etc.). Cf. 3, 119-125, for his attacks on foreigners.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(2) He claims a wide scope for his subject; 1, 85,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Quidquid agunt homines, votum timor ira voluptas<br />
+gaudia discursus nostri farrago libelli est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+(3) His pessimism is very marked; cf. 1, 147,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nil erit ulterius, quod nostris moribus addat<br />
+posteritas; eadem facient cupientque minores,<br />
+omne in praecipiti vitium stetit. Utere velis,<br />
+totos pande sinus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+So 12, 48-9. His pessimism leads to extravagant language
+like 6, 29 <i>sqq.</i> He is as hard on trifling foibles as on the
+most heinous offences. Cf. 6, 166 <i>sqq.</i>, 185 <i>sqq.</i>, 398 <i>sqq.</i>,
+434-56 (on learned ladies).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(4) His rhetorical learning and style (found in all the
+Satires, but particularly in the later ones) are shown by
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>a</i>) His metre and language. Thus we find rhetorical
+uses of <i>ergo</i> (3, 104; 281, etc.); <i>nunc</i> (3, 268; 10, 210);
+<i>porro</i> (3, 126; 11, 9); and of other particles.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p325">
+(<i>b</i>) The way in which he chooses themes for his Satires,
+and subdivides them. Several of the Satires, as 5, 8, 10, 14,
+are <i>theses</i>, <i>i.e.</i> problems of a general character worked out
+in the manner of the rhetorical schools. Thus <i>Sat.</i> 5
+discusses the question, &lsquo;Is the position of a client worth
+having?&rsquo; <i>Sat.</i> 8, &lsquo;Has high birth a value in itself?&rsquo; He
+sometimes uses the commonplaces of the schools, as 8, 56,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Animalia muta<br />
+quis generosa putet nisi fortia?&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+So 8, 215-6. In the manner of a rhetorician he sometimes
+gives superabundant details. The best example of this is
+10, 190-250, on the troubles of old age.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>c</i>) His knowledge of mythology, history, law, and philosophy.
+This is found mostly in the later Books. In
+the earlier Satires he dealt more with life as he had
+known it. In the later Satires he has recourse to republican
+times and to foreign history. His historical examples
+Friedländer thinks he took mostly from Valerius Maximus.
+Juvenal&rsquo;s knowledge of philosophy was very superficial,
+and was probably got from his rhetorical training. Errors
+occur; thus in 13, 121-2, Stoics and Cynics are looked
+upon as identical.<a href="#fn106" id="ref106">[106]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>d</i>) His high-flown language referred to above.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>e</i>) His references to previous literature. Thus Horace
+is often referred to (cf. 7, 62 and 227); Virgil with great
+frequency (cf. 1, 162; 6, 434 <i>sqq.</i>; 7, 66 and 227; 7, 233 <i>sqq.</i>).
+Mayor mentions Homer, Herodotus, Plato, Lucilius, Cicero,
+Ovid, Manilius, Valerius Maximus, Seneca, Lucan, and
+Martial among the authors imitated by Juvenal.
+</p>
+
+<h3 id="p326">PLINY THE YOUNGER.</h3>
+
+<p>
+Pliny&rsquo;s full name on the inscriptions of the later period
+of his life reads &lsquo;C. Plinius L. f. Ouf. Caecilius Secundus.&rsquo;
+This name he partly got from his mother&rsquo;s brother C.
+Plinius Secundus (Pliny the elder), who adopted him by
+will: cf. <i>Ep.</i> v. 8, 5, &lsquo;Avunculus meus idemque per
+adoptionem pater.&rsquo; Pliny&rsquo;s name before his adoption in
+<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 79 (see below) was P. Caecilius L. f. Ouf. Secundus.
+His birthplace was Comum, and he belonged to the
+Oufentina, the tribe of the people of Comum, as well on
+the side of his natural as on that of his adoptive father.
+In an inscription preserved at Como (<i>C.I.L.</i> v. 5279)
+Pliny&rsquo;s father, Cilo, is mentioned, and two men who are
+undoubtedly Cilo&rsquo;s sons, the second mentioned being Pliny
+the younger, who had always been called Secundus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;L. Caecilius L. f. Cilo iiii.vir a(edilicia) p(otestate),
+qui testamento suo (sestertium) n(ummum) xxxx. (milia)
+municipibus Comensibus legavit, ex quorum reditu quotannis
+per Neptunalia oleum in campo et in thermis et
+in balineis omnibus, quae sunt Comi, praeberentur,
+t(estamento) f(ieri) iussit et L. Caecilio L. f. Valenti et
+P. Caecilio L. f. Secundo et Lutullae Picti f. contubernali.&rsquo;<a href="#fn107" id="ref107">[107]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For Cilo&rsquo;s bequests here mentioned cf. Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> i, 8,
+5; Comum is referred to as &lsquo;patria mea&rsquo; in <i>Ep.</i> iv. 30, 1.
+The Caecilii were a family of station at Comum even in
+Caesar&rsquo;s time. Cf. Catull. 35,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote id="p327">
+<p>
+&lsquo;Poetae tenero meo sodali<br />
+velim Caecilio, papyre, dicas,<br />
+Veronam veniat Novi relinquens<br />
+Comi moenia Lariumque litus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+Pliny inherited landed property there from his father and
+mother.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> vii. 11, 5, &lsquo;Indicavit mihi cupere se aliquid circa
+Larium nostrum possidere: ego illi ex praediis meis quod
+vellet ... optuli, exceptis maternis paternisque.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The above inscription shows that Pliny&rsquo;s father belonged
+to the municipal nobility, and possibly had &lsquo;equestris
+nobilitas.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pliny was in his eighteenth year (<i>Ep.</i> vi. 20, 5, &lsquo;agebam
+duodevicensimum annum&rsquo;) on 24th August, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 79, when
+his uncle perished in the eruption of Vesuvius, and he
+was therefore born in the second half of 61 or in the
+first half of 62 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> Cilo died young, before holding the
+chief municipal post, and before Pliny was of age; and
+Verginius Rufus became Pliny&rsquo;s guardian.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 8, &lsquo;Ille mihi tutor relictus adfectum parentis
+exhibuit.&rsquo; Pliny was removed to Rome with his uncle,
+probably at the end of <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 72. While at school he
+wrote poetry (<i>Ep.</i> vii. 4, 2, quoted below), and studied
+philosophy and rhetoric.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> vi. 6, 3, &lsquo;Quos tunc ego frequentabam, Quintilianum,
+Niceten Sacerdotem.&rsquo; Cf. also ii. 14, 10; i. 20, 4; vii.
+4, etc. For literary studies with his uncle cf. <i>Ep.</i> vi.
+20, 5, &lsquo;Posco librum Titi Livi et quasi per otium lego,
+atque etiam, ut coeperam, excerpo.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p328">
+His uncle, as above stated, died on 24th August, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>
+79, and by his will adopted Pliny, whose name thereafter
+was C. Plinius L. f. Ouf. Caecilius Secundus. He therefore
+changed his praenomen to that of his adoptive
+father, and put his former nomen among his cognomina.
+By his contemporaries he is called Plinius (cf. Martial, x.
+19), or Secundus, as by Trajan. The name Caecilius
+was confined to formal inscriptions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 80 or 81 Pliny first appeared as an advocate.
+Cf. <i>Ep.</i> v. 8, 8, &lsquo;Undevicensimo aetatis anno dicere in
+foro coepi.&rsquo; Before entering the Senate, he held (as
+stated in the chief inscription, given below) the decemvirate
+<i>litibus iudicandis</i>, the military tribunate in the third Gallic
+legion, and the title of Sevir in the Roman knighthood.
+Pliny probably held his military tribunate under Domitian
+(<i>i.e.</i>, after 13th September, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 81) in Syria.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. <i>Ep.</i> i. 10, 2, &lsquo;Hunc [Euphraten philosophum] ego
+in Syria, cum adulescentulus militarem, penitus et domi
+inspexi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The date of Pliny&rsquo;s praetorship as <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 93 is settled by
+<i>Ep.</i> iii. 11, 2, the events recorded in which passage are
+known from Tac. <i>Agr.</i> 45 to have taken place shortly
+after Agricola&rsquo;s death in August, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 93.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Fui praetor ... cum ... occisis Senecione Rustico Helvidio,
+relegatis Maurico Gratilla Arria Fannia ... mihi quoque
+impendere idem exitium certis quibusdam notis augurarer.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The words in <i>Ep.</i> vii. 16 (of Calestrius Tiro), &lsquo;Simul
+quaestores Caesaris fuimus: ille me in tribunatu liberorum
+iure praecessit, ego illum in praetura sum consecutus,
+cum mihi Caesar annum remisisset,&rsquo; refer to the fact that
+the emperor did not insist on the year of absence from
+office between the tribunate and the quaestorship. Pliny
+was quaestor from 1st June, 89 to 31st May, 90 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>,
+being nominated by the emperor, as shown by the above
+passage. He was <i>trib. pleb.</i> from 10th December, 90 to 9th
+December, 91 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>, and during his year of office undertook
+no cases. Cf. <i>Ep.</i> i. 23, 2, &lsquo;Ipse cum tribunus
+essem ... abstinui causis agendis.&rsquo; By special favour he
+was allowed to take office as praetor on 1st January, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>
+93. In this year he appeared before the Senate for the
+people of Baetica against the procurator Baebius Massa.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p329">
+<i>Ep.</i> vii. 33, esp. § 4, &lsquo;Dederat me senatus cum Herennio
+Senecione advocatum provinciae Baeticae contra Baebium
+Massam.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The inscriptions of Pliny show that he was <i>praefectus
+aerarii militaris</i> between his praetorship in 93 and his
+<i>praefectura aerarii Saturni</i> (from 98 onwards), and this
+office he held either from 94 to 96 or from 95 to 97 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>
+Pliny tells us that he and Cornutus Tertullus were designated
+consuls, when they had held the <i>praefectura aerarii
+Saturni</i> for less than two years.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Paneg.</i> 91, &lsquo;Nondum biennium compleveramus in
+officio laboriosissimo et maximo, cum tu nobis ... consulatum
+obtulisti.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This <i>designatio</i> took place on 9th January, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 100,
+whence the <i>praefectura</i> must have been entered on shortly
+after 9th January, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 98. Pliny was probably nominated
+to it by Nerva and Trajan.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. <i>ad Trai.</i> 3, &lsquo;Ut primum me, domine, indulgentia
+<i>vestra</i> promovit ad praefecturam aerarii Saturni.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mommsen<a href="#fn108" id="ref108">[108]</a> believes that this praefectura was held at
+the same time as the consulship, and on to December,
+<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 101, an unusual length of tenure. H. F. Stobbe,
+however, makes the trial of Classicus, on which the last
+date depends, extend from September 99 to July 100
+<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> (<i>Philologus</i>, xxx. 347 <i>sqq.</i>).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p330">
+<i>Paneg.</i> 92, &lsquo;Nobis praefectis aerarii consulatum ante
+quam successorem dedisti.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pliny, along with Cornutus Tertullus, his colleague in
+the <i>praefectura</i>, was made consul <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 100. He held the
+office in September of that year, and the tenure was
+either from July 1 to September 30, or from September
+1 to October 31.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Paneg.</i> 92, &lsquo;Ei nos potissimum mensi attribuisti quem
+tuus natalis exornat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Panegyricus</i> is a speech of thanks to Trajan spoken
+on this occasion. In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 99 Pliny, along with Tacitus,
+appeared for the Africans against the proconsul Marius
+Priscus (see <i>Ep.</i> ii. 11 quoted <a href="#p338">p. 338</a>); and in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 101,
+while still <i>praefectus aerarii</i>, he appeared for the people of
+Baetica against the proconsul Caecilius Classicus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> iii. 4, 2, &lsquo;Legati provinciae Baeticae questuri de proconsulatu
+Caecili Classici advocatum me a senatu petierunt.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pliny obtained the augurship, probably in 103 or 104,
+in succession to Sex. Iulius Frontinus, who probably died
+in 102 or 103 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> Cf. <i>Ep.</i> iv. 8, 3, &lsquo;Successi Iulio
+Frontino.&rsquo; In 103 or 104 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> he appeared against the
+Bithynians for the proconsul Iulius Bassus (<i>Ep.</i> iv. 9 etc.).
+He held the <i>cura alvei Tiberis et riparum et cloacarum
+urbis</i> probably from 105 to 107 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> See Pliny&rsquo;s chief
+inscription (below), and cf. <i>Ep.</i> v. 14, 1-2, &lsquo;Mihi nuntiatum
+est Cornutum Tertullum accepisse Aemiliae viae curam
+... aliquanto magis me delectat mandatum mihi officium,
+postquam par Cornuto datum video.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p331">
+About <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 106 Pliny appeared against the Bithynians
+for the proconsul Varenus Rufus (<i>Ep.</i> vi. 29, 11).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From 111-2 or 112-3 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> Pliny was governor of Pontus
+and Bithynia, being sent out for a special purpose by
+the emperor as <i>legatus pro praetore consulari potestate</i>.
+Cf. the chief inscription (below) and the words of Trajan.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Trai.</i> 32, &lsquo;Meminerimus idcirco te in istam provinciam
+missum, quoniam multa in ea emendanda apparuerint.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The date of Pliny&rsquo;s governorship is fixed by the mention
+of Calpurnius Macer in the letters (<i>ad Trai.</i> 42; 61; 62)
+as the governor of the nearest province. Mommsen has
+identified him with P. Calpurnius Macer Caulius Rufus,
+who is shown by an inscription (<i>C.I.L.</i> iii. 7 and 17) to
+have been governor of Lower Moesia in 112 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> This
+is corroborated by the fact that no mention is made of
+Bithynia in the chief collection of letters, which was not
+completed till <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 108 at least. Therefore the governorship
+falls after that time. On the other hand, Pliny
+must have been sent out not later than <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 113, as in
+the chief inscription <i>Optimus</i> does not appear in Trajan&rsquo;s
+name, and this cognomen he assumed in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 114.
+Finally, the fact that Trajan was at Rome during Pliny&rsquo;s
+governorship points to a time between the end of the
+second Dacian War in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 107 and the outbreak of the
+Parthian War in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 113.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Our information about Pliny ends with the close of
+his correspondence with Trajan. It is certain that he
+held no further office, and it is probable that he died
+before <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 114 in his province or shortly after his return
+to Rome.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As regards municipal relations, Pliny held the post of
+<i>flamen divi Augusti</i>, according to the inscription which
+the corporation of Vercellae erected to him at his own
+town (<i>C.I.L.</i> v. 5667).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p332">
+&lsquo;C. Plini[o L. f. O]uf. Caec[ilio] Secundo [c]os. augur. cur.
+alv. Tib. [et ripa]r. et cloac. urb. [praef. a]er. Sat. praef.
+aer. mil. [pr. tr. pl.] imp. sevir. eq. R. tr. m[i]l. leg. iii. Gall.
+x. viro stl. iud. fl. divi T. Aug.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For bequests to his native town see the chief inscription
+(below). Besides these are mentioned gifts in his life-time.
+Under Domitian Pliny presented his townspeople with a
+library (<i>Ep.</i> i, 8), apparently worth 1,000,000 sesterces
+(v. 7), and endowed it with 100,000 sesterces. He also
+gave 500,000 sesterces for the support of freeborn boys
+and girls (<i>Ep.</i> i, 8); and promised to pay one-third of
+the salary of the professor of rhetoric at Comum (<i>Ep.</i>
+iv. 13, 5).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The following is the chief inscription of Pliny (as
+restored by Mommsen), which was erected at the <i>Thermae</i>
+which he presented to Comum (<i>C.I.L.</i> v. 5262):
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;C. Plinius L. f. Ouf. Caecilius <i>Secundus cos.</i> augur
+legat. pro pr. provinciae Pon<i>ti et Bithyniae</i> consulari
+potesta<i>t.</i> in eam provinciam e<i>x. s. c. missus ab</i> Imp.
+Caesar. Nerva Traiano Aug. German<i>ico Dacico p.p.</i> curator
+alvei Ti<i>b</i>eris et riparum e<i>t cloacar. urb.</i> praef. aerari
+Satu<i>r</i>ni praef. aerari mil<i>it. pr. trib. pl.</i> quaestor imp. sevir
+equitum <i>Romanorum</i> trib. milit. leg. <i>iii.</i> Gallicae <i>x.vir stli</i>tib.
+iudicand. therm<i>as ex HS</i> ... adiectis in ornatum HS
+ccc ... <i>et eo amp</i>lius in tutela<i>m</i> HS CC t. f. i. <i>item in alimenta</i>
+libertor. suorum homin. C. HS XVIII LXVI DCLXVI
+rei<i>p. legavit, quorum inc</i>rement. postea ad epulum <i>pl</i>eb.
+urban. voluit pertin<i>ere ... item vivus</i> dedit in aliment.
+pueror. et puellar. pleb. urban. HS D <i>item bybliothecam et</i>
+in tutelam bybliothecae HS C.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p333">
+Pliny was also patron of Tifernum Tiberinum and of
+the Baetici.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> iv. 1, 4, &lsquo;Oppidum est praediis nostris vicinum,
+nomen Tiferni Tiberini, quod me paene adhuc puerum
+patronum cooptavit ... In hoc ego ... templum pecunia mea
+exstruxi, cuius dedicationem ... differre longius inreligiosum
+est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> iii. 4, 4, &lsquo;Legati ... inplorantes fidem meam, quam
+essent contra Massam Baebium experti, adlegantes patrocini
+foedus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pliny married three times, twice under Domitian. Cf.
+<i>ad Trai.</i> 2, &lsquo;Liberos ... habere etiam tristissimo illo saeculo
+volui, sicut potes duobus matrimoniis meis credere.&rsquo;
+For his third wife, Calpurnia, who died <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 97, see
+<i>Ep.</i> iv. 19. Pliny had no children, but Trajan conferred
+on him the <i>ius trium liberorum</i> in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 98. Cf. <i>ad Trai.</i>
+2, &lsquo;Me dignum putasti iure trium liberorum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Pliny as orator and writer.</i>&mdash;Most of Pliny&rsquo;s cases
+were before the <i>centumviri</i>, who dealt with inheritances:
+cf. <i>Ep.</i> vi. 12, 2, &lsquo;in harena mea, hoc est apud centumviros.&rsquo;
+So Mart. x. 19, 14 (written <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 96),
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Totos dat tetricae dies Minervae<br />
+dum centum studet auribus virorum<br />
+hoc quod saecula posterique possint<br />
+Arpinis quoque comparare chartis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+For Pliny&rsquo;s five speeches in criminal trials before
+the Senate see above. Cf. <i>Ep.</i> vi. 29, 7 <i>sqq.</i>, &lsquo;Egi
+quasdam a senatu iussus ... Adfui Baeticis contra Baebium
+Massam ... Adfui rursus isdem querentibus de Caecilio
+Classico ... Accusavi Marium Priscum ... Tuitus sum
+Iulium Bassum ... Dixi proxime pro Vareno.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p334">
+Pliny recited his speeches before delivering them, and
+subsequently published them, sometimes with additions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> vii. 17, 2, &lsquo;Miror quod scribis fuisse quosdam qui
+reprehenderent quod orationes omnino recitarem.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> iii. 18, 1 (of the <i>Panegyricus</i>), &lsquo;Quod ego in senatu
+cum ad rationem et loci et temporis ex more fecissem,
+bono civi convenientissimum credidi eadem illa spatiosius
+et uberius volumine amplecti.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pliny speaks of his early attempts at poetry:
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> vii. 4, 2-3, &lsquo;Numquam a poetice (altius enim
+repetam) alienus fui; quin etiam quattuordecim natus
+annos Graecam tragoediam scripsi. Qualem? inquis:
+nescio: tragoedia vocabatur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In Books i.-iii. he appears only as a lover of poetry and
+a patron of poets (cf. i. 16; iii. 15). From Book iv.
+(published <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 105) onwards he appears as a poet. In
+<i>Ep.</i> vii. 4, 6 are thirteen poor hexameter lines on Cicero;
+<i>ibid.</i> §§ 7-8, &lsquo;Transii ad elegos: hos quoque non minus
+celeriter explicui: addidi iambos, facilitate corruptus ...
+Postremo placuit exemplo multorum unum separatim
+hendecasyllaborum volumen absolvere, nec paenitet.
+Legitur, describitur, cantatur etiam.&rsquo; Pliny defends himself
+for writing light verses in <i>Ep.</i> v. 3, etc. In the later
+books he refers to another proposed collection of verses.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> viii. 21, 3, &lsquo;Liber fuit et opusculis varius et
+metris.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pliny says he did not observe chronological order in
+publishing his letters.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ep.</i> i. 1, 1, &lsquo;Collegi non servato temporis ordine
+(neque enim historiam componebam), sed ut quaeque in
+manus venerat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This, however, is not convincing, as it falls in with
+Pliny&rsquo;s wish to give an appearance of negligence to the
+work, and besides it may apply only to Book i. Successive
+publication of the different Books is shown by many
+references; so <i>Ep.</i> ix. 19, &lsquo;Significas legisse te in quadam
+epistula,&rsquo; where <i>Ep.</i> vi. 10 is referred to. So also contemporaneous
+events are always described in the same
+Book or in two Books close together; and when a subject
+is continued in another letter, the order of the two letters
+fits in with chronology. So iii. 4 and iv. 1 deal with
+the building of a temple at Tifernum; iii. 20 and iv. 25
+with ballot at elections.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p335">
+The following are the probable dates of publication:
+Book i. in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 97; Book ii. in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 100; Book iii. in
+<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 101 or 102; Book iv. in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 105; Book v. in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>
+106; Book vi. possibly in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 106; Book vii. in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>
+107; Book viii. not before <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 109; Book ix. probably
+about the same time.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The correspondence with Trajan is independent of the
+nine Books of letters. The epistles are roughly in chronological
+order. <i>Epp.</i> 1-14 range from 98 to 106 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>
+<i>Epp.</i> 15 to the end were probably all written in Bithynia
+during Pliny&rsquo;s governorship there. Trajan&rsquo;s reply is subjoined
+to most of the letters. The correspondence extant
+stretches from September <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 111 over January <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 113.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pliny had intimate relations with other writers, the
+principal being Tacitus; Martial (cf. <i>Ep.</i> iii. 21); Silius
+Italicus (cf. <i>Ep.</i> iii. 7). See <a href="#p340">pp. 340</a>, <a href="#p298">298</a>, <a href="#p289">289</a>. For his
+literary reputation see <i>Ep.</i> ix. 23, 2, quoted <a href="#p338b">p. 338</a> and cf.
+<i>Ep.</i> i. 2, 6, &lsquo;Libelli quos emisimus dicuntur in manibus
+esse, quamvis iam gratiam novitatis exuerint; nisi tamen
+auribus nostris bibliopolae blandiuntur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Pliny&rsquo;s character.</i>&mdash;Pliny, without being a great man, is
+a more favourable specimen of character, feeling, and gentlemanly
+tone, than almost any other Roman author. He
+avoided censorious writing, and most of the people he
+mentions are praised. The chief exception is Regulus
+(<i>Ep.</i> i. 5, etc.), and possibly also Iavolenus Priscus (vi.
+15). When anybody is blamed, his name is omitted unless
+he is dead or has been banished.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p336">
+<i>Ep.</i> vii. 28, i, &lsquo;Ais quosdam apud te reprehendisse,
+tamquam amicos meos ex omni occasione ultra modum
+laudem. Agnosco crimen, amplector etiam. Quid enim
+honestius culpa benignitatis?&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For his desire of praise cf. <i>Ep.</i> ix. 23, 5, &lsquo;An ... ego
+celebritate nominis mei gaudere non debeo? Ego vero
+et gaudeo et gaudere me dico.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For his kindness to slaves cf. <i>Ep.</i> viii. 16, 1, &lsquo;Permitto
+servis quoque quasi testamenta facere eaque ut legitima
+custodio&rsquo; (and the rest of the letter).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For his grief at the loss of friends cf. <i>Ep.</i> v. 21, 6,
+&lsquo;Sed quid ego indulgeo dolori? cui si frenos remittas,
+nulla materia non maxima est. Finem epistulae faciam,
+ut facere possim etiam lacrimis quas epistula expressit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+For his love of nature cf. Ep. i. 9, 6, &lsquo;O mare, o litus,
+verum secretumque <span class="greek">μουσεῖον</span>, quam multa invenitis, quam
+multa dictatis!&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. also descriptions of natural scenery, as in <i>Epp.</i> ii.
+17, 3; v. 6, 13; vi. 31, 15; viii. 8.
+</p>
+
+<h3>TACITUS.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+The historian&rsquo;s full name is uncertain. Other writers,
+<i>e.g.</i> Pliny the younger, call him Cornelius Tacitus, or simply
+Tacitus. His praenomen is given as P. in the best Tacitean
+<span class="bcad">MS.</span> (Mediceus I.), and as C. in later <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> and by Sidonius
+Apollinaris (<i>Ep.</i> iv. 14; 22).<a href="#fn109" id="ref109">[109]</a> His birthplace is unknown.
+The tradition that he was born at Interamna in Umbria
+arose from the fact that the emperor Tacitus (<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 275-6),
+who claimed descent from the historian (Vopisc. <i>Tac.</i> 10, 3),
+was born there.<a href="#fn110" id="ref110">[110]</a> The probable date of his birth is got
+from a comparison of two passages:
+</p>
+
+<p id="p337">
+<i>Dial.</i> 1, &lsquo;Disertissimorum ... hominum ... quos eamdem
+hanc quaestionem pertractantes iuvenis admodum audivi.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> vii. 20, 3, &lsquo;Erit rarum et insigne duos homines
+aetate dignitate propemodum aequales ... alterum alterius
+studia fovisse. Equidem adulescentulus, cum iam tu fama
+gloriaque floreres, te sequi, tibi longo sed proximus intervallo
+et esse et haberi concupiscebam.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The dramatic date of the Dialogue is <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 75 (<i>Dial.</i> 17),
+and at that time Tacitus, as <i>iuvenis admodum</i>, must have
+been between seventeen and twenty. From a consideration
+of the words of Pliny, who was born <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 61 or 62, the
+later age seems nearer the mark, and we may conclude
+that Tacitus was born <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 55 or 56.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have no positive information about Tacitus&rsquo; family,
+but his education, political career, and marriage into a
+distinguished house, prove that he belonged to a family
+of station. The first person of the name we know of is
+mentioned by Pliny the elder as an <i>eques</i>, and may have
+been Tacitus&rsquo; father.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p338">
+Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> vii. 76, &lsquo;Corneli Taciti, equitis Romani,
+Belgicae Galliae rationes procurantis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tacitus received the regular rhetorical training under the
+best masters.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Dial.</i> 2, &lsquo;M. Aper et Iulius Secundus, celeberrima tum
+ingenia fori nostri, quos ego in iudiciis non modo studiose
+audiebam, sed domi quoque et in publico adsectabar, mira
+studiorum cupiditate et quodam ardore iuvenili, ut fabulas
+quoque eorum et disputationes et arcana semotae dictionis
+penitus exciperem.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p338b">
+That Tacitus had a very great reputation as a speaker
+is seen from Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> ix. 23, 2, &lsquo;Numquam maiorem
+cepi voluptatem, quam nuper ex sermone Corneli Taciti.
+Narrabat sedisse se cum quodam Circensibus proximis:
+hunc post varios eruditosque sermones requisisse &ldquo;Italicus
+es an provincialis?&rdquo; se respondisse &ldquo;nosti me, et quidem
+ex studiis.&rdquo; Ad hoc illum &ldquo;Tacitus es an Plinius?&rdquo;&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 98 (according to others, 97) Tacitus delivered
+the funeral oration over Verginius Rufus, and in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 100
+he and Pliny prosecuted Marius Priscus, proconsul of
+Africa, for extortion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 6, &lsquo;Laudatus est [Verginius Rufus] a
+consule Cornelio Tacito: nam hic supremus felicitati eius
+cumulus accessit, laudator eloquentissimus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ibid.</i> ii. 11, 2, &lsquo;Ego et Cornelius Tacitus, adesse provincialibus
+iussi.&rsquo; § 17, &lsquo;Respondit Cornelius Tacitus
+eloquentissime, et quod eximium orationi eius inest, <span class="greek">σεμνῶς</span>.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 77 Tacitus was betrothed to the daughter of
+Agricola, then consul, and in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 78 he married her.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Agr.</i> 9, &lsquo;Consul egregiae tum spei filiam iuveni mihi
+despondit ac post consulatum collocavit, et statim Britanniae
+praepositus est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p339">
+Tacitus gives us a clue to his political career in <i>Hist.</i>
+i. 1.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Dignitatem nostram a Vespasiano incohatam, a Tito
+auctam, a Domitiano longius provectam non abnuerim.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This probably means that Vespasian granted him the
+<i>latus clavus</i>, <i>i.e.</i> a place in the <i>ordo senatorius</i>, which was
+followed by the <i>vigintiviratus</i> given by the Senate, and a
+commission in the army as <i>tribunus militum laticlavius</i>;
+that Titus appointed him quaestor <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 80-1; and that
+Domitian made him tribune or aedile (about 84), and in
+<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 88 praetor. For the last office cf. <i>Ann.</i> xi. 11,
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;Is [Domitianus] edidit ludos saeculares, eisque intentius
+adfui sacerdotio quindecimvirali praeditus ac tunc praetor.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+That Tacitus was absent from Rome <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 90-93 we may
+infer from what he says of Agricola&rsquo;s death (<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 93).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Agr.</i> 45, &lsquo;Nobis tam longae absentiae condicione ante
+quadriennium amissus est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He must have returned to Rome soon afterwards, for
+he says in the same chapter: &lsquo;Mox nostrae duxere Helvidium
+in carcerem manus; nos Maurici Rusticique visus,
+nos innocenti sanguine Senecio perfudit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tacitus was appointed consul suffectus under Trajan
+<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 98 (see Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> ii. 1, 6, above quoted).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+An inscription found at Mylasa in Caria shows that
+Tacitus was proconsul of Asia about 112-116 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span><a href="#fn111" id="ref111">[111]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tacitus probably died soon after the publication of the
+<i>Annals</i> (<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 115-7), as he did not live to write his contemplated
+works on the Augustan age and the reigns of
+Nerva and Trajan.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Hist.</i> i. 1, &lsquo;Quod si vita suppeditet, principatum divi
+Nervae et imperium Traiani ... senectuti seposui.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ann.</i> iii. 24, &lsquo;Cetera illius aetatis [Augusti] memorabo,
+si effectis in quae tetendi, plures ad curas vitam produxero.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p340">
+Tacitus was on intimate terms with Pliny, eleven of
+whose letters are addressed to him. From vii. 20 and
+viii. 7 we see that they were in the habit of &ldquo;exchanging
+proof-sheets.&rdquo; To the same circle belonged Fabius Iustus,
+to whom the <i>Dialogus</i> is dedicated, and Asinius Rufus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> iv. 15, 1, &lsquo;Asinium Rufum singulariter
+amo. ... Idem Cornelium Tacitum arta familiaritate
+complexus est.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>Dialogus de Oratoribus</i>, an inquiry into the causes
+of the decay of eloquence&mdash;&lsquo;cur nostra potissimum aetas
+deserta et laude eloquentiae orbata vix nomen ipsum
+oratoris retineat&rsquo; (<i>Dial.</i> 1). Some critics have supposed
+that Tacitus meant this work to be an <i>apologia pro vita
+sua</i>, a justification of his preference for a literary to a
+rhetorical career, but this cannot be proved. That Tacitus
+is the author is clear from Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> ix. 10, 2, &lsquo;Itaque
+poemata quiescunt, quae tu inter nemora et lucos commodissime
+perfici putas&rsquo;&mdash;a reference to <i>Dial.</i> 9, &lsquo;poetis ...
+in nemora et lucos, id est in solitudinem, secedendum est.&rsquo;
+The dramatic date is given in <i>Dial.</i> 17 as <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 75; the
+statement there and in <i>Dial.</i> 24 that one hundred and twenty
+years have passed since Cicero&rsquo;s death (which would give
+<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 77) is made in round numbers. The date of composition
+is uncertain. It was not under Domitian, as Tacitus
+remained silent during his reign (<i>Agr.</i> 2). We can hardly
+suppose it to have been written under Nerva, as its style is
+so different from that of the <i>Agricola</i>; but it may have been
+written under Domitian, and published after his death.
+Some authorities put it as early as <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 81.<a href="#fn112" id="ref112">[112]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p id="p341">
+2. <i>De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae liber</i>, an account
+of the life of Cn. Iulius Agricola, Tacitus&rsquo; father-in-law,
+and particularly of his career in Britain. It was written
+early in the reign of Trajan, and therefore after 27th Jan.,
+98 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>, and probably in that year.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Agr.</i> 3, &lsquo;quamquam primo statim beatissimi saeculi ortu
+Nerva Caesar res olim dissociabiles miscuerit, principatum
+ac libertatem, augeatque cottidie felicitatem temporum
+Nerva Traianus.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. <i>Germania</i>.&mdash;The Vatican <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> give the title as <i>de
+origine et situ</i> (another <span class="bcad">MS.</span> adds <i>moribus ac populis</i>) Germanorum.
+The date of publication, as seen from <i>Germ.</i> 37,
+was <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 98. The book is not mentioned in <i>Agr.</i> 3 among
+the proposed works of Tacitus; and it has therefore been
+supposed that the materials were collected for the <i>Histories</i>,
+and that the work was published separately on account of
+its length, and also the interest felt in Germany at the
+time. There is nothing in the theory that the book is a
+political pamphlet, or that it contains a moral purpose.
+Tacitus is by no means blind to the faults of the Germans
+(c. 17 <i>sqq.</i>, etc.), though he compares them favourably in
+many respects with the Romans.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. <i>Historiae</i>.&mdash;The title is guaranteed by Tertull. <i>apol.</i> 16,
+&lsquo;Cornelius Tacitus in quinta historiarum suarum.&rsquo; The
+work embraced the time from Galba to Domitian, <i>i.e.</i>
+69-96 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> The first four Books and part of the fifth are
+extant, and give the history of 69 and most of 70 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>
+In <span class="bcad">MS.</span> Mediceus II., the only ancient <span class="bcad">MS.</span> that contains
+<i>Ann.</i> xi.-xvi. and the <i>Histories</i>, there is no title, but the
+Books are numbered continuously as belonging to the same
+work. Cf. Jerome, <i>Comm. on Zacharias</i>, iii. 14, &lsquo;Cornelius
+Tacitus, qui post Augustum usque ad mortem Domitiani
+vitas Caesarum triginta voluminibus exaravit.&rsquo; If, therefore,
+the <i>Annals</i> contained sixteen Books, the <i>Histories</i> must
+have contained fourteen, supposing Jerome&rsquo;s statement to
+be correct. Some authorities think the numbers were
+eighteen and twelve respectively. The work was written
+under Trajan (cf. <i>Hist.</i> i. 1, &lsquo;principatum divi Nervae et
+imperium Traiani&rsquo;), and was probably brought out in
+instalments. Pliny&rsquo;s letters (vi. 16; 20; vii. 33), written
+about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 106-9, contain contributions to it.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p342">
+5. <i>Annales</i>, or rather <i>Ab excessu divi Augusti</i>, the title
+given by <span class="bcad">MS.</span> Med. I. Tacitus often calls his work <i>annales</i>
+(as in <i>Ann.</i> iv. 32), but uses the word to signify his plan
+of recording events by their years. Cf. <i>Ann.</i> iv. 71, &lsquo;Ni
+mihi destinatum foret suum quaeque in annum referre,
+avebat animus antire,&rsquo; etc.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He occasionally apologises (as in xii. 40) for departing
+from this order for the sake of clearness. The Books,
+the division into which was made by Tacitus himself (cf.
+vi. 27, &lsquo;in prioribus libris&rsquo;), usually, however, end with
+some important event.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Annals</i> deal with the time from the death of
+Augustus to that of Nero, <i>i.e.</i> from 14 to 68 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> There
+are extant Books i.-iv. and a part of v. and vi., and Books
+xi.-xvi., except the beginning of xi. and the end of xvi.
+We have thus lost the whole of the reign of Caligula and
+the reign of Claudius from 41-47 (part), and Nero&rsquo;s reign
+from the close of 66 to 68. The work was published
+between <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 115 and 117. This is settled by <i>Ann.</i> ii. 61,
+&lsquo;Exin ventum Elephantinen ac Syenen, claustra olim
+Romani imperii, quod nunc rubrum ad mare patescit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p343">
+The conquest here spoken of was made by Trajan <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>
+115, and his successor Hadrian, soon after coming to the
+throne (August, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 117), gave up the regions beyond the
+Euphrates and Tigris (Spartianus, <i>Hadri.</i> 5).<a href="#fn113" id="ref113">[113]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Tacitus&rsquo; views on politics, philosophy, and religion.</i>&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(1) The ideal mixed form of government Tacitus considers
+to be impracticable.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ann.</i> iv. 33, &lsquo;Cunctas nationes et urbes populus aut
+primores aut singuli regunt: delecta ex eis et consociata
+rei publicae forma laudari facilius quam evenire, vel si
+evenit, haud diuturna esse potest.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tacitus is essentially a conservative. Thus he always
+uses <i>antiquus</i> and <i>priscus</i> in a good sense (<i>H.</i> ii. 5; 64;
+<i>Ann.</i> vi. 32).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In <i>Ann.</i> iii. 60 he speaks with pride of the republic:
+&lsquo;Magna eius diei species fuit, quo senatus maiorum beneficia,
+sociorum pacta, regum etiam, qui ante vim Romanam
+valuerant, decreta ipsorumque numinum religiones introspexit,
+libero, ut quondam, quid firmaret mutaretve.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+See also the speech of C. Cassius in <i>Ann.</i> xiv. 43. As
+an aristocrat Tacitus is sometimes unjust to men of low
+birth, as in <i>Ann.</i> iv. 3, where he sneers at Seianus as
+&lsquo;municipali adultero,&rsquo; and attaches great value to high
+birth (cf. vi. 27). He is prejudiced against slaves and
+barbarians.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p344">
+Tacitus theoretically prefers a republic (cf. <i>Ann.</i> vi. 42,
+&lsquo;Populi imperium iuxta libertatem, paucorum dominatio
+regiae libidini propior est&rsquo;), but admits the impossibility of
+a restitution of the free state (<i>H.</i> ii. 37-8) and the necessity
+of empire. <i>H.</i> i. 1 (of Augustus), &lsquo;omnem potentiam ad
+unum conferri pacis interfuit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cf. also Galba&rsquo;s speech in <i>H.</i> i. 16. The problem is
+to reconcile the empire with freedom (see <i>Agr.</i> 3 quoted
+<a href="#p341">p. 341</a>). One&rsquo;s duty is to steer one&rsquo;s course <i>inter abruptam
+contumaciam et deforme obsequium</i> (<i>Ann.</i> iv. 20). Tacitus
+gives only modified approval to patriots like Paetus Thrasea
+(<i>Ann.</i> xiv. 12; 49) and Helvidius Priscus (<i>H.</i> iv. 6), and
+on the other hand gives praise for moderation to men like
+Agricola (<i>Agr.</i> 42), M. Lepidus (<i>Ann.</i> iv. 20), L. Piso
+(<i>Ann.</i> vi. 10).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ann.</i> xiv. 12, &lsquo;Thrasea Paetus ... sibi causam periculi
+fecit, ceteris libertatis initium non praebuit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Agr.</i> 42, &lsquo;Non contumacia neque inani iactatione libertatis
+famam fatumque provocabat.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tacitus blames those who despair of their own times.
+<i>Ann.</i> ii. 88, &lsquo;dum vetera extollimus recentium incuriosi.&rsquo; He
+thinks that the emperors, from their irresponsible position,
+were often gradually led into wickedness, their downward
+career being helped by flatterers and satellites, and draws
+a moral lesson from the servile Senate and the <i>delatores</i>,
+who, like the emperors themselves, received punishment
+for their conduct (<i>Ann.</i> i. 74; iii. 65 <i>sqq.</i>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ann.</i> vi. 48, &lsquo;Cum Tiberius post tantam rerum experientiam
+vi dominationis convulsus et mutatus sit.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ann.</i> iv. 33, &lsquo;Pauci prudentia honesta ab deterioribus
+utilia ab noxiis discernunt, plures aliorum eventis docentur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p345">
+<i>Ann.</i> vi. 6, &lsquo;Adeo facinora atque flagitia sua ipsi quoque
+in supplicium verterant ... Quippe Tiberium non fortuna,
+non solitudines protegebant, quin tormenta pectoris suasque
+ipse poenas fateretur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(2) Tacitus attaches himself to no particular school of
+philosophy, and deprecates too close an attention to the
+subject.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Agr.</i> 4, &lsquo;Memoria teneo solitum ipsum [Agricolam]
+narrare se prima in iuventa studium philosophiae acrius,
+ultra quam concessum Romano ac senatori, hausisse, ni
+prudentia matris incensum ac flagrantem animum coercuisset.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He cannot make up his mind as to freewill and predestination,
+but in spite of this doubt expressly states his
+desire to find out the causes of events.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ann.</i> vi. 22, &lsquo;Sed mihi haec ac talia audienti in incerto
+iudicium est, fatone res mortalium et necessitate immutabili
+an forte volvantur&rsquo; (and the rest of the chapter, where the
+Stoic and Epicurean views are mentioned). On the other
+hand, <i>H.</i> i. 4, &lsquo;Ut non modo casus eventusque rerum,
+qui plerumque fortuiti sunt, sed ratio etiam causaeque
+noscantur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He expresses his belief in divine agency, particularly in
+the <i>Annals</i>, but sometimes adopts the pessimistic view
+that the gods take little interest in mankind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Ann.</i> xiv. 5, &lsquo;Noctem sideribus inlustrem et placido mari
+quietam, quasi convincendum ad scelus, di praebuere.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>H.</i> v. 5, &lsquo;Pessimus quisque spretis religionibus patriis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>H.</i> i. 3, &lsquo;Nec enim umquam atrocioribus populi Romani
+cladibus magisve iustis indiciis adprobatum est non esse
+curae deis securitatem nostram, esse ultionem.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p id="p346">
+<i>Ann.</i> xvi. 33, &lsquo;Aequitate deum erga bona malaque
+documenta.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He believes in the science of divination (see especially
+<i>Ann.</i> iv. 58), but speaks contemptuously of the impostors
+found among soothsayers and astrologers.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>H.</i> i. 22, &lsquo;Mathematicis ... genus hominum potentibus
+infidum, sperantibus fallax, quod in civitate nostra et vetabitur
+semper et retinebitur.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Prodigies are recognized, but mentioned only in the
+<i>Histories</i> and the last books of the <i>Annals</i> (from <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 51
+onwards). See especially <i>H.</i> ii. 50.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Tacitus as a historian.</i>&mdash;As regards his sources, Tacitus
+makes more use of his predecessors than he does of original
+documents. Among the latter he mentions <i>acta diurna</i>
+(<i>Ann.</i> iii. 3) and <i>commentarii</i> or <i>acta senatus</i> (<i>Ann.</i> xv. 74);
+but these he did not make much use of, as they were apt
+to be falsified. He also refers to <i>publica acta</i>, probably
+inscriptions (<i>Ann.</i> xii. 24); Tiberius&rsquo; speeches (<i>Ann.</i> i. 81);
+memoirs of Agrippina, Nero&rsquo;s mother (<i>Ann.</i> iv. 53); and
+of Domitius Corbulo on his campaigns in Parthia (<i>Ann.</i>
+xv. 16). He also refers by name to several historians,
+especially in dealing with the times after Nero, as C.
+Plinius (<i>Ann.</i> i. 69, quoted <a href="#p284">p. 284</a>), Vipstanus Messalla
+(<i>H.</i> iii. 25), Fabius Rusticus,<a href="#fn114" id="ref114">[114]</a> and Cluvius Rufus<a href="#fn115" id="ref115">[115]</a> (<i>Ann.</i>
+xiii. 20).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Other writers are sparingly mentioned, as Sisenna (<i>H.</i>
+iii. 51), Caesar (<i>Germ.</i> 28). It is certain that Tacitus made
+use of other historians, but he generally refers to his sources
+without mentioning names (as <i>Ann.</i> i. 29, &lsquo;tradunt plerique&rsquo;).
+He sometimes weighs the value of two conflicting accounts,
+or mentions a story only to reject it.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p347">
+<i>Ann.</i> iv. 11, &lsquo;Haec vulgo iactata, super id quod nullo
+auctore certo firmantur, prompte refutaveris.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tacitus&rsquo; credibility has been attacked, particularly as
+regards his representation of the characters of Tiberius and
+Nero, but not very successfully. He has, however, made
+mistakes, the most striking of which are his view of the
+Christians (<i>Ann.</i> xv. 44) and his account of the Jews
+(<i>H.</i> v. 2 <i>sqq.</i>). The explanation is that he held the view
+current in the upper classes, and did not take the trouble
+to investigate these matters, as the Jews and Christians
+belonged mostly to the lower orders.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tacitus is not free from superstition (<i>Ann.</i> xi. 21; <i>H.</i>
+ii. 50, etc.), but one must not suppose he believes the
+fables he relates (as <i>Ann.</i> vi. 28; <i>H.</i> iv. 83) simply because
+he expresses no opinion of them.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tacitus is free from party spirit (<i>Ann.</i> i. 1, &lsquo;sine ira et
+studio, quorum causas procul habeo&rsquo;; cf. <i>H.</i> i. 1) and just
+in his judgment, except in a few passages in the <i>Histories</i>,
+where he is rather unfair (i. 42, ii. 95). He is milder in
+the <i>Annals</i> through advancing years, and from the better
+times he lived in. Generally he takes a lenient view of
+things, except (1) in offences against the state (cf. the
+character of Tiberius); (2) when the religious element
+comes in; cf. what he says of Claudius&rsquo; marriage with
+his brother&rsquo;s daughter Agrippina: <i>Ann.</i> xiv. 2, &lsquo;Agrippina
+... exercita ad omne flagitium patrui nuptiis.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+He shows a somewhat lax morality occasionally, as in
+<i>Ann.</i> xiii. 17 <i>sqq.</i>, when speaking of Nero&rsquo;s murder of his
+brother Britannicus. In <i>Ann.</i> xi. 19 he approves of compassing a barbarian&rsquo;s death by treachery.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p348">
+For Tacitus&rsquo; conception of history as dealing with great
+events cf. <i>Ann.</i> xiii. 31, &lsquo;pauca memoria digna evenere,
+nisi cui libeat laudandis fundamentis et trabibus, quis
+molem amphitheatri apud campum Martis Caesar extruxerat,
+volumina implere, cum ex dignitate populi Romani
+repertum sit res inlustres annalibus, talia diurnis urbis actis
+mandare.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His complaints as to his subject-matter in <i>Ann.</i> iv. 32,
+&lsquo;Nobis in arto et inglorius labor,&rsquo; must not be taken too
+seriously.
+</p>
+
+<h3>SUETONIUS.</h3>
+
+<h4>(1) LIFE.</h4>
+
+<p>
+C. Suetonius Tranquillus was the son of Suetonius Laetus,
+a tribune of the thirteenth legion, who took part in the
+battle of Bedriacum, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 69 (Sueton. <i>Otho</i>, 10). His birth
+seems to have taken place soon after that year,<a href="#fn116" id="ref116">[116]</a> for he
+was &lsquo;adulescens&rsquo; twenty years after Nero&rsquo;s death; <i>Nero</i> 57,
+&lsquo;cum post viginti annos, adulescente me, exstitisset condicionis incertae qui se Neronem esse iactaret.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Suetonius was a friend of the younger Pliny, to whom
+he was indebted for a military tribuneship, which he afterwards passed on to a relative (Plin. <i>Ep.</i> iii. 8), and for
+assistance in the purchase of a small estate (ibid. i. 24).
+Pliny encouraged him to publish some of his writings
+(v. 10), and obtained for him from Trajan the <i>ius trium
+liberorum</i> (<i>ad Trai.</i> 94).
+</p>
+
+<p id="p349">
+Under Hadrian he was <i>magister epistularum</i>, but was
+dismissed from office in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 121. Spartianus, <i>Hadr.</i> 11, 3,
+&lsquo;Septicio Claro praefecto praetorio et Suetonio Tranquillo
+epistularum magistro multisque aliis, quod apud Sabinam
+uxorem in usu eius familiarius se tunc egerant quam reverentia
+domus aulicae postulabat, successores dedit.&rsquo; The
+remainder of his life appears to have been devoted to
+literature.
+</p>
+
+<h4>(2) WORKS.</h4>
+
+<p>
+1. <i>De Vita Caesarum</i>, in eight Books (Books i.-vi. Iulius-Nero;
+vii. Galba, Otho, and Vitellius; viii. Vespasian,
+Titus, and Domitian). It was published <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 119-21, as it
+was dedicated (according to Joannes Lydus) to C. Septicius
+Clarus, praetorian prefect, who held office during those
+years. The preface and the beginning of the life of Iulius
+are wanting. Suetonius is a conscientious and accurate
+writer (cf. his discussion of Caligula&rsquo;s birthplace, <i>Calig.</i> 8),
+and he makes use of good sources, e.g. the <i>Monumentum
+Ancyranum</i>, <i>Acta populi</i>, <i>Acta senatus</i>, autograph documents
+of the emperors (<i>Aug.</i> 87, <i>Nero</i> 52); but there is in his
+work an almost entire absence of dates, and the personal
+element is, from the point of view of history, unduly
+prominent.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <i>De Viris Illustribus</i>, including poets, orators (beginning
+with Cicero), historians (from Sallust onwards), philosophers,
+grammarians, and rhetoricians. The greater part of the
+section <i>De grammaticis et rhetoribus</i> is extant, as well as
+lives of Terence, Horace, and Lucan from the section <i>de
+poetis</i>, and of Pliny the elder from the section <i>de historicis</i>.
+Extracts from the rest of the work are preserved by Jerome.
+In each section there was (1) a list of the authors discussed,
+(2) a general survey of their branch of literature,
+(3) brief notices of the authors in chronological order. The
+publication took place, according to Roth, 106-113 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p id="p350">
+3. Minor works, now lost (mentioned by Suidas), on
+Greek games, Roman games, the Roman year, on critical
+marks, on Cicero&rsquo;s <i>Republic</i>, on dress, on imprecations
+(<span class="greek">περὶ δυσφήμων λέξεων ἤτοι βλασφημιῶν καὶ πόθεν ἑκάστη</span>), on
+Roman laws and customs. Some of these were probably
+only sections of the <i>Prata</i>, a miscellany in ten Books,
+which also treated of natural science and philology. The
+books on Greek games and on imprecations were almost
+certainly composed in Greek.
+</p>
+
+<h2 id="p351">APPENDIX A</h2>
+
+<h2>ON SOME OF THE CHIEF ANCIENT AUTHORITIES
+FOR THE HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+1. <span class="sc">Jerome</span><a href="#fn117" id="ref117">[117]</a>
+(<span class="sc">Hieronymus</span>) was born about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 335 at
+Stridon, on the frontiers of Dalmatia and Pannonia, and died
+<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 420 at the monastery of Bethlehem. His contributions
+to the history of Roman literature are to be found in his
+translation of the Chronicle (<span class="greek">χρονικοὶ κανόνες</span>) of Eusebius, in
+which the dates are reckoned from the first year of Abraham
+(= <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 2016 according to his chronology), the point at which
+Eusebius commenced. On the period between the Trojan War
+and <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 325 Jerome not merely translated the remarks of
+Eusebius, as he had done in the earlier period, but also added
+numerous extracts from authorities on Roman history and
+literature. The source from which he derived nearly all his
+information on literature is universally admitted to have been
+the work of Suetonius <i>De Viris Illustribus</i>. With the statements
+in the surviving sections of that treatise the observations
+of Jerome agree, and there can be no reasonable doubt that
+he made a similar use of the parts no longer extant. It is a
+significant fact that the important authors on whom Jerome
+is silent, <i>e.g.</i> Tacitus, Juvenal, and the younger Pliny, are
+precisely those whom Suetonius, as a contemporary, naturally
+could not discuss.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p352">
+The statements of Jerome, based as they are on the high
+authority of Suetonius, may be regarded as in the main trustworthy.
+Some of them, however, are doubtful, and others
+manifestly wrong.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>a</i>) Jerome&rsquo;s plan obliged him to fix every event to a definite
+year; and this, in many cases, can only be guess-work, for
+Suetonius, as may be seen from his extant writings, was often
+vague in his chronology.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>b</i>) Comparison with the remains of Suetonius shows that
+Jerome&rsquo;s claim to have made his extracts with care was not
+always well grounded; <i>e.g.</i> his statement that Ennius was a
+native of Tarentum (see <a href="#p027">p. 27</a>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>c</i>) In reckoning, according to his system of dates, events
+dated by one of the many confusing systems of chronology
+current in ancient times, many openings for error presented
+themselves; <i>e.g.</i> he sometimes erred through confusing consuls
+of the same or similar names, as in the case of Lucilius
+(<a href="#p059">p. 59</a>); or through confusing similar events, as in the case
+of Livius Andronicus, although the mistake about the latter
+was of long standing (<a href="#p002">p. 2</a>). Once at least he seems to
+have confused the date of an author&rsquo;s <i>floruit</i> and that of his
+death, making Plautus die in <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 200 instead of <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 184
+(<a href="#p008">p. 8</a>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. <span class="sc">Aulus Gellius</span><a href="#fn118" id="ref118">[118]</a> was born probably about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 123, and
+studied under the most eminent teachers both at Rome and
+at Athens. Of his subsequent life nothing is known except
+that he held some judicial post at Rome. His work, the
+<i>Noctes Atticae</i> in twenty Books (of Book viii. only the headings
+of chapters are preserved), is a miscellany of information on
+philology, philosophy, rhetoric, history, biography, literary
+criticism, natural science, and antiquities. The title is due to
+the fact that the book was commenced in the winter evenings
+during the author&rsquo;s residence at Athens. The arrangement of
+the contents simply follows the haphazard order of the notes
+which Gellius made in the course of his reading of Greek and
+Roman authors. Those authors, and the conversation of contemporaries,
+are Gellius&rsquo; professed sources, but in some cases
+the author he names is evidently quoted at second-hand, and
+many of the conversations are doubtless quite imaginary. Our
+obligations to Gellius are twofold.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p353">
+(<i>a</i>) Innumerable extracts from ancient authors are preserved
+by him alone. (No quotations are given from post-Augustan
+writers&mdash;a fact which accords with the affected archaism of
+his style.)
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(<i>b</i>) His remarks on incidents in the lives of the Roman poets
+are in the main derived from Varro, whose work <i>De Poetis</i>
+is quoted for the epitaph of Plautus (see <a href="#p009">p. 9</a>); elsewhere
+his source is indicated either vaguely or not at all, e.g. iii. 3, 15,
+&lsquo;accepimus&rsquo;; xii. 4, 5, &lsquo;ferunt.&rsquo; For literary criticism Varro is
+quoted: iii. 3, 9, <i>sqq.</i>; vi. 14, 6 (see <a href="#p010">pp. 10</a>, <a href="#p051">51</a>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. <span class="sc">Nonius Marcellus</span>,<a href="#fn119" id="ref119">[119]</a> a Peripatetic, of Thubursicum in
+Numidia, is identified by Mommsen with the Nonius Marcellus
+Herculius of <i>C.I.L.</i> viii. 4878 (date <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 323); but
+nothing is known of his life. His work, <i>De Compendiosa
+Doctrina ad Filium</i> in twenty Books (of Book xvi. the title
+only is known; Book xx. is fragmentary), though modelled on
+that of Gellius, is immeasurably inferior in execution. According
+to the theory usually received Nonius borrowed largely
+from Gellius; but it is possible that both compilers made
+independent use of the same authorities, viz., scholars such as
+Verrius Flaccus, Valerius Probus, and Suetonius, whose works
+they knew either directly or through abridgments. The subjects
+with which Nonius deals are grammar, lexicography, and
+antiquities; and he is often our sole authority for the titles of
+works as well as for brief extracts.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p354">
+4. <span class="sc">Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius</span>, doubtless identical
+with the Macrobius who held, among other high offices, the
+proconsulship of Africa <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 410, was probably, like Nonius,
+of African origin. Besides his commentary on the <i>Somnium
+Scipionis</i> of Cicero, Macrobius wrote a work in seven Books
+on Roman literature and antiquities with the title of <i>Saturnalia</i>.
+The imaginary conversations of which it consists are supposed
+to take place during the festival of the Saturnalia at Rome
+(hence the title); and the chief subject of discussion is the
+poetry of Virgil. A remarkable feature of the book is its
+wealth of quotation from Greek and Latin authors. Macrobius,
+like Gellius, bases his work on extracts from older authorities;
+but, unlike him, arranges his matter systematically.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+5. <span class="sc">Aelius Donatus</span>, a grammarian who flourished at Rome
+about <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 350, and was one of Jerome&rsquo;s teachers, extracted
+from the lost work of Suetonius the Lives of Terence and Virgil,
+and prefixed them to his own commentaries on Terence and
+on the <i>Georgics</i> and <i>Aeneid</i>. The latter is lost, and the commentary
+on Terence contains much that is not from the hand
+of Donatus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+6. <span class="sc">Servius</span>.&mdash;There are two versions of the Servian commentary
+on Virgil. The shorter is the work of Maurus Servius
+Honoratus, who was born about 350 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>, and lived at Rome
+(Macrob. <i>Saturn.</i> i. 2, 15); his topographical references show
+that he composed his commentary there. Servius, whose notes
+are chiefly on the language of the poems, gives illustrative
+quotations from Roman authors, in some cases from memory
+and inaccurately. Donatus is the authority whom he mentions
+oftenest, but he undoubtedly made extensive use of Suetonius.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The longer version contains learned additions to the work
+of Servius by an anonymous Christian writer, who deals mainly
+with the subject-matter of Virgil.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+7. <span class="sc">Acro</span> and <span class="sc">Porphyrio</span>.&mdash;Helenius Acro (probably about
+200 <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>) was the author of commentaries on Horace and
+Terence, now lost. The scholia on Horace extant under
+Acro&rsquo;s name are, with few exceptions, taken from the commentary
+of Pomponius Porphyrio, which we possess in a
+mutilated form. Porphyrio, who probably belonged to the
+4th cent. <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>, names among his sources Acro and Suetonius.
+</p>
+
+<p id="p355">
+For <span class="sc">Asconius</span> see <a href="#fn028">p. 77</a>; for <span class="sc">Valerius Probus</span>, <a href="#fn041">p. 147</a>.
+</p>
+
+<h2 id="p356">APPENDIX B</h2>
+
+<h2>SELECT LIST OF EDITIONS.</h2>
+
+<p>
+<span class="sc">Note</span>.&mdash;All editions mentioned have explanatory notes, except those marked
+&ldquo;text&rdquo; (which are merely texts), and those marked &ldquo;crit.&rdquo; (which have an
+apparatus criticus).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Editions published in England and Germany have English and German notes
+respectively, unless otherwise stated.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+F.P.R. = Fragmenta Poetarum Romanorum, ed. E. Bährens.
+</p>
+
+<pre>
+<b>Livius Andronicus.</b>
+  Plays--
+    In Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta, ed.
+      O. Ribbeck (vol. i. <i>Trag.</i>, ii. <i>Com.</i>) (crit.),     Leip. &rsquo;71-73
+    Do. (with Naevius&rsquo; plays), L. Müller,                  Berl. &rsquo;85
+    Odisia, in E. Bährens&rsquo; Frag. Poet. Rom. (crit.),       Leip. &rsquo;86
+
+<b>Naevius.</b>
+  Bellum Punicum,      J. Vahlen,                          Leip. &rsquo;54
+        "              F.P.R.
+  Plays (see above).
+
+<b>Plautus.</b>
+  J. L. Ussing (Latin commentary),                    Copenh. &rsquo;75-87
+  F. Ritschl, revised by G. Loewe, G. Goetz, and F.
+    Schöll (crit.),                                        Leip. &rsquo;94
+  Amphitruo,           A. Palmer,                          Lond. &rsquo;90
+  Asinaria,            J. H. Gray,                         Camb. &rsquo;94
+  Aulularia,           W. Wagner,                          Camb. &rsquo;92
+  Captivi,             J. Brix,                            Leip. &rsquo;84
+  "                    W. M. Lindsay,                       Oxf. &rsquo;95
+  "                    E. A. Sonnenschein,                 Lond. &rsquo;80
+  "                    A. R. S. Hallidie,                  Lond. &rsquo;95
+  Epidicus,            J. H. Gray,                         Camb. &rsquo;93
+  Mostellaria,         A. O. F. Lorenz,                    Berl. &rsquo;83
+  "                    E. A. Sonnenschein,                 Camb. &rsquo;84
+  Menaechmi,           J. Brix and M. Niemeyer,            Leip. &rsquo;91
+  "                    W. Wagner,                          Camb. &rsquo;92
+  Miles,               J. Brix,                            Leip. &rsquo;82
+  "                    A. O. F. Lorenz,                    Berl. &rsquo;86
+  "                    R. Y. Tyrrell,                      Lond. &rsquo;94
+  Pseudolus,           A. O. F. Lorenz,                    Berl. &rsquo;76
+  Rudens,              E. A. Sonnenschein,                  Oxf. &rsquo;91
+  Stichus,             C. A. M. Fennell,                   Camb. &rsquo;93
+  Trinummus,           J. Brix and M. Niemeyer,            Leip. &rsquo;88
+  "                    W. Wagner,                          Camb. &rsquo;90
+  "                    C. E. Freeman and A. Sloman,         Oxf. &rsquo;96
+
+<b>Ennius.</b>
+  F.P.R.
+  J. Vahlen                                                Leip. &rsquo;54
+  Do. (with Naevius&rsquo;
+    Bell. Pun.),       L. Müller,                   St. Petersb. &rsquo;85
+
+<b>Pacuvius</b> and <b>Caecilius Statius.</b>
+  Ribbeck, <i>Trag.</i> and <i>Com.</i>
+
+<b>Terence.</b>
+  K. Dziatzko (text),                                      Leip. &rsquo;84
+  W. Wagner,                                               Lond. &rsquo;92
+  Andria,              A. Spengel,                         Berl. &rsquo;88
+  "                    C. E. Freeman and A. Sloman,         Oxf. &rsquo;93
+  "  and Eunuchus,     T. L. Papillon,                     Lond. &rsquo;70
+  Heaut. Tim.,         E. S. Shuckburgh,                   Lond. &rsquo;94
+  "                    J. H. Gray,                         Camb. &rsquo;95
+  Phormio,             K. Dziatzko,                        Leip. &rsquo;85
+  "                    A. Sloman,                           Oxf. &rsquo;94
+  "                    J. Bond and A. S. Walpole,          Lond. &rsquo;95
+  Adelphoe,            K. Dziatzko,                        Leip. &rsquo;81
+  "                    A. Spengel,                         Berl. &rsquo;79
+  "                    A. Sloman,                           Oxf. &rsquo;92
+  "                    S. G. Ashmore,                      Lond. &rsquo;93
+
+<b>Cato the Elder.</b>
+  De Agricultura (and
+    Varro, Res Rusticae), H. Keil (crit.),              Leip. &rsquo;82-91
+    Other fragments,      H. Jordan (crit.),               Leip. &rsquo;60
+
+<b>Accius.</b>
+  Ribbeck, and F.P.R.
+
+<b>Lucilius.</b>
+  L. Müller,                                               Leip. &rsquo;72
+  C. Lachmann (crit.),                                     Berl. &rsquo;76
+  F.P.R.
+
+<b>Atta, Afranius, Laberius.</b>
+  Ribbeck.
+
+<b>Matius, Laevius, Bibaculus, Calvus, Cinna, Varro Atacinus.</b>
+  F.P.R.
+
+<b>Auctor ad Herennium.</b>
+  C. L. Kayser,                                            Leip. &rsquo;54
+  F. Marx (crit.),                                         Leip. &rsquo;94
+
+<b>Varro.</b>
+  Sat. Menipp., Logistorici,
+    Sententiae Varronis,    A. Riese (crit.),              Leip. &rsquo;65
+  Sat. Menipp. (text in F. Bücheler&rsquo;s Petronius),          Berl. &rsquo;95
+  Antiquitates (text in R. Merkel&rsquo;s Ovid, Fasti),          Berl. &rsquo;41
+  De vita pop. Rom.,        H. Kettner (crit.),           Halle, &rsquo;63
+  De gente pop. Rom.,       H. Peter (Frag. Hist. Rom.),   Leip. &rsquo;83
+  De Lingua Latina,         A. Spengel (crit.),            Berl. &rsquo;85
+  Res Rusticae,             H. Keil (see &lsquo;Cato&rsquo;).
+  Grammatical Works
+    (except <i>De L.L.</i>),     A. Wilmanns (crit.),             Berl. &rsquo;64
+
+<b>Cicero.</b>
+  1. <i>Speeches</i>--
+    Pro Sex. Rosc. Amer.,   E. H. Donkin,                  Lond. &rsquo;95
+    Pro Sex. Rosc. Amer.,   G. Landgraf,               Erlangen, &rsquo;84
+    Pro Q. Rosc. Com.,      C. A. Schmidt,                 Leip. &rsquo;39
+    Verrines,               C. G. Zumpt,                   Berl. &rsquo;31
+    Div. in Caec. and in
+      Verr., Act. i.,       W. E. Heitland and H. Cowie,   Camb. &rsquo;95
+      Verr., Act. i.,       J. R. King,                    Lond. &rsquo;87
+    Div. in Caec. and in Verr.
+      Act ii., 4 and 5,     E. Thomas,                    Paris, &rsquo;95
+    Pro Caecina,            C. A. Jordan,                  Leip. &rsquo;47
+    De Imp. Cn. Pompei,     A. S. Wilkins,                 Lond. &rsquo;94
+    Pro Cluentio,           W. and G. G. Ramsay,            Oxf. &rsquo;89
+    Pro Cluentio,           W. Y. Fausset,                 Lond. &rsquo;88
+    De Lege Agraria,        A. W. Zumpt,                   Berl. &rsquo;61
+    Pro Rab. perd. reo,     W. E. Heitland,                Camb. &rsquo;82
+    In Catilinam,           A. S. Wilkins,                 Lond. &rsquo;95
+    Pro Murena,             W. E. Heitland,                Camb. &rsquo;93
+    Pro Murena,             J. H. Freese,                  Lond. &rsquo;94
+    Pro Sulla,              J. S. Reid,                    Camb. &rsquo;91
+    Pro Archia,             J. S. Reid,                    Camb. &rsquo;95
+    Pro Flacco,             A. du Mesnil,                  Leip. &rsquo;83
+    Pro Sestio,             H. A. Holden,                  Lond. &rsquo;95
+    In Vatinium,            C. Halm,                       Leip. &rsquo;46
+    De Prov. Cons.,         G. Tischer,                    Berl. &rsquo;61
+    Pro Balbo,              J. S. Reid,                    Camb. &rsquo;90
+    Pro Plancio,            H. A. Holden,                  Camb. &rsquo;93
+    Pro Milone,             J. S. Reid,                    Camb. &rsquo;95
+    Pro Milone,             A. C. Clark,                    Oxf. &rsquo;95
+    Pro Marcello, Ligario,
+      Deiotaro,             W. Y. Fausset,                  Oxf. &rsquo;93
+    Philippics,             J. R. King.                     Oxf. &rsquo;78
+    II. Phil.,              J. E. B. Mayor,                Lond. &rsquo;93
+    II. Phil.,              A. G. Peskett,                 Camb. &rsquo;91
+  2. <i>Rhetorical Works</i>--
+    De Oratore,             A. S. Wilkins,                  Oxf. &rsquo;92
+    De Oratore,             G. Sorof,                      Berl. &rsquo;82
+    De Oratore,             K. W. Piderit
+                              and O. Harnecker,         Leip. &rsquo;86-90
+    De Inventione,          A. Weidner,                    Berl. &rsquo;78
+    Brutus,                 K. W. Piderit
+                              and W. Friedrich,            Leip. &rsquo;89
+    Brutus,                 O. Jahn and A. Eberhard,       Berl. &rsquo;77
+    Orator,                 J. E. Sandys,                  Camb. &rsquo;85
+    Orator,                 K. W. Piderit,                 Leip. &rsquo;76
+    Orator, (with De Opt.
+      Gen. Orat.),          O. Jahn,                       Berl. &rsquo;69
+    Partit. Orat.,          K. W. Piderit,                 Leip. &rsquo;67
+  3. <i>Philosophical Works</i>--
+    De Re Publica,          F. Osann,                      Gött. &rsquo;47
+    De Legibus,             A. du Mesnil,                  Leip. &rsquo;79
+    Paradoxa,               G. H. Moser,                   Gött. &rsquo;46
+    De Finibus,             J. N. Madvig (Lat. comm.),   Copenh. &rsquo;78
+    "                       H. Holstein,                   Leip. &rsquo;73
+    Academica,              J. S. Reid,                    Lond. &rsquo;85
+    Tusc. Disp.,.           R. Kühner (Lat.),           Hanover, &rsquo;74
+    "                       O. Heine,                   Leip. &rsquo;92-96
+    "                       G. Tischer and G. Sorof,    Berl. &rsquo;84-87
+    De Nat. Deor.,          J. B. Mayor,                Camb. &rsquo;83-91
+    "                       G. F. Schömann,                Berl. &rsquo;76
+    De Senectute,           J. S. Reid,                    Camb. &rsquo;94
+    " Amicitia,             J. S. Reid,                    Camb. &rsquo;93
+    " Officiis,             H. A. Holden,                  Camb. &rsquo;93
+    " Divinatione, De
+      Fato,                 G. H. Moser,                 Frankf. &rsquo;28
+  4. <i>Letters</i>--
+    Correspondence of C.    R. Y. Tyrrell and
+                              L. C. Purser,             Dubl. &rsquo;85-94
+    Selections,             A. Watson,                      Oxf. &rsquo;91
+    " (C. in his
+    Letters),               R. Y. Tyrrell,                 Lond. &rsquo;96
+    Epp. ad Att.,           J. G. C. Boot (Lat.)           Amst. &rsquo;86
+    Epp. ad Fam.,           L. Mendelssohn (crit.),        Leip. &rsquo;93
+                            C. F. W. Müller (crit.),       Leip. &rsquo;96
+  5. <i>Poems</i>--
+    F.P.R.
+    <i>Complete texts</i>--
+    J. C. Orelli, J. G. Baiter, and C. Halm,.            Zür. &rsquo;45-61
+    C. F. A. Nobbe,                                        Leip. &rsquo;50
+    C. F. W. Müller, etc.,                              Leip. &rsquo;90-96
+    J. G. Baiter and C. L. Kayser,                      Leip. &rsquo;60-69
+
+<b>Caesar.</b>
+  B. Dinter (text),                                        Leip. &rsquo;96
+  B. Kübler (text),                                     Leip. &rsquo;93-94
+  Bell. Gall.,          J. Bond and A. S. Walpole,         Lond. &rsquo;87
+  "                     A. G. Peskett,                     Camb. &rsquo;78
+  Bell. Gall.,          C. E. Moberly,                      Oxf. &rsquo;90
+  Bell. Gall.,          F. Kraner and W. Dittenberger,     Berl. &rsquo;90
+  Bell. Gall.,          A. Doberenz and B. Dinter,         Leip. &rsquo;92
+  Bell. Civ.,           C. E. Moberly,                      Oxf. &rsquo;92
+  Bell. Civ.,           F. Kraner and F. Hofmann,          Berl. &rsquo;90
+  Bell. Civ.,           A. Doberenz and B. Dinter,         Leip. &rsquo;84
+  Bell. Civ., (Bk. i.), A. G. Peskett,                     Camb. &rsquo;90
+  Bell. Alex.,          R. Schneider,                      Berl. &rsquo;89
+  Bell. Afr.,           E. Wölfflin and A. Miodonski,      Leip. &rsquo;89
+
+<b>Nepos.</b>
+  C. Nipperdey and B. Lupus,                               Berl. &rsquo;95
+  J. Siebelis and M. Jancovius,                            Leip. &rsquo;96
+  O. Browning and W. R. Inge,                               Oxf. &rsquo;88
+  E. S. Shuckburgh,                                        Camb. &rsquo;95
+
+<b>Lucretius.</b>
+  H. A. J. Munro,                                       Camb. &rsquo;91-93
+  C. Lachmann,                                             Berl. &rsquo;82
+  Books i.-iii.,            J. H. W. Lee,                  Lond. &rsquo;93
+  Book v.,                  J. D. Duff,                    Camb. &rsquo;96
+
+<b>Sallust.</b>
+  Cat. and Iug.,            W. W. Capes,                    Oxf. &rsquo;89
+  Cat. and Iug.,            C. Merivale,                   Lond. &rsquo;84
+  Cat. and Iug., (and
+    frags. of Hist.),       R. Jacobs and H. Wirz,         Berl. &rsquo;94
+  Cat.,                     A. M. Cook,                    Lond. &rsquo;88
+  Hist. (text),             H. Jordan,                     Leip. &rsquo;87
+  Historiarum Reliquiae,    B. Maurenbrecher,           Leip. &rsquo;91-93
+
+<b>Publilius Syrus.</b>
+  Sententiae,               W. Meyer (crit.),              Leip. &rsquo;80
+  Sententiae,               R. A. H. Bickford Smith,       Camb. &rsquo;95
+
+<b>Catullus.</b>
+  A. Palmer (crit.),                                       Lond. &rsquo;96
+  R. Ellis (crit.),                                         Oxf. &rsquo;78
+  R. Ellis (commentary),                                    Oxf. &rsquo;89
+  B. Schmidt (introd. and text),                           Leip. &rsquo;87
+  F. P. Simpson (selections),                              Lond. &rsquo;94
+  (With Tibullus and
+    Propertius), L. Müller (text),                         Leip. &rsquo;92
+
+<b>Horace.</b>
+  E. C. Wickham,                                         Oxf. &rsquo;90-96
+  A. Kiessling,                                         Berl. &rsquo;89-95
+  J. C. Orelli, W. Hirschfelder, and W. Mewes,          Berl. &rsquo;86-92
+  Satires,                  A. Palmer,                     Lond. &rsquo;96
+  Odes and Epodes,          T. E. Page,                    Lond. &rsquo;95
+  "                         J. Gow,                        Camb. &rsquo;96
+  Epistles and A.P.,        A. S. Wilkins,                 Lond. &rsquo;92
+
+<b>Virgil.</b>
+  O. Ribbeck (crit.),                                   Leip. &rsquo;94-95
+     "       (text only),                                  Leip. &rsquo;95
+  T. E. Papillon and A. E. Haigh (text only),               Oxf. &rsquo;92
+         [The above include the minor poems.]
+  J. Conington and H. Nettleship,                       Lond. &rsquo;83-84
+  T. E. Papillon and A. E. Haigh,                           Oxf. &rsquo;92
+  A. Sidgwick,                                          Camb. &rsquo;90-94
+  B. H. Kennedy,                                           Lond. &rsquo;79
+  T. Ladewig, C. Schaper, and P. Deuticke,                 Berl. &rsquo;91
+  K. Kappes,                                            Leip. &rsquo;93-95
+  Aeneid (i.-vi.),          T. E. Page,                    Lond. &rsquo;94
+
+<b>Tibullus.</b>
+  E. Hiller (text),                                        Leip. &rsquo;85
+  E. Bährens (text),                                       Leip. &rsquo;78
+  L. Dissen,                                               Gött. &rsquo;35
+
+<b>Propertius.</b>
+  W. A. Hertzberg,                                     Halle, &rsquo;43-45
+  F. A. Paley,                                             Lond. &rsquo;72
+  A. Palmer (text),                                        Lond. &rsquo;80
+  J. P. Postgate (selections),                             Lond. &rsquo;94
+  "             (text),                                    Lond. &rsquo;94
+
+<b>Ovid.</b>
+  A. Riese (introd.),                                   Leip. &rsquo;71-89
+  Heroides,            A. Palmer,                          Lond. &rsquo;74
+  "                    E. S. Shuckburgh,                   Lond. &rsquo;96
+  Metam.,              J. Sibelis and F. Polle,         Leip. &rsquo;92-96
+  "                    M. Haupt, O. Korn, and
+                         H. J. Müller,                     Berl. &rsquo;85
+  Fasti,               G. H. Hallam,                       Lond. &rsquo;93
+  Fasti,               R. Merkel,                          Berl. &rsquo;41
+  "                    H. Peter,                           Leip. &rsquo;89
+  Tristia,             S. G. Owen (crit.),                  Oxf. &rsquo;89
+  "     (Bks. i., iii.), S. G. Owen,                     Oxf. &rsquo;90-93
+  "     and Ibis,      R. Merkel,                          Berl. &rsquo;37
+  Ibis,                R. Ellis (Lat.),                     Oxf. &rsquo;82
+
+<b>Manilius.</b>
+  F. Jacob,                                                Berl. &rsquo;46
+     [See also R. Ellis, <i>Noctes Manilianae</i>, Oxf. &rsquo;91.]
+
+<b>Livy.</b>
+  W. Weissenborn and H. J. Müller,                      Berl. &rsquo;73-96
+  M. Hertz (introd. and text),                          Leip. &rsquo;57-63
+  Book i.,                      J. R. Seeley,               Oxf. &rsquo;81
+  Books iv., vi., ix., xxvii.,  H. M. Stephenson,       Camb. &rsquo;90-94
+  Book v.,                      L. Whibley,                Camb. &rsquo;94
+  Books xxi., xxii.,            M. S. Dimsdale,         Camb. &rsquo;94-95
+  "                             W. W. Capes,               Lond. &rsquo;95
+
+<b>Trogus.</b>
+  A. Bielowski,                                         Lemberg, &rsquo;53
+
+<b>Verrius Flaccus.</b>
+  (Festus and Paulus),          C. O. Müller,              Leip. &rsquo;80
+
+<b>Vitruvius.</b>
+  V. Rose and H. Müller-Strübing (crit.),                  Leip. &rsquo;67
+
+<b>Seneca the Elder.</b>
+  H. J. Müller (text),                                   Prague, &rsquo;87
+  A. Kiessling (text),                                     Leip. &rsquo;72
+
+<b>Velleius.</b>
+  C. Halm (crit.),                                         Leip. &rsquo;76
+  D. Ruhnken, ed. C. H. Frotscher,                         Leip. &rsquo;39
+
+<b>Valerius Maximus.</b>
+  C. Kempf (text),                                         Leip. &rsquo;88
+
+<b>Celsus.</b>
+  C. Daremberg (text),                                     Leip. &rsquo;59
+
+<b>Phaedrus.</b>
+  J. Siebelis and F. A. Eckstein,                          Leip. &rsquo;89
+
+<b>Seneca the Younger.</b>
+ Prose Works,           F. Haase (text),                Leip. &rsquo;93-95
+ Apocolocyntosis, in F. Bücheler&rsquo;s Petronius (text).
+ Tragedies,             R. Peiper and G. Richter (text),   Leip. &rsquo;67
+
+<b>Curtius Rufus.</b>
+  T. Vogel,                                                Leip. &rsquo;93
+
+<b>Columella.</b>
+  In <i>Scriptores Rei Rusticae</i>,
+               ed. I. G. Schneider (Lat.),              Leip. 1794-7
+
+<b>Asconius.</b>
+  A. Kiessling and R. Schöll,                              Berl. &rsquo;75
+
+<b>Mela.</b>
+  C. Frick (text),                                         Leip. &rsquo;80
+
+<b>Persius.</b>
+  O. Jahn and F. Bücheler (text),                          Berl. &rsquo;93
+  J. Conington, ed. H. Nettleship,                          Oxf. &rsquo;93
+
+<b>Probus.</b>
+  H. Keil,                                                Halle, &rsquo;48
+
+<b>Lucan.</b>
+  C. Hosius (text),                                        Leip. &rsquo;92
+  C. E. Haskins (introd. by W. E. Heitland),               Lond. &rsquo;87
+  Book i.,          W. E. Heitland and C. E. Haskins,      Camb. &rsquo;95
+  "                 Lejay,                                Paris, &rsquo;94
+  Books i.-v.,      C. M. Francken (Lat.),               Leiden, &rsquo;96
+
+<b>Petronius.</b>
+  F. Bücheler (text),                                      Berl. &rsquo;95
+  Cena Trimalchionis, L. Friedländer (text, German
+                        trans., and notes),                Leip. &rsquo;91
+
+<b>Calpurnius Siculus.</b>
+  H. Schenkl (text),                                     Prague, &rsquo;85
+  C. H. Keene,                                             Lond. &rsquo;87
+
+<b>Aetna.</b>
+  H. A. J. Munro,                                          &rsquo;Camb. 67
+
+<b>Pliny the Elder.</b>
+  L. van Jan and Mayhoff (text),                        Leip. &rsquo;75-92
+  J. Sillig,                                         Hamburg, &rsquo;51-58
+  J. Hardouin,                                           Paris, 1723
+  D. Detlefsen (crit.),                                 Berl, &rsquo;66-82
+  (Selections) Chrestomathia
+               Pliniana,  L. Urlichs,                      Berl. &rsquo;57
+
+<b>Valerius Flaccus.</b>
+  J. A. Wagner,                                           Gött. 1805
+  N. E. Lemaire,                                          Paris, &rsquo;24
+  G. Thilo (text),                                        Halle, &rsquo;63
+
+<b>Silius Italicus.</b>
+  A. Drakenborch (Lat.),                               Utrecht, 1717
+  G. A. Ruperti, ed. Lemaire,                             Paris, &rsquo;23
+  L. Bauer (text),                                         Leip. &rsquo;90
+
+<b>Statius.</b>
+  Silvae,                 E. Bährens (text),               Leip. &rsquo;76
+  Achilleis,              P. Kohlmann (text),              Leip. &rsquo;79
+  Thebais,                                                 Leip. &rsquo;84
+
+<b>Martial.</b>
+  L. Friedländer,                                          Leip. &rsquo;86
+  (Selections,)           H. M. Stephenson,                Lond. &rsquo;95
+                          F. A Paley and W. H. Stone,      Lond. &rsquo;82
+
+<b>Quintilian.</b>
+  G. L. Spalding and C. G. Zumpt,                    Leip. 1798-1834
+  F. Meister (text),                                  Prague, &rsquo;86-87
+  C. Halm (crit.),                                         Leip. &rsquo;69
+  Book X.,                J.E.B. Mayor,                    Lond. &rsquo;72
+  "                       W. Peterson,                      Oxf. &rsquo;91
+  "                       G.T.A. Krüger,                   Leip. &rsquo;88
+  "                       E. Bonnell and F. Meister,       Berl. &rsquo;82
+
+<b>Frontinus.</b>
+  A. Dederich (text),                                      Leip. &rsquo;55
+  Strategemata,           G. Gundermann (text),            Leip. &rsquo;88
+  De Aquis,               F. Bücheler (text),              Leip. &rsquo;58
+
+<b>Juvenal.</b>
+  L. Friedländer,                                          Leip. &rsquo;95
+  A. Weidner,                                              Leip. &rsquo;89
+  XIII. Satires,          J. E. B. Mayor,                  Lond. &rsquo;93
+  "                       C. H. Pearson and H. A. Strong,   Oxf. &rsquo;92
+  "                       E. G. Hardy,                     Lond. &rsquo;95
+
+<b>Tacitus.</b>
+  C. Halm (text),                                       Leip. &rsquo;89-93
+  Dialogus,               W. Peterson,                      Oxf. &rsquo;93
+  Germania,               H. Furneaux,                      Oxf. &rsquo;94
+  " and Agricola,         A. J. Church and
+                            W. J Brodribb,              Lond. &rsquo;91-94
+  "     "                 H. M. Stephenson,                Camb. &rsquo;94
+  Histories,              E. Wolff,                     Berl. &rsquo;86-88
+  "                       W. A. Spooner,                   Lond. &rsquo;91
+  " (Books i., ii.),      A. D. Godley,                    Lond. &rsquo;94
+  Annals,                 K. Nipperdey and G. Andresen, Berl. &rsquo;84-92
+  "                       A. Dräger and F. Becher,      Leip. &rsquo;82-95
+  "                       H. Furneaux,                   Oxf. &rsquo;83-91
+  "                       H. Furneaux (Books i.-iv.),       Oxf. &rsquo;92
+
+<b>Pliny the Younger.</b>
+  H. Keil (text),                                          Leip. &rsquo;53
+  H. Keil and Th. Mommsen (crit.),                         Leip. &rsquo;70
+  G. H. Schaefer,                                         Leip. 1805
+  Epistles,         G. Cortius and P. D. Longolius,    Amsterd. 1734
+  " (Book iii.),    J. E. B. Mayor,                        Lond. &rsquo;89
+  " (to Trajan),    E. G. Hardy,                           Lond. &rsquo;89
+
+<b>Suetonius.</b>
+  C. L. Roth (text),                                       Leip. &rsquo;75
+  C. G. Baumgarten-Crusius,                                Leip. &rsquo;16
+  Julius and Augustus,                H. T. Peck,      New York, &rsquo;93
+  Augustus,                           E. S. Shuckburgh,    Camb. &rsquo;96
+  Praeter Caesarum libros reliquiae,  A. Reifferscheid,    Leip. &rsquo;60
+
+<b>Miscellaneous.</b>
+  Aulus Gellius,                 M. Hertz (text),          Leip. &rsquo;86
+  Macrobius,                     F. Eyssenhardt (text),    Leip. &rsquo;93
+  Nonius Marcellus,              L. Müller (crit.),        Leip. &rsquo;88
+  Servius,               G. Thilo and H. Hagen (crit.), Leip. &rsquo;78-94
+  Grammatici Latini, H. Keil (crit.),                   Leip. &rsquo;56-80
+  Corpus Poetarum Latinorum, ed. J. P. Postgate (crit.),   Lond. &rsquo;94
+    [Including Ennius, Lucretius, Catullus, Horace, Virgil,
+    Tibullus, Propertius, Ovid; other parts to follow.]
+  Oratorum Romanorum Fragmenta, H. Meyer (text),         Zürich, &rsquo;42
+  Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta, H. Peter (text),       Leip. &rsquo;83
+  Selected Fragments of Roman Poetry, W. W. Merry,          Oxf. &rsquo;91
+  Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin, J. Wordsworth,    Oxf. &rsquo;74
+</pre>
+
+<h2 id="p368">GENERAL INDEX</h2>
+
+<ul>
+	<li>Abuccius, <a href="#p099">99</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="accius">Accius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>  birth, <a href="#p055">55</a>;</li>
+	<li>  literary activity, friendships with leading men, <a href="#p056">56</a>;</li>
+	<li>  character, <a href="#p056">56</a>;</li>
+	<li>  plays and other works, <a href="#p057">57</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Accius on philology and philosophy, <a href="#p057">57</a>;</li>
+	<li>  views on Accius, <a href="#p058">58</a>;</li>
+	<li>  relations with Pacuvius, <a href="#p035">35</a>;</li>
+	<li>  on the dates of Livius, <a href="#p001">1</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Lucr. <a href="#p121">121</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>.</li>
+	</ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Acro, <a href="#p354">354</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Acta diurna and Acta senatus,
+	<ul>
+	<li>used by Tac. <a href="#p346">346</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Sueton. <a href="#p349">349</a>.</li>
+	</ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Aedituus, <i>see</i> <a href="#valeriusaed">Valerius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Aelius Stilo, <a href="#p010">10</a>, <a href="#p025">25</a>, <a href="#p029">29</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Aelius Tubero, <a href="#p220">220</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="aemmacer">Aemilius Macer, <a href="#p182">182</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="aemscaur">Aemilius Scaurus, <a href="#p058">58</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Aeschylus,
+	<ul>
+	<li>imit. by Livius, <a href="#p003">3</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Accius, <a href="#p057">57</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Sen. <a href="#p253">253</a>;</li>
+	<li>  trans. by Cic. <a href="#p088">88</a>.</li>
+	</ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Aesop, imit. by Phaedrus, <a href="#p239">239</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Aesopus, actor, <a href="#p069">69</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Aetna, <i>see</i> <a href="#luciun">Lucilius Iunior</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Afranius, L. <a href="#p064">64</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Agricola, <a href="#p338">338</a>, <a href="#p341">341</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Agrippina, <a href="#p243">243</a> <i>sqq.</i>;
+	<ul>
+	<li>  her memoirs, <a href="#p346">346</a>.</li>
+   </ul>
+    </li>
+
+	<li>Albinovanus Celsus, <a href="#p181">181</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Albius, <i>see</i> <a href="#tibull">Tibullus</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Alcaeus, imit. by Hor.  <a href="#p174">174</a> <i>sqq.</i></li>
+
+	<li>Alexandrian influence on Catull. <a href="#p139">139</a>, <a href="#p175">175</a>;
+	<ul>
+	<li>  on Virg. <a href="#p157">157</a>;</li>
+	<li>  on Propert. <a href="#p199">199</a>;</li>
+	<li>  on Ovid, <a href="#p210">210</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Alimentus, Cincius, <a href="#p053">53</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Amafinius, <a href="#p083">83</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Ambivius Turpio, <a href="#p038">38</a>, <a href="#p043">43</a> <i>sqq.</i></li>
+
+	<li>Amiternum, birthplace of Sallust, <a href="#p125">125</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Anacreon, foll. by Hor. <a href="#p175">175</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Andes,
+<ul>
+    <li>  birthplace of Virg. <a href="#p148">148</a>;</li>
+	<li>  its position, <a href="#fn043">148 note</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+	<li id="andron">Andronicus, Livius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>dispute as to his dates, <a href="#p001">1</a>;</li>
+	<li>  facts of life, <a href="#p002">2</a>;</li>
+	<li>  actor and schoolmaster, <a href="#p003">3</a>;</li>
+	<li>  plays, <a href="#p003">3</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Odisia, <a href="#p003">3</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Hor.&rsquo;s reference to, <a href="#p165">165</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Annaeus, <i>see</i> <a href="#cornutus">Cornutus</a>, <a href="#lucan">Lucanus</a>, <a href="#seneca">Seneca</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Anser, <a href="#p184">184</a>, <a href="#p141">141</a>-<a href="#p142">2</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Antias, <i>see</i> <a href="#valant">Valerius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Antioch, birthplace of Publilius Syrus, <a href="#p145">145</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Antiochus,
+	<ul>
+	<li>teacher of Cicero, <a href="#p070">70</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Varro, <a href="#p091">91</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Antipater, <i>see</i> <a href="#coel">Coelius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Antonius, C. Iullus, <a href="#p181">181</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Antonius, M., the orator, <a href="#p069">69</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Antonius Gnipho, rhetorician, <a href="#p069">69</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Apollodorus, imit. by Ter. <a href="#p046">46</a>, <a href="#p047">47</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Apollonius Rhodius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>trans. by Atac. <a href="#p144">144</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Val. Flaccus, <a href="#p287">287</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Aquilius, <a href="#p039">39</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Aquinum, birthpl. of Juv. <a href="#p313">313</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Aratus,
+	<ul>
+	<li>trans. by Cic. <a href="#p087">87</a>;</li>
+	<li>  this trans. used by Lucr. <a href="#p120">120</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Atac. <a href="#p145">145</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Virg. <a href="#p157">157</a>;</li>
+	<li>  trans. by Germanicus, <a href="#p281">281</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Archias, <a href="#p069">69</a>, <a href="#p075">75</a>, <a href="#p089">89</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Archilochus, imit. by Hor. <a href="#p174">174</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Argumenta,
+	<ul>
+	<li>to Plautus, <a href="#p018">18</a>;</li>
+	<li>  to Ter. <a href="#p051">51</a>;</li>
+	<li>  to Livy, <a href="#p217">217</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="arist">Aristius Fuscus, <a href="#p181">181</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Aristotle,
+	<ul>
+	<li>foll. by Cic. <a href="#p079">79</a>, <a href="#p085">85</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Hor. <a href="#p179">179</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Arpinum, birthpl. of Cic. <a href="#p069">69</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="ascon">Asconius Pedianus, <a href="#p077">77</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Asinius, <i>see</i> <a href="#pollio">Pollio</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Asisium, birthpl. of Propert. <a href="#p192">192</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Atacinus, <i>see</i> <a href="#varratac">Varro</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Ateius, foll. by Sall. <a href="#p131">131</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Atellana fabula, <a href="#p067">67</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Atilius, <a href="#p039">39</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="atta">Atta, T. Quintius, <a href="#p064">64</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Attalus, teacher of Seneca, <a href="#p241">241</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="atticus">Atticus, T. Pomponius, <a href="#p090">90</a>, <a href="#p085">85</a> <i>sqq.</i>;
+	<ul>
+	<li>  on chronology, <a href="#p001">1</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friend of Nepos, <a href="#p113">113</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Attius, <i>see</i> <a href="#accius">Accius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Augustus,
+	<ul>
+	<li>works, <a href="#p152">152</a>;</li>
+	<li>  relations with Virg. <a href="#p149">149</a>, <a href="#p152">152</a>, <a href="#p159">159</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Hor. <a href="#p166">166</a> <i>sqq.</i></li>
+	<li>  with Gallus, <a href="#p182">182</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Propert. <a href="#p195">195</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Ovid, <a href="#p211">211</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Livy, <a href="#p215">215</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Vitruvius, <a href="#p225">225</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li>Bacchanalia, <a href="#p012">12</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Bacchylides, foll. by Hor. <a href="#p175">175</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Bassus, Aufidius, <a href="#p284">284</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Bassus, poet, <a href="#p196">196</a>, <a href="#p206">206</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Bavius, <a href="#p183">183</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Bibaculus, <i>see</i> <a href="#furbib">Furius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Bilbilis, birthpl. of Martial, <a href="#p295">295</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Britannicus, <a href="#p245">245</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Brundisium, birthpl. of Pacuvius, <a href="#p034">34</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Brutus,
+	<ul>
+	<li>relations with Cic. <a href="#p080">80</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li>
+	<li>  with Hor. <a href="#p165">165</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li>
+	<li>  Lucan on, <a href="#p269">269</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Burrus, friend of Seneca, <a href="#p245">245</a> <i>sqq.</i></li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li>Caecilius of Novum Comum, <a href="#p139">139</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="caecstat">Caecilius Statius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>dates, <a href="#p037">37</a>;</li>
+	<li>  comedies, <a href="#p038">38</a>;</li>
+	<li>  relations with Ter. <a href="#p038">38</a>, <a href="#p042">42</a>;</li>
+	<li>  views on Caecilius, <a href="#p039">39</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friend of Ennius, <a href="#p028">28</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Ter. <a href="#p043">43</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Caelius Rufus,
+	<ul>
+	<li>defended by Cic. <a href="#p076">76</a>;</li>
+	<li>  enemy of Catull. <a href="#p135">135</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="caesar">Caesar, C. Iulius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>birth, <a href="#p100">100</a>;</li>
+	<li>  early connexion with democrats, <a href="#p100">100</a>;</li>
+	<li>  military and civil career, <a href="#p101">101</a>-<a href="#p102">2</a>;</li>
+	<li>  supports Pompey, <a href="#p102">102</a>;</li>
+	<li>  first triumvirate, conquest of Gaul, civil war, <a href="#p103">103</a>;</li>
+	<li>  dictator, death, <a href="#p104">104</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>De Bello Gallico</i>, <a href="#p104">104</a>;</li>
+	<li>  its objects, style, <a href="#p105">105</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>De Bello Civili</i>, <a href="#p106">106</a>;</li>
+	<li>  other works in the Corpus Caesarianum, <a href="#p106">106</a>;</li>
+	<li>  theories on their authorship, <a href="#p107">107</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Caesar&rsquo;s lost works, incl. speeches and poems, <a href="#p109">109</a>;</li>
+	<li>  criticisms on his poems, <a href="#p111">111</a>;</li>
+	<li>  verses on Ter. <a href="#p051">51</a>;</li>
+	<li>  relations with Cic. <a href="#p071">71</a>, <a href="#p077">77</a>, <a href="#p109">109</a>, <a href="#p110">110</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Varro, <a href="#p092">92</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Sall. <a href="#p127">127</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Laberius, <a href="#p097">97</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Catull. <a href="#p137">137</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Calvus, <a href="#p143">143</a>;</li>
+	<li>  celebrated by Bibaculus, <a href="#p100">100</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Atac. <a href="#p144">144</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Livy on, <a href="#p223">223</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Lucan on, <a href="#p268">268</a>, <a href="#p270">270</a>;</li>
+	<li>  foll. by Frontinus, <a href="#p311">311</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Tac. <a href="#p346">346</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Caesar Strabo, <a href="#p066">66</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Calagurris, birthpl. of Quintilian, <a href="#p302">302</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Calendar, Caesar&rsquo;s reform of, <a href="#p104">104</a>, <a href="#p110">110</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="calidus">Calidus, Iulius, <a href="#p124">124</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Caligula, and Seneca, <a href="#p242">242</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Callimachus,
+	<ul>
+	<li>imit. by Catull. <a href="#p139">139</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Propert. <a href="#p198">198</a>-<a href="#p199">9</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Ovid, <a href="#p211">211</a>-<a href="#p212">2</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="calppiso">Calpurnius Piso, <a href="#p058">58</a>;
+	<ul>
+	<li>  foll. by Livy, <a href="#p220">220</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="calpsic">Calpurnius Siculus, T. <a href="#p275">275</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  discussion of his date, <a href="#p276">276</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Eclogae</i> and sequel by Nemesianus, his models, <i>De laude Pisonis</i>, <a href="#p277">277</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="calvus">Calvus, C. Licinius Macer,
+	<ul>
+	<li>life, speeches, <a href="#p142">142</a>;</li>
+	<li>  poems, relations with Caes. <a href="#p143">143</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Catull. <a href="#p138">138</a>-<a href="#p139">9</a>, <a href="#p143">143</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Hor.&rsquo;s opinion of, <a href="#p143">143</a>, <a href="#p176">176</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Canticum, <a href="#p019">19</a>, <a href="#p050">50</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="cassius">Cassius Hemina, <a href="#p058">58</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Catilinarian conspiracy, <a href="#p070">70</a>, <a href="#p075">75</a>, <a href="#p102">102</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Catius, T. <a href="#p083">83</a>, <a href="#p112">112</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="cato">Cato, M. Porcius, the censor,
+	<ul>
+	<li>date, <a href="#p053">53</a>;</li>
+	<li>  founder of Latin prose, <a href="#p053">53</a>;</li>
+	<li>  works, <a href="#p054">54</a>-<a href="#p055">5</a>;</li>
+	<li>  patron of Enn. <a href="#p027">27</a>;</li>
+	<li>  foll. by Nep. <a href="#p117">117</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Virg. <a href="#p157">157</a>, <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Livy, <a href="#p219">219</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit, by Sall. <a href="#p131">131</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Cato Uticensis, Lucan on, <a href="#p269">269</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Cato, Valerius, teacher of Catullus, <a href="#p133">133</a>, <a href="#p139">139</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="catull">Catullus, C. Valerius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>birth and dates, <a href="#p132">132</a>;</li>
+	<li>  family and education, <a href="#p133">133</a>;</li>
+	<li>  relations with Lesbia, <a href="#p134">134</a>;</li>
+	<li>  voyage to Bithynia, <a href="#p136">136</a>;</li>
+	<li>  attacks Caesar&rsquo;s party, <a href="#p137">137</a>;</li>
+	<li>  relations with contemporaries, <a href="#p138">138</a>;</li>
+	<li>  longer poems, Alexandrian influence, publication of poems, <a href="#p139">139</a>;</li>
+	<li>  metre, <a href="#p175">175</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friend of Nep. <a href="#p114">114</a>-<a href="#p115">5</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Calvus, <a href="#p138">138</a>-<a href="#p139">9</a>, <a href="#p143">143</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Cinna, <a href="#p140">140</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Hor.&rsquo;s opinion of, <a href="#p143">143</a>, <a href="#p176">176</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Virg. <a href="#p154">154</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Mart. <a href="#p301">301</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Catulus, <i>see</i> <a href="#lutat">Lutatius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="celsus">Celsus, Cornelius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>his encyclopaedia, <a href="#p235">235</a>;</li>
+	<li>  its subdivisions, extant part <i>De Re Medica</i>, <a href="#p236">236</a>;</li>
+	<li>  foll. by Quint. <a href="#p309">309</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Christians, Tacitus&rsquo; view of, <a href="#p347">347</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="cicero">Cicero, M. Tullius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>birth, education, at the bar, <a href="#p069">69</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in the East, political career, Catilinarian conspiracy, banishment, <a href="#p070">70</a>;</li>
+	<li>  recall, proconsul of Cilicia, in civil war, <a href="#p071">71</a>;</li>
+	<li>  death, <a href="#p073">73</a>;</li>
+	<li>  speeches, <a href="#p073">73</a>;</li>
+	<li>  philosophical works, <a href="#p079">79</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Cic. as a philosopher, <a href="#p083">83</a>;</li>
+	<li>  rhetorical works, <a href="#p083">83</a>;</li>
+	<li>  letters, <a href="#p085">85</a>;</li>
+	<li>  their style, lost prose writings, <a href="#p086">86</a>;</li>
+	<li>  poems, <a href="#p087">87</a>;</li>
+	<li>  criticisms of his poetry, <a href="#p088">88</a>;</li>
+	<li>  on chronology, <a href="#p001">1</a>, <a href="#p009">9</a>;</li>
+	<li>  verses on Ter. <a href="#p051">51</a>;</li>
+	<li>  conversed with Accius, <a href="#p056">56</a>;</li>
+	<li>  criticises Sisenna, <a href="#p067">67</a>;</li>
+	<li>  attacked by Catull. <a href="#p138">138</a>;</li>
+	<li>  his reference to Lucr. <a href="#p119">119</a>;</li>
+	<li>  editorship of Lucr. <a href="#p120">120</a>;</li>
+	<li>  relations with Nep. <a href="#p114">114</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Calvus, <a href="#p142">142</a>;</li>
+	<li>  foll. by Nep. <a href="#p117">117</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Lucr. <a href="#p120">120</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Hor. <a href="#p174">174</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Val. Max. <a href="#p234">234</a>;</li>
+	<li>  largely quoted by Quint. <a href="#p308">308</a>;</li>
+	<li>  admired by elder Sen. <a href="#p228">228</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Cicero, Quintus, <a href="#p089">89</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Cincius Alimentus, <a href="#p053">53</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  foll. by Livy, <a href="#p219">219</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="cinna">Cinna, C. Helvius,<ul>
+	<li>  friend of Catull. <a href="#p136">136</a>-<a href="#p139">9</a>, <a href="#p140">140</a>;</li>
+	<li>  partisan of Caesar, discussion of his identity, <a href="#p141">141</a>;</li>
+	<li>  poems, <a href="#p141">141</a>;</li>
+	<li>  patronized by Pollio, <a href="#p112">112</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Claudius, emperor,
+	<ul>
+	<li>relations with Livy, <a href="#p216">216</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Sen. <a href="#p243">243</a> <i>sqq.</i></li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="claudquad">Claudius Quadrigarius, <a href="#p067">67</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  foll. by Livy, <a href="#p220">220</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="clodia">Clodia (Lesbia), <a href="#p076">76</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  Catullus&rsquo; relations with, <a href="#p134">134</a> <i>sqq.</i></li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Clodius, P. <a href="#p070">70</a>, <a href="#p076">76</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Clodius Licinus, <a href="#p220">220</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Cluvius Rufus, foll. by Tac. <a href="#p346">346</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Codrus, <a href="#p183">183</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="coel">Coelius Antipater, <a href="#p058">58</a>;
+	<ul>
+	<li>foll. by Livy, <a href="#p220">220</a>.</li>
+	</ul></li>
+
+	<li>Columella,
+	<ul>
+	<li>birth, military service, property, date, <a href="#p258">258</a>;</li>
+	<li>  works, <a href="#p258">258</a>-<a href="#p259">9</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Comum, birthpl. of the two Plinii, <a href="#p281">281</a>, <a href="#p326">326</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Contaminatio, <a href="#p006">6</a>, <a href="#p013">13</a>, <a href="#p046">46</a> <i>sqq.</i></li>
+
+	<li>Corbulo, Domitius, memoirs of, <a href="#p346">346</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Corduba, birthpl. of the two Senecas and Lucan, <a href="#p226">226</a>, <a href="#p240">240</a>, <a href="#p264">264</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Corinna, celebrated by Ovid, <a href="#p207">207</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Cornelius, <i>see</i> <a href="#celsus">Celsus</a>, <a href="#gallus">Gallus</a>, <a href="#nepos">Nepos</a>, <a href="#sisenna">Sisenna</a>, <a href="#tacitus">Tacitus</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Cornificius, <a href="#p088">88</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Cornificius, poet, <a href="#p139">139</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="cornutus">Cornutus, Annaeus,<ul>
+	<li>  teacher of Persius, <a href="#p260">260</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li>
+	<li>  of Lucan, <a href="#p265">265</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Corvinus, <i>see</i> <a href="#messalla">Messalla</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Cremona, birthpl. of Bibaculus, <a href="#p099">99</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Crispus, <i>see</i> <a href="#sallust">Sallustius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="curtius">Curtius Rufus,
+	<ul>
+	<li>his date and identity, <a href="#p256">256</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Historiae Alexandri</i>, <a href="#p257">257</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="cynthia">Cynthia (Hostia), Propertius&rsquo; relations with, <a href="#p065">65</a>, <a href="#p193">193</a>, <a href="#p197">197</a> <i>sqq.</i></li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li id="delia">Delia (Plania), Tibullus&rsquo; love for, <a href="#p188">188</a>-<a href="#p189">9</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Demetrius the Cynic, <a href="#p251">251</a>, <a href="#p254">254</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Democritus, imit. by Lucr. <a href="#p123">123</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Demophilus, <a href="#p011">11</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Didascaliae, <a href="#p015">15</a>, <a href="#p017">17</a>, <a href="#p044">44</a> <i>sqq.</i></li>
+
+	<li>Diodotus, teacher of Cic. <a href="#p069">69</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Diphilus,
+	<ul>
+	<li>imit. by Plaut. <a href="#p012">12</a>, <a href="#p015">15</a>, <a href="#p017">17</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Ter. <a href="#p048">48</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Diverbium, <a href="#p019">19</a>, <a href="#p050">50</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Domitian,
+	<ul>
+	<li>patron of Statius, <a href="#p293">293</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Mart. <a href="#p297">297</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li>
+	<li>  of Quint. <a href="#p305">305</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="domitius">Domitius Marsus, <a href="#p184">184</a>;
+	<ul>
+	<li>epigram on Tibull. <a href="#p186">186</a>.</li>
+	</ul></li>
+
+	<li>Donatus, Aelius, <a href="#p354">354</a>, <a href="#p039">39</a>, <a href="#p044">44</a>, <a href="#p147">147</a> <i>sqq.</i></li>
+
+	<li>Dossenus, in fabula Atellana, <a href="#p025">25</a>, <a href="#p067">67</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li>Eclecticism,
+	<ul>
+	<li>of Enn. <a href="#p029">29</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Cic. <a href="#p083">83</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Hor. <a href="#p173">173</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Egnatius, <a href="#p099">99</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Empedocles, imit. by Lucr. <a href="#p122">122</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Ennius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>birth, <a href="#p026">26</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in Sardinia, <a href="#p026">26</a>;</li>
+	<li>  life in Rome, <a href="#p027">27</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in Aetolia, a Roman citizen, death, <a href="#p028">28</a>;</li>
+	<li>  character and views, <a href="#p029">29</a>;</li>
+	<li>  plays, Saturae, etc. <a href="#p030">30</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Annals</i>, <a href="#p031">31</a>;</li>
+	<li>  services to Latin literature&mdash;the hexameter, <a href="#p032">32</a>;</li>
+	<li>  influence on other poets, <a href="#p033">33</a>;</li>
+	<li>  views on Ennius, <a href="#p034">34</a>;</li>
+	<li>  criticised by Lucilius, <a href="#p062">62</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Lucr. <a href="#p121">121</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in <i>Bell. Hisp.</i> <a href="#p109">109</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. Naevius, <a href="#p007">7</a>;</li>
+	<li>  quoted by Phaedrus, <a href="#p237">237</a>;</li>
+	<li>  taught Pacuv. <a href="#p035">35</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Epicureanism, <a href="#p083">83</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  in Enn. <a href="#p030">30</a>;</li>
+	<li>  discussed by Cic. <a href="#p080">80</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li>
+	<li>  in Lucr. <a href="#p120">120</a> <i>sqq.</i></li>
+	<li>  in Virg. <a href="#p149">149</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in Hor. <a href="#p170">170</a>, <a href="#p173">173</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in <i>Aetna</i>, <a href="#p279">279</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Epidius, teacher of Virg. <a href="#p149">149</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Euhemerism, <a href="#p031">31</a>, <a href="#p162">162</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Euphorion, <a href="#p156">156</a>, <a href="#p183">183</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Euripides,
+	<ul>
+	<li>imit. by Enn. <a href="#p030">30</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Pacuv. <a href="#p036">36</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Accius, <a href="#p057">57</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Sen. <a href="#p253">253</a>;</li>
+	<li>  criticised by Lucilius, <a href="#p062">62</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li>Fabianus, Papirius, <a href="#p240">240</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Fabius, <i>see</i> <a href="#quintil">Quintilianus</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Fabius Labeo, <a href="#p042">42</a>, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Fabius Pictor, <a href="#p052">52</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  foll. by Livy, <a href="#p219">219</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="fabrust">Fabius Rusticus, <a href="#p245">245</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  foll. by Tac. <a href="#p346">346</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Fannius, <a href="#p058">58</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Fenestella, <a href="#p040">40</a>, <a href="#p224">224</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Festus, <a href="#p008">8</a>, <a href="#p224">224</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Flaccus, <i>see</i> <a href="#horaz">Horatius</a>, <a href="#persius">Persius</a>, <a href="#valflacc">Valerius</a>, <a href="#verrius">Verrius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="florus">Florus, Iulius, <a href="#p181">181</a>, <a href="#p172">172</a>, <a href="#p179">179</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Forum Iulii, birthpl. of Gallus, <a href="#p182">182</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="frontinus">Frontinus, S. Iulius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>military and civil career, <a href="#p310">310</a>;</li>
+	<li>  works, <a href="#p311">311</a>-<a href="#p312">2</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friend of Mart. <a href="#p298">298</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Fundanius, <a href="#p181">181</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Furius Antias, <a href="#p066">66</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="furbib">Furius Bibaculus, <a href="#p099">99</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Furnius, <a href="#p181">181</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Fuscus, <i>see</i> <a href="#arist">Aristius</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li>Gades, birthpl. of Columella, <a href="#p258">258</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Gaetulicus, <a href="#p301">301</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Gallio, <i>see</i> <a href="#novat">Novatus</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="gallus">Gallus, Cornelius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>life, <a href="#p182">182</a>;</li>
+	<li>  poems, <a href="#p183">183</a>;</li>
+	<li>  relations with Virg. <a href="#p150">150</a>, <a href="#p156">156</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Gellius, Aulus, <a href="#p352">352</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Geminus, <i>see</i> <a href="#tanus">Tanusius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Germanicus Caesar, <a href="#p281">281</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Glycera, <i>see</i> <a href="#nemesis">Nemesis</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Gracci, <a href="#p058">58</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Guilds of poets, <a href="#p002">2</a>, <a href="#p038">38</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li>Hadrian,
+	<ul>
+	<li>banishes Juv. <a href="#p322">322</a>;</li>
+	<li>  dismisses Sueton. <a href="#p349">349</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Helvia, <a href="#p227">227</a>, <a href="#p240">240</a> <i>sqq.</i></li>
+
+	<li>Helvius, <i>see</i> <a href="#cinna">Cinna</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Hemina, <i>see</i> <a href="#cassius">Cassius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Herennium, Rhet. ad, <a href="#p088">88</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  foll. by Quint. <a href="#p309">309</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Hesiod, imit. by Virg. <a href="#p157">157</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Hieronymus, <i>see</i> <a href="#jerome">Jerome</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Hirtius and the Corpus Caes. <a href="#p106">106</a> <i>sqq.</i></li>
+
+	<li>Homer,
+	<ul>
+	<li>trans. by Livius, <a href="#p003">3</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Matius, <a href="#p066">66</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Cic. <a href="#p088">88</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Hostius, <a href="#p065">65</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Val. Flaccus, <a href="#p288">288</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Silius, <a href="#p291">291</a>;</li>
+	<li>  parodied by Petron. <a href="#p273">273</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="horaz">Horatius Flaccus, Q.,
+	<ul>
+	<li>name, birth, <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li>
+	<li>  parentage, <a href="#p164">164</a>;</li>
+	<li>  education, in civil war, <a href="#p165">165</a>;</li>
+	<li>  clerkship, <a href="#p166">166</a>;</li>
+	<li>  introduction to Maecenas, journey to Brundisium, Sabine farm, <a href="#p167">167</a>;</li>
+	<li>  relations with imperial house, <a href="#p168">168</a>;</li>
+	<li>  death, personal appearance, <a href="#p169">169</a>;</li>
+	<li>  chronology of works, <a href="#p170">170</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Satires</i>, <a href="#p170">170</a>, <a href="#p172">172</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Odes</i> and <i>Epodes</i>, <a href="#p171">171</a>, <a href="#p174">174</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Epistles</i>, <a href="#p171">171</a>, <a href="#p172">172</a>, <a href="#p179">179</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Carm. Saec.</i> <a href="#p171">171</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Ars Poet.</i> <a href="#p172">172</a>, <a href="#p179">179</a>;</li>
+	<li>  nature of the Satires, <a href="#p173">173</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Odes, models of, <a href="#p174">174</a>;</li>
+	<li>  metre and subjects of, <a href="#p175">175</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Epistles, subjects of, <a href="#p179">179</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Hor. and nature, popularity of Hor. <a href="#p180">180</a>;</li>
+	<li>  relations with Virg. <a href="#p151">151</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Tibull. <a href="#p189">189</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Propert. <a href="#p195">195</a>;</li>
+	<li>  patronized by Pollio, <a href="#p112">112</a>;</li>
+	<li>  on Calvus and Catull. <a href="#p143">143</a>, <a href="#p176">176</a>;</li>
+	<li>  on Atac. <a href="#p144">144</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. Lucilius, <a href="#p062">62</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Lucr. <a href="#p125">125</a>;</li>
+	<li>  parodied Bibac. <a href="#p100">100</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Persius, <a href="#p263">263</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Lucan, <a href="#p271">271</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Mart. <a href="#p301">301</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Juv. <a href="#p325">325</a>;</li>
+	<li>  foll. by Quint. <a href="#p309">309</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Hortensius, <a href="#p074">74</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Hostia, <i>see</i> <a href="#cynthia">Cynthia</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Hostius, <a href="#p065">65</a>;
+<ul>
+<li>imit. by Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+
+	<li id="hyginus">Hyginus, C. Iulius, <a href="#p224">224</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  friend of Ovid, <a href="#p206">206</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li>Iambi = satirical verses, <a href="#p100">100</a>, <a href="#p174">174</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Imbrex, Licinius, <a href="#p039">39</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Italicus, <i>see</i> <a href="#silius">Silius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Iulia, grand-daughter of Augustus, <a href="#p203">203</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Iulius, <i>see</i> <a href="#caesar">Caesar</a>, <a href="#calidus">Calidus</a>, <a href="#florus">Florus</a>, <a href="#frontinus">Frontinus</a>, <a href="#hyginus">Hyginus</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Iunior, <i>see</i> <a href="#luciun">Lucilius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Iuvenalis, D. Iunius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>sources for his life, <a href="#p312">312</a>;</li>
+	<li>  birth, <a href="#p313">313</a>;</li>
+	<li>  inscription at Aquinum, <a href="#p314">314</a>;</li>
+	<li>  parentage, position, and education, <a href="#p314">314</a>-<a href="#p316">6</a>;</li>
+	<li>  military and civil career, <a href="#p316">316</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in Britain, <a href="#p317">317</a>;</li>
+	<li>  references to Britain, <a href="#p318">318</a>;</li>
+	<li>  life in Rome, <a href="#p319">319</a>;</li>
+	<li>  dates of Satires, <a href="#p320">320</a>;</li>
+	<li>  banishment, <a href="#p322">322</a>;</li>
+	<li>  death, <a href="#p323">323</a>;</li>
+	<li>  subjects of Satires, <a href="#p323">323</a>;</li>
+	<li>  pessimism, rhetorical learning and style, <a href="#p324">324</a>-<a href="#p326">6</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friend of Mart. <a href="#p298">298</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Iuventius, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li id="jerome">Jerome, <a href="#p351">351</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  mistakes of, <a href="#p002">2</a>, <a href="#p008">8</a>, <a href="#p058">58</a>, <a href="#p099">99</a>, <a href="#p144">144</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Jews, Tacitus&rsquo; view of, <a href="#p347">347</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li>Labeo, Fabius, <a href="#p042">42</a>, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Laberius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>dates, <a href="#p097">97</a>;</li>
+	<li>  contest with Publ. Syrus, <a href="#p097">97</a>, <a href="#p145">145</a>;</li>
+	<li>  mimes, <a href="#p098">98</a>;</li>
+	<li>  language and views, <a href="#p099">99</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Laelius, literary circle of, <a href="#p035">35</a>, <a href="#p041">41</a>, <a href="#p059">59</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Laenas, <i>see</i> <a href="#popill">Popillius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Laevius, <a href="#p066">66</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Lanuvinus, <i>see</i> <a href="#lusc">Luscius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="latro">Latro, Porcius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>teacher of Ovid, <a href="#p201">201</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friend of Sen. <a href="#p227">227</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Lesbia, <i>see</i> <a href="#clodia">Clodia</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Libri lintei, <a href="#p068">68</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Licinius Imbrex, <a href="#p039">39</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Licinius Tegula, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Licinius Macer, <a href="#p067">67</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  foll. by Livy, <a href="#p220">220</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Licinius Macer Calvus, <i>see</i> <a href="#calvus">Calvus</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Licinus, Porcius, <a href="#p065">65</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Livius, <i>see</i> <a href="#andron">Andronicus</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Livius, T.,
+	<ul>
+	<li>birth, intimacy with imperial house, <a href="#p215">215</a>;</li>
+	<li>  death, <a href="#p216">216</a>;</li>
+	<li>  works on philosophy and rhetoric, <a href="#p216">216</a>;</li>
+	<li>  his history, the <i>Periochae</i>, number and scope of books, <a href="#p217">217</a>;</li>
+	<li>  date of composition, <a href="#p218">218</a>;</li>
+	<li>  publication, <a href="#p219">219</a>;</li>
+	<li>  his sources, <a href="#p068">68</a>, <a href="#p319">319</a>;</li>
+	<li>  comparison with Polybius, <a href="#p220">220</a>;</li>
+	<li>  characteristics of his history, <a href="#p220">220</a>-<a href="#p221">1</a>;</li>
+	<li>  views on religion and morality, <a href="#p222">222</a>;</li>
+	<li>  politics, <a href="#p223">223</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li>
+	<li>  foll. by Ovid, <a href="#p211">211</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Val. Max. <a href="#p234">234</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Lucan, <a href="#p271">271</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Silius, <a href="#p290">290</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Frontinus, <a href="#p311">311</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="lucan">Lucanus, M. Annaeus,
+	<ul>
+	<li>biographies of, <a href="#p264">264</a>;</li>
+	<li>  education, <i>Laudes Neronis</i>, political advancement, breach with Nero, <a href="#p265">265</a>;</li>
+	<li>  satirizes Nero, joins Piso&rsquo;s conspiracy, suicide, <a href="#p266">266</a>;</li>
+	<li>  his wife, <a href="#p267">267</a>;</li>
+	<li>  lost works, <a href="#p267">267</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>De Bello Civili</i> (Pharsalia), <a href="#p267">267</a>, <a href="#p268">268</a> <i>sqq.</i></li>
+	<li>  popularity of his works, <a href="#p268">268</a>;</li>
+	<li>  his views on politics, <a href="#p268">268</a>;</li>
+	<li>  on philosophy and religion, <a href="#p270">270</a>;</li>
+	<li>  rhetorical treatment, <a href="#p271">271</a>;</li>
+	<li>  his models, <a href="#p271">271</a>;</li>
+	<li>  criticisms of Lucan, <a href="#p272">272</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friendship with Persius, <a href="#p261">261</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Juv. <a href="#p326">326</a>;</li>
+	<li>  admired by Statius, <a href="#p293">293</a>;</li>
+	<li>  parodied by Petron. <a href="#p275">275</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Lucilius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>date, <a href="#p058">58</a>;</li>
+	<li>  birthpl. and rank, <a href="#p059">59</a>;</li>
+	<li>  his friends and enemies, <a href="#p059">59</a>-<a href="#p060">60</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Saturae</i>, dates of composition, <a href="#p061">61</a>;</li>
+	<li>  subjects of, <a href="#p062">62</a>;</li>
+	<li>  on philology, <a href="#p062">62</a>;</li>
+	<li>  style and character, <a href="#p063">63</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Lucr. <a href="#p121">121</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Hor. <a href="#p173">173</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Persius, <a href="#p262">262</a>-<a href="#p263">3</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Juv. <a href="#p326">326</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="luciun">Lucilius Iunior, <a href="#p277">277</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  official career, friendship with Sen. <a href="#p278">278</a>;</li>
+	<li>  date and authorship of <i>Aetna</i>, <a href="#p279">279</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. Sen. and Lucr. <a href="#p280">280</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Lucillius, epigrammatist, <a href="#p301">301</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Lucretius Carus, T.,
+	<ul>
+	<li>his dates, <a href="#p119">119</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Cic.&rsquo;s editorship of his works, recently discovered biography, <a href="#p120">120</a>;</li>
+	<li>  position and character, <a href="#p121">121</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>De rerum natura</i>, <a href="#p122">122</a>;</li>
+	<li>  his ethics and physics, <a href="#p123">123</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. Enn. <a href="#p033">33</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Virg. <a href="#p158">158</a>, <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Hor. <a href="#p173">173</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in <i>Aetna</i>, <a href="#p280">280</a>.</li>
+	<li>  Lucullus, <a href="#p068">68</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Ludi Megalenses, <a href="#p015">15</a>, <a href="#p017">17</a>, <a href="#p044">44</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  Romani, <a href="#p017">17</a>;</li>
+	<li>  plebei, <a href="#p017">17</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="lusc">Luscius Lanuvinus, <a href="#p039">39</a>, <a href="#p049">49</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="lutat">Lutatius Catulus, <a href="#p065">65</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Lycinna, <a href="#p193">193</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Lygdamus, <a href="#p190">190</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Lynceus, <a href="#p196">196</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li>Maccius, <i>see</i> <a href="#plautus">Plautus</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Macer, <i>see</i> <a href="#aemmacer">Aemilius</a>, <a href="#calvus">Calvus</a>, <a href="#pompmac">Pompeius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Macrobius, <a href="#p354">354</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Maecenas, <a href="#p166">166</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  relations with Virg. <a href="#p151">151</a>, <a href="#p157">157</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Hor. <a href="#p166">166</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li>
+	<li>  with Valgius, <a href="#p180">180</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Propert. <a href="#p195">195</a>, <a href="#p198">198</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Mamurra, Catullus&rsquo; hostility to, <a href="#p137">137</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Manilius, <a href="#p213">213</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  imit. Lucr. <a href="#p125">125</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Juv. <a href="#p326">326</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Marcellus, nephew of Augustus, <a href="#p159">159</a>, <a href="#p171">171</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Maro, <i>see</i> <a href="#vergil">Vergilius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Marsus, <i>see</i> <a href="#domitius">Domitius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="martial">Martialis, M. Valerius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>birth, <a href="#p295">295</a>;</li>
+	<li>  education, life at Rome, patrons, <a href="#p296">296</a>;</li>
+	<li>  life under Domitian and Titus, <a href="#p297">297</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friends of Martial, <a href="#p298">298</a>;</li>
+	<li>  returns to Spain, <a href="#p299">299</a>;</li>
+	<li>  character, <a href="#p299">299</a>;</li>
+	<li>  publication of Epigrams, popularity, <a href="#p300">300</a>;</li>
+	<li>  models, mistakes, <a href="#p301">301</a>;</li>
+	<li>  satire and versification, <a href="#p302">302</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. Catull. <a href="#p140">140</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friend of Lucan, <a href="#p267">267</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Silius, <a href="#p289">289</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Frontinus, <a href="#p311">311</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Juv. <a href="#p319">319</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Pliny the younger, <a href="#p335">335</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Juv. <a href="#p326">326</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Maternus, Curiatius, <a href="#p341">341</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Matius, Cn. <a href="#p066">66</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Maximus, <i>see</i> <a href="#valmax">Valerius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Mediocritas of Terence, <a href="#p051">51</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="mela">Mela, Pomponius, <a href="#p259">259</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Melissus, <a href="#p149">149</a>, <a href="#p185">185</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Memmius, C. <a href="#p120">120</a>, <a href="#p122">122</a>, <a href="#p136">136</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Menander,
+	<ul>
+	<li>imit. by Plaut. <a href="#p013">13</a>, <a href="#p015">15</a>, <a href="#p018">18</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Caecilius, <a href="#p038">38</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Ter. <a href="#p044">44</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li>
+	<li>  by Turpilius, <a href="#p052">52</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Afranius, <a href="#p065">65</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Menippea Satira, <a href="#p096">96</a>, <a href="#p273">273</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Messalina, <a href="#p243">243</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="messalla">Messalla Corvinus, <a href="#p187">187</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  patron of Tibull. <a href="#p186">186</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li>
+	<li>  relations with Ovid, <a href="#p205">205</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Mevius, <a href="#p183">183</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Molo,
+	<ul>
+	<li>teacher of Cic. <a href="#p069">69</a>, <a href="#p070">70</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Caes. <a href="#p102">102</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Murena, conspiracy of, <a href="#p171">171</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li>Naevius, Cn.,
+	<ul>
+	<li>birth, <a href="#p004">4</a>;</li>
+	<li>  attacks Metelli, <a href="#p005">5</a>;</li>
+	<li>  banishment and death, <a href="#p006">6</a>;</li>
+	<li>  plays, <a href="#p006">6</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Bellum Punicum</i>, <a href="#p007">7</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Plautus&rsquo; reference to, <a href="#p014">14</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Lucr. <a href="#p121">121</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Naples, birthpl. of Statius, <a href="#p291">291</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Naso, <i>see</i> <a href="#ovid">Ovidius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Nemesianus, <a href="#p275">275</a>, <a href="#p277">277</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="nemesis">Nemesis (Glycera), Tibullus&rsquo; love for, <a href="#p188">188</a>, <a href="#p190">190</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Neoptolemus, <a href="#p179">179</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="nepos">Nepos, Cornelius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>discussion of date, <a href="#p113">113</a>;</li>
+	<li>  intimacy with Atticus, <a href="#p113">113</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Catull. <a href="#p114">114</a>;</li>
+	<li>  character and views, <a href="#p114">114</a>;</li>
+	<li>  minor works, <a href="#p115">115</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>De viris illustribus</i>, <a href="#p116">116</a>;</li>
+	<li>  sources, <a href="#p117">117</a>;</li>
+	<li>  value of his work, <a href="#p117">117</a>;</li>
+	<li>  authenticity of his works, <a href="#p118">118</a>;</li>
+	<li>  on Terence, <a href="#p040">40</a>;</li>
+	<li>  on Cato, <a href="#p054">54</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friend of Catull. <a href="#p139">139</a>;</li>
+	<li>  foll. by Mela, <a href="#p259">259</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Nero,
+	<ul>
+	<li>relations with Sen. <a href="#p244">244</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li>
+	<li>  with Lucan, <a href="#p265">265</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Petron. <a href="#p272">272</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Silius, <a href="#p289">289</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Calp. Sic. on, <a href="#p276">276</a>;</li>
+	<li>  his poetry parodied by Persius, <a href="#p262">262</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Petron. <a href="#p275">275</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Nicander,
+	<ul>
+	<li>foll. by Virg. <a href="#p158">158</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Macer, <a href="#p182">182</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Ovid, <a href="#p210">210</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Nonius Marcellus, <a href="#p353">353</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="novat">Novatus, M. Annaeus (= Gallio), <a href="#p227">227</a>, <a href="#p250">250</a>, <a href="#p264">264</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Novius, <a href="#p067">67</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li>Oppius, and the Corpus Caes. <a href="#p106">106</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Orbilius, <a href="#p099">99</a>, <a href="#p165">165</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="ovid">Ovidius Naso, P.,
+	<ul>
+	<li>name and birth, <a href="#p200">200</a>;</li>
+	<li>  rank and education, <a href="#p201">201</a>;</li>
+	<li>  official career, <a href="#p202">202</a>;</li>
+	<li>  travels, <a href="#p203">203</a>;</li>
+	<li>  banishment, <a href="#p203">203</a>;</li>
+	<li>  probable reasons for it, <a href="#p203">203</a>-<a href="#p204">4</a>;</li>
+	<li>  life at Tomi, <a href="#p204">204</a>-<a href="#p205">5</a>;</li>
+	<li>  death, <a href="#p205">205</a>;</li>
+	<li>  his literary friends, <a href="#p206">206</a>;</li>
+	<li>  his property, <a href="#p206">206</a>;</li>
+	<li>  poems, <a href="#p207">207</a>;</li>
+	<li>  relations with Aemilius Macer, <a href="#p182">182</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Tibull. <a href="#p189">189</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Propert. <a href="#p196">196</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. Catull. <a href="#p140">140</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li>
+	<li>  foll. Propert. <a href="#p199">199</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Verrius Flaccus, <a href="#p224">224</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Sen. <a href="#p253">253</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Lucan, <a href="#p271">271</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in <i>Aetna</i>, <a href="#p279">279</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Val. Flaccus, <a href="#p288">288</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Mart. <a href="#p301">301</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Juv. <a href="#p326">326</a>;</li>
+	<li>  on Varro Atac. <a href="#p144">144</a>;</li>
+	<li>  on Gallus, <a href="#p182">182</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li>Pacuvius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>birth, <a href="#p034">34</a>;</li>
+	<li>  literary friends, <a href="#p035">35</a>;</li>
+	<li>  tragedies, saturae, <a href="#p036">36</a>;</li>
+	<li>  views and style, <a href="#p036">36</a>;</li>
+	<li>  views on Pacuvius, <a href="#p037">37</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Lucr. <a href="#p121">121</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="paetus">Paetus Thrasea,
+	<ul>
+	<li>relative of Persius, <a href="#p261">261</a>, <a href="#p286">286</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Tacitus&rsquo; attitude to, <a href="#p344">344</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Palliata fabula, <a href="#p006">6</a>, <a href="#p010">10</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#p039">39</a>, <a href="#p044">44</a> <i>sqq.</i>, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Panaetius, <a href="#p082">82</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Papinius, <i>see</i> <a href="#statius">Statius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Patavinitas, <a href="#p215">215</a>, <a href="#p219">219</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Patavium, birthpl. of Livy, <a href="#p215">215</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Paterculus, <i>see</i> <a href="#velleius">Velleius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Paul, St., and Seneca, <a href="#p254">254</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Paulus Diaconus, abridged Festus, <a href="#p224">224</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Pedianus, <i>see</i> <a href="#ascon">Asconius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Pedum, prob. birthpl. of Tibull. <a href="#p185">185</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Pellio, actor of Plautus, <a href="#p012">12</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="persius">Persius Flaccus, A.,
+	<ul>
+	<li>dates, birthpl., rank, education, <a href="#p260">260</a>;</li>
+	<li>  his friends, property, and character, <a href="#p261">261</a>;</li>
+	<li>  early works, <a href="#p261">261</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Satires&mdash;their nature, <a href="#p262">262</a>;</li>
+	<li>  obligations to Hor. <a href="#p263">263</a>;</li>
+	<li>  popularity, <a href="#p263">263</a>-<a href="#p264">4</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. Lucilius, <a href="#p063">63</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Petronius Arbiter, C.,
+	<ul>
+	<li>life, <a href="#p272">272</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Satirae&mdash;their subject, <a href="#p273">273</a>;</li>
+	<li>  dramatic scene and date, <a href="#p273">273</a>-<a href="#p274">4</a>;</li>
+	<li>  style, <a href="#p274">274</a>;</li>
+	<li>  poems in the book, <a href="#p275">275</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Phaedrus (philosopher), <a href="#p069">69</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Phaedrus (poet),
+	<ul>
+	<li>life, <a href="#p237">237</a>;</li>
+	<li>  persecuted by Seianus, <a href="#p237">237</a>;</li>
+	<li>  personal points, <a href="#p238">238</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>fabulae Aesopiae</i>, <a href="#p239">239</a>;</li>
+	<li>  the five books, <a href="#p239">239</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Philemon, imit. by Plaut. <a href="#p014">14</a>, <a href="#p015">15</a>, <a href="#p017">17</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Philetas, imit. by Propert. <a href="#p199">199</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Philo, teacher of Cic. <a href="#p069">69</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Philology, <a href="#p057">57</a>, <a href="#p063">63</a>, <a href="#p094">94</a>, <a href="#p307">307</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Phocas, <a href="#p147">147</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Pictor, Fabius, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Pindar, foll. by Hor. <a href="#p175">175</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Pisaurum, birthpl. of Accius, <a href="#p055">55</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Piso, <i>see</i> <a href="#calppiso">Calpurnius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Piso, conspiracy of, <a href="#p248">248</a>, <a href="#p266">266</a>, <a href="#p296">296</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Plania, <i>see</i> <a href="#delia">Delia</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Plato,
+	<ul>
+	<li>trans. by Cic. <a href="#p082">82</a>;</li>
+	<li>  foll. by Nep. <a href="#p117">117</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Virg. <a href="#p162">162</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="plautus">Plautus, T. Maccius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>name, <a href="#p007">7</a>;</li>
+	<li>  date and pl. of birth, <a href="#p008">8</a>;</li>
+	<li>  varied employments, <a href="#p008">8</a>, <a href="#p009">9</a>;</li>
+	<li>  intimacy with the Scipios, death, <a href="#p009">9</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Plautine canon, <a href="#p010">10</a>;</li>
+	<li>  extant plays, <a href="#p010">10</a>-<a href="#p018">18</a>;</li>
+	<li>  argumenta, <a href="#p018">18</a>;</li>
+	<li>  prologues, <a href="#p018">18</a>;</li>
+	<li>  acts, diverbium, canticum, characters, <a href="#p019">19</a>;</li>
+	<li>  language, <a href="#p020">20</a>;</li>
+	<li>  references to Greek and Roman life, <a href="#p020">20</a>;</li>
+	<li>  prosody, <a href="#p022">22</a>;</li>
+	<li>  views on Plautus, <a href="#p025">25</a>;</li>
+	<li>  reference to Naevius, <a href="#p005">5</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Plinius Secundus, C. (the elder), <a href="#p281">281</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  education, <a href="#p282">282</a>;</li>
+	<li>  military and procuratorial career, <a href="#p282">282</a>-<a href="#p283">3</a>;</li>
+	<li>  death, <a href="#p283">283</a>;</li>
+	<li>  lost works, <a href="#p284">284</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Naturae Historiae</i>, their contents and character, <a href="#p285">285</a>;</li>
+	<li>  views, <a href="#p286">286</a>;</li>
+	<li>  foll. by Tac. <a href="#p346">346</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Plinius Secundus, C. (the younger),
+	<ul>
+	<li>name and birthpl. <a href="#p326">326</a>;</li>
+	<li>  date of birth, education, <a href="#p327">327</a>;</li>
+	<li>  adoption by his uncle, <a href="#p328">328</a>;</li>
+	<li>  at the bar, civil career, <a href="#p328">328</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Panegyricus</i>, <a href="#p330">330</a>;</li>
+	<li>  governor of Pontus et Bithynia, correspondence with Trajan,
+	    municipal relations, <a href="#p331">331</a>-<a href="#p333">333</a>;</li>
+	<li>  as orator and writer, <a href="#p333">333</a>;</li>
+	<li>  the Epistles, <a href="#p334">334</a>;</li>
+	<li>  relations with other writers, character, <a href="#p335">335</a>;</li>
+	<li>  love of nature, <a href="#p336">336</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friend of Silius, <a href="#p289">289</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Mart. <a href="#p298">298</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Frontinus, <a href="#p310">310</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Tac. <a href="#p340">340</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Sueton. <a href="#p348">348</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Polla Argentaria, <ul>
+	<li>  wife of Lucan, <a href="#p267">267</a>;</li>
+	<li>  patroness of Mart. <a href="#p297">297</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="pollio">Pollio, Asinius, <a href="#p112">112</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  criticises Caesar, <a href="#p105">105</a>;</li>
+	<li>  connexion with Corpus Caes. <a href="#p107">107</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li>
+	<li>  criticises Livy, <a href="#p219">219</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friend of Virg. <a href="#p149">149</a>, <a href="#p154">154</a> <i>sqq.</i></li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Pollio, <i>see</i> <a href="#vitruv">Vitruvius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Polybius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>foll. by Nep. <a href="#p117">117</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Livy, <a href="#p220">220</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Polybius, favourite of Claudius, <a href="#p250">250</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="pompmac">Pompeius Macer, poet, <a href="#p203">203</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Pompeius Magnus,
+	<ul>
+	<li>Livy a supporter of, <a href="#p219">219</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Lucan&rsquo;s view of, <a href="#p268">268</a>-<a href="#p269">9</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Pompeius, <i>see</i> <a href="#trogus">Trogus</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Pompilius, <a href="#p065">65</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Pomponius, <i>see</i> <a href="#mela">Mela</a>, <a href="#atticus">Atticus</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Pomponius Bononiensis, <a href="#p067">67</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Pomponius Secundus, <a href="#p282">282</a>, <a href="#p284">284</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Ponticus, <a href="#p196">196</a>, <a href="#p206">206</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="popill">Popillius Laenas, <a href="#p042">42</a>, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Porcius, <i>see</i> <a href="#cato">Cato</a>, <a href="#latro">Latro</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Porcius Licinus, <a href="#p065">65</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Porphyrio, <a href="#p355">355</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Posidippus, <a href="#p014">14</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Posidonius, <a href="#p070">70</a>, <a href="#p082">82</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Praetexta fabula, <a href="#p007">7</a>, <a href="#p030">30</a>, <a href="#p036">36</a>, <a href="#p057">57</a>, <a href="#p341">341</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="probus">Probus, M. Valerius, <a href="#p147">147</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  his life of Persius, <a href="#p260">260</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Probus, Aemilius, falsely credited with Nepos&rsquo; works, <a href="#p118">118</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Prologues, <a href="#p018">18</a>, <a href="#p049">49</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Propertius, Sex.,
+	<ul>
+	<li>name, <a href="#p191">191</a>;</li>
+	<li>  birth, <a href="#p192">192</a>;</li>
+	<li>  youth and education, <a href="#p193">193</a>;</li>
+	<li>  relations with Lycinna and Cynthia, <a href="#p193">193</a>-<a href="#p194">4</a>;</li>
+	<li>  later life, <a href="#p194">194</a>-<a href="#p195">5</a>;</li>
+	<li>  relations with Maecenas, Augustus, and contemporary poets, <a href="#p195">195</a>-<a href="#p196">6</a>;</li>
+	<li>  elegies, <a href="#p196">196</a>;</li>
+	<li>  dates and contents of the four books, <a href="#p196">196</a>-<a href="#p199">9</a>;</li>
+	<li>  his archaeological tastes, <a href="#p198">198</a>;</li>
+	<li>  character, <a href="#p200">200</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friend of Ovid, <a href="#p206">206</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Mart. <a href="#p301">301</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Prosody, <a href="#p022">22</a>, <a href="#p032">32</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="publil">Publilius Syrus,
+	<ul>
+	<li>life and works, <a href="#p145">145</a>;</li>
+	<li>  views on, <a href="#p146">146</a>;</li>
+	<li>  contest with Laberius, <a href="#p097">97</a>, <a href="#p145">145</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Pupius, <a href="#p185">185</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Pythagoreanism,
+	<ul>
+	<li>in Enn. <a href="#p030">30</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in Laberius, <a href="#p099">99</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in Virg. <a href="#p162">162</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li>Quadrigarius, <i>see</i> <a href="#claudquad">Claudius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="quintil">Quintilianus, M. Fabius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>pl. of birth, <a href="#p302">302</a>;</li>
+	<li>  probable date of birth, his teachers, at the bar, <a href="#p303">303</a>;</li>
+	<li>  professor of oratory, date of the <i>Institutio</i>,  retirement, <a href="#p304">304</a>;</li>
+	<li>  tutor to Domitian&rsquo;s grandnephews, consul, flattery of Domitian,
+            domestic relations, <a href="#p305">305</a>;</li>
+	<li>  earlier works, <a href="#p306">306</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Institutio</i>, <a href="#p306">306</a>;</li>
+	<li>  scope of work, <a href="#p307">307</a>;</li>
+	<li>  his authorities, <a href="#p308">308</a>;</li>
+	<li>  spurious works, <a href="#p309">309</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friend of Martial, <a href="#p298">298</a>;</li>
+	<li>  teacher of Pliny the younger, <a href="#p327">327</a>;</li>
+	<li>  views on Roman writers, <i>passim</i>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Quintius, <i>see</i> <a href="#atta">Atta</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li>Rabirius, <a href="#p083">83</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Reate, birthpl. of Varro, <a href="#p091">91</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Religion,
+	<ul>
+	<li>in Enn. <a href="#p029">29</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in Pacuv. <a href="#p036">36</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in Accius, <a href="#p057">57</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in Lucr. <a href="#p122">122</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in Livy, <a href="#p222">222</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in Tac. <a href="#p343">343</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Rhinthonica, <a href="#p011">11</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Roscius, actor, <a href="#p069">69</a>, <a href="#p073">73</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Rudiae, birthpl. of Enn. <a href="#p026">26</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Rufus, <i>see</i> <a href="#curtius">Curtius</a>, <a href="#valgius">Valgius</a>, <a href="#varius">Varius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Rusticus, <i>see</i> <a href="#fabrust">Fabius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Rutilius, <a href="#p220">220</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="sallust">Sallustius Crispus, C.,
+	<ul>
+	<li>dates, youth, rank, <a href="#p125">125</a>;</li>
+	<li>  political and military life, <a href="#p126">126</a>-<a href="#p127">7</a>;</li>
+	<li>  retirement, <a href="#p128">128</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Bell. Cat.</i>, object of work, <a href="#p128">128</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Bell. Iug.</i>, object of work, <a href="#p129">129</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Hist.</i> <a href="#p129">129</a>;</li>
+	<li>  spurious works, <a href="#p130">130</a>;</li>
+	<li>  as a historian, <a href="#p130">130</a>;</li>
+	<li>  authorities and models, <a href="#p131">131</a>;</li>
+	<li>  style, popularity, <a href="#p132">132</a>;</li>
+	<li>  criticised by Livy, <a href="#p216">216</a>;</li>
+	<li>  foll. by Frontinus, <a href="#p311">311</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Val. Max. <a href="#p235">235</a>;</li>
+	<li>  on Sisenna, <a href="#p067">67</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li>Santra, on Terence, <a href="#p042">42</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Sappho,
+	<ul>
+	<li>imit. by Catull. <a href="#p139">139</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Hor. <a href="#p174">174</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Sarranae tibiae, <a href="#p045">45</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Sarsina, birthpl. of Plautus, <a href="#p008">8</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Saturae, <a href="#p030">30</a>, <a href="#p036">36</a>, <a href="#p061">61</a>, <a href="#p064">64</a>, <a href="#p172">172</a>, <a href="#p262">262</a>, <a href="#p320">320</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  Menippeae, <a href="#p096">96</a>, <a href="#p273">273</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Saturnians, <a href="#p003">3</a>, <a href="#p007">7</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Scaurus, <i>see</i> <a href="#aemscaur">Aemilius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Scipio Africanus the elder, friend of Enn. <a href="#p027">27</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Scipio Africanus the younger,
+	<ul>
+	<li>friend of Ter. <a href="#p040">40</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Lucilius, <a href="#p059">59</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="sedigitus">Sedigitus, Volcacius, <a href="#p066">66</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  on Plautus, <a href="#p010">10</a>;</li>
+	<li>  canon, <a href="#p039">39</a>, <a href="#p066">66</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Seianus,
+	<ul>
+	<li>praised by Velleius, <a href="#p234">234</a>;</li>
+	<li>  relations with Phaedrus, <a href="#p237">237</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="seneca">Seneca, Annaeus, the elder,
+	<ul>
+	<li>birth, rank, <a href="#p226">226</a>;</li>
+	<li>  life in Rome, death, character, <a href="#p227">227</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Controversiae</i>, <a href="#p228">228</a>-<a href="#p229">9</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Suasoriae</i>, <a href="#p229">229</a>;</li>
+	<li>  his history, <a href="#p230">230</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Seneca, L. Annaeus, the younger,
+	<ul>
+	<li>birth, family, education, <a href="#p240">240</a>;</li>
+	<li>  voyage to Egypt, <a href="#p241">241</a>;</li>
+	<li>  political advancement, <a href="#p242">242</a>;</li>
+	<li>  banishment, recall, <a href="#p243">243</a>;</li>
+	<li>  tutorship of Nero, privy to Claudius&rsquo; murder, <a href="#p244">244</a>;</li>
+	<li>  checks Nero, <a href="#p245">245</a>;</li>
+	<li>  power and wealth, <a href="#p246">246</a>;</li>
+	<li>  loss of power, <a href="#p247">247</a>;</li>
+	<li>  wishes to retire, <a href="#p248">248</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Piso&rsquo;s conspiracy, death of Seneca, <a href="#p248">248</a>;</li>
+	<li>  extant prose works, <a href="#p249">249</a>;</li>
+	<li>  extant poems, incl. tragedies, <a href="#p252">252</a>;</li>
+	<li>  lost works, <a href="#p253">253</a>;</li>
+	<li>  spurious works, views and character, <a href="#p254">254</a>;</li>
+	<li>  style, <a href="#p255">255</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. Curtius Rufus, <a href="#p257">257</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friend of Persius, <a href="#p261">261</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Calp. Sic. <a href="#p276">276</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Lucilius Iunior, <a href="#p277">277</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li>
+	<li>  foll. by Lucan, <a href="#p271">271</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Lucilius, <a href="#p280">280</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Val. Flaccus, <a href="#p288">288</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Juv. <a href="#p326">326</a>;</li>
+	<li>  patron of Mart. <a href="#p296">296</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Quintilian&rsquo;s antagonism to, <a href="#p309">309</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Servius, <a href="#p354">354</a>, <a href="#p147">147</a> <i>sqq.</i></li>
+
+	<li>Sextius, <a href="#p237">237</a>, <a href="#p240">240</a> <i>sqq.</i></li>
+
+	<li>Siculus, <i>see</i> <a href="#calpsic">Calpurnius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Silanus, D. <a href="#p203">203</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="silius">Silius Italicus,
+	<ul>
+	<li>life, <a href="#p289">289</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Punica</i>, <a href="#p290">290</a>;</li>
+	<li>  models, <a href="#p291">291</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Homerus Latinus, <a href="#p291">291</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friend of Mart. <a href="#p298">298</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Pliny the younger, <a href="#p335">335</a>;</li>
+	<li>  on life of Ennius, <a href="#p026">26</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Siron, <a href="#p149">149</a>, <a href="#p150">150</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="sisenna">Sisenna, L. Cornelius, <a href="#p067">67</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  foll. by Sall. <a href="#p129">129</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Tac. <a href="#p346">346</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Sophocles,
+    <ul>
+	<li>  imit. by Pacuv. <a href="#p036">36</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Accius, <a href="#p057">57</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Sen. <a href="#p253">253</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Soranus, <i>see</i> <a href="#valsor">Valerius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Sotadean metre, <a href="#p031">31</a>, <a href="#p057">57</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Sotion, <a href="#p240">240</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Stataria, <a href="#p011">11</a>, <a href="#p046">46</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Statius, <i>see</i> <a href="#caecstat">Caecilius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="statius">Statius, P. Papinius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>birth, <a href="#p291">291</a>;</li>
+	<li>  poetical competitions, <a href="#p292">292</a>;</li>
+	<li>  patronized by Domitian, admiration for Lucan and Virgil, <a href="#p293">293</a>;</li>
+	<li>  works, <a href="#p293">293</a>-<a href="#p295">5</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Val. Flaccus, <a href="#p288">288</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friend of Lucan, <a href="#p267">267</a>;</li>
+	<li>  sneered at by Mart. <a href="#p298">298</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Stilo, Aelius, <a href="#p010">10</a>, <a href="#p025">25</a>, <a href="#p029">29</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Stoicism,
+	<ul>
+	<li>discussed by Cic. <a href="#p079">79</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li>
+	<li>  in Virg. <a href="#p162">162</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Hor.&rsquo;s attitude to, <a href="#p173">173</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in Sen. <a href="#p241">241</a>, <a href="#p254">254</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in Persius, <a href="#p262">262</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in Lucan, <a href="#p270">270</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in <i>Aetna</i>, <a href="#p279">279</a>;</li>
+	<li>  in Juv. <a href="#p325">325</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Sueius, <a href="#p066">66</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Suessa, birthpl. of Lucilius, <a href="#p059">59</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="sueton">Suetonius Tranquillus, C.,
+	<ul>
+	<li>life, <a href="#p348">348</a>;</li>
+	<li>  works, <a href="#p349">349</a>;</li>
+	<li>  biography of Lucan, <a href="#p264">264</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Sulla, <a href="#p068">68</a>, <a href="#p129">129</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Sulmo, birthpl. of Ovid, <a href="#p200">200</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Sulpicia, <a href="#p191">191</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Sulpicius, <a href="#p181">181</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Sulpicius Apollinaris, <a href="#p018">18</a>, <a href="#p051">51</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Syrus, see <a href="#publil">Publilius</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li>Tabernaria fabula, <a href="#p006">6</a>, <a href="#p064">64</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="tacitus">Tacitus, Cornelius, <a href="#p336">336</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  birth and rank, <a href="#p337">337</a>;</li>
+	<li>  reputation as an orator, <a href="#p338">338</a>;</li>
+	<li>  political career, death, <a href="#p339">339</a>;</li>
+	<li>  works, <a href="#p340">340</a>-<a href="#p343">3</a>;</li>
+	<li>  views, <a href="#p343">343</a>;</li>
+	<li>  sources, <a href="#p346">346</a>;</li>
+	<li>  his credibility, <a href="#p347">347</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friend of Pliny the younger, <a href="#p335">335</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. Sall. <a href="#p132">132</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Pliny the elder, <a href="#p285">285</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="tanus">Tanusius Geminus, <a href="#p138">138</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Tegula, Licinius, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Terentius Afer, P.,
+	<ul>
+	<li>date and pl. of birth, <a href="#p039">39</a>, <a href="#p040">40</a>;</li>
+	<li>  relations with Laelius, Scipio, and Caecilius, <a href="#p041">41</a>-<a href="#p042">2</a>;</li>
+	<li>  death, <a href="#p043">43</a>;</li>
+	<li>  personal appearance, <a href="#p044">44</a>;</li>
+	<li>  comedies, <a href="#p044">44</a>;</li>
+	<li>  prologues, representation, <a href="#p049">49</a>;</li>
+	<li>  names of characters, <a href="#p050">50</a>;</li>
+	<li>  arguments, prosody, views on Ter. <a href="#p051">51</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Afranius, <a href="#p065">65</a>;</li>
+	<li>  relations with Caecilius, <a href="#p038">38</a>;</li>
+	<li>  attacks on Luscius, <a href="#p039">39</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Terentius, <i>see</i> <a href="#varro">Varro</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Theocritus,
+	<ul>
+	<li>imit. by Virg. <a href="#p156">156</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Calp. Sic. <a href="#p277">277</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Theophrastus, imit. by Cic. <a href="#p079">79</a>, <a href="#p082">82</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Thrasea, <i>see</i> <a href="#paetus">Paetus</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Thucydides,
+	<ul>
+	<li>imit. by Sall. <a href="#p132">132</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Lucr. <a href="#p123">123</a>;</li>
+	<li>  foll. by Nep. <a href="#p117">117</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Tiberius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>Tac.&rsquo;s view of, <a href="#p344">344</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li>
+	<li>  praised by Hor. <a href="#p172">172</a>;</li>
+	<li>   by Velleius, <a href="#p233">233</a>;</li>
+	<li>   by Val. Max. <a href="#p235">235</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Tibiae, <a href="#p045">45</a>, <a href="#p050">50</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="tibull">Tibullus, Albius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>birth, <a href="#p185">185</a>;</li>
+	<li>  rank and wealth, <a href="#p186">186</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friendship with Messalla, <a href="#p187">187</a>;</li>
+	<li>  relations with Delia and Nemesis, <a href="#p188">188</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with other poets, <a href="#p189">189</a>;</li>
+	<li>  poems, <a href="#p189">189</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friend of Ovid, <a href="#p206">206</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Mart. <a href="#p301">301</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Ticidas, <a href="#p140">140</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Ticinum, birthpl. of Nepos, <a href="#p113">113</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Tingentera, birthpl. of Mela, <a href="#p259">259</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="tiro">Tiro, M. Tullius, <a href="#p090">90</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  edits Cicero&rsquo;s works, <a href="#p078">78</a>, <a href="#p085">85</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Titinius, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Titius, <a href="#p181">181</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Togata fabula, <a href="#p006">6</a>, <a href="#p052">52</a>, <a href="#p064">64</a>, <a href="#p185">185</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Trabea, <a href="#p039">39</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Trabeata fabula, <a href="#p185">185</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Tragicomoedia, <a href="#p010">10</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Tranquillus, <i>see</i> <a href="#sueton">Suetonius</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="trogus">Trogus, Pompeius, <a href="#p223">223</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  followed by Val. Max. <a href="#p235">235</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Tucca, <a href="#p154">154</a>, <a href="#p160">160</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Tullia, <a href="#p072">72</a>, <a href="#p080">80</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Tullius, <i>see</i> <a href="#cicero">Cicero</a>, <a href="#tiro">Tiro</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Turpilius, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Tusculum, birthpl. of Cato, <a href="#p053">53</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li>Vacca, biographer of Lucan, <a href="#p264">264</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Valerius, <i>see</i> <a href="#catull">Catullus</a>, <a href="#probus">Probus</a>, <a href="#martial">Martialis</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Valerius, writer of palliatae, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="valeriusaed">Valerius Aedituus, <a href="#p065">65</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="valant">Valerius Antias, <a href="#p067">67</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  foll. by Livy, <a href="#p220">220</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Valerius Cato, <a href="#p133">133</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="valflacc">Valerius Flaccus,
+	<ul>
+	<li>life, <a href="#p234">234</a>.</li>
+	<li>  the <i>Argonautica</i>, <a href="#p287">287</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="valmax">Valerius Maximus, <a href="#p234">234</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  his <i>Facta et Dicta Memorabilia</i>, <a href="#p234">234</a>;</li>
+	<li>  foll. by Juv. <a href="#p325">325</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="valsor">Valerius Soranus, <a href="#p065">65</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="valgius">Valgius Rufus, <a href="#p180">180</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="varius">Varius Rufus, L., <a href="#p181">181</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  friend of Virg. <a href="#p154">154</a>, <a href="#p160">160</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Horace, <a href="#p166">166</a> <i>sqq.</i></li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="varratac">Varro Atacinus, P. Terentius, <a href="#p144">144</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  imit. by Virg. <a href="#p161">161</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="varro">Varro, M. Terentius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>birth, <a href="#p091">91</a>;</li>
+	<li>  military and political career, <a href="#p091">91</a>-<a href="#p092">2</a>;</li>
+	<li>  death, <a href="#p093">93</a>;</li>
+	<li>  works, <a href="#p093">93</a>-<a href="#p097">7</a>;</li>
+	<li>  on chronology, <a href="#p005">5</a>, <a href="#p006">6</a>, <a href="#p026">26</a>;</li>
+	<li>  on criticism, <a href="#p010">10</a>, <a href="#p051">51</a>;</li>
+	<li>  on Sallust, <a href="#p126">126</a>;</li>
+	<li>  foll. by Virg. <a href="#p157">157</a>, <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Ovid, <a href="#p211">211</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friend of Cic. <a href="#p081">81</a>, <a href="#p094">94</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Vatinius,
+	<ul>
+	<li>attacked by Cic. <a href="#p076">76</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Catull. <a href="#p137">137</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Calvus, <a href="#p142">142</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Vatronius, <a href="#p052">52</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="velleius">Velleius Paterculus, C.,
+	<ul>
+	<li>military and civil career, <a href="#p231">231</a>-<a href="#p232">2</a>;</li>
+	<li>  his <i>Historia Romana</i>, <a href="#p232">232</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Venusia, birthpl. of Hor. <a href="#p163">163</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="vergil">Vergilius Maro, P.,
+	<ul>
+	<li>name, <a href="#p147">147</a>;</li>
+	<li>  parentage and education, <a href="#p148">148</a>;</li>
+	<li>  evictions from farm, <a href="#p149">149</a>, <a href="#p150">150</a>;</li>
+	<li>  friendship of Augustus, <a href="#p149">149</a>;</li>
+	<li>  literary life, <a href="#p151">151</a>;</li>
+	<li>  later years, <a href="#p152">152</a>;</li>
+	<li>  personal appearance and character, <a href="#p153">153</a>;</li>
+	<li>  minor poems, <a href="#p153">153</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Bucolica</i>, <a href="#p154">154</a>;</li>
+	<li>  the separate Eclogues, <a href="#p155">155</a>;</li>
+	<li>  sources, <a href="#p156">156</a>;</li>
+	<li>  scenery in the Eclogues, <a href="#p156">156</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Georgics</i>, <a href="#p157">157</a>;</li>
+	<li>  sources, <a href="#p157">157</a>;</li>
+	<li>  political purpose, <a href="#p158">158</a>;</li>
+	<li>  natural scenery, <a href="#p158">158</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Aeneid</i>, <a href="#p159">159</a>;</li>
+	<li>  method of composition, <a href="#p159">159</a>;</li>
+	<li>  posthumous publication, subject, why chosen, <a href="#p160">160</a>;</li>
+	<li>  the Aeneas legend, <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li>
+	<li>  sources of <i>Aeneid</i>, religion in <i>Aeneid</i>, <a href="#p161">161</a>;</li>
+	<li>  political significance, <a href="#p162">162</a>;</li>
+	<li>  influence of Virg. <a href="#p163">163</a>;</li>
+	<li>  popularity of Virg. <a href="#p180">180</a>;</li>
+	<li>  patronized by Pollio, <a href="#p112">112</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. Naevius, <a href="#p007">7</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Enn. <a href="#p033">33</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Accius, <a href="#p058">58</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Lucilius, <a href="#p062">62</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Hostius, <a href="#p065">65</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Bibaculus, <a href="#p100">100</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Lucr. <a href="#p125">125</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Catull. <a href="#p140">140</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Atac. <a href="#p145">145</a>;</li>
+	<li>  Hyginus, <a href="#p224">224</a>;</li>
+	<li>  relations with Hor. <a href="#p166">166</a> <i>sqq.</i>;</li>
+	<li>  with Aemilius Macer, <a href="#p182">182</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Gallus, <a href="#p183">183</a>;</li>
+	<li>  with Propert. <a href="#p196">196</a>;</li>
+	<li>  imit. by Manilius, <a href="#p214">214</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Lucan, <a href="#p271">271</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Calp. Sic. <a href="#p277">277</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Val. Flaccus, <a href="#p288">288</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Silius, <a href="#p291">291</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Statius, <a href="#p293">293</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Mart. <a href="#p301">301</a>;</li>
+	<li>  by Juv. <a href="#p325">325</a>;</li>
+	<li>  supplemented by Colum. <a href="#p258">258</a>;</li>
+	<li>  <i>Aetna</i> attributed to, <a href="#p277">277</a>;</li>
+	<li>  quoted largely by Quint. <a href="#p308">308</a>;</li>
+	<li>  half-lines in, <a href="#p144">144</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Verona,
+	<ul>
+	<li>birthpl. of Catull. <a href="#p132">132</a>;</li>
+	<li>  of Aemilius Macer, <a href="#p182">182</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li id="verrius">Verrius Flaccus, <a href="#p224">224</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Visci, <a href="#p181">181</a>.</li>
+
+	<li id="vitruv">Vitruvius Pollio, <a href="#p224">224</a>;<ul>
+	<li>  his <i>Architectura</i>, <a href="#p225">225</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+
+	<li>Volaterrae, birthpl. of Persius, <a href="#p260">260</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Volcacius, <i>see</i> <a href="#sedigitus">Sedigitus</a>.</li>
+
+	<li>Volusius, <a href="#p138">138</a>.</li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li>Xenophon,
+	<ul>
+	<li>trans. by Cic. <a href="#p087">87</a>;</li>
+	<li>  foll. by Nep. <a href="#p117">117</a>.</li>
+    </ul>
+	</li>
+</ul><ul>
+	<li>Zeno, <a href="#p069">69</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h2 id="p378">INDEX OF TITLES</h2>
+
+<ul>
+<li>A fine Aufidii Bassi, <a href="#p284">284</a></li>
+<li>Ab excessu divi Augusti, <a href="#p342">342</a></li>
+<li>Ab urbe condita, <a href="#p217">217</a></li>
+<li>Academica, <a href="#p080">80</a></li>
+<li>Achilleis, <a href="#p294">294</a></li>
+<li>Achilles, <a href="#p003">3</a></li>
+<li>Actis Scenicis, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Adelphoe, <a href="#p048">48</a></li>
+<li>Admiranda, <a href="#p087">87</a></li>
+<li>Aegisthus, <a href="#p003">3</a></li>
+<li>Aeneadae, <a href="#p057">57</a></li>
+<li>Aeneas, <a href="#p282">282</a></li>
+<li>Aeneid, <a href="#p159">159</a></li>
+<li>Aethiopis, <a href="#p100">100</a></li>
+<li>Aetia, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Aetna, <a href="#p277">277</a></li>
+<li>Agamemnon, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li>Agave, <a href="#p295">295</a></li>
+<li>Agricola, <a href="#p341">341</a></li>
+<li>Agricultura, De<ul>
+<li>  (Cato), <a href="#p054">54</a></li>
+<li>  (Hyginus), <a href="#p224">224</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Ajax, <a href="#p152">152</a></li>
+<li>Alexandri Historiae, <a href="#p256">256</a></li>
+<li>Amazonis, <a href="#p184">184</a></li>
+<li>Ambracia, <a href="#p030">30</a></li>
+<li>Amicitia, De<ul>
+<li>  (Cic.), <a href="#p082">82</a></li>
+<li>  (Sen.), <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Amores<ul>
+<li>  (Marsus), <a href="#p185">185</a></li>
+<li>  (Ovid), <a href="#p207">207</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Amphitruo, <a href="#p010">10</a></li>
+<li>Analogia, De, <a href="#p109">109</a></li>
+<li>Andria, <a href="#p044">44</a></li>
+<li><cite class="greek">Ἀνέκδοτα</cite>, <a href="#p087">87</a></li>
+<li>Annales of<ul>
+<li>  Accius, <a href="#p057">57</a></li>
+<li>  Q. Cicero, <a href="#p090">90</a></li>
+<li>  Ennius, <a href="#p031">31</a></li>
+<li>  Fenestella, <a href="#p224">224</a></li>
+<li>  Hortensius, <a href="#p074">74</a></li>
+<li>  Sueius, <a href="#p066">66</a></li>
+<li>  Tacitus, <a href="#p342">342</a></li>
+<li>  Varro, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Annalis, <a href="#p090">90</a></li>
+<li>Anticatones, <a href="#p110">110</a></li>
+<li>Antiopa, <a href="#p036">36</a></li>
+<li>Antiquitate litterarum, De, <a href="#p094">94</a></li>
+<li>Antiquitates, <a href="#p094">94</a></li>
+<li>Antonianae orationes, <a href="#p078">78</a></li>
+<li>Apocolocyntosis, <a href="#p251">251</a></li>
+<li>Apophoreta, <a href="#p300">300</a></li>
+<li><cite class="greek">Ἀποφθέγματα</cite><ul>
+<li>  (Cato), <a href="#p055">55</a></li>
+<li>  (Caes.), <a href="#p110">110</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Aquis urbis Romae, De, <a href="#p312">312</a></li>
+<li>Arboribus, De, <a href="#p259">259</a></li>
+<li>Archia, Pro, <a href="#p075">75</a></li>
+<li>Architectura, De, <a href="#p225">225</a></li>
+<li>Argonautae, <a href="#p144">144</a></li>
+<li>Argonautica, <a href="#p287">287</a></li>
+<li>Ars Amatoria, <a href="#p209">209</a></li>
+<li>Ars Poetica, <a href="#p172">172</a>, <a href="#p179">179</a></li>
+<li>Asinaria, <a href="#p011">11</a></li>
+<li>Astris, De, <a href="#p110">110</a></li>
+<li>Astrologia, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Astronomica, <a href="#p213">213</a></li>
+<li>Attis, <a href="#p139">139</a></li>
+<li>Auguriis, De, <a href="#p082">82</a></li>
+<li>Aulularia, <a href="#p011">11</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Bacchides, <a href="#p013">13</a></li>
+<li>Balbo, Pro, <a href="#p076">76</a></li>
+<li>Balistam, In, <a href="#p153">153</a></li>
+<li>Bella Germaniae, <a href="#p284">284</a></li>
+<li>Bello Civili, De (Lucan), <a href="#p267">267</a></li>
+<li>Bellum<ul>
+<li>Africum, <a href="#p106">106</a></li>
+<li>  Alexandrinum, <a href="#p106">106</a></li>
+<li>  Civile, <a href="#p106">106</a></li>
+<li>  Gallicum<ul>
+<li>(Bibaculus), <a href="#p100">100</a></li>
+<li>    (Caes.), <a href="#p104">104</a></li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>  Hispaniense, <a href="#p106">106</a></li>
+<li>  Histricum, <a href="#p065">65</a></li>
+<li>  Iugurthinum, <a href="#p129">129</a></li>
+<li>  Punicum, <a href="#p007">7</a></li>
+<li>  Sequanicum, <a href="#p144">144</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Beneficiis, De, <a href="#p251">251</a></li>
+<li>Bibliothecis, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Boeotia, <a href="#p039">39</a></li>
+<li>Brevitate vitae, De, <a href="#p250">250</a></li>
+<li>Brundusinae, <a href="#p064">64</a></li>
+<li>Brutus<ul>
+<li>(Accius), <a href="#p057">57</a></li>
+<li>  (Cic.), <a href="#p084">84</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Bucco Adoptatus, <a href="#p067">67</a></li>
+<li>Bucolica, <a href="#p154">154</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Caecilium, Divinatio in, <a href="#p073">73</a></li>
+<li>Caecina, Pro, <a href="#p074">74</a></li>
+<li>Caelio, Pro, <a href="#p076">76</a></li>
+<li>Caesarem, Ad, <a href="#p087">87</a></li>
+<li>Caesaris, De morte, <a href="#p181">181</a></li>
+<li>Captivi, <a href="#p011">11</a></li>
+<li>Carmen Saeculare, <a href="#p171">171</a></li>
+<li>Carmina<ul>
+<li>(Catull.), <a href="#p132">132</a></li>
+<li>  (Hor.), <a href="#p171">171</a>, <a href="#p172">172</a>, <a href="#p174">174</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Casina, <a href="#p012">12</a></li>
+<li>Catachthonion, <a href="#p267">267</a></li>
+<li>Catalecta, <a href="#p153">153</a></li>
+<li>Catilinae coniuratione, De, <a href="#p128">128</a></li>
+<li>Catilinam, In, <a href="#p075">75</a></li>
+<li>Cato, <a href="#p341">341</a></li>
+<li>Cato Maior, <a href="#p082">82</a></li>
+<li>Catonis vita, <a href="#p115">115</a></li>
+<li>Causis corruptae eloquentiae, De, <a href="#p306">306</a></li>
+<li>Cena Trimalchionis, <a href="#p273">273</a></li>
+<li>Chorographia<ul>
+<li>(Atacinus), <a href="#p145">145</a></li>
+<li>  (Cic.), <a href="#p087">87</a></li>
+<li>  (Mela), <a href="#p259">259</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Chronica, <a href="#p115">115</a></li>
+<li>Ciceronis vita, <a href="#p116">116</a></li>
+<li>Cicuta, <a href="#p184">184</a></li>
+<li>Ciris, <a href="#p154">154</a></li>
+<li>Cistellaria, <a href="#p012">12</a></li>
+<li>Claris Oratoribus, De, <a href="#p084">84</a></li>
+<li>Clastidium, <a href="#p007">7</a></li>
+<li>Clementia, De, <a href="#p251">251</a></li>
+<li>Cluentio, Pro, <a href="#p074">74</a></li>
+<li>Coma Berenices, <a href="#p139">139</a></li>
+<li>Commentarii <ul>
+<li>(Caes.), <a href="#p104">104</a></li>
+<li>  (Donatus, Servius, etc.), <a href="#p354">354</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Commentariolum petitionis, <a href="#p089">89</a></li>
+<li>Compendiosa doctrina, De, <a href="#p353">353</a></li>
+<li>Compitalia, <a href="#p065">65</a></li>
+<li>Consolatio, <a href="#p080">80</a></li>
+<li>Consolatione, De,<ul>
+<li>ad Marc., <a href="#p250">250</a></li>
+<li>  ad Polyb., <a href="#p250">250</a></li>
+<li>  ad Helv., <a href="#p251">251</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Constantia, De, <a href="#p250">250</a></li>
+<li>Consulatu, De suo, <a href="#p087">87</a></li>
+<li>Consulatu Ciceronis, De, <a href="#p091">91</a></li>
+<li>Controversiae, <a href="#p228">228</a></li>
+<li>Copa, <a href="#p154">154</a></li>
+<li>Culex, <a href="#p154">154</a></li>
+<li>Cum populo gratias egit, <a href="#p075">75</a></li>
+<li>Cum senatui gratias egit, <a href="#p075">75</a></li>
+<li>Cupuncula, <a href="#p030">30</a></li>
+<li>Curculio, <a href="#p011">11</a></li>
+<li>Cynegetica, <a href="#p277">277</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Decius, <a href="#p057">57</a></li>
+<li>Declamationes, <a href="#p309">309</a></li>
+<li>Deiotaro, Pro rege, <a href="#p077">77</a></li>
+<li>Descriptionibus, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Dialogus de oratoribus, <a href="#p340">340</a></li>
+<li>Didascalica, <a href="#p057">57</a></li>
+<li>Diomedea, <a href="#p181">181</a></li>
+<li>Dirae, <a href="#p154">154</a></li>
+<li>Dis penatibus, De, <a href="#p224">224</a></li>
+<li>Disciplinae, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Divinatione, De, <a href="#p082">82</a></li>
+<li>Domitius, <a href="#p341">341</a></li>
+<li>Domo sua, De, <a href="#p076">76</a></li>
+<li>Drusi vita, <a href="#p152">152</a></li>
+<li>Dubius sermo, <a href="#p284">284</a></li>
+<li>Duo Dosseni, <a href="#p067">67</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Eclogae<ul>
+<li>(Virg), <a href="#p154">154</a></li>
+<li>  (Calp. Sic.), <a href="#p275">275</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><cite class="greek">Εἰσαγωγικός</cite>, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Elegiae&mdash;of<ul>
+<li>Atacinus, <a href="#p145">145</a></li>
+<li>  Marsus, <a href="#p029">29</a></li>
+<li>  Propert., <a href="#p196">196</a></li>
+<li>  Tibull., <a href="#p189">189</a></li>
+<li>  Valgius, <a href="#p180">180</a></li>
+<li>  Varius, <a href="#p182">182</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Ephemeris, <a href="#p145">145</a></li>
+<li>Ephemeris navalis, Eph. rustica, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Epicharmus, <a href="#p031">31</a></li>
+<li>Epidicus, <a href="#p012">12</a></li>
+<li>Epigrammata&mdash;of <ul>
+<li>Calvus, <a href="#p143">143</a></li>
+<li>  Ennius, <a href="#p029">29</a></li>
+<li>  Lucan, <a href="#p267">267</a></li>
+<li>  Marsus, <a href="#p185">185</a></li>
+<li>  Martial, <a href="#p300">300</a></li>
+<li>  Seneca, <a href="#p252">252</a></li>
+<li>  Valgius, <a href="#p181">181</a></li>
+<li>  Virgil, <a href="#p154">154</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Epistolicae quaestiones, <a href="#p097">97</a></li>
+<li>Epistula ad Pisones, <a href="#p172">172</a>, <a href="#p179">179</a></li>
+<li>Epistulae&mdash;<ul>
+<li>ad Atticum, <a href="#p085">85</a></li>
+<li>  ad Brutum, <a href="#p086">86</a></li>
+<li>  ad Caesonium, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li>  ad Familiares, <a href="#p086">86</a></li>
+<li>  ad Novatum, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li>  ad Paulum, <a href="#p254">254</a></li>
+<li>  ad Quintum fratrem, <a href="#p086">86</a></li>
+<li>  ad Traianum, <a href="#p335">335</a></li>
+<li>  ex Campania, <a href="#p267">267</a></li>
+<li>  ex Ponto, <a href="#p213">213</a></li>
+<li>  Latinae, <a href="#p097">97</a></li>
+<li>  morales, <a href="#p252">252</a></li>
+<li>  of Horace, <a href="#p171">171</a>, <a href="#p172">172</a>, <a href="#p179">179</a></li>
+<li>  of Ovid, <a href="#p208">208</a></li>
+<li>  of Pliny, <a href="#p334">334</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Epithalamia, <a href="#p143">143</a></li>
+<li>Epodi, <a href="#p171">171</a>, <a href="#p174">174</a></li>
+<li>Erotopaegnia, <a href="#p066">66</a></li>
+<li>Euhemerus, <a href="#p031">31</a></li>
+<li>Excellentibus ducibus, De, <a href="#p116">116</a></li>
+<li>Exempla<ul>
+<li>  (Nepos), <a href="#p115">115</a></li>
+<li>  (Hyginus), <a href="#p224">224</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Exhortationes, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Fabellae, <a href="#p185">185</a></li>
+<li>Fabulae Aesopiae, <a href="#p239">239</a></li>
+<li>Facta et dicta memorabilia, <a href="#p234">234</a></li>
+<li>Familiis Troianis, De<ul>
+<li>  (Hyginus), <a href="#p224">224</a></li>
+<li>  (Varro), <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fasti<ul>
+<li>  (Ovid), <a href="#p210">210</a></li>
+<li>  (Verrius), <a href="#p224">224</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fato, De, <a href="#p082">82</a></li>
+<li>Finibus, De, <a href="#p080">80</a></li>
+<li>Flacco, Pro, <a href="#p075">75</a></li>
+<li>Fonteio, Pro, <a href="#p074">74</a></li>
+<li>Forma mundi, De, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li>Forma philosophiae, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Formula honestae vitae, De, <a href="#p254">254</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Gente populi Romani, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Geometria, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Georgica, <a href="#p157">157</a></li>
+<li>Germania, <a href="#p341">341</a></li>
+<li>Gloria, De, <a href="#p082">82</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Halieuticon, <a href="#p213">213</a></li>
+<li>Haruspicum responsis, De, <a href="#p076">76</a></li>
+<li>Heauton Timorumenos, <a href="#p045">45</a></li>
+<li>Hebdomades, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Hecuba, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li>Hecyra, <a href="#p047">47</a></li>
+<li>Hedyphagetica <a href="#p031">31</a></li>
+<li>Herbis, De, <a href="#p182">182</a></li>
+<li>Hercules Furens; Herc. Oetaeus, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li>Heroides, <a href="#p208">208</a></li>
+<li>Hippolytus, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li>Historia Romana, <a href="#p232">232</a></li>
+<li>Historiae<ul>
+<li>  (Sall.), <a href="#p129">129</a></li>
+<li>  (Sisenna), <a href="#p067">67</a></li>
+<li>  (Tac.), <a href="#p341">341</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Homerus Latinus, <a href="#p291">291</a></li>
+<li>Hortationes ad philosophiam, <a href="#p152">152</a></li>
+<li>Hortensius, <a href="#p080">80</a></li>
+<li>Hymenaeus, <a href="#p141">141</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Iaculatione equestri, De, <a href="#p284">284</a></li>
+<li>Ibis, <a href="#p212">212</a></li>
+<li>Iliacon, <a href="#p267">267</a></li>
+<li>Imagines, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Imaginibus, De, <a href="#p091">91</a></li>
+<li>Immatura morte, De, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li>Imperio Cn. Pompei, De, <a href="#p074">74</a></li>
+<li>Incendio urbis, De, <a href="#p267">267</a></li>
+<li>Institutio oratoria, <a href="#p306">306</a></li>
+<li>Inventione, De, <a href="#p083">83</a></li>
+<li>Io, <a href="#p143">143</a></li>
+<li>Iocularis libellus, <a href="#p088">88</a></li>
+<li>Ira, De, <a href="#p250">250</a></li>
+<li>Iter, <a href="#p111">111</a></li>
+<li>Iure civili, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Iure civili in artem redigendo, De, <a href="#p087">87</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Laelius, <a href="#p082">82</a></li>
+<li>Lapidum natura, De, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li>Lectionibus, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Legationum libri, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Lege agraria, De, <a href="#p074">74</a></li>
+<li>Lege Manilia, Pro, <a href="#p074">74</a></li>
+<li>Legibus, De, <a href="#p079">79</a></li>
+<li>Ligario, Pro, <a href="#p077">77</a></li>
+<li>Limon, <a href="#p088">88</a></li>
+<li>Lingua Latina, De, <a href="#p094">94</a></li>
+<li><cite class="greek">Λογιστορικοί</cite>, <a href="#p096">96</a></li>
+<li>Lucubrationes, <a href="#p100">100</a></li>
+<li>Lucullus, <a href="#p081">81</a></li>
+<li>Ludus de morte Claudi, <a href="#p251">251</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Maccus Copa, Miles, Sequester, Virgo, <a href="#p067">67</a></li>
+<li>Marcello, Pro, <a href="#p077">77</a></li>
+<li>Marius, <a href="#p088">88</a></li>
+<li>Matrimonio, De, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li>Medea<ul>
+<li>  (Ennius), <a href="#p030">30</a></li>
+<li>  (Lucan), <a href="#p267">267</a></li>
+<li>  (Maternus), <a href="#p341">341</a></li>
+<li>  (Ovid), <a href="#p208">208</a></li>
+<li>  (Sen.), <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Medicamina, <a href="#p209">209</a></li>
+<li>Menaechmi, <a href="#p014">14</a></li>
+<li>Mensuralia, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Mensuris, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Mercator, <a href="#p015">15</a></li>
+<li>Metamorphoses, <a href="#p209">209</a></li>
+<li>Miles Gloriosus, <a href="#p014">14</a></li>
+<li>Milone, Pro, <a href="#p077">77</a></li>
+<li>Mimi<ul>
+<li>  (Laberius), <a href="#p097">97</a></li>
+<li>  (Syrus), <a href="#p145">145</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Mimiambi, <a href="#p066">66</a></li>
+<li>Monita, <a href="#p254">254</a></li>
+<li>Moralis philosophiae libri, <a href="#p254">254</a></li>
+<li>Moretum<ul>
+<li>  (Sueius), <a href="#p066">66</a></li>
+<li>  (Virg.), <a href="#p154">154</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Moribus, De<ul>
+<li>  (Cato), <a href="#p055">55</a></li>
+<li>  (Sen.), <a href="#p254">254</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Mostellaria, <a href="#p014">14</a></li>
+<li>Motu terrarum, De, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li>Murena, Pro, <a href="#p075">75</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Natura deorum, De, <a href="#p081">81</a></li>
+<li>Naturae historiae, <a href="#p285">285</a></li>
+<li>Naturales quaestiones, <a href="#p252">252</a></li>
+<li>Navales libri, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Neronem, In, <a href="#p268">268</a></li>
+<li>Neronis laudes, <a href="#p267">267</a></li>
+<li>Nidus, <a href="#p066">66</a></li>
+<li>Niptra, <a href="#p036">36</a></li>
+<li>Noctes Atticae, <a href="#p352">352</a></li>
+<li>Numerorum libri, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Octavia, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li><ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'Octaviam'"
+id="corr6">Octavium</ins>, Or. in, <a href="#p267">267</a></li>
+<li>Odes (Hor.), <a href="#p171">171</a>, <a href="#p172">172</a>, <a href="#p174">174</a></li>
+<li><cite class="greek">Ὁδοιπορικά</cite>, <a href="#p261">261</a></li>
+<li>Odyssea, <a href="#p003">3</a></li>
+<li>Oedipus<ul>
+<li>  (Caes.), <a href="#p111">111</a></li>
+<li>  (Sen.), <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Officiis, De<ul>
+<li>  (Cic.), <a href="#p082">82</a></li>
+<li>  (Sen.), <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Optimo genere dicendi, De, <a href="#p084">84</a></li>
+<li>Optimo genere oratorum, De, <a href="#p085">85</a></li>
+<li>Ora maritima, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Orator, <a href="#p084">84</a></li>
+<li>Oratore, De, <a href="#p084">84</a></li>
+<li>Origine linguae Latinae, De, <a href="#p094">94</a></li>
+<li>Origines, <a href="#p054">54</a></li>
+<li>Originibus scenicis, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Ornithogonia, <a href="#p182">182</a></li>
+<li>Orpheus, <a href="#p267">267</a></li>
+<li>Otio, De, <a href="#p250">250</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Pancratiastes, <a href="#p030">30</a></li>
+<li><cite class="greek">Πανδέκται</cite>, <a href="#p090">90</a></li>
+<li>Panegyricus (Plin.), <a href="#p330">330</a></li>
+<li>Panegyricus Messallae, <a href="#p191">191</a></li>
+<li>Paradoxa, <a href="#p080">80</a></li>
+<li>Partitiones Oratoriae, <a href="#p085">85</a></li>
+<li>Paulus, <a href="#p036">36</a></li>
+<li>Paupertate, De, <a href="#p254">254</a></li>
+<li>Peleus et Thetis, <a href="#p139">139</a></li>
+<li><cite class="greek">Περιαλγής</cite>, <a href="#p165">165</a></li>
+<li>Persa, <a href="#p016">16</a></li>
+<li>Personis, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Petitione consulatus, De, <a href="#p089">89</a></li>
+<li>Phaedra, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li>Phaenomena, <a href="#p281">281</a></li>
+<li>Pharsalia, <a href="#p267">267</a></li>
+<li>Philippicae Historiae, <a href="#p223">223</a></li>
+<li>Philippics, <a href="#p078">78</a></li>
+<li>Philosophia, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Phoenissae, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li>Phormio, <a href="#p046">46</a></li>
+<li>Piscium natura, De, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li>Pisonem, In, <a href="#p077">77</a></li>
+<li>Pisonis, De Laude, <a href="#p277">277</a></li>
+<li>Plancio, Pro, <a href="#p077">77</a></li>
+<li>Plocium, <a href="#p038">38</a></li>
+<li>Poematis, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Poenulus, <a href="#p016">16</a></li>
+<li>Poetis, De<ul>
+<li>  (Sedig.), <a href="#p066">66</a></li>
+<li>  (Varro), <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Pollam, Ad, <a href="#p268">268</a></li>
+<li>Pompeio, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Pontius Glaucus, <a href="#p087">87</a></li>
+<li>Ponto, Epp. ex, <a href="#p213">213</a></li>
+<li>Praecepta, <a href="#p031">31</a></li>
+<li>Praecepta ad filium, <a href="#p055">55</a></li>
+<li>Pragmatica, <a href="#p057">57</a></li>
+<li>Praxidica, <a href="#p057">57</a></li>
+<li>Priapea, <a href="#p154">154</a>, <a href="#p191">191</a></li>
+<li>Pridie quam in exilium iret, <a href="#p078">78</a></li>
+<li>Principiis numerorum, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Prognostica, <a href="#p087">87</a>, <a href="#p281">281</a></li>
+<li>Propempticon Pollionis, <a href="#p142">142</a></li>
+<li>Proprietate Scriptorum, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Protreptica, <a href="#p031">31</a></li>
+<li>Providentia, De, <a href="#p250">250</a></li>
+<li>Provinciis consularibus, De, <a href="#p076">76</a></li>
+<li>Pseudolus, <a href="#p015">15</a></li>
+<li>Pseudotragoediae, <a href="#p096">96</a></li>
+<li>Pulli, <a href="#p066">66</a></li>
+<li>Punica, <a href="#p290">290</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Quaestiones Plautinae, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Quinctio, Pro, <a href="#p073">73</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Rabirio Postumo, Pro, <a href="#p077">77</a></li>
+<li>Rabirio perd. reo, Pro, <a href="#p074">74</a></li>
+<li>Re medica, De, <a href="#p236">236</a></li>
+<li>Re militari, De, <a href="#p055">55</a></li>
+<li>Re publica, De, <a href="#p079">79</a></li>
+<li>Re rustica, De<ul>
+<li>  (Varro), <a href="#p093">93</a></li>
+<li>  (Colum.), <a href="#p258">258</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Remedia Amoris, <a href="#p209">209</a></li>
+<li>Remediis fortuitorum, De, <a href="#p254">254</a></li>
+<li>Rerum natura, De<ul>
+<li>  (Egnatius), <a href="#p099">99</a></li>
+<li>  (Lucretius), <a href="#p120">120</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Res urbanae, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Rescripta, <a href="#p152">152</a></li>
+<li>Rhetorica<ul>
+<li>  (Hortens.), <a href="#p074">74</a></li>
+<li>  (Cic.), <a href="#p083">83</a></li>
+<li>  ad Herenn., <a href="#p088">88</a></li>
+<li>  (Varro), <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>  (Quint.), <a href="#p306">306</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Ritu et sacris Aegyptiorum, De, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li>Romulus, <a href="#p007">7</a></li>
+<li>Roscio, Pro Sex., <a href="#p073">73</a></li>
+<li>Roscio Comoedo, Pro, <a href="#p073">73</a></li>
+<li>Rudens, <a href="#p016">16</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Sacra Historia, <a href="#p031">31</a></li>
+<li>Sallustium, In, <a href="#p078">78</a>, <a href="#p130">130</a></li>
+<li>Salticae fabulae, <a href="#p267">267</a></li>
+<li>Saturae Menippeae, <a href="#p096">96</a></li>
+<li>Saturae<ul>
+<li>  (Enn.), <a href="#p030">30</a></li>
+<li>  (Pacuv.), <a href="#p036">36</a></li>
+<li>  (Lucil.), <a href="#p061">61</a></li>
+<li>  (Atac.), <a href="#p144">144</a></li>
+<li>  (Hor.), <a href="#p170">170</a>, <a href="#p172">172</a></li>
+<li>  (Persius), <a href="#p262">262</a></li>
+<li>  (Petron.), <a href="#p272">272</a></li>
+<li>  (Juv.), <a href="#p320">320</a>, <a href="#p323">323</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Saturnalia (Lucan.), <a href="#p267">267</a></li>
+<li>Saturnalia (Macrob.), <a href="#p354">354</a></li>
+<li>Scenicis actionibus, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Scipio, <a href="#p031">31</a></li>
+<li>Senectute, De, <a href="#p082">82</a></li>
+<li>Sententiae (Varro), <a href="#p097">97</a></li>
+<li>Sententiae (Syrus), <a href="#p145">145</a></li>
+<li>Sententiae Rufi, <a href="#p254">254</a></li>
+<li>Sermone Latino, De, <a href="#p094">94</a></li>
+<li>Sermones (Hor.), <a href="#p170">170</a>, <a href="#p172">172</a>, <a href="#p179">179</a></li>
+<li>Sestio, Pro, <a href="#p076">76</a></li>
+<li>Sicilia, <a href="#p152">152</a></li>
+<li>Silvae (Lucan), <a href="#p267">267</a></li>
+<li>Silvae (Statius), <a href="#p295">295</a></li>
+<li>Similitudine verborum, De, <a href="#p094">94</a></li>
+<li>Situ Indiae, De, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li>Situ urbium Italicarum, De, <a href="#p224">224</a></li>
+<li>Somnium Scipionis, <a href="#p079">79</a></li>
+<li>Sota, <a href="#p031">31</a></li>
+<li>Spectacula, <a href="#p300">300</a></li>
+<li>Stichus, <a href="#p017">17</a></li>
+<li>Strategemata, <a href="#p311">311</a></li>
+<li>Studiosus, <a href="#p284">284</a></li>
+<li>Suasiones, <a href="#p097">97</a></li>
+<li>Suasoriae, <a href="#p229">229</a></li>
+<li>Sulla, Pro, <a href="#p075">75</a></li>
+<li>Superstitione, De, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Temporibus suis, De, <a href="#p087">87</a></li>
+<li>Tereus, <a href="#p056">56</a></li>
+<li>Thebais (Sen.), <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li>Thebais (Stat.), <a href="#p293">293</a></li>
+<li>Theriaca, <a href="#p182">182</a></li>
+<li>Thyestes<ul>
+<li>  (Enn.), <a href="#p030">30</a></li>
+<li>  (Varius), <a href="#p182">182</a></li>
+<li>  (Sen.), <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li>  (Maternus), <a href="#p341">341</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Topica, <a href="#p085">85</a></li>
+<li>Tranquillitate animi, De, <a href="#p250">250</a></li>
+<li>Tribuum liber, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li><cite class="greek">Τρικάρανος</cite>, <a href="#p092">92</a></li>
+<li>Trinummus, <a href="#p017">17</a></li>
+<li>Tristia, <a href="#p212">212</a></li>
+<li>Troades, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li>Truculentus, <a href="#p017">17</a></li>
+<li>Tullium, invectiva in, <a href="#p130">130</a></li>
+<li>Tusculanae disputationes, <a href="#p081">81</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Urbanitate, De, <a href="#p185">185</a></li>
+<li>Utilitate sermonis, De, <a href="#p094">94</a></li>
+<li>Uxorem, Ad, <a href="#p143">143</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Vatinium, In, <a href="#p076">76</a></li>
+<li>Verborum significatu, De, <a href="#p224">224</a></li>
+<li>Verrem, In, <a href="#p073">73</a></li>
+<li>Vescia, <a href="#p261">261</a></li>
+<li>Vidularia, <a href="#p018">18</a></li>
+<li>Viris illustribus, De<ul>
+<li>  (Hyg.), <a href="#p224">224</a></li>
+<li>  (Nep.), <a href="#p116">116</a></li>
+<li>  (Sueton.), <a href="#p349">349</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Virtutibus, De, <a href="#p082">82</a></li>
+<li>Vita beata, De, <a href="#p250">250</a></li>
+<li>Vita Caesarum, De, <a href="#p349">349</a></li>
+<li>Vita patris, De, <a href="#p253">253</a></li>
+<li>Vita Pomponii, De, <a href="#p284">284</a></li>
+<li>Vita populi Romani, De, <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>Vita sua, De<ul>
+<li>  (Varro), <a href="#p095">95</a></li>
+<li>  (Aug.), <a href="#p152">152</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Xenia, <a href="#p300">300</a></li>
+<li><cite class="greek">Χαρακτήρων, περὶ</cite>, <a href="#p094">94</a></li>
+<li><cite class="greek">Χρονικοὶ κανόνες</cite>, <a href="#p351">351</a></li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>Zmyrna, <a href="#p141">141</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr class="gap" />
+
+<p class="small ctr gap">
+GLASGOW: PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND CO.
+</p>
+
+<h2>Footnotes</h2>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref001" id="fn001">[1]</a> The scheme of this old national metre, which depends on accent
+and not on quantity, may be seen from the two examples given below.
+Various forms are found, but one of the commonest types is identical
+with the rhythm of the nursery rhyme,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;The queen was in the parlour, eating bread and honey.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref002" id="fn002">[2]</a> &lsquo;I have heard that a Roman poet is languishing in prison with
+head on hand&rsquo;&mdash;probably a metaphor from a pillar (but the sense is far from certain).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref003" id="fn003">[3]</a> Utica was besieged by Scipio from 204 to 202 <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref004" id="fn004">[4]</a> In the <i>fabula togata</i> or <i>tabernaria</i> the surroundings of the comedy
+were Roman, in the <i>fabula palliata</i> Greek, as in Plautus&rsquo; plays.
+<i>Togata</i> in a wider sense included tragedy as well as comedy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref005" id="fn005">[5]</a> This term means the construction of a new play by uniting two
+old ones.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref006" id="fn006">[6]</a> The references are to the revised edition of Ritschl.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref007" id="fn007">[7]</a> A species of burlesque tragedy, called after its inventor Rhinthon, who flourished <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 300.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref008" id="fn008">[8]</a> <i>R.H.</i> ii. p. 431 trans.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref009" id="fn009">[9]</a> This shows that the ancient (rough alphabetical) order has been
+departed from. Some grammarian of the fifth century altered the
+position of the play on account of the reference to it in <i>Epid.</i> 213-5
+(quoted above).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref010" id="fn010">[10]</a> I.e. the &lsquo;Patruus&rsquo; written by the old Roman (lit., &lsquo;son of the
+porridge-eater&rsquo;).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref011" id="fn011">[11]</a> These games were celebrated in April. Plays were exhibited also
+at the <i>Ludi Romani</i> (September) and the <i>Ludi Plebei</i> (November).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref012" id="fn012">[12]</a> Much of the information on this head is taken from J. Brix&rsquo;s edition
+of the <i>Trinummus</i>. Leipzig, 1888.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref013" id="fn013">[13]</a> This is shown in the universal classical usage of <i>benĕ</i>, <i>malĕ</i>, etc.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref014" id="fn014">[14]</a> The references are to Vahlen&rsquo;s edition.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref015" id="fn015">[15]</a> Thus the original name of Beneventum was Maleventum, i.e.
+<span class="greek">ΜαλόϜεντα</span>, accusative of <span class="greek">ΜαλόϜεις</span>; cf. Agrigentum from <span class="greek">Ἀκράγας</span>,
+and Tarentum from <span class="greek">Τάρας</span>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref016" id="fn016">[16]</a> Euhemerus of Messana, who wrote about the end of the fourth
+century <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>, tried in this work to show that the worship of the gods
+arose from the worship of deified kings and heroes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref017" id="fn017">[17]</a> The Oscan form of <i>Pacuvi</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref018" id="fn018">[18]</a> The term <i>doctus</i> refers to his knowledge of the Greek laws of
+artistic composition.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref019" id="fn019">[19]</a> After Ambivius&rsquo; name appears in most of the didascaliae &lsquo;L. Hatilius
+Praenestinus.&rsquo; Probably this person was an actor at some later
+productions, and his name has in this way crept into the <span class="bcad">MSS.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref020" id="fn020">[20]</a> <i>Tibiae</i> were called <i>pares</i> or <i>impares</i> according as they were or
+were not of the same length and key. <i>Duae dextrae</i> were two pipes
+both playing the treble. <i>Tibiae Sarranae</i>, from Sarra, the old Latin
+name for Tyre, were a special form of <i>tibiae pares</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref021" id="fn021">[21]</a> <i>Mediocritas</i> = <span class="greek">τὸ μέσον</span>, the intermediate style between <span class="greek">τὸ ἁδρόν</span>,
+&lsquo;the florid&rsquo; (<i>ubertas</i>), and <span class="greek">τὸ ἰσχνόν</span>, &lsquo;the simple&rsquo; (<i>gracilitas</i>). See
+W. Peterson&rsquo;s note on Quint. x. 1, 44.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref022" id="fn022">[22]</a> For the omission of names, cf. iv. 12 (Jordan), &lsquo;dictatorem Karthaginiensium
+magister equitum monuit&rsquo; (of Hannibal and Maharbal).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref023" id="fn023">[23]</a> This means that Lucilius would represent the nom. plu. by <i>-ei</i> and
+the gen. sing, by <i>-i</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref024" id="fn024">[24]</a> The <i>fabula Atellana</i> was a species of farce adopted by the Romans
+from the Oscan town of Atella in Campania. See Livy, vii. 2, for
+this and the early history of the Roman drama.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref025" id="fn025">[25]</a> Q. Hortensius Hortalus (<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 114-50), Cicero&rsquo;s rival as an orator,
+and author of <i>Annales</i> (Vell. ii. 16, 3), a <i>Rhetoric</i> (Quint. ii. 1, 11),
+and love poems (Ovid <i>Tr.</i> ii. 441).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref026" id="fn026">[26]</a> According to <i>ad Att.</i> ii. 1, 3 (if genuine), Cicero intended to publish
+speeches 9-11 in a collection of &lsquo;orationes consulares&rsquo; (&lsquo;Hoc totum
+<span class="greek">σῶμα</span> curabo ut habeas&rsquo;).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref027" id="fn027">[27]</a> <i>R.H.</i> iv. 311 (note).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref028" id="fn028">[28]</a> Q. Asconius Pedianus (<span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 3-88), probably a native of Padua,
+author of a commentary on Cicero&rsquo;s speeches. The extant part is on
+<i>Pro Cornelio de maiestate</i>, <i>In toga candida</i>, <i>In Pisonem</i>,
+<i>Pro Scauro</i>,
+and <i>Pro Milone</i>. The commentary on the Verrines and Divinatio,
+which deals almost exclusively with the language, is spurious: the
+true Asconius confines himself to the subject-matter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref029" id="fn029">[29]</a> The Epicurean philosophy was expounded in the writings of C.
+Amafinius, Rabirius, and T. Catius, whose opinions and literary style
+were alike distasteful to Cicero (<i>Ac.</i> i. 5; <i>ad. Fam.</i> xv. 19, 2).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref030" id="fn030">[30]</a> F. Ritschl, <i>Opuscula</i>, iii., p. 525.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref031" id="fn031">[31]</a> L. Schwabe, <i>Quaest. Catull.</i>, p. 296. B. Schmidt, however (ed.
+of Catullus, p. 57), thinks that the <i>Chronica</i> are not referred to here.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref032" id="fn032">[32]</a> A life of Lucretius has been recently discovered by J. Masson
+(<i>Journal of Philology</i>, xxiii. 46), which was written by Girolamo
+Borgia in 1502. It gives <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 95-51 as the poet&rsquo;s dates. Several
+new points were supposed to lend it a claim to authority, such as
+the statement that he was &lsquo;matre natus diu sterili.&rsquo; This, however,
+has been shown to rest on a wrong reading of Q. Serenus Sammonicus&rsquo; <i>Liber Medicinalis</i>, xxxii., in a passage dealing with the
+barrenness of women, &lsquo;hoc poterit magni quartus [liber] monstrare
+Lucreti,&rsquo; where <i>partus</i>, the reading of the oldest edition, was used.
+This, and other considerations, show that the <i>vita</i> does not rest on
+any ancient sources, beyond those which are still extant.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref033" id="fn033">[33]</a> Memmius wrote love poems (Ovid, <i>Tr.</i> ii. 433).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref034" id="fn034">[34]</a> Some ascribe these stories to Lenaeus, a freedman of Pompey,
+Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 15.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref035" id="fn035">[35]</a> Only inferior <span class="bcad">MSS.</span> give Q., and the reading in c. 67, 12, &lsquo;verum
+istud populi, fabula, Quinte, facit,&rsquo; is not to be accepted.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref036" id="fn036">[36]</a> Some critics, without sufficient proof, identify Volusius with the
+inferior poet Tanusius Geminus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref037" id="fn037">[37]</a> Martial, of course, has here forgotten his dates.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref038" id="fn038">[38]</a> The incident has been borrowed from Plutarch by Shakespeare,
+<i>Julius Caesar</i>, Act iii. Scene 3.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref039" id="fn039">[39]</a> See <a href="#p184">p. 184</a>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref040" id="fn040">[40]</a> This appears to us to be an indirect proof that the half lines in
+Virgil are often complete as they stand.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref041" id="fn041">[41]</a> M. Valerius Probus of Berytus (Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 24) who flourished,
+according to Jerome, <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 56, prepared critical editions of Lucretius,
+Virgil, and Horace. A commentary on the <i>Eclogues</i> and <i>Georgics</i>
+passes under his name, but most of it is spurious.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref042" id="fn042">[42]</a> A grammarian of the fifth century <span class="bcad">A.D.</span>, who merely versifies
+Donatus.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref043" id="fn043">[43]</a> On this point Professor W. M. Ramsay writes to us: &lsquo;Virgil&rsquo;s
+farm was certainly not at Pietole (which is two miles south of Mantua,
+out in the flat plain): for (1) the farm was a long way from the city
+(cf. <i>Ecl.</i> 9, 59 <i>sqq.</i>); (2) it was beside hills (<i>ibid.</i> 7 <i>sqq.</i>); (3) woods
+were on or by it (cf. Donatus &ldquo;silvis coemendis&rdquo;), and the flat fertile
+valley was certainly not abandoned to forests. After exploring the
+country, I felt clear that the farm was on the west bank of the Mincio,
+opposite Valeggio, where the northern hills sink to the dead level
+of the Po valley.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref044" id="fn044">[44]</a> His knowledge of science is reflected in his works. Cf. <i>Georgics</i>,
+passim, and <i>Ecl.</i> 3, ll. 40-2.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref045" id="fn045">[45]</a> The latter part of this statement is worthless: Augustus was only
+a child when Virgil came to Rome.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref046" id="fn046">[46]</a> Probus is manifestly wrong in saying that the distribution of land
+took place &lsquo;post <i>Mutinense</i> bellum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref047" id="fn047">[47]</a> For details see H. Nettleship, <i>Ancient Lives of Vergil</i>, who holds
+that there was really only one eviction.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref048" id="fn048">[48]</a> The writings of Augustus are enumerated by Sueton. Aug. 85&mdash;
+(1) <i>Rescripta Bruto de Catone</i>, a reply to Brutus&rsquo; pamphlet on Cato;
+(2) <i>Hortationes ad Philosophiam</i>; (3) <i>De Vita Sua</i>; (4) Life of Drusus
+(Sueton. <i>Claud.</i> 1); (5) Poems: &lsquo;Sicily&rsquo; in hexameters, Epigrams
+and Fescennine verses; a tragedy, &lsquo;Ajax&rsquo; (never finished).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref049" id="fn049">[49]</a> Servius wrote &lsquo;triennio&rsquo; perhaps because he thought only of the
+dates of <i>Ecl.</i> 1 and 10 (H. Nettleship, <i>ibid.</i>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref050" id="fn050">[50]</a> C. Schaper&rsquo;s view is that <i>Ecls.</i> 4, 6, and 10 were not written till
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 27-25 for a second edition. He supposes <i>Ecl.</i> 6 to allude to the
+marriage of Marcellus and Julia in 25 (referring 6, 3 to the <i>Aeneid</i>),
+and <i>Ecl.</i> 10 to be a lament for Gallus, who committed suicide
+<span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 27.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref051" id="fn051">[51]</a> Iulus is properly spelt Iullus (as in inscriptions), and is for Iovillos,
+a diminutive from the stem of Iuppiter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref052" id="fn052">[52]</a> L. Orbilius Pupillus of Beneventum, who in his <cite class="greek">Περιαλγής</cite> complained
+of the wrongs of his profession (Sueton. <i>Gramm.</i> 4 and 9).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref053" id="fn053">[53]</a> Maecenas wrote, besides smaller prose works, a history of his own
+times (Hor. <i>Od.</i> ii. 12, 9; Pliny, <i>N.H.</i> vii. 148).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref054" id="fn054">[54]</a> For Horace&rsquo;s relations to Propertius see <i>Ep.</i> ii. 2, 91-101, and under
+&lsquo;<i>Propertius</i>,&rsquo; <a href="#p196">p. 196</a>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref055" id="fn055">[55]</a> See G. Boissier, <i>Nouvelles Promenades Archéologiques: Horace et
+Virgile</i> (Paris, 1886).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref056" id="fn056">[56]</a> Dr. A. W. Verrall&rsquo;s argument (<i>Studies in Horace</i>, pp. 25 <i>sqq.</i>) that
+<i>Od.</i> i.-iii. were published <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 19 is not convincing.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref057" id="fn057">[57]</a> Ed. by Mommsen in <i>Ephemeris Epigraphica</i>, 1892, p. 225.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref058" id="fn058">[58]</a> For Horace&rsquo;s eclectic position in philosophy, cf. <i>Ep.</i> i. 1, 14-15,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&lsquo;Nullius addictus iurare in verba magistri,<br />
+quo me cumque rapit tempestas, deferor hospes.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref059" id="fn059">[59]</a> As suggested to us by Prof. W. M. Ramsay. For Horace&rsquo;s
+opinion of Catullus cf. <i>Sat.</i> i. 10, 18-9,
+</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&lsquo;Simius iste,<br />
+nil praeter Calvum et doctus cantare Catullum.&rsquo;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref060" id="fn060">[60]</a> See Th. Mommsen, <i>Sitzungsberichte der königl. preuss. Akad. der
+Wissenschaften zu Berlin</i>. 24 Jan. 1889.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref061" id="fn061">[61]</a> A Peripatetic of the third century <span class="bcad">B.C.</span>, who wrote a popular
+account of the literary and philosophical views of his school.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref062" id="fn062">[62]</a> E. Voss, <i>Die Natur in der Dichtung des Horaz</i> (Düsseldorf, 1889).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref063" id="fn063">[63]</a> As pointed out by A. W. Verrall, <i>Studies in Horace</i>, p. 134 <i>sqq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref064" id="fn064">[64]</a> This poem is probably referred to by Hor. <i>Od.</i> iv. 4, 19-22.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref065" id="fn065">[65]</a> M. Valerius Messalla Corvinus, author of memoirs of the Civil
+War (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> iv. 34), love poems (Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> v. 3, 5), and works
+on grammar (Quint. i. 7, 35).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref066" id="fn066">[66]</a> Dessau, <i>Inscr. Lat. Sel.</i> 2925. <i>Serg.</i> stands for <i>Serg[ia tribu]</i>,
+and is not a cognomen <i>Sergio</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref067" id="fn067">[67]</a> See Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> v. 9, 2.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref068" id="fn068">[68]</a> This question was first satisfactorily worked out by T. Dyer,
+<i>Classical Museum</i> for 1847, p. 229 <i>sqq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref069" id="fn069">[69]</a> See under &lsquo;Juvenal,&rsquo; <a href="#p323">p. 323</a>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref070" id="fn070">[70]</a> Pollio accused him of Patavinitas, <i>i.e.</i> the use of provincialisms
+(<i>verba peregrina</i>, as opposed to <i>Latina</i>, Quint. i. 5, 55, <i>curiose loqui</i>
+rather than <i>Latine</i>, Quint. viii. 1, 2).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref071" id="fn071">[71]</a> By A. Diepenbrock, <i>L. Annaeus Seneca</i>, p. 12 (Amsterdam, 1888).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref072" id="fn072">[72]</a> The praenomen &lsquo;Gaius&rsquo; is rendered highly probable by the reading
+of the <i>editio princeps</i> and by an inscription found in Africa (<i>C.I.L.</i>
+viii. 10311).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref073" id="fn073">[73]</a> <i>Les Poètes Latins de la Décadence</i>, vol. i., p. 8.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref074" id="fn074">[74]</a> Antwerp edition, p. 89.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref075" id="fn075">[75]</a> Tacitus does not say openly that Seneca was privy to the murder.
+On the whole he is favourable to Seneca, either because he followed
+the authority of Fabius Rusticus, a friend of Seneca, or because
+Seneca perished afterwards through Nero&rsquo;s agency, or because he
+thought Seneca deserved his consideration.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref076" id="fn076">[76]</a> Seneca&rsquo;s influence on the Imperial policy, especially in the liberal
+view it took regarding religion, is well brought out by Prof. W. M. Ramsay,
+in his book, <i>St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman
+Citizen</i>, pp. 354 <i>sqq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref077" id="fn077">[77]</a> See the very large list of parallels collected by Heitland, <i>Introduction</i>
+to Haskins&rsquo; <i>Lucan</i>, § 51.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref078" id="fn078">[78]</a> See under Varro, <a href="#p096">p. 96</a>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref079" id="fn079">[79]</a> Ed. of <i>Cena Trimalchionis</i>, p. 7.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref080" id="fn080">[80]</a> See O. Hirschfeld&rsquo;s note on this passage in <i>Römische Verwaltungsgeschichte</i>, p. 261.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref081" id="fn081">[81]</a> Messalla was a favourite of Gaius, Narcissus of Claudius.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref082" id="fn082">[82]</a> Pomponius was the author of <i>Aeneas</i> and other tragedies. Pliny
+calls him &lsquo;consularis poeta,&rsquo; &lsquo;vates civisque clarissimus&rsquo; (<i>N.H.</i> vii. 80,
+xiii. 83). Cf. Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xii. 28.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref083" id="fn083">[83]</a> Given with other examples by W. C. Summers, <i>Study of the
+Argonautica</i> (Camb. 1894), p. 27.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref084" id="fn084">[84]</a> Summers, <i>ibid.</i> p. 56.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref085" id="fn085">[85]</a> Cf. Tac. <i>Hist.</i> iii. 65.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref086" id="fn086">[86]</a> Mart. vii. 63.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref087" id="fn087">[87]</a> Mart. xi. 48; 49.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref088" id="fn088">[88]</a> Mart. viii. 66.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref089" id="fn089">[89]</a> Mart. ix. 68.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref090" id="fn090">[90]</a> The references are to L. Friedländer&rsquo;s edition (Leipzig, 1886).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref091" id="fn091">[91]</a> Ed. of Book x., Introd. p. 9 (Oxford, 1891).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref092" id="fn092">[92]</a> A passage probably inserted by the pseudo-Frontinus from memoirs
+of the genuine Frontinus to give an air of authenticity to his work.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref093" id="fn093">[93]</a> J. Dürr, <i>Das Leben Juvenals</i> (Ulm, 1888). L. Friedländer (ed. of
+Juvenal: Leipzig, 1895) attaches little importance to this and the other
+<i>vitae</i>, but his arguments do not appear to us to be convincing.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref094" id="fn094">[94]</a> E. G. Hardy (ed. of Juvenal: London, 1891, introd. p. 8) thinks
+that this is supported by Juvenal&rsquo;s gentile name Iunius. As a representative
+of the middle classes he (thinks Hardy) could not have
+been related by blood to either of the two <i>gentes</i> of that name.
+Hardy also states that Decimus is a common <i>praenomen</i> of the
+plebeian <i>gens Iunia</i>, and suggests that Juvenal may have got his
+<i>praenomen</i> from them. There is no reason, however, to think that
+every Iunius must be related or associated in some way with one
+of these two <i>gentes</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref095" id="fn095">[95]</a> The statement of the <i>vitae</i>, &lsquo;ad mediam fere aetatem declamavit,&rsquo;
+may imply no more than that he continued his studies in private;
+but it must be observed that the usual meaning of <i>declamare</i> is &lsquo;to
+attend college classes&rsquo;; and the statement, in whatever way it is
+taken, must be looked upon as improbable.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref096" id="fn096">[96]</a> If the number I. is right, and this appears most likely. II. is
+the only other possible reading, and it must be noted that the second
+Dalmatian cohort was in Britain at the beginning of the second century,
+and probably had been there for a considerable time. <i>Trib.</i> in the
+inscription is a conjecture suggested by the <i>vitae</i>: <i>praef.</i>, which is
+epigraphically possible, is preferred by some authorities.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref097" id="fn097">[97]</a> E. G. Hardy thinks that <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 87 was one of the years when
+<i>duumviri quinquennales</i> (appointed every five years) were elected in
+Aquinum, and hypothetically assigns Juvenal&rsquo;s holding of the post to
+that year.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref098" id="fn098">[98]</a> <i>C.I.L.</i> vii. 1195.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref099" id="fn099">[99]</a> Cf. E. G. Hardy, ed. of Juvenal.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref100" id="fn100">[100]</a> Cf. E. G. Hardy, <i>ibid.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref101" id="fn101">[101]</a> The reference in 4, 126, &lsquo;De temone Britanno excidet Arviragus,&rsquo;
+proves nothing. It is the sort of reference that would be made by
+an Italian ignorant of Britain, and is, in fact, put into the mouth of
+one.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref102" id="fn102">[102]</a> The view that <i>Sat.</i> i. 33 <i>sqq.</i> refers to M. Aquilius Regulus, who
+died probably <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 105 (Pliny, <i>Ep.</i> i. 5, 14-15), is rejected by Friedländer
+<i>ad loc.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref103" id="fn103">[103]</a> H. Nettleship (<i>Journal of Philology</i>, xvi., p. 45) points out that
+C. Vipstanus Apronianus and C. Fonteius Capito were consuls <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 59,
+and suggests that this may be the year meant. This would give <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 119
+as the date of composition.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref104" id="fn104">[104]</a> The scholiast connects with 4, 37-8.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref105" id="fn105">[105]</a> This story is rejected both by Hardy and by Friedländer.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref106" id="fn106">[106]</a> Juvenal had a leaning to Stoicism: cf. <i>Sat.</i> 10 <i>ad fin.</i>, and his
+references to fate, <i>e.g.</i> 7, 200; 10, 365; 12, 63. He believes in the
+gods (13, 247-9), but disbelieves the doctrines of the popular religion
+(2, 149 <i>sqq.</i>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref107" id="fn107">[107]</a> The inscription records the appointment of Cilo&rsquo;s sons and a woman
+Lutulla as trustees of a fund, the interest of which was to be disbursed
+to the people of Comum.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref108" id="fn108">[108]</a> <i>Hermes</i>, iii. 31 <i>sqq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref109" id="fn109">[109]</a> The inscription in Caria, formerly supposed to give P. as praenomen,
+is now shown to have been misread.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref110" id="fn110">[110]</a> The inhabitants of Terni (Interamna) erected a statue to Tacitus
+as to a fellow-townsman in <span class="bcad">A.D.</span> 1514.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref111" id="fn111">[111]</a> <i>Bull. de Corr. Hell.</i>, 1890, p. 621, quoted by Prof. W. M. Ramsay,
+<i>The Church in the Roman Empire</i>, p. 228.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref112" id="fn112">[112]</a> One of the speakers in the Dialogue, Curiatius Maternus, was the
+author of tragedies <i>Medea</i> and <i>Thyestes</i>, and of praetextae <i>Domitius</i>
+and <i>Cato</i> (<i>Dial.</i> 2-3).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref113" id="fn113">[113]</a> Various attempts have been made, especially in a work published in
+London, 1878, to prove, of course unsuccessfully, that the <i>Annals</i> were
+forged in the fifteenth century by the Italian scholar Poggio Bracciolini.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref114" id="fn114">[114]</a> Fabius Rusticus, a friend of Seneca, quoted also for the shape of
+Britain (<i>Agr.</i> 10).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref115" id="fn115">[115]</a> Cluvius Rufus, governor of Hispania Tarraconensis <span class="bcad">B.C.</span> 69 (<i>H.</i> i. 8).
+Mommsen considers that he is one of the historians censured in <i>H.</i>
+ii. 101.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref116" id="fn116">[116]</a> Roth gives 71, Teuffel 75 at latest.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref117" id="fn117">[117]</a> See <i>Quaestiones Suetonianae</i> in Reifferscheid&rsquo;s <i>Suetonius</i>, pp. 363 <i>sqq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref118" id="fn118">[118]</a> See H. Nettleship, <i>Lectures and Essays</i> (1885), p. 248 <i>sqq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#ref119" id="fn119">[119]</a> See Nettleship, <i>ibid.</i> p. 277 <i>sqq.</i>
+</p>
+
+<div class="notes gap">
+<p>
+<strong>Transcriber&rsquo;s note:</strong>
+</p>
+<p>
+The following typographical errors were corrected:
+</p>
+<ul style="list-style-type: disc">
+<li>
+<a href="#corr1">Page 29</a>: &ldquo;equs&rdquo; changed to &ldquo;equus&rdquo;
+</li>
+<li>
+<a href="#corrp34">Page 34</a>: single quote added following “clueret.”
+</li>
+  <li>
+<a href="#corr7">Page 161</a>: period added following &ldquo;Religion in the Aeneid&rdquo;
+  </li>
+  <li>
+<a href="#corrp218">Page 218</a>: single quote added following “capit.”
+</li>
+<li>
+<a href="#corr2">Page 259</a>: &ldquo;<span class="bcad">B.C.</span>&rdquo; changed to &ldquo;<span class="bcad">A.D.</span>&rdquo;
+</li>
+<li>
+<a href="#corr3">Page 259</a>: &ldquo;Claudius&rdquo; changed to &ldquo;Caligula&rdquo;
+</li>
+<li>
+<a href="#corr4">Page 259</a>: &ldquo;Caligula&rdquo; changed to &ldquo;Claudius&rdquo; (twice)
+</li>
+    <li>
+<a href="#corrp263">Page 263</a>: single quote added following “ineptis.”
+</li>
+    <!-- <li>
+<a href="#corrp368">Page 368</a>: comma changed to semicolon following “Lucr. 121”
+</li> -->
+<li>
+<a href="#corr6">Page 381</a>: &ldquo;Octaviam&rdquo; changed to &ldquo;Octavium&rdquo;
+</li>
+</ul>
+<p>Inconsistencies in hyphenation have not been normalized.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Student's Companion to Latin
+Authors, by George Middleton and Thomas R. Mills
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Student's Companion to Latin Authors, by 
+George Middleton and Thomas R. Mills
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Student's Companion to Latin Authors
+
+Author: George Middleton
+        Thomas R. Mills
+
+Release Date: March 25, 2009 [EBook #28413]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDENT'S COMPANION LATIN AUTHORS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Stefan Cramme and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+   +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Transcriber's note:                                             |
+   |                                                                 |
+   | This e-book contains many Greek quotations. In the ASCII and    |
+   | ISO-8859-1 versions, the Greek is transliterated into Latin     |
+   | letters, which do not perfectly represent the Greek original;   |
+   | especially, accents and breathing marks are not transliterated. |
+   | The same applies to macrons and breves above Latin characters.  |
+   | Transliterated Greek is marked by +...+.                        |
+   | The HTML and UTF-8 versions contain Unicode representations     |
+   | of the Greek text and characters with diacritical marks.        |
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+   | Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. For           |
+   | a complete list, please see the end of this document.           |
+   +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+The Student's Companion
+
+to Latin Authors
+
+
+by
+
+George Middleton, M.A.
+
+Lecturer in Latin, Aberdeen University; Late Scholar of
+Emmanuel College, Cambridge
+
+and
+
+Thomas R. Mills, M.A.
+
+Late Lecturer in Greek, Aberdeen University, and Classical Lecturer,
+Owens College, Manchester; formerly Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford
+
+
+_with an Introductory Note by_
+
+Prof. W. M. Ramsay, D.C.L., LL.D.
+
+Aberdeen University
+
+
+London
+Macmillan and Co., Ltd.
+New York: The Macmillan Co.
+1896
+
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+
+Glasgow: Printed at the University Press by
+Robert Maclehose and Co.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The object of this book is to give in a convenient form all the facts
+of importance relating to the lives and works of the principal Latin
+Authors, with full quotation of original authorities on all the chief
+points. It appears to us that these facts are not at present readily
+accessible; for the ordinary histories of literature are compelled to
+sacrifice much exact information to the demand for a critical
+appreciation of the authors. The latter aspect does not enter into the
+plan of this book, which may therefore, with advantage, be used side
+by side with any work of the kind indicated, the two supplementing one
+another. The authors have been, as far as possible, illustrated from
+their own works. Special attention has been paid to the great writers,
+as the book is meant for use in the upper forms of schools and by
+students at the Universities. We had collected a considerable amount
+of matter upon the minor authors, most of which it was thought
+advisable to omit, so as not to extend the book unduly. An attempt,
+however, has been made to retain the most important facts about these,
+whenever they illustrated one of the great authors, or whenever it was
+thought that they ought to be in the hands of a student. We have
+attempted no treatment of early Latin as seen in inscriptions and the
+like, but have started with the first literary author, Livius
+Andronicus, and have gone down to Tacitus and the younger Pliny,
+dealing with each author by himself. A section has been added on
+Suetonius. A sketch of the chief ancient authorities on Roman writers
+is given at the end of the book, as well as a selected list of
+editions, which, without being exhaustive, will, we hope, be of
+service to the average student.
+
+Apart from our own study of the authors, our principal authority has,
+of course, been the _History of Roman Literature_ by Teuffel and
+Schwabe (translated by Prof. G. C. W. Warr), and we have made an
+extensive use of editions and monographs both English and foreign,
+which are mentioned where necessary. Ennius has been quoted from
+Vahlen's edition, Plautus from the new edition of Ritschl, the
+fragments of the tragedians and comedians from Ribbeck, of Lucilius
+from L. Mueller, and of the minor poets from Baehrens, the minor
+historians from Peter's _Fragmenta_, and Suetonius' fragmentary works
+from Reifferscheid.
+
+Some of our materials were originally prepared for the Humanity
+classes in Aberdeen University, and the Latin Literary Club in
+connexion with the Honours class. We have to thank some of our pupils
+for help and criticism, particularly Mr. A. Souter, of Gonville and
+Caius College, Cambridge, and Mr. A. G. Wright, of St. John's College,
+Cambridge, the latter of whom prepared the materials for the article
+on Tibullus, and gave us some useful suggestions. We are specially
+indebted to Professor W. M. Ramsay, without whom the book would not
+have been written. Professor Ramsay has read nearly the whole of the
+work as it has passed through the press, and has all along given us
+invaluable assistance and advice. For any errors in the following
+pages we are, of course, solely responsible.
+
+ABERDEEN, September, 1896.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER I.--EARLY POETS AND PROSE WRITERS,                           1
+
+  Livius Andronicus, 1; Naevius, 4; Plautus, 7; Ennius, 26; Pacuvius,
+  34; Caecilius Statius, 37; Terence, 39; Early Minor Authors, 52; Cato,
+  53; Accius, 55; Lucilius, 58; Atta and Afranius, 64; Minor Poets after
+  Afranius, 65; Authors contemporary with Cicero's youth, 67.
+
+  CHAPTER II.--THE CICERONIAN AGE,                                    69
+
+  Cicero, 69; Q. Cicero, 89; Tiro, 90; Atticus, 90; Varro, 91; Laberius,
+  97; Bibaculus, 99; Caesar and the Corpus Caesarianum, 100; Pollio,
+  112; Nepos, 112; Lucretius, 119; Sallust, 125; Catullus, 132;
+  Contemporary Poets (Cinna, Calvus, Varro Atacinus, Publilius Syrus,
+  etc.), 140.
+
+  CHAPTER III.--THE AUGUSTAN AGE,                                    147
+
+  Virgil, 147; Horace, 163; Contemporary Poets, 180; Tibullus, 185;
+  Propertius, 191; Ovid, 200; Manilius, 213; Livy, 215; Contemporaries
+  of Livy, 223; Vitruvius, 224; Seneca the Elder, 226.
+
+  CHAPTER IV.--POST-AUGUSTAN WRITERS,                                231
+
+  Velleius Paterculus, 231; Valerius Maximus, 234; Celsus, 235;
+  Phaedrus, 237; Seneca the Younger, 240; Curtius Rufus, 256; Columella,
+  258; Pomponius Mela, 259; Persius, 260; Lucan, 264; Petronius, 272;
+  Calpurnius Siculus, 275; Aetna (Lucilius Iunior), 277; Pliny the Elder,
+  281; Valerius Flaccus, 286; Silius Italicus, 289; Statius, 291;
+  Martial, 295; Quintilian, 302; Frontinus, 310; Juvenal, 312; Pliny the
+  Younger, 326; Tacitus, 336; Suetonius, 348.
+
+  APPENDIX A.,                                                       351
+
+  APPENDIX B.,                                                       356
+
+  INDEX OF SUBJECTS,                                                 368
+
+  INDEX OF TITLES,                                                   378
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY NOTE
+
+
+The authors ask me to write a word of introduction to their book; but
+an introduction is not needed when the book supplies a want and is
+trustworthy in what it says. As to the second point, the text will
+speak for itself. On the first, a word may be permitted about my own
+experience in lecturing. The young student of Latin Literature
+requires help in two ways. In the first place, he needs guidance in
+learning to recognize and appreciate the literary merit of the
+authors. Mr. Cruttwell's, and, still better, Mr. Mackail's book, will
+serve his purpose well. They are interesting to read, and they tempt
+him on to study for himself. Mr. Mackail's book, especially, shows
+delicate literary feeling, and a remarkably catholic and true sense of
+literary merit. But, secondly, the student wants a clear statement of
+the facts, certain or probable, about the life of each author, the
+chronology of his works, and their relation to the circumstances and
+personages of the time. Neither of the books which I have named is
+satisfactory in this respect. Both of them omit a large number of
+facts and theories which the student ought to have before him: Mr.
+Cruttwell occasionally even sinks to inaccuracy.
+
+About three years ago I suggested to Mr. Middleton that he should try
+to fill up this gap with a book, in which he should bring together all
+the information that a student should have ready to his hand in
+reading the more familiar classical authors, that he should keep down
+the size of his book by omitting all that the student does not want,
+and that he should set before his readers the evidence on which each
+fact rests, so that they might be led to form opinions and judgments
+of their own. Teuffel-Schwabe's great work contains a vast deal that
+the ordinary student does not want; and it does not contain a certain
+amount which will, I believe, be found in the present book, the
+materials for which have been gathered from a wide range of reading.
+
+I am convinced that much can be done to stimulate and invigorate the
+young student's feeling for Latin literature by helping him to feel
+for himself how each author's words spring from his life, and
+conversely how facts and circumstances of his life can be elicited
+from his words. There will always remain doubts as to the facts and
+dates, _e.g._, in Horace's or in Catullus' life; but any reasoned
+theory has its interest, and is better for the pupil than no theory.
+The present book will, as I hope, be found useful as an aid to that
+method of teaching and of study, provided that both teacher and pupil
+bear in mind that it is a companion to other books--not a book
+complete in itself.
+
+W. M. RAMSAY.
+
+
+
+
+COMPANION TO LATIN AUTHORS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+EARLY POETS AND PROSE WRITERS.
+
+
+
+LIVIUS ANDRONICUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+L. Livius Andronicus, according to the poet Accius, was taken prisoner
+at the capture of Tarentum by Q. Fabius Maximus in B.C. 209, and
+exhibited his first play in B.C. 197.
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 72-3, 'Accius a Q. Maximo quintum consule captum Tarenti
+scripsit Livium annis xxx. postquam eum fabulam docuisse et Atticus
+scribit et nos in antiquis commentariis invenimus: docuisse autem
+fabulam annis post xi., C. Cornelio Q. Minucio coss. ludis Iuventatis,
+quos Salinator Senensi proelio voverat.'
+
+But ancient evidence is unanimous that he was the first literary
+writer of Rome, and this is confirmed by his archaic language. Hence
+the statement of Cicero _ibid._, that Livius produced his first play
+in B.C. 240, must be accepted.
+
+'Atque hic Livius, qui primus fabulam, C. Claudio Caeci filio et M.
+Tuditano coss., docuit anno ipso antequam natus est Ennius; post Romam
+conditam autem quarto decimo et quingentesimo ... In quo tantus error
+Acci fuit, ut his consulibus xl. annos natus Ennius fuerit: cui si
+aequalis fuerit Livius, minor fuit aliquanto is, qui primus fabulam
+dedit, quam ei, qui multas docuerant ante hos consules, et Plautus et
+Naevius.'
+
+Cf. Cic. _Tusc._ i. 3, and Gell. xvii. 21, 42.
+
+Probably Accius, finding in his authorities that Livius was taken
+prisoner at the capture of Tarentum (_i.e._ in B.C. 272), wrongly
+thought of the second capture by Fabius. In spite of Cicero's
+correction, the error of Accius was, we may infer, reproduced by
+Suetonius, and thus penetrated into Jerome, who says, yr. Abr. 1830 =
+B.C. 187, 'T. [an error] Livius tragoediarum scriptor clarus habetur,
+qui ob ingenii meritum a Livio Salinatore, cuius liberos erudiebat,
+libertate donatus est.'
+
+It is probable that Livius was the slave of C. Livius Salinator, the
+father of the victor of Sena (M. Livius Salinator), and taught the
+latter; for he must have been set free before B.C. 240, and the victor
+of Sena could hardly have been born earlier than B.C. 258. This
+connexion made M. Livius Salinator when consul, B.C. 207, select
+Livius Andronicus to prepare a hymn of expiation to the Aventine Juno,
+and, probably in the same year, to compose a hymn of thanksgiving for
+the success of Rome in the Hannibalic War. For his services the
+privileges of a guild were assigned to writers and actors.
+
+Livy xxvii. 37, 'Decrevere pontifices ut virgines ter novenae per
+urbem euntes carmen canerent ... conditum ab Livio poeta ... Carmen in
+Iunonem reginam canentes ibant illa tempestate forsitan laudabile
+rudibus ingeniis, nunc abhorrens et inconditum, si referatur.'
+
+Fest. p. 333, 'Cum Livius Andronicus bello Punico secundo scripsisset
+carmen quod a virginibus est cantatum, quia prosperius res publica
+populi Romani geri coepta est, publice attributa est ei in Aventino
+aedis Minervae, in qua liceret scribis histrionibusque consistere ac
+dona ponere, in honorem Livi, quia is et scribebat fabulas et agebat.'
+
+Livius had a twofold reason for writing, (_a_) To assist him in his
+profession as a schoolmaster he published a translation of the
+_Odyssey_; (_b_) as an actor, he wrote the plays he acted, and
+afterwards published them.
+
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 1, 'Livium et Ennium ... quos utraque lingua domi
+forisque docuisse adnotatum est.'
+
+Livy vii. 2, 8, 'Livius ... qui ab saturis ausus est primus argumento
+fabulam serere, idem scilicet, id quod omnes tum erant, suorum
+carminum actor.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Tragedies._--From the scanty fragments extant and from the titles
+(_Achilles_, _Aegisthus_, and six others are known) we see that these
+were close imitations of Greek plays. Thus l. 38 (Ribbeck),
+
+  'Quem ego nefrendem alui lacteam immulgens opem,'
+
+is, according to Conington, a rendering of Aesch. _Choeph._ 883-4,
+
+  +maston pros ho sy polla de brizon hama
+  ouloisoin ezemexas eutraphes gala+.
+
+2. _Comedies._--Slight fragments of three of these are extant.
+
+3. A translation of the _Odyssey_ in Saturnians.[1] This, though rough
+and incorrect, long remained a school-book. So Hor. _Ep._ ii. I, 69
+_sqq._,
+
+  'Non equidem insector delendave carmina Livi
+  esse reor, memini quae plagosum mihi parvo
+  Orbilium dictare: sed emendata videri
+  pulchraque et exactis minimum distantia miror.'
+
+For examples of translation, of. Gell, xviii. 9, 5, 'Offendi ...
+librum ... Livi Andronici, qui inscriptus est Odyssea, in quo erat
+versus primus ...,
+
+  "Virum mihi Camena | insece versutum,"
+
+factus ex illo Homeri versu,
+
+  +Andra moi ennepe, Mousa, polytropon+.'
+
+Fragments 2 and 3,
+
+  'Mea puer, quid verbi | ex tuo ore supera
+  fugit?
+      neque enim te oblitus | Lertie, sum, noster,'
+
+represent _Od._ i. 64,
+
+  +teknon emon, poion se epos phygen herkos odonton?
+  pos an epeit' Odyseos ego theioio lathoimen?+
+
+
+
+NAEVIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Cn. Naevius' dates can only be given approximately as B.C. 269-199. As
+he served in the First Punic War, he cannot in any case have been born
+later than B.C. 257. He was a Campanian by birth.
+
+Gell. i. 24, 2, 'Epigramma Naevi plenum superbiae Campanae, quod
+testimonium esse iustum potuisset, nisi ab ipso dictum esset,
+
+  "Inmortales mortales si foret fas flere,
+  flerent divae Camenae Naevium poetam.
+  Itaque postquam est Orci traditus thesauro,
+  obliti sunt Romae loquier lingua Latina."'
+
+Naevius' first play was produced B.C. 235; the fact that he served as
+a soldier shows that he was not an actor.
+
+Gell. xvii. 21, 45, 'Eodem anno (A.U.C. Dxix.) Cn. Naevius poeta
+fabulas apud populum dedit, quem M. Varro in libris de poetis primo
+stipendia fecisse ait bello Poenico primo, idque ipsum Naevium dicere
+in eo carmine, quod de eodem bello scripsit.'
+
+In his plays he attacked the senatorial party, particularly the
+Metelli, and was imprisoned, but afterwards released.
+
+Gell. iii. 3, 15, 'Sicuti de Naevio quoque accepimus, fabulas eum in
+carcere duas scripsisse, Hariolum et Leontem, cum ob assiduam
+maledicentiam et probra in principes civitatis de Graecorum poetarum
+more dicta in vincula Romae a triumviris coniectus esset. Unde post a
+tribunis plebis exemptus est, cum in his, quas supra dixi, fabulis
+delicta sua et petulantias dictorum, quibus multos ante laeserat,
+diluisset.'
+
+Pseud.-Asconius on Cic. _in Verr. act. prior_, 29. 'Dictum facete et
+contumeliose in Metellos antiquum Naevii est, "Fato Metelli Romai
+fiunt consules," cui tunc Metellus consul (B.C. 206) iratus versu
+responderat ..., "Dabunt malum Metelli Naevio poetae."'
+
+Cf. the contemporary reference in Plaut. _Mil._ 212,
+
+  'Nam os columnatum poetae esse indaudivi barbaro,[2]
+  quoi bini custodes semper totis horis occubant.'
+
+For Naevius' freedom of speech cf. his comedies, l. 113 (Ribbeck),
+
+  'Libera lingua loquemur ludis Liberalibus';
+
+l. 108 (on Scipio),
+
+  'Etiam qui res magnas manu saepe gessit gloriose,
+  cuius facta viva nunc vigent, qui apud gentes solus praestat,
+  eum suus pater cum palliod unod ab amica abduxit.'
+
+Naevius was banished and went to Utica, where he died, probably about
+B.C. 199. It must have been after peace was concluded (B.C. 202), as
+otherwise he could have reached Utica only by deserting to the
+enemy.[3] Jerome gives B.C. 201, Cicero B.C. 204, although he says
+Varro put the date later. The verses on Scipio quoted above could
+hardly have been written before the battle of Zama.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1816 = B.C. 201, 'Naevius comicus Uticae moritur,
+pulsus Roma factione nobilium, ac praecipue Metelli.'
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 60, 'His consulibus (B.C. 204), ut in veteribus
+commentariis scriptum est, Naevius est mortuus; quamquam Varro noster,
+diligentissimus investigator antiquitatis, putat in hoc erratum
+vitamque Naevi producit longius.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Tragedies._--There are extant seven titles and a very few
+fragments.
+
+2. _Comedies._--There are titles of about thirty-four _palliatae_,[4]
+and upwards of one hundred and thirty lines extant.
+
+Naevius seems to have adopted _contaminatio_[5] in his plays. Ter.
+_Andr._ prol. 15,
+
+  'Id isti vituperant factum atque in eo disputant
+  contaminari non decere fabulas ...
+  qui quom hunc accusant, Naevium Plautum Ennium
+  accusant.'
+
+3. _Praetextae._--Tragedies on Roman subjects, 'Clastidium' and
+'Romulus.' The _praetexta_ was invented by Naevius.
+
+4. _Bellum Punicum_, an epic poem in Saturnians, divided later into
+seven Books. About seventy-four lines are extant.
+
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 2, 'C. Octavius Lampadio Naevii Punicum bellum, uno
+volumine et continenti scriptura expositum, divisit in septem libros.'
+
+Books i. and ii. contained the mythical origin of Rome and Carthage,
+Aeneas' flight from Troy and his sojourn at the court of Dido in
+Carthage. In Book iii. the history of the First Punic War commenced.
+The work was imitated by Ennius and Virgil, sometimes closely by the
+latter. Cf. Servius on _Aen._ i. 198-207, 'O socii,' etc. 'Et totus
+hic locus de Naevio belli Punici libro translatus est.' _Ibid._ i.
+273, 'Naevius et Ennius Aeneae ex filia nepotem Romulum conditorem
+urbis tradunt.'
+
+Macrob. _Saturn._ vi. 2, 31, 'In principio Aeneidos tempestas
+describitur et Venus apud Iovem queritur ... Hic locus totus sumptus a
+Naevio est ex primo libro belli Punici.'
+
+
+
+PLAUTUS
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Plautus' full name, T. Maccius Plautus, was discovered by Ritschl in
+the Ambrosian (Milan) palimpsest, which gives, _e.g._ after the two
+plays named: 'T. Macci Plauti Casina explicit': 'Macci Plauti Epidicus
+explicit.' In Plaut. _Merc._ l. 6, the MS. reading _Mactici_ was
+emended by Ritschl to _Macci Titi_; and in _Asin._ prol. l. 11,
+_Maccius_ is the right reading. The MSS. read _Maccus_, which Buecheler
+(_Rhein. Mus._ 41, 12) takes to mean 'buffoon,' or 'writer of
+comedies,' from which Plautus took his family name, Maccius, on
+becoming a Roman citizen. 'M. Accius,' formerly supposed to be the
+name, is found in no MS., but 'Accius' is found in _Epitome Festi_, p.
+239, which gives us the poet's birthplace, Sarsina in Umbria, and
+suggests another derivation for his name: 'Ploti appellantur, qui sunt
+planis pedibus, unde et poeta Accius, quia Umber Sarsinas erat, a
+pedum planitie initio Plotus, postea Plautus est dictus.'
+
+In the corresponding passage of Festus, we have only '...us poeta,
+quia Umber,' etc. The name of the poet is lost, and the epitomizer has
+doubtless made a mistake.
+
+Sarsina is mentioned once by Plautus, _Mostell._ 770,
+
+  'Quid? Sarsinatis ecquast, si Umbram non habes?'
+
+The year of his birth can only be conjectured; he died B.C. 184.
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 60, 'Plautus P. Claudio L. Porcio coss. mortuus est.'
+
+Jerome erroneously assigns Plautus' death to yr. Abr. 1817 = B.C. 200,
+'Plautus ex Umbria Sarsinas Romae moritur, qui propter annonae
+difficultatem ad molas manuarias pistori se locaverat; ibi quotiens ab
+opere vacaret, scribere fabulas et vendere sollicitius consueverat.'
+
+From this notice, and from the passage of Gellius below, we learn that
+Plautus lost in foreign trade the money he had made as an assistant to
+scenic artists, and had to work for his living in a flour mill at
+Rome, during which time he wrote plays, and continued to do so
+afterwards.
+
+Gell. iii. 3, 14, 'Saturionem et Addictum et tertiam quamdam, cuius
+nunc mihi nomen non subpetit, in pistrino eum scripsisse, Varro et
+plerique alii memoriae tradiderunt cum, pecunia omni, quam in operis
+artificum scaenicorum pepererat, in mercatibus perdita inops Romam
+redisset et ob quaerendum victum ad circumagendas molas, quae
+"trusatiles" appellantur, operam pistori locasset.'
+
+We conclude from these varied employments that Plautus can hardly have
+been less than thirty years old when he began to write plays. His
+intimacy with the Scipios (Cic. _de Rep._ iv., apud Augustin. _Civ.
+D._ ii. 9), who fell in Spain B.C. 212, leads to the conclusion that
+he must have been well established as an author by that date, though
+none of his plays can be proved to have been written so early. If we
+suppose that his career as a playwright commenced at thirty, and that
+his acquaintance with the Scipios lasted ten years, the year of his
+birth must have been about B.C. 254. This view is supported (1) by the
+notice in Cic. _Brut._ 73, that Plautus had produced many plays by
+B.C. 197; (2) by Cic. _Cato maior_, 50, 'quam gaudebat ... Truculento
+Plautus, quam Pseudolo,' where Plautus is said to have written these
+plays as _senex_. Now the _Pseudolus_ was written B.C. 191; and
+therefore, as a man could not be called _senex_ till he was at least
+sixty, his birth must have been not later than B.C. 251.
+
+Plautus is said to have written his own epitaph.
+
+Gell. i. 24, 3, 'Epigramma Plauti, quod dubitassemus an Plauti foret,
+nisi a M. Varrone positum esset in libro de poetis primo:
+
+  "Postquam est mortem aptus Plautus, Comoedia luget,
+  Scaena est deserta, ac dein Risus, Ludus Iocusque,
+  et Numeri innumeri simul omnes conlacrimarunt."'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+Plautus' plays were early criticized as to their genuineness. Gell.
+iii. 3, 1-3, after mentioning the canons of Aelius Stilo, Sedigitus,
+etc., says that Varro admitted twenty-one plays which were given by
+all the canons, and added some more. 'Nam praeter illas unam et
+viginti, quae Varronianae vocantur, quas idcirco a ceteris segregavit,
+quoniam dubiosae non erant, set consensu omnium Plauti esse
+censebantur, quasdam item alias probavit adductus filo atque facetia
+sermonis Plauto congruentis easque iam nominibus aliorum occupatas
+Plauto vindicavit.'
+
+About one hundred and thirty plays were current under the name of
+Plautus; the theory of Varro (Gell. iii. 3, 10) that these were
+written by a certain Plautius is improbable.
+
+Gell. iii. 3, 11, 'Feruntur sub Plauti nomine comoediae circiter
+centum atque triginta.'
+
+There is little doubt that the 'fabulae Varronianae' are those which
+have come down to us with the addition of the _Vidularia_, which was
+lost between the sixth and the eleventh centuries. The number of
+Varro's second class, consisting of those pieces that stood in most of
+the indices and exhibited Plautine features, Ritschl has fixed at
+nineteen, from citations in Varro _de lingua Latina_. Besides the
+genuine plays the names of thirty-two others are known.
+
+The extant plays[6] are as follows:
+
+1. _Amphitruo_, a _tragicomoedia_, the only play of Plautus of the
+kind. Prol. 59,
+
+  'Faciam ut conmixta sit haec tragicomoedia.'
+
+The original and the date are unknown. The play shows the features of
+the Sicilian _Rhinthonica_.[7] About three hundred lines have been
+lost after Act. iv., Scene 2. The scene is Thebes, which, with Roman
+carelessness or ignorance, is made a harbour; cf. ll. 629 _sqq._
+
+2. _Asinaria_ (sc. _fabula_), from the +Onagos+ of Demophilus,
+supposed to have been a writer of the New Comedy. Prol. 10-12,
+
+  'Huic nomen Graece Onagost fabulae;
+  Demophilus scripsit, Maccius vortit barbare.
+  Asinariam volt esse, si per vos licet.'
+
+Authorities assign the play to about B.C. 194. The scene is Athens.
+
+3. _Aulularia_ (from _aulula_, 'a little pot.')--Neither the original
+nor the exact time of composition is known. From Megadorus' tirade
+against the luxury of women, ll. 478 _sqq._, it has been inferred that
+the play was written after the repeal of the Oppian Law in B.C. 195.
+The end of the play is lost. The scene is Athens.
+
+4. _Captivi_, a piece without active interest (_stataria_), without
+female characters, and claiming a moral purpose; l. 1029,
+
+  'Spectatores, ad pudicos mores facta haec fabulast.'
+
+Some authorities think that the parasite (Ergasilus) is an addition to
+the original play, which may have belonged to the New Comedy. The
+scene is in Aetolia.
+
+5. _Curculio_, so called from the name of the parasite. The Greek
+original is unknown; but ll. 462-86 contain a speech from the
+Choragus, in the style of the +parabasis+ of the Old Comedy. In
+l. 509,
+
+  'Rogitationes plurumas propter vos populus scivit
+  quas vos rogatas rumpitis,'
+
+there is probably an allusion to the Lex Sempronia de pecunia credita,
+B.C. 193. The scene is Epidaurus.
+
+6. _Casina_, so called from a slave-girl introduced. The original was
+the +Kleroumenoi+ of Diphilus. Prol. 31,
+
+  'Clerumenoe vocatur haec comoedia
+  Graece, Latine Sortientes. Deiphilus
+  hanc Graece scripsit.'
+
+The inference from l. 979, 'Nam ecastor nunc Bacchae nullae ludunt,'
+that the play was written after the S.C. de Bacchanalibus in B.C. 186,
+is improbable; the words rather show, as Mommsen[8] believes, an
+anterior date, when it was not yet dangerous to speak of the
+Bacchanalia. Some authorities find support for the latter date in the
+words of the prologue, ll. 9-20 (written after the poet's death). The
+text of the play has suffered greatly. The scene is Athens.
+
+7. _Cistellaria_.--This play contains a reference to the war against
+Hannibal then going on; ll. 197 _sqq._,
+
+             'Bene valete, et vincite
+  virtute vera, quod fecistis antidhac, ...
+  ut vobis victi Poeni poenas sufferant.'
+
+According to Ritschl, about 600 verses have been lost. The scene is
+Sicyon.
+
+8. _Epidicus_.--This play is referred to in the _Bacchides_, ll. 213-5
+(spoken by Chrysalus), where the unpopularity of the play is
+attributed to the acting of Pellio.
+
+  'Non res, sed actor mihi cor odio sauciat.
+  Etiam Epidicum, quam ego fabulam aeque ac me ipsum amo,
+  nullam aeque invitus specto, si agit Pellio.'
+
+_Epid._ 222,
+
+  'Sed vestita, aurata, ornata ut lepide! ut concinne! ut nove!' etc.,
+
+shows that the piece was written after the repeal of the Lex Oppia
+Sumptuaria, B.C. 195. The plot is complicated, and _contaminatio_ is
+assumed by some authorities. The play contains only seven hundred and
+thirty-three lines, and some believe it to be a stage edition. The
+scene is Athens.
+
+9. _Bacchides_.--The first part of this play, along with the last part
+of the _Aulularia_,[9] has been lost, as also the prefaces of the
+grammarians, so that we do not know what was in the first part. The
+original was probably Menander's +Dis exapaton+. Plautus
+appears to refer to this twice, l. 1090,
+
+  'Perii: pudet. Hocine me aetatis _ludos bis factum_ esse indigne';
+
+l. 1128,
+
+  'Pol hodie altera iam _bis detonsa_ certost.'
+
+The line, +hon hoi theoi philousin, apothneskei neos+, which
+belongs to the same play (Stobaeus, _Serm._ 120, 8) is translated in
+ll. 816-7,
+
+    'quem di diligunt
+  adulescens moritur.'
+
+The date is pretty well fixed by l. 1073,
+
+  'Quod non triumpho: pervolgatumst, nil moror.'
+
+Now, triumphs were not frequent till after the Second Punic War, and
+were especially frequent from B.C. 197 to 187. The play probably
+refers to the four triumphs of B.C. 189, and may have been brought out
+in that or the following year. The scene is Athens.
+
+10. _Mostellaria_ (sc. _fabula_, 'a play dealing with a ghost,' from
+_mostellum_, dim. of _monstrum_).--The play is quoted by Festus, p.
+166, as 'Mostellaria'; pp. 162 and 305, as 'Phasma.' According to
+Ritschl, the +Phasma+ of Philemon was Plautus' model. The
+reference to _unguenta exotica_ (l. 42) points to a late date, when
+Asiatic luxury was growing common. The play is imitated in Ben
+Jonson's _Alchemist_. The scene is Athens.
+
+11. _Menaechmi_.--If ll. 409 _sqq._, 'Syracusis ... ubi rex ... nunc
+Hierost,' were written independently by Plautus, the date must be
+before B.C. 215; but the reference may only mean that the Greek
+original was composed between 275 and 215 B.C. It has been conjectured
+that a comedy by Posidippus (possibly called +Didymoi+) was
+the original, from Athenaeus, xiv. p. 658, +oude gar an heuroi
+tis hymon doulon tina mageiron en komodia plen para Poseidippo
+mono+. Now, the _Menaechmi_ is the only play of Plautus where a cook
+is a house-slave, Cylindrus being the slave of Erotium; in his other
+plays cooks are hired from the Forum. The scene is Epidamnus.
+
+12. _Miles Gloriosus_.--In ll. 211-2 (the only personal allusion in
+Plautus),
+
+  'Nam os columnatum poetae esse indaudivi barbaro,
+  quoi bini custodes semper totis horis occubant,'
+
+we have a reference to the imprisonment of Naevius, which shows that
+the play was written before his banishment, probably B.C. 206-5 (see
+under 'Naevius'). Line 1016, 'Cedo signum, si harum Baccharum es,'
+shows that the play is anterior to B.C. 186.
+
+The original is the +Alazon+ of some Greek poet. Cf. ll. 86-7,
+
+  'Alazon Graece huic nomen est comoediae:
+  id nos Latine gloriosum dicimus.'
+
+The play, however, exhibits _contaminatio_. Two distinct actions, the
+cheating of Sceledrus (Act i.) and the cheating of the Miles (Acts ii.
+and iii.), are united rather loosely; and it has been conjectured that
+Menander's +Kolax+, or (according to Ritschl) Diphilus'
++Hairesiteiches+, was the play used. Ritschl's view is perhaps
+supported by the word _urbicape_ in l. 1055. The play is the longest
+_palliata_ preserved. The scene is Ephesus.
+
+13. _Mercator_.--The original is Philemon's +Emporos+; ll. 5-6,
+
+  'Graece haec vocatur Emporos Philemonis;
+eadem Latine Mercator Macci Titi.'
+
+Some light is thrown on the date by ll. 524-6.
+
+  '_L._ Ovem tibi eccillam dabo, natam annos sexaginta,
+  peculiarem. _P._ Mei senex, tam vetulam? _L._ Generis Graeci est.
+  Eam sei curabeis, perbonast; tondetur nimium scite.'
+
+This could not have been written before B.C. 196, the date of the
+settlement of Greece. The play shows traces of two distinct editions.
+The scene is Athens.
+
+14. _Pseudolus_.--The Greek original is unknown. The date of
+production (B.C. 191) is got from the didascalia, as restored by
+Ritschl, 'M. Iunio M. fil. pr. urb. acta Megalesiis.' The Megalesian
+games were held in that year in honour of the dedication of the temple
+which had been vowed to Cybele, B.C. 204 (Livy, xxxvi. 36). 'Pseudolus'
+= +Pseudylos+, but is connected by popular etymology with _dolus_. Cf.
+the puns in l. 1205,
+
+  'Edepol hominem verberonem Pseudolum, ut docte dolum
+  commentust';
+
+l. 1244,
+
+  'Superavit dolum Troianum atque Ulixem Pseudolus.'
+
+Several references to the play are found in Cicero: _Cato Maior_, 50
+(quoted p. 9); _Phil._ ii. 15; _pro Rosc. Com._ 20. The scene is
+Athens.
+
+15. _Poenulus_.--The original was a Greek play, +Karchedonios+,
+the author of which is unknown, as the fragments of Menander's
++Karchedonios+ do not fit in with Plautus' play. The play was called
+by Plautus 'Patruus,' but posterity went back to the older name
+'Poenulus.' Prol. 53,
+
+  'Carchedonius vocatur haec comoedia
+  Graece, Latine Patruus Pultiphagonidae.'[10]
+
+Authorities assign the play to B.C. 189. The play is considerably
+interpolated, one ending being at l. 1371, another at l. 1422, whence
+some authorities have considered ll. 1372-1422 as spurious. Ritschl
+thinks that the two endings are about the same age, and compares the
+double ending of the _Andria_ of Terence. The play is noted for the
+two Carthaginian renderings of the soliloquy of Hanno, ll. 930-9, and
+ll. 940-9. The scene is Calydon in Aetolia.
+
+16. _Persa_.--This play, the original of which is unknown, has been
+variously assigned to 197 and 186 B.C. The play shows traces of two
+distinct editions. The scene is Athens.
+
+17. _Rudens_.--This play has been assigned to about B.C. 192. The
+original is by Diphilus; and the scene is Cyrene. Prol., 1. 32,
+
+  'Primumdum huic esse nomen urbi Diphilus
+  Cyrenas voluit.'
+
+18. _Stichus_, performed B.C. 200 _ludis plebeis_, as we learn from
+the didascalia, 'Graeca Adelphoe Menandru acta ludis plebeis Cn.
+Baebio C. Terentio aed. pl. ... C. Sulpicio C. Aurelio coss.' This
+cannot be the _Adelphi_ imitated by Terence, the fragments of which do
+not bear the least resemblance to the _Stichus_. It may be a second
+_Adelphi_ by Menander. Others read 'Philadelphoe' in the above
+didascalia. Part of the play has been lost, and it shows traces of two
+distinct editions. The scene is Athens.
+
+19. _Trinummus_.--The original was Philemon's +Thesauros+, as
+seen from the didascalia, 'Graeca Thensaurus Philemonis acta ludis
+Megalensibus.' Some indication of the date is got from l. 990,
+
+  'Vapulabis meo arbitratud et novorum aedilium.'
+
+The only festival that would suit the term _novi aediles_ is the _ludi
+Megalenses_[11] as from B.C. 266 to 153 the new magistrates entered on
+office on the Ides of March. This festival was not of a scenic
+character till B.C. 194, consequently the _Trinummus_ must be after
+that date. The mention of Syrian slaves in l. 542 also makes it
+probable that this is one of the latest works of Plautus. The scene is
+Athens.
+
+20. _Truculentus_.--The original is unknown. The play was written in
+Plautus' old age, probably about B.C. 189. The text has suffered
+greatly. The scene is Athens.
+
+21. _Vidularia_.--Only fragments are extant. It is thought to have
+been modelled on a play called +Schedia+ by Menander.
+
+_Argumenta._--These are in _senarii_, and give a summary of each play.
+Two sets are found. The first set are acrostic, and are extant for all
+the plays except the _Vidularia_ and the _Bacchides_. The second
+series was probably written by Sulpicius Apollinaris in the second
+century A.D. There are only five of them extant in the MSS., and
+fragments of other two.
+
+_Prologues._--These (which were usual in the Old and the New Comedy)
+gave the name of the piece and the author, the original and its
+author, the scene of the play, and a partial list of characters. In
+the Prologue also the poet often asked the favour of the audience.
+Prologues to fourteen plays are extant. The part of the prologue
+Plautus (like the New Comedy) assigned either to a god, as in the
+_Rudens_ to Arcturus, or to one of the characters, as in the
+_Mercator_ to a youth (cf. _Mil._ and _Amph._), or to an actor
+addressing the audience in the name of the poet, as in the
+_Truculentus_. All the prologues have suffered from interpolation, but
+those of _Amph._, _Merc._, _Rud._, and _Trin._, and the second parts
+of those of _Mil._ and _Aul._, are founded on what Plautus wrote. The
+prologues in _Cas._, _Poen._, and _Capt._, are due to later hands.
+That the prologues are interpolated is shown by their diction; the wit
+is often poor, and the language un-Plautine, or imitated closely from
+Plautus' genuine works. The prologues in their present form probably
+date from a period shortly after that in which Terence flourished,
+when there was a want of new plays, and people went back to Plautus.
+This is shown by the references to fixed seats for the spectators
+(_Poen._ 15, _Amph._ 65, and _Capt._ 11), which were forbidden by a
+S.C. passed in B.C. 154, when Cassius Longinus began to build a
+theatre of stone--a law that was not repealed till some years later.
+Cf. _Capt._ 11,
+
+  'Negat hercle ille ultimis accensus. Cedito:
+  si non ubi sedeas locus est, est ubi ambules.'
+
+_The Acts._--The plays of Plautus probably went on with few breaks,
+during which the audience were entertained with music. Cf. _Pseud._
+573,
+
+  'Tibicen vos interea hic delectaverit.'
+
+_Diverbium and Canticum._--There was no chorus in Roman comedy, but
+part of the play was set to music and sung to the flute. Some MSS.
+denote this by C (Canticum); while DV (usually placed only over iambic
+senarii) denotes dialogue or soliloquy (Diverbium). Iambic senarii
+were spoken; other metres were sung; but the scenes in septenarii
+stood midway between the dialogue and the _canticum_. Only about a
+fourth of Plautus' verses are in iambic senarii, while in Terence, who
+followed Menander in this respect, about half of the verses are in
+this form.
+
+_The Characters._--These, with the occasional exception of slaves, are
+un-Roman, and exhibit Greek traits belonging to Athens of the time of
+the New Comedy. Plautus, unlike Terence, usually alters the names used
+in the original Greek plays, and substitutes 'tell-tale names'; so
+Parmeno (+paramenon+), 'the faithful slave'; Polemo, 'the
+soldier'; Misargyrides, playfully for the _tarpessita_ (banker). The
+names are often of Latin derivation; thus Saturio, in _Pers._;
+Peniculus, in _Menaech._; Curculio, in _Curc._
+
+_The Language of Plautus_, in spite of the Greek dress his plays assume,
+represents essentially the conversational language of his time. Many
+Greek features in language are, however, retained. For words kept in the
+original Greek cf. +pausai+, +oichetai+, +euge+, +palin+, +epitheken+
+(all in the _Trin._); for Greek words Latinized cf. _gynaeceum_,
+_parasitus_, _opsonium_, _dapsilis_ (= +dapsiles+); for hybrid new
+formations based on Greek cf. _thensaurarius_, _plagipatidae_,
+_opsonari_, _pultiphagus_.
+
+_References to manners and customs._--(_a_) Many references to Greek life
+are retained from the original, especially in matters relating to dress,
+art, and money (Plautus has no reference to Roman money). Such are
+_chlamys_, _petasus_, _pallium_, _cyathus_, _cantharus_, _thermopolium_,
+_cerussa_, _melinum_ (_pigmentum_), _gynaeceum_, _balineae_,
+_ambulacrum_, _porticus_, _fores Samiae_ (_Menaech._ 178), _nummus_ (=
+drachma or didrachma), _nummi Philippei_, _mina_, _tarpessita_,
+_symbolus_, _epistula_. Cf. also _Pseud._ 146-7,
+
+  'Ut ne peristromata quidem aeque picta sint Campanica,
+  neque Alexandrina beluata tonsilia tappetia.'
+
+(_b_) There are, however, innumerable references to Roman public life
+and manners and customs, even in passages manifestly close to the
+original, although references to public events are rare.
+
+1. _Military expressions._--These, many of which are used
+metaphorically, were well adapted for an audience most of whom had seen
+service. The following are from the _Miles_: _legiones_, _imperator_,
+_peditastelli_, _rogare_, _latrocinari_, _stipendium_, _conscribere_,
+_contubernales_, _eques_, _pedes_, _machinas parare_. Cf. also _Pseud._
+148,
+
+  'Dederamque suas provincias';
+
+_Pseud._ 572,
+
+  'Dum concenturio in corde sycophantias';
+
+_Bacch._ 709,
+
+  'De ducentis nummis primum intendam ballistam in senem:
+  ea ballista si pervortam turrim et propugnacula,
+  recta porta invadam extemplo in oppidum antiquom et vetus.'
+
+All references, however, to the enrolment of mercenaries (_latrones_)
+are probably Greek and belong to the original play.
+
+2. _Political expressions._--(_a_) Names of officials, etc. So
+_tresviri_, _quaestor_, _aedilis_, _praetor_, _senatus_. Cf. _Trin._ 879,
+
+  'Census quom sum iuratori recte rationem dedi';
+
+_Pseud._ 1232,
+
+  'Centuriata habuit capitis comitia.'
+
+(_b_) Law. So _advocatus_ (_Mil._ 663), _festuca_ (_Mil._ 961), _lege
+agito_ (_Mil._ 453). Cf. _Menaech._ 571-95 (on patrons and clients);
+_Trin._ 500-4, where Roman terms of _stipulatio_ are used.
+
+3. _Festivals and localities._--References to these are rarer.
+Examples are: _Mil._ 691,
+
+  'Da, mi vir, Calendis meam qui matrem moenerem';
+
+_Trin._ 545,
+
+  'Campans genus';
+
+_Trin._ 609,
+
+  'Tam modo, inquit Praenestinus.'
+
+_Mil._ 359,
+
+  'Credo ego istoc exemplo tibi esse pereundum extra portam';
+
+a reference to the Esquiline gate, outside which slaves were executed.
+
+4. _Private life._--These references are mostly to the lower classes,
+especially slaves, with whom Plautus was very familiar. Hence words
+referring to household duties, as _promus_, _suppromus_, _cella_,
+_cellarius_, _verna_, _pulmentum_ (from _Mil._) To their patois also
+belong phrases for cheating, like _emungere_, _intervortere_, _sarcinam
+imponere_, _ducere_, _ductare_, _circumducere_, and the very large
+number of words relating to punishment, as: _furcifer_, _verbero_,
+_supplicium virgarum_, _varius virgis_, _talos frangere_, _crux_,
+_verberea statua_ (_Pseud._ 911); _gymnasium flagri_ (_Asin._ 297). Cf.
+also _Epid._ 17,
+
+  'Quid ais? perpetuen valuisti?--Varie.'
+
+From slave life come also terms of abuse like _volturius_, _scelus_,
+_odium populi_, _mers mala_, _lapis_, _saxum_. Note that cruelty in the
+treatment of slaves is peculiarly Roman; but their familiarity with
+their masters and their general situation are from Greek life.
+
+_Prosody._[12]--Plautine prosody, which reflected the variation of
+quantity found in the popular speech, was not properly understood even
+in Cicero's time.
+
+Cf. Cic. _Or._ 184, 'Comicorum senarii propter similitudinem sermonis
+sic saepe sunt abiecti ut non numquam vix in eis numerus et versus
+intellegi possit.'
+
+The chief points are as follows:
+
+1. Final -s is often lost. _Rud._ 103,
+
+  'Pater, salveto, amboque adeo. Et tu salvos sis';
+
+_Most._ 1124,
+
+  'Quoque modo dominum advenientem servos ludificatus sit.'
+
+2. A mute followed by a liquid does not make the preceding vowel long.
+Thus _agris_, _libros_, _duplex_, are iambi.
+
+3. Iambic words may become pyrrhics, on account of the stress accent
+on the first syllable. So _domi_ and _cave_ have the last syllable
+short.[13] _Trin._ 868,
+
+  'Foris pultabo. Ad nostras aedis hic quidem habet rectam viam';
+
+_Stich._ 99,
+
+  'Bonas ut aequomst facere facitis, quom tamen absentis viros.'
+
+4. The stress accent sometimes causes final syllables to be dropped,
+and so to have no effect on quantity, as in _enim_, _apud_, _quidem_,
+_parum_, _soror_, _caput_, _amant_, _habent_, etc. _Trin._ 77,
+
+  'Qui in mentem venit tibi istaec dicta dicere?'
+
+_Stich._ 18 (anapaestic),
+
+  'Haec res vitae me, soror, saturant.'
+
+No shortening, however, takes place when the accent goes back to the
+antepenult (cf. _contine_), nor in words like _aetas_, _mores_, where
+the first syllable is long, nor even in _abi_, _tene_, _tace_, and the
+like, when the chief accent is weakened, i.e., where these words are
+pronounced slowly and emphatically (especially before a pause).
+_Asin._ 543,
+
+  'Intro abi: nam te quidem edepol nihil est inpudentius.'
+
+5. This influence of the chief accent affects also combinations of two
+monosyllabic words which make an iambus, and combinations like _ego
+illi_, _age ergo_, in which the second syllable of the second word is
+elided. _Trin._ 354,
+
+  'Is est inmunis, quoi nihil est qui munus fungatur suom';
+
+_Trin._ 133,
+
+  'Non ego illi argentum redderem? Non redderes';
+
+_Stich._ 237,
+
+  'Adibo ad hominem. Quis haec est quae advorsum venit?'
+
+6. The chief accent could also affect a preceding syllable. In
+polysyllables or polysyllabic combinations, when the chief accent was
+on the third syllable, the second syllable, if long, could be
+shortened, provided the first syllable were short. _Trin._ 456,
+
+  'Ferentarium esse amicum inventum intellego';
+
+_Stich._ 59,
+
+  'Nec voluntate id facere meminit,' etc.;
+
+_Stich._ 179,
+
+  'Per annonam caram dixit me natum pater.'
+
+7. The following common words have to be separately considered, _ille_,
+_iste_, _unde_, _inde_, _nempe_. In the last three the liquid was
+practically dropped; _iste_ was pronounced as _ste_; and in _ille_ only
+one _l_ was heard, cf. _ellum_, _ellam_ (_en-illum_ = _en-ilum_ =
+_en-lum_ = _ellum_). _Frustra_ is a trochee, as in _Menaech._ 692 (at
+the end of a line), _frustra sis_; and the first _i_ of _fieri_ is
+long. Cf. _Trin._ 532,
+
+  'Si in opserendo possint interfieri.'
+
+8. An original long vowel is sometimes kept when later authors have it
+short. Examples are, _es_ (from _esse_), final _-or_, as _exertitor_,
+_fateor_, _ecastor_; verbal endings, as _eris_, _eget_, _sit_, _det_,
+_fuat_, _velit_.
+
+9. _Synizesis._ _Deus_, _meus_, _tuos_, _suos_ (nom.), _eius_, _ei_,
+_eum_, _quoius_, _quoi_, _huius_, _huic_, _rei_, etc., may be
+monosyllables; _deorum_, _meorum_, _duorum_, _fuisti_, etc., may be
+dissyllables; _diutius_, _exeundum_, etc., may be trisyllables. Other
+examples are _proin_, _proinde_, _praeoptare_, _dehortor_, _aibam_,
+_quator_.
+
+10. _Hiatus._ This occurs, though not frequently, (_a_) at the natural
+division of the metre. _Menaech._ 219,
+
+  'Sportulam cape atque argentum. | eccos treis nummos habes.'
+
+(_b_) At the natural break in the sense, especially with change of
+speakers. _Trin._ 432,
+
+  _PH._ 'Tempust adeundi.' _LE._ 'Estne hic Philto qui advenit?'
+
+The hiatus is commonest in monosyllabic words, or words ending in a
+short syllable followed by _m_, making the first syllable of an arsis
+resolved into two shorts. _Trin._ 433,
+
+  'Is herclest ipsus. Edepol _ne ego_ istum velim';
+
+_Trin._ 305,
+
+  'Qui homo cum animo inde ab ineunte aetate depugnat suo.'
+
+_Views on Plautus._--For Cicero's high opinion of Plautus cf. _de
+Off._ i. 104, 'Duplex omnino est iocandi genus: unum inliberale
+petulans, flagitiosum obscaenum, alterum elegans urbanum, ingeniosum
+facetum. Quo genere non modo Plautus noster et Atticorum antiqua
+comoedia, sed etiam philosophorum Socraticorum libri referti sunt.'
+
+Horace's unfavourable judgment is well known.
+
+_Ep._ ii, 1, 170,
+
+         'Adspice Plautus
+  quo pacto partis tutetur amantis ephebi,
+  ut patris attenti, lenonis ut insidiosi,
+  quantus sit Dossenus edacibus in parasitis,
+  quam non adstricto percurrat pulpita socco.
+  Gestit enim nummum in loculos demittere, post hoc
+  securus cadat an recto stet fabula talo.'
+
+Cf. _A.P._ 270-4. Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 99, 'In comoedia maxime
+claudicamus, licet Varro Musas, Aelii Stilonis sententia, Plautino
+dicat sermone locuturas fuisse, si Latine loqui vellent.'
+
+
+
+ENNIUS.[14]
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Q. Ennius was born B.C. 239 at Rudiae in Calabria (about nineteen
+miles south of Brundisium).
+
+Gell. xvii. 21, 43, 'Consoles secuntur Q. Valerius et C. Mamilius,
+quibus natum esse Q. Ennium poetam M. Varro in primo de poetis libro
+scripsit eumque, cum septimum et sexagesimum annum haberet, duodecimum
+annalem scripsisse, idque ipsum Ennium in eodem libro dicere.' (Cf.
+Cic. _Tusc._ i. 3.) Enn. _Ann._ l. 440,
+
+  'Nos sumus Romani qui fuimus ante Rudini.'
+
+Servius, _in Aen._ vii. 691, '(At Messapus equom domitor): Ab hoc
+Ennius dicit se originem ducere.' (Enn. _Ann._ xviii. fr. 6.)
+
+Ennius knew Greek, Latin, and Oscan. Latin he may have known as a boy,
+since the colony of Brundisium was founded B.C. 244; the use of Greek
+had been widely spread in South Italy through the influence of the
+Greek colonies.[15]
+
+Gell. xvii. 17, 1, 'Q. Ennius tria corda habere sese dicebat, quod
+loqui Graece et Osce et Latine sciret.'
+
+Ennius came to Sardinia during the Second Punic War, probably with
+other Calabrian auxiliaries, but in what year is doubtful. Silius
+Italicus xii. 387 _sqq._, says he was centurion B.C. 215, and
+distinguished himself greatly; but his account is quite untrustworthy.
+In Sardinia he made the acquaintance of M. Porcius Cato, then
+quaestor, who induced him to come to Rome B.C. 204.
+
+Nep. _Cato_, i. 4, 'Praetor (B.C. 198) provinciam obtinuit Sardiniam,
+ex qua, quaestor superiore tempore ex Africa decedens, Q. Ennium
+poetam deduxerat.'
+
+The poet's Graecizing influence seems to have led afterwards to
+hostility between him and his patron, but in spite of this, Ennius
+appears to have cherished warm feelings towards Cato, and praised his
+exploits in the _Annals_.
+
+Cic. _Tusc._ i. 3, 'Oratio Catonis, in qua obiecit ut probrum M.
+Nobiliori quod is in provinciam poetas duxisset. Duxerat autem consul
+ille in Aetoliam, ut scimus, Ennium.'
+
+Cic. _pro Arch._ 22, 'In caelum huius proavus Cato tollitur: magnus
+honos populi Romani rebus adiungitur.'
+
+So far as is known, Ennius was at Rome B.C. 204-189. He lived plainly,
+and supported himself by teaching Latin and Greek.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1777 = B.C. 240, 'Q. Ennius poeta Tarenti [an error]
+nascitur, qui a Catone quaestore Romam translatus habitavit in monte
+Aventino, parco admodum sumptu contentus, et unius ancillae
+ministerio.'
+
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 1, 'Livium et Ennium, quos utraque lingua domi
+forisque docuisse adnotatum est.'
+
+At Rome he was on familiar terms with the elder Scipio Africanus and
+his brother Cornelius Nasica, and their circle.
+
+Cic. _pro Arch._ 22, 'Carus fuit Africano superiori noster Ennius;
+itaque etiam in sepulchro Scipionum putatur is esse constitutus ex
+marmore.'
+
+A pleasant story of his relations with Nasica is given by Cic. _de
+Or._ ii. 276. Two epigrams on Scipio (Nos. 2 and 3) are extant.
+
+In B.C. 189 Ennius accepted an invitation from M. Fulvius Nobilior to
+accompany him in his campaign against the Aetolians, and be a witness
+of his exploits. Fulvius' victory gave the poet materials for the
+praetexta _Ambracia_, and Book xv. of the _Annals_.
+
+Cic. _pro Arch._ 27, 'Ille qui cum Aetolis Ennio comite bellavit
+Fulvius.' Cf. Cic. _Tusc._ i. 3 (above).
+
+In B.C. 184 the poet received the Roman citizenship through the son of
+Fulvius, Q. Nobilior. Hence 'nos sumus Romani, qui fuimus ante Rudini'
+(above). He also received a grant of land at Potentia or Pisaurum from
+Fulvius, who was then _triumvir coloniae deducendae_.
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 79, 'Q. Nobiliorem M. f. ..., qui etiam Q. Ennium, qui cum
+patre eius in Aetolia militaverat, civitate donavit, cum triumvir
+coloniam deduxisset.'
+
+Ennius probably spent the greater part of his days, after returning
+from the Aetolian war, at Rome; and during this period he was on
+intimate terms with the comic poet Caecilius Statius (see p. 37). He
+was often in indifferent circumstances, in spite of the grant of land
+he had received. Ennius died of gout B.C. 169.
+
+Cic. _Cato Maior_, 14, 'Annos septuaginta natus--tot enim vixit
+Ennius--ita ferebat duo quae maxima putantur onera, paupertatem et
+senectutem, ut eis paene delectari videretur.'
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 78, 'Hoc [C. Sulpicio Gallo] praetore ludos Apollini
+faciente, cum Thyesten fabulam docuisset, Q. Marcio Cn. Servilio coss.
+(B.C. 169) mortem obiit Ennius.'
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1849 = B.C. 168, 'Ennius poeta septuagenario maior
+articulari morbo periit, sepultusque est in Scipionis monumento via
+Appia intra primum ab urbe miliarium. Quidam ossa eius Rudiam ex
+Ianiculo translata affirmant.'
+
+For his gout cf. Enn. _Sat._ 1. 8,
+
+  'Numquam poetor nisi si podager';
+
+Hor. _Ep._ i. 19, 7,
+
+  'Ennius ipse pater numquam nisi potus ad arma
+  prosiluit dicenda.'
+
+'Ennius "equi fortis et victoris senectuti comparat suam"' (Cic. _Cato
+Maior_, 14).
+
+The lines are _Ann._ xviii. fr. 7,
+
+  'Sic ut fortis equus, spatio qui saepe supremo
+  vicit Olimpia, nunc senio confectus quiescit.'
+
+His epitaph (_Epigr._ i) is quoted by Cic. _Tusc._ i. 34 and 117,
+
+  'Aspicite, o cives, senis Enni imaginis formam!
+    hic vestrum panxit maxima facta patrum;
+  Nemo me dacrumis decoret nec funera fletu
+    faxit. Cur? Volito vivus per ora virum.'
+
+According to Aelius Stilo, Ennius has depicted his own character in
+_Ann._ vii. fr. 10, wherein he portrays Servilius Geminus, the trusty
+companion of a man of position (Gell. xii. 4). For Ennius'
+self-appreciation cf. also his epitaph (if by himself) quoted above,
+and _Ann._ i. fr. 4,
+
+  'Latos per populos terrasque poemata nostra
+  clara cluebunt.'
+
+In philosophy Ennius was an eclectic. Cf. _Trag._ 1. 417,
+
+  'Philosophari est mihi necesse, at paucis: nam omnino haut placet.
+  Degustandum ex ea, non in eam ingurgitandum censeo.'
+
+His rationalism is seen in _Telamo_, fr. 1,
+
+  'Ego deum genus esse semper dixi et dicam caelitum,
+  sed eos non curare opinor, quid agat humanum genus:
+  nam si curent, bene bonis sit, male malis, quod nunc abest';
+
+_ibid._, fr. 2,
+
+  'Sed superstitiosi vates inpudentesque arioli,
+  aut inertes aut insani aut quibus egestas imperat,
+  qui sibi semitam non sapiunt, alteri monstrant viam,
+  quibus divitias pollicentur, ab eis drachumam ipsi petunt.'
+
+Traces of Epicureanism are seen in _Ann._ i. fr. 13,
+
+  'Terraque corpus
+  quae dedit ipsa capit neque dispendi facit hilum.'
+
+Ennius also believed in the Pythagorean theory of metempsychosis, and
+considered that his soul had animated the body of a peacock. _Ann._ i.
+fr. 14,
+
+  'Memini me fiere pavom.'
+
+Persius 6, 10,
+
+  'Cor iubet hoc Enni postquam destertuit esse
+  Maeonides Quintus pavone e Pythagoreo.'
+
+Cf. also Lucr. i. 120-6.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Tragedies._--Of those founded on mythology we have fragments of
+twenty-two, eight at least of which were borrowed from Euripides. The
+_Auct. ad Herenn._ ii. 34, quotes nine lines which are a literal
+translation of the beginning of the _Medea_. The date of the
+_Thyestes_, B.C. 169, is the only one known (Cic. _Brut._ 78, quoted
+p. 28). Besides these, Ennius probably wrote a praetexta on 'the Rape
+of the Sabines'; and his _Ambracia_ is probably a praetexta on the
+capture of the town by M. Fulvius Nobilior in B.C. 189 (L. Mueller
+includes it in the _Saturae_).
+
+2. _Comedies._--There are very slight fragments of the _Cupuncula_ and
+the _Pancratiastes_.
+
+3. _Saturae._--A miscellaneous collection of poems.
+
+Porphyr. ad Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 47, 'Ennius quattuor libros saturarum
+reliquit.'
+
+The reference in Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 66,
+
+  'Quam rudis et Graecis intacti carminis auctor,'
+
+is not to Ennius, as some have supposed, but to the inventor of
+_satura_, whoever he may have been.
+
+The _Saturae_ include (_a_) _Scipio_, probably a short epic. It was
+mostly written in trochaic septenarii. (_b_) _Epicharmus_ (in trochaic
+tetrameters), dealing with Pythagoreanism in the department of
+physics. (_c_) _Euhemerus_ or _Sacra Historia_, modelled on Euhemerus'
++hiera anagraphe+,[16] the doctrines of which were applied
+to the religion of Rome.
+
+Cic. _N.D._ i. 119, 'Euhemerus, quem noster et interpretatus et
+secutus est praeter ceteros Ennius.'
+
+(_d_) _Protreptica_ or _Praecepta_, containing moral maxims. (_e_)
+_Hedyphagetica_, 'On Gastronomy,' modelled on a hexameter poem by
+Archestratus (about B.C. 310). (_f_) _Sota_, so called from
++Sotades+, after whom the Sotadean metre has been named. The book
+was probably of a lascivious nature. (_g_) Epigrams; the chief of
+which are mentioned above.
+
+4. The _Annales_, an epic poem in hexameters, which dealt with the
+history of Rome down to the beginning of the Third Macedonian War. It
+contained eighteen Books; there are about six hundred lines extant.
+The following is a sketch of the contents:
+
+Book i., from Aeneas to the death of Romulus; ii., reigns of Numa
+Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Martius; iii., the last three
+kings; iv.-v., the republic down to the war with Pyrrhus; vi., the war
+with Pyrrhus; vii., First Punic War, etc.; viii.-ix., Second Punic
+War; x.-xii., Second Macedonian War, Cato's consulship; xiii.-xv., War
+with Antiochus, subjugation of the Aetolians; xvi.-xviii., from
+Istrian War to beginning of Third Macedonian War.
+
+_Ennius' services_ to Latin literature lay partly in introducing the
+use of the hexameter and other metres from Greek in place of the old
+Saturnian metre. His versification is, of course, rough in comparison
+with that of later writers, the principal points being
+
+(1) Harsh elisions. _Ann._ l. 199,
+
+  'Hos et ego in pugna vici victusque sum ab isdem.'
+
+(2) Quadrisyllable endings; l. 23,
+
+  'Est locus Hesperiam quam mortales perhibebant.'
+
+(3) Absence of caesura, or abrupt break, l. 188,
+
+  'Bellipotentes sunt magis quam sapientipotentes';
+
+l. 511,
+
+  'Cui par imber et ignis, spiritus et gravis terra.'
+
+(4) Omission of _-s_ in scansion, as in the last two examples.
+
+(5) Short vowels sometimes lengthened; l. 86,
+
+  'Omnibus cura viris uter esset induperator.'
+
+(6) Prosaic lines (often spondaic); l. 34,
+
+  'Olli respondit rex Albai longai';
+
+l. 174,
+
+  'Cives Romani tunc facti sunt Campani.'
+
+(7) Harsh instances of tmesis; l. 586,
+
+  'Saxo cere comminuit brum':
+
+l. 605,
+
+  'Massili portabant iuvenes ad litora tanas.'
+
+(8) Apocope; l. 451
+
+  'replet te laetificum _gau_';
+
+l. 561,
+
+  'divom domus altisonum _cael_';
+
+l. 563,
+
+  'endo suam _do_' (= in suam domum).
+
+(9) Alliteration used freely; l. 113,
+
+  'O Tite tute Tati tibi tanta tiranne tulisti';
+
+l. 452,
+
+  'At tuba terribili sonitu taratantara dixit.'
+
+(10) Non-elision; l. 275,
+
+  'Miscent inter sese inimicitiam agitantes.'
+
+_Influence of Ennius._--This is seen in Lucretius, and to a very great
+extent in Virgil. For Lucretius' appreciation of Ennius see Lucr. i.
+117-9. Cf. also _Ann._ l. 150,
+
+  'Postquam lumina sis oculis bonus Ancus reliquit,'
+
+and Lucr. iii. 1025,
+
+  'Lumina sis oculis etiam bonus Ancus reliquit.'
+
+Servius on Verg. _Aen._ viii. 630-4, says 'Sane totus hic locus
+Ennianus est.' Cf. Servius also on _Aen._ i. 20; xi. 608, etc. A large
+number of imitations are quoted by Macrobius, especially in _Saturn._
+Book vi. Virgil modified and refined many of Ennius' rough
+expressions. Thus _Ann._ l. 452 (above quoted), becomes, in Verg.
+_Aen._ ix. 503,
+
+  'At tuba terribilem sonitum procul aere sonoro
+  increpuit';
+
+_Ann._ l. 464,
+
+  'irarumque effunde quadrigas'
+
+becomes in Verg. _Aen._ xii. 499,
+
+  'irarumque omnes effundit habenas.'
+
+_Views on Ennius._--A very few of these may be quoted. Lucr. i. 117-9,
+
+  'Ennius ut noster cecinit qui primus amoeno
+  detulit ex Helicone perenni fronde coronam,
+  per gentes Italas hominum quae clara clueret.'
+
+Cic. _Opt. Gen. Or._ 2, 'Licet dicere Ennium summum epicum poetam, si
+cui ita videtur.' Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 50,
+
+  'Ennius et sapiens et fortis et alter Homerus,
+  ut critici dicunt, leviter curare videtur
+  quo promissa cadant et somnia Pythagorea.'
+
+Propert. v. 1, 61,
+
+  'Ennius hirsuta cingat sua dicta corona.'
+
+Quint. x. 1, 88, 'Ennium sicut sacros vetustate lucos adoremus, in
+quibus grandia et antiqua robora iam non tantam habent speciem quantam
+religionem.'
+
+
+
+PACUVIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+M. Pacuvius, the son (not grandson as Jerome states) of Ennius'
+sister, was born at Brundisium, B.C. 220, spent most of his life at
+Rome, and died at Tarentum shortly before B.C. 130. He was a painter
+as well as a poet.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1863 = B.C. 154, 'Pacuvius Brundusinus tragoediarum
+scriptor clarus habetur, Ennii poetae ex filia nepos, vixitque Romae
+quoad picturam exercuit ac fabulas venditavit, deinde Tarentum
+transgressus prope nonagenarius diem obiit.'
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ xxxv. 19, 'Celebrata est in foro boario, aede Herculis,
+Pacuvii poetae pictura. Ennii sorore genitus hic fuit, clarioremque
+eam artem Romae fecit gloria scaenae.'
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 229, 'Accius isdem aedilibus ait se et Pacuvium docuisse
+fabulam, cum ille octoginta, ipse triginta annos natus esset.'
+
+As Accius was born B.C. 170, Cicero's words imply that Pacuvius was
+born B.C. 220, and produced plays as late as B.C. 140, while from
+Jerome we may conclude that he died shortly before B.C. 130. That
+Pacuvius was taught by his uncle Ennius is shown by Varro, _Sat.
+Menipp._ 356 (Buecheler),
+
+  'Pacvi[17] discipulus dicor, porro is fuit Enni,
+   Ennius Musarum: Pompilius clueor.'
+
+He was a member of the literary circle of Laelius. Cf. Laelius' words
+in Cic. _Lael._ 24, 'In hospitis et amici mei M. Pacuvi nova fabula.'
+In his last years he was intimate with Accius: cf. Gell. xiii. 2, 'Cum
+Pacuvius, inquiunt, grandi iam aetate et morbo corporis diutino
+adfectus, Tarentum ex urbe Roma concessisset, Accius tunc, haut parvo
+iunior, proficiscens in Asiam, cum in oppidum venisset, devertit ad
+Pacuvium comiterque invitatus plusculisque ab eo diebus retentus,
+tragoediam suam, cui Atreus nomen est, desideranti legit.'
+
+Gell. i. 24, 4, gives Pacuvius' epitaph, as written by himself,
+'Epigramma Pacuvii verecundissimum et purissimum, dignumque eius
+elegantissima gravitate:
+
+  "Adulescens, tam etsi properas, te hoc saxum rogat,
+   ut sese aspicias, deinde quod scriptum est legas.
+   Hic sunt poetae Pacuvi Marci sita
+   ossa. Hoc volebam nescius ne esses. Vale."'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Tragedies._--Titles of twelve are known, and over four hundred
+lines of fragments are extant. The _Antiopa_, which is the best known,
+was from Euripides.
+
+Cic. _de Fin._ i. 4, 'Quis enim tam inimicus paene nomini Romano est,
+qui Enni Medeam aut Antiopam Pacuvi spernat aut reiciat quod se eisdem
+Euripidis fabulis delectari dicat?'
+
+The _Niptra_ is from Sophocles. Cic. _T.D._ ii. 49, speaking of ll.
+256-8 (Ribbeck), says, 'Pacuvius melius quam Sophocles.'
+
+Pacuvius also wrote one praetexta, _Paulus_, doubtless on L. Aemilius
+Paulus, the victor of Pydna.
+
+2. _Saturae_ (lost).
+
+Sueton. p. 20 R., 'Carmen quod ex variis poematibus constabat satura
+vocabatur, quale scripserunt Pacuvius et Ennius.'
+
+Pacuvius, like Ennius, shows interest in philosophy, and attacks
+superstition; l. 93,
+
+  'Mater est terra: ea parit corpus, animam aeter adiugat';
+
+ll. 366-75; cf. l. 372,
+
+  'Sunt autem alii philosophi, qui contra fortunam negant
+   esse ullam, sed temeritate res regi omnis autumant';
+
+ll. 83-5,
+
+        'Nam isti qui linguam avium intellegunt
+   plusque ex alieno iecore sapiunt quam ex suo,
+   magis audiendum quam auscultandum censeo.'
+
+For Pacuvius' stilted expressions, cf. Quint. i. 5, 67, 'Ceterum etiam
+ex praepositione et duobus vocabulis dure videtur struxisse Pacuvius
+
+  "Nerei repandirostrum, incurvicervicum pecus"' (l. 408);
+
+_Paulus_, l. 5
+
+  'Qua vix caprigeno generi gradilis gressio est.'
+
+Some views on Pacuvius may be referred to:
+
+Cic. _de Opt. Gen. Or._ 1, 'Itaque licet dicere et Ennium summum
+epicum poetam et Pacuvium tragicum et Caecilium fortasse comicum.'
+
+Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 55,
+
+  'Ambigitur quotiens uter utro sit prior, aufert
+  Pacuvius docti[18] famam senis, Accius alti';
+
+Mart. xi. 90, 5,
+
+  'Attonitusque legis "terrai frugiferai,"
+     Accius et quidquid Pacuviusque vomunt.'
+
+Cf. also Gell. vi. 14, 6; Cic. _Brut._ 258; _Or._ 36; Quint. x. 1, 97;
+Persius, 1. 76-8; Tac. _Dial._ 20.
+
+
+
+CAECILIUS STATIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1838 = B.C. 179, 'Statius Caecilius comoediarum
+scriptor clarus habetur, natione Insuber Gallus et Ennii primum
+contubernalis. Quidam Mediolanensem ferunt. Mortuus est anno post
+mortem Ennii [iii.] et iuxta eum in Ianiculo sepultus.'
+
+iii. is an addition by Ritschl, as we know Caecilius to have been
+alive in B.C. 166, when Terence's _Andria_ was performed. Some read
+iv. The date of his death will then be B.C. 166 or 165. Caecilius
+probably came to Rome among the Insubrian prisoners of war at some
+time between B.C. 200 and 194. The year of his birth is unknown; he is
+never mentioned, like other old writers, such as Plautus and Ennius,
+as having lived to a great age. If he died B.C. 166, we might suppose
+that he was born about B.C. 219, as that would make him of military
+age when the Insubrian war began in B.C. 200. His name as a slave was
+Statius. His patron is unknown.
+
+Gell. iv. 20, 13, 'Statius servile nomen fuit ... Caecilius quoque ille
+comoediarum poeta inclutus servus fuit; et propterea nomen habuit
+"Statius." Sed postea versum est quasi in cognomentum: appellatusque
+est Caecilius Statius.'
+
+Elsewhere he is sometimes called merely Caecilius (as Cic. _de Or._
+ii. 40), but never Statius alone.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+Caecilius' works were at first unsuccessful; cf. the actor Ambivius'
+words in Ter. _Hec._ prol. ii. 6-7,
+
+  'In eis quas primum Caecili didici novas,
+  partim sum earum exactus, partim vix steti.'
+
+Later he examined plays before they were acted, as, _e.g._ Terence's
+_Andria_ in B.C. 166 (see under 'Terence,' p. 42). This implies that
+he occupied a responsible and leading position in the guild of poets.
+
+We have two hundred and ninety lines of fragments, and titles of
+forty-two comedies, sixteen of which correspond with those of plays by
+Menander. For Caecilius' imitation of Menander see Gell. ii. 23. Cf.,
+_e.g._, 'Caecilii Plocium legebamus; hautquaquam mihi et qui aderant
+displicebat... Sed enim postquam in manus Menander venit, a principio
+statim, di boni, quantum stupere atque frigere quantumque mutare a
+Menandro Caecilius visus est!'
+
+Among the views on Caecilius are:
+
+Cic. _ad Att._ vii. 3, 10, '(Caecilius) malus auctor Latinitatis est'
+(probably because he was an Insubrian).
+
+Cic. _de Opt. Gen. Or._ 1, 'fortasse summus comicus.' Sedigitus ap.
+Gell. xv. 24,
+
+  'Caecilio palmam Statio do mimico.'
+
+Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 59,
+
+  '(dicitur) vincere Caecilius gravitate.'
+
+The contemporaries of Caecilius include _Trabea_, _Atilius_ ('poeta
+durissimus,' Cic. _ad Att._ xiv. 20, 3), _Aquilius_ (possibly the
+author of the _Boeotia_, attributed by Varro to Plautus, Gell. iii. 3,
+4), _Licinius Imbrex_, _Luscius Lanuvinus_, all writers of _palliatae_.
+Our chief information about Luscius Lanuvinus is got from the
+prologues to Terence's plays (in all of which, except that of the
+_Hecyra_, he is attacked), and from Donatus' commentary on these
+passages. From Ter. _Eun._ prol. 9-13, we see that he did not tone
+down his originals to suit a Roman audience,
+
+  'Idem Menandri Phasma nuper perdidit
+  atque in Thensauro scripsit, causam dicere
+  prius unde petitur, aurum qua re sit suom,
+  quam illic qui petit, unde is sit thensaurus sibi
+  aut unde in patrium monumentum pervenerit.'
+
+Donatus _ad loc._, 'Arguit Terentius quod Luscius contra consuetudinem
+litigantium defensionem ante accusationem induxerit.'
+
+
+
+TERENCE.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Our chief source of information is Suetonius' life of Terence,
+preserved by Donatus, who also makes a slight addition of his own.
+Jerome's notice is also based on Suetonius.
+
+P. Terentius Afer was born in Africa, and was brought in early life to
+Rome, where he was a slave of P. Terentius Lucanus, by whom he was
+educated and subsequently manumitted.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Ter._ p. 26 R., 'P. Terentius Afer, Karthagine natus,
+serviit Romae Terentio Lucano senatori, a quo ob ingenium et formam
+non institutus modo liberaliter, sed et mature manu missus est. Quidam
+captum esse existumant: quod fieri nullo modo potuisse Fenestella
+docet, cum inter finem secundi Punici belli et initium tertii et natus
+sit et mortuus.'
+
+Terence's cognomen probably shows that he belonged to one of the
+African peoples subdued by Carthage. It may be taken as certain that
+he was not of Punic birth, and that he was brought to Rome in the
+ordinary course of the slave trade.
+
+The date of Terence's birth is not accurately known. Sueton. _ibid._
+p. 32, 'Nondum quintum atque vicesimum ingressus annum ... egressus
+urbe est neque amplius rediit,' which refers to his voyage to Greece
+in B.C. 160, would make the year of his birth to be B.C. 185. This,
+however, is an improbable assumption, which rests on the fact that
+Roman scholars attributed to him the age of his intimate friend, P.
+Scipio Africanus the younger. Thus Sueton. _ibid._ p. 27 (of Terence,
+Scipio, Laelius), says, 'quamvis et Nepos aequales omnes fuisse
+tradat'; with which contrast _ibid._ 'Fenestella ... contendens
+utroque maiorem natu fuisse.' Terence must have been some years older,
+as his first piece, the _Andria_, was produced B.C. 166. A successful
+piece like it makes it probable that he had then passed his boyhood,
+and it is likely that he was born about B.C. 190. The reproach of his
+adversary in _Heaut. Tim._ prol. 23,
+
+  '_repente_ ad studium hunc se adplicasse _musicum_,'
+
+means only that he had not made himself prominent by previous
+exercises in play-writing. Further in _H.T._ prol. 51-2, he describes
+his opponents as _adulescentuli_,
+
+  'Exemplum statuite in me, ut adulescentuli
+  vobis placere studeant potius quam sibi.'
+
+Terence was on intimate terms with P. Scipio Africanus and C. Laelius,
+who were supposed to have helped him in the composition of his plays.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._ p. 30, 'Non obscura fama est adiutum Terentium in
+scriptis a Laelio et Scipione: eamque ipse auxit, numquam nisi leviter
+se tutari conatus, ut in prologo Adelphorum (ll. 15-21),
+
+  "Nam quod isti dicunt malivoli, homines nobiles
+  hunc adiutare adsidueque una scribere,
+  quod illi maledictum vehemens esse existumant:
+  eam laudem hic ducit maxumam, quom illis placet
+  qui vobis univorsis et populo placent,
+  quorum opera in bello, in otio, in negotio
+  suo quisque tempore usust sine superbia."
+
+... Sciebat Laelio et Scipioni non ingratam esse hanc opinionem, quae
+tum magis et usque ad posteriora tempora valuit.'
+
+Sueton. p. 31, also repeats a story that C. Laelius was the author of
+the lines _H.T._ 723 _sqq._
+
+Cf. also Cic. _ad Att._ vii. 3, 10, 'Terentium, cuius fabellae propter
+elegantiam sermonis putabantur a C. Laelio scribi.'
+
+Quint. x. 1, 99, 'Licet Terentii scripta ad Scipionem Africanum
+referantur.'
+
+The remark that ll. 20-1 of the above extract from the _Adelph._ could
+not refer to young men like Scipio and Laelius was made even in
+antiquity.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._ p. 31, 'Santra (a grammarian of the time of Augustus)
+Terentium existimat, si modo in scribendo adiutoribus indiguerit, non
+tam Scipione et Laelio uti potuisse, qui tunc adulescentuli fuerint,
+quam C. Sulpicio Gallo, homine docto, quo console Megalensibus ludis
+initium fabularum dandarum fecerit, vel Q. Fabio Labeone et M.
+Popillio, consulari utroque ac poeta. Ideo ipsum non iuvenes designare
+qui se adiuvare dicantur, sed viros quorum operam et in bello et in
+otio et in negotio populus sit expertus.'
+
+In K. Dziatzko's opinion (second edition of _Phormio_, p. 10, Leipzig,
+1885), the expression 'homines nobiles' points to the literary circle
+of Terence, including old as well as young men, while in what follows
+he touches upon the general reputation of those noble families among
+the Roman people. There is nothing to show that Terence got more than
+general support and advice from his friends. That his diction reflects
+the conversational language of the better classes is recognized.
+
+In B.C. 166, Terence submitted to Caecilius Statius, the examiner of
+plays, his first work, the _Andria_, which was accepted, and performed
+in that year.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._ pp. 28-9, 'Scripsit comoedias sex. Ex quibus primam
+Andriam cum aedilibus daret, iussus ante Caecilio recitare ad cenantem
+cum venisset, dicitur initium quidem fabulae, quod erat contemptiore
+vestitu, in subsellio iuxta lectulum residens legisse, post paucos
+vero versus invitatus ut accumberet cenasse una, dein cetera
+percucurrisse non sine magna Caecilii admiratione.'
+
+From the fact of Caecilius' not recognizing him we may conclude that
+Terence had as yet no connexion with the guild of poets. This fits in
+with _H.T._ prol. 23-4,
+
+  'Repente ad studium hunc se adplicasse musicum,
+  amicum ingenio fretum, haud natura sua.'
+
+Hence probably arose the hatred of other writers, referred to as
+_isti_ (_Andr._ 15; 21); _iniqui_ (_H.T._ 27); cf. also _Hec._ prol.
+ii. 38,
+
+  'Nolite sinere per vos artem musicam
+  recidere ad paucos.'
+
+As to further connexion between Caecilius and Terence, note (1) that
+they had a common actor Ambivius; (2) that Terence sometimes imitates
+Caecilius. Thus, according to Donatus, _Andr._ 805,
+
+  'ut quimus, aiunt, quando ut volumus non licet'
+
+is from Caecilius (l. 177 R.),
+
+  'vivas ut possis quando nec quis ut velis.'
+
+Cf. also _Adelph._ 985,
+
+  'Quod prolubium? quae istaec subitast largitas?'
+
+and Caecilius (l. 91 R.),
+
+  'Quod prolubium, quae voluptas, quae te lactat largitas?'
+
+Terence died B.C. 159, on his way home from Greece, where he had
+probably gone the year before. The place of his death is uncertain.
+Whatever plays he may have written while in Greece are lost.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._ p. 32, 'Post editas comoedias, nondum quintum atque
+vicesimum ingressus annum, causa vitandae opinionis qua videbatur
+aliena pro suis edere, seu percipiendi Graecorum instituta moresque
+quos non perinde exprimeret in scriptis, egressus urbe est neque
+amplius rediit ... Q. Cosconius redeuntem e Graecia perisse in mari
+dicit cum fabulis conversis a Menandro: ceteri mortuum esse in Arcadia
+sive Leucadiae tradunt, Cn. Cornelio Dolabella M. Fulvio Nobiliore
+coss., morbo implicatum ex dolore ac taedio amissarum sarcinarum quas
+in nave praemiserat, ac simul fabularum quas novas fecerat.'
+
+Terence's personal appearance is mentioned by Sueton. p. 33, who also
+states that he had property, and left a daughter who afterwards
+married a Roman knight. 'Fuisse dicitur mediocri statura, gracili
+corpore, colore fusco. Reliquit filiam, quae post equiti Romano
+nupsit: item hortulos xx. iugerum via Appia ad Martis.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Andria_.--The particulars of its production are given above. Of
+its success, Donatus in his commentary says, 'Successu adspecta
+prospero hortamento poetae fuit ad alias conscribendas.' The
+didascalia to the _Andria_ is lost, but we can restore it as follows
+from Donatus' information, 'Incipit Andria Terenti. Acta ludis
+Megalensib. M. Fulvio M' Glabrione aedil. curul. Egit L. Ambivius
+Turpio.[19] Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis paribus tota. Graeca
+Menandru. Facta i. M. Marcello C. Sulpicio cos.'
+
+The meaning of the didascalia is as follows: The piece was produced at
+the Megalesian games (held at the beginning of April) under the curule
+aediles mentioned; L. Ambivius Turpio undertook the representation;
+the music was composed (as in all Terence's comedies) by Flaccus,
+slave of Claudius, and given throughout _tibiis paribus_.[20] The Greek
+original was by Menander; it was the first work of Terence, and the
+year of production was B.C. 166.
+
+The play is adapted from Menander's +Andria+ with additions
+from his +Perinthia+. _Andr._ prol. 13,
+
+  'Quae convenere in Andriam ex Perinthia
+  fatetur transtulisse atque usum pro suis.'
+
+The prologue dates from the first performance, though Wagner and
+Ribbeck have inferred from l. 5,
+
+  'Nam in prologis scribundis operam abutitur,'
+
+that it was written for a second representation, possibly in B.C. 164.
+There are two endings to the play; the shorter one is genuine, the
+longer spurious, and omitted in the best MSS.
+
+2. _Heauton Timorumenos_ is from Menander's +Heauton
+timoroumenos+, 'self tormentor.' The title is referred to in l. 146,
+
+  'hic me exerceo,'
+
+l. 81,
+
+  'An quoiquamst usus homini, se ut cruciet?'
+
+and prol. 5,
+
+  'Ex integra Graeca integram comoediam
+  hodie sum acturus Heauton timorumenon.'
+
+The play was produced at the Ludi Megalenses in B.C. 163, as is seen
+from the didascalia, 'Incipit Heauton Timorumenos Terenti. Acta ludis
+Megalensib. L. Cornelio Lentulo L. Valerio Flacco aedilib. curulib.
+Egit Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Acta primum tibis
+inparib., deinde duabus dextris. Graeca Menandru. Facta ii. M'
+Iuventio Ti. Sempronio cos.'
+
+The play is called 'stataria' in prol. 36,
+
+                            'Date potestatem mihi
+  statariam agere ut liceat per silentium.'
+
+3. _Eunuchus_, 'contaminated' from Menander's +Eunouchos+ and
+his +Kolax+. _Eun._ prol. 19,
+
+                       'Nunc acturi sumus
+  Menandri Eunuchum';
+
+_ibid._ 30,
+
+  'Colax Menandrist: in east parasitus colax
+  et miles gloriosus: eas se non negat
+  personas transtulisse in Eunuchum suam
+  ex Graeca: sed eas ab aliis factas prius
+  Latinas scisse sese, id vero pernegat.'
+
+The didascalia shows that the piece was produced at the Ludi
+Megalenses in B.C. 161, and from the MSS. we may conclude that it was
+also acted in B.C. 146. The didascalia is, 'Incipit Eunuchus Terenti.
+Acta ludis Megalensib. L. Postumio Albino L. Cornelio Merula aedilib.
+curulib. Egit Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis
+duabus dextris _tota_. Graeca Menandru. Facta _iii._ M. Valerio C.
+Fannio cos.'
+
+Sueton. _vit. Ter._ p. 29, speaks of the success of the play,
+'Eunuchus quidem his deinceps acta est meruitque pretium quantum nulla
+antea cuiusquam comoedia, octo milia nummum.'
+
+4. _Phormio_, the fifth comedy Terence composed, and the fourth
+completely represented. It was first performed at the Ludi Romani,
+B.C. 161. The Greek original was the +Epidikazomenos+ of
+Apollodorus of Carystus. _Phorm._ prol. 24,
+
+                             'Adporto novam
+  Epidicazomenon quam vocant comoediam
+  Graeci, Latini Phormionem nominant,
+  quia primas partis qui aget, is erit Phormio
+  parasitus, per quem res geretur maxume,'
+
+The didascalia is, 'Incipit Terenti Phormio. Acta ludis Romanis. L.
+Postumio Albino L. Cornelio Merula aedilib. curulib. Egit L. Ambivius
+Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis imparib. tota. Graeca
+Apollodoru Epidicazomenos. Facta iiii. C. Fannio M. Valerio cos.
+
+From notices in the MSS. it is probable that a second representation
+took place in B.C. 141 at the Megalesian games.
+
+5. _Hecyra_ is founded on a play by Apollodorus of Carystus, doubtless
+called +Hekyra+; cf. Donatus' preface, 'fabula Apollodori
+dicitur esse Graeca.' The first attempted representation was in B.C.
+165, at the Ludi Megalenses. _Hec._ prol. i. 1,
+
+                            'Hecyra quom datast
+  nova, ei novom intervenit vitium et calamitas,
+  ut neque spectari neque cognosci potuerit:
+  ita populus studio stupidus in funambulo
+  animum occuparat.'
+
+The second (unsuccessful) representation was at the ludi funerales of
+Aemilius Paulus in B.C. 160. _Hec._ prol. ii. 38,
+
+                                'Refero denuo.
+  Primo actu placeo. Quom interea rumor venit
+  datum iri gladiatores, populus convolat,
+  tumultuantur clamant pugnant de loco:
+  ego interea meum non potui tutari locum.'
+
+Cf. _Phorm._ prol. 31,
+
+  'Ne simili utamur fortuna, atque usi sumus
+  quom per tumultum noster grex motus locost.'
+
+The first prologue was written for the second performance; the second
+(spoken by the actor Ambivius) for the third performance, also in B.C.
+160. The didascalia is, 'Incipit Terenti Hecyra. Acta ludis
+Megalensib. S. Iulio Caesare Cn. Cornelio Dolabella aedilib. curulib.
+Egit L. Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis paribus
+tota. Graeca _Apollodoru_. Facta v. Cn. Octavio T. Manlio cos. Relata
+est L. Aemelio Paulo ludis funeralib. Non est placita. Tertio relata
+est Q. Fulvio L. Marcio aedilib. curulib.'
+
+6. _Adelphoe_ is founded on Menander's +Adelphoi+ with a scene
+added from Diphilus' +Synapothneskontes+. _Adelph._ prol. 6,
+
+  Synapothnescontes Diphili comoediast;
+  eam Commorientis Plautus fecit fabulam.
+  In Graeca adulescens est, qui lenoni eripit
+  meretricem in prima fabula: eum Plautus locum
+  reliquit integrum; eum hic locum sumpsit sibi
+  in Adelphos, verbum de verbo expressum extulit.'
+
+That this was the first performance is shown by _novam_ in l. 12. The
+part from Diphilus is Act ii., Scene 1. The play was produced in B.C.
+160 at the ludi funerales of L. Aemilius Paulus, as shown by the
+didascalia, 'Incipit Terenti Adelphoe. Acta ludis funeralib. L.
+Aemelio Paulo. Fecere Q. Fabius Maxumus P. Cornelius Africanus. Egit
+L. Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis Sarranis tota.
+Graeca Menandru. Facta vi. M. Cornelio Cethego L. Anicio Gallo cos.'
+
+The order given above agrees essentially with the numbers denoting the
+order of production, as given in the didascaliae. We must, however,
+assume that the first representation of the _Hecyra_ remained
+unnoticed, and must give the second place (instead of the third) to
+the _H.T._, with a section of the MSS., and the third place to the
+_Eun._ with Donatus against the MSS.
+
+_Prologues._--Terence uses these as weapons against his enemies, the
+chief of whom was Luscius Lanuvinus (see under his name), who attacked
+Terence for 'contaminatio' and for want of spirit in his plays. Cf.
+_H.T._ prol. 17,
+
+  'Multas contaminasse Graecas, dum facit
+  paucas Latinas';
+
+_Phorm._ prol. 5,
+
+  'tenui esse oratione et scriptura levi.'
+
+Terence justifies repeatedly his use of 'contaminatio.' _H.T._ prol.
+16,
+
+  'Nam quod rumores distulerunt malivoli,
+  multas contaminasse Graecas, dum facit
+  paucas Latinas: id esse factum hic non negat,
+  neque se pigere et deinde facturum autumat.
+  Habet bonorum exemplum, quo exemplo sibi
+  licere id facere quod illi fecerunt putat.'
+
+Cf. _Andria_, prol. 15-21; _Adelph._ prol. 1-14; _Eun._ prol. 31-3.
+Luscius also attacked him for not adhering more closely to his Greek
+originals, in spite of the fact that, generally speaking, Terence
+translated closely from these. Cf. _Adelph._ prol. 10-11, quoted
+above. A piece was considered to be new if it had not previously been
+presented to a Roman audience. So Terence justifies his originality in
+_Adelph._ prol. 6-14, or excuses himself on the ground that he did not
+know that a piece had been previously used: _Eun._ prol. 19-34.
+
+_Representation of the plays._--Ambivius was the chief actor in all
+the plays. He is the speaker of the prologue of _H.T._ and of the
+second prologue of _Hec._ He calls himself _senex_, cf. _H.T._ prol.
+1. For his popularity cf. _Hec._ prol. ii. 55,
+
+  'Mea causa causam accipite et date silentium.'
+
+The music was provided by Flaccus, slave of Claudius. The composer
+himself was probably the instrumentalist. Four kinds of flutes are
+mentioned as used by him: _tibiae pares_, _impares_, _sarranae_, and _duae
+dextrae_ (see note p. 45). The scene of all the plays is at Athens.
+There is no chorus. The form of the plays is modelled closely on
+Greek. More than half of the verses are iambic senarii, the next
+commonest being troch. septen. and iamb. octon. These are used in
+dialogue. Trochaic octonarii are used in lyrical parts, other lyrical
+metres being rare, and the anapaestic metre not being used. Short
+lines are also found in the middle of lyrical pieces, or at the end of
+pieces of dialogue. _Andr._ 605,
+
+  'Sed eccum video ipsum: occidi.'
+
+Single words sometimes stand at the head of a lyrical piece, as
+_Phorm._ 485 'Dorio,' which makes a line.
+
+The different kinds of scenes are under the same conditions as in
+Plautus. We have (1) scenes provided with music, probably represented
+in MSS. by C (Canticum). (2) Scenes sung as recitative, with musical
+accompaniment, in MSS. denoted by M.M.C. (perhaps for 'Modi Mutati
+Cantici'). (3) Scenes in senarii, without music, in MSS. denoted by DV
+(Diverbium). The division into scenes is very ancient; but the
+division into acts, though existing in the time of Terence (cf. _Hec._
+prol. 39, 'primo actu placeo,'), is not marked in the MSS.
+
+_Names of characters._--Terence uses only Greek names, which often
+suit the characters of the persons, and many of which are repeated in
+the different plays. Cf. Pamphilus and Glycerium, of the lovers in the
+_Andr._; Chremes (+chremptomai+, 'cough'), for an old man, in
+_Andr._, _H.T._, _Phorm._; Crito (+krino+, 'judge'), for an old
+man, in _Andr._, _Phorm._; Sosia (+sozein+), for a freedman, in
+_Andr._, _Hec._ So names of slaves as Davus (+Daos+, 'Dacian'),
+Dromo, Geta, Syrus, all in several plays.
+
+_The arguments_, consisting of twelve senarii each, were composed by
+C. Sulpicius Apollinaris in the second century A.D.
+
+_Prosody._--For the variations from later usage, see under 'Plautus.'
+Terence is, of course, more regular in this respect than Plautus.
+
+_Views on Terence._--To those given above the following may be added:
+
+Gell. vi. 14, 6, 'Exempla in Latina lingua M. Varro esse dicit
+ubertatis Pacuvium, gracilitatis Lucilium, mediocritatis
+Terentium.'[21]
+
+Sueton. _vit. Ter._ p. 34, 'Cicero in Limone hactenus laudat,
+
+  "Tu quoque, qui solus lecto sermone, Terenti,
+  conversum expressumque Latina voce Menandrum
+  in medium nobis sedatis motibus effers,
+  quiddam come loquens atque omnia dulcia miscens";
+
+item C. Caesar,
+
+  "Tu quoque, tu in summis, o dimidiate Menander,
+  poneris, et merito, puri sermonis amator.
+  Lenibus atque utinam scriptis adiuncta foret vis,
+  comica ut aequato virtus polleret honore
+  cum Graecis, neve hac despectus parte iaceres.
+  Unum hoc maceror ac doleo tibi desse, Terenti."'
+
+
+
+EARLY MINOR AUTHORS.
+
+
+(_a_) POETS:
+
+The poetical contemporaries of Terence were:
+
+1. _Titinius_, the first writer of _togatae_; fifteen titles and about
+one hundred and eighty lines of fragments are extant. He probably
+began to write after Terence's death.
+
+2. _Sextus Turpilius._--We have titles of thirteen of his _palliatae_,
+six of which are probably from Menander. He died B.C. 103, probably
+about eighty.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1914 = B.C. 103, 'Turpilius comicus senex admodum
+Sinuessae moritur.'
+
+3. _Iuventius_, _Valerius_, and _Vatronius_ wrote _palliatae_; _P.
+Licinius Tegula_ a hymn to Juno, B.C. 200 (Livy xxxi. 12); _Q. Fabius
+Labeo_ (cos. B.C. 183) and _M. Popillius Laenas_ (cos. 173) were poets.
+
+
+(_b_) PROSE WRITERS:
+
+_Fabius Pictor_ was the earliest Roman historian: Liv. i. 44,
+2, 'scriptorum antiquissimus Fabius Pictor.' A relative of Q. Fabius
+Maximus Cunctator (Plut. _Fab. Max._ 18), he took part in the war with
+the Cisalpine Gauls, B.C. 225 (Eutropius, iii. 5), and after the
+battle of Cannae was sent by the Senate on a mission to the oracle of
+Delphi (Liv. xxii. 57, 5).
+
+Fabius wrote in Greek an account of the Second Punic War, prefixed to
+which was a sketch of the history of Rome from its foundation: Liv.
+xxii. 7, 4, 'Fabium aequalem temporibus huiusce belli potissimum
+auctorem habui.' There was also a Latin version, made either by Fabius
+Pictor or by a namesake (Gell. v. 4, 3).
+
+The same subject was treated by _L. Cincius Alimentus_, who was
+praetor B.C. 210 (Liv. xxvi. 23, i), and took an active part in the
+war in Sicily during the next two years (Liv. xxvii. 7, 12, and
+throughout that Book). He was taken prisoner by Hannibal, and
+conversed with him: Liv. xxi. 38, 3, 'L. Cincius Alimentus, qui captum
+se ab Hannibale scribit, maxime auctor moveret ...'
+
+Both Fabius and Cincius wrote in Greek, and both gave a cursory view
+of the earlier history: Dion. Hal. i. 6, +Romaion hosoi ta
+palaia erga tes poleos Hellenike dialekto synegrapsan, hon eisi
+presbytatoi Kointos te Phabios kai Leukios Kinkios ... touton de ton
+andron hekateros hois men autos ergois paregeneto, dia ten empeirian
+akribos anegrapse, ta de archaia to meta ton ktisin tes poleos
+genomena kephalaiodos epedramen.+
+
+
+
+CATO.
+
+
+M. Porcius Cato, the Censor (B.C. 234-149), born at Tusculum, of a
+yeoman stock, was one of the most prominent figures of his time. For
+the best account of his military and political career, including his
+advancement to the Consulship (B.C. 195) and Censorship (B.C. 184),
+and his economic and social reforms, the reader may be referred to
+Mommsen, _R.H._, vol. ii. _passim_.
+
+Cato was the founder of Latin prose, and the chief opponent of the
+exaggerated Hellenism that was finding its way into Roman life and
+literature (cf. his own words quoted by Pliny, _N.H._ xxix. 14,
+'Quandoque ista gens suas litteras dabit, omnia corrumpet'); but even
+he shows traces of Greek influence. Cato is represented now only by
+(1) his treatise _De Agri Cultura_, the earliest extant work in Latin
+prose, which, besides giving instruction for the husbandman, deals
+with housekeeping, cookery, and medicine.
+
+(2) His great work was the _Origines_, the earliest history in Latin
+prose, the contents of which are enumerated by Nepos, _Cato_, 3, 3,
+'Senex historias scribere instituit. Earum sunt libri vii. Primus
+continet res gestas regum populi Romani, secundus et tertius unde
+quaeque civitas orta sit Italica (ob quam rem omnes Origines videtur
+appellasse); in quarto autem bellum Poenicum est primum, in quinto
+secundum. Atque haec omnia capitulatim sunt dicta. Reliqua quoque
+bella pari modo persecutus est usque ad praeturam Ser. Galbae, qui
+diripuit Lusitanos (B.C. 151). Atque horum bellorum duces non
+nominavit, sed sine nominibus res notavit.[22] In eisdem exposuit quae
+in Italia Hispaniisque aut fierent aut viderentur admiranda: in quibus
+multa industria et diligentia comparet, nulla doctrina.'
+
+An attempt has been made by A. Bormann (_M. Porcii Catonis Originum
+Libri vii._, Brandenburg 1858, p. 38) to prove that the principle of
+division was geographical, and that history only came in incidentally
+in connexion with the reduction of provinces; but as Nepos was writing
+to an eminent authority on antiquities, his account is likely to be
+right. The period between the kings and the Punic Wars was probably
+omitted by Cato through want of authorities.
+
+The title _Origines_ fails to indicate the scope of the work, which
+was chiefly occupied with general history; it was probably taken, as
+Nepos suggests, from the contents of Books ii. and iii., which seem to
+have been the most novel and valuable part of the undertaking.
+(Jordan, however, takes 'Origines' as equivalent, not to the Greek
++ktiseis+, but to 'res Romanae ab origine repetitae.')
+
+(3) _Praecepta ad Filium_ was the general title of a didactic work
+containing rules for medicine, husbandry, and rhetoric (_e.g._ 'Rem
+tene, verba sequentur'). Cf. Quint. iii. 1, 19, 'Romanorum primus,
+quantum ego quidem sciam, condidit aliqua in hanc materiam (rhetoric)
+M. Cato ille Censorius.'
+
+(4) _Speeches._--Fragments of eighty speeches, out of about two
+hundred and thirty, are collected by Jordan. They are almost equally
+divided between forensic and deliberative speeches: none is known of
+earlier date than B.C. 195. Cato incorporated some of them in the
+_Origines_, _e.g._ For the Rhodians (Gell. vi. 3, 7), and Against
+Galba (Cic. _Brut._ 89).
+
+Works on civil law are attributed to Cato, and we hear also of
++apophthegmata+ (Cic. _de Off._ i. 104), _Liber de re militari_ (Gell.
+vi. 4, 5), and _Carmen de moribus_ (Gell. xi. 2, 2).
+
+
+
+ACCIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+The forms Accius and Attius are both found on inscriptions, _e.g._
+from Pisaurum; but in the MSS. of Nonius Marcellus, who often quotes
+Accius, and who is careful about his forms, 'Accius' is always found,
+and generally in MSS. of other authors.
+
+L. Accius was born B.C. 170 at Pisaurum (of. Pliny, _N.H._ vii. 128,
+'Attio Pisaurense').
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1878 = B.C. 139, 'L. Accius tragoediarum scriptor
+clarus habetur, natus Mancino et Serrano coss. (B.C. 170) parentibus
+libertinis et seni iam Pacuvio Tarenti sua scripta recitavit. A quo et
+fundus Accianus iuxta Pisaurum dicitur, quia illuc inter colonos
+fuerat ex urbe deductus.'
+
+This last statement must refer to Accius' father, as the colony of
+Pisaurum was founded B.C. 184. Jerome's chronology is corroborated by
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 229, 'Accius isdem aedilibus (B.C. 140) ait se et
+Pacuvium docuisse fabulam, cum ille lxxx., ipse xxx. annos natus
+esset.'
+
+Accius' friendship and influence with leading men is shown by Cic.
+_pro Arch._ 27, 'D. Brutus, summus vir et imperator (cons. B.C. 138)
+Acci amicissimi sui carminibus templorum ac monumentorum aditus
+exornavit suorum.'
+
+_Auct. ad Herenn._ i. 24, 'Mimus quidam nominatim Accium poetam
+compellavit in scaena. Cum eo Accius iniuriarum egit'; ii. 19, 'P.
+Mucius eum qui L. Accium poetam nominaverat condemnavit.'
+
+The above shows his self-consciousness; cf. also Pliny _N.H._ xxxiv.
+19, 'Notatum ab auctoribus et L. Accium poetam in Camenarum aede
+maxima forma statuam sibi posuisse, cum brevis admodum fuisset.'
+
+For Accius' friendship with Pacuvius, see p. 35. Accius must have
+lived to about B.C. 86, as Cicero (born B.C. 106) talked with him on
+literary subjects.
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 107, 'D. Brutus M. filius, ut ex familiari eius L. Accio
+poeta sum audire solitus.'
+
+His _Tereus_ was produced in B.C. 104, as is seen from
+
+Cic. _Phil._ i. 36 (B.C. 44), 'Nisi forte Accio tum plaudi et
+sexagesimo post anno palmam dari, non Bruto, putabatis.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Tragedies._--Titles of about forty-five plays, and about seven
+hundred lines of fragments are extant. The fragments show imitation of
+Aeschylus as well as of Sophocles and Euripides.
+
+2. _Praetextae._--_Aeneadae_ or _Decius_, and _Brutus_. _Decius_
+treated of the self-sacrifice of P. Decius Mus at Sentinum, B.C. 295.
+Cf. l. 15, 'Patrio exemplo et me dicabo atque animam devoro (=
+devovero) hostibus.' _Brutus_ treated of the overthrow of Tarquinius
+Superbus and the establishment of the consulship.
+
+3. _Didascalica_, in at least nine books, a history of Greek and Latin
+poetry, with special attention to the drama. The few fragments are
+mostly in Sotadean metre. Cf. Gell. vi. 9, 16, 'L. Accius in
+Sotadicorum libro I.'
+
+4. _Pragmaticon libri_ (in trochaic tetrameters) on literary subjects.
+
+5. _Praxidica_, on agriculture. Two lines on ploughing are quoted from
+'liber parergon,' i., but it is not certain whether this is an
+independent work.
+
+6. _Annales_, in hexameters.
+
+7. A work in Saturnians.
+
+Accius gave attention to points of language. Cf. Quint. i. 7, 14,
+'Semivocales geminare diu non fuit usitatissimi moris, atque e
+contrario usque ad Accium et ultra porrectas syllabas geminis, ut
+dixi, vocalibus scripserunt.'
+
+Accius, like Ennius and Pacuvius, attacks superstition. Cf. ll. 169-70,
+
+  'Nil credo auguribus, qui auris verbis divitant
+  alienas, suas ut auro locupletent domos.'
+
+That Virgil imitated Accius is mentioned by Macrob. vi. 1, 58, who
+compares, _e.g._, l. 156,
+
+  'Virtuti sis par, dispar fortunis patris,'
+
+and _Aen._ xii. 435-6,
+
+  'Disce, puer, virtutem ex me verumque laborem,
+  fortunam ex aliis.'
+
+_Views on Accius._--A few of these may be referred to. Cic. _pro
+Sest._ 120, 'Summi poetae ingenium.' Ovid. _Am._ i. 15, 19,
+
+  'Animosi Accius oris.'
+
+Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 97; Tac. _Dial._ 20; and Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 55
+(see 'Pacuvius,' p. 37).
+
+Of the prose writers contemporary with Accius, the most important were
+the annalists _L. Cassius Hemina_ and _L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi_; the
+orators _Ti._ and _C. Graccus_, and their opponent _C. Fannius_, and
+_M. Aemilius Scaurus_, the _princeps senatus_, who also wrote an
+autobiography (Cic. _Brut._ 112). _L. Coelius Antipater_ wrote a
+history of the Second Punic War in seven Books, making use of Silenus,
+whose account was favourable to the Carthaginians (Cic. _de Div._ i.
+49). His strength lay in style (Cic. _de Or._ ii. 53); though
+painstaking, he was apt to exaggerate (Liv. xxvii. 27, 12; xxix, 25,
+3).
+
+
+
+LUCILIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+C. Lucilius' dates are given by Jerome as B.C. 148-103.
+
+yr. Abr. 1869 = B.C. 148, 'Lucilius poeta nascitur.'
+
+yr. Abr. 1914 = B.C. 103, 'C. Lucilius satirarum scriptor Neapoli
+moritur, ac publico funere effertur anno aetatis xlvi.'
+
+If Jerome's notice were correct, Lucilius would have been only
+thirteen years old at the time of the Numantine War (B.C. 134) in
+which he served.
+
+Velleius ii. 9, 4, 'Celebre et Lucili nomen fuit qui sub P. Africano
+Numantino bello eques militaverat.'
+
+It is probable that Jerome has confused the consuls of B.C. 180, A.
+Postumius Albinus and C. Calpurnius Piso, with those of B.C. 148, Sp.
+Postumius Albinus and L. Calpurnius Piso, and that Lucilius was born
+B.C. 180. No reference is found in Lucilius to any event after B.C.
+103, so that Jerome may be right in giving that as the year of his
+death. In Hor. _Sat._ ii. 1, 34, Lucilius is called _senex_, which
+shows that he lived a long life.
+
+Lucilius was born at Suessa in Campania. He was an _eques_, and was
+the great-uncle of Pompey. Juv. 1, 19,
+
+  'Cur tamen hoc potius libeat decurrere campo,
+  per quem magnus equos Auruncae flexit alumnus,
+  si vacat ac placidi rationem admittitis, edam.'
+
+Porphyr. ad Hor. _Sat._ ii. 1, 75, '"infra Lucili censum": Constat
+enim Lucilium avonculum maiorem Pompei fuisse: etenim avia Pompei
+Lucilii soror fuerat.'
+
+Velleius ii. 29, 2, 'Fuit [Cn. Pompeius] genitus matre Lucilia,
+stirpis senatoriae.' This Lucilia was Lucilius' niece, and her father,
+Lucilius' brother, was a senator.
+
+Lucilius was very intimate with Africanus the younger and Laelius, and
+celebrated them in his works. Hor. _Sat._ ii. 1, 71,
+
+  'Quin ubi se a volgo et scaena in secreta remorant
+  virtus Scipiadae et mitis sapientia Laeli,
+  nugari cum illo et discincti ludere, donec
+  decoqueretur olus, soliti.'
+
+Schol. Cruq. _ad loc._, 'Scipio Africanus et Laelius feruntur tam
+fuisse familiares et amici Lucilio, ut quodam tempore Laelio circum
+lectos triclinii fugienti Lucilius superveniens eum obtorta mappa quasi
+feriturus sequeretur.'
+
+Hor. _Sat._ ii. 1, 16,
+
+  'Attamen et iustum poteras et scribere fortem,
+  Scipiadam ut sapiens Lucilius.'
+
+Lucil. _Sat._ xxx. 5 (of Scipio),
+
+                   'Sicubi ad auris
+  fama tuam pugnam clarans adlata dicasset.'
+
+Such intimate association could not have existed if Lucilius had been,
+as Jerome implies, only nineteen at Scipio's death in B.C. 129.
+
+There are many references to Lucilius' attacks on public men. Cf. Hor.
+_Sat._ ii. 1, 62,
+
+                'Quid? cum est Lucilius ausus
+  primus in hunc operis componere carmina morem,
+  detrahere et pellem, nitidus qua quisque per ora
+  cederet, introrsum turpis, num Laelius et qui
+  duxit ab oppressa meritum Carthagine nomen
+  ingenio offensi aut laeso doluere Metello
+  famosisque Lupo cooperto versibus? atqui
+  primores populi arripuit populumque tributim,
+  scilicet uni aequus virtuti atque eius amicis.'
+
+Lucil. lib. incert., ll. 63-4, quoted by Cic. _N.D._ i. 64,
+
+             '"Tubulus si Lucius umquam,
+  si Lupus aut Carbo, Neptuni filius,"
+
+ut ait Lucilius, putasset esse deos, tam periurus aut tam impurus
+fuisset?'
+
+Pers. 1, 114,
+
+                    'Secuit Lucilius urbem,
+  te Lupe, te Muci, et genuinum fregit in illis.'
+
+Juv. 1, 165,
+
+  'Ense velut stricto quotiens Lucilius ardens
+  infremuit, rubet auditor cui frigida mens est
+  criminibus, tacita sudant praecordia culpa.'
+
+_The Saturae._--There were thirty Books altogether, by whom arranged
+is unknown. Fragments are extant from all the Books, except xxi. and
+xxiv. (and possibly xxiii. and xxv.). Books i.-xx. and xxx. were in
+hexameters; xxii. in elegiacs; xxvi.-xxvii. in trochaic septenarii;
+and the next two in trochaic septenarii, iambic senarii, and
+hexameters. Books xxvi.-xxix. were published first, then Book xxx. In
+Book xxvi. Lucilius states his views of life, his poetic principles,
+what led him to write satire, etc. Cf. l. 3,
+
+  'Nunc itidem populum aucupamur istis cum scriptoribus.'
+
+Lines 7-20 contain a conversation between Lucilius and a friend who
+wishes him to engage in public life. Cf. ll. 16-7,
+
+  'Publicanu' vero ut Asiae fiam scripturarius
+  pro Lucilio, id ego nolo, et uno hoc non muto omnia.'
+
+Two divisions of the work may be recognized--(i) Books i.-xxi. (to
+which xxii.-xxv. may be an addition) in hexameters; these Books are
+referred to as one collection by Varro, _L.L._ v. 17. (2) Books
+xxvi.-xxx. in various metres.
+
+_Dates of Composition._--Hor. _Sat._ ii. 1, 62-70 (quoted above),
+shows that Lucilius attacked Lupus and Metellus while Scipio and
+Laelius were still alive, _i.e._ not after B.C. 129; xxvi., ll. 88-9,
+in which Lucilius sneers at marriage,
+
+  'Homines ipsi hanc sibi molestiam ultro atque aerumnam offerunt.
+  Ducunt uxores, producunt, quibus haec faveant, liberos,'
+
+may have special reference to the attempts of Metellus in his
+censorship (B.C. 131) to encourage it. If this is so, Books xxvi.-xxx.
+were composed about B.C. 131-129. Book i. was composed after the death
+of Carneades in B.C. 129 (cf. l. 12, 'nec si Carneaden ipsum Orcu'
+remittat'), and probably soon after the death of Lupus, on whom the
+gods are represented as sitting in judgment.
+
+Serv. ad _Aen._ x. 104, 'Totus hic locus de primo Lucili translatus
+est libro; ubi inducuntur di habere concilium et agere primo de
+interitu Lupi cuiusdam ducis in re publica, postea sententias dicere.'
+
+In B.C. 126 Lucilius was probably, along with other _peregrini_,
+banished under the law of M. Iunius Pennus, trib. pl. in that year. He
+probably returned in B.C. 124, when the law was repealed by C.
+Graccus. Bk. xi. was composed after the condemnation of L. Opimius in
+B.C. 110. Cf. ll. 19-21,
+
+  'Quintus Opimius ille, Iugurtini pater huius,
+  et formosus homo fuit et famosus, utrumque
+  primo adulescens, posterius dat rectiu' sese.'
+
+_Subjects of the Satires._--These were very varied. Besides personal
+satire, we have (1) ethical criticism, as ridicule of philosophers and
+attacks on luxury.
+
+Lib. incert. ll. 134-5 (imitated by Hor. _Sat._ i. 3, 132 _sqq._;
+_Ep._ i. 1, 106-8),
+
+  'Nondum etiam, qui haec omnia habebit,
+  formonsus, dives, liber, rex solu' feretur?'
+
+iv. 4-6 (cf. Hor. _Sat._ ii. 2, 46-8),
+
+  'O Publi, o gurges, Galloni: es homo miser, inquit,
+  cenasti in vita numquam bene, cum omnia in ista
+  consumis squilla atque acupensere cum in decimano.'
+
+(2) Travels, as the account of the journey to the Sicilian Strait,
+imitated by Hor. _Sat._ i. 5.
+
+(3) Literary criticism. Lucilius jeers at Ennius' line,
+
+  'Sparsis hastis longis campus splendet et horret,'
+
+according to Servius ad _Aen._ xi. 601, 'Est versus Ennianus
+vituperatus a Lucilio dicente per irrisionem eum debuisse dicere
+"horret et alget."' Euripides is criticised in xxix., frag. 9. Points
+of orthography and the like are also treated of, cf. ix. 11,
+
+  'Iam puerei venere. E postremum facito atque i,
+  ut pueri plures fiant. I si faci' solum,
+  pupilli, pueri, Lucili hoc uniu' fiet.'[23]
+
+Some other points may be noted:
+
+(1) He addresses a large circle of readers, xxix. 99,
+
+  'Persium non curo legere: Laelium Decumum volo.'
+
+Cf. Cic. _de Or._ ii. 25, 'Hic [Persius] fuit enim, ut noramus, omnium
+fere nostrorum hominum doctissimus: "Laelium Decimum volo," quem
+cognovimus virum bonum et non inlitteratum sed nihil ad Persium.'
+
+(2) For his self-esteem of. xxvi. 16, (quoted above). So xxx. 1,
+
+  'Quoi sua conmittunt mortali claustra Camenae.'
+
+(3) He often mixes Greek words with Latin. Cf. v. 12,
+
+       'Hoc nolueris et debueris te
+  si minu' delectat, quod +technion+ Eisocratiumst
+  +lerodes+que totum ac +symmeirakiodes+,
+  non operam perdo.'
+
+(4) For his carelessness as to style of. Hor. _Sat._ i. 4, 9,
+
+       'In hora saepe ducentos,
+  ut magnum, versus dictabat, stans pede in uno:
+  cum flueret lutulentus, erat quod tollere velles;
+  garrulus atque piger scribendi ferre laborem,
+  scribendi recte; nam ut multum, nil moror.'
+
+For Lucilius' influence on other poets, see above; also under
+'Persius,' p. 262. For Horace's views on Lucilius, see above; also
+_Sat._ i. 4; i. 10; ii. 1.
+
+Cf. Quint. x. 1, 93, 'Satira quidem tota nostra est, in qua primus
+insignem laudem adeptus Lucilius quosdam ita deditos sibi adhuc habet
+amatores, ut eum non eiusdem modo operis auctoribus sed omnibus poetis
+praeferre non dubitent. Ego quantum ab illis tantum ab Horatio
+dissentio, qui Lucilium "fluere lutulentum" et "esse aliquid, quod
+tollere possis" putat. Nam eruditio in eo mira et libertas atque inde
+acerbitas et abundantia salis.'
+
+
+
+ATTA AND AFRANIUS.
+
+
+Writers of _togatae_ were Atta and Afranius.
+
+Sueton. p. 15 R., 'Togatas tabernarias in scaenam dataverunt praecipue
+duo, L. Afranius et T. Quintius.'
+
+T. Quintius Atta died B.C. 77, according to Jerome yr. Abr. 1940, 'T.
+Quintius Atta, scriptor togatarum, Romae moritur.'
+
+Eleven titles and about twenty lines of fragments are extant. Horace
+refers to Atta in _Ep._ ii. 1, 79 _sqq._,
+
+  'Recte necne crocum floresque perambulet Attae
+  fabula si dubitem, clament periisse pudorem
+  cuncti paene patres, ea cum reprendere coner
+  quae gravis Aesopus, quae doctus Roscius egit.'
+
+L. Afranius was probably born between B.C. 154 and 144. He was the
+chief writer of _togatae_ (Quint. x. 1, 100, 'Togatis excellit
+Afranius'), and also an orator.
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 167, 'L. Afranius poeta, homo perargutus, in fabulis
+quidem etiam ut scitis disertus.'
+
+There are extant forty-two titles (with Latin names) and more than
+four hundred lines of fragments. The plays exhibit Roman surroundings,
+and describe low life, especially of the provincial towns. Cf. the
+title _Brundusinae_, also l. 136,
+
+  'Ubi hice Moschis, quaeso, habet, meretrix Neapolitis?'
+
+Afranius imitated Menander, and probably Terence.
+
+Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 57,
+
+  'Dicitur Afrani toga convenisse Menandro.'
+
+Macrob. _Saturn._ vi. 1, 4, 'Afranius togatarum scriptor in ea togata,
+quae Compitalia inscribitur, non inverecunde respondens arguentibus,
+quod plura sumpsisset a Menandro,
+
+  "Fateor" inquit "sumpsi non ab illo modo,
+  sed ut quisque habuit conveniret quod mihi,
+  quod me non posse melius facere credidi
+  etiam a Latino"' (ll. 25-8).
+
+Sueton. _vit. Ter._ p. 33 R., 'Terentium Afranius omnibus comicis
+praefert.'
+
+
+
+MINOR POETS:
+
+
+(_a_) The poets immediately after Afranius include
+
+(1) Hostius.--He was perhaps the grandfather of Cynthia (Hostia),
+Propertius' mistress. Prop. iv. 20, 7,
+
+  'Est tibi forma potens; sunt castae Palladis artes,
+  splendidaque a docto fama refulget avo.'
+
+There are nine lines extant from his epic poem _Bellum Histricum_,
+which was probably on the war of B.C. 125. Frag. 5 (Baehrens),
+
+    'Non si mihi linguae
+  centum atque ora sient totidem vocesque liquatae,'
+
+is from _Il._ ii. 489, and is imitated by Verg. _Aen._ vi. 625 (as
+noticed by Macrob. _Saturn._ vi. 3, 6).
+
+(2) Writers of epigrams--Pompilius, Valerius Aedituus, Porcius
+Licinus, and Q. Lutatius Catulus (cons. B.C. 102).
+
+(3) Q. Valerius Soranus wrote verse on philology and archaeology.
+
+(4) Volcacius Sedigitus wrote verse on literary history up to the time
+of the _fabula palliata_. He wrote _indices_ of Plautus (Gell. iii. 3,
+1), and a work _De Poetis_, which included his canon on the comic
+poets (Gell. xv. 24).
+
+  'Caecilio palmam Statio do mimico.
+  Plautus secundus facile exuperat ceteros.
+  Dein Naevius, qui fervet, pretio in tertiost.
+  Si erit, quod quarto detur, dabitur Licinio.
+  Post insequi Licinium facio Atilium.
+  In sexto consequetur hos Terentius,
+  Turpilius septimum, Trabea octavum optinet,
+  nono loco esse facile facio Luscium.
+  Decimum addo causa antiquitatis Ennium.'
+
+(_b_) The following poets wrote during Cicero's youth, B.C. 106-84:
+
+(1) Cn. Matius, author of _Mimiambi_, and a translation of the
+_Iliad_. An example of the last is Frag. I (Baehrens) = _Il._ i. 56,
+
+  'Corpora Graiorum maerebat mandier igni.'
+
+(2) Laevius, author of _Erotopaegnia_, of a lyrical character.
+Porphyr. ad Hor. _Od._ iii. 1, 2, 'Romanis utique non prius audita,
+quamvis Laevius lyrica ante Horatium scripserit; sed videntur illa non
+Graecorum lege ad lyricum characterem exacta.'
+
+About sixty lines are extant. Gell. xix. 7 speaks of Laevius' curious
+vocabulary, and instances _oblittera_ for _oblitterata_;
+_trisaeclisenex_, _dulciorelocus_, etc.
+
+(3) A. Furius of Antium. Only six lines are extant.
+
+(4) C. Iulius Caesar Strabo, a tragic writer and orator.
+
+(5) Sueius. His works are (_a_) _Moretum_, an idyll; (_b_) _Pulli_, on
+the breeding of fowls; (_c_) _Nidus_; (_d_) an epic poem, _Annales_.
+
+(6) Writers of _fabula Atellana_;[24] Novius and L. Pomponius
+(Bononiensis). Fronto p. 62 (ed. Naber), 'Elegantis Novium et
+Pomponium et id genus in verbis rusticanis et iocularibus ac
+ridiculariis.'
+
+Of Novius forty-three titles and over one hundred lines are preserved,
+and of Pomponius about seventy titles and two hundred lines. The
+well-known characters of the _fabula Atellana_ are retained, as is
+seen from the titles. Cf. _Duo Dosseni_, _Maccus Copa_ of Novius; _Bucco
+Adoptatus_, _Maccus Miles_, _Maccus Sequester_, _Maccus Virgo_ of
+Pomponius.
+
+
+
+PROSE WRITERS OF THE SAME PERIOD:
+
+
+_L. Cornelius Sisenna_ (praetor B.C. 78), author of _Historiae_ of the
+Social and Civil Wars (Vell. Pat. ii. 9). Cicero thought him superior
+to his predecessors, but childish (_Brut._ 228, _De Leg._ i. 7), and
+Sallust remarks his want of frankness in speaking of Sulla's career
+(_Iug._ 95). He avoided a piecemeal and desultory treatment of events;
+cf. his own words quoted by Gell. xii. 15, 2, 'Nos una aestate in Asia
+et Graecia gesta litteris idcirco continentia mandavimus, ne
+vellicatim aut saltuatim scribendo lectorum animos impediremus.' His
+translation of the +Milesiaka+ of Aristides is mentioned by Ovid,
+_Tr._ ii. 443.
+
+Contemporary with Sisenna were _Q. Claudius Quadrigarius_, and
+_Valerius Antias_, whose narrative was coloured by partiality for the
+Valerii and for Scipio Africanus (see under 'Livy').
+
+_C. Licinius Macer_, father of the poet Calvus, was one of Livy's
+sources for the early history. Dion. Hal. (vi. 11 and vii. 1)
+complains of his carelessness and the weakness of his chronology. He
+claimed that he used original authorities, _e.g._ the _libri lintei_,
+lists of magistrates written on linen. He was a strong democrat, and
+is looked upon by Mommsen (_R.H._ iv., p. 602) as manufacturing
+authorities in support of his political views.
+
+_Sulla_ wrote memoirs of his own life (Plut. _Lucull._ 1), and
+_Lucullus_ composed in Greek a history of the Marsian War (_ibid._).
+
+
+
+Footnotes to Chapter I
+
+
+[1] The scheme of this old national metre, which depends on accent and
+not on quantity, may be seen from the two examples given below.
+Various forms are found, but one of the commonest types is identical
+with the rhythm of the nursery rhyme,
+
+  'The queen was in the parlour, eating bread and honey.'
+
+[2] 'I have heard that a Roman poet is languishing in prison with head
+on hand'--probably a metaphor from a pillar (but the sense is far from
+certain).
+
+[3] Utica was besieged by Scipio from 204 to 202 B.C.
+
+[4] In the _fabula togata_ or _tabernaria_ the surroundings of the
+comedy were Roman, in the _fabula palliata_ Greek, as in Plautus'
+plays. _Togata_ in a wider sense included tragedy as well as comedy.
+
+[5] This term means the construction of a new play by uniting two old
+ones.
+
+[6] The references are to the revised edition of Ritschl.
+
+[7] A species of burlesque tragedy, called after its inventor
+Rhinthon, who flourished B.C. 300.
+
+[8] _R.H._ ii. p. 431 trans.
+
+[9] This shows that the ancient (rough alphabetical) order has been
+departed from. Some grammarian of the fifth century altered the
+position of the play on account of the reference to it in _Epid._
+213-5 (quoted above).
+
+[10] I.e. the 'Patruus' written by the old Roman (lit., 'son of the
+porridge-eater').
+
+[11] These games were celebrated in April. Plays were exhibited also
+at the _Ludi Romani_ (September) and the _Ludi Plebei_ (November).
+
+[12] Much of the information on this head is taken from J. Brix's
+edition of the _Trinummus_. Leipzig, 1888.
+
+[13] This is shown in the universal classical usage of _bene_, _male_,
+etc.
+
+[14] The references are to Vahlen's edition.
+
+[15] Thus the original name of Beneventum was Maleventum, i.e.
++MaloFenta+, accusative of +MaloFeis+; cf. Agrigentum from
++Akragas+, and Tarentum from +Taras+.
+
+[16] Euhemerus of Messana, who wrote about the end of the fourth
+century B.C., tried in this work to show that the worship of the gods
+arose from the worship of deified kings and heroes.
+
+[17] The Oscan form of _Pacuvi_.
+
+[18] The term _doctus_ refers to his knowledge of the Greek laws of
+artistic composition.
+
+[19] After Ambivius' name appears in most of the didascaliae 'L.
+Hatilius Praenestinus.' Probably this person was an actor at some
+later productions, and his name has in this way crept into the MSS.
+
+[20] _Tibiae_ were called _pares_ or _impares_ according as they were
+or were not of the same length and key. _Duae dextrae_ were two pipes
+both playing the treble. _Tibiae Sarranae_, from Sarra, the old Latin
+name for Tyre, were a special form of _tibiae pares_.
+
+[21] _Mediocritas_ = +to meson+, the intermediate style between
++to hadron+, 'the florid' (_ubertas_), and +to ischnon+,
+'the simple' (_gracilitas_). See W. Peterson's note on Quint. x. 1,
+44.
+
+[22] For the omission of names, cf. iv. 12 (Jordan), 'dictatorem
+Karthaginiensium magister equitum monuit' (of Hannibal and Maharbal).
+
+[23] This means that Lucilius would represent the nom. plu. by _-ei_
+and the gen. sing, by _-i_.
+
+[24] The _fabula Atellana_ was a species of farce adopted by the
+Romans from the Oscan town of Atella in Campania. See Livy, vii. 2,
+for this and the early history of the Roman drama.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE CICERONIAN AGE.
+
+
+
+CICERO.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+M. Tullius Cicero, the son of a Roman knight, was born at Arpinum on
+3rd January, B.C. 106. Jerome yr. Abr. 1911, 'M. Tullius Cicero Arpini
+nascitur matre Helvia, patre equestris ordinis ex regio Volscorum
+genere.' Cic. _ad Att._ xiii. 42, 3, 'Diem meum scis esse iii. Non.
+Ian.'
+
+He gives an account of his education in _Brut._ 306 _sqq._ In civil
+law he was a pupil, in B.C. 89, of Q. Scaevola the Augur, and
+afterwards of the pontifex of the same name (_de Am._ 1). In B.C. 88
+he studied philosophy under Philo the Academic, and rhetoric under
+Molo of Rhodes. Dialectic he practised with the Stoic Diodotus, who
+lived and died in Cicero's house (B.C. 87-5). Other teachers of Cicero
+were the poet Archias (_pro Arch._ 1), the orator Antonius (_de Or._
+ii. 3), the actors Roscius and Aesopus (Plut. _Cic._ 5), the
+rhetorician M. Antonius Gnipho (Sueton. _Gramm._ 7), and the
+philosophers Phaedrus and Zeno.
+
+After establishing a reputation at the bar by his defence of Quinctius
+and of Roscius of Ameria, he visited Asia to recruit his health and
+improve his oratorical style. On his way to the East he stayed six
+months at Athens, where he renewed his philosophical studies under
+Antiochus the Academic. In Asia he attended the leading rhetoricians,
+especially his old teacher Molo at Rhodes, who endeavoured to chasten
+the exuberance of his manner. At Rhodes he also made the acquaintance
+of the famous Stoic Posidonius (_de Fin._ i. 6). After an absence of
+two years he returned to Rome B.C. 77, and shortly afterwards married
+Terentia.
+
+Cicero, who had served in the Social War, B.C. 89 (_Phil._ xii. 27),
+began his official career in 75 as quaestor of the district of
+Lilybaeum in Sicily, where he won golden opinions from all classes
+(_pro Planc._ 64). He headed the poll at the election of aediles for
+69, and of praetors for 66 (_in Pis._ 2); as praetor he presided over
+the court for the trial of cases of _repetundae_ (_pro Clu._ 147). His
+canvass for the consulship of 63 began as early as July 65 (_ad Att._
+i. 1, 1); he was returned with C. Antonius as his colleague (_in Pis._
+3). His services to the State in 63 in the crushing of the
+Catilinarian conspiracy need not be dwelt on here: his activity as an
+orator in that year was great, and he passed a law against undue
+influence by candidates, 'Lex Tullia de ambitu' (_in Vat._ 37). He
+waived his right to a province, allowing Metellus Celer to take Gaul.
+
+In 58 the hostility of P. Clodius effected Cicero's banishment, on the
+ground that he had put the Catilinarian conspirators to death without
+trial. Retiring at first to Vibo, in Lucania, he moved successively to
+Sicily, Thurii, Tarentum, Brundisium, Dyrrhachium, Thessalonica, and
+Athens. At Dyrrhachium he resided from November 58 to August 57, when,
+after several unsuccessful efforts by his friends, a law was passed
+for his recall.
+
+In 53 he was chosen augur in succession to the younger Crassus (Plut.
+_Cic._ 36), and two years later was appointed proconsul of Cilicia,
+under the new arrangement providing for an interval of five years
+between office in Rome and the government of a province. There he
+carried on a petty warfare with the mountaineers, and captured the
+fort of Pindenissus (a success for which the Senate decreed a
+_supplicatio_), occupying the winter with judicial business in the
+towns. His absence from the centre of affairs, though it lasted only a
+year, was most distasteful to him; cf. _ad Att._ v. 11, 1, 'Ne
+provincia nobis prorogetur, per fortunas! dum ades, quidquid provideri
+potest, provide: non dici potest quam flagrem desiderio urbis, quam
+vix harum rerum insulsitatem feram.' For his just dealing with the
+provincials, cf. _ad Att._ v. 21, 5.
+
+In November, 50, Cicero returned to Italy, to find a crisis imminent,
+and finally cast in his lot with the senatorial party. He left Rome
+with the consuls and the leading _optimates_, and for some time had
+charge of the district of Capua (_ad Fam._ xvi. 11, 3, 'nos Capuam
+sumpsimus'). On 7th June, B.C. 49, he embarked to join Pompey in
+Epirus, though far from enthusiastic for his leadership (_ad Fam._
+vii. 3, 2, 'mei facti poenituit... Nihil boni praeter causam.') The
+chiefs of the party looked upon him with suspicion, and he was not
+present at the battle of Pharsalus. After Pompey's overthrow he
+returned to Brundisium, and in 47 was allowed by Caesar to return to
+Rome (_ad Fam._ xiv. 23). His mode of life at this time he thus
+describes (_ad Fam._ ix. 20, 3), 'Ubi salutatio defluxit, litteris me
+involvo, aut scribo aut lego. Veniunt etiam qui me audiant quasi
+doctum hominem, quia paullo sum quam ipsi doctior.'
+
+In 46 he divorced his wife Terentia, of whose neglect he complains,
+_ad Fam._ iv. 14, 3; and married Publilia, with whom he parted in the
+following year. In 45 he lost his only daughter Tullia, who had been
+thrice married; he tried to drown his grief by close application to
+literary work, moving about from villa to villa, and it is to this
+period that most of his philosophical works belong. In 44 he appeared
+once more in Rome, and took a prominent part in the proceedings which
+followed upon Caesar's death. April to July he spent at his various
+villas (_ad Att._ xiv. _passim_), and then decided to visit Athens,
+where his son (born B.C. 65) was studying. On 1st August he reached
+Syracuse, but hearing at Leucopetra that his presence was required at
+Rome, he gave up his plan of travel and returned to the city. With the
+series of _Philippics_ against Antony (44-3) Cicero's career closes.
+In the proscription agreed on by the triumvirs he was marked out as
+one of the chief victims. A fragment of Livy, quoted by Seneca,
+_Suas._ 6, 17, states that he fled first to Tusculum, then to Formiae,
+and took ship from Caieta, but returned to land, exclaiming, 'Moriar
+in patria saepe servata.' On his way from the shore to his villa he
+was slain by a party of Antony's soldiers, and his head was carried to
+Rome and exposed on the Rostra. The date of the assassination was 7th
+December, B.C. 43 (Tiro quoted by Tac. _Dial._ 17).
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+(a) Speeches.
+
+1. The earliest extant speech is that _Pro Quinctio_, delivered B.C.
+81 (Gell. xv. 28, 3) in an action before a iudex for restitution of
+property. This was not Cicero's first appearance as an advocate: par. 4,
+'quod mihi consuevit in ceteris causis esse adiumento.'
+
+2. Next year (cf. Gell. _ibid._) Cicero made his first speech in a
+criminal case, defending Sex. Roscius of Ameria on a charge of
+parricide. By so doing he incurred the risk of Sulla's enmity, but at
+the same time established his own position. _De Off._ ii. 51, 'contra
+L. Sullae dominantis opes pro S. Roscio Amerino'; _Brut._ 312, 'prima
+causa publica, pro Sex. Roscio dicta, tantum commendationis habuit, ut
+non ulla esset quae non digna nostro patrocinio videretur.' In later
+years he criticized the 'iuvenilis redundantia' of this speech
+(_Orat._ 108).
+
+3. The speech _Pro Roscio Comoedo_, usually assigned to B.C. 76, was a
+defence of the famous actor in a civil case.
+
+4. The year 70 B.C. is memorable for the group of speeches
+('accusationis vii. libri,' _Orat._ 103), against Verres, accused of
+_repetundae_ by the Sicilians, at whose urgent entreaty Cicero
+undertook the prosecution. The preliminary question, who should
+conduct the prosecution, is argued in the _Divinatio in Caecilium_. Q.
+Caecilius Niger, Verres' quaestor, claimed the right to prosecute, but
+this manoeuvre failed. Of the six speeches _in Verrem_ only one, the
+_Actio Prima_, was delivered: Cicero, seeing that the other side were
+anxious to carry the trial over into the next year, confined himself
+to this short introductory speech (on 5th August, cf. par. 31), after
+which he called his witnesses. Their evidence was so damaging that
+Hortensius[25] threw up the defence, and Verres was sentenced to
+banishment and his property confiscated. The five Books of the _Actio
+Secunda_ were published afterwards in order that the facts might be
+thoroughly known.
+
+5. _Pro M. Fonteio_ (incomplete), for Fonteius, propraetor of Gallia
+Narbonensis B.C. 75-3, on a charge of _repetundae_. This trial perhaps
+took place B.C. 69, certainly after the equites had been placed on the
+_iudicia_ by the Lex Aurelia of 70 (cf. par. 26).
+
+6. To the same year probably belongs the speech _Pro Caecina_ in a
+civil case.
+
+7. In B.C. 66 Cicero made his first political speech, _Pro Lege
+Manilia_, or _De Imperio Cn. Pompei_, in support of the bill of the
+tribune Manilius for conferring on Pompey the command against
+Mithradates.
+
+8. In the same year he defended Cluentius, charged with murder, in the
+speech _Pro A. Cluentio Habito_. The date is fixed as the year of
+Cicero's praetorship by par. 147, 'mea quaestio de pecuniis repetundis.'
+
+9. The three speeches _De Lege Agraria_ are concerned with the bill of
+P. Servilius Rullus for the appointment of _decemviri_ with full power
+to buy and sell land and to establish colonies. The first speech
+(incomplete) was made in the Senate on 1st January, the second and
+third before _contiones_.
+
+10. The speech _Pro C. Rabirio perduellionis reo_ was delivered on
+behalf of Rabirius, charged before the _comitia_ with the murder of
+the tribune Saturninus in B.C. 100. The prosecution had been
+instituted by the democratic party to vindicate the old right of
+_provocatio ad populum_, and to establish the inviolability of the
+tribunes.
+
+11. Of the four speeches _In Catilinam_, i. was delivered in the
+Senate on 8th November, and followed by Catiline's flight from Rome;
+ii. to the people on 9th November; iii. to the people on 3rd December,
+when the Allobroges gave their evidence about the conspiracy; iv. in
+the Senate, on 5th December, calling for the capital punishment of the
+conspirators.[26]
+
+12. In this crisis Cicero made one of his most graceful and witty
+speeches, the _Pro Murena_. The defendant was charged with bribery in
+his candidature for the consulship, and among the prosecutors was
+Cato.
+
+13-14. In B.C. 62 Cicero defended P. Sulla, who was accused of
+complicity with Catiline (_Pro Sulla_), and delivered the speech _Pro
+Archia_ in support of his friend's title to the Roman citizenship.
+
+15. In B.C. 59 L. Flaccus was accused of _repetundae_ as propraetor of
+Asia 62-60, and defended by Cicero in the speech _Pro Flacco_.
+
+16-19. After Cicero's return from exile he returned thanks to the
+Senate in the speech _Cum Senatui gratias egit_, 5th September B.C. 57
+(_ad Att._ iv. 1, 5), delivered from manuscript ('propter rei
+magnitudinem dicta de scripto,' _Pro Planc._ 74). The genuineness of
+the corresponding speech to the people, _Cum populo gratias egit_, is
+suspected; it is mentioned by Dio. xxxix. 9, 1, but not by Cicero
+himself. On 30th September (_ad Att._ iv. 2, 2) the speech _De Domo
+Sua_ was delivered before the _pontifices_, who decided that the site
+of Cicero's house, which Clodius had consecrated, should be restored
+to its owner. Connected with this is the speech _De Haruspicum
+Responsis_, of the year 56, rebutting the argument of Clodius that the
+declaration of the _haruspices_, 'loca sacra et religiosa profana
+haberi' (par. 9) referred to the restitution of Cicero's house.
+
+20. The speech _Pro Sestio_ is in defence of one of Cicero's friends
+who, as tribune, had worked energetically for his recall from exile,
+and was now accused _de vi_ at the instigation of Clodius. Sestius was
+acquitted in March, B.C. 56 (_ad Q.F._ ii. 4, 1).
+
+21. The _Interrogatio in P. Vatinium testem_ was a successful attack
+on the credibility of Vatinius, who had been one of the chief
+witnesses against Sestius.
+
+22. _Pro M. Caelio_.--The prosecution of Caelius on a charge of
+poisoning was instigated by his former mistress, Clodia; it took place
+in B.C. 56, for Cn. Domitius, who tried the case (par. 32), was praetor
+in that year (_ad Q.F._ ii. 3, 6).
+
+23. The speech _De Provinciis Consularibus_, B.C. 56, argues that
+Caesar should be allowed to continue as proconsul of Gaul, and that
+Syria and Macedonia should be taken away from Gabinius and Piso.
+Mommsen[27] regards it as the +palinodia+ of _ad Att._ iv. 5,
+1, and contrasts Cicero's tone to Caesar in this speech with his
+attitude in the _Pro Sestio_, _In Vatinium_, and _De Haruspicum
+Responsis_.
+
+24. The speech _Pro Balbo_ deals with a case similar to that of
+Archias. L. Cornelius Balbus, a native of Gades, and the trusted
+friend of Caesar, had received the _civitas_ from Pompey, and this
+speech is in defence of his right thereto (B.C. 56).
+
+25. _In Pisonem_, an attack on Cicero's enemy (consul B.C. 58),
+delivered in the Senate B.C. 55.
+
+26. _Pro Plancio_, B.C. 54, on behalf of Cn. Plancius, accused of
+organizing clubs to secure by bribery his election to the aedileship.
+
+27. _Pro Rabirio Postumo_, B.C. 54. Rabirius was charged with
+extortion in Egypt.
+
+28. _Pro Milone_.--At the trial of Milo _de vi_ in B.C. 52 Cicero was
+so intimidated by the uproar of the rabble that his speech was a
+failure, and Milo was condemned. The speech now extant was written by
+Cicero at his leisure. Both were known to Asconius,[28] who supplies a
+valuable introduction.
+
+29. For six years we have no speech; but in 46 Cicero broke his rule
+of silence ('in perpetuum tacere,' _ad Fam._ iv. 4, 4), and in the
+speech _Pro Marcello_ thanked Caesar for allowing Marcellus, the
+consul of B.C. 51, to return to Rome.
+
+30. On 26th November B.C. 46 he pleaded before Caesar the cause of Q.
+Ligarius (_Pro Ligario_).
+
+31. In the latter part of B.C. 45 he delivered in Caesar's house the
+speech _Pro Rege Deiotaro_ on behalf of his 'hospes vetus et amicus,'
+the tetrarch of Galatia, accused of treachery to Caesar.
+
+32. Cicero's oratorical career closes with the fourteen speeches
+against Antony, called _Philippics_, after the speeches of
+Demosthenes. This title was suggested by the author himself; cf. the
+letter of Brutus (_ad Brut._ ii. 5, 4), 'iam concedo ut vel
+Philippicae vocentur, quod tu quadam epistula iocans scripsisti.' It
+was the usual title in antiquity, though Gellius (xiii. 1, 1) uses the
+alternative _Antonianae_. The _Philippics_ cover the period from 2nd
+September 44 to 22nd April 43. They were all delivered in the Senate,
+except iv. and vi., which are _contiones_, and ii., which was never
+spoken, but published as a political pamphlet after Antony had left
+Rome: for its fame cf. Juv. 10, 125,
+
+  'Te conspicuae, divina Philippica, famae,
+  volveris a prima quae proxima.'
+
+There are fragments of about twenty speeches, and the titles of thirty
+others are known. The invective _in Sallustium_, and the speech
+_Pridie quam in exilium iret_, are undoubtedly spurious.
+
+Many of the speeches were to a large extent extempore, the heads only
+being committed to writing. These notes were afterwards collected by
+Tiro (Quint. x. 7, 30-1). In publishing, Cicero occasionally omitted
+some passages of the spoken oration, _e.g._ in _Pro Mur._ 57 only the
+headings appear, 'De Postumi criminibus.' 'De Servi adulescentis': cf.
+Plin. _Ep._ i. 20, 7, 'ex his apparet illum permulta dixisse, cum
+ederet omisisse.' For the practice of reporting his speeches in
+shorthand cf. Ascon. _in Mil._ 'manet illa quoque excepta eius oratio'
+(his speech at Milo's trial). The only case in which Cicero appeared
+for the prosecution was that of Verres: the part of an accuser was
+generally distasteful to him; cf. _De Off._ ii. 50, 'duri hominis vel
+potius vix hominis videtur, periculum capitis inferre multis.'
+
+
+(b) Philosophical Works.
+
+1. _De Re Publica_, a discussion of the ideal state and the ideal
+citizen, was published before B.C. 51, for Caelius writes to Cicero in
+Cilicia, 'tui politici libri omnibus vigent' (_ad Fam._ viii. 1, 4).
+In this treatise Cicero made use of Plato, and of Aristotle,
+Theophrastus, and other Peripatetics (_de Div._ ii. 3). There were six
+Books; but until 1822 the _Somnium Scipionis_, extracted by Macrobius
+from Book vi., was the only portion of the work known to exist, with
+the exception of a few fragments. In that year Mai published at Rome,
+from a Vatican palimpsest, remains which make up about one-third of
+the whole.
+
+2. The _De Legibus_ succeeded the _De Re Publica_, as Plato's _Laws_
+came after the _Republic_. The speakers in this dialogue are Atticus,
+Cicero, and his brother Quintus. Book i. expounds the Stoic position
+that the laws of the ideal state are made by the wise man in
+accordance with the mind of God; this position is worked out in Book
+ii. in the regulations for religion, and in iii. on the duties of
+magistrates. The treatise was never completed, and was perhaps a
+posthumous publication: it is not mentioned in the list in _De
+Divinatione_ ii. 1-3, and there is no preface, though Cicero says (_ad
+Att._ iv. 16, 2) 'in singulis libris utor prooemiis.' Certainly it had
+not appeared in B.C. 46, the year of the _Brutus_ (_Brut._ 19). It was
+composed after the murder of Clodius in January, B.C. 52 (ii. 42), and
+in Pompey's lifetime (iii. 22): probably in 52, as the government of
+Cilicia and the civil war left Cicero no time for literature during
+the years 51-48.
+
+3. In the spring of 46 was written the short tract _Paradoxa_, a
+discussion of six Stoic paradoxes (_e.g._ that the wise man alone is
+free). It was addressed to Brutus, and was later than the dialogue
+which bears his name; cf. the preface, 'accipies hoc parvum opusculum,
+lucubratum his iam contractioribus noctibus, quoniam illud maiorum
+vigiliarum munus in tuo nomine apparuit.'
+
+4. The death of Tullia in February, 45, led Cicero to write, at
+Astura, a _Consolatio_, of which only fragments survive. Plin. _N.H._
+praef. 22, quotes Cicero as saying that he here followed the Greek
+philosopher, Crantor, +peri penthous+. It contained notices of
+the deaths of great men, _De Div._ ii. 22, 'clarissimorum hominum
+nostrae civitatis gravissimos exitus in Consolatione collegimus.'
+
+5. In the _Hortensius_ Cicero appeared as the champion of philosophy:
+_De Fin._ i. 2, 'philosophiae vituperatoribus satis responsum est eo
+libro, quo a nobis philosophia defensa et collaudata est, cum esset
+accusata et vituperata ab Hortensio.' It cannot be traced beyond the
+seventh century, and is now represented by a few fragments. In the
+Middle Ages it was confounded with the _Prior Academics_, the speakers
+in both dialogues being the same. The _Hortensius_ seems to have been
+written before Cicero went to Astura in March, B.C. 45: there is no
+allusion to it in his letters.
+
+6. The treatise _De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum_ discusses various
+theories of the _summum bonum_--the Epicurean in Books i.-ii., the
+Stoic in iii.-iv., the Peripatetic in v. The scene of the dialogue
+changes from Cumae to Tusculum and then to the Academy at Athens. The
+work was dedicated to Brutus in June, 45 (_ad Att._ xiii. 12, 3).
+
+7. The _Academics_ appeared in two editions. Of the original edition
+Book ii., entitled _Lucullus_, has survived; the speakers in it are
+Lucullus, Catulus, Hortensius, and Cicero, and the scene, Hortensius'
+villa. Cicero was not satisfied with this arrangement (_ad Att._ xiii.
+12, 3, 'homines nobiles illi quidem, sed nullo modo philologi, nimis
+acute locuntur'), and after provisionally transferring the parts of
+Lucullus, Catulus, and Hortensius, to Cato and Brutus, he finally
+adopted the suggestion of Atticus to gratify Varro by giving him a
+share in the dialogue together with Atticus and himself (_ad Att._
+xiii. 13, 1, 'commotus tuis litteris, quod ad me de Varrone
+scripseras, totam Academiam ab hominibus nobilissimis abstuli
+transtulique ad nostrum sodalem et ex duobus libris contuli in
+quattuor'). Of this second edition in four Books we possess only Book
+i. (incomplete), and fragments of the others; the scene is at Cumae.
+The dedicatory epistle to Varro is still preserved (_ad Fam._ ix. 8).
+
+8. In the five Books of _Tusculanae Disputationes_, conversations
+between Cicero and a friend at his Tusculan villa, the subject is the
+chief essentials for happiness. Book i. inculcates the proper attitude
+towards death, ii. to grief, iii. to pain, iv. to other trials, v.
+asserts the sufficiency of virtue for happiness. The treatise is
+dedicated to Brutus, and was finished by B.C. 44, in which year (_ad
+Att._ xv. 2, 4) the first Book is known to Atticus.
+
+9. _De Natura Deorum_, in three Books, is also addressed to Brutus.
+The Epicurean, Stoic, and Peripatetic doctrines are represented by C.
+Velleius, Q. Lucilius Balbus, and C. Aurelius Cotta, respectively.
+This treatise was written after the _Tusculans_ (_de Div._ ii. 3): in
+July 45 (_ad Att._ xiii. 39, 2) Atticus is asked for the loan of
++Phaidrou peri theon+ and +peri Pallados+.
+
+10. The essay _De Senectute_, called also _Cato Maior_ after the
+principal speaker in the dialogue, was addressed to Atticus at the end
+of 45 or early in 44 (_de Div._ ii. 3; _ad Att._ xiv. 21, 3).
+
+11. To a later date in the same year belongs the _Laelius_, or _De
+Amicitia_ (_de Am._ 4 mentions the _de Sen._), in which Laelius
+discourses on friendship. In this book, according to Gell. i. 3,
+10-11, Cicero was under obligations to Theophrastus +peri philias+.
+
+12. _De Divinatione_, in two Books, forms a supplement to the _De
+Natura Deorum_. Cicero and his brother discuss, at Tusculum, the
+nature and validity of 'divinatio,' which is defined (i. 9) as 'earum
+rerum quae fortuitae putantur praedictio atque praesensio.' The date
+is 44.
+
+13. The incomplete essay _De Fato_ was written in 44, after Caesar's
+death (cf. par. 2). The conversation takes place at Puteoli, between
+Cicero and the consul-designate Hirtius.
+
+14. On 11th July of the same year Cicero sent to Atticus his treatise
+_De Gloria_, in two Books, now lost (_ad Att._ xvi. 2, 6; _de Off._
+ii. 31).
+
+15. The latest of the extant philosophical works is the _De Officiis_,
+written for the instruction of the author's son. Cicero had completed
+two Books by November, B.C. 44 (xvi. 11, 4), following the treatment
+of Panaetius, and discussing in Book i. the issue between vice and
+virtue, in Book ii. the expediency of a given action. In Book iii. he
+was indebted to Posidonius, for the discussion of apparent conflict
+between virtue and expediency.
+
+There are traces of two other treatises, _De Virtutibus_ and _De
+Auguriis_; and we possess fragments of a translation of Plato's
+_Protagoras_ and _Timaeus_, which cannot be earlier than B.C. 45 (_de
+Fin._ i. 7).
+
+Cicero propounds no original scheme of philosophy, claiming only that
+he renders the conclusions of Greek thinkers accessible to his own
+countrymen. This sort of work cost him little trouble: _ad Att._ xii.
+52, 3, '+apographa+ sunt; minore labore fiunt: verba tantum affero,
+quibus abundo.' At the same time he is not a mere translator: _de
+Fin._ i. 6, 'nos non interpretum fungimur munere, sed tuemur ea quae
+dicta sunt ab eis quos probamus, eisque nostrum iudicium et nostrum
+scribendi ordinem adiungimus.' His motives for entering upon this task
+are explained in _De Nat. Deor._ i. 7-9: (1) he desired to do a
+service to his country: 'ipsius rei publicae causa philosophiam
+nostris hominibus explicandam putavi'; (2) he sought relief for his
+own mind: 'hortata etiam est ut me ad haec conferrem animi aegritudo,
+fortunae magna et gravi conmota iniuria.' Cicero is an eclectic, with
+a leaning to the New Academy: _Tusc._ iv. 7, 'nullis unius disciplinae
+legibus adstricti, quibus in philosophia necessario pareamus.'
+Probability is all that he expects to reach: _ibid._, 'quid sit in
+quaque re maxime probabile semper requiremus.' The philosophy most
+attractive to him is that which best called forth the oratorical
+faculty: _Tusc._ ii. 9, 'mihi semper Peripateticorum Academiaeque
+consuetudo de omnibus rebus in contrarias partes differendi ...
+placuit ... quod esset ea maxima dicendi exercitatio.'[29]
+
+
+(c) Rhetorical Treatises.
+
+1. The earliest of these is _De Inventione_, or _Rhetorica_, in two
+Books, written probably for the author's own use during Sulla's
+absence in Asia B.C. 87-83. In his mature years Cicero looked back
+with contempt on this youthful effort: _de Or._ i. 5, 'quae pueris aut
+adulescentulis nobis ex commentariolis nostris incohata ac rudia
+exciderunt.' He borrows much from the _Rhet. ad Herenn._, and
+frequently mentions and criticises the views of Hermagoras; but all
+the best writers on rhetoric were laid under contribution: ii. 4,
+'omnibus unum in locum coactis scriptoribus, quod quisque commodissime
+praecipere videbatur, excerpsimus.'
+
+2. The three Books _De Oratore_ were finished in 55: _ad Att._ iv. 13,
+2, 'de libris oratoriis factum est a me diligenter: diu multumque in
+manibus fuerunt: describas licet.' They were written at a time when
+Cicero's voice was seldom heard: _ad Fam._ i. 9, 23, 'ab orationibus
+diiungo me fere referoque ad mansuetiores Musas.' The dialogue takes
+place in B.C. 91, at the Tusculan villa of L. Licinius Crassus; he and
+the rival orator, M. Antonius, are the chief speakers.
+
+3. The dialogue _Brutus_, or _De Claris Oratoribus_, after a brief
+survey of Greek oratory, criticises the Roman orators from L. Brutus
+to Cicero's own time. In spite of his intention to omit living persons
+(par. 231), he discusses Caesar, M. Marcellus, and himself. The speakers
+are Brutus, Atticus, and Cicero; and the date is probably 46, for the
+_Brutus_ is earlier than the _Orator_, which refers to it (par. 23).
+
+4. The _Orator_ or _De Optimo Genere Dicendi_ is a sequel to the _De
+Oratore_ and the _Brutus_, adding practical rules to the exposition of
+theory (_de Div._ ii. 4). It was written at the request of Brutus, to
+whom it is addressed, in the year 46 (_ad Fam._ xii. 17, 2).
+
+5. _Partitiones Oratoriae_ is a catechism on rhetoric, in which the
+questions are put to Cicero by his son.
+
+6. The _Topica_ was written in response to repeated requests from
+Trebatius for explanation of Aristotle's _Topics_. It was done by
+Cicero, without the aid of books, on his voyage from Velia to Rhegium
+in July, 44 (_Top._ 5; _ad Fam._ vii. 19).
+
+7. The short treatise _De Optimo Genere Oratorum_ was introductory to
+a version of the speeches of Demosthenes and Aeschines 'on the Crown,'
+designed to show the Romans what the best Attic oratory was like.
+
+
+(d) Letters.
+
+Cicero's correspondence begins B.C. 68 with _ad Att._ i. 5, and ends
+28th July, B.C. 43. Besides seven hundred and seventy-four letters
+written by Cicero, we have ninety addressed to him by friends. The
+collection was made by friends like Tiro and Atticus: cf. _ad Att._
+xvi. 5, 5 (B.C. 44), 'Mearum epistularum nulla est +synagoge+, sed
+habet Tiro instar septuaginta, et quidem sunt a te quaedam sumendae:
+eas ego oportet perspiciam, corrigam; tum denique edentur.'
+
+The letters now extant fall into four groups.
+
+1. _Epistulae ad Atticum_, in sixteen Books, belonging to the years
+B.C. 68-43, and valuable for their thorough frankness (_ad Att._ viii.
+14, 2, 'ego tecum tamquam mecum loquor'). Nepos appreciates their
+supreme importance for the history of Cicero's time, although he dates
+the commencement of the correspondence wrongly: _Att._ 16, 'xvi.
+volumina epistularum ab consulatu eius usque ad extremum tempus ad
+Atticum missarum; quae qui legat, non multum desideret historiam
+contextam eorum temporum.' Atticus' own letters were not published,
+though Cicero preserved them: _ad Att._ ix. 10, 4, 'Evolvi volumen
+epistularum, quod ego sub signo habeo servoque diligentissime.'
+
+2. _Epistulae ad Quintum Fratrem_, in three Books, of the years B.C.
+60-54.
+
+3. _Epistulae ad Brutum_, originally in nine Books, of which only two
+remain. The present Book i. was really Book ix., and Book ii., which
+contains letters earlier than those in Book i., may have formed part
+of the original Book viii.
+
+4. _Epistulae ad Familiares_, in sixteen Books, letters to and from
+friends, written B.C. 62-43. This title is not found in any MS. Late
+MSS. and old editions have 'Epistulae Familiares': for the title 'Ad
+Diversos' there is no authority. In the best MSS. the Books are titled
+separately by the name of the person to whom the first letter in each
+is written, _e.g._ 'M. Tulli Ciceronis epistularum ad P. Lentulum
+liber i.'
+
+For the colloquial style of the letters cf. _ad Fam._ ix. 21, 1 (to
+Paetus), 'Quid tibi ego in epistulis videor? nonne plebeio sermone
+agere tecum? nec enim semper eodem modo: quid enim simile habet
+epistula aut iudicio aut contioni? ... epistulas vero cottidianis
+verbis texere solemus.'
+
+The following works are now lost: (_a_) _Miscellaneous prose
+writings._--1. Panegyrics on Porcia (_ad Att._ xiii. 37, 3) and Cato,
+B.C. 45; and funeral orations written for other people to deliver (_ad
+Q.F._ iii. 8, 5, 'laudavit pater scripto meo').
+
+2. Memoirs of Cicero's consulship, written B.C. 60, in both Greek and
+Latin (_ad. Att._ i. 19, 10). He took great pains with this book, and
+was anxious that it should be well circulated (_ad Att._ ii. 1, 1).
+
+3. A secret history, _Anekdota_, mentioned in letters of B.C. 59 and
+44 (_ad Att._ ii. 6, 2; xiv. 17, 6).
+
+4. _Admiranda_, a collection of wonders (Pliny, _N.H._ xxxi. 51).
+
+5. _Chorographia_, a book on geography, mentioned by Priscian. The
+letters to Atticus show that Cicero was studying the subject in B.C.
+59.
+
+6. A work on law, _De iure civili in artem redigendo_ (Gell. i. 22,
+7).
+
+7. A translation of Xenophon's _Oeconomicus_, made when Cicero was
+about the age of twenty (_de Off._ ii. 87).
+
+(_b_) _Poems._--1. Cicero's earliest effort in verse was a poem in
+tetrameters, entitled _Pontius Glaucus_: Plut. _Cic._ 2, +kai
+ti poiemation eti paidos autou diasozetai Pontios Glaukos en
+tetrametro pepoiemenon+.
+
+2. In B.C. 60 he made a verse translation of the astronomical poems of
+Aratus, _ad Att._ ii. 1, 2, 'Prognostica mea ... propediem exspecta.'
+Quotations are given in _De Nat. Deor._ ii. 104 _sqq._
+
+3. In the same year he wrote a poem _De Suo Consulatu_, in three
+Books: _ad Att._ i. 19, 10, 'poema exspectato, ne quod genus a me ipso
+laudis meae praetermittatur.' A long passage from Book ii., spoken by
+the Muse Urania, is recited by Q. Cicero in _De Div._ i. 17 _sqq._
+
+4. Another poem in three Books, _De Temporibus Suis_, belonged
+probably to the year 55. Cicero writes to Lentulus in 54 (_ad Fam._ i.
+9, 23), 'scripsi versibus tres libros de temporibus meis, quos iam
+pridem ad te misissem, si esse edendos putassem.'
+
+5. In the letters to Quintus from June to December, 54, there is
+frequent mention of a poem _Ad Caesarem_. Quintus is consulted for
+information about Britain: _ad Q.F._ ii. 15, 2, 'mihi date Britanniam,
+quam pingam coloribus tuis, penicillo meo.'
+
+6. A poem on Cicero's great townsman Marius is quoted, _De Div._ i.
+106.
+
+Among others quoted are _Limon_, in which Terence was praised (see p.
+51), and _iocularis libellus_ (Quint. viii. 6, 73). Translations from
+Greek poets occur in the philosophical works, e.g. _de Fin._ v. 49,
+from Homer, _Odys._ xii. 184-191; _Tusc._ ii. 23, from various parts
+of Aeschylus, _Prom. Vinct._
+
+The ancient criticisms on Cicero's poetry are all unfavourable:
+
+_De Off._ i. 77, 'Illud optimum est, in quo invadi solere ab improbis
+et invidis audio:
+
+  "Cedant arma togae, concedat laurea laudi."'
+
+Juv. 10, 122,
+
+  '"O fortunatam natam me consule Romam!"
+  Antoni gladios potuit contemnere, si sic
+  omnia dixisset.'
+
+Tac. _Dial._ 21 (quoted p. 111).
+
+Quint. xi. 1, 24, 'In carminibus utinam pepercisset, quae non
+desierunt carpere maligni.'
+
+_Rhetorica ad Herennium_.--This treatise on rhetoric in four Books,
+addressed to the author's relative C. Herennius, is usually printed
+among Cicero's works, and is attributed to him by the MSS. and by
+Jerome and Priscian. But it is clearly not by Cicero, for (_a_) it
+does not agree with his own description of his early rhetorical
+writings as 'incohata ac rudia'; (_b_) the author's position, as
+described by himself, is not Cicero's. It is generally held that one
+Cornificius was the author; Quintilian (_e.g._ v. 10, 2) attributes to
+a person of that name several expressions found in the _ad Herennium_.
+He may have been the Q. Cornificius who opposed Cicero for the
+consulship in B.C. 64. The date of the treatise is probably B.C.
+86-84.
+
+
+
+QUINTUS CICERO.
+
+
+Q. Tullius Cicero, the brother of the orator, was born probably B.C.
+102. He was aedile in 65 (_ad Att._ i. 4, 1); praetor in 62, when he
+tried the case of Archias; propraetor of Asia 61-58 (_ad Q.F._ i. 1,
+2). He acted as _legatus_ of Pompey in Sardinia B.C. 56 (_pro Scauro_,
+39); of Caesar in Gaul, taking part in the second invasion of Britain
+(Caes. _B.G._ v.); and of his brother in Cilicia (_ad Fam._ xv. 4, 8).
+At the outbreak of the civil war he was with Marcus at Formiae and
+Capua; but after the death of Pompey there was a breach between them.
+Being proscribed by the triumvirs he took flight, but was betrayed by
+his slaves and put to death, B.C. 43 (Plut. _Cic._ 47). His wife was
+Pomponia, the sister of Atticus.
+
+For the benefit of M. Cicero in his candidature for the consulship,
+B.C. 64, Quintus wrote the _Commentariolum Petitionis_ (the title in par.
+58) or _De Petitione Consulatus_. It is in the form of a letter, and
+is headed in the best MSS. 'Q. M. Fratri S. D.' Quintus writes with
+special reference to his brother's circumstances, but most of the
+rules which he lays down are of general application. The authenticity
+of this treatise has been called in question by Eussner, who ascribes
+it to a clever imitator, partly on the ground of coincidences of
+expression with Cicero's speech _in Toga Candida_; but his arguments
+are refuted by Prof. Tyrrell (_Cicero's Correspondence_, i. pp.
+110-121).
+
+There are also extant three letters to Tiro and one to M. Cicero.
+Quintus' poetry is now represented only by twenty hexameters on the
+signs of the zodiac; but he wrote an epic poem, _Annales_ (_ad Att._
+ii. 16, 4 [Quintus] 'ita remittit ut me roget ut annales suos emendem
+et edam'), and composed tragedies with great rapidity (_ad Q.F._ iii.
+6, 7, 'quattuor tragoedias xvi. diebus absolvisse cum scribas, tu
+quidquam ab alio mutuaris?'). His admiration for Sophocles and
+Euripides appears in _De Fin._ v. 3; _ad Fam._ xvi. 8, 2.
+
+
+
+TIRO.
+
+
+M. Tullius Tiro, the freedman of Cicero, who had a high opinion of his
+worth and ability (_ad Fam._ xvi. 4, 3; _ad Att._ vii. 5, 2), wrote
+(1) a biography of his patron: Ascon. p. 49, 'ut legimus apud Tironem
+libertum Ciceronis in libro iiii. de vita eius.'
+
+(2) Editions of Cicero's speeches and letters: Gell. i. 7, 1, 'in
+oratione Ciceronis v. in Verrem, libro spectatae fidei, Tironiana cura
+atque disciplina facto.' (See also p. 85.)
+
+(3) A collection of Cicero's witticisms: Quint. vi. 3, 5, 'utinam
+libertus eius Tiro aut alius, quisquis fuit, qui iii. hac de re libros
+edidit, parcius dictorum numero indulsissent.'
+
+(4) Grammatical works, as +pandektai+, mentioned by Gell. xiii.
+9, 2.
+
+For his system of shorthand, cf. Sueton. p. 136 R., 'Romae primus
+Tullius Tiro, Ciceronis libertus, commentatus est notas, sed tantum
+praepositionum.'
+
+
+
+T. POMPONIUS ATTICUS (B.C. 109-32).
+
+
+Author of (1) _Annalis_, a chronological table of the chief events in
+Roman and foreign history, accompanied by genealogies (Nepos, _Att._
+18, 1). As it was Cicero's _De Re Publica_ that suggested its
+composition (Cic. _Brut._ 19), its date cannot be earlier than B.C.
+54. (2) Family histories, _e.g._ of the Iunii (Nepos, _Att._ 18, 3),
+published separately. (3) _De Imaginibus_, a collection of
+inscriptions in verse for the busts of celebrated men (Nepos, _Att._
+18, 5). (4) _De Consulatu Ciceronis_, in Greek (Nepos, _Att._ 18, 6),
+written B.C. 60 (Cic. _ad Att._ ii. 1, 1).
+
+Atticus is an interesting figure on account of the large publishing
+business which he conducted (Nepos, _Att._ 13, 3); and the great care
+with which he sought out good MSS. to reproduce in his establishment
+makes him important in the history of the preservation of ancient
+literature.
+
+
+
+M. TERENTIUS VARRO.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+M. Terentius Varro was born B.C. 116 at Reate in the Sabine country.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1901, 'M. Terentius Varro philosophus et poeta
+nascitur.' Symmachus, _Ep._ i. 2, calls him 'Terentius Reatinus'; and
+he owned property in that district: _R.R._ ii. praef. 6, 'ipse
+pecuarias habui grandes, in Apulia oviarias, et in Reatino equarias.'
+
+Of his family nothing is known except that he had an uncle belonging
+to the equestrian order (Plin. _N.H._ vii. 176). His philosophical
+education was received at Athens, where he was a disciple of Antiochus
+of Ascalon: Cic. _Ac. Post._ 12, 'Aristum Athenis [Brutus] audivit
+aliquamdiu, cuius tu [Varro] fratrem Antiochum.'
+
+He took part in the war with Sertorius in Spain, B.C. 76 (Sall. _Hist._
+ii. fr. 69). In the war with the pirates, B.C. 67, he was one of
+Pompeius' lieutenants, and received a _corona navalis_ for his services.
+Varro _R.R._ ii. praef. 7, 'cum piratico bello inter Delum et Ciliciam
+Graeciae classibus praeessem.' Plin. _N.H._ vii. 115, '[Varroni] Magnus
+Pompeius piratico ex bello navalem [coronam] dedit.' Probably he was
+also with Pompeius in the war with Mithradates (Plin. _N.H._ xxxiii.
+136, xxxvii. 11; knowledge of the Caspian, vi. 38). To the coalition of
+Pompeius, Caesar, and Crassus he was originally hostile, going so far as
+to write one of his satires, +Trikaranos+, against them (Appian _B.C._
+ii. 9); but in 59 he was a member of the commission appointed to
+establish Caesar's veterans in Campania: Plin. _N.H._ vii. 176, 'Varro
+auctor est xx. viro se agros dividente Capuae,' etc. He also held the
+office of tribune (Gell. xiii. 12, 6), and was aedile with Murena (Plin.
+xxxv. 173).
+
+When the civil war broke out he was one of Pompeius' lieutenants in
+Farther Spain, and resisted Caesar without success (Caes. _B.C._ ii.
+17-20). From Spain he withdrew to Epirus, where he was coldly received
+by the Pompeians (Cic. _ad Fam._ ix. 6, 3, 'crudeliter otiosis
+minabantur, eratque eis et tua invisa voluntas et mea oratio'). We
+hear of him at Corcyra (_R.R._ i. 4), and at Dyrrhachium a few days
+before the battle of Pharsalus (Cic. _de Div._ i. 68). After Caesar's
+victory he lived quietly at his Tusculan villa (Cic. _ad Fam._ ix. 6,
+4, 'his tempestatibus es prope solus in portu ... equidem hos tuos
+Tusculanenses dies instar esse vitae puto'). He was more easily
+reconciled than Cicero to the new government, and was made librarian
+by Caesar: Sueton. _Iul._ 44, 'Destinabat bibliothecas Graecas
+Latinasque quas maximas posset publicare, data M. Varroni cura
+comparandarum ac digerendarum.' This, however, did not prevent him
+writing a funeral oration on Cato's sister Porcia (Cic. _ad Att._
+xiii. 48, 2).
+
+After Caesar's death Varro was exposed to the persecution of Antonius,
+whose raid on his villa at Casinum is vividly described by Cicero
+(_Phil._ ii. 103 _sqq._). He was proscribed, but the devotion of his
+friends secured his escape (Appian _B.C._ iv. 47).
+
+His old age was spent in peace, the literary activity for which his
+whole life was remarkable being maintained to the end. At the age of
+eighty-three he was still writing: Plin. _N.H._ xxix. 65, 'Cunctarer
+in proferendo ex his remedio, ni M. Varro lxxxiii vitae anno
+prodidisset,' etc.
+
+Varro's death took place in B.C. 27, in his ninetieth year. Jerome yr.
+Abr. 1990, 'M. Terentius Varro philosophus prope nonagenarius moritur.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+Cicero (_ad Att._ xiii. 18) calls Varro 'homo +polygraphotatos+,'
+and Varro himself said that he had written four hundred and ninety
+Books by the end of his seventy-seventh year: Gell. iii. 10, 17,
+'Addit se quoque iam duodecimam annorum hebdomadam ingressum esse et
+ad eum diem septuaginta hebdomadas librorum conscripsisse.' A letter
+of Jerome[30] gives a list of thirty-nine works in four hundred and
+ninety Books, admitting at the same time that these were only half of
+the total number ('vix medium descripsi indicem'). The titles of
+twenty-one other works are known from various sources.
+
+1. _Agriculture._--Of this enormous number only one has survived in a
+complete form, the treatise _De Re Rustica_ in three Books, in the
+form of a dialogue. Book i. treats of agriculture; ii. of
+stock-raising; iii. of poultry, game, and fish. It was written B.C.
+37-6: _R.R._ i. 1, 1, 'Annus octogesimus admonet me ut sarcinas
+colligam ante quam proficiscar e vita.'
+
+2. _Grammar._--Of the twenty-five books _De Lingua Latina_, only v.-x.
+have been preserved, but the scope of the whole is known from Varro's
+own words. Book i. was introductory; ii.-vii. dealt with etymology;
+viii.-xiii. with inflexions; xiv.-xxv. with syntax. Varro's
+derivations are ridiculed by Quintilian i. 6, 37, 'Sed cui non post
+Varronem sit venia, qui _agrum_ quia in eo _agatur_ aliquid, et
+_graculos_ quia _gregatim_ volent dictos voluit persuadere Ciceroni?'
+From Book v. onwards the work was dedicated to Cicero, in return for
+his _Academics_; it is announced in Cic. _Ac._ i. 2, where Varro says,
+'Habeo opus magnum in manibus, idque iam pridem: ad hunc enim ipsum
+(me autem dicebat) quaedam institui, quae et sunt magna sane et
+limantur a me politius.' The date of publication was probably B.C.
+45-3.
+
+Of the minor works on grammar, some at least were prior to the _De
+Lingua Latina_: Cic. _Ac._ i. 9, 'Plurimum poetis nostris omninoque
+Latinis et litteris luminis et verbis attulisti.' The titles known
+are, _De sermone Latino_, _De origine linguae Latinae_, _De
+similitudine verborum_, _De utilitate sermonis_, _De antiquitate
+litterarum_, +Peri charakteron+.
+
+3. _Roman History and Antiquities._ Varro's great work in this
+department was the _Antiquitates rerum divinarum humanarumque_, in
+forty-one Books. The arrangement, according to Augustine _De Civ.
+Dei_, vi. 3, was as follows: (_a_) i.-xxv. _res humanae_; i.
+introductory, ii.-vii. history of Rome down to its capture by the
+Gauls, viii.-xiii. geography of Italy, xiv.-xix. Roman Calendar, with
+dates of the chief historical events, xx.-xxv. Roman institutions, (_b_)
+xxvi.-xli. _res divinae_; the persons who sacrifice, the places, the
+times, the rites, and the gods were discussed in three Books each,
+xxvi. being introductory. The second part, at least, was addressed to
+Caesar as _pontifex maximus_. As it is mentioned by Cic. _Ac._ i. 9,
+it must have been published before B.C. 45.
+
+Minor works under this head were _Annales_, _Res urbanae_, _De gente
+populi Romani_, _De vita populi Romani_, _De familiis Troianis_,
+_Tribuum Liber_; _Aetia_ (+aitia+), explaining Roman usages, in the
+form of a catechism; +Eisagogikos+ to Pompey on the duties of a
+consul (B.C. 71), Gell. xiv. 7, 1; _De Pompeio_, _Legationum Libri_,
+_De sua vita_.
+
+4. _Geography._-(_a_) _Ephemeris navalis_, addressed to Pompey before
+his departure for Spain about B.C. 77, a weather almanack for sailors;
+_Ephemeris rustica_ or _agrestis_, for farmers. (_b_) _Libri navales_,
+perhaps identical with the above, (_c_) _De ora maritima_.
+
+5. _Law._--_De iure civili_ in fifteen Books.
+
+6. _Rhetoric._--_Rhetorica_.
+
+7. _Philosophy._-_De Forma Philosophiae_, _De Philosophia_.
+
+8. _Mathematics_, etc.-_De mensuris_, _Mensuralia_, _De principiis
+numerorum_, _Libri numerorum_, _De geometria_, _De astrologia_.
+
+9. _Disciplinae_ in nine Books, forming a complete course of education
+in the liberal arts.
+
+10. _History of Literature and the Drama._--_De poetis_, _De
+poematis_, _De lectionibus_, _De bibliothecis_, _De proprietate
+scriptorum_, _De personis_, _De descriptionibus_, _De actis scenicis_,
+_De scenicis actionibus_, _De originibus scenicis_, _Quaestiones
+Plautinae_. In the _Hebdomades_ or _Imaginum Libri_ xv. Varro gave
+short accounts in prose and verse of seven hundred famous Greeks and
+Romans, with their portraits (Plin. _N.H._ xxxv. 11), the title being
+derived from the arrangement in groups of seven. Aristotle's +Peplos+
+had dealt similarly with the heroes of the Trojan War, and the
+'+Peplographia+ Varronis' of Cic. _ad Att._ xvi. 11, 3 is usually
+identified with the _Hebdomades_.
+
+11. +Logistorikoi+, in seventy-six Books, were probably not a
+mixture of fable and history, but essays enlivened by historical
+examples. The titles were double, the chief speaker being named as
+well as the subject of the essay, _e.g._ _Catus de liberis educandis_.
+To this work Cicero probably refers, _Ac._ i. 9, 'Philosophiam multis
+locis incohasti, ad impellendum satis, ad edocendum parum.'
+
+12. Varro's poetical works are now represented only by fragments of
+the _Saturae Menippeae_, a medley of prose and verse in one hundred
+and fifty books (Cic. _Ac._ i. 9, 'Varium et elegans omni fere numero
+poema fecisti'). They were so called by Varro himself (Gell. ii. 18,
+7, 'In satiris quas alii Cynicas, ipse appellat Menippeas'), being
+founded on the dialogues of Menippus, the Cynic of Gadara, of the
+third century B.C. Their object was to present philosophy in a popular
+dress: Cic. _Ac._ i. 8, 'Quae cum facilius minus docti intellegerent,
+iucunditate quadam ad legendum invitati.' From the way in which they
+are spoken of in the same passage ('in illis veteribus nostris'), most
+of them must have been among Varro's earliest writings. The titles are
+extremely curious, _e.g._ '+Dis paides hoi gerontes+,' 'Longe
+fugit qui suos fugit.' Quintilian considers Varro as the founder of a
+type of satire distinct from that of Lucilius, Horace, and Persius: x.
+1, 95, 'Alterum illud etiam prius satirae genus sed non sola carminum
+varietate mixtum condidit Terentius Varro, vir Romanorum
+eruditissimus.' His other poetical works were ten books of _Poemata_,
+four of _Satires_, and six of _Pseudotragoediae_ (tragi-comedy).
+
+13. _Oratory._--Varro left twenty-two Books of _Orationes_ and three
+of _Suasiones_, but he had no fame as an orator: Quint. x. 1, 95,
+'Plus scientiae collaturus quam eloquentiae.'
+
+14. _Letters._--Of these there seem to have been two collections: (_a_)
+_Epistulae Latinae_, real letters to acquaintances; (_b_) _Epistolicae
+Quaestiones_, discussing in epistolary form points of history,
+grammar, etc.
+
+The collection of maxims which passes under the name _Sententiae
+Varronis_ is of uncertain authenticity.
+
+
+
+LABERIUS.
+
+
+The date of D. Laberius' birth is got from Sueton. _Iul._ 39, 'Ludis
+D. Laberius eques Romanus mimum suum egit.' This event took place in
+B.C. 45, and in the prologue to the piece (quoted below), l. 109,
+Laberius says he is sixty years old; hence he was born about B.C. 105.
+He died in January, B.C. 43.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1974 = B.C. 43, 'Laberius mimorum scriptor decimo
+mense post C. Caesaris interitum Puteolis moritur.'
+
+In B.C. 45 Laberius, although an _eques_, was, as a punishment for his
+political opinions, compelled by Caesar to perform in one of his own
+mimes, and was beaten by Publilius Syrus.
+
+Macrob. _Saturn._ ii. 7, 2 _sqq._, 'Laberium asperae libertatis
+equitem Romanum Caesar quingentis milibus invitavit, ut prodiret in
+scaenam et ipse ageret mimos, quos scriptitabat. Sed potestas non
+solum si invitet sed etiam si supplicet cogit, unde se et Laberius a
+Caesare coactum in prologo testatur his versibus:
+
+  "Necessitas, cuius cursus transversi impetum
+  voluerunt multi effugere, pauci potuerunt,
+  quo me detrusit paene extremis sensibus!
+  Quem nulla ambitio, nulla umquam largitio,
+  nullus timor, vis nulla, nulla auctoritas
+  movere potuit in iuventa de statu:
+  ecce in senecta ut facile labefecit loco
+  viri excellentis mente clemente edita
+  summissa placide blandiloquens oratio!
+  Etenim ipsi di negare cui nil potuerunt,
+  hominem me denegare quis posset pati?
+  Ego bis tricenis annis actis sine nota
+  eques Romanus e Lare egressus meo
+  domum revertar mimus," etc.
+
+In ipsa quoque actione subinde se, qua poterat, ulciscebatur inducto
+habitu Syri, qui velut flagris caesus praeripientique similis
+exclamabat
+
+  "Porro Quirites libertatem perdimus"
+
+et paulo post adiecit
+
+  "Necesse est multos timeat quem multi timent."
+
+Quo dicto universitas populi ad solum Caesarem oculos et ora
+convertit, notantes inpotentiam eius hac dicacitate lapidatam. Ob haec
+in Publilium vertit favorem ... [Publilius Syrus] cum mimos componeret
+ingentique adsensu in Italiae oppidis agere coepisset, productus Romae
+per Caesaris ludos, omnes qui tunc scripta et operas suas in scaenam
+locaverant provocavit ut singuli secum posita in vicem materia pro
+tempore contenderent. Nec ullo recusante superavit omnes, in quis et
+Laberium. Unde Caesar adridens hoc modo pronuntiavit
+
+  "Favente tibi me victus es, Laberi, a Syro"
+
+statimque Publilio palmam et Laberio anulum aureum cum quingentis
+sestertiis dedit.'
+
+We have forty-three titles of mimes by Laberius, and about one hundred
+and fifty lines of fragments. From the above we see that Laberius
+criticized contemporary society with great vigour. Other features are
+
+(_a_) His invention of words.
+
+Gell. xvi. 7, 1, 'Laberius in mimis, quos scriptitavit, oppido quam
+verba finxit praelicenter.' Examples are _manuatus est_ for _furatus
+est_; _abluvium_ for _diluvium_.
+
+(_b_) His use of plebeian expressions.
+
+Gell. xix. 13, 3, 'quae a Laberio ignobilia nimis et sordentia in usum
+linguae Latinae intromissa sunt.'
+
+(_c_) His references to philosophy.
+
+Cf. l. 17,
+
+  'nec Pythagoream dogmam doctus';
+
+l. 72,
+
+  'Democritus Abderites physicus philosophus,' etc.
+
+For views on Laberius cf. Hor. _Sat._ i, 10, 5,
+
+    'Nam sic
+  et Laberi mimos ut pulchra poemata mirer.'
+
+Cic. _ad Fam._ xii. 18, 2 (written B.C. 46), 'Equidem sic iam obdurui
+ut ludis Caesaris nostri animo aequissimo viderem T. Plancum, audirem
+Laberi et Publili poemata.'
+
+Contemporaries of Laberius were the satirist Abuccius, and Egnatius,
+who wrote a didactic poem _de rerum natura_.
+
+
+
+M. FURIUS BIBACULUS.
+
+
+According to Jerome, Bibaculus was born B.C. 103, but, as he laughs at
+the old age of the grammarian Orbilius (114-c. 17 B.C.), authorities
+put the date twenty years later.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1914, 'M. Furius poeta cognomento Bibaculus Cremonae
+nascitur.'
+
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 9, '[Orbilius] vixit prope ad centesimum aetatis
+annum, amissa iam pridem memoria, ut versus Bibaculi docet,
+
+  "Orbilius ubinam est, litterarum oblivio?"'
+
+Bibaculus wrote poems against the monarchical party; these are
+referred to as _iambi_ by Quintilian, x. 1, 96.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34, 'Carmina Bibaculi et Catulli referta contumeliis
+Caesarum leguntur: sed ipse divus Iulius, ipse divus Augustus et
+tulere ista et reliquere.'
+
+Two epics, _Aethiopis_ and _Bellum Gallicum_ (on Iulius Caesar's
+exploits), are probably referred to by Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 36,
+
+  'Turgidus Alpinus iugulat dum Memnona, dumque
+  diffingit Rheni luteum caput.'
+
+Acron _ad loc._, 'Bibaculum quemdam poetam Gallum tangit.'
+
+Cf. Hor. _Sat._ ii. 5, 40,
+
+                'Seu pingui tentus omaso
+  Furius hibernas cana nive conspuet Alpes.'
+
+Acron _ad loc._, 'Furius Bibaculus in pragmatia belli Gallici:
+Iuppiter hibernas,' etc.
+
+It is probably from this epic that Macrob. _Saturn._ vi. 1, 31-4,
+quotes passages imitated by Virgil. So, 'Furius in primo annali
+"Interea Oceani linquens Aurora cubile."' (Cf. Virg. _Aen._ iv. 585.)
+
+Bibaculus also wrote a prose work _Lucubrationes_. (Pliny _N.H._ xxiv.
+praef.)
+
+
+
+CAESAR.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+The main facts of C. Iulius Caesar's life are found in a compendious
+form in the Life by Suetonius. The ancient authorities, who are
+unanimous in stating that at the time of his death (15th March, B.C.
+44) Caesar was in his fifty-sixth year (Sueton. _Iul._ 88, Appian
+_B.C._ ii. 149, Plut. _Caes._ 69), must have placed his birth in B.C.
+100. But if this date were correct Caesar must have held the various
+magistracies two years before the legal time--a fact nowhere
+mentioned, and in itself improbable; it is therefore natural to hold
+that he was born in B.C. 102 (Mommsen, _R.H._ iv., p. 15, note). His
+birthday was 12th July (Macrob. _Saturn._ i, 12, 34).
+
+His father, C. Iulius Caesar, was praetor in B.C. 84, and died in the
+same year; Aurelia, his mother, took great interest in his education
+(Tac. _Dial._ 28). From the first Caesar was connected with the
+leaders of the democratic party in the State. Marius, who had married
+his father's sister Julia, conferred on him the office of _flamen
+Dialis_ before he was sixteen years of age; and his first wife was
+Cornelia, daughter of Cinna. His refusal to divorce her at the bidding
+of Sulla drew down upon him the enmity of the dictator; and he fled in
+disguise to the Sabine mountains, where he remained until Sulla
+reluctantly consented to spare his life.
+
+Caesar obtained his first experience of military service as a member
+of the staff of M. Thermus, propraetor of Asia, who conferred on him
+the _civica corona_ for saving the life of a fellow-soldier at the
+siege of Mytilene. After serving for a short time under Servilius
+Isauricus against the pirates in Cilicia, he returned to Rome on the
+news of Sulla's death in 78, and in the following year commenced his
+career as an orator with the prosecution of Cn. Cornelius Dolabella,
+proconsul of Macedonia, for extortion.
+
+Towards the end of that year Caesar left Rome for Rhodes--on his way
+thither being captured by pirates near Miletus--and studied for a year
+under the famous rhetorician Molo, taking part also in some operations
+on the mainland against one of the officials of Mithradates. Having
+been elected one of the _pontifices_ in the room of his uncle, C.
+Aurelius Cotta, he returned to Rome in 74, and soon became a _tribunus
+militum_. In the agitation for the restoration of the powers of the
+tribunes of the _plebs_, Caesar took a prominent part; he also
+supported the _Lex Aurelia_ of 70, which gave the _equites_ a share in
+the _iudicia_, and the _Lex Plautia_, granting an amnesty to the
+adherents of Lepidus and Sertorius.
+
+The year 68 he spent as quaestor in Farther Spain, and on his return
+to Rome strenuously advocated the claims of the Transpadane Gauls to
+the Roman franchise. His first wife having died, he married Pompeia,
+daughter of Q. Pompeius Rufus, and granddaughter of Sulla, whom he
+divorced five years later on account of her alleged adultery with P.
+Clodius. In 67 and 66 the bills of Gabinius and Manilius, conferring
+extensive military powers upon Pompey, were supported by Caesar and
+the other leading democrats.
+
+Whether Caesar was concerned in the abortive attempt of Catiline at
+revolution in 65, is a moot point. He was now aedile, and acquired
+great popularity by the splendid shows which he gave to the people,
+and by his restoration of the statue and trophies of Marius. In 64, as
+president of the _quaestio de sicariis_, he condemned some of the most
+active agents in Sulla's proscriptions. In 63 he supported the _lex
+agraria_ of P. Servilius Rullus, and brought about the prosecution of
+C. Rabirius for the murder of the tribune Saturninus. On the
+re-enactment of the _Lex Domitia de sacerdotiis_, Caesar was elected
+_pontifex maximus_. He was again suspected, probably with good ground,
+of complicity with Catiline's designs; he certainly proposed in the
+Senate that the conspirators should be punished with imprisonment
+instead of death. Praetor in 62, he worked in Pompey's cause by
+proposing that the charge of rebuilding the Capitoline temple should
+be transferred to him from the aristocratic champion Catulus, and by
+supporting the bill of the tribune Metellus Nepos for electing Pompey
+consul in absence. Next year Caesar was propraetor of Farther Spain,
+where he conquered the Lusitanians and Gallaecians, and amassed
+considerable wealth. His coalition with Pompey and Crassus procured
+for him the consulship of 59, rendered notable by the _Leges Iuliae_;
+and before he went out of office his position was secured by the _Lex
+Vatinia_, conferring on him the government of Cisalpine Gaul and
+Illyricum for five years, with the command of three legions;
+Transalpine Gaul and another legion were added by the Senate. The
+following nine years (58-50) were occupied with the subjugation of
+Gaul and the two invasions of Britain (55 and 54). At the conference
+at Luca, in the winter of 57-56, it was agreed that Caesar should be
+continued in office for a second period of five years, and be allowed
+to increase the number of his legions to ten. In 50, realizing the
+danger of his position if he returned to Rome as a private person, he
+was anxious to be a candidate for the consulship _in absentia_; but
+Pompey thwarted his plan. Caesar refused to disband his army at the
+bidding of the Senate, and crossed the Rubicon early in 49. Italy soon
+submitted; he defeated the Pompeians in Spain, captured Massilia, and
+secured Sicily and Sardinia. Landing in Epirus in 48, he was defeated
+at Dyrrhachium, and retreated to Thessaly, where he overthrew Pompey
+at Pharsalus. Then followed his victories over the king of Egypt in
+the Alexandrian war (48), Pharnaces in Asia Minor (47), the Pompeians
+and Juba at Thapsus (46), and C. and Sex. Pompeius at Munda (45).
+
+He had been created dictator in 49 and 48, with the tribunician power
+in perpetuity; and on his return to Rome in 45 he was made consul for
+ten years, dictator, and _praefectus morum_, with the title of
+_imperator_ for life. In the intervals between his campaigns he
+carried out numerous reforms, including the rectification of the
+calendar, B.C. 46 (see p. 110). His assassination by Brutus and
+Cassius and the other conspirators took place on 15th March, B.C. 44.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _De Bello Gallico_, in seven Books. The title used by Caesar
+himself was probably _Commentarii rerum suarum_ (as in Cic. _Brut._
+262, and Sueton. _Iul._ 56; cf. Strabo, iv. 1, 1 +hypomnemata+),
+although this does not appear in the best MSS., which give variously
+_libri_, _historiae_, or _ephemeris rerum gestarum belli Gallici_.
+
+The work describes Caesar's operations in Gaul, Germany, and Britain
+during the years B.C. 58-52, the events of each year occupying a
+separate Book. It was written and published as a whole, not in parts
+at the end of each year's campaign. Otherwise it is difficult to see
+why Cicero should not have heard of it from his brother Quintus or his
+friend Trebatius, both of whom were with Caesar; or why Hirtius should
+have spoken of the rapidity with which the work was composed (_B.G._
+viii. praef. 6, 'Ceteri quam bene atque emendate, nos etiam quam
+facile atque celeriter eos perfecerit, scimus'). This view is
+corroborated by the statement of Asinius Pollio, that there were
+mistakes in the work due to defective memory (Sueton. _Iul._ 56, 'quae
+... memoria lapsus perperam ediderit'); and by some expressions in the
+earlier Books pointing forward to events mentioned later (i. 28
+compared with vii. 9, and iv. 21 with vii. 76).
+
+The time of composition was probably the winter after the last
+campaign narrated in the Book (B.C. 52-51). It was certainly published
+before B.C. 46, the date of Cicero's _Brutus_, and probably before the
+rupture with Pompey, of whom Caesar speaks with approbation (vii. 6,
+'Cum iam ille urbanas res virtute Cn. Pompei commodiorem in statum
+pervenisse intellegeret').
+
+The aim of the book was twofold: (1) to provide material for professed
+historians: Hirt. _B.G._ viii. praef. 5, 'qui sunt editi, ne scientia
+tantarum rerum scriptoribus deesset'; (2) to furnish a defence of the
+author's own conduct--an object carefully kept in the background. It
+has been proved that Caesar suppressed facts which would have told
+against him at Rome (_e.g._ his rapacity, Sueton. _Iul._ 54), and the
+plausible motives which he assigns for some of his actions cannot be
+accepted as genuine. Cf. the criticism of Asinius Pollio, Sueton.
+_Iul._ 56, 'Pollio Asinius parum diligenter parumque integra veritate
+compositos putat, cum Caesar pleraque et quae per alios erant gesta
+temere crediderit, et quae per se vel consulto vel etiam memoria
+lapsus perperam ediderit, existimatque rescripturum et correcturum
+fuisse.' The style is remarkable for its brevity, directness, and the
+absence of ornament and emotion (Cic. _Brut._ 262, 'Nudi sunt, recti
+et venusti, omni ornatu orationis, tamquam veste, detracto').
+
+Among the materials used by Caesar in writing the _Commentarii_ were his
+own despatches to the Senate (ii. 35, iv. 38, vii. 90) and the reports
+of his _legati_. Late writers speak of his +ephemerides+ (_e.g._ Plut.
+_Caes._ 22), but there is no ground for supposing that he kept a regular
+diary. He depended to a great extent on his own memory (cf. Pollio's
+criticism, above).
+
+2. _De Bello Civili_, in three Books, similar in plan to the _Bell.
+Gall._ Book iii. ends abruptly with an event of no great importance,
+and, as the death of Pompey would have formed a natural ending, we
+must suppose that Caesar had intended to continue the narrative with
+the Alexandrian, Spanish, and African wars, but was prevented from
+carrying out his plan. The work was published after his death, without
+undergoing revision (Sueton. _Iul._ 56, 'Pollio existimat rescripturum
+et correcturum fuisse').
+
+_Other works in the Corpus Caesarianum._--Sueton. _Iul._ 56 says,
+'Alexandrini Africique et Hispaniensis [belli] incertus auctor est.
+Alii Oppium putant, alii Hirtium, qui etiam Gallici belli novissimum
+imperfectumque librum suppleverit.'
+
+Suetonius evidently believed that Hirtius was the author of _B.G._
+viii., for he introduces a quotation from the preface to that Book
+with the words, 'Hirtius ita praedicat' (_ibid._). Hirtius is also
+mentioned in the MSS. as the author of _B.G._ viii., and there is no
+reason to doubt that this is the case. That he is the author of any of
+the others is rendered doubtful by the fact that his bad health (which
+lasted to November, B.C. 44) and his position as consul would leave
+him little time for literature between the death of Caesar (15th
+March, B.C. 44) and his own death at Mutina (27th April, B.C. 43).
+Hirtius was thus able to carry out only the first part of the plan
+sketched in _B.G._ viii. praef. 2, 'Caesaris nostri commentarios rerum
+gestarum, non cohaerentibus superioribus atque insequentibus eius
+scriptis, contexui, novissimumque imperfectum ab rebus gestis
+Alexandriae confeci usque ad exitum non quidem civilis dissensionis,
+cuius finem nullum videmus, sed vitae Caesaris.'
+
+G. Landgraf, _Untersuchungen zu Caesar und seinen Fortsetzern_
+(Erlangen, 1888), arrives at the following conclusions:
+
+1. In the _Bellum Africum_ we possess the notes of Asinius Pollio, who
+took part in the war. That the work partook of the nature of a journal
+is shown by the style; _e.g._ _interim_ is used about eighty times as a
+connecting link, and dates and hours of the day are given carefully.
+Landgraf supports his position by instancing similarities of
+expression in the _Bell. Afr._ and in three letters from Pollio to
+Cicero (_ad Fam._ x. 31; 32; 33).
+
+2. Ch. 48-64 of the _Bell. Alex._ on events in Spain in B.C. 48-7 were
+sent to Hirtius by Pollio, who was governor of Hispania Ulterior in
+B.C. 45, and as such was best acquainted with these incidents.
+
+3. On the death of Hirtius, Pollio, on searching for his own papers
+(which he had lent Hirtius to help him in his work), found Hirtius'
+_Bell. Gall._ viii., and made some additions.
+
+4. The _Bell. Civ._ was in Hirtius' possession unedited at his death.
+Hirtius evidently intended to publish it along with _B.G._ viii. The
+third Book had been left unfinished by Caesar, whose notes, some of
+which were very brief, Hirtius had extended, and filled up the gaps in
+the narrative. There were also some notes on the _Bell. Alex._ The
+_Bell. Alex._ in the narrower sense (cc. 1-33) Hirtius began with, and
+in the early chapters contented himself with making small additions.
+In the later parts are found considerable additions both by Hirtius
+and by Pollio. Landgraf attempts to distinguish the work of the two:
+cc. 34-41, on the Bellum Ponticum, being mostly by Pollio, and cc.
+65-76, on the wars in Illyria and against Pharnaces, mostly by
+Hirtius.
+
+5. The authorship of the _Bellum Hispaniense_, which in style is far
+below the _Bellum Africum_, Landgraf leaves an open question.
+
+E. Woelfflin (_Sitzungsberichte der k. b. Akad. der Wissenschaften zu
+Muenchen_, 1889, pp. 323 _sqq._, and ed. of the _Bell. Afr._, 1889)
+holds the same views as Landgraf, and gives many instances of
+difference in diction between _Bell. Afr._ on the one hand, and
+_Gall._ viii. and _Alex._ on the other; _e.g._
+
+                       _Bell. Afr._    _Bell. Gall._ viii.; _Bell. Alex._
+  _suppetiae_,      -   7 times    -   never.
+  _convallis_,      -   5   "      -   _vallis_, 10 times.
+  _convulnero_,     -   9   "      -   _vulnero_ (as in Caesar).
+  _contendo_ + infin., 20   "      -   never.
+  _adorior_,        -  14   "      -   only in _Gall._ viii. 34.
+  _adgredior_,      -  never       -   14 times.
+  _grandis_,        -   7 times    -   _magnus_.
+  _subito_,         -  22   "      -   never.
+  _repente_,        -  never       -   16 times.
+  _postquam_,       -  34   "      -   not in _Gall._ viii.
+  hist. infin.,     -  24   "      -   never.
+
+On the other hand, Widmann, _Philologus_, L. (1891), p. 565, proves
+that the author of the note-book worked up in the _Bell. Afr._ was an
+officer of the 5th legion, that Pollio was not connected with the 5th
+legion, and probably did not go through the whole African war, as the
+author clearly must have done. This, of course, also proves that
+Hirtius cannot have been the author.
+
+On the whole, we think it proved that the _Bell. Afr._ was not written
+by the author of _B. Gall._ viii. and _B. Alex._, and that the author
+was not in any case Pollio. The _B. Alex._ is probably worked up from
+note-books written by several hands. The attempt to distinguish the
+work of Hirtius and another hand in _B. Gall._ viii. is against the
+evidence of Suetonius; and though several hands have co-operated in
+_B. Alex._, it is hardly possible to distinguish them precisely.
+
+The _Bell. Hisp._ is evidently the work of an eye-witness, cf. c. 29,
+'nostri ad dimicandum procedunt, id quod adversarios existimabamus
+esse facturos.' He is apt to be bombastic (c. 5, 'hic alternis non
+solum morti mortem exaggerabant, sed tumulos tumulis exaequabant'),
+and makes a ridiculous show of learning (quoting the combat of
+Achilles and Memnon, c. 25, and Ennius, c. 23, 'nostri cessere
+parumper'; c. 31, 'pes pede premitur, armis teruntur arma.')
+
+
+(3) CAESAR'S LOST WORKS.
+
+1. _De Analogia_, a treatise on grammar in two Books, dedicated to
+Cicero (Cic. _Brut._ 253) and composed in the interval between two of
+the campaigns in Gaul. Sueton. _Iul._ 56, 'Reliquit et de Analogia
+duos libros ... In transitu Alpium, cum ex citeriore Gallia
+conventibus peractis ad exercitum rediret ... fecit.' It supported the
+view that _analogia_, not _anomalia_, should be the governing
+principle in grammar, _i.e._ that order should be introduced into the
+chaos of varying usages. Gellius i. 10, 4 has a notable quotation from
+the first Book, 'Habe semper in memoria atque in pectore, ut tamquam
+scopulum sic fugias inauditum atque insolens verbum.'
+
+2. _De Astris_, a book on astronomy, written apparently in connexion
+with the rectification of the calendar, B.C. 46, perhaps in Greek.
+Suetonius says nothing about it, but it was known to Macrobius,
+_Saturn._, i. 16, 39, 'Iulius Caesar ... siderum motus, de quibus non
+indoctos libros reliquit, ab Aegyptiis disciplinis hausit.' The _liber
+de computatione_ and _liber fastorum_, attributed to Caesar by the
+Scholiast on Lucan, x. 185, 187, may have formed part of the _De
+Astris_.
+
+3. _Anticatones_, written B.C. 45, in reply to Cicero's panegyric on
+Cato, with flattering references to Cicero himself. Sueton. _Iul._ 56,
+'Reliquit et de Analogia duos libros et Anticatones totidem. ... Sub
+tempus Mundensis proelii fecit.' Cicero expresses himself as highly
+pleased with the book, _ad Att._ xiii. 51, 'bene existimo de illis
+libris, ut tibi coram'; but his tone is different in _Topica_, 94,
+'quibus omnibus generibus usus est nimis impudenter Caesar contra
+Catonem meum.'
+
+4. _Apophthegmata_, a collection of notable sayings, probably growing
+out of the _Dicta Collectanea_ of Sueton. _Iul._ 56, and completed
+B.C. 46-5. Cic. _ad Fam._ ix. 16, 4, 'audio Caesarem, cum volumina iam
+confecerit +apophthegmaton+, si quod afferatur ad eum pro meo, quod
+meum non sit, reicere solere.'
+
+5. _Letters._--In the time of Suetonius, Caesar's official despatches
+to the Senate were extant, and also private letters to Cicero and
+other friends, _e.g._ his confidants Balbus and Oppius. In these a
+cypher was, where necessary, employed. Cf. Sueton. _Iul._ 56, and
+Gell. xvii. 9, 1.
+
+6. _Speeches._--About a dozen titles of speeches are known, but only a
+few detached words and phrases survive. As an orator, Caesar stood in
+the front rank (Sueton. _Iul._ 55). For encomiums on his style see
+Cic. _Brut._ 252, and Quintilian, x. 1, 114, who considered him second
+only to Cicero, and remarkable for _vis_, _acumen_, _concitatio_, and
+_elegantia_. The language of Tac. _Dial._ 21 is less complimentary,
+'Nisi forte quisquam aut Caesaris pro Decio Samnite aut Bruti pro
+Deiotaro rege ceterosque eiusdem lentitudinis ac teporis libros legit,
+nisi qui et carmina eorumdem miratur.'
+
+7. _Poems._--Caesar in his youth composed a poem in praise of
+Hercules, and a tragedy, _Oedipus_. Plutarch (_Caes._ 2) speaks of him
+as reciting poems of his own composition to the pirates who took him
+prisoner. On his journey from Rome to Spain, B.C. 46, he wrote a
+descriptive poem with the title of _Iter_.
+
+Sueton. _Iul._ 56, 'Reliquit ... poema quod inscribitur Iter ...
+[fecit] dum ab urbe in Hispaniam ulteriorem quarto et vicensimo die
+pervenit ... Feruntur et a puero et ab adulescentulo quaedam scripta,
+ut Laudes Herculis, tragoedia Oedipus, item Dicta Collectanea: quos
+omnes libellos vetuit Augustus publicari, in epistula quam brevem
+admodum ac simplicem ad Pompeium Macrum, cui ordinandas bibliothecas
+delegaverat, misit.'
+
+Pliny the younger mentions Caesar as a love poet (_Ep._ v. 3, 5). His
+poetry is spoken of by Tacitus in no flattering terms, _Dial._ 21,
+'fecerunt enim [Caesar et Brutus] et carmina et in bibliothecas
+rettulerunt, non melius quam Cicero, sed felicius, quia illos fecisse
+pauciores sciunt.'
+
+The only extant lines are those on Terence (_q.v._).
+
+
+
+C. ASINIUS POLLIO.
+
+
+C. Asinius Pollio (B.C. 76-A.D. 5), governor of Farther Spain B.C.
+44, consul B.C. 40, retired from public life after his Dalmatian
+triumph, B.C. 39. He was famous as an orator, and was the author of
+(1) A history of the civil wars from B.C. 60 (Hor. _Od._ ii. 1, 1
+_sqq._). (2) Tragedies (Verg. _Ecl._ 8, 10; Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 42;
+_Od._ ii. 1, 9 _sqq._) and love poems (Plin. _Ep._ v. 3, 5). (3) A
+work in which the style of Sallust was criticized (Sueton. _Gramm._
+10). His remarks on Caesar, Cicero, and Livy may be from the same book
+(Sueton. _Iul._ 56; Quint. xii. 1, 22; i. 5, 56).
+
+For Pollio's style, cf. Quint. x. 1, 113, 'A nitore et iucunditate
+Ciceronis ita longe abest ut videri possit saeculo prior.' Pollio
+founded the first public library at Rome, in the _Atrium Libertatis_,
+B.C. 38 (Plin. _N.H._ xxxv. 10), For his intimacy with the poet Cinna,
+who wrote the _Propempticon Pollionis_ in his honour, see p. 142; and
+for his patronage of Virgil and Horace, see Verg. _Ecl._ 3, 84; 8,
+6-13; Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 42. Pollio, of course, belongs to the
+Augustan Age, but is mentioned here because of his connexion with the
+_Corpus Caesarianum_.
+
+
+
+CORNELIUS NEPOS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+The praenomen of Cornelius Nepos is unknown. In Pliny, _N.H._ iii.
+127, he is called 'Padi adcola,' and in Pliny, _Ep._ iv. 28, 1 (to
+Vibius Severus), he is mentioned as a townsman of T. Catius, 'Imagines
+municipum tuorum, Cornelii Nepotis et T. Cati.' Now T. Catius was an
+Insubrian (Cic. _ad Fam._ xv. 16, 1), and as the only Insubrian town
+on the Padus was Ticinum, Nepos was probably born there.
+
+There is no direct evidence as to the date of his birth but we may
+infer from the following facts that he was born not long before B.C.
+100.
+
+1. Jerome puts his literary activity under B.C. 40 = yr. Abr. 1977,
+'Cornelius Nepos scriptor historicus clarus habetur.'
+
+2. A son of his died B.C. 44 while a boy, and unknown to Cicero.
+
+Cic. _ad Att._ xvi. 14, 4, 'Male narras de Nepotis filio: valde
+mehercule moveor et moleste fero; nescieram omnino esse istum puerum.'
+
+3. The respect with which he looks up to Atticus, who was born B.C.
+109.
+
+4. A fragment of his _Exempla_ quoted by Pliny, _N.H._ ix. 136,
+regarding the changes of fashion in purple robes: 'Nepos Cornelius,
+qui divi Augusti principatu obiit, "Me," inquit, "iuvene violacea
+purpura vigebat, ... nec multo post rubra Tarentina. Huic successit
+dibapha Tyria... Hac P. Lentulus Spinther aedilis curulis (B.C. 63)
+primus in praetexta usus improbabatur. Qua purpura quis non iam,"
+inquit, "triclinaria facit?"'
+
+Nepos held no public office, but confined himself to literature, in
+which he was associated with Atticus. Their intimacy must have begun
+after B.C. 65, when Atticus returned to Rome from Athens, where he had
+lived more than twenty years.
+
+Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3, 6, 'P. Vergilius, Cornelius Nepos ... Non quidem hi
+senatores.'
+
+Nep. _Att._ 13, 7, 'Atque hoc non auditum, sed cognitum praedicamus:
+saepe enim propter familiaritatem domesticis rebus interfuimus.'
+
+Nepos knew Cicero, doubtless, through Atticus, but there is no
+evidence that they were intimate, except Gell. xv. 28, 1, who is
+probably mistaken, 'Cornelius Nepos ... M. Ciceronis ut qui maxime
+amicus familiaris fuit.' A fragment of a letter from Cicero to Nepos
+is quoted by Sueton. _Iul._ 55; from Nepos to Cicero by Lactant.
+_inst. div._ iii. 15, 10; and Fronto (p. 20, ed. Naber) speaks of a
+collection of Cicero's works revised by Nepos and Atticus.
+
+Nepos was on intimate terms with Catullus, whom, as coming from
+Verona, he may have known in early life. Catullus, who is mentioned by
+Nepos (_Att._ 12, 4), dedicated a collection of poems to him (Catull.
+1). Nepos was alive in B.C. 29, in which, or the following year, he
+completed the life of Atticus.
+
+As regards Nepos' character and views, Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3, 6,
+attributes to him _sanctitas morum_. The words of Cicero, _ad Att._
+xvi. 5, 5, imply only a playful compliment, 'Et ais, "+met'
+amymona+." Tu vero +amymon+, ille [Nepos] quidem +ambrotos+.'
+
+Nepos' slight regard for philosophy is shown by a letter to Cicero
+quoted by Lactant. _inst. div._ iii. 15, 10, 'Tantum abest, ut ego
+magistram esse putem vitae philosophiam beataeque vitae perfectricem,
+ut nullis magis existimem opus esse magistris vivendi quam plerisque,
+qui in ea disputanda versantur.'
+
+Cf. also Cic. _ad Att._ xvi. 5, 5, 'Nepotis epistulam exspecto.
+Cupidus ille meorum? qui ea, quibus maxime +gaurio+, legenda non
+putet.'
+
+Philosophy, according to Nepos, ought to be practical.
+
+Nep. _Att._ 17, 3, 'Nam principum philosophorum ita percepta habuit
+praecepta, ut his ad vitam agendam, non ad ostentationem uteretur.'
+
+Nepos, as is shown by his works, supported government by the Senate.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. Erotic poems; mentioned by Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3, 6.
+
+2. _Chronica_, in three books, embracing universal history. Catull. 1,
+
+  'Quoi dono lepidum novom libellum
+  arida modo pumice expolitum?
+  Corneli, tibi; namque tu solebas
+  meas esse aliquid putare nugas
+  iam tum, cum ausus es unus Italorum
+  omne aevom tribus explicare chartis,
+  doctis, Iuppiter, et laboriosis.'
+
+It is clear, from the above, that Nepos had mentioned Catullus in the
+work. That the mythical period was treated of is shown by Ausonius,
+_Ep._ 16, 'Apologos Titiani et Nepotis chronica quasi alios apologos
+(nam et ipsa instar sunt fabularum) ... misi ... ad institutionem
+tuorum.'
+
+From Catullus we may possibly infer that the _Chronica_ were written
+before B.C. 63[31]; _unus Italorum_ would imply that they were written
+before the similar works of Varro and Atticus.
+
+3. _Exempla_, in at least five Books, treating of the history of Roman
+manners.
+
+Gell. vi. 18, 11, 'Cornelius Nepos in libro exemplorum quinto.'
+
+4. _Life of the elder Cato_.
+
+Nep. _Cat._ 3, 5, 'Huius de vita et moribus plura in eo libro
+persecuti sumus, quem separatim de eo fecimus rogatu T. Pomponii
+Attici. Quare studiosos Catonis ad illud volumen delegamus.'
+
+5. _Life of Cicero_, written after his death (B.C. 43). Gell. xv. 28,
+2, 'in primo librorum, quos de vita illius composuit.'
+
+6. _A geographical work_, referred to by Pliny, _N.H._ v. 4, etc. All
+the above works are lost.
+
+7. _De Viris Illustribus_, his last work, was dedicated to Atticus
+(praef. i); an addition to the life of Atticus was made after his
+death.
+
+_Att._ 19, 1, 'Hactenus Attico vivo edita a nobis sunt. Nunc, quoniam
+fortuna nos superstites ei esse voluit, reliqua persequemur.'
+
+From _Att._ 12, 1-2, we may conclude that the publication took place
+between B.C. 35 and 33. The addition to the life of Atticus was
+written at some time between B.C. 31 and 27, as in _Att._ 19, 2,
+Octavian is called _imperator_, but not _Augustus_, a title which he
+received in the last-mentioned year.
+
+The work contained at least sixteen Books: cf. Charis. _G.L._ i. 141
+(ed. Keil), 'Cornelius Nepos illustrium virorum libro xvi.'; and was
+divided into sections of two Books each, the first on distinguished
+foreigners, the second on distinguished Romans of the same class. We
+possess the book _de excellentibus ducibus exterarum gentium_; from
+_de historicis Latinis_ the lives of Cato the Censor and Atticus, and
+fragments of the letters of Cornelia, mother of the Gracci. There are
+also mentioned the books _de regibus_ (Nep. _de reg._ 1, 1; 3, 5); _de
+excellentibus ducibus Romanorum_ (Nep. _Hann._ 13, 4); _de historicis
+Graecis_ (Nep. _Dion,_ 3, 2); _de poetis_ (Sueton. p. 31 R.); _de
+grammaticis_ (Sueton. p. 103 R.). The work probably dealt also with
+_iurisconsulti_, _oratores_, and _philosophi_. The book is biographical
+rather than historical, and is designed to compare foreigners with
+Romans, and to please, as well as instruct, those ignorant of Greek
+culture.
+
+_Pel._ 1, 1, 'Vereor ... ne non vitam eius enarrare, sed historiam
+videar scribere.'
+
+_Hann._ 13, 4, 'Tempus est ... Romanorum explicare imperatores, quo
+facilius collatis utrorumque factis, qui viri praeferendi sint, possit
+iudicari.'
+
+_Pel._ 1, 1, 'Medebor cum satietati tum ignorantiae lectorum.'
+
+_Praef._ 2, 'Hi erunt fere, qui expertes litterarum Graecarum,' etc.
+
+Besides tradition and his own recollection, Nepos mentions the
+following sources: Thucydides (_Them._ 1, 4, etc.); Xenophon (_Ag._ 1,
+1); Plato's _Symposium_ (_Alc._ 2, 2); Theopompus (_Alc._ 11, 1);
+Dinon (_Con._ 5, 4); Timaeus (_Alc._ 11, 1); Silenus, Sosilus,
+Polybius, Sulpicius Blitho, Atticus (_Hann._ 13, 1 and 3); the
+writings of Hannibal (_Hann._ 13, 2); Speeches and _Origines_ of Cato
+(_Cat._ 3, 2); Cicero's works, especially _Epp. ad Att._ (_Att._ 16,
+3). The book contains lives of twenty Greek generals from the Persian
+wars to the time of Alexander's successors; a short article on Persian
+and Macedonian kings who were also generals; and the lives of Hamilcar
+and Hannibal, Cato and Atticus. The work possesses little independent
+value, and the following are the chief faults:
+
+1. There are many mistakes in history and geography.
+
+2. The biographies, and the events recorded in them, are badly
+arranged; eulogy is employed indiscriminately, and petty anecdotes are
+too frequent.
+
+3. Important names, as Cimon and Lysander, are dismissed too briefly;
+others, as Atticus and Datames, are treated too fully. Many are left
+out altogether, as some of the leaders in the Peloponnesian war.
+
+4. Important authorities are not used: so Herodotus, for Miltiades,
+Themistocles, and Pausanias. No use is made of the _Hellenica_ of
+Xenophon.
+
+For views on Nepos, cf. Gell. xv. 28, 1, 'Cornelius Nepos rerum
+memoriae non indiligens.'
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ v. 4, 'Portentosa Graeciae mendacia ... quaeque alia
+Cornelius Nepos avidissime credidit.'
+
+Nepos is not mentioned by Quintilian in his list of Roman historians.
+
+In the MSS. only the _Atticus_ and the _Cato_ are ascribed to Nepos,
+the rest being entitled _Liber Aemilii Probi de excellentibus ducibus
+exterarum gentium_. It has been suggested that this arose from a
+misapprehension of _em_(_endavi_) _Probus_. There is an epigram by
+this Probus in the MSS., referring to poems of his and standing after
+the Life of Hannibal, which informs us that he was a contemporary of
+Theodosius (probably Theodosius I., A.D. 379-395). That the work
+cannot be by him is shown by the political references, which suit only
+the beginning of the empire, by the mention of Atticus in the preface,
+and by the correspondence in style between the book and the lives of
+Atticus and Cato, admittedly the work of Nepos; also by the fact that
+L. Ampelius, who probably wrote before the time of Diocletian, used
+the work in his _Liber Memorialis_.
+
+
+
+LUCRETIUS.
+
+
+Our information about Lucretius' life is very scanty. Jerome yr. Abr.
+1922 = B.C. 95, 'T. Lucretius poeta nascitur, qui postea amatorio
+poculo in furorem versus, cum aliquot libros per intervalla insaniae
+conscripsisset, quos postea Cicero emendavit, propria se manu
+interfecit anno aetatis xliiii.' (B.C. 52 or 51).
+
+Donatus, _vit. Verg._ 2, 'Initia aetatis Cremonae egit [Vergilius]
+usque ad virilem togam, quam xv. anno natali suo accepit isdem illis
+consulibus iterum duobus quibus erat natus, evenitque ut eo ipso die
+Lucretius poeta decederet' (October 15).
+
+Teuffel thinks xliiii. is wrong, and would read xlii., thus giving the
+dates as B.C. 96-55, as he thinks that Jerome has fixed the date of
+birth one year too late. Munro (vol. ii. p. 1) accepts xliiii., but
+thinks that Jerome (as elsewhere) is a few years wrong in the date of
+Lucretius' birth, and gives the dates as B.C. 99-55. It is impossible
+to decide as to the date of birth, but most authorities agree on B.C.
+55 as the date of death, a view which is supported by the only
+contemporary reference to the poet: Cic. _ad Q.F._ ii. 11, 4 (written
+in February, B.C. 54), 'Lucreti poemata, ut scribis, ita sunt: multis
+luminibus ingeni, multae tamen artis; sed cum veneris. Virum te
+putabo, si Sallusti Empedoclea legeris, hominem non putabo.'
+
+The above extract is given in the reading of the MSS. Some editors
+read _non_ before _multis_, others _non_ before _multae_, but it is
+best to follow the MSS. (with Tyrrell), translating "But when you come
+(we shall talk about it). I shall consider you a hero, if you read
+Sallust's _Empedoclea_; I shall not consider you a human being."
+
+As regards Lucretius' madness, there is no absolute impossibility in
+the story. Munro (vol. ii. pp. 2, 3) accepts Jerome's account of
+Cicero's editorship; others, less probably, believe that Q. Cicero was
+editor. The first view is rendered probable by the high opinion
+Lucretius had of Cicero, as seen from the frequency with which he
+imitates his _Aratea_ (Munro on Lucr. v. 619), and from the knowledge
+Cicero shows of Lucretius' work, as in _Tusc._ i. 48.
+
+The poet's full name is given in the MSS. as T. Lucretius Carus.
+
+This is all the direct evidence regarding Lucretius' life.[32] The _de
+rerum natura_ is addressed to C. Memmius.[33] From Cic. _ad Fam._
+xiii. 1 (where Cicero tells us he employed his good offices with
+Memmius on behalf of Patro for the preservation of the gardens of
+Epicurus), it appears that he was not an Epicurean. Memmius is the
+only contemporary mentioned by Lucretius; i. 24,
+
+  'Te sociam studeo scribendis versibus esse
+  quos ego de rerum natura pangere conor
+  Memmiadae nostro, quem tu, dea, tempore in omni
+  omnibus ornatum voluisti excellere rebus.'
+
+Many, arguing from the fact that Carus is not known elsewhere as a
+cognomen of the gens Lucretia, think that the poet was a freedman or a
+freedman's son, but from the tone of equality in which he addresses
+Memmius, it is more probable that he was a patrician; cf. i. 140,
+
+  'Sed tua me virtus tamen et sperata voluptas
+  suavis amicitiae quemvis sufferre laborem
+  suadet.'
+
+Several personal characteristics may be inferred from the poem:
+
+1. His earnestness and sincerity; iii. 28,
+
+  'His ibi me rebus quaedam divina voluptas
+  percipit atque horror,' etc.
+
+Cf. the importance he attaches to his subject, i. 926,
+
+  'Avia Pieridum peragro loca nullius ante
+  trita solo.'
+
+2. His admiration for the great men of the past. Cf. iii. 1024-52,
+where Ancus, the Scipios, Homer, Democritus, and Epicurus are praised;
+the introductions to Books i., iii., v., vi., on Epicurus; i. 716-33
+on Empedocles; i. 117-9 on Ennius.
+
+3. His powers of observation and love of nature. Cf. i. 716-25; ii. 29
+_sqq._, 40 _sqq._; 323-32; iv. 572 _sqq._
+
+4. His experience of women. Book iv. 1037-the end.
+
+5. His wide reading. The poem shows knowledge of Epicurus, Empedocles,
+Democritus, Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Plato, the Stoic writers,
+Thucydides, Hippocrates, Homer, Euripides. Among Latin writers Ennius,
+Naevius, Pacuvius, Lucilius, and Accius are all imitated.
+
+There is a reference to contemporary history in i. 41-3,
+
+  'Nam neque nos agere hoc patriai tempore iniquo
+  possumus aequo animo nec Memmi clara propago
+  talibus in rebus communi desse saluti.'
+
+Munro thinks that these lines were written B.C. 59, when Memmius was
+_praetor designatus_, in fierce opposition to Caesar, and on the side
+of the Senate. If this is so, the poem was probably written between
+B.C. 60 and 55. The lines on ambition and its attendant evils (as iii.
+931 _sqq._, v. 1117-35, etc.) may have been written with a special
+view to the facts of Memmius' life. Lucretius may refer to his
+recollection of the civil wars in v. 999,
+
+  'At non multa virum sub signis milia ducta
+  una dies dabat exitio.'
+
+In ii. 40 _sqq._ there is perhaps a reference to Caesar's army in the
+Campus Martius at the beginning of B.C. 58.
+
+The _de rerum natura_ is an exposition of Epicureanism, especially on
+its physical side; i. 54,
+
+  'Nam tibi de summa caeli ratione deumque
+  disserere incipiam et rerum primordia pandam,' etc.
+
+The title is taken from Epicurus' +peri physeos+, which Lucretius
+followed closely, as is evident from the account of the Epicurean
+philosophy in Diogenes Laertius, x., and from the fragments of
+Epicurean writers discovered at Herculaneum in 1752. He probably used
+as his model Empedocles' poem +peri physeos+.
+
+The object of the poem is to deliver men from the fear of death and of
+the gods; iii. 37,
+
+  'Et metus ille foras praeceps Acheruntis agendus';
+
+i. 62-101; cf. l. 101,
+
+  'Tantum religio potuit suadere malorum.'
+
+Note that the invocation to Venus at the beginning of the poem is not
+inconsistent, but is an address to the universal principle of
+generation; cf. i. 21,
+
+  'Quae quoniam rerum naturam sola gubernas.'
+
+The scope of the Books is as follows: Books i. and ii. state the
+physical theories of Democritus and Epicurus. Book i. states the
+Atomic Theory of Democritus, held by Epicurus, that the world consists
+of atoms and void. The theories of Heraclitus, Empedocles, Anaxagoras,
+etc. are refuted; i. 740,
+
+  'Principiis tamen in rerum fecere ruinas
+  et graviter magni magno cecidere ibi casu.'
+
+Book ii. treats of the combinations of atoms, and the principle of the
+swerve introduced to explain free-will. The varieties of atoms are
+shown to be limited. In Book iii. the nature of the mind and life is
+shown to be material. _Religio_ and the fear of death (cf. ll. 978
+_sqq._) are attacked principally in this Book; iii. 830,
+
+  'Nil igitur mors est ad nos neque pertinet hilum,
+  quandoquidem natura animi mortalis habetur.'
+
+Book iv. treats of the theory of _simulacra_ or images, of the senses,
+and particularly of love. Book v. treats of the formation of the earth
+and the heavenly bodies, the origin of life, and the progress of
+civilization. It is shown that nothing has been created, and that
+everything must perish. Book vi. treats of abnormal phenomena, such as
+thunder and lightning, tempests, volcanoes, earthquakes, etc. The
+plague at Athens is described (from Thucydides). Books v. and vi. are
+unfinished.
+
+Ethical views are given only by the way, the poem being primarily on
+physics. Pleasure is the end of action: ii. 172, 'dux vitae dia
+voluptas.' This pleasure is the absence of disturbance (+ataraxia+),
+hence all passion (as of love, iv. 1121-40) is deprecated; ii. 14,
+
+  'O miseras hominum mentes, o pectora caeca!
+  qualibus in tenebris vitae quantisque periclis
+  degitur hoc aevi quodcumque est! nonne videre
+  nil aliud sibi naturam latrare, nisi utqui
+  corpore seiunctus dolor absit, mente fruatur
+  iucundo sensu cura semota metuque?'
+
+Lucretius, as Epicurus, is often weak in physics. Cf. v. 564 _sqq._,
+of the sun's size,
+
+  'Nec nimio solis maior rota nec minor ardor
+  esse potest, nostris quam sensibus esse videtur.'
+
+In i. 1052 _sqq._ he states well the theory of the antipodes but his
+dependence on Epicurus will not allow him to accept it. Reasons are
+sometimes given for a thing that never existed, as in iv. 710-21 for
+the fear that a lion has for a cock. Some passages come near the
+results of modern science, cf. v. 837 _sqq._ on extinct species; v.
+855 _sqq._ on the struggle for existence; v. 610-3, on the invisible
+rays of the sun.
+
+The references to Lucretius by name are few.
+
+Nep. _Att._ 12, 4, 'L. Iulium Calidum, quem post Lucreti Catullique
+mortem multo elegantissimum poetam nostram tulisse aetatem vere videor
+posse contendere.'
+
+Ovid, _Am._ i. 15, 23,
+
+  'Carmina sublimis tunc sunt peritura Lucreti,
+  exitio terras cum dabit una dies.'
+
+_Trist._ ii. 425,
+
+  'Explicat ut causas rapidi Lucretius ignis.'
+
+Stat. _Silv._ ii. 7, 76,
+
+  'docti furor arduus Lucreti.'
+
+Quint. x. 1, 87, 'Macer et Lucretius legendi quidem, sed non ut
+phrasin, id est, corpus eloquentiae faciant; elegantes in sua quisque
+materia, sed alter humilis alter difficilis.'
+
+Cf. Tac. _Dial._ 23.
+
+His influence on Virgil is seen _passim_. Cf. Gell. i. 21, 7, 'Non
+verba sola sed versus prope totos et locos quoque Lucreti plurimos
+sectatum esse Vergilium videmus.'
+
+Verg. _Georg._ ii. 490 _sqq._ and _Ecl._ 6, 31 _sqq._ refer to
+Lucretius. _Georg._ ii. 490,
+
+  'Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas
+  atque metus omnes et inexorabile fatum
+  subiecit pedibus strepitumque Acherontis avari.'
+
+Horace has also imitated him in several places: so _Sat._ i. 3, 99-110
+(on primitive man) = Lucr. v. 1028 _sqq._; _Sat._ i. 5, 101 _sqq._ =
+Lucr. v. 82 _sqq._ Most of the poets after him, particularly Manilius,
+came under his influence.
+
+
+
+SALLUST.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+C. Sallustius Crispus was born B.C. 86 at Amiternum, in the country of
+the Sabines, and died B.C. 35.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1931 = B.C. 86, 'Sallustius Crispus, scriptor
+historicus, in Sabinis Amiterni nascitur.' _Ibid._ 1982 = B.C. 35,
+'Sallustius diem obiit, quadriennio ante Actiacum bellum.'
+
+Sallust was of plebeian family, as is seen from the fact that he was
+afterwards _tribunus plebis_. According to the Pseud.-Cic. _in
+Sallustium declamatio_, 13-14, he led an evil life in youth, and
+brought his father with sorrow to the grave.
+
+Cf. par. 14, 'Cuiquam dubium potest esse, quin mori coegerit eum
+[patrem]?'
+
+There is a story that Milo punished him for an amour with his wife.
+
+Gell. xvii. 18, 'M. Varro ... in libro quem scripsit "Pius aut de
+pace," C. Sallustium scriptorem seriae illius et severae orationis, in
+cuius historia notiones censorias fieri atque exerceri videmus, in
+adulterio deprehensum ab Annio Milone loris bene caesum dicit et, cum
+dedisset pecuniam, dimissum.'
+
+The story is corroborated by Pseud.-Cic. _in Sall._ 15; by Macrob.
+iii. 13, 9, '_alienae_ luxuriae obiurgator et censor,' and others; and
+Sallust himself appears to admit that there was something wrong;
+_Cat._ 4, 'a quo incepto studioque me ambitio mala detinuerat.'[34]
+
+Sallust speaks of the political offices he filled, and of the class of
+men who were unsuccessful candidates about the same time--a supposed
+reference to M. Cato's candidature for the praetorship, B.C. 55.
+
+_Iug._ 4, 'Qui si reputaverint, et quibus ego temporibus magistratus
+adeptus sim et quales viri idem adsequi nequiverint,' etc.
+
+After being quaestor (Pseud.-Cic. _in Sall._ 15), he was, in B.C. 52,
+_tribunus plebis_, when he and other two tribunes opposed Cicero in
+his defence of Milo.
+
+Ascon. _in Cic. pro Mil._ p. 33 (Kiessl. and Schoell), 'C. Sallustius
+et T. Munatius Plancus tr. pleb. inimicissimas contiones de Milone
+habebant.'
+
+In B.C. 50, Sallust was _legatus pro quaestore_ to Bibulus in Syria,
+according to Mommsen (_Hermes_, i. 171), who thinks that the Sallust
+to whom Cicero writes _ad Fam._ ii. 17 is the historian. In the same
+year he was expelled from the Senate by the censors, Appius Claudius
+and L. Piso.
+
+Pseud.-Cic. _in Sall._ 16, 'neque post illum delectum senatus vidimus
+te.'
+
+In B.C. 49, Caesar reappointed him quaestor, and he resumed his place
+in the Senate.
+
+Pseud.-Cic. _in Sall._ 17, 'in senatum post quaesturam est reductus.'
+
+In B.C. 48, he commanded a legion in Illyria without distinction
+(Orosius vi, 15, 8), and next year he was Caesar's agent with the
+insurgent legions in Campania (Appian, _B.C._ ii. 92). In B.C. 46 he
+was praetor, and as such commanded successfully an expedition to seize
+the enemy's stores in Cercina.
+
+_Bell. Afr._ 8, 'Item C. Sallustium Crispum praetorem ad Cercinam
+insulam versus, quam adversarii tenebant, cum parte navium ire iubet.'
+(See also c. 34.)
+
+At the end of the year he was appointed proconsul of Numidia.
+
+_Ibid._ 97, 'Ibi Sallustio pro consule cum imperio relicto ipse Zama
+egressus Uticam se recepit.'
+
+As proconsul, he plundered the province, and bought, probably with the
+spoils, the _horti Sallustiani_, which afterwards belonged to the
+Roman emperors (see Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 47; _Hist._ iii. 82).
+
+Pseud.-Cic. _in Sall._ 19, 'Nonne ita provinciam vastavit, ut nihil
+neque passi sint neque exspectaverint gravius in bello socii nostri,
+quam experti sint in pace hoc Africam interiorem obtinente?'
+
+Sallust is said to have married Terentia, whom Cicero had divorced
+(Jerome _adv. Iov._ 1). Probably he had no son, as he adopted a
+grandson of his sister.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ iii. 30, 'Crispum equestri ortum loco C. Sallustius, rerum
+Romanarum florentissimus auctor, sororis nepotem in nomen adscivit.'
+
+After Caesar's death, Sallust retired from public life, and, having no
+taste for sport or agriculture, spent his leisure in writing history.
+
+_Cat._ 4, 'Ubi ... mihi reliquam aetatem a re publica procul habendam
+decrevi, non fuit consilium socordia atque desidia bonum otium
+conterere, neque vero agrum colundo aut venando servilibus officiis
+intentum aetatem agere; sed ... statui res gestas populi Romani
+carptim, ut quaeque memoria digna videbantur, perscribere.'
+
+Sallust, as above stated, died B.C. 35.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _De Catilinae Coniuratione_ (so _Cat._ 4). The book is called
+_bellum Catilinae_ by Quint. iii. 8, 9, and in some MSS.; in MSS. also
+_bellum Catilinarium_. The work was written after Caesar's death
+(_Cat._ 53-4). It is, as Mommsen (_R.H._ iv. 184, note) states, a
+political pamphlet in the interests of the democratic party (on which
+the monarchy was based), and tries to clear Caesar from the charge of
+being implicated in the Catilinarian conspiracy, and collaterally
+performing the same service for C. Antonius, the uncle of the
+triumvir.
+
+Cf. _Cat._ 49, 'Sed isdem temporibus Q. Catulus et C. Piso neque
+pretio neque gratia Ciceronem inpellere potuere, uti per Allobroges
+aut alium indicem C. Caesar falso nominaretur. Nam uterque cum illo
+gravis inimicitias exercebant ... Sed ubi consulem ad tantum facinus
+inpellere nequeunt,' etc. (Cf. also Caesar's speech in _Cat._ 51.)
+
+_Cat._ 59, 'At ex altera parte C. Antonius pedibus aeger, quod proelio
+adesse nequibat, M. Petreio legato exercitum permittit.' Dion Cassius,
+xxxvii. 39, on the other hand, says that this was a pretence, Antonius
+being unwilling to fight against his old confederate.
+
+2. _Bellum Iugurthinum_. (So in MSS. and Quint. iii. 8, 9.)
+
+_Iug._ 5, 'Bellum scripturus sum, quod populus Romanus cum Iugurtha
+rege Numidarum gessit, primum quia magnum et atrox variaque victoria
+fuit, dehinc quia tunc primum superbiae nobilitatis obviam itum est.'
+
+The object of the book is to give a picture of the low state of the
+oligarchical government (cf. _Iug._ 8, 'Romae omnia venalia esse'),
+and to glorify Marius, the chief of the democratic party.
+
+Of his sources, Sallust mentions Sisenna (_Iug._ 95) for information
+about Sulla, and native authorities for African ethnography.
+
+_Iug._ 17, 'Sed qui mortales initio Africam habuerint, quique postea
+adcesserint, aut quo modo inter se permixti sint ... uti ex libris
+Punicis, qui regis Hiempsalis dicebantur, interpretatum nobis est ...
+dicam.'
+
+Sallust probably also used the memoirs of Scaurus, Sulla, and Catulus.
+
+3. _Historiae_.--This work dealt with the events from B.C. 78 to 67.
+Cf. Ausonius, p. 264 (ed. Peiper),
+
+  'Ab Lepido et Catulo iam res et tempora Romae
+  orsus his senos seriem conecto per annos.'
+
+There is no reference in the fragments to any event after B.C. 67. The
+book took up the history where Sisenna had left off, B.C. 78. Cf. i.
+_frag._ 1 (ed. Maurenbrecher), 'Res populi Romani M. Lepido Q. Catulo
+coss. ac deinde militiae et domi gestas composui.'
+
+Four speeches and two letters from the _Histories_ have been preserved
+in a collection of Sallustian speeches and letters made for rhetorical
+purposes, probably in the second century A.D. Besides these there are
+considerable fragments, chiefly from Books ii. and iii. We may
+conclude from _Iug._ 95, 'neque enim alio loco de Sullae rebus dicturi
+sumus,' that the career of Sulla was not treated of in the
+_Histories_. He is, however, repeatedly mentioned.
+
+Two works are falsely attributed to Sallust:
+
+1. _Oratio invectiva in Tullium_, composed, along with an _Oratio
+invectiva in Sallustium_ falsely ascribed to Cicero, by the same
+ancient rhetorician. The _Or. in Tull._ is quoted by Quintilian, if
+the MSS. are right, _e.g._ iv. 1, 68.
+
+2. An oration and an epistle _ad Caesarem senem de re publica_, both
+probably belonging to the imperial period.
+
+_Sallust as a historian._--1. He departed from the annalistic
+arrangement, and took a broader view of his subject, endeavouring to
+connect events together, and to trace the motives of actions.
+
+2. He shows a want of precision in his facts. Instead of giving dates,
+he often says vaguely _interea_; _isdem temporibus_; _dum haec
+aguntur_. One year in the Jugurthine war is left unaccounted for, and
+Marius is represented as consul in B.C. 105. So in geography and
+ethnography (as in the _Iugurtha_) he is not to be trusted. In _Iug._
+21 he forgets that Cirta is fifty miles from the sea, and that city is
+besieged in the usual way, though surrounded on three sides by gorges.
+
+He prides himself on his impartiality.
+
+_Cat._ 4, 'Mihi a spe, metu, partibus rei publicae animus liber erat.'
+So _Hist._ i. fr. 6.
+
+His leaning to the popular party, however, has been shown above.
+
+3. His speeches do not always suit the speaker or his audience, and
+are not historical. Thus the speech of Catiline (_Cat._ 20) does not
+suit his audience and is not authentic, and that of Marius (_Iug._ 85)
+is too learned for the speaker.
+
+4. His prefaces have little to do with what follows. Cf. Quint. iii.
+8, 9, 'C. Sallustius in bello Iugurthino et Catilinae nihil ad
+historiam pertinentibus principiis orsus est.'
+
+5. He is too fond of hackneyed moral maxims and trite sayings. Thus:
+
+_Cat._ i, 'Sed nostra omnis vis in animo et corpore sita est,' etc.
+
+_Iug._ 2, 'Nam uti genus hominum compositum ex corpore et anima est,
+ita res cunctae studiaque omnia nostra corporis alia, alia animi
+naturam secuntur.'
+
+His tone is that of a severe moralist.
+
+_Cat._ 3, 'Sed ego adulescentulus initio sicuti plerique studio ad rem
+publicam latus sum, ibique mihi multa advorsa fuere. Nam pro pudore,
+pro abstinentia, pro virtute audacia, largitio, avaritia vigebant,'
+etc.
+
+As this moralizing did not fit in with the facts of his life he was
+censured for it, as shown above.
+
+_Sallust's authorities and models._--Besides the authorities mentioned
+above, he used a _breviarium rerum omnium Romanarum_ prepared for him
+by the grammarian Ateius (Sueton. _Gramm._ 10). He is said to have
+borrowed phrases from Cato.
+
+Quint. viii. 3, 29, 'Nec minus noto Sallustius epigrammate incessitur:
+
+  "Et verba antiqui multum furate Catonis,
+  Crispe, Iugurthinae conditor historiae."'
+
+The similarity of Sallust's style to that of Thucydides, whom he tried
+to emulate, was remarked by the ancients.
+
+Quint. ix. 3, 17, 'Ex Graeco vero translata vel Sallustii plurima,
+quale est "volgus amat fieri"' [_Iug._ 34, a poor instance, and
+wrongly quoted]. Cf. _Cat._ 6, 'magisque dandis quam accipiundis
+beneficiis amicitias parabant,' and Thuc. ii. 40, 4, +ou gar
+paschontes eu alla drontes ktometha tous philous+: _Iug._ 73, 'in
+maius celebrare,' and Thuc. i. 10, 3, +epi to meizon kosmesai+.
+
+Sallust's popularity is shown by the numerous references to him,
+particularly in Quintilian. Cf. Quint. x. 1, 101, 'At non historia
+cesserit Graecis, nec opponere Thucydidi Sallustium verear'; par. 102,
+'immortalem illam Sallustii velocitatem.' Cf. also Martial, xiv. 191,
+'primus Romana Crispus in historia.' Tacitus is the most important
+writer influenced by Sallust. For imitations cf. Tac. _Agr._ 37, where
+part of the description of a battle is modelled on _Iug._ 101. Cf.
+also _Cat._ 43, 'facto non consulto in tali periculo opus esse,' and
+Tac. _Hist._ i. 62, 'ubi facto magis quam consulto opus esset.'
+
+
+
+CATULLUS.
+
+
+The poet's full name, C.[35] Valerius Catullus, is got from Jerome and
+other authorities quoted below, as also his birthplace, Verona, to
+which Catullus himself refers (c. 67, 34, 'Veronae meae'; 68, 27; 100,
+2). The dates of his birth and death are uncertain. Jerome gives them
+as B.C. 87-58.
+
+Yr. Abr. 1930 = B.C. 87, 'Gaius Valerius Catullus scriptor lyricus
+Veronae nascitur.'
+
+Yr. Abr. 1959 = B.C. 58, 'Catullus xxx. aetatis anno Romae moritur.'
+His early death is referred to by Ovid, _Am._ iii. 9, 61,
+
+  'Obvius huic [Tibullo] venias hedera iuvenilia cinctus
+  tempora, cum Calvo, docte Catulle, tuo';
+
+but it is quite certain that the year of his death given by Jerome as
+B.C. 58 is wrong. In c. 113, 2, the second consulship of Pompeius in
+B.C. 55 is referred to, and cc. 11 and 29 were written after Caesar's
+expedition to Britain in B.C. 55. C. 52 used to be taken as referring
+to B.C. 47, from l. 3, 'per consulatum perierat Vatinius,' but, as
+shown below, was written in B.C. 55 or 54. As no clear reference is
+found to any event after B.C. 54 (a highly important time, which would
+have been likely to produce some sarcastic poetry from Catullus), it
+is best to accept the view that Catullus lived from 87 to 54 or 53
+B.C. B. Schmidt (ed. mai. 1887, prolegomena), on the other hand, fixes
+the dates as 82-52 B.C. (accepting Jerome's account of Catullus' age),
+and attributes c. 38 (to Cornificius) to the latter year.
+
+Catullus' family was wealthy and of good position, as is seen from his
+having estates at Sirmio (c. 31) and Tibur (c. 44), and from the fact
+that his father was a friend of Julius Caesar.
+
+Sueton. _Iul._ 73, 'Hospitioque patris eius [Catulli], sicut
+consueverat, uti perseveravit.'
+
+Catullus went to Rome early, and there, as Schmidt thinks, was taught
+by the grammarian Valerius Cato, to whom c. 56 is probably addressed.
+From c. 68, 34-5, we see that he was settled at Rome.
+
+                'Romae vivimus: illa domus,
+  illa mihi sedes, illic mea carpitur aetas.'
+
+Catullus wrote love-poetry soon after taking the _toga virilis_; c.
+68, 15,
+
+  'Tempore quo primum vestis mihi tradita purast,
+    iucundum cum aetas florida ver ageret,
+  multa satis lusi.'
+
+Catullus' love for Lesbia is the outstanding fact of his life. Her
+real name was Clodia, the sister of P. Clodius, nicknamed for her
+immorality 'quadrantaria.'
+
+Apuleius, _Apol._ 10, 'Accusent C. Catullum quod Lesbiam pro Clodia
+nominarit.'
+
+Ovid, _Trist._ ii. 427,
+
+  'Sic sua lascivo cantata est saepe Catullo
+    femina, cui falsum Lesbia nomen erat.'
+
+The name Lesbia (which scans like Clodia) may be got from Sappho, the
+Lesbian poetess, on whom c. 51 (probably the first addressed to
+Clodia) is modelled. The facts known about Clodia all fit in with what
+Catullus tells us of Lesbia. For Lesbia's beauty, cf. cc. 43 and 86;
+Clodia was called +boopis+ from her large and lustrous eyes
+(Cic. _ad Att._ ii. 9, 1; 12, 2, etc.). For her relations with her
+husband, cf. Cic. _ad Att._ ii. 1, 5 (written B.C. 60), 'Est enim
+seditiosa: cum viro bellum gerit.' A hint of the real name is got from
+c. 79, where the Lesbius mentioned is Clodius, just as Lesbia is
+Clodia,
+
+  'Lesbius est pulcer: quid ni? quem Lesbia malit
+    quam te cum tota gente, Catulle, tua.'
+
+It is probable that the acquaintance began in B.C. 61. In B.C. 62
+Clodia was the wife of Q. Caecilius Metellus Celer (Cic. _ad Fam._ v.
+2, 6), and in that year Metellus was governor of Gallia Cisalpina. Now
+from c. 83 it is evident that Lesbia's husband was in Rome when she
+began to be annoyed by Catullus' attentions. We may conclude from c.
+30 that P. Alfenus Varus introduced Catullus to Lesbia. In that poem
+Catullus blames Varus for leading him on and then leaving him in the
+lurch. M'. Allius is next mentioned (c. 68) as a friend in whose house
+Catullus met Lesbia; and cc. 2, 3, 5, and 7 probably belong to this
+fortunate period of the poet's love. C. 8 speaks of Lesbia's leaving
+him (cf. c. 92), probably on account of her husband's suspicions. Cf.
+c. 5, 1,
+
+  'Vivamus, mea Lesbia, atque amemus,
+  rumoresque senum severiorum
+  omnes unius aestimemus assis.'
+
+C. 107 speaks of an unexpected reconciliation (celebrated in c. 36).
+C. 107, 5,
+
+  'Restituis cupido atque insperanti, ipsa refers te
+    nobis. O lucem candidiore nota!'
+
+When Catullus, on account of his brother's death, left Rome for
+Verona, he already knew that Lesbia had other lovers (c. 68, ll. 27
+_sqq._, 135 _sqq._). There are many poems against his rivals: c. 82,
+against Quintius; c. 40, against Ravidus; cc. 74, 80, 88-91, 116,
+against Gellius; c. 77, against Rufus, who is attacked also in cc. 59
+and 69 (this is M. Caelius Rufus, the orator, who intrigued with
+Clodia: Cic. _pro Cael._ 17, etc.); c. 79, against Lesbius (see
+above). After Catullus returned to Rome, he found that he had lost
+Lesbia's affections. C. 70 was then written,
+
+  'Nulli se dicit mulier mea nubere malle
+    quam mihi, non si se Iuppiter ipse petat.
+  Dicit: sed mulier cupido quod dicit amanti,
+    in vento et rapida scribere oportet aqua.'
+
+The words of this poem show that it must have been written after the
+death of Clodia's husband Metellus, which took place in B.C. 59, and
+it was probably written soon after that event, when Catullus had
+returned to Rome from Verona.
+
+Nos. 72, 85, and especially 58, show increasing bitterness, and must,
+with the possible exception of 58, be assigned to the years B.C. 59 or
+58. In c. 76 he prays for power to give Lesbia up; cf. ll. 23-6,
+
+  'Non iam illud quaero, contra ut me diligat illa,
+    aut, quod non potis est, esse pudica velit:
+  ipse valere opto et taetrum hunc deponere morbum.
+    O di, reddite mi hoc pro pietate mea.'
+
+It is probable that the separation between the lovers occurred not
+later than B.C. 58; otherwise Catullus would not have left for
+Bithynia in the next year. In c. 11, the last poem that refers to
+Lesbia, which, from the reference to Britain in l. 12, cannot have
+been written before B.C. 55, we see that Catullus is cured of his
+passion; cf. ll. 21-4,
+
+  'Nec meum respectet, ut ante, amorem,
+  qui illius culpa cecidit velut prati
+  ultimi flos, praetereunte postquam
+              tactus aratro est.'
+
+In the spring of B.C. 57 Catullus went to Bithynia on the staff of the
+propraetor C. Memmius (cc. 10 and 28). From c. 10, 29, 'meus sodalis
+Cinna est Gaius,' we see that C. Helvius Cinna accompanied him. In c.
+46, 9 he speaks of the pleasant meetings of the staff, 'O dulces
+comitum valete coetus.' C. 46 shows that Catullus left Bithynia in the
+spring of the following year: ll. 1-4,
+
+  'Iam ver egelidos refert tepores ...
+  Linquantur Phrygii, Catulle, campi.'
+
+The dirge in c. 101 shows that Catullus, on his way to Italy, visited
+his brother's tomb in the Troad, and paid the last rites to it. C. 4,
+written soon after his return to Sirmio, tells us how he made his way
+home again. About the same time was composed the address to Sirmio in
+c. 31; c. 10 proves that he soon went back to Rome.
+
+The poems against Caesar's party belong to the years B.C. 55 and 54.
+In cc. 41 and 43 Catullus calls a Transpadane girl 'decoctoris amica
+Formiani,' the reference being to Mamurra, 'the bankrupt from
+Formiae,' who had been Caesar's _praefectus fabrum_ in Gaul, and who
+may have been a successful rival of Catullus in love. C. 29, written
+probably in B.C. 54, attacked Mamurra, and also his patrons, Caesar
+and Pompey. From l. 24, 'socer generque, perdidistis omnia,' it is
+clear that the poem was written before Julia's death in September,
+B.C. 54; and from ll. 11-12,
+
+  'eone nomine, imperator unice,
+  fuisti in ultima occidentis insula,'
+
+that it was written after Caesar's first expedition to Britain in B.C.
+55. The poem is referred to by Sueton. _Iul._ 73, 'Valerium Catullum,
+a quo sibi versiculis de Mamurra perpetua stigmata imposita non
+dissimulaverat, satis facientem eadem die adhibuit cenae hospitioque
+patris eius sicut consueverat uti perseveravit.'
+
+C. 52 (against Vatinius) was written B.C. 55 or 54. It used to be
+assigned to B.C. 47, when Vatinius was consul, but l. 3, 'per
+consulatum perierat Vatinius' means 'Vatinius perjures himself by his
+hope of the consulship' (his name stood on the list agreed on at Luca,
+which is mentioned by Cic. _ad Att._ iv. 8_b_, 2); and l. 2, 'Sella in
+curuli struma Nonius sedet,' cannot refer to B.C. 47, as the only
+ordinary curule magistrates in that year were P. Vatinius and Q.
+Fufius Calenus. Among other poems against personal enemies are c. 98,
+against Vettius, and c. 108, against Cominius, both of them informers;
+and c. 84, against Arrius, who aspirated his words wrongly, and who,
+from l. 7, 'hoc misso in Syriam,' is supposed to have gone out to
+Syria as _legatus_ to Crassus in B.C. 55. C. 49 is an attack on Cicero:
+
+  'Disertissime Romuli nepotum,
+  quot sunt quotque fuere, Marce Tulli,
+  quotque post aliis erunt in annis,
+  gratias tibi maximas Catullus
+  agit, pessimus omnium poeta,
+  tanto pessimus omnium poeta
+  quanto tu optimus omnium patronus.'
+
+The sting lies in the _double entendre_ in the last two lines, which
+really mean 'so much the worst poet of all poets, as you are the best
+advocate of all clients, good and bad.' So Cicero is called in a good
+sense _omnium patronus_ by Caecina in Cic. _ad Fam._ vi. 7, 4. The
+poem has special reference to B.C. 54, when Cicero defended Vatinius
+(whom he had reviled two years before in the speech _Pro Sestio_),
+when prosecuted by Catullus' friend, Calvus (cf. c. 14, 1-3); and
+thanks Cicero ironically for some criticism he had passed on his
+poems. Catullus attacks several contemporary poets; so in c. 22,
+Suffenus, who in c. 14 is coupled with Caesius and Aquinus; Volusius
+in cc. 36 and 95; cf. 36, 1, 'Annales Volusi, cacata charta.'[36]
+
+Among Catullus' friends were Veranius and Fabullus (cc. 9, 28, etc.);
+P. Alfenus Varus of Cremona (cc. 10, 22, 30), consul B.C. 39, and a
+famous _iurisconsultus_. C. 61 celebrates the marriage of L. Manlius
+Torquatus (who was praetor B.C. 49) and Vinia Aurunculeia. Several
+poems are addressed to brother poets; c. 35 is to Caecilius of Novum
+Comum; c. 38 to Cornificius, a writer of slight love poems (Ovid,
+_Trist._ ii. 436) who died B.C. 41; c. 95 is on Cinna's _Zmyrna_; cc.
+14, 50, and 96 are addressed to C. Licinius Calvus; c. 56 to Valerius
+Cato (see above); c. 65 to Hortensius Ortalus, who asked Catullus to
+translate Callimachus; c. 1, and possibly c. 102, to Cornelius Nepos.
+
+_Catullus' longer poems._--These, unlike the shorter personal poems,
+are mostly due to Alexandrian influence, to which Catullus may have
+been introduced by his teacher, Valerius Cato. To these poems Catullus
+owes his title _doctus_ (Tibull. iii. 6, 41; Martial, i. 62, 1, etc.).
+They include: c. 66, 'coma Berenices,' from Callimachus; cf. c. 65,
+ll. 15-6,
+
+  'Sed tamen in tantis maeroribus, Ortale, mitto
+    haec expressa tibi carmina Battiadae';
+
+c. 68 to Allius, also Alexandrian; c. 64, the 'Nuptials of Peleus and
+Thetis,' l. 30 of which,
+
+  'Oceanusque, mari totum qui amplectitur orbem,'
+
+is from Euphorion, fr. 158 (Meineke), +Okeanos, to pasa
+perirrytos endedetai chthon+; c. 63, the 'Attis' in Galliambic metre;
+c. 62, a translation of a Sapphic epithalamium. C. 51, and possibly
+some parts of c. 61, are from Sappho. Catullus was the first Roman to
+use the Sapphic measure (in cc. 11 and 51).
+
+_Publication of the Poems._--From the arrangement of the poems, which
+accords neither with chronology nor with subjects, and from the large
+number of lines extant (2286), which does not suit _libellus_ (c. i.
+1), it is highly probable that they were not left by Catullus as we
+find them. C. 2, beginning 'Passer, deliciae meae puellae,' was the
+first of a series of short poems. Cf. Martial, iv. 14, 13,
+
+  'Sic forsan tener ausus est Catullus
+  magno mittere passerem Maroni';[37]
+
+the book being named from its first word, like _Arma virumque_ of the
+_Aeneid_. C. 1 (to Cornelius Nepos) is the first of another series of
+short pieces (cf. the epithet _nugae_ in l. 4). Catullus doubtless
+published his larger pieces together. The traditional arrangement, due
+to a later hand, is as follows: (1) The lyric poems in various metres;
+(2) the larger poems and the elegies; (3) the shorter poems written in
+elegiacs. Catullus began to be popular as soon as his works were
+published; cf. Nep. _Att._ 12, 4 (quoted p. 124). He is imitated in
+the _Priapea_, in Ovid, in Ausonius, in the _Ciris_, in Martial, etc.
+C. 4 is closely parodied in Verg. _Catal._ 8.
+
+
+
+CONTEMPORARY POETS:
+
+
+(_a_) _Ticidas_ wrote the Hymenaeus and love-poems on Perilla. For the
+latter cf. Ovid, _Trist._ ii. 433-4 and 437-8 (read by Riese
+immediately after),
+
+  'Quid referam Ticidae, quid Memmi carmen, apud quos
+    rebus adest nomen nominibusque pudor,
+  et quorum libris modo dissimulata Perillae
+    nomine nunc legitur dicta, Metelle, tuo?'
+
+(_b_) _C. Helvius Cinna_ was intimate with Catullus, who refers to him
+in c. 10 as being along with him in Bithynia in B.C. 57. See p. 136.
+From the reference to Gallia Cisalpina in Cinna, frag. I (Baehrens), we
+might conclude that he was a countryman of Catullus,
+
+  'At nunc me Cenumana per salicta
+  bigis raeda rapit citata nanis.'
+
+In Sueton. _Iul._ 52, Cinna is spoken of as a partisan of Caesar:
+'Helvius Cinna tribunus plebis,' etc.; and he is probably identical
+with the person mentioned _ibid._ 85, as put to death in mistake for a
+man of the same name shortly after the murder of Caesar: 'Plebs statim
+a funere ad domum Bruti et Cassii cum facibus tetendit, atque aegre
+repulsa, obvium sibi Helvium Cinnam per errorem nominis, quasi
+Cornelius is esset, quem graviter pridie contionatum de Caesare
+requirebat, occidit caputque eius praefixum hastae circumtulit.'
+
+Cf. especially Plutarch, _Brut._ 20, +en de tis Kinnas,
+poietikos aner, ouden tes aitias metechon, alla kai philos Kaisaros
+gegonos+, etc.[38]
+
+Weichert (_Poet. Lat. Rell._ p. 157) thinks that Plutarch has confused
+the tr. pleb. with the poet, and that Virgil's words (below) imply
+that Helvius Cinna was alive when the _Eclogue_ was written (B.C.
+41-39). The latest authorities, however, identify the two persons.
+Verg. _Ecl._ 9, 35,
+
+  'Nam neque adhuc Vario videor nec dicere Cinna
+  digna, sed argutos inter strepere anser[39] olores.'
+
+Cinna's works were:
+
+1. _Zmyrna_, on the incestuous love of Myrrha for Cinyras. Cinna spent
+nine years on this poem, which was very obscure. Catull. 95,
+
+  'Zmyrna mei Cinnae nonam post denique messem
+  quam coeptast nonamque edita post hiemem.'
+
+Philargyrius ad Verg. _Ecl._ 9, 35, 'Fuit autem liber obscurus adeo ut
+et nonnulli eius aetatis grammatici in eum scripserint magnamque ex
+eius enarratione sint gloriam consecuti.'
+
+2. _Propempticon Pollionis_, written on the occasion of Asinius
+Pollio's visit to Greece.
+
+3. _Epigrams and Love Poems._--For the latter cf. Ovid, _Trist._ ii.
+435 (on the erotic poets),
+
+  'Cinna quoque his comes est, Cinnaque procacior Anser,
+    et leve Cornifici parque Catonis opus.'
+
+(_c_) _C. Licinius Macer Calvus_ was the son of the annalist C.
+Licinius Macer, and was born 28th May, B.C. 82.
+
+Cic. _ad Q.F._ ii. 4, 1, 'Macer Licinius.'
+
+Valer. Max. ix. 12, 7, 'C. Licinius Macer, Calvi pater.'
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ vii. 165, 'C. Mario Cn. Carbone iii. coss. a. d. v. Kal.
+Iun. M. Caelius Rufus et C. Licinius Calvus eadem die geniti sunt.'
+
+Calvus probably died B.C. 47. Cf. Cic. _ad Fam._ xv. 21, 4, written to
+C. Trebonius towards the end of that year. The letter refers to
+correspondence with Calvus, and criticizes his oratory.
+
+See also Cic. _Brut._ 279 and 283-4; and, for his relations with
+Cicero, Tac. _Dial._ 18. Calvus vied with Cicero for the first place
+in the forum. His best known speeches were _in Vatinium_, whom he
+prosecuted at least three times (B.C. 58-54).
+
+Seneca, _Controv._ vii. 4, 6-8, 'Calvus, qui diu cum Cicerone
+iniquissimam litem de principatu eloquentiae habuit, usque eo
+violentus actor et concitatus fuit, ut in media eius actione surgeret
+Vatinius reus et exclamaret: Rogo vos, iudices, num si iste disertus
+est, ideo me damnari oportet? Idem postea cum videret a clientibus
+Catonis, rei sui, Pollionem Asinium circumventum in foro caedi, imponi
+se supra cippum iussit; erat enim parvolus statura, propter quod etiam
+Catullus in hendecasyllabis (c. 53) vocat illum "salaputtium
+disertum." ... Solebat praeterea excedere subsellia sua et impetu
+latus usque in adversariorum partem transcurrere. Et carmina quoque
+eius, quamvis iocosa sint, plena sunt ingentis animi ... Compositio
+quoque eius in actionibus ad exemplum Demosthenis riget: nihil in illa
+placidum, nihil lene est, omnia excitata et fluctuantia.'
+
+Catullus also refers to Calvus in c. 14, and in c. 96, where he speaks
+of the 'mors immatura Quintiliae,' probably Calvus' wife.
+
+Of the poems about nineteen lines are extant. They included: (1)
+_ludicra_ (in hendecasyllables); (2) _epithalamia_; (3) _Io_; (4) _ad
+uxorem_; (5) _epigrammata_. For the last cf. Sueton. _Iul._ 73, 'C.
+Calvo post famosa epigrammata de reconciliatione per amicos agenti
+ultro ac prior scripsit.' (6) 'Calvi de aquae frigidae usu,' which
+forms the title of Martial xiv. 196, may have been a didactic poem.
+Other references to Calvus' poetry are: Ovid, _Trist._ ii. 431,
+
+  'Par fuit exigui similisque licentia Calvi,
+    detexit variis qui sua furta modis';
+
+Propert. iii. 34, 89,
+
+  'Haec etiam docti confessast pagina Calvi
+    cum caneret miserae funera Quintiliae';
+
+Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 16,
+
+  'Illi, scripta quibus comoedia prisca viris est,
+  hoc stabant, hoc sunt imitandi: quos neque pulcher
+  Hermogenes umquam legit, neque simius iste
+  nil praeter Calvum et doctus cantare Catullum.'
+
+(_d_) _P. Terentius Varro Atacinus_ was born B.C. 82 in Gallia
+Narbonensis near Atax (a river, not a town, as Jerome states).
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1935 = B.C. 82, 'P. Terentius Varro vico Atace in
+provincia Narbonensi nascitur; qui postea xxxv. annum agens Graecas
+litteras cum summo studio didicit.'
+
+Porphyr. ad Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 46, 'Terentius Varro Narbonensis, qui
+Atacinus ab Atace fluvio dictus est.'
+
+Varro must have died before B.C. 35, when Horace, speaking of satire,
+wrote, _Sat._ i. 10, 46,
+
+  'Hoc erat, experto frustra Varrone Atacino
+  atque quibusdam aliis melius quod scribere possem.'
+
+Varro's works were:
+
+1. _Bellum Sequanicum_, probably an epic on Caesar's war with
+Ariovistus in B.C. 58.
+
+2. _Saturae_, mentioned only in the above passage of Horace.
+
+3. _Argonautae_, a translation from Apollonius Rhodius in four Books.
+Probus ad Verg. _Georg._ ii. 126, 'Varro qui quattuor libros de
+Argonautis edidit.'
+
+Cf. Sen. _Controv._ vii. 1, 27, 'Illos optimos versus Varronis (=
+Apoll. iii. 749-50),
+
+  "Desierant latrare canes urbesque silebant;
+  omnia noctis erant placida composta quiete."
+
+Solebat Ovidius de his versibus dicere, potuisse fieri longe meliores,
+si secundi versus ultima pars abscideretur et sic desineret "omnia
+noctis erant."'[40]
+
+Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 87; Ovid, _Am._ i. 15, 21; Stat. _Silv._ ii. 7,
+77.
+
+4. _Chorographia_, a geographical work, as the fragments show.
+
+5. _Ephemeris_.--Serv. ad Verg. _Georg._ i. 375, 'Hic locus omnis de
+Varrone est; nam et Varro et Vergilius Aratum secuti sunt.'
+
+6. _Elegies._--One line is given by Baehrens. Cf. Propert. iii. 34, 85,
+
+  'Haec quoque perfecto ludebat Iasone Varro,
+    Varro Leucadiae maxima flamma suae.'
+
+(_e_) _Publilius Syrus_ was a manumitted slave, a native of Syria,
+probably of Antioch.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1974 = B.C. 43, 'Publilius mimographus natione Syrus
+Romae scaenam tenet.'
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ xxxv. 199, 'Est et vilissima [creta] qua circum
+praeducere ad victoriae notam pedesque venalium trans maria advectorum
+denotare instituerunt maiores talemque Publilium Antiochium (MSS.
+lochium) mimicae scaenae conditorem et astrologiae consobrinum eius
+Manilium Antiochum, item grammaticae Staberium Erotem eadem nave
+advectos videre proavi.'
+
+An account of Publilius' manumission, and his contest with Laberius in
+B.C. 45, is given by Macrob. _Saturn._ ii. 7, 4-8, and is quoted under
+'Laberius,' p. 97.
+
+Publilius' works were:
+
+1. _Mimi._--Two titles are quoted.
+
+2. _Sententiae._--Six hundred and ninety-seven lines from his mimes
+(unconnected and alphabetically arranged) are preserved from different
+sources. Most are iambic senarii, some trochaic septenarii.
+
+Macrob. _Saturn._ ii. 7, 10, 'Publili sententiae feruntur lepidae et
+ad communem usum adcommodatissimae.'
+
+Cicero heard his and Laberius' plays in B.C. 46. See _ad Fam._ xii.
+18, 2, quoted under 'Laberius,' p. 99.
+
+Sen. _de tranquill._ 11, 8, 'Publilius, tragicis comicisque
+vehementior ingeniis, quotiens mimicas ineptias et verba ad summam
+caveam spectantia reliquit, inter multa alia cothurno, non tantum
+sipario fortiora, et hoc ait,
+
+  "Cuivis potest accidere quod cuiquam potest."'
+
+The lines are, like the above, proverbs of worldly wisdom, and seem to
+have been used in schools.
+
+Jerome _Ep. ad Laetam_, 107, 'Legi quondam in scholis puer,
+
+  "Aegre reprendas quod sinas consuescere."'
+
+
+
+Footnotes to Chapter II
+
+
+[25] Q. Hortensius Hortalus (B.C. 114-50), Cicero's rival as an
+orator, and author of _Annales_ (Vell. ii. 16, 3), a _Rhetoric_
+(Quint. ii. 1, 11), and love poems (Ovid _Tr._ ii. 441).
+
+[26] According to _ad Att._ ii. 1, 3 (if genuine), Cicero intended to
+publish speeches 9-11 in a collection of 'orationes consulares' ('Hoc
+totum +soma+ curabo ut habeas').
+
+[27] _R.H._ iv. 311 (note).
+
+[28] Q. Asconius Pedianus (A.D. 3-88), probably a native of Padua,
+author of a commentary on Cicero's speeches. The extant part is on
+_Pro Cornelio de maiestate_, _In toga candida_, _In Pisonem_, _Pro
+Scauro_, and _Pro Milone_. The commentary on the Verrines and Divinatio,
+which deals almost exclusively with the language, is spurious: the true
+Asconius confines himself to the subject-matter.
+
+[29] The Epicurean philosophy was expounded in the writings of C.
+Amafinius, Rabirius, and T. Catius, whose opinions and literary style
+were alike distasteful to Cicero (_Ac._ i. 5; _ad. Fam._ xv. 19, 2).
+
+[30] F. Ritschl, _Opuscula_, iii., p. 525.
+
+[31] L. Schwabe, _Quaest. Catull._, p. 296. B. Schmidt, however (ed.
+of Catullus, p. 57), thinks that the _Chronica_ are not referred to
+here.
+
+[32] A life of Lucretius has been recently discovered by J. Masson
+(_Journal of Philology_, xxiii. 46), which was written by Girolamo
+Borgia in 1502. It gives B.C. 95-51 as the poet's dates. Several new
+points were supposed to lend it a claim to authority, such as the
+statement that he was 'matre natus diu sterili.' This, however, has
+been shown to rest on a wrong reading of Q. Serenus Sammonicus' _Liber
+Medicinalis_, xxxii., in a passage dealing with the barrenness of
+women, 'hoc poterit magni quartus [liber] monstrare Lucreti,' where
+_partus_, the reading of the oldest edition, was used. This, and other
+considerations, show that the _vita_ does not rest on any ancient
+sources, beyond those which are still extant.
+
+[33] Memmius wrote love poems (Ovid, _Tr._ ii. 433).
+
+[34] Some ascribe these stories to Lenaeus, a freedman of Pompey,
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 15.
+
+[35] Only inferior MSS. give Q., and the reading in c. 67, 12, 'verum
+istud populi, fabula, Quinte, facit,' is not to be accepted.
+
+[36] Some critics, without sufficient proof, identify Volusius with
+the inferior poet Tanusius Geminus.
+
+[37] Martial, of course, has here forgotten his dates.
+
+[38] The incident has been borrowed from Plutarch by Shakespeare,
+_Julius Caesar_, Act iii. Scene 3.
+
+[39] See p. 184.
+
+[40] This appears to us to be an indirect proof that the half lines in
+Virgil are often complete as they stand.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE AUGUSTAN AGE.
+
+
+
+VIRGIL.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Our chief authority for the life of Virgil, apart from his own
+writings and those of his contemporaries, is Donatus, whose work is
+probably based on Suetonius' _De Poetis_. Donatus' work, though not
+free from romance, is much more valuable than the Life by Probus[41]
+or the metrical account given by Phocas.[42] Some important details
+are given in the Life wrongly attributed to Servius, and in an account
+preserved in a Berne MS. of the tenth century.
+
+The poet's name is correctly given as P. Vergilius Maro in all the
+Lives. The balance of authority is decidedly in favour of the spelling
+'Vergilius'; it is always so written in the early MSS. and in
+inscriptions of the Republic and of the early centuries A.D. The
+traditional form in modern literature, 'Virgil,' is here retained.
+
+Virgil was born 15th October, B.C. 70, at Andes (identified
+traditionally with Pietole)[43] near Mantua. Donatus, _vit. Verg._,
+'Natus est Cn. Pompeio Magno et M. Licinio Crasso primum coss. iduum
+Octobrium die, in pago qui Andes dicitur et abest a Mantua non
+procul.'
+
+He was of humble extraction, his father being originally either a
+potter or a day-labourer.
+
+Probus, _vit. Verg._, 'Matre Magia Polla, patre rustico.'
+
+Donatus, 'Parentibus modicis fuit ac praecipue patre, quem quidam
+opificem figulum, plures Magi cuiusdam viatoris initio mercennarium
+mox ob industriam generum tradiderunt egregieque substantiae silvis
+coemendis et apibus curandis auxisse reculam.' (Cf. Virgil's treatment
+of bees in _Georgic_ iv.)
+
+His early years were spent at Cremona, whence in B.C. 55 he went to
+Mediolanum and then to Rome for his higher education. He studied
+philosophy, medicine, mathematics, and rhetoric; but his shyness
+prevented his being a success at the bar, where, we are told, he
+appeared only once.
+
+Donatus, 'Initia aetatis Cremonae egit usque ad virilem togam, quam
+xv. anno natali suo accepit isdem illis consulibus iterum duobus
+quibus erat natus, evenitque ut eo ipso die Lucretius poeta decederet.
+De Cremona Mediolanum et inde paulo post transiit in urbem ... Inter
+cetera studia medicinae quoque ac maxime mathematicae[44] operam
+dedit. Egit et causam apud iudices unam omnino nec amplius quam semel;
+nam et in sermone tardissimum ac paene indocto similem fuisse Melissus
+[a freedman of Maecenas] tradidit.'
+
+The Berne MS. above referred to says: 'Ut primum se contulit Romam,
+studuit apud Epidium oratorem cum Caesare Augusto.'[45] For his
+studies under the Epicurean Siron cf. _Catal._ 7, 8,
+
+  'Nos ad beatos vela mittimus portus,
+  magni petentes docta dicta Sironis,
+  vitamque ab omni vindicabimus cura.'
+
+Cf. also _Ecl._ 6, 31-40, where a brief sketch is given of the
+Epicurean theory of creation.
+
+For a few years we hear nothing of his life, but we may suppose that
+he continued his studies in literature and philosophy, probably at his
+farm, if we can draw any inference from the language of _Ecl._ 1,
+especially l. 19 _sqq._ So far as is known, he took no part in the
+civil wars. In B.C. 41, when lands were assigned to the troops of
+Antonius, Virgil was dispossessed of his property. On the
+recommendation of Asinius Pollio, who was _legatus_ of Gallia
+Transpadana, he went to Rome and obtained from Octavian the
+restitution of his land. The poet expresses his gratitude in _Ecl._ 1,
+42,
+
+  'Hic illum vidi iuvenem, Meliboee, quotannis
+  bis senos cui nostra dies altaria fumant.
+  Hic mihi responsum primus dedit ille petenti:
+  "Pascite ut ante boves, pueri, submittite tauros."'
+
+Cf. also ll. 70-3.
+
+Donatus, 'Ad bucolica transiit maxime ut Asinium Pollionem, Alphenum
+Varum, et Cornelium Gallum celebraret, quia in distributione agrorum
+qui post Philippensem victoriam[46] veteranis triumvirorum iussu trans
+Padum dividebantur, indemnem se praestitissent.'
+
+Virgil was evicted a second time in the following year, after the
+Bellum Perusinum, by the troops of Octavian. Conflicting accounts are
+given by the Lives regarding the persons who seized his land.[47]
+
+Servius, _vit. Verg._, 'Postea ortis bellis civilibus inter Antonium
+et Augustum, Augustus victor Cremonensium agros, quia pro Antonio
+senserant, dedit militibus suis. Qui cum non sufficerent, his addidit
+agros Mantuanos, sublatos non propter civium culpam, sed propter
+vicinitatem Cremonensium: unde ipse in Bucolicis (9, 28), "Mantua vae
+miserae nimium vicina Cremonae."'
+
+Virgil and his household found refuge on an estate which had once
+belonged to his old master Siron: _Catal._ 10,
+
+  'Villula, quae Sironis eras, et pauper agelle ...
+                       Tu nunc eris illi [patri]
+  Mantua quod fuerat quodque Cremona prius.'
+
+Whether he recovered his old farm is uncertain: at all events he spent
+most of his time in the south of Italy. Besides a house in Rome, he
+seems to have had a country house near Nola, and we know that the
+_Georgics_ (cf. iv. 563) were written at Naples.
+
+Donatus, 'Habuit domum Romae Esquiliis iuxta hortos Maecenatis,
+quamquam secessu Campaniae Siciliaeque plurimum uteretur.'
+
+Gell. vi. 20, 1, 'Scriptum in quodam commentario repperi ... Vergilium
+petivisse a Nolanis, aquam uti duceret in propinquum rus.'
+
+He lived a retired life, seldom visiting Rome, and devoting most of
+his time to poetical composition, in which he was regular and
+painstaking.
+
+Tac. _Dial._ 13, 'Securum et quietum Vergilii secessum, in quo tamen
+neque apud divum Augustum gratia caruit neque apud populum Romanum
+notitia: testes Augusti epistulae, testis ipse populus, qui auditis in
+theatro Vergilii versibus surrexit universus et forte praesentem
+spectantemque Vergilium veneratus est sic quasi Augustum.'
+
+Quint. x. 3, 8, 'Vergilium paucissimos die composuisse versus auctor
+est Varius.'
+
+Cf. his own expression, quoted by Gell. xvii. 10, 2, 'parere se versus
+more atque ritu ursino' (alluding to the notion that the bear licked
+its young into shape).
+
+He was already an influential member of Maecenas' literary circle, to
+which, in B.C. 39, he introduced Horace. Cf. Hor. _Sat._ i. 6, 54,
+
+                      'optimus olim
+  Vergilius, post hunc Varius dixere quid essem.'
+
+By Maecenas he was introduced to Augustus,[48] who treated him with
+liberality. Cf. Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 246,
+
+  'Munera quae multa dantis cum laude tulerunt
+  dilecti tibi Vergilius Variusque poetae.'
+
+He was on intimate terms with Horace, who addresses _Od._ i. 3 to him
+on the occasion of a proposed visit to Greece. Cf. ll. 5-8,
+
+    'Navis, quae tibi creditum
+  debes Vergilium, finibus Atticis
+    reddas incolumem, precor,
+  et serves animae dimidium meae.'
+
+In B.C. 37 he formed one of the party who travelled with Horace to
+Brundisium: Hor. _Sat._ i. 5, 40 (see under 'Horace,' p. 167).
+
+For the rest of his life we hear little of Virgil in any public
+connexion. In B.C. 19 he started on a voyage to Greece and Asia,
+intending to spend three years on the revision of the _Aeneid_, but
+returned from Athens in bad health, and died at Brundisium on 21st
+September. His remains were buried near Naples. The epitaph quoted by
+Donatus is obviously not by Virgil: 'Anno aetatis lii. impositurus
+Aeneidi summam manum, statuit in Graeciam et in Asiam secedere
+triennioque continuo nihil amplius quam emendare, ut reliqua vita
+tantum philosophiae vacaret: sed cum ingressus iter Athenis
+occurrisset Augusto ab oriente Romam revertenti destinaretque non
+absistere atque etiam una redire, dum Megara vicinum oppidum
+ferventissimo sole cognoscit, languorem nactus est eumque non
+intermissa navigatione auxit, ita ut gravior aliquanto Brundisium
+appelleret, ubi diebus paucis obiit xi. Kal. Octobr. Cn. Sentio Q.
+Lucretio coss. (21st September, B.C. 19). Ossa eius Neapolim translata
+sunt tumuloque condita ... in quo distichon fecit tale:
+
+  "Mantua me genuit, Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc
+    Parthenope: cecini pascua, rura, duces."'
+
+His personal appearance and character are thus described by Donatus:
+'Corpore et statura fuit grandis, aquilo colore, facie rusticana,
+valetudine varia: nam plerumque a stomacho et a faucibus ac dolore
+capitis laborabat, sanguinem etiam saepe reiecit.' (Cf. Hor. _Sat._ i.
+5, 48,
+
+  'Lusum it Maecenas, dormitum ego Vergiliusque;
+  namque pila lippis inimicum et ludere crudis.')
+
+'Cibi vinique minimi, libidinis pronior ... cetera sane vita et ore et
+animo tam probum constat, ut Neapoli Parthenias volgo appellatus sit,
+ac si quando Romae, quo rarissime commeabat, viseretur in publico,
+sectantes demonstrantesque se suffugeret in proximum tectum.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+MINOR POEMS.--According to Donatus, these were: 'In Balistam ... deinde
+Catalecton et Priapia et Epigrammata et Diras, item Cirim et Culicem,
+cum esset annorum xvi.' Servius omits the boyish production 'in
+Balistam,' and adds the 'Copa.' The 'Aetna,' mentioned with doubt by
+Donatus, is, of course, not by Virgil. (1) _Catalecta_.-This seems
+better than _Catalecton_; either would mean "a collection of poems."
+Some give _Catalepton_ (= "trifles," like Aratus' work +ta
+kata lepton+). Ribbeck thinks _Catalecta_ originally included the
+_Priapea_, _Epigrammata_, and _Dirae_, but came to be restricted to
+the fourteen short pieces given in our MSS. under that title. Some of
+these, _e.g._ No. 5, are spurious. Quint. viii. 3, 28 vouches for No.
+2. Virgil's friends, Tucca and Varius, are addressed in 1 and 9, and
+10 (on Siron's villa) refers to an event in Virgil's life. In the vein
+of Catullus are 3, 4, and 8, the last being an extremely close parody
+of Catullus, c. 4. (2) _Priapea_, three in number. (3) _Dirae_,
+spurious. (4) _Ciris_. The writer's reference to himself in l. 2,
+'Irritaque expertum fallacis praemia volgi,' shows that Virgil is not
+the author. (5) _Culex_. That Virgil wrote a poem with this title is
+attested by Suetonius, Statius, and Martial; _e.g._ Mart. viii. 56, 19,
+
+  'Protinus Italiam concepit et arma virumque
+  qui modo vix Culicem fleverat ore rudi.'
+
+The poem in its present form is accepted by Ribbeck, but it does not
+correspond exactly to the account given by Donatus of the contents.
+(6) The _Copa_ Ribbeck accepts as genuine, but other critics find in
+it characteristics rather of Ovid or of Propertius. (7) The _Moretum_,
+though found in MSS., is not mentioned by Donatus or Servius, a strong
+argument against its being genuine.
+
+BUCOLICA.--These ten poems are called in the MSS. _Eclogae_ ("selected
+pieces"), and were composed B.C. 43-39. Probus, 'Scripsit Bucolica
+annos natus xxviii., Theocritum secutus.'
+
+Servius, 'Tunc ei proposuit Pollio ut carmen bucolicum scriberet, quod
+eum constat triennio[49] scripsisse et emendasse.'
+
+They were doubtless published separately as they were written, and
+afterwards collected into a volume with _Ecl._ 1 (Tityrus) coming
+first. Cf. _Georg._ iv. 565,
+
+  'Carmina qui lusi pastorum, audaxque iuventa,
+  Tityre, te patulae cecini sub tegmine fagi.'
+
+The present order is certainly not the chronological order.
+
+_Ecl._ 1 was written B.C. 41 as a thanksgiving to Augustus (see p.
+150).
+
+_Ecl._ 2 cannot be earlier than the end of 43 when Pollio was made
+governor of Gallia Transpadana, and possibly should not be put earlier
+than the summer of 42. The poem is written on his favourite slave
+Alexis (see Serv. _ad loc._).
+
+_Ecl._ 3 was probably written soon afterwards. Virgil refers in l. 84
+to his intimacy with Pollio,
+
+  'Pollio amat nostram, quamvis est rustica, Musam.'
+
+_Ecl._ 2 and 3 are earlier than 5. Cf. 5, 86-7,
+
+  'Haec nos "Formosum Corydon ardebat Alexim,"
+  haec eadem docuit "Cuium pecus? an Meliboei?"'
+
+_Ecl._ 4. The date is clear from l. 3,
+
+  'Si canimus silvas, silvae sint _consule_ dignae.'
+
+It must have been written in 40, when Pollio was consul. This eclogue,
+which in the Middle Age was believed to be a prophecy of the Messiah's
+coming, cannot be satisfactorily explained as referring to Pollio's
+son Saloninus, or to the expected child of Augustus, Julia.
+
+_Ecl._ 5. Spohn's view is highly probable, that it was written for the
+first celebration of Caesar's birthday in July, 42.
+
+_Ecl._ 6, to Varus, probably written B.C. 40 from Siron's villa.
+
+_Ecl._ 7 contains no allusion to contemporary events: the tone is
+purely pastoral.
+
+_Ecl._ 8 was written while Pollio was on his way back to Rome from his
+victory over the Parthini in Illyricum, for his triumph in B.C. 39.
+Cf. ll. 6 and 12.
+
+In _Ecl._ 9, written B.C. 40 at Siron's villa, the poet expresses his
+grief at the second expulsion from his farm.
+
+_Ecl._ 10 entitled 'Gallus' was written B.C. 39. For details see under
+'Gallus,' p. 182.[50]
+
+_Sources of the Eclogues._--Several of the Eclogues are modelled on
+Theocritus (cf. 'Sicelides Musae' 4, 1; 'Syracosius versus' 6, 1),
+_e.g._ _Ecl._ 8 on Theocr. 2 and 3; and close imitations are found
+throughout. The poet Euphorion of Chalcis (of third century B.C.) is
+alluded to in _Ecl._ 10, 50 in connection with Gallus. The names of
+the shepherds are mostly from Theocritus, as Tityrus, Mopsus,
+Damoetas. They are 'Arcades' (7, 4, etc.), but, like the scenery,
+exhibit traits both of Sicily and of North Italy. Thus the scenery
+never gives an accurate picture of any one locality: _e.g._ _Ecl._ 9,
+ll. 1-10, 26-7, 36, 59-60, present features of the district around
+Mantua, while in ll. 39-43 a Sicilian scene is introduced from
+Theocritus. The lofty mountains, _e.g._ 1, 84, are Sicilian, and so are
+many of the trees, as chestnut and pine, which are said not to be
+found near Mantua. For Mantuan scenery cf. _e.g._ 7, 12,
+
+  'Hic virides tenera praetexit harundine ripas
+Mincius.'
+
+The GEORGICS were written from B.C. 37 to 30 at the suggestion of
+Maecenas. Cf. i. 1.
+
+Serv. _vit. Verg._ 'Item proposuit Maecenas Georgica, quae scripsit
+emendavitque septem annis.'
+
+The poem was finished by B.C. 29. Cf. Donatus, 'Georgica reverso post
+Actiacam victoriam Augusto atque Atellae ... commoranti per continuum
+quadriduum legit.' It was written at Naples. Cf. iv. 559,
+
+  'Haec super arvorum cultu pecorumque canebam ...
+  Illo Vergilium me tempore dulcis alebat
+  Parthenope, studiis florentem ignobilis oti.'
+
+The concluding part of Book iv., originally a dirge on Cornelius
+Gallus, was afterwards altered for the myth of Aristaeus, to please
+Augustus.
+
+Serv. _ad Ecl._ 10, 1, 'Fuit Cornelius Gallus amicus Vergilii, adeo ut
+quartus Georgicorum a medio usque ad finem eius laudes teneret, quas
+postea iubente Augusto in Aristaei fabulam commutavit.'
+
+_Sources of the Georgics._--Besides his own observation, Virgil used
+the following authorities:
+
+1. Hesiod--mostly in Book i., _e.g._ ll. 276-286 (lucky and unlucky
+days). Cf. ii. 176,
+
+  'Ascraeumque cano Romana per oppida carmen.'
+
+2. Books of the priests; _e.g._ i. 269 _sqq._ (what is lawful on holy
+days), i. 338 _sqq._ (Ambarvalia).
+
+3. For agriculture and natural history--Greek writers like Aristotle,
+Theophrastus, Democritus, and Xenophon; and Latin writers like Cato
+and Varro.
+
+4. Alexandrian writers for science and mythology; _e.g._ Eratosthenes
+for i. 233, 'quinque tenent caelum zonae,' etc.; i. 351-465, signs of
+weather, from the +Diosemeia+ of Aratus; iii. 425 _sqq._, the
+Calabrian serpent, from the +Theriaka+ of Nicander, whose
+writings were also used for the subject of bees in Book iv.
+
+5. Lucretius, to whom Virgil is chiefly indebted, ii. 475 _sqq._,
+especially 490 _sqq._, 'felix qui potuit,' etc., refers to Lucretius.
+The idea of Lucretius, cf. v. 206-217, that man has a perpetual
+struggle with nature, is reflected in Virgil, but modified by his
+acceptance of the argument from design. Cf. i. 99,
+
+  '_Exercet_que frequens tellurem atque _imperat_ arvis,'
+
+and the whole passage i. 118-159. Lucretian science is borrowed in
+passages like i. 89,
+
+  'Seu pluris calor ille vias et caeca relaxat
+  spiramenta, novas veniat qua sucus in herbas';
+
+l. 415-423 (of the habits of birds); iii. 242 _sqq._ (on the passion
+of love). Notice also, with Munro, Lucretian phrases like _principio_,
+_quod superest_, _his animadversis_, _nunc age_, _praeterea_, _nonne
+vides_, _contemplator_, _genitalia semina_.
+
+_Political purpose of the Georgics._--The political purpose of the
+Georgics is to help the policy of Augustus, which aimed at checking
+the depopulation of the country districts. Cf. i. 498-514, and
+especially ll. 506-7,
+
+                     'Non ullus aratro
+  dignus honos: squalent abductis arva colonis.'
+
+The Emperor is introduced throughout as the object of veneration. Cf.
+i. 24-42.
+
+_Natural scenery._--Virgil dwells on Nature in her softer aspects. Cf.
+phrases like ii. 470, 'mollesque sub arbore somni,' and the passage
+ii. 458-540 in praise of a country life. For the praise of Italy see
+the beautiful passage ii. 136-176, where special districts are
+mentioned.
+
+AENEID.--Even before the _Eclogues_ were written, Virgil had meditated
+the composition of an epic, perhaps, as Servius suggests, on the kings
+of Alba. Cf. _Ecl._ 6, 3,
+
+  'Cum canerem reges et proelia, Cynthius aurem
+  vellit et admonuit: "pastorem, Tityre, pingues
+  pascere oportet oves, deductum dicere carmen."'
+
+The idea of a poem in honour of Augustus was present to his mind when
+he wrote _Georg._ iii. 46,
+
+  'Mox tamen ardentes accingar dicere pugnas
+  Caesaris.'
+
+The _Aeneid_ was commenced B.C. 29, and remained unfinished at
+Virgil's death.
+
+Servius, _vit. Verg._, 'postea ab Augusto Aeneidem propositam scripsit
+annis undecim, sed nec emendavit nec edidit.'
+
+His method of working at the poem is thus described by Donatus,
+'Aeneida prosa prius oratione formatam digestamque in xii. libros
+particulatim componere instituit, prout liberet quidque et nihil in
+ordinem arripiens. Ut ne quid impetum moraretur, quaedam imperfecta
+transmisit, alia levissimis verbis veluti fulsit, quae per iocum pro
+tibicinibus interponi aiebat ad sustinendum opus donec solidae
+columnae advenirent.'
+
+In what order the Books were written it is impossible to decide; but
+Book vi. was not read to Augustus till after the death of the young
+Marcellus, B.C. 23.
+
+Donatus, 'Cui [Augusto] multo post perfectaque demum materia tres
+omnino libros recitavit, secundum quartum sextum, sed hunc notabili
+Octaviae adfectione, quae cum recitationi interesset ad illos de filio
+suo versus, "Tu Marcellus eris," defecisse fertur atque aegre
+focillata est.'
+
+Virgil, writing to the emperor, insists on the magnitude of the task
+he had rashly undertaken.
+
+Macrob. _Saturn._ i. 24, 11, 'Tanta incohata res est, ut paene vitio
+mentis tantum opus ingressus mihi videar, cum praesertim, ut scis,
+alia quoque studia ad id opus multoque potiora impertiar.'
+
+Although in his will Virgil left instructions to Varius (and Tucca) to
+destroy all his unpublished manuscripts, Varius was expressly desired
+by Augustus to revise and publish the _Aeneid_.
+
+Donatus, 'Egerat cum Vario, priusquam Italia decederet, ut si quid
+sibi accidisset Aeneida combureret; sed is facturum se pernegarat ...
+Edidit autem auctore Augusto Varius, sed summatim emendata, ut qui
+versus etiam imperfectos sicut erant reliquerit.'
+
+This account is corroborated by Pliny the elder, _N.H._ vii. 114,
+Gellius, and Macrobius.
+
+The rules laid down to the editors by the Emperor were, according to
+Servius, 'ut superflua demerent, nihil adderent tamen.'
+
+It seems probable that the _Aeneid_ was published B.C. 17, for it is
+in the _Carmen Saeculare_ of that year that Horace first alludes to
+the story of Aeneas (cf. l. 50, 'clarus Anchisae Venerisque sanguis'),
+and in the fourth Book of the _Odes_ (four years later) it is more
+than once introduced.
+
+The _choice of the subject_ was influenced (1) by the personal desire
+of the Emperor; (2) by the connexion of the Caesarian house with
+Venus, through Iulus;[51] cf. the invention of Atys (_Aen._ v. 568) by
+Virgil to please Augustus, whose mother was Atia; (3) by Virgil's
+design to write an epic on the greatness of Rome, in the manner of
+Homer.
+
+_The Aeneas Legend._--Stesichorus of Himera, among other writers, made
+Aeneas, a Homeric hero (cf. _Il._ xx. 307-8), settle in Italy; and
+Naevius is said to have adopted the legend in the form given by
+Timaeus, the Sicilian historian of the third century B.C. The legend
+probably arose from the worship of Aphrodite on the coasts of Italy,
+and was disseminated by the Greeks of Cumae to please the Romans. The
+connexion of Rome with Troy had been officially recognized for two
+hundred years (cf. Sueton. _Claud._ 25), and, though not a popular
+belief, had been accepted in literature from the time of Naevius.
+
+_Sources of the Aeneid._--1. Earlier Roman poets as Naevius, Ennius,
+Pacuvius, Accius, Lucilius, Hostius, Varro Atacinus, Lucretius. For
+details see under these names.
+
+2. Cato's _Origines_ and Varro's _Antiquitates_, for Italian legends
+and peoples.
+
+3. _Ius pontificium_ and _ius augurale_, as found in the books of
+sacred colleges (Macrob. i. 24, 16). Cf. the ritual meaning of
+_porricio_ (v. 776), _porrigo_ (viii. 274), the habit of praying with
+veiled head (iii. 405), prayer to Apollo of Soracte (xi. 785).
+
+4. Greek sources: (_a_) particularly the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, but
+also the Homeric Hymns and Cyclic Poems. Thus the games in Book v. =
+the games in honour of Patroclus in _Il._ xxiii.; the shield of Aeneas
+(viii. 626-731) = the shield of Achilles in _Il._ xviii.; (_b_)
+Apollonius Rhodius, for the passion of Dido = that of Medea; (_c_)
+Greek tragedies, _e.g._ the lost _Laocoon_ of Sophocles for ii. 40
+_sqq._
+
+_Religion in the Aeneid._--1. The mythology is mainly from Homer. From
+Latin myths come Faunus, Saturnus, Janus, Picus. Euhemerism is shown
+by the last three being represented as originally kings of Rome.
+
+2. The power of the gods is denoted by _fatum_ or _fata_; cf. x. 112-3,
+
+           'rex Iuppiter omnibus idem:
+  fata viam invenient.'
+
+3. The description of the lower world in Book vi. is from the descent
+into Hades in _Od._ xi., but is modified by Pythagorean ideas (vi.
+748-751, metempsychosis), Stoic ideas (vi. 724 _sqq._, pantheism, cf.
+_Georg._ iv. 219-227) and Platonic myths (_e.g._ in the _Gorgias_,
+_Phaedo_, and _Republic_), and rendered more definite by the
+introduction of heroes of the Republic. Note that Virgil emphasizes
+its mythical nature by dismissing Aeneas through the ivory gate (of
+false dreams).
+
+4. Other beliefs: (_a_) The golden bough (vi. 203-9) compared to the
+mistletoe, the symbol of the lower world with many Indo-European
+peoples; (_b_) Divinities attached to special places, _e.g._ viii.
+349-354 of the _religio_ attaching to the Capitol, ii. 351-2 guardian
+deities: cf. Carmentis, pater Tiberinus, etc.; (_c_) Worship of the
+dead, and belief in their continued influence on human affairs, iii.
+66-8, 301-5.
+
+_Political significance._--1. The pre-eminence of the Julian race and
+of Augustus himself. Cf. i. 286,
+
+  'Nascetur pulchra Troianus origine Caesar,
+  imperium Oceano, famam qui terminet astris,
+  Iulius, a magno demissum nomen Iulo.'
+
+So vi. 789 _sqq._
+
+2. The idea of empire: cf. i. 33,
+
+  'Tantae molis erat Romanam condere gentem';
+
+and of Rome as the conqueror and civilizer of the world: vi. 851,
+
+  'Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento:
+  hae tibi erunt artes, pacisque imponere morem,
+  parcere subiectis et debellare superbos.'
+
+3. The unity of Italy with Rome is seen in Aeneas and Turnus,
+representing respectively the _pietas_ and the martial courage of a
+past age. This is brought out also by the introduction of local names.
+Cf. vii. 682-5, 710-7, 797-802.
+
+4. Virgil shows here and there contempt for pure democracy: vi. 815,
+
+                         'iactantior Ancus
+  nunc quoque iam nimium gaudens popularibus auris.'
+
+Cf. also i. 148-9.
+
+_Authors influenced by Virgil._--Livy, Tacitus, Ovid, Tibullus,
+Propertius, Manilius, Lucan, Silius Italicus, Statius, Valerius
+Flaccus, Martial, Juvenal, the author of _Aetna_. See under each.
+
+
+
+HORACE.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Our chief source of information about Horace is his own works, and
+some important details are added in a life of him by Suetonius.
+
+Horace's full name is Quintus (_Sat._ ii. 6, 37) Horatius (_Od._ iv.
+6, 44) Flaccus (_Sat._ ii. 1, 18). He was born 8th December, B.C. 65,
+at Venusia in Apulia, on the frontier of Lucania.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Natus est vi. Id. Decembr. L. Cotta et L.
+Torquato coss.'
+
+_Ep._ i. 20, 26-8,
+
+  'Forte meum siquis te percontabitur aevum,
+  me quater undenos sciat inplevisse Decembris
+  collegam Lepidum quo duxit Lollius anno.'
+
+_Sat._ i. 1, 34,
+
+                  'Lucanus an Appulus anceps:
+  nam Venusinus arat finem sub utrumque colonus.'
+
+There are a great many references to Apulia in Horace. So _Od._ iii.
+4, 9 _sqq._,
+
+  'Me fabulosae Volture in Appulo
+  nutricis extra limina Pulliae' (his nurse's name), etc.
+
+All Roman virtues are attributed to the Apulians, as in _Od._ i. 22,
+13; iii. 5, 9; _Epod._ ii. 39-42.
+
+Horace, though free-born (_Sat._ i. 6, 7) was the son of a freedman,
+who was by profession a collector of debts, or, according to others, a
+fishmonger. To this last story Horace probably refers with proud
+humility in _Ep._ ii. 2, 60,
+
+  'Bioneis sermonibus et sale nigro.'
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Patre, ut ipse tradit, libertino et auctionum
+coactore, ut vero creditum est, salsamentario.'
+
+_Sat._ i. 6, 6,
+
+  'Ut me libertino patre natum';
+
+_ibid._ 85,
+
+  'Nec timuit, sibi ne vitio quis verteret olim,
+  si praeco parvas aut, ut fuit ipse, coactor
+  mercedes sequerer.'
+
+Stories of his childhood are given, _Od._ iii. 4, 9 _sqq._; _Sat._ i.
+9, 29 _sqq._; _Sat._ ii. 2, 112 _sqq._
+
+Horace speaks highly of his father, who took him from the village
+school to Rome for his education. After speaking of his own freedom
+from vice he says (_Sat._ i. 6, 71 _sqq._),
+
+  'Causa fuit pater his, qui macro pauper agello
+  noluit in Flavi ludum me mittere, ...
+  sed puerum est ausus Romam portare docendum
+  artis quas doceat quivis eques atque senator
+  semet prognatos. Vestem servosque sequentis,
+  in magno ut populo, si qui vidisset, avita
+  ex re praeberi sumptus mihi crederet illos.
+  Ipse mihi custos incorruptissimus omnis
+  circum doctores aderat.'
+
+He received instruction, both in Latin and Greek, from Orbilius,[52] a
+teacher of conservative tendencies. _Ep._ ii. 1, 69,
+
+  'Non equidem insector delendave carmina Livi
+  esse reor, memini quae plagosum mihi parvo
+  Orbilium dictare.'
+
+_Ep._ ii. 2, 41,
+
+  'Romae nutriri mihi contigit atque doceri
+  iratus Graiis quantum nocuisset Achilles.'
+
+His education was continued at Athens. _Ep._ ii. 2, 43,
+
+  'Adiecere bonae paulo plus artis Athenae,
+  scilicet ut vellem curvo dignoscere rectum
+  atque inter silvas Academi quaerere verum.'
+
+His studies were interrupted by the civil war; he joined Brutus (who
+came to Athens in August, B.C. 44), was by him appointed _tribunus
+militum_, and took part in the battle of Philippi, B.C. 42. _Ep._ ii.
+2, 46,
+
+  'Dura sed emovere loco me tempora grato
+  civilisque rudem belli tulit aestus in arma
+  Caesaris Augusti non responsura lacertis.'
+
+_Od._ ii. 7, 9,
+
+  'Philippos et celerem fugam
+  sensi, relicta non bene parmula.'
+
+In _Sat._ i. 7 Horace relates a scene at Clazomenae before Brutus and
+his staff; and in _Ep._ i. 11 he speaks, as if with personal
+knowledge, of places in Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean,
+which he probably visited then. He refers to the hardships of war in
+_Od._ ii. 6, 7; ii. 7, 1; iii. 4, 26.
+
+After the civil war his paternal property was confiscated, probably in
+B.C. 41, and his poverty compelled him to seek the post of a clerk in
+the quaestor's office, and, as he says, to write verses. (Some satires
+and epodes were then written.)
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Victis partibus, venia inpetrata, scriptum
+quaestorium comparavit.'
+
+_Sat._ ii. 6, 36,
+
+  'De re communi scribae magna atque nova te
+  orabant hodie meminisses, Quinte, reverti.'
+
+_Ep._ ii. 2, 49,
+
+  'Unde simul primum me dimisere Philippi,
+  decisis humilem pennis inopemque paterni
+  et laris et fundi paupertas inpulit, audax
+  ut versus facerem.'
+
+In the spring of B.C. 38 Horace was introduced to Maecenas[53] by
+Varius and Virgil, and became intimate with him in the winter of B.C.
+38-7.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Primo Maecenati, mox Augusto insinuatus non
+mediocrem in amborum amicitia locum tenuit. Maecenas quanto opere eum
+dilexerit satis testatur illo epigrammate:
+
+  "Ni te visceribus meis, Horati,
+  plus iam diligo, tu tuum sodalem
+  Ninnio videas strigosiorem":
+
+sed multo magis extremis iudiciis tali ad Augustum elogio: "Horati
+Flacci ut mei esto memor!"'
+
+_Sat._ i. 6, 54,
+
+                     'Optimus olim
+  Vergilius, post hunc Varius dixere quid essem ...
+  Abeo, et revocas nono post mense iubesque          (l. 61)
+  esse in amicorum numero.'
+
+In _Sat._ ii. 6, 40-58 Horace describes how intimate he was socially
+with Maecenas, who, however, did not make him a confidant in political
+matters. The most noteworthy event of this period is described in
+_Sat._ i. 5, viz. Horace's journey to Brundisium in the train of
+Maecenas and Cocceius, who went to arrange some matters between
+Augustus and Antony. His companions were Virgil, Varius, Plotius, and
+the Greek rhetorician, Heliodorus. Plotius, Virgil, and Varius are
+thus referred to (_Sat._ i. 5, 41):
+
+        'Animae quales neque candidiores
+  terra tulit neque quis me sit devinctior alter.'[54]
+
+In B.C. 34 Maecenas gave Horace an estate in the country of the
+Sabines. The question of its position was settled last century by the
+abbe Capmartin de Chaupy. The only place that suits Horace's
+description is east of Tivoli, and in the neighbourhood of Vicovaro,
+which is the same as the Varia of Horace (_Ep._ i. 14, 3), the
+market-town of his tenants. Near it is the stream Licenza, the
+Digentia of Horace, on which stands Bardela (the Mandela of Hor.).
+_Ep._ i. 18, 104,
+
+  'Me quotiens reficit gelidus Digentia rivus,
+  quem Mandela bibit, rugosus frigore pagus.'
+
+The site of his villa may be pretty closely determined from _Ep._ i.
+10, 49,
+
+  'Haec tibi dictabam post fanum putre Vacunae.'
+
+Vacuna is a Sabine goddess, identified with Victoria: near the village
+an inscription has been found which was erected by Vespasian, 'Aedem
+Victoriae vetustate dilapsam sua impensa restituit,' and the natural
+inference is that this is the temple mentioned by Horace.[55] Horace
+stayed a great deal at his country-house, and his works contain many
+references to it.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Vixit plurimum in secessu ruris sui Sabini aut
+Tiburtini, domusque eius ostenditur circa Tiburni luculum.'
+
+_Sat._ ii. 6, 16,
+
+  'Ubi me in mentis et in arcem ex urbe removi.'
+
+Other references are _Ep._ i. 16, 1-14; _Od._ ii. 18, 14.
+
+Augustus having tried unsuccessfully to induce Horace to become his
+secretary, was not offended at the poet's refusal, but continued to
+bestow his favour upon him.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Augustus epistularum quoque ei officium obtulit,
+ut hoc ad Maecenatem scripto significat: "Ante ipse sufficiebam
+scribendis epistulis amicorum, nunc occupatissimus et infirmus
+Horatium nostrum a te cupio abducere. Veniet ergo ab ista parasitica
+mensa ad hanc regiam et nos in epistulis scribendis adiuvabit." Ac ne
+recusanti quidem aut succensuit quicquam aut amicitiam suam ingerere
+desiit ... unaque et altera liberalitate locupletavit.'
+
+Horace composed for Augustus the _Carmen Saeculare_; _Od._ iv. 4; iv.
+14, celebrating the victories of Augustus' step-sons over the
+Rhaetians and the Vindelici; also _Ep._ ii. 1.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Scripta quidem eius usque adeo probavit
+mansuraque perpetuo opinatus est, ut non modo Saeculare carmen
+componendum iniunxerit sed et Vindelicam victoriam Tiberii Drusique
+privignorum suorum eumque coegerit propter hoc tribus carminum libris
+ex longo intervallo quartum addere; post sermones vero quosdam lectos
+nullam sui mentionem habitam ita sit questus: "Irasci me tibi scito,
+quod non in plerisque eius modi scriptis mecum potissimum loquaris; an
+vereris ne apud posteros infame tibi sit, quod videaris familiaris
+nobis esse?" expresseritque eclogam ad se, cuius initium est:
+
+  "Cum tot sustineas et tanta negotia solus,"' etc. (_Ep._ ii. 1).
+
+Horace died 27th November, B.C. 8, and was buried near Maecenas. He
+appointed Augustus his heir.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Decessit v. Kal. Decembris C. Marcio Censorino
+et C. Asinio Gallo coss. lvii. aetatis anno, herede Augusto palam
+nuncupato; ... et conditus est extremis Esquiliis iuxta Maecenatis
+tumulum.'
+
+In personal appearance Horace was 'brevis atque obesus,' according to
+Suetonius, who quotes a joke of Augustus on the subject: 'Vereri autem
+mihi videris ne maiores libelli tui sint, quam ipse es; sed tibi
+statura deest, corpusculum non deest.' Cf. Hor. _Ep._ i. 20, 24,
+
+  'Corporis exigui, praecanum, solibus aptum,
+  irasci celerem, tamen ut placabilis essem';
+
+_Ep._ i. 4, 15,
+
+  'Me pinguem et nitidum bene curata cute vises,
+  cum ridere voles, Epicuri de grege porcum.'
+
+Cf. also _Ep._ i. 7, 25; _Od._ iii. 14, 25.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+_Chronology of the Works._--(1) _Satirae_, in two Books (called
+_Sermones_ in all the MSS.).
+
+Book i. It is clear from _Sat._ ii. 6, 40 that Horace was introduced
+to Maecenas in the spring of B.C. 38. Now all the references to
+Maecenas, with the exception of the prologue in _Sat._ 1 (written
+last), are in the second half of the book, there being no mention of
+him in _Sat._ 2; 3; and 4. It is therefore probable that these three
+Satires were written when Horace knew Varius and Virgil, but not
+Maecenas, _i.e._ B.C. 40-38. _Sat._ 2 is probably the oldest we have,
+as is shown by other considerations, and by the number of archaisms it
+contains. _Sat._ 5 (on the journey to Brundisium) was written shortly
+after the spring of B.C. 37, when the events recorded took place. The
+date of the publication of the book cannot be exactly fixed, the only
+clue we have being the reference in _Sat._ i. 10, 86, to Bibulus, the
+political agent of Antony, whose presence in Rome B.C. 35 may be
+referred to. It cannot be proved that _Sat._ i. 1, 114 _sqq._, is
+imitated from Verg. _Georg._ i. 512 _sqq._, published B.C. 35.
+
+Book ii. and the _Epodes_ were published in B.C. 30 about the same
+time. We have references to Actium (B.C. 31), as in _Sat._ ii. 5, 63;
+and _Sat._ ii. 1 (written last) speaks of Augustus (ll. 11-15) as the
+hero in war, not yet the bringer of peace, and was probably therefore
+composed before the temple of Janus was shut in the beginning of B.C.
+29.
+
+(2) _Epodon liber_, B.C. 30, as above. _Epod._ 9 was written shortly
+after the battle of Actium, 2nd September, B.C. 31, before it was
+known whither Antony had fled.
+
+(3) _Carmina_ (Odes) Books i.-iii., published B.C. 23. In _Od._ i. 12,
+45,
+
+  'Crescit occulto velut arbor aevo
+  fama Marcellis,'
+
+we have a reference to the marriage in B.C. 25 of Augustus' daughter,
+Julia, to his nephew, Marcellus. Marcellus died in the autumn of B.C.
+23, and the lines must have been written before his death. _Od._ ii.
+10 and iii. 19 contain references to Licinius Murena, brother of
+Terentia, Maecenas' wife. Murena was executed for his share in the
+conspiracy of Fannius Caepio in the end of B.C. 23, and it is
+improbable that Horace could have made these references after that
+event.[56]
+
+(4) _Epistles_, Book i., published B.C. 20. The date is fixed by _Ep._
+i. 20, 26-8, already quoted, p. 164.
+
+The year referred to is B.C. 21, and the book was therefore composed
+in B.C. 20, before December of that year.
+
+(5) _Carmen Saeculare_, composed for the _Ludi Saeculares_ of B.C. 17
+(see Sueton. quoted above). An inscription commemorating these games
+was discovered in 1890 on the left bank of the Tiber, and in it Horace
+is mentioned: 'Sacrificioque perfecto pueri xxvi. quibus denuntiatum
+erat patrimi et matrimi et puellae totidem carmen cecinerunt eodemque
+modo in Capitolio. Carmen composuit Q. Horatius Flaccus.'[57]
+
+(6) _Odes_, Book iv., published B.C. 13. _Od._ 4 and 14 celebrate the
+campaign of Drusus and Tiberius in Rhaetia and Vindelicia B.C. 15.
+_Od._ 2 and 5 were written just before Augustus' return, B.C. 13, from
+Gaul, where he had been since B.C. 16.
+
+(7) _Epistles_, Book ii. _Ep._ ii. 1, to Augustus, was written B.C. 14
+in response (see the quotation from Suetonius above) to the emperor's
+request for a poem addressed to himself, after seeing that no mention
+was made of him in _Ep._ ii. 2 and the _Epistula ad Pisones_. These
+are the _sermones quidam_ (both, like _Ep._ ii. 1, on literary
+criticism) referred to by Suetonius, and not Book i. of the Epistles,
+where Augustus is frequently mentioned. The date is fixed by l. 15,
+'praesenti tibi maturos largimur honores,' etc., referring to the
+worship of the _numen Augusti_, which was legalized B.C. 14, and by
+the reference in ll. 252 _sqq._ to the victories of Drusus and
+Tiberius, and their celebration in _Od._ iv. 4; iv. 14. _Ep._ ii. 2
+(to Iulius Florus) was written B.C. 18. Horace hints (l. 25, ll. 84-6)
+that he has not yet returned to lyric poetry; the epistle was
+therefore written before B.C. 17. The _Epistula ad Pisones_ or _De
+Arte Poetica_ was probably written B.C. 17 or 16 after the _Carmen
+Saeculare_, but before Horace had entered on the composition of the
+fourth Book of the Odes.
+
+The _Satires_ are called _Sermones_ in all the MSS., but as Horace
+gave this name both to his Satires (_Sat._ i. 4, 42) and to his
+Epistles (_Ep._ ii. 1, 4; 250) it is convenient to call them
+_Satirae_, the name which Horace also gives them (_Sat._ ii. 1, 1; 6,
+17), and which represent their intended scope. Horace's chief model is
+Lucilius, whom he wished to adapt to the Augustan age. _Sat._ i. 4, 56,
+
+               'his, ego quae nunc,
+  olim quae scripsit Lucilius.'
+
+So _Sat._ ii. 1, 28 and 74. Lucilius' influence is seen most in _Sat._
+i. 2; 5; 7; 8; ii. 2; 3; 4; 8. Horace, after the reception _Sat._ i. 2
+met with, did not, like Lucilius, attack individuals; nor did his
+position as a dependent (_Sat._ ii. 1, 60-79) allow him to do so. We
+find, therefore, no political satire in Horace, who confines himself to
+social and literary topics. He does not attack his contemporaries by
+name, but (_a_) takes some names from Lucilius, as Albucius (_Sat._ ii.
+1, 48), Opimius (_Sat._ ii. 3, 142); (_b_) invents 'tell-tale-names,' as
+Pantolabus (_Sat._ i. 8, 11), Novius (_Sat._ i. 3, 21). In _Sat._ i. 4
+and ii. 1 he defines the moral and social aim of his satire. In _Sat._
+i. 4, 1-13 he criticizes Lucilius' style; this seems to have given
+offence, and in _Sat._ i. 10 he gives reasons for his former criticism.
+Horace's Epicureanism is more pronounced in Book i. than in Book ii. In
+_Sat._ i. 1 and i. 3 (cf. ll. 99-124) the influence of Lucretius is
+seen. In i. 3 he takes up an antagonistic position to Stoicism (cf. ll.
+124-142). In ii. 3 he shows less hostility to Stoicism though he still
+criticizes it.[58] In _Sat._ ii. 7, where the slave Davus enunciates the
+Stoic doctrine, +hoti monos ho sophos eleutheros+, Davus' arguments from
+l. 75 onwards have been taken by Horace from Cic. _Parad._ 5.
+
+Horace does not pretend that his Satires (or Epistles) are poetry, and
+makes several statements to that effect. _Sat._ ii. 6, 17,
+
+  'Quid prius inlustrem satiris musaque pedestri?'
+
+_Ep._ ii. 1, 250,
+
+  'Sermones ... repentes per humum.'
+
+So _Sat._ i. 4, 39-44.
+
+The _Epodes_ are called _Epodi_ in the MSS. +Epodos+ was the
+name given to a piece composed of couplets, the first line of which is
+longer than the second. Horace calls them _iambi_ (_Epod._ 14, 7;
+_Od._ i. 16, 3). Their style is an imitation of that of Archilochus of
+Paros. _Ep._ i. 19, 23-5,
+
+             'Parios ego primus iambos
+  ostendi Latio, numeros animosque secutus
+  Archilochi, non res et agentia verba Lycamben.'
+
+This is seen in the personal attacks made in many of them, as well as
+in the +aischrologia+ employed, and also in the versification.
+The dates of several can be fixed. _Epod._ 16 was written B.C. 41, and
+refers to the Perusian war. Horace takes no part with either side, but
+advises his countrymen to leave Rome, like the Phocaeans of old.
+_Epod._ 7 was written B.C. 39; and _Epod._ 1, 9, and 14, about B.C.
+31. The order is strictly metrical. Epodes 1-10 are simple iambics
+(trimeter and dimeter alternately); 11-16 more complicated forms; 17,
+the last, in iambic trimeters.
+
+The _Odes_ Horace himself calls _carmina_. The metres are nearly all
+taken from Sappho and Alcaeus, the two poets whose works Horace wished
+to present to his countrymen in a Roman dress. Cf. _Od._ iii. 30,
+13-4,
+
+  'Princeps Aeolium carmen ad Italos
+  deduxisse modos.'
+
+The metrical differences between himself and his originals are due to
+the difference in the genius of the two languages and to the fact that
+he adopted the views on metre current in his time. Catullus' metre, on
+the other hand, was closely modelled on that of the Alexandrian poets.
+The odes are largely founded on the best Greek lyric poetry, with
+which Horace was thoroughly familiar; cf. his first intention to write
+in Greek (_Sat._ i. 10, 31-5). Alexandrian influence is little seen,
+and his mythological allusions are seldom obscure. Examples of
+imitation (which is commonest in Book i.) are: _Od._ i. 9, the
+beginning of which is from Alcaeus (so i. 10; 11; 18); i. 12
+(beginning) is from Pindar; i. 27 from Anacreon. Bacchylides is
+imitated, _e.g._ in ii. 18.
+
+_Subjects of the Odes._--1. Love and wine form the themes of many.
+_Od._ i. 6, 17,
+
+  'Nos convivia, nos proelia virginum
+  sectis in iuvenes unguibus acrium
+  cantamus.'
+
+Cf. _Od._ ii. 1, 37-40; iii. 3, 69-72.
+
+The love-poems show no trace of personal passion, and the names of the
+women whose charms are sung are taken from Greek; thus Pyrrha (a
+well-known name from Attic comedy) i. 5; Lydia, i. 13, etc.; Lalage,
+i. 22; ii. 5. Cinara (iv. 1; iv. 13) is probably the only one that
+represents a real person. Wine is celebrated, _e.g._ in i. 9; 18; 27;
+ii. 7; iii. 21. A tone of moderation is observed throughout the
+drinking-songs. It is highly probable[59] that in _Od._ i. 27, 1-4 the
+unrestrained bacchanalian spirit of Catullus (cf. c. 27) is reproved,
+
+  'Natis in usum laetitiae scyphis
+  pugnare Thracum est. Tollite barbarum
+    morem verecundumque Bacchum
+      sanguineis prohibete rixis.'
+
+2. In _Od._ i. 24 we have the beautiful dirge on the death of
+Quintilius Varus.
+
+3. _On political subjects._--The chief of these are as follows: i. 2
+(towards the end of B.C. 28); i. 12; i. 14; i. 35 (in B.C. 26); i. 37
+(in B.C. 30); ii. 1. The most important, however, are _Od._ iii. 1-6,
+which form one whole, and are written on the new name of Augustus, and
+the ideas therewith connected. They were all written about B.C.
+27.[60]
+
+In iii. 1, which is general, the rising generation is addressed by the
+prophet of the empire; ll. 3, 4,
+
+                  'Musarum sacerdos
+  virginibus puerisque canto.'
+
+The lesson of the ode is 'A moderate life is the best. Lucky is the
+man who is spared the trouble of managing the State.'
+
+iii. 2 praises courage and honesty, but with special reference to two
+institutions of Augustus: (1) the professional soldier as opposed to
+the citizen-soldier of the republic. The officers were taken from the
+two privileged classes, and there was no promotion from the ranks.
+This is the explanation of ll. 1-4,
+
+  'Angustam amice pauperiem pati
+   robustus acri militia puer
+     condiscat et Parthos ferocis
+       vexet eques,'
+
+lines which also refer to the resuscitation by Augustus of the
+citizen-cavalry. The soldier is not to trouble about politics (ll.
+17-20), and must not fear death (l. 13). (2) The new imperial
+administrative officers, employed not only in collecting taxes, but in
+administrative business of every kind. Speaking of them, Horace pays a
+tribute to loyal silence, and emphasizes the curse that clings to
+breach of faith; l. 25,
+
+  'Est et fideli tuta silentio
+    merces';
+
+l. 31,
+
+  'Raro antecedentem scelestum
+    deseruit pede Poena claudo.'
+
+iii. 3 touches intimately the political questions of the day. Pointed
+reference is made to Cleopatra; she is the _mulier peregrina_ (l. 20),
+the _Lacaena adultera_ (l. 25), who brought Troy low, and would bring
+Rome low, if she and her _famosus hospes_ (l. 26) could raise Troy
+again. The reference here is to a report current about Antony, that he
+intended to make Troy the capital. It is certain that he intended to
+restore to Cleopatra her kingdom with extended frontiers, and to make
+himself ruler of the Eastern empire. This, which would have meant the
+subjection of Rome to the Greeks and half-Greeks, was prevented by the
+'iustum et tenacem propositi virum' (l. i), who for his services is
+honoured as one of the gods; ll. 11-12,
+
+  'Quos inter Augustus recumbens
+  purpureo bibit ore nectar.'
+
+In iii. 4 the poet's personality comes out strongest. He describes his
+protection by the Muses in his early years, and this leads him to
+speak of one of the monarch's chief works of peace, his encouragement
+of literature; ll. 37-40,
+
+  'Vos Caesarem altum, militia simul
+  fessas cohortes abdidit oppidis,
+  finire quaerentem labores
+  Pierio recreatis antro.'
+
+iii. 5 is a defence of Augustus' foreign policy. Publicly he kept up
+Caesar's war policy, hence ll. 2-5,
+
+  'Praesens divus habebitur
+  Augustus adiectis Britannis
+  imperio gravibusque Persis';
+
+but that this concealed his real policy of non-intervention is shown
+by his action regarding Parthia. Hence Horace, by a speech put into
+the mouth of Regulus (l. 18 _sqq._) warns the Romans against trying to
+rescue the survivors of Crassus' army, who, by becoming captives, had
+ceased to be citizens. That some of the Senate wished to interfere in
+this matter is probably shown by ll. 45-6,
+
+  'Donec labantis consilio patres
+  firmaret auctor numquam alias dato.'
+
+iii. 6 refers (ll. 1-8) to Augustus' policy in restoring the ancient
+religion, as is seen by the fact that he rebuilt 82 temples. Lines
+21-32 refer to a law of Augustus on adultery, the date of which is
+unknown.
+
+In Book iv., Odes 2, 4, 5, 6, 14, 15, are political. They show traces
+of adulation, and sing the praises rather of the imperial family than
+of the nation. Cf. iv. 2, 37 (of Augustus),
+
+  'Quo nihil maius meliusve terris
+  fata donavere bonique divi,' etc.
+
+The _Epistles_.--_Sermones_ is the name given them by Horace; they are
+also called _Epistulae_ in the MSS. Social, ethical, and literary
+questions are treated of, and the style is much more careful than that
+of the Satires. The motto, one might say, of the book is _Ep._ i. 1,
+10.
+
+  'Nunc itaque et versus et cetera ludicra pono:
+  quid verum atque decens, curo et rogo et omnis in hoc sum.'
+
+The dates of _Ep._ ii. 1, 2, have already been mentioned. Both treat
+of literary criticism, and the first deals particularly with that of
+the drama. Iulius Florus, to whom _Ep._ ii. 2 is addressed, was the
+representative of the younger literary school at Rome. The _Epistula
+ad Pisones_ or _De Arte Poetica_ is an essay in verse on literary
+criticism, specially pointing out how necessary art is to composition.
+In it, according to Porphyrion, Horace 'congessit praecepta Neoptolemi
++tou Parianou+[61] de arte poetica, non quidem omnia, sed
+eminentissima.' Horace probably was also indebted to Aristotle's
+_Poetics_. Porphyrion says that Horace wrote the _Ars Poetica_ 'ad L.
+Pisonem qui postea urbis custos fuit eiusque liberos.' This does not
+fit in with the probable date, B.C. 17 or 16, as L. Piso was born B.C.
+49, and his sons could not have been old enough for the letter to be
+addressed to them. It is probable that Porphyrion is wrong, and that
+the _A.P._ was addressed to Cn. Piso, who served with Horace under
+Brutus, and his two sons.
+
+_Horace and nature._--Besides references to his Sabine villa, Horace
+refers to natural scenery in many passages. Such are _Epod._ 2; _Od._
+i. 7, 10; ii. 6, 13; iii. 13, 9; _Sat._ ii. 6, 1 _sqq._; _Ep._ i. 10,
+6 _sqq._, i. 16, 1 _sqq._[62] Horace is fond of comparing dangers to
+the plague of floods,[63] a plague from which Italy has always
+suffered. Cf. _Od._ i. 31, 7,
+
+         'rura quae Liris quieta
+  mordet aqua taciturnus amnis.'
+
+So _Od._ iii. 29, 32 _sqq._, and many other passages.
+
+_Popularity of Horace._--Horace's prediction that his works would
+become school-books, _Ep._ i. 20, 17,
+
+  'Hoc quoque te manet, ut pueros elementa docentem
+  occupet extremis in vicis balba senectus,'
+
+was early fulfilled. Cf. Iuv. 7, 226,
+
+  'Quot stabant pueri, cum totus decolor esset
+  Flaccus et haereret nigro fuligo Maroni.'
+
+
+
+CONTEMPORARY POETS:
+
+
+The following writers were friends of Horace:
+
+(_a_) _C. Valgius Rufus_, consul suffectus B.C. 12, belonged to the
+circle of Maecenas (Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 82).
+
+Valgius' works, of which only a few lines are extant, included (1)
+Elegiae. Cf. Hor. _Od._ ii. 9, 9-12,
+
+  'Tu semper urges flebilibus modis
+  Mysten ademptum, nec tibi Vespero
+    surgente decedunt amores
+      nec rapidum fugiente solem.'
+
+(2) Epigrammata, (3) Miscellanies, (4) A translation of Apollodorus'
++techne+. (See Quint. iii. 1, 18.) (5) A book on herbs.
+(Pliny, _N.H._ xxv. 4.) An epic was also expected of him, but whether
+written is unknown. Tibull. iv. 1, 179,
+
+  'Est tibi, qui possit magnis se adcingere rebus,
+    Valgius; aeterno propior non alter Homero.'
+
+(_b_) _M. Aristius Fuscus_, a poet and grammarian (Porphyr. _ad Sat._
+i. 9, 60); _Od._ i. 22, and _Ep._ i. 10, are addressed to him.
+
+(_c_) The _Visci_. Comm. Cruq. _ad Sat._ i. 10, 83, 'Visci duo fratres
+fuerunt optimi poetae et iudices critici.'
+
+(_d_) _C. Fundanius_, wrote comedies (Porphyr. _ad Sat._ i. 10, 40).
+
+(_e_) _Servius Sulpicius_, a love poet (Ovid, _Trist._ ii. 441; Hor.
+_Sat._ i. 10, 86).
+
+(_f_) _Iulius Florus_ was 'saturarum scriptor' (Porphyr. _ad Hor. Ep._
+i. 3, 1). Hor. _Ep._ i. 3 and ii. 2, are addressed to him.
+
+(_g_) _Titius_ wrote Pindaric odes, and tragedies, Hor. _Ep._ i. 3,
+9-14.
+
+(_h_) _Albinovanus Celsus_. See Hor. _Ep._ i. 3, 15-7.
+
+(_i_) _C. Iullus Antonius_, B.C. 44-B.C. 2, was a son of the triumvir
+M. Antonius. The Schol. on Hor. _Od._ iv. 2, 2, says of him, "Heroico
+metro Diomedeam scripsit et nonnulla alia soluta oratione."
+
+(_k_) _Furnius_, an orator; died B.C. 37. He is mentioned by Hor.
+_Sat._ i. 10, 86.
+
+Other poets contemporary with Virgil and Horace are:
+
+(_a_) _L. Varius Rufus_ (cf. Verg. _Ecl._ 9, 35). His works were:
+
+(1) Epics (_a_) on the death of Julius Caesar (Macrob. _Saturn._ vi.
+1, 39), (_b_) in praise of Augustus. Hor. _Ep._ i. 16, 27-29 is a
+quotation from this poem (Acron _ad loc._), and it is probably
+referred to in _Od._ i. 6, 1 (to Agrippa),
+
+  'Scriberis Vario fortis et hostium
+  victor Maeonii carminis aliti,
+  quam rem cumque ferox navibus aut equis
+  miles te duce gesserit.'
+
+(2) A tragedy, _Thyestes_, praised by Quint. x. 1, 98, 'iam Varii
+Thyestes cuilibet Graecarum comparari potest.'
+
+(3) Elegies: Porphyr. ad Hor. _Od._ i. 6, 1, 'fuit L. Varius et ipse
+carminis et tragoediarum et elegiorum auctor.'
+
+(_b_) _Aemilius Macer_ was a native of Verona, and died B.C. 16:
+Jerome yr. Abr. 2001, 'Aemilius Macer Veronensis poeta in Asia
+moritur.' He was a friend of Virgil, and was the 'Mopsus' of _Ecl._ 5,
+according to Serv. _ad loc._ Ovid in his youth enjoyed his
+acquaintance; cf. _Tr._ iv. 10, 43, where three didactic poems are
+referred to: (1) _Ornithogonia_, on birds; (2) _Theriaca_, on venomous
+serpents; (3) _De Herbis_, on plants.
+
+For his obligations to Nicander, see under 'Virgil,' p. 158.
+Quintilian calls him 'humilis' (x. 1, 87).
+
+(_c_) _C. Cornelius Gallus_ was born at Forum Iulii B.C. 70, and died
+by his own hand B.C. 27. Jerome yr. Abr. 1990, 'Cornelius Gallus
+Foroiuliensis poeta ... xliii. aetatis suae anno propria se manu
+interficit.' Having commanded a division in the war against Antony, he
+was appointed by Octavian the first prefect of Egypt, B.C. 30, but
+incurred his anger and was banished from Caesar's house and provinces
+(Sueton. _Aug._ 66). The cause of his downfall was indiscreet language
+about Augustus, according to Ovid, _Tr._ ii. 445,
+
+  'Non fuit opprobrio celebrasse Lycorida Gallo,
+    sed linguam nimio non tenuisse mero';
+
+and _Am._ iii. 9, 63,
+
+  'Tu quoque, si falsum est temerati crimen amici,
+    sanguinis atque animae prodige, Galle, tuae.'
+
+The tenth eclogue of Virgil is a testimony to his friendship for
+Gallus, l. 2,
+
+  'Pauca meo Gallo, sed quae legat ipsa Lycoris,
+  carmina sunt dicenda; neget quis carmina Gallo?'
+
+Lines 44-49 are said by Servius, _ad loc._, to be quoted from Gallus
+('de ipsius translati carminibus'). For the tribute to Gallus in the
+original draft of _Georgic_ iv. see under 'Virgil,' p. 157.
+
+He wrote four Books of love-poems to Cytheris, the _liberta_ who
+afterwards deserted him for Antony: Serv. _ad Ecl._ x. 1, 'amorum
+suorum de Cytheride scripsit libros iv.' According to Servius he also
+translated the poems of Euphorion of Chalcis. Cf. Verg. _Ecl._ x. 50,
+
+  'Ibo et Chalcidico quae sunt mihi condita versu
+  carmina pastoris Siculi modulabor avena.'
+
+Compared with Tibullus and Propertius, he was 'durior' (Quint. x. 1,
+93).
+
+(_d_) _Codrus_, mentioned by Virgil, _Ecl._ 7, 22 and 26; 5, 11, was a
+contemporary poet (Serv. _ad Ecl._ 7), and was praised by Valgius
+(Schol. Veron. _ad loc._), but nothing is known of his writings. The
+name is not Roman, and is probably a disguised form of Cordus. He is
+sometimes identified with the Iarbitas of Hor. _Ep._ i. 19, 15.
+
+(_e_) _Bavius_ and _Mevius_ were enemies of Virgil and Horace. Verg.
+_Ecl._ 3, 90,
+
+  'Qui Bavium non odit, amet tua carmina, Mevi.'
+
+Horace, _Epod._ 10, prays for the shipwreck of Mevius. He wrote about
+the prodigal son of the actor Aesopus (Porphyr. ad Hor. _Sat._ ii. 3,
+239). Bavius died B.C. 35, according to Jerome.
+
+(_f_) _Anser_ wrote a poem in praise of Antony, and was rewarded with
+a grant of land (Serv. _ad Ecl._ 9, 36; Cic. _Phil._ xiii. 11). He is
+mentioned by Ovid, _Tr._ ii. 435,
+
+  'Cinna quoque his comes est, Cinnaque procacior Anser.'
+
+Servius sees an allusion to him in _Ecl._ 9, 36,
+
+  'Argutos inter strepere anser olores.'
+
+(_g_) _Domitius Marsus_. His epigram on Tibullus (see p. 186) shows
+that he was alive in B.C. 19; he was, however, dead when Ovid was
+exiled in A.D. 8.
+
+Ovid, _Ex Pont._ iv. 16, 3,
+
+  'Famaque post cineres maior venit; et mihi nomen
+    tunc quoque, cum vivis adnumerarer, erat,
+  cum foret et Marsus, magnique Rabirius oris,
+    Iliacusque Macer sidereusque Pedo.'
+
+He was a member of Augustus' literary circle. Mart. viii. 56, 21,
+
+  'Quid Varios Marsosque loquar, ditataque vatum
+    nomina, magnus erit quos numerare labor?'
+
+His works were:
+
+1. _Cicuta_, a collection of epigrams, often referred to by Martial.
+Cf. ii. 71, 3,
+
+  'aut Marsi recitas aut scripta Catulli.'
+
+2. _Amazonis_, an epic poem.[64] Mart. iv. 29, 7,
+
+  'Saepius in libro memoratur Persius uno
+    quam levis in tota Marsus Amazonide.'
+
+3. _Amores_ or _Elegiae_. Mart. vii. 29, 7,
+
+  'Et Maecenati, Maro cum cantaret Alexin,
+    nota tamen Marsi fusca Melaenis erat.'
+
+4. _Fabellae_.
+
+5. _De Urbanitate_ (in prose). Quint. vi. 3, 102, 'Domitius Marsus,
+qui de urbanitate diligentissime scripsit.'
+
+(_h_) _Pupius_, a tragedian, sneered at by Hor. _Ep._ i. 1, 67,
+'lacrimosa poemata Pupi.'
+
+(_i_) _C. Melissus_, a freedman of Maecenas, invented the _trabeata_,
+a variety of the _togata_.
+
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 21, 'Fecit et novum genus togatarum inscripsitque
+trabeatas.'
+
+
+
+TIBULLUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Albius Tibullus (his praenomen was perhaps Aulus, which, from the
+abbreviation A. being followed by Albius, was lost in the MSS.) seems
+to have been born near Pedum in Latium. (1) Horace, in _Ep._ i. 4, 2,
+addressed to Tibullus, asks, 'Quid nunc te dicam facere in regione
+Pedana?' apparently referring to the 'sedes avitae' of Tibullus
+(Tibull. ii. 4, 53). (2) The Life contained in the best MSS., and
+probably to be attributed to Suetonius, calls him 'Albius Tibullus,
+eques Romanus' (codd. Paris. and Lips. 'regulis'). Baehrens
+(_Tibullische Blaetter_) holds that _Romanus_ is an erroneous
+correction of _regulis_, for which he proposes to read _R._ (=
+Romanus) _e Gabis_ (= Gabiis). Gabii was within a short distance of
+Pedum.
+
+The date of his birth can be fixed only by indirect evidence.
+
+(1) The Life says 'obiit adulescens,' and the epigram of Domitius
+Marsus, found in the best MSS., calls Tibullus 'iuvenis' at the time
+of his death, which must have occurred about the same time as
+Virgil's, in B.C. 19,
+
+  'Te quoque Vergilio comitem non aequa, Tibulle,
+    mors iuvenem campos misit ad Elysios,
+  ne foret aut elegis molles qui fleret amores
+    aut caneret forti regia bella pede.'
+
+(2) Ovid (_Tr._ iv. 10, 53) says of Tibullus,
+
+  'Successor fuit hic tibi, Galle, Propertius illi.'
+
+Since Gallus was born B.C. 70, and Propertius about B.C. 49, the birth
+of Tibullus must have fallen between those years.
+
+(3) Tibullus accompanied Messalla when he left for Aquitania, B.C. 30
+or 29, according to the Life: 'Ante alios Corvinum Messallam oratorem
+dilexit, cuius etiam contubernalis Aquitanico bello militaribus donis
+donatus est.' Cf. Tibull. i. 7, 9,
+
+  'Non sine me est tibi partus honos; Tarbella Pyrene
+    testis et Oceani litora Santonici.'
+
+Putting together these references we may place the date of Tibullus'
+birth in B.C. 54. (The statement of the Life in the Codex
+Guelferbytanus, 'Natus est Hyrtio et Pansa coss.' is clearly wrong).
+
+He was of equestrian rank, and at one time possessed considerable
+wealth, apparently inherited from a long line of ancestors; i. 1, 41,
+
+  'Non ego divitias patrum fructusque requiro
+    quos tulit antiquo condita messis avo.'
+
+Cf. ii. 1, 1; ii. 4, 53; Hor. _Ep._ i. 4, 7,
+
+  'Di tibi divitias dederunt.'
+
+His family property, however, had been greatly diminished; i. 1, 19,
+
+  'Vos quoque, felicis quondam nunc pauperis agri
+    custodes, fertis munera vestra, lares:
+  tunc vitula innumeros lustrabat caesa iuvencos;
+    nunc agna exigui est hostia parva soli.'
+
+Cf. i. 1, 5 and 37.
+
+It has been supposed that Tibullus suffered these losses in the
+agrarian disturbances of B.C. 41, and that his lands, like those of
+Virgil and Propertius, were confiscated. No town in Latium, however,
+is mentioned by Appian as having its territory thus assigned.
+Tibullus' property may possibly have been restored to him through the
+influence of Messalla.[65] Cf. Hor. _Ep._ i. 4, 11,
+
+  'Et mundus victus non deficiente crumena';
+
+also Tibull. i. 1, 77,
+
+             'Ego composito securus acervo
+  despiciam dites despiciamque famem.'
+
+Of Messalla Tibullus always speaks with the greatest affection. He
+refused at first to accompany him to the East after the battle of
+Actium, but afterwards followed him, and was forced through illness to
+remain at Corcyra: i. 1, 53,
+
+  'Te bellare decet terra, Messalla, marique,
+    ut domus hostiles praeferat exuvias:
+  me retinent vinctum formosae vincla puellae';
+
+i, 3, 3,
+
+  'Me tenet ignotis aegrum Phaeacia terris.'
+
+In the Aquitanian campaign he was Messalla's _contubernalis_, and had
+military distinctions conferred on him (see p. 186).
+
+No further particulars of Tibullus are known, save his love for his
+mistresses Delia and Nemesis, and the fact mentioned by Ovid, in a
+poem on his death, that his mother and sister survived him; _Amor._
+iii. 9, 50,
+
+    'Mater et in cineres ultima dona tulit.
+  Hinc soror in partem misera cum matre doloris
+    venit inornatas dilaniata comas.'
+
+Delia's real name was Plania (+delos+ = _planus_): cf.
+Apuleius, _Apol._ 10, 'eadem igitur opera accusent ... Tibullum quod
+ei sit Plania in animo Delia in versu.' She was a _libertina_, for the
+name is not known as a _nomen gentilicium_, and she had had a husband
+(i. 2, 41, 'coniunx tuus'), who appears to have been serving with the
+army in Cilicia: i. 2, 65,
+
+  'Ferreus ille fuit, qui te cum posset habere,
+    maluerit praedas stultus et arma sequi.
+  Ille licet Cilicum victas agat ante catervas,' etc.
+
+A divorce had probably taken place, as she was not entitled to wear
+the distinctive dress of the Roman matron; i. 6, 67,
+
+  'Sit modo casta, doce, quamvis non vitta ligatos
+    impediat crines nec stola longa pedes.'
+
+Nemesis was a _meretrix_; ii. 4, 14,
+
+  'Illa cava pretium flagitat usque manu.'
+
+She appears to be the 'immitis Glycera' of Hor. _Od._ i. 33, 2,
+addressed to Albius (so Kiessling _ad loc._). Both Delia and Nemesis
+are represented by Ovid as present at the funeral of Tibullus. _Amor._
+iii. 9, 53,
+
+  'Cumque tuis sua iunxerunt Nemesisque priorque
+    oscula nec solos destituere rogos.'
+
+Tibullus was on friendly terms with Horace, who addressed to him _Od._
+i. 33 and _Ep._ i. 4. Horace was doubtless attracted by the frank
+nature of Tibullus (_Ep._ i. 4, 1, 'Albi, nostrorum sermonum candide
+iudex'), and by the community of taste which led them both to imitate
+the classical Ionic rather than the Alexandrian elegy. Horace
+corroborates the statement of Life i. ('insignis forma cultuque
+corporis observabilis') that Tibullus had a fine presence; _ibid._ 1.
+6,
+
+  'Non tu corpus eras sine pectore: di tibi formam,
+  di tibi divitias dederunt artemque fruendi.'
+
+Ovid had met and admired him, and has numerous imitations of him in
+his poems; but the difference of age and the early death of Tibullus
+prevented any long acquaintance; Ovid, _Tr._ iv. 10, 51,
+
+               'Nec amara Tibullo
+  tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae.'
+
+Of friendship between Propertius and Tibullus there is no evidence:
+they never mention one another.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+Four Books of elegiac poems are attributed to Tibullus, who ranks
+first among Roman elegists in the view of Quintilian, x. 1, 93,
+'Elegia quoque Graecos provocamus, cuius mihi tersus atque elegans
+maxime videtur auctor Tibullus.'
+
+Book i., on the poet's love for Delia and Marathus (_El._ 7 is to
+Messalla), was published by himself, and was apparently composed in
+the years B.C. 31-27. This agrees with Ovid, _Tr._ ii. 463,
+
+                    'Legiturque Tibullus
+  et placet, et iam te principe notus erat,'
+
+if we assume that 'principe' refers to the title of Augustus.
+
+Book ii., the chief subject of which is Nemesis, appears to have been
+written several years later. It is unfinished, not having received the
+author's final revision, and was probably published soon after his
+death, certainly several years before Ovid's _Ars Amatoria_ (cf.
+_A.A._ 535 _sqq._).
+
+Book iii. (six Elegies) is professedly the work of Lygdamus. No poet
+of that name is mentioned in ancient literature, and it has been
+suggested that the author may have been a young relative of Tibullus
+who used a Greek adaptation of the gentile name Albius (+lygdos+
+= white marble). He speaks as a man of good social position
+(iii. 2, 22). From the fact that he belonged to the circle of
+Messalla, his poems came to be added to those of Tibullus, whom he
+constantly imitates. There are also many reminiscences of Horace,
+Ovid, and Propertius. The six Elegies are addressed to Neaera, who was
+probably the poet's cousin and was married or betrothed to him (iii.
+1, 23; 2, 12). Lygdamus was born in the same year as Ovid, B.C. 43;
+iii. 5, 17,
+
+  'Natalem primo nostrum videre parentes,
+    cum cecidit fato consul uterque pari.'
+
+The remarkable coincidence between iii. 5, 15-20, and Ovid, _A.A._ ii.
+669-70, _Tr._ iv. 10, 6, _Amor._ ii. 14, 23-4, is best explained by
+Hiller (_Hermes_, xviii. 360-1), who suggests that Lygdamus may have
+composed the poem in his earlier years merely to amuse Neaera, without
+publishing it, and that after Ovid's works had appeared he may, to
+oblige a friend or patron (_e.g._ Messalinus), have published his
+collection of elegies, adding in the process of revision the lines
+copied from Ovid.
+
+The remaining poems belong to Book iii. in the MSS., but in most
+editions are printed as a separate Book iv. iv. 1, in hexameters, is
+the _Panegyricus Messallae_, written in honour of Messalla's
+consulship, B.C. 31. Its rhetorical exaggeration and want of taste
+forbid its being attributed to Tibullus, written, as it was, so
+shortly before he reached the summit of his powers. Its date puts
+Lygdamus out of question: doubtless it is by some young member of
+Messalla's circle.
+
+The rest of the Book has for its theme the love of Sulpicia, the
+daughter of Servius Sulpicius and Valeria, the sister of Messalla, for
+a young Greek named Cerinthus. _El._ 2-6 are apparently by Tibullus
+himself, who may have amused himself by turning into verse the letters
+of the young lovers. _El._ 7 is of disputed authorship; but it
+resembles the work of Sulpicia rather than that of Tibullus. _El._
+8-12 are by Sulpicia to Cerinthus. _El._ 13 purports to be by
+Tibullus. _El._ 14 is an epigram, of doubtful authorship.
+
+Two _Priapea_ are found in MSS. of Tibullus, but probably neither of
+them is by him.
+
+
+
+PROPERTIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+The name by which the poet designates himself is Propertius simply;
+the praenomen Sextus rests on the authority of Donatus. The additions
+in some MSS., 'Aurelius' and 'Nauta,' are clearly erroneous.
+
+He was certainly a native of the district of Umbria, and probably of
+the town of Asisium (the modern Assisi). Cf. iv. 1, 121,
+
+  'Umbria te notis antiqua penatibus edit,
+    (mentior? an patriae tangitur ora tuae?)
+  qua nebulosa cavo rorat Mevania campo,
+    et lacus aestivis intepet Umber aquis,
+  scandentisque Asisi consurgit vertice murus,
+    murus ab ingenio notior ille tuo.'
+
+'Asisi' in l. 125 is Lachmann's emendation for 'Asis' of the MSS., and
+is rendered almost certain by the topography of the district. Asisium
+agrees better than Hispellum (the modern Spello) with the description
+in the passage quoted; with iv. 1, 65,
+
+  'Scandentes quisquis cernet de vallibus arces,
+    ingenio muros aestimet ille meo';
+
+and with the epithet 'proxima' in i. 22, 9, as Asisium is nearer than
+Hispellum to Perusia. Cf. i. 22, 3-10,
+
+  'Si Perusina tibi patriae sunt nota sepulcra,
+    Italiae duris funera temporibus, ...
+  proxima supposito contingens Umbria campo
+    me genuit terris fertilis uberibus.'
+
+At Assisi, moreover, have been found several inscriptions of the
+Propertii, one of which, C. PASSENNO | C. F. SERG. |, PAULLO |
+PROPERTIO | BLAESO,[66] probably refers to the Passennus Paullus
+mentioned by Pliny, _Ep._ vi. 15, as 'municeps Propertii.'
+
+Propertius was younger than Tibullus, and older than Ovid. His birth,
+therefore, took place between B.C. 54 and 43 (Hertzberg gives 46,
+Postgate prefers 50). Cf. Ovid, _Tr._ iv. 10, 53,
+
+  'Successor fuit hic [Tibullus] tibi, Galle; Propertius illi;
+    quartus ab his serie temporis ipse fui.'
+
+He came of a family well known in the neighbourhood (cf. iv. 1, 121,
+'notis penatibus,' already quoted), but not 'noble' in the technical
+sense; ii. 34, 55,
+
+  'Aspice me, cui parva domi fortuna relictast,
+    nullus et antiquo Marte triumphus avi.'
+
+His childhood was clouded by the early death of his father, and by the
+confiscation of his estate in B.C. 41; iv. 1, 127,
+
+  'Ossaque legisti non illa aetate legenda
+    patris; et in tenues cogeris ipse lares,
+  nam tua cum multi versarent rura iuvenci,
+    abstulit excultas pertica tristis opes.'
+
+His mother then took him to Rome, where he studied law for a short
+time after assuming the _toga virilis_, but abandoned it in favour of
+poetry; iv. 1, 131,
+
+  'Mox ubi bulla rudi demissast aurea collo,
+    matris et ante deos libera sumpta toga,
+  tum tibi pauca suo de carmine dictat Apollo
+    et vetat insano verba tonare foro.'
+
+Meanwhile he was engaged in his first love affair with Lycinna, who is
+otherwise unknown (iii. 15, 3 _sqq._). In B.C. 29 or 28 his
+acquaintance with Cynthia began. Her real name was Hostia (Apuleius,
+_Apol._ 10, 'Accusent ... Propertium, qui Cynthiam dicat, Hostiam
+dissimulet'), and she was possibly a grand-daughter of the poet
+Hostius (p. 65). Cf. iii. 20, 8,
+
+  'Splendidaque a docto fama refulget avo.'
+
+A courtesan of the higher class, she is represented by Propertius as
+possessed of great personal charms and varied accomplishments (i. 2,
+30, 'Omnia quaeque Venus quaeque Minerva probat'), combined with many
+faults of temper and character. She had a house at Rome in the Subura,
+and we hear of her also at Tibur, where she was buried (iv. 7, 15;
+85). She was considerably older than Propertius; ii. 18, 19,
+
+  'At tu etiam iuvenem odisti me, perfida, cum sis
+    ipsa anus haud longa curva futura die.'
+
+At the end of two years the unfaithfulness of Propertius led to twelve
+months of estrangement; iii. 16, 9,
+
+  'Peccaram semel, et totum sum pulsus in annum.'
+
+Cynthia was reconciled to him about the beginning of B.C. 25; but the
+passion on both sides gradually cooled until, in 23, Propertius
+harshly cast her off (iii. 24 and 25). Possibly there was a second
+reconciliation before her death (iv. 7). The five years of bondage
+(iii. 25, 3, 'Quinque tibi potui servire fideliter annos,') will thus
+be B.C. 28, 27, 25-23.
+
+Propertius lived chiefly at Rome; but i. 18 was written near the
+Clitumnus, and in ii. 19 he promises to join Cynthia in that region.
+In iii. 21 he contemplates a voyage to Athens; l. 1,
+
+  'Magnum iter ad doctas proficisci cogor Athenas,
+  ut me longa gravi solvat amore via.'
+
+A few years earlier he had refused to accompany his friend Tullus to
+Athens and Asia (i. 6).
+
+Nothing is known of the subsequent life of Propertius, but from two
+passages in the younger Pliny it is natural to infer that he married,
+in obedience to the _Lex Iulia_ of B.C. 18, and had issue. Pliny,
+_Ep._ vi. 15, 'Passennus Paullus ... inter maiores suos Propertium
+numerat'; ix. 22, 'Propertium ... a quo genus ducit.'
+
+We cannot tell even when he died. He must have been alive in B.C. 16,
+because iv. 6 was written for the _ludi quinquennales_, which were
+held for the first time in that year; and iv. 11. 65, is an allusion
+to the consulship of P. Cornelius Scipio, also in B.C. 16.
+
+In personal appearance Propertius was pale and thin, and rather fond
+of dress; i. 5, 21,
+
+  'Nec iam pallorem totiens mirabere nostrum,
+    aut cur sim toto corpore nullus ego';
+
+ii. 4, 5,
+
+  'Nequiquam perfusa meis unguenta capillis,
+     ibat et expenso planta morata gradu.'
+
+He had been introduced to Maecenas after the publication of his first
+Book, but naturally was not on such intimate terms with him as older
+men like Virgil and Horace were. ii. 1 and iii. 9 are addressed to
+Maecenas. In the first of these poems Propertius declares that he is
+unequal to the composition of an epic, which his patron had urged upon
+him, but adds (l. 17)
+
+  'Quod mihi si tantum, Maecenas, fata dedissent
+    ut possem heroas ducere in arma manus, ...
+  bellaque resque tui memorarem Caesaris, et tu
+    Caesare sub magno cura secunda fores.'
+
+For poems referring to Augustus cf. ii. 10, iv. 6 (on Actium), iii. 18
+(on the death of Marcellus).
+
+Horace and Propertius do not mention each other by name. Chronology
+forbids the identification of the bore in Hor. _Sat._ i. 9 with
+Propertius, who, on the same ground, cannot be meant in _Sat._ i. 10,
+18,
+
+                     'Neque simius iste,
+  nil praeter Calvum et doctus cantare Catullum.'
+
+But Hor. _Ep._ ii. 2, 87-101, is undoubtedly aimed at Propertius. Cf.
+especially l. 99,
+
+  'Discedo Alcaeus puncto illius; ille meo quis?
+  quis nisi Callimachus? Si plus adposcere visus,
+  fit Mimnermus et optivo cognomine crescit.'
+
+Though both poets belonged to the same literary circle, they differed
+widely in temperament as well as in age. With Tibullus, who was a
+member of Messalla's circle, Propertius may have had no personal
+acquaintance; at all events, neither alludes to the other.
+
+For Virgil Propertius expresses warm admiration in ii. 34, written
+during the composition of the _Aeneid_. Ovid, who calls him 'blandus'
+(_Tr._ ii. 465) and 'tener' (_A.A._ iii. 333), was an intimate friend
+of his; cf. _Tr._ iv. 10, 45 (quoted p. 206). The minor poets to whom
+he writes are Ponticus (i. 7 and 9), Bassus (i. 4), and a tragic poet,
+Lynceus (a pseudonym, ii. 34, 25).
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+The extant Elegies, divided in the MSS. into four Books, are probably
+all that Propertius ever wrote. On account of the disproportionate
+length of Book ii., and the number 'tres' (which, however, may be said
+in anticipation) in ii. 13, 25,
+
+  'Sat mea sat magna est si tres sint pompa libelli,
+    quos ego Persephonae maxima dona feram,'
+
+some editors make Book ii. consist only of _El._ 1-9, and assign the
+remainder (10-34) to a new Book iii. Books iii. and iv. of the MSS.
+then become iv. and v. respectively. In the most recent editions,
+however, the MSS. arrangement is retained, and it is here followed.
+
+_Book_ i.--All the Elegies in Book i., except the last two, are
+amatory. _El._ 2-10 belong to the first months of the poet's love,
+when Cynthia was gracious, though capricious. She had refused to
+accompany a rival of his, who was going to Illyricum as praetor (_El._
+8); but afterwards she left Rome for Baiae, and the rest of the Book
+is full of complaints of her harshness. _El._ 1, written after the
+year of separation, introduces the whole Book in a melancholy strain.
+
+The clearest indication of date in Book i. is 8, 21, 'Nam me non ullae
+poterunt corrumpere taedae,' where Propertius protests that he will
+never marry, in spite of the _Lex Iulia_ of B.C. 27. (He could not
+legally marry a woman of Cynthia's class.) The Book was published
+probably in B.C. 25, under the title of 'Cynthia.' Cf. ii. 24, 1,
+
+  'Cum sis iam noto fabula libro
+  et tua sit toto Cynthia lecta foro.'
+
+Her name was a recommendation for the Book, and it was probably her
+satisfaction at the fame which it brought her that caused her to
+relent towards Propertius. Cf. Mart. xiv. 189,
+
+  'Cynthia, facundi carmen iuvenile Properti,
+    accepit famam, nec minus ipsa dedit.'
+
+At all events, a few months afterwards we find the old relations
+re-established; ii. 3, 3,
+
+  'Vix unum potes, infelix, requiescere mensem,
+    et turpis de te iam liber alter erit.'
+
+_Book_ ii.--Cynthia is the theme of nearly all the thirty-four poems
+of Book ii., which give lively expression to her lover's varying
+moods. Only three Elegies (1, 10, and 31) are given to other subjects.
+
+Of the few poems to which dates can be assigned, the earliest is _El._
+31 (on the dedication of the temple of the Palatine Apollo, B.C. 28),
+and the latest is _El._ 10, to Augustus (written shortly before the
+invasion of Arabia by Aelius Gallus in B.C. 24. Cf. l. 16, 'et domus
+intactae te tremit Arabiae'). The Book was therefore published B.C. 24
+at the earliest.
+
+_Book_ iii.--In this Book the poems on Cynthia form a far smaller
+proportion; 7, 12, and 22 show the warmth of the poet's friendship;
+events of national interest are treated in 4, 11, and 18. In 5, 23-47,
+Propertius looks forward to spending his later years in the study of
+natural science ('naturae perdiscere mores,' l. 25).
+
+There are few hints of the date of any of the poems in iii. _El._ 20
+is apparently as early as B.C. 28; 18 certainly belongs to B.C. 23; 4
+perhaps refers to the expedition against the Parthians planned in B.C.
+22. The last-mentioned year is the earliest possible date of
+publication.
+
+_Book_ iv., in which there is no principle of arrangement, probably
+appeared after the author's death. His archaeological tastes come out
+in four Elegies written, in imitation of the +Aitia+ of
+Callimachus, on Roman antiquities--_El._ 2 on Vertumnus, 4 on Tarpeia,
+9 on Cacus, 10 on Jupiter Feretrius. In this way Propertius fulfilled
+his promise to Maecenas, iii. 9, 49,
+
+  'Celsaque Romanis decerpta Palatia tauris
+    ordiar et caeso moenia firma Remo,
+  eductosque pares silvestri ex ubere reges,
+    crescet et ingenium sub tua iussa meum.'
+
+_El._ 7 and 8 relate to Cynthia; in 7 her ghost appears to the poet.
+_El._ 3, a letter from Arethusa to Lycotas, possibly suggested to Ovid
+the plan of his _Heroides_, just as the antiquarian poems already
+mentioned may have suggested the _Fasti_. The Book ends with a lament
+for Cornelia, daughter of Scribonia, Augustus' first wife (_El._ 11).
+
+The date of 6 and 11 is certainly not earlier than B.C. 16, while 8
+seems to have been written before the rupture with Cynthia. The
+antiquarian poems are considered by some to have been among
+Propertius' earliest efforts.
+
+Propertius was familiar with the whole range of Greek poetry--Homer
+(iii. 1, 25-34), Mimnermus (i. 9, 11), Pindar (iii. 17, 40), the
+dramatists, Theocritus, and Apollonius Rhodius. As his models he names
+especially the Alexandrians Callimachus and Philetas, whom he claims
+to follow more closely than any of his predecessors; iii. 1, 1,
+
+  'Callimachi Manes et Coi sacra Philetae,
+    in vestrum, quaeso, me sinite ire nemus.
+  Primus ego ingredior puro de fonte sacerdos
+    Itala per Graios orgia ferre choros.'
+
+Cf. iv. 1, 64,
+
+  'Umbria Romani patria Callimachi.'
+
+In wealth of mythological illustration Propertius is peculiarly
+Alexandrian. He is continually drawing parallels and contrasts from
+Greek legend; _e.g._ i. 15, Cynthia how unlike Calypso! iii. 12, Aelia
+Galla a modern Penelope. Of Roman poets, he names as his predecessors
+in amatory verse Virgil, Varro Atacinus, Catullus, Calvus, and
+Cornelius Gallus (ii 34, 61-92). Once he dreams of writing an epic on
+the Alban kings in the vein of Ennius; iii. 3, 5,
+
+  'Parvaque tam magnis admoram fontibus ora,
+  unde pater sitiens Ennius ante bibit.'
+
+In Propertius love of social pleasures appears side by side with a
+strain of deep melancholy _e.g._ in. 5, 21,
+
+  Me iuvat et multo mentem vincire Lyaeo
+  et caput in verna semper habere rosa,
+
+contrasted with the numerous passages where he is thinking of the
+grave, _e.g._ ii. 1, 71,
+
+  'Quandocumque igitur vitam mea fata reposcent,
+  et breve in exiguo marmore nomen ero.'
+
+There is no greater patriot than Propertius. Cf. the denunciation of
+Cleopatra (iii. 11) and the frequency of the epithet 'Romanus.'
+
+
+
+OVID.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Ovid's own writings (especially _Tr._ iv. 10) supply nearly all the
+information we possess regarding his life. The biographies in the MSS.
+are valueless.
+
+P. Ovidius Naso was his full name, in which the MSS. agree. He speaks
+of himself as Naso simply, and Statius and Martial refer to him by
+that name; Tacitus and the two Senecas use the _nomen_ Ovidius.
+
+He was born in Sulmo, one of the three divisions of the Paelignian
+country, B.C. 43--the year in which Hirtius and Pansa fell at Mutina.
+_Tr._ iv. 10, 3,
+
+  'Sulmo mihi patria est, gelidis uberrimus undis,
+    milia qui novies distat ab urbe decem.
+  Editus hic ego sum; nec non ut tempora noris,
+    cum cecidit fato consul uterque pari.'
+
+His birthday was 20th March--the second day of the festival of the
+Quinquatria (cf. _Fast._ iii. 809-814), l. 13,
+
+  'Haec est armiferae festis de quinque Minervae,
+    quae fieri pugna prima cruenta solet.'
+
+He belonged to an equestrian family, and he frequently contrasts
+himself with those who had reached that dignity by military service or
+by possessing the requisite fortune; _ibid._ l. 7,
+
+  'Si quid id est, usque a proavis vetus ordinis heres,
+    non sum fortunae munere factus eques.'
+
+Cf. _Am._ i. 3, 7; iii. 8, 9; iii. 15, 5; _Pont._ iv. 8, 17.
+
+Along with his elder brother, he received a careful education at Rome,
+and studied also at Athens. He practised rhetoric under Arellius
+Fuscus and Porcius Latro. _Tr._ iv. 10, 15,
+
+  'Protinus excolimur teneri, curaque parentis
+    imus ad insignes urbis ab arte viros.'
+
+_Tr._ i. 2, 77,
+
+  'Non peto quas quondam petii studiosus Athenas.'
+
+Sen. _Contr._ ii. 10, 8, 'Hanc controversiam memini ab Ovidio Nasone
+declamari apud rhetorem Arellium Fuscum, cuius auditor fuit, nam
+Latronis admirator erat, cum diversum sequeretur dicendi genus.'
+Seneca says that _Met._ xiii. 121, and _Am._ i. 2, 11, were borrowed
+from Latro.
+
+But, in spite of his father's remonstrances, Ovid preferred poetry to
+public life. _Tr._ iv. 10, 19,
+
+  'At mihi iam parvo caelestia sacra placebant,
+    inque suum furtim Musa trahebat opus.
+  Saepe pater dixit, "studium quid inutile temptas?
+    Maeonides nullas ipse reliquit opes."
+  Motus eram dictis totoque Helicone relicto
+    scribere conabar verba soluta modis:
+  sponte sua carmen numeros veniebat ad aptos;
+    quicquid temptabam dicere, versus erat.'
+
+In due time he assumed the _toga virilis_, and with it the broad
+purple stripe worn by prospective senators. He also held two of the
+minor offices of the _vigintiviratus_, the preliminary to a senatorial
+career, being (1) triumvir capitalis or else triumvir monetalis, (2)
+decemvir stlitibus iudicandis. _Tr._ iv. 10, 28,
+
+    'Liberior fratri sumpta mihique toga est,
+  induiturque umeris cum lato purpura clavo';
+
+l. 33,
+
+  'Cepimus et tenerae primos aetatis honores,
+    deque viris quondam pars tribus una fui.'
+
+_Fast._ iv. 384,
+
+  'Inter bis quinos usus honore viros.'
+
+In virtue of this second office he sat in the centumviral court;[67]
+and he also acted as an arbitrator. _Tr._ ii. 93,
+
+  'Nec male commissa est nobis fortuna reorum
+    lisque decem deciens inspicienda viris.
+  Res quoque privatas statui sine crimine iudex.'
+
+He sought no higher office, having neither strength nor inclination
+for the Senate; he assumed the narrow stripe of the _eques_, and
+devoted himself to poetry and pleasure. _Tr._ iv. 10, 35,
+
+  'Curia restabat: clavi mensura coacta est:
+    maius erat nostris viribus illud onus.
+  Nec patiens corpus, nec mens fuit apta labori,
+    sollicitaeque fugax ambitionis eram.
+  Et petere Aoniae suadebant tuta sorores
+    otia, iudicio semper amata meo.'
+
+He made a tour in Asia (including Troy) and Sicily in the company of
+the poet Pompeius Macer: the date of this journey is unknown, but he
+was almost a year in Sicily. _Pont._ ii. 10, 21-29 (to Macer),
+
+  'Te duce magnificas Asiae perspeximus urbes,
+    Trinacris est oculis te duce nota meis, ...
+  Hic mihi labentis pars anni magna peracta est.'
+
+_Fast._ vi. 423,
+
+  'Cura videre fuit: vidi templumque locumque,'
+
+(of the temple of Pallas at Troy).
+
+Towards the end of A.D. 8, Ovid was banished by imperial edict to
+Tomi, on the Black Sea, near the mouth of the Danube, the cause
+alleged being the publication of the _Ars Amatoria_. Ovid mentions
+this edict, but also hints at another reason, connected with the
+imperial family. _Tr._ ii. 207,
+
+  'Perdiderint cum me duo crimina, carmen et error,
+    alterius facti culpa silenda mihi;
+  nam non sum tanti renovem ut tua vulnera, Caesar,
+    quem nimio plus est indoluisse semel.
+  Altera pars superest, qua turpi carmine factus
+    arguor obscaeni doctor adulterii.'
+
+He was guilty of no crime of his own, but was banished for witnessing
+the crime of another. Cf. _Tr._ iii. 5, 49,
+
+  'Inscia quod crimen viderunt lumina, plector,
+    peccatumque oculos est habuisse meum.'
+
+It is probable that the real reason[68] of Ovid's banishment was that
+he was privy to a guilty intrigue between D. Silanus and Julia, the
+grand-daughter of Augustus. Julia was banished in A.D. 9, and Tacitus
+(_Ann._ iii. 24) tells us of the intrigue, for which Silanus (like
+Ovid) suffered _relegatio_. His knowledge of the offence was betrayed
+by friends and domestics. Cf. _Tr._ iv. 10, 101,
+
+  'Quid referam comitumque nefas famulosque nocentes?'
+
+The date of his banishment is given _Tr._ iv. 10, 95,
+
+  'Postque meos ortus Pisaea vinctus oliva
+    abstulerat decies praemia victor equus,
+  cum maris Euxini positos ad laeva Tomitas
+    quaerere me laesi principis ira iubet.'
+
+[Here an Olympiad is reckoned as five years.] His punishment was
+_relegatio_, involving banishment to a fixed spot, but not
+confiscation of property; _Tr._ ii. 135,
+
+  'Adde quod edictum, quamvis immite minaxque,
+    attamen in poenae nomine lene fuit;
+  quippe relegatus, non exul, dicor in illo,
+    privaque fortunae sunt ibi verba meae.'
+
+In Tomi he spent the remaining years of his life, far from friends and
+books; _Tr._ v. 12, 53,
+
+  'Non liber hic ullus, non qui mihi commodet aurem,
+    verbaque significent quid mea norit, adest';
+
+suffering from illness (_Tr._ iii. 3) and the climate, and fighting
+against the barbarians; _Tr._ iv. 1, 71,
+
+  'Aspera militiae iuvenis certamina fugi,
+    nec nisi lusura movimus arma manu:
+  nunc senior gladioque latus scutoque sinistram,
+    canitiem galeae subicioque meam.'
+
+On the other hand he learned the language of the people, and actually
+wrote poems in it; _Tr._ v. 12, 57,
+
+  'Ipse mihi videor iam dedidicisse Latine:
+    nam didici Getice Sarmaticeque loqui.'
+
+_Pont._ iv. 13, 19,
+
+  'A! pudet, et Getico scripsi sermone libellum,
+    structaque sunt nostris barbara verba modis,
+  et placui--gratare mihi--coepique poetae
+    inter inhumanos nomen habere Getas!
+  materiam quaeris? laudes de Caesare dixi.'
+
+For his popularity with the natives cf. _Pont._ iv. 14, 53,
+
+  'Solus adhuc ego sum vestris immunis in oris,
+    exceptis si qui munera legis habent.
+  Tempora sacrata mea sunt velata corona,
+    publicus invito quam favor imposuit';
+
+also _Pont._ iv. 9, 101.
+
+Ovid's death took place in A.D. 18: Jerome yr. Abr. 2033, 'Ovidius
+poeta in exilio diem obiit et iuxta oppidum Tomos sepelitur.' He was
+thrice married; _Tr._ iv. 10, 69,
+
+  'Paene mihi puero nec digna nec utilis uxor
+    est data, quae tempus per breve nupta fuit;
+  illi successit quamvis sine crimine coniunx,
+    non tamen in nostro firma futura toro;
+  ultima, quae mecum seros permansit in annos,
+    sustinuit coniunx exulis esse viri.'
+
+His third wife belonged to the _gens Fabia_. Cf. _Pont._ i. 2, 138 (to
+Fabius Maximus),
+
+  'Ille ego, de vestra cui data nupta domo est.'
+
+The _filia_ mentioned _Tr._ iv. 10, 75, may have been either a
+daughter or step-daughter of Ovid's. Some think that she is the
+Perilla of _Tr._ iii. 7.
+
+Ovid's social position was of the highest, as may be inferred from his
+relations with the palace. He was intimate with Messalla, the patron
+of Tibullus, and wrote an elegy on him (now lost). Cf. _Pont._ i. 7,
+27 (to Messalinus),
+
+  'Nec tuus est genitor nos infitiatus amicos,
+    hortator studii causaque faxque mei:
+  cui nos et lacrimas, supremum in funere munus,
+    et dedimus medio scripta canenda foro.'
+
+Among the friends to whom the _Epp. ex Ponto_ are written may be
+mentioned Albinovanus, Carus, Rufus, Severus, Fabius Maximus Cotta,
+Tuticanus, the younger Macer, all poets; and other literary men of
+distinction, _e.g._ Graecinus, Atticus, Brutus, Sex. Pompeius, Gallio.
+For his intimacy with the learned Hyginus cf. Sueton. _Gramm._ 20,
+'fuit familiarissimus Ovidio poetae.'
+
+He was old enough to have seen Virgil, and hear Aemilius Macer and
+Horace recite; with Propertius, Tibullus, Ponticus, and Bassus he was
+on terms of close intimacy (_Am._ iii. 9 is a lament for Tibullus),
+_Tr._ iv. 10, 41-52,
+
+  'Temporis illius colui fovique poetas,
+    quotque aderant vates, rebar adesse deos.
+  Saepe suas volucres legit mihi grandior aevo,
+    quaeque necet serpens, quae iuvet herba, Macer.
+  Saepe suos solitus recitare Propertius ignes,
+    iure sodalicii qui mihi iunctus erat.
+  Ponticus heroo, Bassus quoque clarus iambis
+    dulcia convictus membra fuere mei.
+  Detinuit nostras numerosus Horatius aures,
+    dum ferit Ausonia carmina culta lyra.
+  Vergilium vidi tantum; nec amara Tibullo
+    tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae.'
+
+Besides the _rura paterna_ at Sulmo, Ovid possessed an estate on the
+_via Clodia_, near Rome; _Pont._ i. 8, 41,
+
+  'Non meus amissos animus desiderat agros
+    ruraque Paeligno conspicienda solo,
+  nec quos piniferis positos in collibus hortos
+    spectat Flaminiae Clodia iuncta viae.'
+
+He cannot have been poor, in spite of his complaints, _e.g._ _Pont._ iv.
+8, 32,
+
+  'Carpsit opes illa ruina meas.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Amores_, at first in five Books, but in a second edition reduced
+to three; cf. the motto prefixed to the Book,
+
+  'Qui modo Nasonis fueramus quinque libelli,
+  Tres sumus.'
+
+The poems are nearly all on Corinna, a name which probably does not
+stand for any real person, but merely for an abstraction around which
+Ovid groups his own fancies. To suppose, as Sidonius Apollinaris did
+(23, 157)[69] that Augustus' daughter Julia was meant, is absurd, for
+Corinna is a _meretrix_. The identity of Corinna was unknown; _Am._
+ii. 17, 28,
+
+    'Et multae per me nomen habere volunt.
+  Novi aliquam, quae se circumferat esse Corinnam';
+
+and twenty years afterwards Ovid could write (_A.A._ iii. 538),
+
+  'Et multi, quae sit nostra Corinna, rogant.'
+
+The _Amores_, in their original form, constituted Ovid's earliest
+work, written in his youth. The extant poems are not all that he wrote
+on Corinna; _Tr._ iv. 10, 57,
+
+  'Carmina cum primum populo iuvenilia legi,
+    barba resecta mihi bisve semelve fuit.
+  Moverat ingenium totam cantata per urbem
+    nomine non vero dicta Corinna mihi.
+  Multa quidem scripsi; sed quae vitiosa putavi,
+    emendaturis ignibus ipse dedi.'
+
+The lament for Tibullus (iii. 9) must have been written in Ovid's
+twenty-fourth year.
+
+2. _Heroides_.--Some of these at least were written before the second
+edition of the _Amores_, for in _Am._ ii. 18, 21-6 nine of them are
+mentioned by name. The title _Heroides_ is due to the grammarian
+Priscian; in the MSS. they are called _Epistulae_, and so Ovid himself
+refers to them, _A.A._ iii. 345,
+
+  'Vel tibi composita cantetur epistula voce:
+    ignotum hoc aliis ille novavit opus.'
+
+Of the twenty letters in our collection 1-14 are letters from heroines
+to their lovers; 15-20 are in pairs, _e.g._ Paris to Helen and Helen
+to Paris. The authenticity of these last six is doubted, partly
+because the title _Heroides_ cannot apply to half of them, and also
+because of their inferiority in style. In the use of the epistolary
+form in love poetry Ovid had no predecessor, and he himself calls
+attention to the novelty (_A.A._ above). The style shows the influence
+of Ovid's rhetorical training: the Epistles are _suasoriae_ in verse,
+and of _suasoriae_ we know that he was particularly fond (Sen.
+_Contr._ ii. 10, 12, 'Declamabat Naso raro controversias et non nisi
+ethicas: libentius dicebat suasorias. Molesta illi erat omnis
+argumentatio.'). His matter he would naturally draw from Homer, the
+_Cypria_, Apollonius Rhodius, and the Greek tragedians.
+
+3. Between the two editions of the _Amores_ he wrote the lost tragedy
+_Medea_. It was later than _Am._ iii. 1, where he pictures the Muses
+of Elegy and Tragedy as contending for his homage, and he finally
+decides (ll. 67-8),
+
+  'Exiguum vati concede, Tragoedia, tempus:
+  tu labor aeternus; quod petit illa breve est.'
+
+On the other hand, it was earlier than _Am._ ii. 18, 13,
+
+  'Sceptra tamen sumpsi, curaque tragoedia nostra
+    crevit, et huic operi quamlibet aptus eram.'
+
+The drama enjoyed a high reputation in antiquity. Cf. Quint. x. 1, 98,
+'Ovidii Medea videtur mihi ostendere, quantum ille vir praestare
+potuerit, si ingenio suo imperare quam indulgere maluisset.'
+
+4. _Medicamina Faciei Femineae_, an incomplete poem of 100 lines,
+giving directions for the toilet. Cf. _A.A._ iii. 205,
+
+  'Est mihi, quo dixi vestrae medicamina formae,
+    parvus, sed cura grande, libellus, opus.'
+
+5. _Ars Amatoria_, a didactic poem in three Books, on the art of
+love-intrigue. The title given by the MSS. is doubtless correct: Ovid
+himself speaks of 'ars amandi,' or simply 'ars' or 'artes.' It was
+written about B.C. 2, from the allusion, i. 171, to the 'naumachia' in
+that year,
+
+  'Quid, modo cum belli navalis imagine Caesar
+    Persidas induxit Cecropiasque rates?'
+
+The _Ars_ must have been in view when he wrote _Am._ ii. 18, 19,
+
+  'Quod licet, aut artes teneri profitemur amoris--
+    ei mihi, praeceptis urgeor ipse meis!'
+
+6. _Remedia Amoris_, written next, while professing to be a
+recantation of the last-named work, exhibits, if possible, a more
+immoral tone. Cf. l. 487,
+
+  'Quaeris, ubi invenias? artes, i, perlege nostras.'
+
+7. Ovid now produced a work of greater compass, the _Metamorphoses_,
+in fifteen Books of heroic verse. When it was composed is not known,
+but he had the idea of it in his mind when he wrote _Am._ iii. 12,
+21-40. At the time of his banishment the poem had been written, but
+not revised. He committed his MS. to the flames, but copies were in
+the hands of friends; _Tr._ i. 7, 13-16,
+
+  'Carmina mutatas hominum dicentia formas,
+    infelix domini quod fuga rupit opus.
+  Haec ego discedens, sicut bene multa meorum,
+    ipse mea posui maestus in igne manu.
+
+  Quae quoniam non sunt penitus sublata, sed extant,      (l. 23)
+    pluribus exemplis scripta fuisse reor.
+
+  Ablatum mediis opus est incudibus illud,                (l. 29)
+    defuit et scriptis ultima lima meis.'
+
+The poem consists of a collection of stories of the transformation of
+human beings into animals. Cf. i. 1,
+
+  'In nova fert animus mutatas dicere formas
+  corpora.'
+
+The idea, title, and much of the subject-matter was borrowed from the
+Alexandrians, _e.g._ the +Metamorphoseis+ of Parthenius, the
++Heteroioumena+ of Nicander.
+
+8. In the _Fasti_, in six Books, Ovid furnishes a poetical calendar of
+the Roman year. Each month has a Book allotted to it, and he speaks of
+having written twelve Books; _Tr._ ii. 549,
+
+  'Sex ego Fastorum scripsi totidemque libellos,
+    cumque suo finem mense volumen habet.
+  Idque tuo nuper scriptum sub nomine, Caesar,
+    et tibi sacratum sors mea rupit opus.'
+
+Probably the second six Books were never completed; but there are
+references to portions of them, _e.g._ iii. 57,
+
+  'Vester honos veniet, cum Larentalia dicam;
+    acceptus Geniis illa December habet.'
+
+The _Fasti_ had been written side by side with the _Metam._ and
+interrupted at the sixth Book by Ovid's banishment. During his exile
+he added some passages, but found that his Muse was fit only for
+melancholy themes; iv. 81,
+
+  'Sulmonis gelidi--patriae, Germanice, nostrae--
+    me miserum, Scythico quam procul illa solo est!'
+
+i. 540,
+
+  'Felix, exilium cui locus ille fuit!'
+
+The design is stated at the outset, i. 1-8,
+
+  'Tempora cum causis Latium digesta per annum
+    lapsaque sub terras ortaque signa canam ...
+  Sacra recognosces annalibus eruta priscis,
+    et quo sit merito quaeque notata dies.'
+
+The work is thus a medley of religion, history, and astrology, and in
+its explanations of customs may be compared to the +Aitia+ of
+Callimachus. For information about religious rites, and for
+derivations of names (_e.g._ _Agnalia_, i. 317-332), he would have
+recourse to Varro; for history, to Livy (cf. ii. 193-242, the story of
+the Fabii, from Livy, ii. 49, and vi. 587, etc., the story of Tullia,
+from Livy, i. 48); for astronomy, to Clodius Tuscus.
+
+It was begun some time after Augustus regulated the Julian calendar in
+B.C. 8, and was originally addressed to Augustus, as Ovid himself says
+(_Tr._ ii. 552 above); 'Caesar' is addressed ii. 15, vi. 763, and
+elsewhere. After the death of Augustus, Ovid began to remodel it and
+dedicate it to Germanicus. Cf. i. 3,
+
+  'Excipe pacato, Caesar Germanice, voltu
+    hoc opus et timidae dirige navis iter.'
+
+But the task was stopped by his death; and while Book i. has the
+remodelled form, Books ii.-vi. remain as first written.
+
+_Poems written in exile._--9. _Tristia_, five Books of letters to
+Augustus, to Ovid's wife and friends (who, however, are not named),
+praying for pardon or for a place of exile nearer Rome. Book i. was
+written on the journey to Tomi, the other books not after A.D. 11 or
+12, Cf. v. 10, 1,
+
+  'Ut sumus in Ponto, ter frigore constitit Hister.'
+
+10. The _Ibis_ was written at the beginning of his exile. Cf. l. 1,
+
+  'Tempus ad hoc, lustris bis iam mihi quinque peractis.'
+
+The title was taken from the poem in which Callimachus attacked
+Apollonius Rhodius under the name of Ibis. Cf. l. 55,
+
+  'Nunc, quo Battiades inimicum devovet Ibin,
+  hoc ego devoveo teque tuosque modo.'
+
+Ovid studiously conceals the identity of the enemy whom he attacks; l.
+61,
+
+  'Et quoniam, qui sis, nondum quaerentibus edo,
+  Ibidis interea tu quoque nomen habe.'
+
+He had once been a friend of the poet, but had proved false to him,
+doubtless in connexion with the circumstances which caused his
+banishment; cf. l. 85, 'capiti male fido,' l. 130, 'perfide.' He
+persecuted Ovid's wife, and tried to get possession of his property.
+
+The conjectures that the unknown was Messalla Corvinus or the poet
+Manilius may be dismissed at once. Many hold that Hyginus is meant;
+Prof. Ellis suggests the _delator_ Cassius Severus (Tac. _Ann._ iv.
+21), or T. Labienus (Sen. _Contr._ x. praef. 4), or the astrologer
+Thrasyllus (Tac. _Ann._ vi. 20). To the same person probably are
+addressed _Tr._ iii. 11, iv. 9, v. 8; _Pont._ iv. 3.
+
+11. The _Epistulae ex Ponto_, in four Books, were written A.D. 12-16.
+In tone they resemble the _Tristia_, but the composition is more
+careless, and the friends to whom he writes are mentioned by name.
+
+12. _Halieuticon_, a poem on fish, in hexameters, in a fragmentary
+condition. Ovid wrote this towards the end of his life.
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ xxxii. 152, 'His adiciemus ab Ovidio posita nomina quae
+apud neminem alium reperiuntur, sed fortassis in Ponto nascentium, ubi
+id volumen supremis suis temporibus incohavit.'
+
+
+
+MANILIUS.
+
+
+Manilius is not mentioned by any other writer, and his own poem gives
+no particulars of his life. There is uncertainty even as to the true
+form of his name, the MSS. giving variously M. Mallius, Manlius, or
+Manilius, with the addition in one case of EQOM (probably = equitis
+Romani). In some MSS. the poem is wrongly attributed to Aratus or
+Boetius, both of whom wrote on the same subject as Manilius.
+
+Bentley conjectured that Manilius was an Asiatic Greek, but the poet
+speaks of Latin as 'nostra lingua' (ii. 889), while Greek is 'externa
+lingua' (iii. 40), and he uses no Greek constructions.
+
+His poem, the _Astronomica_, in its present form, consists of five
+Books of hexameter verse: probably a sixth Book has been lost. It may
+have been wholly composed in the reign of Tiberius, or begun under
+Augustus. Book v. was written under Tiberius, if the burning of
+Pompey's theatre in A.D. 22 is alluded to in ll. 513-515. The earlier
+Books contain nothing which might not have been written after the
+death of Augustus--the allusions to the disaster of Varus in A.D. 9
+(i. 899), and to the sojourn of Tiberius at Rhodes (iv. 764). Either
+Augustus or Tiberius may be the 'Caesar' of i. 7 and i. 386. On the
+other hand, if Ovid is referring to Manilius (as Prof. Ellis suggests)
+in _Tr._ ii. 485,
+
+  'Ecce canit formas alius iactusque pilarum,
+  hic artem nandi praecipit, ille trochi,'
+
+it would follow that the whole poem had been published before the
+death of Augustus, for the descriptions of ball-play and swimming
+occur in v. 165-171 and 420-431.
+
+Astronomy is treated only in Book i.; the rest of the poem is devoted
+to astrology. This is in accordance with the author's statement of his
+theme (i. 1-3), which he was the first Roman to treat in verse (i. 4,
+113, ii. 57). As his object is to convey instruction rather than to
+give pleasure (iii. 36-39), he does not scruple to use Greek technical
+terms (ii. 693, 829, 897, iii. 40). The subject does not lend itself
+readily to verse (i. 20, iii. 31), and the poem is intolerably dry,
+except the introductions to each Book, which reveal considerable
+poetical power. The chief peculiarities of Manilius' language are his
+strange use of prepositions and his fondness for alliteration;
+imitations of Virgil are found throughout.
+
+Manilius is a fatalist (iv. 14 and 22): still fate does not abolish
+the moral quality of actions (iv. 108-118). The universe is directed
+by a 'vis animae divina' or 'divinum numen' (i. 250, 491).
+
+
+
+LIVY.
+
+
+There is no ancient biography of Livy, and very little light is thrown
+on his life by his own writings or by allusions in other authors.
+
+Titus Livius was born at Patavium (the modern Padua) B.C. 59: Jerome
+yr. Abr. 1958, 'T. Livius Patavinus scriptor historicus nascitur.'
+(The Armenian version gives _Ol._ 180, 4 = B.C. 57.) Near Patavium
+there was a famous sulphur spring known as Aponus or Aponi fons,
+whence Martial calls the district Apona tellus (i. 61, 3, 'Censetur
+Apona Livio suo tellus'). There is no reason to suppose from this that
+Livy's birthplace was not Patavium itself, but a village Aponus, which
+is nowhere mentioned. Statius (_Silv._ iv. 7, 55) calls him 'Timavi
+alumnus.' For Livy's acquaintance with Patavium cf. x. 2, 14 and 15.
+
+From his tone we may infer that he came of a good family, and he must
+have possessed a fair income. The charge against his style of
+_Patavinitas_ implies that he spent a considerable part of his life in
+his native town, but he probably settled at Rome about B.C. 30. That
+he took no part in public life is clear from his own words: i. praef.
+5, 'Hoc laboris praemium petam, ut me a conspectu malorum, quae nostra
+tot per annos vidit aetas, tantisper certe, dum prisca illa tota mente
+repeto, avertam, omnis expers curae, quae scribentis animum etsi non
+flectere a vero, sollicitum tamen efficere posset.'
+
+He enjoyed the intimacy of Augustus, whom he himself mentions, iv. 20,
+7, 'hoc ego cum Augustum Caesarem ... se ipsum ... legisse audissem.'
+Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34, 'T. Livius, eloquentiae ac fidei praeclarus in
+primis, Cn. Pompeium tantis laudibus tulit, ut Pompeianum eum Augustus
+appellaret; neque id amicitiae eorum offecit.' It was at Livy's
+suggestion that the future emperor, Claudius, started to compose a
+history: Sueton. _Claud._ 41, 'historiam in adulescentia, hortante T.
+Livio, Sulpicio vero Flavo etiam adiuvante, scribere adgressus est.'
+On the other hand, Caligula would have liked to remove Livy's writings
+and his bust from all the libraries, calling him 'verbosum in historia
+neglegentemque' (Sueton. _Calig._ 34).
+
+Nothing more is known of his life, except that he visited Campania,
+xxxviii. 56, 3, 'Nam et Literni monumentum monumentoque statua
+superimposita fuit, quam tempestate disiectam nuper vidimus ipsi.'
+
+He died at his native town, A.D. 17: Jerome yr. Abr. 2033, 'Livius
+historicus Patavii moritur.'
+
+He had at least one son (Quint. x. 1, 39, 'apud Livium in epistula ad
+filium scripta'), and one daughter (Sen. _Contr._ x. praef. 2, 'L.
+Magius gener T. Livi').
+
+Livy wrote philosophical works, probably popular treatises like
+Cicero's, some of them in the form of dialogues.
+
+Sen. _Ep._ 100, 9, 'Nomina adhuc T. Livium. Scripsit enim et dialogos,
+quos non magis philosophiae adnumerare possis quam historiae, et ex
+professo philosophiam continentis libros.'
+
+A book on rhetoric was known to Quintilian and Seneca the elder,
+apparently in the form of a letter addressed to the author's son
+(Quint. x. 1, 39, above).
+
+Quint. ii. 5, 20, 'quemadmodum Livius praecipit' (on models of style);
+Sen. _Contr._ ix. 2, 26, 'Livius de oratoribus ... aiebat' (on
+obscurity of expression); Sen. _Contr._ ix. 1, 14, 'T. Livius tam
+iniquus Sallustio fuit ut hanc ipsam sententiam ... obiceret
+Sallustio.'
+
+These minor works have perished, and of his great history only a
+portion survives.
+
+Its title, according to the oldest MSS., the summaries of the lost
+Books, and the grammarians, was _Ab urbe condita libri_; and this is
+corroborated by Livy's own language: i. praef. 1, 'si a primordio urbis
+res populi Romani perscripserim'; and by Pliny, _N.H._ praef. 16, 'T.
+Livium ... in historiarum suarum, quas repetit ab origine urbis,
+quodam volumine.' Livy refers to it loosely as _meos annales_ (xliii.
+13, 2). Separate parts may have had special titles: thus Books
+cix-cxvi. were known as _Civilis belli libri_ viii. (Codex Nazarenus
+of the Periochae).
+
+The number of Books now extant is thirty-five, viz., i.-x., which
+carry the history down to B.C. 293, and xxi.-xlv., covering the period
+B.C. 218-167. Of these xli. and xliii. are incomplete. But we possess
+summaries (_Periochae_ or _Argumenta_) of Books i.-cxlii., except
+cxxxvi. and cxxxvii., which show that the narrative was continued to
+the death of Drusus in B.C. 9. There is no evidence that it actually
+went further; but as the death of Drusus is hardly an event of
+sufficient importance to form the conclusion of so great a work, it
+has been thought that Livy may have intended to finish with the death
+of Augustus--the point from which Tacitus starts. The total number of
+Books would then have been probably one hundred and fifty.
+
+The division into Books (_libri_ or _volumina_) is due to the author:
+vi. 1, 1, 'quae ab condita urbe Romani gessere quinque libris
+exposui.' The division into decades (_i.e._ sets of ten Books) is
+first mentioned towards the end of the fifth century; it is merely a
+conventional arrangement, the subject-matter falling naturally into
+sets of fifteen Books, which again sometimes embrace three
+sub-divisions each a half-decade, or two, a half-decade and a decade.
+
+An epitome was known to Martial, xiv. 190,
+
+  'Pellibus exiguis artatur Livius ingens,
+    quem mea non totum bibliotheca capit.'
+
+The evidence of the date of composition is as follows:
+
+(_a_) i. 19, 3, 'Bis deinde post Numae regnum [Ianus] clausus fuit,
+semel T. Manlio consule post Punicum primum perfectum bellum, iterum,
+quod nostrae aetati dei dederunt ut videremus, post bellum Actiacum ab
+imperatore Caesare Augusto pace terra marique parta.' Now, as the
+first closing of the temple of Janus by Augustus was in B.C. 29, and
+as Livy is silent as to the second closing after the Cantabrian war in
+25, it follows that this passage was written B.C. 29-25. The use of
+the title Augustus, conferred on Octavian in 27, puts the earliest
+possible date two years later. The history therefore was not begun
+before B.C. 27.
+
+(_b_) ix. 36, 1, 'Silva erat Ciminia magis tum invia atque horrenda
+quam nuper fuere Germanici saltus.' In this Niebuhr found an allusion
+to the campaigns of Drusus, B.C. 12-9, and accordingly assumed that
+the first decade was not published till B.C. 9. But the passage may
+equally well refer to earlier campaigns, _e.g._ of Julius Caesar. Nor
+can it be shown that the history of Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
+published B.C. 7, was used by Livy for Books viii.-x. Book ix. must
+have been written before B.C. 20, or Livy would have mentioned the
+recovery of the standards from the Parthians in ix. 18, 9.
+
+(_c_) xxviii. 12, 12, 'Hispania prima Romanis inita provinciarum, quae
+quidem continentis sint, postrema omnium nostra demum aetate ductu
+auspicioque Augusti Caesaris perdomita.' This was written not earlier
+than B.C. 19, if it refers to Agrippa's victory over the Cantabrians.
+
+(_d_) Book lix. mentioned the _lex de maritandis ordinibus_, and
+consequently cannot have been earlier than B.C. 18.
+
+(_e_) The books in which Pompeius figured were composed in the
+lifetime of Augustus (Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34, above).
+
+(_f_) Book cxxi., according to the oldest MS. of the Periochae, was
+published after the death of Augustus; so doubtless were the remaining
+Books (A.D. 14-17).
+
+A work of such compass, and occupying so many years of the author's
+life, would naturally be published in sections. This _a priori_ view
+is corroborated by several considerations: (_a_) There are separate
+prefaces to various sections (vi. 1; xxi. 1; xxxi. 1); (_b_) Livy's
+style was censured[70] by Asinius Pollio, who died A.D. 5; (_c_)
+Augustus was acquainted with Livy's sympathetic treatment of Pompeius
+(see above); (_d_) Livy had great fame in his lifetime: Pliny, _Ep._
+ii. 3, 8, 'Numquamne legisti Gaditanum quemdam T. Livi nomine
+gloriaque commotum ad visendum eum ab ultimo terrarum orbe venisse
+statimque ut viderat abisse?'
+
+The historians from whom Livy derived his materials, and whom he
+himself mentions are: _Fabius Pictor_ (i. 44, 2, etc.). Livy refers to
+him six times, but it may be questioned whether he used him at
+first-hand. More probably he took his opinions on the authority of
+later annalists like Macer, Antias, and Tubero. _Cincius Alimentus_
+(xxi. 38, 3): the Cincius quoted in vii. 3, 7, may be the same, or an
+antiquarian of the Ciceronian or Augustan age; _Cato_ (xxxiv. 15, 9);
+_Calpurnius Piso_ (xxv. 39, 15); _Coelius Antipater_ (xxix. 25, 3);
+_Claudius Quadrigarius_ (vi. 42, 5, etc.); _Valerius Antias_, quoted
+thirty-five times--far more frequently than any other authority;
+_Licinius Macer_; _Aelius Tubero_ (iv. 23, 1); _Clodius Licinus_
+(xxix. 22, 10); _Rutilius_ (xxxix. 52, 1); _Polybius_; _Silenus_
+(xxvi. 49, 3), a Greek, whose account of the Second Punic War was
+favourable to the Carthaginians.
+
+A criticism of Livy's use of these sources is impossible, except in
+the case of Polybius, all the others having perished. His tone in
+alluding to the Greek historian is remarkable for its coldness: xxx.
+45, 5, 'Polybius haudquaquam spernendus auctor'; cf. xxxiii. 10, 8.
+Although Polybius is not mentioned till Book xxx., he was undoubtedly
+used throughout the third decade, as well as in the fourth and fifth.
+Livy follows him very closely. Where Livy differs from Polybius he is
+probably following the account of Coelius Antipater, who is his
+leading authority for the Second Punic War.
+
+Livy is not careful to reconcile his sources, and so frequently
+contradicts himself. His way of explaining a discrepancy between his
+authorities is by striking an average (xxvi. 49, 6, 'si aliquis
+adsentiri necesse est, media simillima veris sunt'). His irresolution
+was noted by Quintilian, ii. 4, 19, 'saepe quaeri solet de tempore, de
+loco, quo gesta res dicitur, nonnumquam de persona quoque, sicut
+Livius frequentissime dubitat.' This of course has its good side: it
+saves him from dogmatizing on uncertain points, and he has a hearty
+appreciation of the confusion in his authorities: xxxvii. 34, 5, 'is
+ubi et quando et quo casu captus sit, sicut pleraque alia, parum inter
+auctores constat.' He recognizes the value of contemporary evidence:
+xxii. 7, 4, 'Fabium aequalem temporibus huiusce belli potissimum
+auctorem habui'; xxi. 38, 3, 'L. Cincius Alimentus, qui captum se ab
+Hannibale scribit, maxime auctor moveret.' Criticism of his
+authorities is most conspicuous in the case of Valerius Antias, whom
+at first he followed in good faith; he condemns him again and again
+for exaggeration and credulity, _e.g._ xxxiii. 10, 8, 'si Valerio qui
+credat, omnium rerum immodice numerum augenti'; xxxix. 43, 1,
+'Valerius Antias, ut qui nec orationem Catonis legisset et fabulae
+tantum sine auctore editae credidisset.' He also recognizes the bias
+of Licinius Macer: vii. 9, 5, 'quaesita ea propriae familiae laus
+leviorem auctorem Licinium facit.' For the untrustworthiness of family
+records, cf. viii. 40, 4, 'vitiatam memoriam funebribus laudibus reor
+falsisque imaginum titulis, dum familiae ad se quaeque famam rerum
+gestarum honorumque fallenti mendacio trahunt.'
+
+Livy often refers to authorities whom he does not name: 'invenio apud
+quosdam,' 'satis constat'; and to tradition: 'fama est,' 'dicitur,'
+'fertur,' 'traditur.' Tradition was the sole source for events prior
+to the sack of Rome by the Gauls, cf. vi. 12, 2 _sqq._
+
+There is no trace in Livy of any use of original documents.
+
+He constantly resists the temptation to digress from his proper theme:
+_e.g._ xxxix. 48, 6, 'cuius belli et causas et ordinem si expromere
+velim, immemor sim propositi, quo statui non ultra attingere externa,
+nisi qua Romanis cohaererent rebus.'
+
+In spite of his love of truth (xxii. 7, 4, 'nihil haustum ex vano
+velim, quo nimis inclinant ferme scribentium animi': cf. Tac. _Ann._
+iv. 34, 'fidei praeclarus'), partiality blinds him to the faults of
+his own countrymen, and he fails to do justice to opponents like the
+Samnites and Carthaginians.
+
+In dealing with the legendary period he admits that his narrative has
+no trustworthy foundation, and gives it merely for what it is worth:
+Praef. 6, 'Quae ante conditam condendamve urbem poeticis magis decora
+fabulis quam incorruptis rerum gestarum monumentis traduntur, ea nec
+adfirmare nec refellere in animo est. Datur haec venia antiquitati, ut
+miscendo humana divinis primordia urbium augustiora faciat.'
+
+The numerous speeches exemplify Livy's rhetorical tendency,
+representing what he thought the speaker would have said under the
+given circumstances: iii. 67, 1, 'ibi in hanc sententiam locutum
+accipio.'
+
+His power of describing character is noted by Seneca, _Suas._ vi. 21,
+'Quoties magni alicuius viri mors ab historicis narrata est, toties
+fere consummatio totius vitae et quasi funebris laudatio redditur. Hoc
+... T. Livius benignius omnibus magnis viris praestitit.'
+
+_Religion and morality._--Livy believes in the influence of the gods
+on human affairs: ix. 1, 11, 'cum rerum humanarum maximum momentum
+sit, quam propitiis rem, quam adversis agant dis.' Superior to the
+gods is _necessitas_ (ix. 4, 16), and _fortuna_ is also powerful (ix.
+17, 3; v. 37, 1). He condemns the irreligion of his own day (x. 40,
+10, 'iuvenis ante doctrinam deos spernentem natus'), cf. iii. 20, 5;
+viii. 11, 1. He retains the old belief in prodigies and portents,
+every war being introduced by a list of them, but recognizes that many
+reported instances were fictitious: xxi. 62, 1, 'Multa ea hieme
+prodigia facta, aut, quod evenire solet motis semel in religionem
+animis, multa nuntiata et temere credita sunt.'
+
+He condemns the vices of his own age, and lauds the old Romans: Praef.
+12, 'Nuper divitiae avaritiam et abundantes voluptates desiderium per
+luxum atque libidinem pereundi perdendique omnia invexere.'
+
+_Politics._--Livy is an aristocrat, with a poor opinion of the lower
+orders: _e.g._ xxiv. 25, 8, 'Ea natura multitudinis est: aut servit
+humiliter aut superbe dominatur; libertatem, quae media est, nec
+cupere modice nec habere sciunt.' His political attitude is influenced
+to a great extent by the earlier historians, who had mostly been on
+the aristocratic side. Yet he is not a defender of the aristocratic
+party through thick and thin; and though he admired the character of
+some leading republicans, there can be no question of his loyalty to
+the Empire. Cf. Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34, 'Scipionem, Afranium, hunc ipsum
+Cassium, hunc Brutum nusquam latrones et parricidas, quae nunc
+vocabula imponuntur, saepe ut insignes viros nominat.'
+
+Livy's view of Caesar is quoted by Seneca, _N.Q._ v. 18, 4, 'in
+incerto esse utrum illum nasci magis rei publicae profuerit, an non
+nasci?'
+
+_Contemporaries of Livy._--1. _Pompeius Trogus_, whose history is
+known to us only through the abridgment made by M. Iunianus Iustinus,
+probably in the time of the Antonines. Trogus was of Gallic descent.
+His grandfather had received the Roman _civitas_ from Pompey; his
+father was one of Caesar's officers, and is possibly to be identified
+with the Cn. Pompeius of Caes. _B.G._ v. 36 (Iustin. xliii. 5, 11).
+His chief work, _Historiae Philippicae_, in forty-four Books, was
+concerned chiefly with the history of Macedonia and the Diadochi; but
+it embraced also the empires of the East and the history of Greece
+down to the time of Philip, as well as Parthia, Spain, Carthage, and
+the early history of Rome.
+
+2. _Fenestella_, who died, according to Jerome, in A.D. 19 at the age
+of seventy. Nothing is known of his life, or of the poems which Jerome
+attributes to him; but he certainly wrote _Annales_ (Nonius, p. 154).
+He is also quoted as an authority on miscellaneous antiquarian and
+constitutional points.
+
+3. _M. Verrius Flaccus_, tutor to the grandsons of Augustus (Sueton.
+_Gramm._ 17), was the author of _Fasti_, fragments of which have been
+discovered near Praeneste, and which were used by Ovid for his poem of
+that name. Of Verrius' grammatical works, the greatest was that
+entitled _De verborum significatu_ (Gell. v. 17, 1), arranged
+alphabetically. It is lost, but we possess part of an abridgment (nine
+out of sixteen Books) made by _Sex. Pompeius Festus_ before the third
+century A.D. The abridgment of Festus was in turn epitomized by
+_Paulus Diaconus_ in the time of Charlemagne, and his work is extant
+in a complete form.
+
+4. _C. Iulius Hyginus_, a freedman of Augustus and librarian of the
+Palatine library (Sueton. _Gramm._ 20), wrote _De vita rebusque
+illustrium virorum_ (Gell. i. 14, 1); _Exempla_ (Gell. x. 18, 7); _De
+situ urbium Italicarum_ (Serv. _ad Verg. Aen._ iii. 553); _De familiis
+Troianis_ (ibid. v. 389); theological works, _e.g._ _De dis Penatibus_
+(Macrob. _Saturn._ iii. 4, 13); commentaries on Virgil and Helvius
+Cinna; and _De Agricultura_, a treatise to which Virgil was indebted
+(Colum. i. 1, 13). The Hyginus who wrote _Fabulae_ and _De Astrologia_
+probably lived in the second century A.D.
+
+
+
+VITRUVIUS.
+
+
+Vitruvius Pollio (the cognomen appears only in the abridgment of his
+book) served under Caesar in Africa B.C. 46; viii. 3, 25, 'C. Iulius
+Masinissae filius ... cum patre Caesari militavit. Is hospitio meo est
+usus. Ita cottidiano convictu necesse fuerat de philologia disputare ...'
+
+Under Augustus he was an officer of engineers, and was enabled to
+spend the rest of his life in comfort through the liberality of that
+prince and his sister Octavia: i. praef. 2, 'Cum M. Aurelio et P.
+Minidio et Cn. Cornelio ad apparationem ballistarum et scorpionum
+reliquorumque tormentorum refectionem fui praesto et cum eis commoda
+accepi. Quae cum primo mihi tribuisti, recognitionem per sororis
+commendationem servasti. Cum ergo eo beneficio essem obligatus, ut ad
+exitum vitae non haberem inopiae timorem ...'
+
+He wrote the treatise _De Architectura_, in ten Books, when he was no
+longer young (ii. praef. 4, 'faciem deformavit aetas'), between the
+years B.C. 16 and 13. The temple of Quirinus, mentioned iii. 2, 7, was
+built in the former year; and he speaks of only one stone theatre in
+Rome (iii. 2, 2), whereas in B.C. 13 there were three.
+
+The arrangement of the subject-matter is as follows: Book i., sciences
+on which architecture is based, chief divisions of the subject, choice
+of site, and method of laying out a town; ii., building materials; iii.,
+temples--Ionic order; iv., Doric and Corinthian orders; v., public
+buildings, _e.g._, forum, theatre; vi., private houses--construction;
+vii., decoration; viii., water-supply; ix., methods of measuring time,
+_e.g._, sun-dials; x., engines and machines used in war and in the arts.
+
+The work is dedicated to Augustus, who is addressed throughout, and is
+meant to be of practical use to him in his building operations.
+
+The body of the work is severely technical; the introductions to the
+Books are in a more ambitious style. Vitruvius writes as a
+professional man, not as a scholar: i. 1, 17, 'Non uti summus
+philosophus nec rhetor disertus nec grammaticus summis rationibus
+artis exercitatus, sed ut architectus his litteris imbutus haec nisus
+sum scribere.' He freely confesses his obligations to Greek authors,
+whom he enumerates vii. praef. 10-14. Diagrams were appended to the
+text: i. 6, 12, 'Quoniam haec a nobis sunt breviter exposita, ut
+facilius intellegantur visum est mihi in extremo volumine formas, sive
+uti Graeci +schemata+ dicunt duo explicare.'
+
+
+
+SENECA THE ELDER.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Annaeus Seneca (for the praenomen Marcus, usually given, there is no
+authority: in the best MSS. it is Lucius, possibly through confusion
+with his son) was a native of Corduba: Mart. i. 62, 7,
+
+  'Duosque Senecas unicumque Lucanum
+    facunda loquitur Corduba.'
+
+The date of his birth is probably about B.C. 55, for he was old enough
+to have heard Cicero if the civil wars had not prevented him leaving
+his native town: _Contr._ i. praef. 11, 'Omnes magni in eloquentia
+nominis excepto Cicerone videor audisse: ne Ciceronem quidem aetas
+mihi eripuerat, sed bellorum civilium furor, qui tunc orbem totum
+pervagabatur, intra coloniam meam me continuit.'
+
+He was of equestrian rank; cf. the speech of Seneca the younger, Tac.
+_Ann._ xiv. 53, 'Egone, equestri et provinciali loco ortus, proceribus
+civitatis adnumeror?'
+
+Most of his life appears to have been spent in Rome, where alone he
+could have acquired his vast knowledge of contemporary rhetoric.
+Together with his countryman Porcius Latro, he attended the lectures
+of the rhetorician Marullus: _Contr._ i. praef. 22, 'Hoc Latro meus
+faciebat, ut sententias amaret. Cum condiscipuli essemus apud Marullum
+rhetorem ...' Asinius Pollio he had heard at two different periods:
+_Contr._ iv. praef. 3, 'audivi illum et viridem et postea iam senem.'
+
+Seneca's wife was Helvia, whose noble character is described by her
+son (_ad Helv._ 14, 3; 16, 3): by her he had three sons, M. Annaeus
+Novatus, L. Annaeus Seneca, and M. Annaeus Mela.
+
+He survived Tiberius; for (1) he alludes to events which happened
+after his reign, (2) Sueton. _Tib._ 73, quotes from 'Seneca' an
+account of the death of Tiberius, and we know that the elder Seneca
+wrote history: that his son did likewise there is nothing to show.
+Hence he was alive after A.D. 37. On the other hand, he was dead
+before his son's exile in A.D. 43, for Sen. _ad Helv._ 2, 5, after
+enumerating the calamities which had befallen his mother--among them
+his father's death--concludes with the words 'raptum me audisti: hoc
+adhuc defuerat tibi, lugere vivos.'
+
+Seneca was a man of stern character: for his old-world views and
+dislike of innovation cf. his son's words (_ad Helv._ 17, 3), 'Patris
+mei antiquus rigor ... Virorum optimus, pater meus, maiorum
+consuetudini deditus.' He disapproved of the higher education of
+women, 'propter istas quae litteris non ad sapientiam utuntur, sed ad
+luxuriam instruuntur.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+The only extant works of Seneca are _Oratorum et Rhetorum Sententiae,
+Divisiones, Colores Controversiarum et Suasoriarum_.
+
+1. The _Controversiae_ were written at the request of his three sons,
+but were intended for a wider circle of readers: i. praef. 10,
+'Quaecumque a celeberrimis viris facunde dicta teneo, ne ad quemquam
+privatim pertineant, populo dedicabo.' Seneca here gives a criticism
+of the rhetoricians of his time, with specimens of the style of each:
+i. praef. 1, 'Exigitis rem magis iucundam mihi quam facilem; iubetis
+enim quid de his declamatoribus sentiam qui in aetatem meam inciderunt
+indicare, et si qua memoriae meae nondum elapsa sunt ab illis dicta
+colligere, ut quamvis notitiae vestrae subducti sint, tamen non
+credatis tantum de illis, sed et iudicetis.' The specimens are given
+from memory, and the arrangement is not systematic: i. praef. 4,
+'Illud necesse est impetrem, ne me quasi certum aliquem ordinem
+velitis sequi in contrahendis quae mihi occurrent.' Seneca treats only
+of those rhetoricians whom his sons had not themselves heard: i.
+praef. 4, 'Neque de his me interrogatis quos ipsi audistis, sed de his
+qui ad vos usque non pervenerunt.' His hero is Cicero, since whose
+time oratory has steadily degenerated: i. praef. 11, 'Illud ingenium
+quod solum populus Romanus par imperio suo habuit'; _ibid._ 7, 'Omnia
+ingenia quae lucem studiis nostris attulerunt tunc nata sunt: in
+deterius deinde cottidie data res est.'
+
+Of the ten Books of _Controversiae_ only five have come down to us,
+viz., i., ii., vii., ix., and x. The deficiency is to some extent
+supplied by an abridgment (_Excerpta_) made in the fourth or fifth
+century A.D., which adds thirty-nine themes to the thirty-five
+contained in the surviving part of the original work. Each Book had a
+separate preface. Those to v., vi., and viii. are entirely wanting;
+for the prefaces to ii., iii., and iv. we are indebted to the
+abridgment.
+
+The _Controversiae_ were written when Seneca was an old man, and when
+his two elder sons were preparing for public life, probably about A.D.
+20: x. praef. 1, 'Sinite me ab istis iuvenilibus studiis ad senectutem
+meam reverti'; ii. praef. 4 (to Mela), 'Fratribus tuis ambitiosa curae
+sunt foroque se et honoribus parant.'
+
+As to the date of publication, it has been argued[71] that they
+appeared after the fall of Seianus and before the death of Mamercus
+Scaurus, _i.e._, between A.D. 31 and 34. Probably, however, the
+publication did not take place till after the death of Tiberius, A.D.
+37; the protest against the burning of books (x. praef. 6-7) would
+have been as offensive to him as to Seianus.
+
+2. There is only one book of _Suasoriae_, and the beginning of it is
+lost. It gives specimens of the treatment of seven themes, _e.g._, 3,
+'Deliberat Agamemnon an Iphigeniam immolet negante Calchante aliter
+navigari fas esse.' It is certainly later than the _Controversiae_:
+_Contr._ ii. 4, 8, 'Quae dixerit suo loco reddam, cum ad suasorias
+venero.' One passage cannot have been written before A.D. 34: 2, 22,
+'Scaurum Mamercum, in quo Scaurorum familia exstincta est.' It was not
+published in the lifetime of Tiberius, for Seneca calls the accuser of
+Scaurus 'homo quam improbi animi tam infelicis ingenii' (2, 22), and
+quotes Cremutius Cordus (6, 19) whose books had been burned in
+Tiberius' time.
+
+3. Seneca wrote also on Roman history from the commencement of the
+civil wars to his own time, but left the work of publication to his
+son.
+
+L. Seneca _de vita patris_ (Haase, vol. iii. p. 436), 'Si quaecumque
+composuit pater meus et edi voluit iam in manus populi emisissem, ad
+claritatem nominis sui satis sibi ipsi prospexerat ... Quisquis
+legisset eius historias ab initio bellorum civilium, unde primum
+veritas retro abiit, paene usque ad mortis suae diem,' etc.
+
+
+
+Footnotes to Chapter III
+
+
+[41] M. Valerius Probus of Berytus (Sueton. _Gramm._ 24) who
+flourished, according to Jerome, A.D. 56, prepared critical editions
+of Lucretius, Virgil, and Horace. A commentary on the _Eclogues_ and
+_Georgics_ passes under his name, but most of it is spurious.
+
+[42] A grammarian of the fifth century A.D., who merely versifies
+Donatus.
+
+[43] On this point Professor W. M. Ramsay writes to us: 'Virgil's farm
+was certainly not at Pietole (which is two miles south of Mantua, out
+in the flat plain): for (1) the farm was a long way from the city (cf.
+_Ecl._ 9, 59 _sqq._); (2) it was beside hills (_ibid._ 7 _sqq._); (3)
+woods were on or by it (cf. Donatus "silvis coemendis"), and the flat
+fertile valley was certainly not abandoned to forests. After exploring
+the country, I felt clear that the farm was on the west bank of the
+Mincio, opposite Valeggio, where the northern hills sink to the dead
+level of the Po valley.'
+
+[44] His knowledge of science is reflected in his works. Cf.
+_Georgics_, passim, and _Ecl._ 3, ll. 40-2.
+
+[45] The latter part of this statement is worthless: Augustus was only
+a child when Virgil came to Rome.
+
+[46] Probus is manifestly wrong in saying that the distribution of
+land took place 'post _Mutinense_ bellum.'
+
+[47] For details see H. Nettleship, _Ancient Lives of Vergil_, who
+holds that there was really only one eviction.
+
+[48] The writings of Augustus are enumerated by Sueton. Aug. 85--(1)
+_Rescripta Bruto de Catone_, a reply to Brutus' pamphlet on Cato; (2)
+_Hortationes ad Philosophiam_; (3) _De Vita Sua_; (4) Life of Drusus
+(Sueton. _Claud._ 1); (5) Poems: 'Sicily' in hexameters, Epigrams and
+Fescennine verses; a tragedy, 'Ajax' (never finished).
+
+[49] Servius wrote 'triennio' perhaps because he thought only of the
+dates of _Ecl._ 1 and 10 (H. Nettleship, _ibid._).
+
+[50] C. Schaper's view is that _Ecls._ 4, 6, and 10 were not written
+till B.C. 27-25 for a second edition. He supposes _Ecl._ 6 to allude
+to the marriage of Marcellus and Julia in 25 (referring 6, 3 to the
+_Aeneid_), and _Ecl._ 10 to be a lament for Gallus, who committed
+suicide B.C. 27.
+
+[51] Iulus is properly spelt Iullus (as in inscriptions), and is for
+Iovillos, a diminutive from the stem of Iuppiter.
+
+[52] L. Orbilius Pupillus of Beneventum, who in his +Perialges+
+complained of the wrongs of his profession (Sueton. _Gramm._ 4 and 9).
+
+[53] Maecenas wrote, besides smaller prose works, a history of his own
+times (Hor. _Od._ ii. 12, 9; Pliny, _N.H._ vii. 148).
+
+[54] For Horace's relations to Propertius see _Ep._ ii. 2, 91-101, and
+under '_Propertius_,' p. 196.
+
+[55] See G. Boissier, _Nouvelles Promenades Archeologiques: Horace et
+Virgile_ (Paris, 1886).
+
+[56] Dr. A. W. Verrall's argument (_Studies in Horace_, pp. 25 _sqq._)
+that _Od._ i.-iii. were published B.C. 19 is not convincing.
+
+[57] Ed. by Mommsen in _Ephemeris Epigraphica_, 1892, p. 225.
+
+[58] For Horace's eclectic position in philosophy, cf. _Ep._ i. 1,
+14-15,
+
+  'Nullius addictus iurare in verba magistri,
+  quo me cumque rapit tempestas, deferor hospes.'
+
+[59] As suggested to us by Prof. W. M. Ramsay. For Horace's opinion of
+Catullus cf. _Sat._ i. 10, 18-9,
+
+                            'Simius iste,
+  nil praeter Calvum et doctus cantare Catullum.'
+
+[60] See Th. Mommsen, _Sitzungsberichte der koenigl. preuss. Akad. der
+Wissenschaften zu Berlin_. 24 Jan. 1889.
+
+[61] A Peripatetic of the third century B.C., who wrote a popular
+account of the literary and philosophical views of his school.
+
+[62] E. Voss, _Die Natur in der Dichtung des Horaz_ (Duesseldorf,
+1889).
+
+[63] As pointed out by A. W. Verrall, _Studies in Horace_, p. 134
+_sqq._
+
+[64] This poem is probably referred to by Hor. _Od._ iv. 4, 19-22.
+
+[65] M. Valerius Messalla Corvinus, author of memoirs of the Civil War
+(Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34), love poems (Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3, 5), and works on
+grammar (Quint. i. 7, 35).
+
+[66] Dessau, _Inscr. Lat. Sel._ 2925. _Serg._ stands for _Serg[ia
+tribu]_, and is not a cognomen _Sergio_.
+
+[67] See Pliny, _Ep._ v. 9, 2.
+
+[68] This question was first satisfactorily worked out by T. Dyer,
+_Classical Museum_ for 1847, p. 229 _sqq._
+
+[69] See under 'Juvenal,' p. 323.
+
+[70] Pollio accused him of Patavinitas, _i.e._ the use of
+provincialisms (_verba peregrina_, as opposed to _Latina_, Quint. i.
+5, 55, _curiose loqui_ rather than _Latine_, Quint. viii. 1, 2).
+
+[71] By A. Diepenbrock, _L. Annaeus Seneca_, p. 12 (Amsterdam, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+POST-AUGUSTAN WRITERS.
+
+
+
+VELLEIUS PATERCULUS.
+
+
+C.[72] Velleius Paterculus was born at latest B.C. 19, as he was
+quaestor-elect A.D. 6. He was descended from a distinguished family in
+Campania (Vell. ii. 16, 2; Liv. xxiii. 7 _sqq._). His father was a
+_praefectus equitum_ (ii. 104, 3). After some military experience in
+Thrace and Macedonia, Velleius accompanied C. Caesar, the grandson of
+Augustus, on his mission to the East, A.D. 1. His rank at this time
+was _tribunus militum_.
+
+ii. 101, 2 (of the meeting of C. Caesar and the Parthian king), 'Sub
+initia stipendiorum meorum tribuno militum mihi visere contigit: quem
+militiae gradum ante sub patre tuo, M. Vinici, et P. Silio auspicatus
+in Thracia Macedoniaque, mox Achaia Asiaque et omnibus ad Orientem
+visis provinciis et ore atque utroque maris Pontici latere, haud
+iniucunda tot rerum, locorum, gentium, urbium recordatione fruor.'
+
+In A.D. 4, as _praefectus equitum_, he accompanied Tiberius to
+Germany: ii. 104, 3, 'Hoc tempus me, functum ante tribunatu, castrorum
+Ti. Caesaris militem fecit; quippe protinus ab adoptione missus cum eo
+praefectus equitum in Germaniam, successor officii patris mei,
+caelestissimorum eius operum per annos continuos viii. praefectus aut
+legatus spectator et pro captu mediocritatis meae adiutor fui.'
+
+In A.D. 6, when quaestor-elect, he commanded reinforcements sent from
+Rome to Tiberius in Pannonia, and at the expiration of his term of
+office as quaestor in Rome, he returned to Tiberius as a _legatus_:
+ii. 111, 3, 'Habuit in hoc quoque bello mediocritas nostra speciosi
+ministerii locum. Finita equestri militia designatus quaestor necdum
+senator aequatus senatoribus, etiam designatis tribunis plebei, partem
+exercitus ab urbe traditi ab Augusto perduxi ad filium eius. In
+quaestura deinde remissa sorte provinciae legatus eiusdem ad eumdem
+missus sum.'
+
+In A.D. 9 Velleius served in Dalmatia (ii. 115, 5), afterwards
+spending two years in Germany (ii. 104, 3 above). In the winter of
+A.D. 12-13 he took part in the triumph of Tiberius: ii. 121, 2, 'Ex
+Pannoniis Delmatisque egit triumphum ... quem mihi fratrique meo inter
+praecipuos praecipuisque donis adornatos viros comitari contigit.'
+
+Velleius was praetor-elect in A.D. 14: ii. 124, 4, 'Quo tempore mihi
+fratrique meo, candidatis Caesaris, proxime a nobilissimis ac
+sacerdotalibus viris destinari praetoribus contigit, consecutis ut
+neque post nos quemquam divus Augustus neque ante nos Caesar
+commendaret Tiberius.'
+
+The publication of his history, sixteen years later, is the only
+circumstance recorded of Velleius after this date.
+
+The _Historia Romana_, in two Books, was published A.D. 30, in the
+consulship of M. Vinicius, to whom the book is addressed (i. 8, 1, and
+often). The beginning of Book i. is lost; the first eight chapters in
+our text are occupied with a rapid survey of the history of Greece
+since the Trojan war, the Phoenician settlements in the Mediterranean,
+and the chief events in the history of the world before the foundation
+of Rome. C. 8 breaks off at the rape of the Sabine women, and there is
+a great lacuna before we reach, in c. 9, the defeat of Perseus at
+Pydna in B.C. 168. Ch. 9-13 carry the narrative down to the
+destruction of Carthage and Corinth. Book ii. commences at that point,
+and ends with the death of Livia, A.D. 29 (ii. 130, 5, 'cuius temporis
+aegritudinem auxit amissa mater').
+
+Velleius is constantly calling attention to the brevity and
+compression of his treatment, in such phrases as 'omnia transcursu
+dicenda' (ii. 55), 'artatum opus' (ii. 86), 'recisum opus' (ii. 89).
+Much that the plan of his book compels him to omit, he promises to
+publish later in a larger work, _e.g._ ii. 99, 3, 'iusto servemus
+operi,' ii. 114, 4, 'iustis voluminibus ordine narrabimus.' Even as it
+is, he occasionally pauses to describe a great character (ii. 41,
+Caesar), or to express his personal opinion (ii. 66, 3, denunciation
+of Antony for Cicero's murder). Specially noticeable are the
+digressions on the Roman colonies (i. 14-15) and provinces (ii.
+38-39), on the prominence of different types of genius at certain
+epochs (i. 16-18), and on literary history (ii. 9, the chief writers
+of the time of the Gracci; ii. 36, of the Ciceronian and Augustan
+ages; i. 5, praise of Homer; i. 7, of Hesiod). As is natural in so
+short a book, Velleius names very few authorities.
+
+The motive of the history is evidently the glorification of the
+author's old general, Tiberius, whose actual reign, however, he
+dismisses in eight chapters. Probably he felt the subject too risky,
+and devoted his strength to the earlier life of Tiberius, which
+occupies the greater part even of the chapters nominally devoted to
+the reign of Augustus (ii. 59-123). Tiberius is spoken of throughout
+in terms of unqualified praise, and no hint is given of the darker
+side of his character. Seianus also is extolled (ii. 127-8), as he was
+in high favour at the time when Velleius wrote.
+
+
+
+VALERIUS MAXIMUS.
+
+
+Nothing is known of the life of Valerius Maximus beyond the fact that
+he visited Asia in company with Sex. Pompeius, the friend of Ovid and
+of Germanicus. Pompeius was consul A.D. 14, and between A.D. 27 and 30
+became proconsul of Asia.
+
+Val. Max. ii. 6, 8, 'Consuetudinem ... illam etiam in insula Cea
+servari animadverti, quo tempore Asiam cum Sex. Pompeio petens Iulidem
+oppidum intravi.'
+
+Valerius dwells on his obligations to Pompeius in his chapter on
+friendship (iv. 7, _ext._ 2).
+
+His sole work, _Facta et Dicta Memorabilia_, in nine books, is a
+collection of notable incidents and sayings, classified under
+appropriate headings, for the convenience of speakers seeking
+illustrations for their subject-matter. Cf. the preface, 'Urbis Romae
+exterarumque gentium facta simul ac dicta memoratu digna, quae apud
+alios latius diffusa sunt quam ut breviter cognosci possint, ab
+illustribus electa auctoribus digerere constitui, ut documenta sumere
+volentibus longae inquisitionis labor absit.'
+
+The _illustres auctores_ from whom he draws most of his material are
+Livy, Cicero (each mentioned only once), Sallust, and Trogus; but
+thirteen Latin and twenty Greek authors are mentioned by name. He
+frequently misrepresents his authorities.
+
+Each book is divided into chapters on separate topics (_e.g._ _De
+Pudicitia_), under each of which he gives (1) illustrations from Roman
+history, (2) those from the history of other nations. The latter of
+course are few in comparison.
+
+Although Iulius Paris, the epitomizer of Valerius, speaks of ten
+books, only nine are extant, and it may be doubted whether there ever
+was a tenth. Book i. is mutilated.
+
+There are only two passages which throw any light on the date of
+composition--viii. 11, _ext._ 4, a denunciation of Seianus, obviously
+written after his fall in A.D. 31; and vi. 1 praef., before the death
+of Livia, A.D. 29. The work was published at latest in A.D. 37, for it
+is dedicated to Tiberius, who is the object of the most servile
+flattery (_e.g._ ii. 9, 6); similar language is used of Iulius Caesar
+(iv. 5, 6), and Augustus (i. 7, 1), while Brutus and Cassius are
+denounced as parricides (i. 5, 7; i. 8, 8).
+
+Two abridgments of Valerius Maximus are extant.
+
+
+
+CELSUS.
+
+
+Of the life of Celsus nothing is known; but he was an older
+contemporary of Columella. Colum. iii. 17, 4, 'Iulius Atticus et
+Cornelius Celsus, aetatis nostrae celeberrimi auctores, patrem atque
+filium Sasernam secuti.'
+
+He wrote an encyclopaedic work on agriculture, medicine, war,
+rhetoric, and philosophy, but only the section on medicine is extant.
+
+Quint. xi. 12, 24, 'Cum etiam Cornelius Celsus, mediocri vir ingenio,
+non solum de his omnibus conscripserit artibus sed amplius rei
+militaris et rusticae et medicinae praecepta reliquerit.'
+
+The first part consisted of five books on agriculture: cf. Colum. i.
+1, 14, 'Cornelius totum corpus disciplinae quinque libris complexus
+est.' This section of the work was probably written in the reign of
+Tiberius, for it was known to Iulius Graecinus, whose execution took
+place under Caligula. Plin. _N.H._ xiv. 33, 'Graecinus, qui alioqui
+Cornelium Celsum transcripsit.'
+
+There are eight books _De Re Medica_. The only indication of their
+date is in iv. 7, where Celsus mentions a prescription as not found
+'in monumentis medicorum.' As this prescription is given by Scribonius
+Largus, who wrote about A.D. 47, Celsus must have written before that
+year.
+
+The section on war was used by Vegetius (_De Re Mil._ i. 8).
+
+Rhetoric was also treated in the encyclopaedia. Quintilian, who
+mentions him as one of the more careful writers on that subject (iii.
+1, 21, 'accuratius scripsit Celsus'), frequently combats his opinions
+and speaks of him rather contemptuously: _e.g._ ix. 1, 18, 'Cornelius
+Celsus nimia profecto novitatis cupidine ductus. Nam quis ignorasse
+eruditum alioqui virum credat,' etc. He may be the Celsus of Juv. 6,
+245, who (according to the Scholiast) wrote a manual of rhetoric in
+seven books.
+
+There were also six books on the history of philosophy. Augustine _de
+haeres. prol._, 'Opiniones omnium philosophorum qui sectas varias
+condiderunt usque ad tempora sua vi. non parvis voluminibus quidam
+Celsus absolvit; nec redarguit aliquem, sed tantum quid sentirent
+aperuit. Cum ferme centum philosophos nominasset,' etc.
+
+Celsus also wrote separate treatises (1) on philosophy, Quint. x. 1,
+24, 'Scripsit non parum multa Cornelius Celsus, Sextios secutus, non
+sine cultu ac nitore'; (2) on strategy (Lydus _de mag._ i. 47).
+
+
+
+PHAEDRUS.
+
+
+The title of Phaedrus' work, 'Phaedri Augusti liberti fabularum
+Aesopiarum libri,' probably means that he was a freedman of Augustus.
+Tiberius is called 'Caesar Tiberius' in ii. 6, 7; contrast the
+reference to Augustus, iii. 10, 39, 'a divo Augusto.' Phaedrus was
+born in Thrace, possibly in the district of Pieria; but the date is
+unknown; iii. prol. 17,
+
+  'Ego, quem Pierio mater enixa est iugo,
+  in quo tonanti sancta Mnemosyne Iovi
+  fecunda novies artium peperit chorum';
+
+_ibid._ 54,
+
+  'Ego, litteratae qui sum propior Graeciae,
+  cur somno inerti deseram patriae decus?
+  Threissa cum gens numeret auctores suos,
+  Linoque Apollo sit parens, Musa Orpheo.'
+
+Some wrongly take these allusions to mean that he belongs to the realm
+of poesy. That he came to Rome early is shown by the knowledge of
+Latin literature he acquired in his boyhood. Cf. iii. epil. 33, where
+he quotes Ennius,
+
+  'Ego, quondam legi quam puer sententiam,
+  "Palam mutire plebeio piaculum est,"
+  dum sanitas constabit, pulchre meminero.'
+
+After publishing two books of fables, Phaedrus was persecuted by
+Seianus, in some way unknown; iii. prol. 38,
+
+  'Ego porro illius [Aesopi] semita feci viam,
+  et cogitavi plura quam reliquerat,
+  in calamitatem deligens quaedam meam.
+  Quod si accusator alius Seiano foret,
+  si testis alius, index alius denique,
+  dignum faterer esse me tantis malis.'
+
+This persecution may have arisen from references in his fables, such
+as i. 1 (Lupus et agnus), l. 14,
+
+  'Haec propter illos scripta est homines fabula,
+  qui fictis causis innocentes opprimunt';
+
+i. 6 (Ranae ad solem), which Nisard[73] thinks refers to the ambitious
+marriage which Seianus projected with Livia, daughter of Germanicus,
+'The sun dries up the ponds; what will happen if the sun marries and
+has children?' l. 9,
+
+  'Quidnam futurum est, si crearit liberos?'
+
+Phaedrus survived the attacks made on him, and Book v. was written in
+his old age (see below).
+
+Several personal points are clear from his writings:
+
+(1) He had to meet the attacks of critics; ii. epil. 10,
+
+  'Si livor obtrectare curam voluerit,
+  non tamen eripiet laudis conscientiam.'
+
+(2) His desire for fame and his self-consciousness; iii. prol. 60,
+
+  'Ergo hinc abesto livor, ne frustra gemas,
+  quoniam sollemnis mihi debetur gloria.'
+
+(3) His contempt for money; iii. prol. 21,
+
+  'Curamque habendi penitus corde eraserim';
+
+v. 4, 7,
+
+  'Huius respectu fabulae deterritus
+  periculosum semper vitavi lucrum.'
+
+Phaedrus wrote five Books of fables. Many have certainly been lost.
+Cf. his reference to tree-fables, none of which we have; i. prol. 6,
+
+  'quod arbores loquantur, non tantum ferae.'
+
+There are, besides the five Books, thirty fables usually printed as an
+appendix, and probably composed by Phaedrus. The fables are all in
+'impure' iambic senarii, like those of Terence and Publius Syrus.
+Phaedrus followed Aesop, but, as he affirms, not slavishly; i. prol.
+1,
+
+  'Aesopus auctor quam materiam repperit,
+  hanc ego polivi versibus senariis';
+
+iv. prol. 10,
+
+                     'fabulis
+  quas Aesopias, non Aesopi, nomino.'
+
+We have the Greek originals for about a third of the fables; but
+Phaedrus speaks of his additions to Aesop; ii. prol. 8,
+
+  'Equidem omni cura morem servabo senis;
+  sed si libuerit aliquid interponere,
+  dictorum sensus ut delectet varietas,
+  bonas in partes, lector, accipias velim.'
+
+Stories from contemporary or recent history are given in ii. 6, 7;
+iii. 10; v. 7.
+
+Books i. and ii. were published under Tiberius; Book iii. was
+published after Tiberius' death (cf. iii. prol. 33), and is dedicated
+to Eutychus, who has been identified with a favourite slave of
+Caligula. Book iv. followed, addressed to Particulo (iv. prol. 10).
+Book v., addressed to Philetes, was written in the poet's old age; v.
+10, 7,
+
+             'Cui senex contra Lacon:
+  "Non te destituit animus, sed vires meae.
+  Quod fuimus, lauda, si iam damnas, quod sumus."
+  Hoc cur, Philete, scripserim, pulchre vides.'
+
+Martial is the only classical writer who refers to Phaedrus; iii. 20,
+5,
+
+  'An aemulatur improbi iocos Phaedri?'
+
+
+
+SENECA THE YOUNGER.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+L. Annaeus Seneca, the son of Annaeus Seneca, the rhetor, was born at
+Corduba in Spain. For information about his family see under 'Seneca
+the elder,' pp. 226-7. He was probably born about the beginning of our
+era, as he seems to have remembered Asinius Pollio, who died A.D. 5,
+and had passed his boyhood in A.D. 19, when the Jewish and Egyptian
+rites were expelled from Rome.
+
+Sen. _de tranquill. animi_, 17, 7, 'Qualem Pollionem Asinium
+meminimus, quem nulla res ultra decimam [horam] retinuit.'
+
+_Ep._ 108, 22, 'In Tiberii Caesaris principatum iuventae tempus
+inciderat: alienigena tum sacra movebantur.'
+
+At an early age Seneca was brought to Rome by his mother's sister, who
+was probably the wife of Vitrasius Pollio, prefect of Egypt for
+sixteen years.
+
+_Ad Helv._ 19, 2, 'Illius manibus in urbem perlatus sum.'
+
+Seneca's mother took a great interest in his education, which was
+conducted under Fabianus Papirius (cf. _Ep._ 100, 9, etc.) and Sotion
+the Pythagorean, of Alexandria, pupils of Sextius (for Seneca's study
+of whom see _Ep._ 64).
+
+_Ad Helv._ 15, 1, 'Vera vis materni doloris oritur ... "ubi studia,
+quibus libentius quam femina, familiarius quam mater intereram?"'
+
+_Ep._ 108, 17, 'Dicebat [Sotion] quare ille animalibus abstinuisset,
+quare postea Sextius ... par. 22. His ego instinctus abstinere animalibus
+coepi et anno peracto non tantum facilis erat mihi consuetudo, sed
+dulcis.'
+
+The elder Seneca put an end to this abstinence, which was associated
+in the popular view with foreign superstitions (see _Ep._ 108, 17-23).
+This must have happened about A.D. 19. The influence of Sotion is seen
+in passages imitated from his book _de ira cohibenda_ by Seneca.
+Seneca also studied under Attalus, a Greek Stoic, possibly about A.D.
+20.
+
+_Ep._ 108, 13-15, 'Ego certe cum Attalum audirem in vitia, in errores,
+in mala vitae perorantem, saepe misertus sum generis humani et illum
+sublimem altioremque humano fastigio credidi ... Inde mihi quaedam
+permansere, Lucili. Magno enim in omnia inceptu veneram. Deinde ad
+civitatis vitam reductus ex bene coeptis pauca servavi: inde ostreis
+boletisque in omnem vitam renuntiatum est.'
+
+Seneca speaks of his change of studies and occupations in _Ep._ 49, 2,
+'Modo apud Sotionem philosophum puer sedi. Modo causas agere coepi.
+Modo desii velle agere, modo desii posse.'
+
+In A.D. 31 Seneca was probably still at Rome; cf. _N.Q._ i. 1, 3,
+'Vidimus [prodigium] eo tempore, quo de Seiano actum est.' Lipsius'
+inference[74] that Seneca made a voyage to Egypt about this time is
+probable, though Seneca himself gives no direct information about it.
+According to this theory his host was Vitrasius Pollio, prefect of
+Egypt. While in Egypt, Seneca was attacked by illness, and escaped
+death by his aunt's care. Cf. _ad Helv._ 19, 2, 'Illius pio maternoque
+nutricio per longum tempus aeger convalui.' Seneca accompanied
+Vitrasius when he resigned his office and returned with his wife to
+Italy A.D. 32 (Dio, lviii. 19, 6). They suffered shipwreck, and
+Vitrasius perished.
+
+_Ad Helv._ 19, 4, 'Sed si prudentiam perfectissimae feminae novi, non
+patietur te nihil profuturo maerore consumi et exemplum tibi suum,
+cuius ego etiam spectator fui, narrabit. Carissimum virum amiserat,
+avunculum nostrum, cui virgo nupserat, in ipsa quidem navigatione:
+tulit tamen eodem tempore et luctum et metum evictisque tempestatibus
+corpus eius naufraga evexit.'
+
+This theory is supported by the fact that Seneca wrote a work 'de ritu
+(al., situ) et sacris Aegyptiorum' (Serv. _ad Aen._ vi. 154).
+
+Through his aunt's influence Seneca obtained the quaestorship.
+
+_Ad Helv._ 19, 2, 'Illa pro quaestura mea gratiam suam extendit, et
+quae ne sermonis quidem aut clarae salutationis sustinuit audaciam,
+pro me vicit indulgentia verecundiam.'
+
+Seneca's quaestorship must have been after the death of his aunt's
+husband, in A.D. 32, as the above passage shows, and before the death of
+Tiberius in A.D. 37, as it was with Tiberius that his aunt's influence
+lay, on account of her husband's services. After his quaestorship Seneca
+appears to have married (cf. _de ira_, iii. 36, 3, etc.). His wife must
+have died before A.D. 57, as in that year Seneca married Pompeia
+Paulina; cf. Dio, lxi. 10, 3, +gamon epiphanestaton egeme+. By his first
+wife he had three sons (_ad Helv._ 2, 5).
+
+While senator, Seneca incurred the jealousy of Caligula, and in A.D.
+39 narrowly escaped death.
+
+Dio, lix. 19, 7, +ho de de Senekas ... diephthare par'
+oligon, met' adikesas ti, mete doxas, hoti diken tina en to
+synedrio parontos autou kalos eipe+. For Seneca's attacks on Caligula
+cf. _ad Helv._ 10, 4; _Apocol._ 15, etc.
+
+Sueton. _Cal._ 53, 'Peroraturus "stricturum se lucubrationis suae
+telum" minabatur; lenius comtiusque scribendi genus adeo contemnens,
+ut Senecam, tum maxime placentem, "commissiones meras" componere, et
+"harenam esse sine calce" diceret.'
+
+In A.D. 41 Seneca was banished to Corsica, through the agency of
+Messalina, on the charge of adultery with Iulia Livilla, sister of
+Caligula, but really because he was suspected of belonging to the
+faction of Agrippina.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42, 'Nec Suillius questu aut exprobratione
+abstinebat ... et Senecam increpans infensum amicis Claudii, sub quo
+iustissimum exilium pertulisset ... Se quaestorem Germanici, illum
+domus eius adulterum fuisse.'
+
+Seneca was tried before the Senate, and Claudius prevented his
+execution.
+
+_Ad Polyb._ 13, 2, 'Deprecatus est pro me senatum, et vitam mihi non
+tantum dedit, sed etiam petiit.'
+
+While in Corsica he devoted himself to literature and science. Cf. _ad
+Helv._ 20, 1 (written in exile), 'Animus omnis occupationis expers
+operibus suis vacat et modo se levioribus studiis oblectat, modo ad
+considerandam suam universique naturam veri avidus insurgit: terras
+primum situmque earum quaerit.'
+
+The _Consolatio ad Polybium_, written during this time, is full of
+flattery of Claudius.
+
+Dio, lxi. 10, 2, +ten Messalinan kai tous tou Klaudiou
+exeleutherous ethopeuen hoste kai biblion sphisin ek tes nesou
+pempsai epainous auton echon, ho meta tauta hyp' aischynes
+apeleipse+.
+
+Seneca was recalled at the beginning of A.D. 49, became Nero's tutor
+(although he wished to visit Athens), and obtained the praetorship
+through the influence of Agrippina, with whom his name was coupled by
+popular rumour.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xii. 8, 'At Agrippina, ne malis tantum facinoribus
+notesceret, veniam exilii pro Annaeo Seneca, simul praeturam inpetrat,
+laetum in publicum rata ob claritudinem studiorum eius, utque Domitii
+pueritia tali magistro adulesceret et consiliis eiusdem ad spem
+dominationis uterentur, quia Seneca fidus in Agrippinam memoria
+beneficii et infensus Claudio dolore iniuriae credebatur.'
+
+Schol. on _Iuv._ 5, 105, 'Revocatus ... etsi magno desiderio Athenas
+intenderet ab Agrippina tamen in palatium adductus.'
+
+Dio, lxi. 10, 1, +ou gar apechresen auto ten Ioulian
+moicheusai, oude beltion ek tes phyges egeneto, alla kai te
+Agrippine eplesiazen.+
+
+For Seneca's tutorship cf. also Sueton. _Nero_, 52, 'Liberales
+disciplinas omnes fere puer attigit. Sed a philosophia eum mater
+avertit, monens imperaturo contrariam esse: a cognitione veterum
+oratorum Seneca praeceptor, quo diutius in admiratione sui detineret.'
+
+It is probable that Seneca was, like Nero, privy to the murder of
+Claudius in A.D. 54. Cf. his sarcasms against Claudius in his
+_Apocolocyntosis_.
+
+Sueton. _Nero_ 33 (of Nero), 'Cuius [Claudi] necis etsi non auctor, at
+conscius fuit: neque dissimulanter, ut qui boletos, in quo cibi genere
+venenum is acceperat, quasi deorum cibum, posthac proverbio Graeco
+conlaudare sit solitus.'
+
+Seneca wrote for Nero a speech which he delivered on the occasion of
+Claudius' death.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 3, 'Die funeris laudationem eius princeps exorsus
+est; dum antiquitatem generis, consulatus ac triumphos maiorum
+enumerabat, intentus ipse et ceteri; liberalium quoque artium
+commemoratio, et nihil regente eo triste rei publicae ab externis
+accidisse, pronis animis audita. Postquam ad providentiam
+sapientiamque flexit, nemo risui temperare, quamquam oratio a Seneca
+composita multum cultus praeferret, ut fuit illi viro ingenium amoenum
+et temporis eius auribus accommodatum.'
+
+He acted as a check on Nero (Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 6; 11), and baffled
+Agrippina's vengeance and ambition.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 2, 'Ibaturque in caedes, nisi Afranius Burrus et
+Annaeus Seneca obviam issent. (Ch. 5) Quin et legatis Armeniorum
+causam gentis apud Neronem orantibus escendere suggestum imperatoris
+et praesidere simul parabat, nisi ceteris pavore defixis Seneca
+admonuisset, venienti matri occurreret.'
+
+Seneca interfered to shelter Nero in his amour with Acte, A.D. 55, and
+used the occasion to stir up feud between Agrippina and Nero (Tac.
+_Ann._ xiii. 13). Hence followed an attack by Agrippina on Seneca.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 14, 'Audiretur hinc Germanici filia, inde debilis
+rursus Burrus et exsul Seneca, trunca scilicet manu et professoria
+lingua generis humani regimen expostulantes.'
+
+It is unlikely that Seneca opposed the murder of Britannicus (Feb.
+A.D. 55). Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 17, 'Facinus cui plerique iam hominum
+ignoscebant, antiquas fratrum discordias et insociabile regnum
+aestimantes.'[75]
+
+Seneca took part shortly afterwards in the trial in which Agrippina
+was found not guilty (Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 20-21). There are many
+references to Seneca's great power and wealth at this time.[76]
+
+Cf. Dio, lxi. 4, 1, +autoi+ (Seneca and Burrus) +ten
+archen hapasan parelabon kai diokesan eph' hoson edynethesan
+arista kai dikaiotata.+
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 53 (Seneca addressing Nero in A.D. 62), 'Quartus
+decimus annus est, Caesar, ex quo spei tuae admotus sum, octavus, ut
+imperium obtines: medio temporis tantum honorum atque opum in me
+cumulasti, ut nihil felicitati meae desit nisi moderatio eius... At
+tu gratiam immensam, innumeram pecuniam circumdedisti, adeo ut
+plerumque intra me ipse volvam, "Egone, equestri et provinciali loco
+ortus, proceribus civitatis adnumeror? ... Talis hortos extruit, et
+per haec suburbana incedit, et tantis agrorum spatiis, tam lato
+faenore exuberat?"'
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42 (speech of Suillius, A.D. 58), 'Qua sapientia,
+quibus philosophorum praeceptis, intra quadriennium regiae amicitiae
+ter miliens sestertium paravisset?' (Dio, lxi. 10, 2, gives his wealth
+as 75,000,000 denarii).
+
+Seneca had many estates both in Italy (_Ep._ 123, 1, etc.) and abroad,
+and lent money abroad, even in Britain. His attraction to finance is
+seen in the number of metaphors he draws from that subject.
+
+Sen. _vit. beat._ 17, 2, 'Cur trans mare possides? cur plura quam
+nosti?'
+
+Dio, lxii. 2, 1 (of the rising of the Britons under Boudicca), +ho
+Senekas chilias sphisi myriadas akousin epi chrestais elpisi tokon
+daneisas, epeit' athroas te hama autas kai biaios eiseprassen.+
+
+His attack on usury (_de ben._ vii. 10, 3) is a piece of theoretic
+philosophy.
+
+In A.D. 57 Seneca was consul suffectus (Ulpian, _Dig._ xxxvi. 1). In
+A.D. 58 he brought about the downfall of the former delator, P.
+Suillius. Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42, 'Variis deinde casibus iactatus et
+multorum odia meritus reus, haud tamen sine invidia Senecae damnatur.
+Is fuit P. Suillius.' Seneca is thought to have been implicated in
+Agrippina's murder in A.D. 59. He wrote to the Senate for Nero an
+account of her death.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 7 (Nero says after the fruitless attempt of Anicetus
+to kill Agrippina), 'Quod contra subsidium sibi nisi quid Burrus et
+Seneca expedirent? Quos statim acciverat, incertum an aperiens, et
+ante ignaros. Igitur longum utriusque silentium, ne inriti
+dissuaderent; an eo descensum credebant, ut, nisi praeveniretur
+Agrippina, pereundum Neroni esset? Post Seneca, hactenus promptius, ut
+respiceret Burrum, ac sciscitaretur an militi imperanda caedes esset.
+(Ch. 11) Ergo non iam Nero, cuius immanitas omnium questus anteibat,
+sed Seneca adverso rumore erat, quod oratione tali confessionem
+scripsisset.'
+
+The death of Burrus in A.D. 62 weakened the power of Seneca, who
+resolved to retire. His request, however, was not granted by Nero
+(Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 55-6), but he reduced his establishment, and lived
+in semi-privacy.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 52, 'Mors Burri infregit Senecae potentiam, quia nec
+bonis artibus idem virium erat altero velut duce amoto, et Nero ad
+deteriores inclinabat. Hi variis criminationibus Senecam
+adoriuntur ... Certe finitam Neronis pueritiam, et robur iuventae
+adesse. Exueret magistrum, satis amplis doctoribus instructus
+maioribus suis. (Ch. 56) Instituta prioris potentiae commutat,
+prohibet coetus salutantium, vitat comitantis, rarus per urbem, quasi
+valetudine infensa aut sapientiae studiis domi attineretur.'
+
+Later in A.D. 62, came an unsuccessful attempt to ruin Seneca. Tac.
+_Ann._ xiv. 65, 'Romanus secretis criminationibus incusaverat Senecam
+ut Gai Pisonis socium; sed validius a Seneca eodem crimine perculsus
+est.'
+
+In A.D. 64, on the occasion of the burning of Rome by Nero, Seneca
+wished to retire. He is said to have offered money to repair the
+disasters of the fire.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xv. 45, 'Ferebatur Seneca, quo invidiam sacrilegii a semet
+averteret, longinqui ruris secessum oravisse, et postquam non
+concedebatur, ficta valetudine, quasi aeger nervis, cubiculum non
+egressus.'
+
+Dio, lxii. 25, 3, +pasan auto ten ousian epi te ton
+oikodomoumenon prophasei kecharismenos.+
+
+The story given in Tac. _Ann._ xv. 45 of the attempt to poison Seneca
+probably arose from his abstemious habits.
+
+'Tradidere quidam venenum ei per libertum ipsius cui nomen Cleonicus
+paratum iussu Neronis, vitatumque a Seneca proditione liberti seu
+propria formidine, dum persimplici victu et agrestibus pomis, ac si
+sitis admoneret, profluente aqua vitam tolerat.'
+
+In A.D. 65 Seneca was implicated in the conspiracy of Piso, and was
+forced to commit suicide. His wife wished to die with him, but was
+prevented by Nero's orders.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xv. 60, 'Sequitur caedes Annaei Senecae, laetissima
+principi, non quia coniurationis manifestum compererat, sed ut ferro
+grassaretur, quando veneno non processerat ... (Ch. 63) Post quae
+eodem ictu brachia ferro exsolvunt. Seneca, quoniam senile corpus et
+parco victu tenuatum lenta effugia sanguini praebebat, crurum quoque
+et poplitum venas abrumpit. Saevisque cruciatibus defessus, ne dolore
+suo animum uxoris infringeret atque ipse visendo eius tormenta ad
+impatientiam delaberetur, suadet in aliud cubiculum abscedere. Et
+novissimo quoque momento suppeditante eloquentia advocatis
+scriptoribus pleraque tradidit ... (Ch. 64) At Nero nullo in Paulinam
+proprio odio, ac ne glisceret invidia crudelitatis, inhibere
+mortem. ... Seneca interim, durante tractu et lentitudine mortis,
+Statium Annaeum, diu sibi amicitiae fide et arte medicinae probatum,
+orat, provisum pridem venenum, quo damnati publico Atheniensium
+iudicio exstinguerentur, promeret; adlatumque hausit frustra, frigidus
+iam artus, et cluso corpore adversum vim veneni. Postremo stagnum
+calidae aquae introiit, respergens proximos servorum, addita voce,
+libare se liquorem illum Iovi liberatori. Exin balneo inlatus, et
+vapore eius exanimatus, sine ullo funeris sollemni crematur.'
+
+There was a rumour that some of the conspirators intended to make
+Seneca emperor.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xv. 65, 'Fama fuit Subrium Flavum cum centurionibus
+occulto consilio, neque tamen ignorante Seneca, destinavisse, ut post
+occisum opera Pisonis Neronem Piso quoque interficeretur,
+tradereturque imperium Senecae, quasi insontibus claritudine virtutum
+ad summum fastigium delecto.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+The following prose works are extant:
+
+1. _Dialogorum libri_ xii.
+
+(1) _ad Lucilium: quare aliqua incommoda bonis viris accidant cum
+providentia sit; sive de providentia_. This was probably a late work.
+
+(2) _ad Serenum: nec iniuriam nec contumeliam accipere sapientem; sive
+de constantia sapientis_: written in the first years of Nero's reign.
+
+(3-5) _ad Novatum de ira libri_ iii., probably written in the first
+year of Claudius' reign.
+
+(6) _ad Marciam de consolatione_: written to console Marcia, the
+daughter of Cremutius Cordus, for the death of her son Metilius. The
+work may have been written in A.D. 41, as Caligula's name is
+studiously avoided.
+
+(7) _ad Gallionem de vita beata_. This book, addressed to Seneca's
+brother Gallio (Novatus), was probably written shortly after A.D. 58,
+and justifies his having wealth though a philosopher.
+
+(8) _ad Serenum de otio_. This work, like the next, was addressed to
+Annaeus Serenus, and was written probably about A.D. 62. Only a part
+of it is extant. The book discusses whether a wise man should engage
+in state affairs.
+
+(9) _ad Serenum de tranquillitate animi_, probably written soon after
+Seneca's recall.
+
+(10) _ad Paulinum de brevitate vitae_. For the date cf. 13, 8, 'Sullam
+ultimum Romanorum protulisse pomoerium.' Now, Claudius extended the
+pomoerium in A.D. 50, so this must have been written in A.D. 49, as
+the book was brought out after Seneca's return from exile.
+
+(11) _ad Polybium de consolatione_. This book was addressed in A.D. 43
+or 44 to Polybius, a favourite of Claudius, on the occasion of his
+brother's death. The date is fixed by the reference to Claudius'
+expedition to Britain in 12, 2-3. Cf. par. 3, 'Non desinam totiens tibi
+offerre Caesarem. Illo moderante terras et ostendente, quanto melius
+beneficiis imperium custodiatur quam armis, illo rebus humanis
+praeside non est periculum, ne quid perdidisse te sentias.' For
+similar flattery of Claudius, cf. 7,4; 12,5.
+
+(12) _ad Helviam matrem de consolatione_, written during his
+banishment.
+
+2. _ad Neronem Caesarem de clementia_, in three Books, two of which
+are extant. The work was written in A.D. 55-6, doubtless to show the
+public what sort of instruction Seneca had given Nero, and what sort
+of emperor they had to expect (cf. i, 1, 1). The date is settled by i.
+9, 1, '[divus Augustus] cum hoc aetatis esset quod tu nunc es,
+duodevicesimum egressus annum,' Nero having been born 15th December,
+A.D. 37. The flattery contained in ii. 1, 1-2, and elsewhere, can be
+justified to some extent by Nero's conduct at that time. Cf. Sueton.
+_Nero_, 10, 'Neque liberalitatis, neque clementiae, ne comitatis
+quidem exhibendae ullam occasionem omisit.'
+
+3. _De Beneficiis_ in seven Books, addressed to Aebutius Liberalis of
+Lugdunum. It is probable that Books i.-iv. were published first,
+shortly after the death of Claudius (who is sneered at in i. 15, 6).
+Books v.-vii. are probably a later addition. Cf. v. 1, 1, 'In
+prioribus libris videbar consummasse propositum ... Quidquid ultra
+moror, non servio materiae, sed indulgeo ... Verum quia ita vis,
+perseveremus peractis.' The eulogy of Demetrius the Cynic in vii.
+8-12, makes it probable that Book vii. at least was written in
+Seneca's last years.
+
+4. _Apocolocyntosis_, a political satire on Claudius, written shortly
+after his death in A.D. 54. The explanation of the title is given by
+Dio, lx. 35, 2, +Agrippina kai ho Neron ... es ton ouranon anegagon
+hon ek tou symposiou phoraden exenenochesan. hotheuper Loukios Iounios
+Gallion ho tou Seneka adelphos asteiotaton ti apephthenxato; synetheke
+men gar kai ho Senekas syngramma, apokolokyntosin auto hosper tina
+apathanatisin onomasas, ekeinos de en brachytato polla eipon
+apomnemoneuetai ... ephe ton Klaudion ankistro es ton ouranon
+anenechthenai+. The work does not bear this title in the MSS., and
+there is no hint of the witticism in the book itself; the St. Gall
+MS., however, has 'Divi Claudii +APOTHEOSIS+ Annei Senecae per
+Saturam,' which may be a corruption of the proper title. The title is
+derived from +kolokynte+, 'a gourd,' which was used to denote a fool.
+Seneca (_Apocol._ 6) takes the official view that Claudius died of a
+fever. The work may have been published at the Saturnalia, and written
+shortly before, as Narcissus is represented as having just arrived in
+Orcus. The personal animosity of Seneca against Caligula and Claudius
+is everywhere apparent.
+
+5. _Naturales Quaestiones_ in seven Books, addressed to Lucilius. Book
+ii. was written after A.D. 57, as in ii. 9, 2 an amphitheatre is
+mentioned which was built by Nero in that year. The work was finished
+before the end of A.D. 64, for in Book vii. there is no mention among
+other prodigies of the comet which appeared again at the end of that
+year.
+
+6. _Epistulae morales ad Lucilium_. These were addressed to Lucilius
+Iunior, the author of 'Aetna' (see p. 277). There are extant one
+hundred and twenty four letters, in twenty Books, but some Books have
+been lost, as Gell. xii. 2, 3 quotes from Book xxii. Books i.-iii.
+were probably published by Seneca, the rest after his death, generally
+in chronological order.
+
+The following poetical works are extant:
+
+1. _Epigrams._--Nine on his exile are given in the editions; probably
+only Nos. 1, 2, and 7 are genuine.
+
+2. _Tragedies._--Some of these may have been composed during Seneca's
+exile in Corsica. See _ad Helv._ 20 (quoted p. 243). The metrical
+treatment is strict, especially in the senarii. Anapaestic, glyconic,
+sapphic lines, etc., are used in the choral odes. There are only three
+actors, except in the spurious _Octavia_. The plays are: (1) _Hercules
+Furens_ and (2) _Troades_ or _Hecuba_, founded on Euripides. (3)
+_Phoenissae_ or _Thebais_. The two parts do not correspond. In ll.
+1-362, Oedipus and Antigone are on their way to Cithaeron; from l. 363
+to the end we find Iocasta and Antigone in Thebes while it is besieged
+by the Seven. (4) _Medea_, founded on Euripides. Ovid has also been
+imitated; so ll. 56 _sqq._ from Ovid, _Heroides_, 12, 137. (5)
+_Phaedra_ or _Hippolytus_. (6) _Oedipus_, after Sophocles. (7)
+_Agamemnon_, after Aeschylus. (8) _Thyestes_. (9) _Hercules Oetaeus_,
+of which the second part, at least, is spurious. (10) _Octavia_, a
+praetexta, describing the death of Octavia, Nero's wife (A.D. 62).
+Seneca himself appears in it. It cannot be by Seneca, as Nero's
+downfall (A.D. 68) is mentioned in ll. 628-36.
+
+The following works are lost or exist only in fragments:
+
+i. Poems of a light nature (Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3). 2. _De motu terrarum_,
+afterwards incorporated in _N.Q._ vi. (see _N.Q._ vi. 4, 2). 3. _De
+lapidum natura_. 4. _De piscium natura_. 5. _De ritu et sacris
+Aegyptiorum_ (see p. 242). 6. _De situ Indiae_. 7. _De forma mundi_.
+8. _Exhortationes_. 9. _De officiis_. 10. _De immatura morte_. 11. _De
+superstitione dialogus_. 12. _De matrimonio_. 13. _De amicitia_. 14.
+_De vita patris_, along with an edition of his works. 15. Speeches by
+himself or by Nero. 16. _Epistulae_ (a) _ad Novatum_, probably written
+from Corsica, (b) _ad Caesonium Maximum_. 17. A book in praise of
+Messalina, afterwards withdrawn (see p. 243). 18. _Moralis
+philosophiae libri_ (see _Ep._ 106, 2). 19. _De remediis fortuitorum_,
+addressed to Gallio. A synopsis with additions is extant. 20. _De
+paupertate_. 21. _De formula honestae vitae_, probably founded on one
+of Seneca's works. 22. _Notae_ (see Sueton. pp. 135-6 R.).
+
+The following are spurious works:
+
+1. 'Epistulae Senecae, Neronis imperatoris magistri, ad Paulum
+Apostolum et Pauli Apostoli ad Senecam.' These letters, fourteen in
+all, are accepted as genuine by Jerome, _de vir. illustr._ 12. 'Seneca
+... quem non ponerem in catalogo sanctorum, nisi me epistulae illae
+provocarent, quae leguntur a plurimis, Pauli ad Senecam et Senecae ad
+Paulum.'
+
+2. A work extant under the title of _Sententiae Rufi_ has been wrongly
+thought to correspond to Seneca's dying words mentioned in Tac. _Ann._
+xv. 63.
+
+3. The book _De moribus_ or _Monita_ contains maxims by Christian
+writers.
+
+_Views and Character._--For Seneca's training in Stoic doctrines see
+_Ep._ 108, 13 (quoted p. 241). With these views he generally
+associates himself (cf. _Ep._ 113, 1; 117, 1), but does not bind
+himself to one school.
+
+Cf. _Ep._ 45, 4, 'Non enim me cuiquam emancipavi, nullius nomen fero.
+Multum magnorum virorum iudicio credo, aliquid et meo vindico.'
+
+Especially towards the end of his life, he came under the influence of
+Demetrius the Cynic.
+
+_Ep._ 62, 3, 'Demetrium, virorum optimum, mecum circumfero et relictis
+conchyliatis cum illo seminudo loquor, ilium admiror. Quidni admirer?
+vidi nihil ei deesse.'
+
+In _de provid._ 5, 7, after quoting Demetrius' fatalistic views,
+Seneca adds, 'Fata nos ducunt, et quantum cuique temporis restat,
+prima nascentium hora disposuit.'
+
+Seneca was one of the few Romans who condemned the butcheries
+practised in the arena, and his views doubtless influenced Nero's
+conduct in A.D. 58.
+
+_Ep._ 95, 33, 'Homo, sacra res homini, iam per lusum ac iocum
+occiditur et quem erudiri ad inferenda accipiendaque volnera nefas
+erat, is iam nudus inermisque producitur satisque spectaculi ex homine
+mors est.'
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 31, 'Edixit Caesar ne quis magistratus aut
+procurator, qui provinciam obtineret, spectaculum gladiatorum aut
+ferarum aut quod aliud ludicrum ederet.'
+
+For Seneca's love of wealth see p. 246. For his estimate of riches cf.
+_De vita beata_, 22, 5. 'Apud me divitiae aliquem locum habent, apud
+te summum ac postremum. Divitiae meae sunt, tu divitiarum es.'
+
+His simplicity of life has been already dealt with.
+
+Dio, lxi. 10, 2, gives a most unjust account of Seneca's character:
+
++panta ta enantiotata hois ephilosophei poion elenchthe. kai
+gar tyrannidos kategoron tyrannodidaskalos egineto, kai ton synonton
+tois dynastais katatrechon ouk aphistato tou palatiou ... tois te
+plousiois enkalon ousian heptakischilion kai pentakosion myriadon
+ektesato.+
+
+Seneca followed no traditional style. Cf. _Ep._ 100, 6, 'De
+compositione non constat'; _Ep._ 114, 13, 'Oratio certam regulam non
+habet.' Quintilian, x. 1, 125-131, attacks his style, though admitting
+his great powers.
+
+
+
+CURTIUS RUFUS.
+
+
+The full name is Q. Curtius Rufus, given in the MSS. of his work,
+'Historiarum Alexandri Magni Macedonis Libri x.', the first two Books
+of which are lost. Curtius is not referred to by name by any ancient
+writer, but is probably identical with the Q. Curtius Rufus mentioned
+in the list prefixed to Sueton. _de claris oratoribus_ between M.
+Porcius Latro and L. Valerius Primanus. This order favours the view
+that he belonged to the reign of Claudius, a view supported by the two
+contemporary references in Curtius:
+
+iv. 4, 21 (of Tyre), 'nunc tandem longa pace cuncta refovente sub
+tutela Romanae mansuetudinis adquiescit.'
+
+x. 9, 3-6, 'Quod imperium sub uno stare potuisset, dum a pluribus
+sustinetur, ruit. Proinde iure meritoque populus Romanus salutem se
+principi suo debere profitetur, qui noctis, quam paene supremam
+habuimus, novum sidus inluxit. Huius hercule, non solis ortus lucem
+caliganti reddidit mundo, cum sine suo capite discordia membra
+trepidarent,' etc.
+
+This passage probably refers to the tumultuous scene on the night
+between 24th and 25th Jan., A.D. 41, before Claudius' accession, after
+the murder of Caligula (cf. the pun in _caliganti_), when rival
+claimants to the throne were put forward, and the Senate wished to
+restore the republic (cf. _discordia membra trepidarent_). Sen. _ad
+Polyb._ 13, 1, uses similar language of Claudius, 'Sidus hoc, quod
+praecipitato in profundum et demerso in tenebras orbi refulsit, semper
+luceat.'
+
+As Curtius says nothing but good about the reign of Claudius, he
+probably wrote shortly after his accession. The passage in iv. 4, 21
+(above) also fits in with this view, as there was little fighting in
+the Roman world from 17 to 43 A.D. His bold tone with regard to rulers
+would also suit this time, while it would have been dangerous under
+Caligula, or from 43 to 54 A.D.
+
+Cf. viii. 5, 6, 'Non deerat talia concupiscenti perniciosa adulatio,
+perpetuum malum regum, quorum opes saepius adsentatio quam hostis
+evertit.'
+
+This tone also renders it impossible to identify him with Curtius
+Rufus, mentioned in Tac. _Ann._ xi. 21, as governor of Africa, and as
+'adversus superiores tristi adulatione, adrogans minoribus, inter
+pares difficilis.'
+
+Seneca is supposed to have quoted his contemporary Curtius once or
+twice. Cf. Sen. _Ep._ 56, 9, 'Nihil tam certum est quam otii vitia
+negotio discuti'; and Curt. vii. 1, 4, 'Satis prudens, otii vitia
+negotio discuti.' Cf. also viii. 10, 29 with Sen. _Ep._ 59, 12.
+
+Curtius claims to transcribe his authorities carefully. Cf. ix. 1, 34,
+'Equidem plura transscribo quam credo: nam nec adfirmare sustineo, de
+quibus dubito, nec subducere quae accepi.'
+
+Curtius' statements are usually parallel to those of one or other of
+the historians of Alexander, but he appeals only twice to other
+authorities by name.
+
+ix. 8, 15, 'Clitarchus (c. 300 B.C.) est auctor.'
+
+ix. 5, 21, 'Ptolemaeum (c. 300 B.C.), qui postea regnavit, huic pugnae
+adfuisse auctor est Clitarchus et Timagenes (c. 55 B.C.). Sed ipse ...
+afuisse se missum in expeditionem memoriae tradidit.'
+
+The rhetorical tone of the work is seen in the speeches and letters.
+For the latter cf. iv. 1, 10-74. Curtius has little technical
+knowledge of war or politics. Thus Alexander's assumption of oriental
+pomp to conciliate the Asiatics is looked on as +hybris+. Cf.
+iii. 12, 18. Like Livy, he attempts to depreciate Alexander's
+abilities by unduly accentuating his good fortune.
+
+Cf. viii. 3, 1, 'Sed hanc quoque expeditionem, ut pleraque alia,
+fortuna indulgendo ei numquam fatigata pro absente transegit.'
+
+
+
+COLUMELLA.
+
+
+L. Iunius Moderatus Columella was a native of Gades: x. 185, 'mea
+[lactuca] quam generant Tartessi littore Gades.' On an inscription he
+is styled 'trib. mil. leg. vi. ferratae' (_C.I.L._ ix. 325), and it
+was probably in the course of his military service that he visited
+Cilicia and Syria: ii. 10, 18, 'hoc semen Ciliciae Syriaeque
+regionibus ipse vidi.'
+
+His uncle, M. Columella, was a leading man in the province of Baetica
+(v. 5, 15); and he himself possessed land in Italy: iii. 9, 2, 'cum et
+in Ardeatino agro, quem multis temporibus ipsi ante possedimus, et in
+Carseolano itemque in Albano generis Aminei vites huius modi notae
+habuerimus.'
+
+He was a contemporary of the younger Seneca, who is spoken of as alive
+(iii. 3, 3).
+
+His chief work is _De Re Rustica_ in twelve Books, dedicated to P.
+Silvinus--a practical treatise on husbandry for 'negotiosi agricolae'
+(ix. 2, 5). Book x., on gardening, is in hexameter verse, and was
+written at the suggestion of Silvinus and another friend, to fill the
+gap which Virgil had left in the Georgics (iv. 147-8); cf. the
+preface, 'Cultus hortorum ... sicut institueram, prosa oratione
+prioribus subnecteretur exordiis, nisi propositum expugnasset frequens
+postulatio tua, quae pervicit, ut poeticis numeris explerem Georgici
+carminis omissas partes, quas tamen et ipse Vergilius significaverat,
+posteris se memorandas relinquere.'
+
+The last two Books were added as an afterthought; xi. 1, 2, 'numerum
+quem iam quasi consummaveram voluminum excessi.'
+
+Columella wrote before A.D. 65 (see above); later than Celsus, but
+earlier than the elder Pliny.
+
+There is also extant a book _De Arboribus_, which formed Book ii. of
+an earlier treatise on agriculture: cf. i. 1, 'Quoniam de cultu
+agrorum abunde primo volumine praecepisse videmur, non intempestiva
+erit arborum virgultorumque cura.' It covers the same ground as _De
+R.R._ iii.-v.
+
+Columella also wrote 'adversus astrologos' (xi. 1, 31), and projected
+a treatise on the religious rites connected with agriculture (ii. 22,
+5, 'lustrationum ceterorumque sacrificiorum, quae pro frugibus fiunt,
+morem priscis usurpatum').
+
+
+
+POMPONIUS MELA.
+
+
+The geographer Pomponius Mela was a native of Tingentera in Spain (ii.
+96). His date can be inferred from iii. 49; the 'principum maximus'
+mentioned there as triumphing over Britain might be either Claudius
+(in A.D. 40) or Caligula (in 44); but the earlier date is favoured by
+Mela's division of Africa according to the system abolished by
+Caligula in 42 (i. 25-30). The title of his work is _De Chorographia_,
+in three Books: the dryness of its details (i. 1, 'opus impeditum et
+facundiae minime capax') is relieved by word-painting, _e.g._ the
+description of Britain, iii. 49. The only authors to whom he
+acknowledges obligations are Nepos (iii. 45) and Hanno (iii. 90).
+
+
+
+PERSIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+We possess a very full account of the life of Persius, which,
+according to the MSS., is taken from Probus' commentary on the poet,
+and may therefore be looked upon as trustworthy. According to Probus
+(from whom are taken the quotations throughout), he lived from 34 to
+62 A.D.: 'Aulus Persius Flaccus natus est pridie Non. Decembr. Fabio
+Persico L. Vitellio coss., decessit viii. Kal. Decembr. Rubrio Mario
+Asinio Gallo coss.' These dates are confirmed by Jerome.
+
+He was born at Volaterrae in Etruria, and was the son of a Roman
+knight who died when Persius was quite young:
+
+'Natus in Etruria Volaterris, eques Romanus, sanguine et affinitate
+primi ordinis viris coniunctus. Pater eum Flaccus pupillum reliquit
+moriens annorum fere sex.'
+
+'Fulvia Sisennia (his mother) nupsit postea Fuscio equiti Romano.'
+
+After the completion of his early education (for which see _Sat._ 3,
+44-51) he studied at Rome, where he came under the influence of the
+Stoic Annaeus Cornutus:
+
+'Studuit Flaccus usque ad annum xii. aetatis suae Volaterris, inde
+Romae apud grammaticum Remmium Palaemonem et apud rhetorem Verginium
+Flavum. Cum esset annorum xvi., amicitia coepit uti Annaei Cornuti,
+ita ut nusquam ab eo discederet; inductus aliquatenus in philosophiam
+est.'
+
+In _Sat._ 5, 21-24 and 30-51, he speaks in the highest terms of
+Cornutus as his guide in life and close friend: cf. esp. ll. 36-7,
+
+             'teneros tu suspicis annos,
+  Socratico, Cornute, sinu.'
+
+Among his other friends were Caesius Bassus (to whom _Sat._ 6 is
+addressed), Lucan, Seneca, and his own relative, Paetus Thrasea:
+
+'Cognovit per Cornutum etiam Annaeum Lucanum, aequaevum auditorem
+Cornuti. Lucanus adeo mirabatur scripta Flacci ut vix retineret se
+recitante eo cum clamore quin illa esse vera poemata diceret, sua ipse
+ludos faceret. Sero cognovit et Senecam, sed non ut caperetur eius
+ingenio ... Idem decem fere annis summe dilectus a Paeto Thrasea est,
+ita ut peregrinaretur quoque cum eo aliquando, cognatam eius Arriam
+uxorem habente.'
+
+Persius was a man of considerable means, as is shown by his will and
+his landed property:
+
+'Reliquit circa HS vicies matri et sorori; scriptis tamen ad matrem
+codicillis Cornuto rogavit ut daret sestertia ut quidam centum, ut
+alii volunt ..., et argenti facti pondo viginti, et libros circa
+septingentos sive bibliothecam suam omnem. Verum a Cornuto sublatis
+libris, pecuniam sororibus, quas heredes frater fecerat, reliquit.'
+
+'Decessit ad octavum miliarium via Appia in praediis suis ... vitio
+stomachi anno aetatis xxviii.'
+
+His character was lofty and disinterested:
+
+'Fuit morum lenissimorum, verecundiae virginalis, formae pulchrae,
+pietatis erga matrem et sororem et amitam exemplo sufficientis. Fuit
+frugi, pudicus.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. His early works, which Cornutus caused to be destroyed at his
+death, were:
+
+(_a_) A praetexta, called _Vescia_ (?).
+
+(_b_) One Book of +hodoiporika+, no doubt referring to his
+travels with Thrasea.
+
+(_c_) Some verses on Arria, the wife of Paetus.
+
+'Scripserat in pueritia Flaccus etiam praetextam Vesciam, et
++hodoiporikon+ librum unum, et paucos in socrum Thraseae in Arriam
+matrem versus ... Omnia ea auctor fuit Cornutus matri eius ut
+aboleret.'
+
+2. _Satires._ There are six of these (in hexameters), with a prologue
+(in scazons). Persius wrote slowly, and the Book was left unfinished:
+
+'Et raro et tarde scripsit. Hunc ipsum librum imperfectum reliquit.
+Versus aliqui dempti sunt ultimo libro, ut quasi finitus esset.
+Leviter retractavit Cornutus, et Caesio Basso petenti, ut ipsi
+cederet, tradidit edendum.'
+
+The prologue, and the first satire (on literary criticism)--the only
+real satire he wrote--are said to be imitated from Lucilius. The other
+five are largely Stoic dissertations in verse, and show throughout the
+influence of Cornutus and Persius' other Stoic friends. Probus says he
+attacked Nero's poetry in _Sat._ 1.
+
+'Lecto Lucilii libro x. vehementer satiras componere instituit, cuius
+libri principium imitatus est ... cum tanta recentium poetarum et
+oratorum insectatione, ut etiam Neronem ... culpaverit, cuius versus
+in Neronem cum ita se haberet:
+
+  'Auriculas asini Mida rex habet,'
+
+in eum modum a Cornuto, ipso iam tum mortuo, est emendatus:
+
+  'Auriculas asini quis non habet?' [1, 121]
+
+ne hoc Nero in se dictum arbitraretur.'
+
+_Sat._ 1, 99-102 is said to be a travesty of Nero's poetry.
+
+Very few passages, however, are quoted by the Scholiasts as modelled
+on Lucilius.
+
+Persius refers to Lucilius and Horace in 1, 114-8:
+
+              'Secuit Lucilius urbem,
+  te, Lupe, te, Muci, et genuinum fregit in illis;
+  omne vafer vitium ridenti Flaccus amico
+  tangit, et admissus circum praecordia ludit,
+  callidus excusso populum suspendere naso.'
+
+His obligations to Horace are paramount, imitations--often
+unintentional burlesques--occurring everywhere. Examples are: 1, 42,
+
+              'cedro digna locutus,
+  linquere nec scombros metuentia carmina nec tus.'
+
+from Hor. _A.P._ 331,
+
+  'carmina ... linenda cedro';
+
+and Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 269,
+
+  'Deferar in vicum vendentem tus et odores
+  et piper et quidquid chartis amicitur ineptis.'
+
+Again, 5, 103,
+
+             'exclamet Melicerta perisse
+  frontem de rebus';
+
+from Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 80,
+
+     'clament periise pudorem
+  cuncti paene patres.'
+
+He even borrows Horace's names: Pedius (1, 85), Natta (3, 31), Nerius
+(2, 14), Craterus (3, 65), Bestius (6, 37).
+
+The statement of Joannes Lydus (i. 41) that Persius imitated the mimic
+writer, Sophron, has little to support it.
+
+Probus says the work became immediately popular: 'Editum librum
+continuo mirari homines et diripere coeperunt.'
+
+Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 94, 'multum et verae gloriae quamvis uno libro
+Persius meruit'; Mart. iv. 29, 7,
+
+  'Saepius in libro memoratur Persius uno
+  quam levis in tota Marsus Amazonide.'
+
+
+
+LUCAN.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Besides references to Lucan in other writers, especially Statius,
+Martial, and Tacitus, we have three biographies of him: (1) a short
+and defective life, probably by Suetonius, and showing his well-known
+hatred of the Annaei; (2) one by Vacca, a commentator on Lucan, who
+lived probably in the sixth century, complete and favourable; (3) one
+in Codex Vossianus ii. The last two are in part derived from the
+first.
+
+M. Annaeus Lucanus was born at Corduba in Hispania Baetica, and was
+the son of M. Annaeus Mela, a Roman knight, and nephew of M. Annaeus
+Novatus (the Gallio of Acts 18, 12-17) and L. Annaeus Seneca the
+philosopher.
+
+Vacca, _vit. Luc._, 'M. Annaeus Lucanus patrem habuit M. Annaeum Melam
+ex provincia Baetica Hispaniae interioris Cordubensem equitem Romanum,
+illustrem inter suos, notum Romae et propter Senecam fratrem, clarum
+per omnes virtutes virum, et propter studium vitae quietioris ...
+Matrem habuit et regionis eiusdem et urbis Aciliam nomine, Acilii
+Lucani filiam ... cuius cognomen huic inditum apparet.'
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xvi. 17, 'Mela, quibus Gallio et Seneca, parentibus
+natus ... Idem Annaeum Lucanum genuerat, grande adiumentum
+claritudinis.'
+
+Lucan was born Nov. 3, A.D. 39, and was removed to Rome when eight
+months old.
+
+Vacca, _ibid._, 'Natus est iii. Non. Novembr. C. Caesare Germanico ii.
+L. Apronio Caesiano coss. Octavum mensem agens Romam translatus est.'
+
+He had a successful school and college career. One of his teachers was
+Cornutus, through whom he knew Persius (see p. 261).
+
+Vacca, _ibid._, 'A praeceptoribus tunc eminentissimis est eruditus
+eosque intra breve temporis spatium ingenio adaequavit ... Declamavit
+et graece et latine cum magna admiratione audientium.'
+
+His first literary success was the _laudes Neronis_ in A.D. 60; this
+led to his political advancement.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Luc._, 'Prima ingenii experimenta in Neronis laudibus
+dedit quinquennali certamine.'
+
+Vacca, _ibid._, 'Ob quod puerili mutato in senatorium cultum et in
+notitiam Caesaris Neronis facile pervenit et honore vixdum aetati
+debito dignus iudicatus est. Gessit autem quaesturam, in qua cum
+collegis more tunc usitato munus gladiatorium edidit secundo populi
+favore; sacerdotium etiam accepit auguratus.'
+
+Similarly Suetonius, who also tells us that Lucan had been in Athens.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._, 'Revocatus Athenis a Nerone cohortique amicorum
+additus atque etiam quaestura honoratus, non tamen permansit in
+gratia.'
+
+The reason of the strained relations between Lucan and the emperor
+was, according to Suetonius, that Lucan had behaved rudely when
+reciting in public. Vacca says the reason lay in the jealousy felt by
+Nero, who forbade Lucan to write poetry or to plead causes.
+
+Vacca, _ibid._, 'Quippe et certamine pentaeterico acto in Pompei
+theatro laudibus recitatis in Neronem fuerat coronatus et ex tempore
+Orphea scriptum in experimentum adversum conplures ediderat poetas et
+tres libros, quales videmus. Quare inimicum sibi fecerat imperatorem.
+Quo ambitiosa vanitate, non hominum tantum, sed et artium sibi
+principatum vindicante interdictum est ei poetica, interdictum est
+etiam causarum actionibus.'
+
+Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xv. 49, 'Famam carminum eius premebat Nero
+prohibueratque ostentare, vanus adsimulatione.'
+
+Lucan replied by a poem satirizing Nero and his court.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._, 'Sed et famoso carmine cum ipsum tum potentissimos
+amicorum gravissime proscidit.'
+
+Lucan joined the conspiracy of Piso which was started A.D. 62, but was
+discovered, and compelled to commit suicide, 30th April, A.D. 65.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._, 'Paene signifer Pisonianae coniurationis extitit.'
+
+Vacca, _ibid._, 'A coniuratis in caedem Neronis socius adsumptus est,
+sed parum fauste. Deceptus est a Pisone ... Sua sponte coactus vita
+excedere venas sibi praecidit periitque pridie Kal. Maias Attico
+Vestino et Nerva Siliano coss., xxvi. aetatis annum agens.'
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xv. 70, 'Exin Annaei Lucani caedem imperat. Is, profluente
+sanguine, ubi frigescere pedes manusque et paulatim ab extremis cedere
+spiritum fervido adhuc et compote mentis pectore intellegit,
+recordatus carmen a se compositum, quo volneratum militem per eius
+modi mortis imaginem obisse tradiderat, versus ipsos rettulit, eaque
+illi suprema vox fuit.'
+
+Suetonius (corroborated by Tac. _Ann._ xv. 56) says that Lucan named
+his mother as a fellow-conspirator.
+
+'Verum detecta coniuratione nequaquam parem animi constantiam
+praestitit. Facile enim confessus et ad humillimas devolutus preces
+matrem quoque innoxiam inter socios nominavit, sperans impietatem sibi
+apud parricidam principem profuturam.... Epulatus largiter brachia ad
+secandas venas praebuit medico.'
+
+Lucan married Polla Argentaria. Statius and Martial were her friends,
+and seem to have kept up an observance of Lucan's birthday.
+
+Cf. especially Statius, _Silvae_, ii. 7, on which the author, in his
+preface to the book, says, 'Cludit volumen genethliacon Lucani, quod
+Polla Argentaria, clarissima uxorum, cum hunc diem forte
+consecraremus, imputari sibi voluit.'
+
+Martial vii. 21, 22, and 23 are written on the subject of Lucan's
+birthday.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. The only extant work of Lucan is _De Bello Civili_. This is the
+title in the MSS., and in Petron. 118. The usual title comes from ix.
+985, 'Pharsalia nostra vivet,' words which come after a list of places
+in Greece and Asia immortalized by the poets, and which mean 'My story
+of Pharsalus shall live.' There is no evidence that Lucan gave the
+poem this title.
+
+2. _Lost works._ Vacca mentions the following:
+
+(_a_) In verse: Orpheus; Iliacon; Saturnalia; Catachthonion; Silvarum
+x.; tragoedia Medea (imperfecta): Salticae Fabulae, xiv.; epigrammata.
+
+(_b_) In prose: Oratio in Octavium Sagittam et pro eo; de incendio
+urbis; epistulae ex Campania.
+
+Suetonius also mentions 'Neronis laudes; famosum carmen in Neronem.'
+Stat. _Silv._ ii. 7, 62, mentions another work--'allocutio ad Pollam'
+(his wife).
+
+Lucan's works became immediately popular.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._, 'Poemata eius etiam praelegi memini, confici vero ac
+proponi, non tantum operose et diligenter, sed et inepte quoque.'
+
+Mart. xiv. 194,
+
+  'Sunt quidam qui me dicunt non esse poetam:
+  sed qui me vendit bibliopola putat.'
+
+The epic poem _De Bello Civili_ in ten Books (the last incomplete)
+carries the story of the Civil War down to the point where Caesar is
+besieged in Alexandria. Vacca informs us that Lucan did not live to
+correct the last seven Books.
+
+'Ediderat ... tres libros quales videmus ... Reliqui vii. belli
+civilis libri locum calumniantibus tamquam mendosi non darent, qui
+tametsi sub vero crimine non egent patrocinio: in isdem dici, quod in
+Ovidii libris praescribitur, potest: "emendaturus, si licuisset,
+erat."'
+
+_Lucan's political views._--The first three Books were published when
+Lucan was still on good terms with Nero (cf. the gross flattery in i.
+33-66), but practically the same view of the empire is taken
+throughout the poem; only Lucan expresses his views with greater
+vigour in the last seven Books; and, while in Books i.-iii. the
+question is one between Caesar and Pompey, afterwards it is one
+between Caesar and liberty. Even in Books i.-iii. Caesar is the
+villain of the piece; Pompey embodies all that is good; Cato and
+Brutus are highly spoken of; the former stands as the ideal Stoic. The
+Senate, except in Book v. _ad init._, appears in a rather unfavourable
+light, and so does the plebs. Lucan did not want the re-establishment
+of the republican oligarchy, but acquiesced in the empire as being
+ordained by fate. This is borne out by what we know of the Pisonian
+conspiracy, the object of which was not to re-establish the republic,
+but to put some leading man like Seneca on the throne. A few
+quotations will exemplify these points:
+
+(1) The empire; iv. 691,
+
+           'Libyamque auferre tyranno
+  dum regnum te, Roma, facit';
+
+vii. 432,
+
+  'Quod fugiens civile nefas redituraque nunquam
+  libertas ultra Tigrim Rhenumque recessit';
+
+vii. 442,
+
+  'Felices Arabes Medique eoaque tellus,
+  quam sub perpetuis tenuerunt fata tyrannis.
+  Ex populis qui regna ferunt, sors ultima nostra est,
+  quos servire pudet.'
+
+(2) Pompeius; ii. 732-6,
+
+  'Non quia te superi patrio privare sepulchro
+  maluerint, Phariae busto damnantur harenae:
+  parcitur Hesperiae; procul hoc et in orbe remoto
+  abscondat fortuna nefas, Romanaque tellus
+  inmaculata sui servetur sanguine Magni.'
+
+Cf. ix. 601-4 (where apotheosis is assigned him).
+
+(3) Cato (the hero of Book ix.) and Brutus; ii. 234,
+
+  'At non magnanimi percussit pectora Bruti
+  terror';
+
+ix. 554,
+
+  'Nam cui crediderim superos arcana daturos
+  dicturosque magis quam sancto vera Catoni?'
+
+Cf. ix. 186-9.
+
+(4) Caesar; ii. 439,
+
+  'Caesar in arma furens nullas nisi sanguine fuso
+  gaudet habere vias';
+
+v. 242,
+
+  'perdere successus scelerum';
+
+vii. 593,
+
+               'nondum attigit arcem
+  iuris et humanum columen, quo cuncta premuntur,
+  egressus meruit fatis tam nobile letum.
+  Vivat et, ut Bruti procumbat victima, regnet.'
+
+Caesar's acts are sometimes unfairly represented, as in vii. 798
+_sqq._, ix. 1035 _sqq._ (on viewing Pompeius' corpse); ll. 1038-9,
+
+            'lacrimas non sponte cadentis
+  effudit gemitusque expressit pectore laeto.'
+
+_Lucan's philosophical and religious views._--His Stoicism comes out
+strongly in the poem, ix. 566-84 (speech of Cato), especially 578-80,
+
+  'Estque dei sedes, nisi terra et pontus et aer
+  et caelum et virtus? Superos quid quaerimus ultra?
+  Iuppiter est, quodcumque vides, quodcumque moveris?'
+
+vii. 814,
+
+  'Communis mundo superest rogus ossibus astra
+  mixturus.'
+
+Note especially the very frequent references to fate; i. 263-4,
+
+              'cunctasque pudoris
+  rumpunt fata moras.'
+
+The gods are not introduced as chief agents; cf. the censure of
+Petronius quoted below. Lucan prides himself on despising the gods,
+and substitutes for them his favourite divinity, Fortuna; i. 128,
+
+  'Victrix causa deis placuit, sed victa Catoni';
+
+vii. 445,
+
+      'Sunt nobis nulla profecto
+  numina; cum caeco rapiantur saecula casu,
+  mentimur regnare Iovem.'
+
+_Rhetorical treatment_ is seen in (1) the vast amount of hyperbole
+employed; cf. the account of the siege of Massilia, iii. 538-762; (2)
+the geographical and mythological learning introduced. This is
+sometimes inaccurate; the best known instance is his confusion of
+Pharsalus and Philippi; cf. i. 1 and 688.
+
+_Lucan's models._--(1) For diction, chiefly Virgil.[77] Horace and
+Ovid are also imitated.
+
+(2) For history Lucan is supposed to have used Livy mostly. How far he
+used other authorities is unknown. His history is sometimes inexact.
+In ii. 478 _sqq._ the character of L. Domitius Ahenobarbus is falsely
+portrayed. So the journey of Cato to the shrine of Hammon, ix. 511
+_sqq._
+
+(3) Seneca is one of his authorities for science and philosophy. Thus
+in describing the Nile, x. 194-331, Lucan has used Seneca, _Nat.
+Quaest._ iv. 1-2. The biographer of the _Codex Vossianus_ ii.
+attributes (probably wrongly) the first seven verses of Book i. to
+Seneca.
+
+'Seneca, qui fuit avonculus eius, quia ex abrupto incohabat, hos vii.
+versus addidit: "Bella per Emathios" usque "et pila minantia pilis."'
+
+_Criticisms of Lucan._--Petronius, in introducing his parody of Lucan,
+says, par. 118, 'Ecce belli civilis ingens opus quisquis attigerit, nisi
+plenus litteris, sub onere labetur. Non enim res gestae versibus
+comprehendendae sunt, quod longe melius historici faciunt, sed per
+ambages deorumque ministeria et fabulosum sententiarum tormentum
+praecipitandus est liber spiritus.' See p. 275.
+
+Quint. x. 1, 90, 'Lucanus ardens et concitatus et sententiis
+clarissimus et, ut dicam quod sentio, magis oratoribus quam poetis
+imitandus.'
+
+
+
+PETRONIUS.
+
+
+The _Satirae_ of Petronius are attributed in the MSS. to Petronius
+Arbiter. It is practically certain that the author was C. Petronius,
+once proconsul of Bithynia and afterwards consul, who was long a
+member of Nero's inner circle, and who, in A.D. 66, when accused by
+Tigellinus, anticipated execution by suicide.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xvi. 18, 'Proconsul Bithyniae, et mox consul, vigentem se
+ac parem negotiis ostendit. Dein revolutus ad vitia, seu vitiorum
+imitatione, inter paucos familiarium Neroni adsumptus est, elegantiae
+arbiter, dum nihil amoenum et molle adfluentia putat, nisi quod ei
+Petronius adprobavisset. Unde invidia Tigellini ... (Ch. 19) Forte ...
+Campaniam petiverat Caesar, et Cumas usque progressus Petronius illic
+attinebatur. Nec tulit ultra timoris aut spei moras. Neque tamen
+praeceps vitam expulit, sed incisas venas, ut libitum, obligatas
+aperire rursum, et adloqui amicos, non per seria aut quibus gloriam
+constantiae peteret ... Flagitia principis sub nominibus exoletorum
+feminarumque et novitatem cuiusque stupri perscripsit, atque obsignata
+misit Neroni.'
+
+The document mentioned above as sent to Nero has nothing to do with
+the extant _Satirae_. That C. Petronius is the author of the work is
+rendered even more certain from the fact that it was obviously written
+in Nero's time by a man of high culture and knowledge of the world.
+
+The novel contains an account of the adventures of a certain
+Encolpius, as told by himself. Encolpius comes in contact with Priapus
+in Massilia, Cumae, and Croton; and probably the wrath of Priapus (a
+parody of the wrath of Poseidon in the Odyssey) is the leading motive
+that binds the disjointed parts. Cf. ch. 139,
+
+  'Me quoque per terras, per cani Nereos aequor
+  Hellespontiaci sequitur gravis ira Priapi.'
+
+The work, the extant parts of which are from Books xv. and xvi., is in
+form a Satira Menippea,[78] alternately prose and verse. The longer
+episodes, as the supper of Trimalchio and the story of the matron of
+Ephesus, are exclusively prose. In the _Cena Trimalchionis_, where
+Encolpius and his company are entertained by a rich freedman,
+Petronius has given us a correct account of provincial life in South
+Italy. Mommsen (_Hermes_, xiii. 106) has shown that Cumae was the town
+where Trimalchio lived. It is a 'Graeca urbs' (ch. 81), and a Roman
+colony (ch. 44, etc.), so that it cannot be Naples. The chief
+magistrates are called _praetores_ (ch. 65), which suits Cumae alone
+of the towns of this district. The only objection to Cumae being the
+place is the passage in ch. 48, where an event at Cumae is given as
+something wonderful and unusual:
+
+'Nam Sibyllam quidem Cumis ego ipse oculis meis vidi in ampulla
+pendere, et cum illi pueri dicerent: +Sibylla, ti theleis?+
+respondebat illa: +apothanein thelo+.'
+
+This, however, may simply be given for comic effect. Friedlaender
+thinks _Cumis_ is a wrong reading. The date of Encolpius' adventures
+cannot be under Tiberius, for the emperor is called 'pater patriae'
+(ch. 60), a title which Tiberius refused. Mommsen thinks the dramatic
+date is under Augustus; Friedlaender,[79] towards the end of Claudius'
+or the beginning of Nero's reign. The cognomen of Trimalchio,
+Maecenatianus (ch. 71), means that he was a freedman of the well-known
+Maecenas. Trimalchio, therefore, came to Rome as a boy (ch. 29; 75)
+before Maecenas' death (B.C. 8), and was probably born about B.C. 18.
+He is represented as 'senex' (ch. 27), _i.e._ at least sixty, but may
+have been over seventy. A.D. 57 is probably the later limit of date.
+Mommsen thinks that the words (ch. 57), 'puer capillatus in hanc
+coloniam veni: adhuc basilica non erat facta,' mean that when
+Trimalchio came to Cumae it was not a Roman colony. Now, Cumae became
+a colony between 43 and 27 B.C., and, on this supposition, the supper
+of Trimalchio would have to be placed between A.D. 7 and A.D. 23, as
+it is about fifty years since Trimalchio came to Cumae. Friedlaender,
+however, thinks that the basilica would not have been put up
+immediately the town became a colony.
+
+The language of the narrative is that of the educated classes of the
+time, and is in close agreement with the style of Seneca the younger.
+The diction of Trimalchio and his fellow-freedman is the South Italian
+popular speech of the time, filled with grammatical mistakes and
+provincialisms, and rich in proverbial expressions. The longest poems
+in the work are: (1) _Troiae halosis_ (ch. 89), 65 senarii, supposed
+to be a parody of Nero's poem of the same name; (2) _De bello civili_
+(ch. 119-124), 295 hexameters, in which Lucan's style is imitated and
+sometimes parodied. Cf. ll. 26-7,
+
+  'Et laxi crines et tot nova nomina vestis,
+  quaeque virum quaerunt,'
+
+with Lucan, i. 164-5,
+
+         'Cultus gestare decoros
+  vix nuribus rapuere mares';
+
+and ll. 51-2,
+
+  'Praeterea gemino deprensam gurgite plebem
+  faenoris illuvies ususque exederat aeris,'
+
+with Lucan, i. 181,
+
+  'Hinc usura vorax, avidumque in tempora faenus.'
+
+
+
+CALPURNIUS SICULUS.
+
+
+Eleven eclogues used to be attributed to T. Calpurnius Siculus, but
+only the first seven are his work, the last four being written by M.
+Aurelius Olympius Nemesianus in the second half of the 3rd century
+A.D. A MS. now lost gave before _Ecl._ 1, 'Titi Calphurnii Siculi
+bucolicum carmen ... incipit'; and before _Ecl._ 8, 'Aurelii Nemesiani
+poetae Carthaginiensis ecloga prima incipit.'
+
+Some information about Calpurnius' life is got from his works. In 4,
+17-8, he (as Corydon) mentions a brother; in 4, 155-6, he speaks of
+his poverty; and in 4, 29 _sqq._, of Meliboeus as having come to his
+assistance when about to leave for Spain; cf. _Ecl._ 4, 36-42,
+
+  Ecce nihil querulum per te, Meliboee, sonamus;
+  per te secura saturi recubamus in umbra,
+  et fruimur silvis Amaryllidos, ultima nuper
+  litora terrarum, nisi tu, Meliboee, fuisses,
+  ultima visuri, trucibusque obnoxia Mauris
+  pascua Geryonis.
+
+The old theory was that Calpurnius lived in the time of Carus and his
+sons (in the second half of the 3rd century A.D.), but the facts fit
+in best with the view that he lived at the beginning of Nero's reign.
+(1) Meliboeus in _Ecl._ 4 probably stands for Seneca (others suppose
+Calpurnius Piso to be meant); 4, 53-7,
+
+  Nam tibi non tantum venturos discere nimbos
+  agricolis qualemque ferat sol aureus ortum,
+  attribuere dei, sed dulcia carmina saepe
+  concinis.
+
+These lines agree with the fact of Seneca's being the author of
+_Naturales Quaestiones_ and of tragedies. (2) _Ecl._ i. 77-83 refers
+to the comet which appeared at the beginning of Nero's reign. (3)
+References to Nero's youth and beauty, poetical gifts, the games he
+gave, and the new era of peace he introduced; 1, 42-5,
+
+  Aurea secura cum pace renascitur aetas,
+  et redit ad terras tandem squalore situque
+  alma Themis posito, iuvenemque beata secuntur
+  saecula, maternis causam qui vicit in ulnis
+
+7, 6,
+
+  quae patula iuvenis deus edit harena.
+
+Cf. also 1, 84-8; 4, 84-9; 7, 83-4. _Ecl._ 7 used to be taken as
+referring to the Colosseum, which was not commenced till about A.D.
+77; but the games may be those mentioned in Sueton. _Nero_, 11, and
+the wooden amphitheatre in 7, 23-4, may be that mentioned by Sueton.
+_Nero_, 12, and Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 31.
+
+The difference of authorship of _Ecl._ 1-7 and of _Ecl._ 8-11 is shown
+by the following: (1) Final _o_ shows classical usage in 1-7, but in
+8-11 we have _expecto_ (9, 26), _coniungo_ (10, 14), _ambo_ (9, 17),
+and the like; (2) 1-7 show only eight elisions, 7-11 show thirty-nine;
+(3) no ending like _montivagus Pan_ (10, 17) is found in 1-7; (4)
+_fateor_ and _memini_ used parenthetically are common in 1-7, and not
+found in 8-11; (5) there are no allusions to the emperor in 8-11; (6)
+_Ecl._ 9 shows imitations of _Ecl._ 2 and 3; (7) 8-11 agree in many
+points with Nemesianus' _Cynegetica_.
+
+The _Eclogues_ are modelled chiefly on Virgil and Theocritus, _e.g._
+_Ecl._ 3 on Verg. _Ecl._ 7 and Theocr. 3, 14, and 23.
+
+The poem _de laude Pisonis_ is now generally attributed to Calpurnius
+Siculus. One point of similarity with Calpurnius' other poems is the
+rareness of elision, there being only two instances (ll. 24, 259). The
+description of Piso's liberality and eloquence (ll. 32, 88, 97 _sqq._)
+and of his skill in draughts (ll. 178-96) corresponds with the
+information given by Tac. _Ann._ xv. 48 and the Schol. on Iuv. 5, 109,
+about Calpurnius Piso, who flourished under Claudius.
+
+
+
+AETNA.
+
+
+This poem, in 645 hexameter lines, is attributed to Virgil in the
+MSS., but is probably by Lucilius Iunior, to whom Seneca addresses his
+_Epistulae Morales_, _De Providentia_, and _Quaestiones Naturales_.
+Lucilius was younger than Seneca (Sen. _Ep._ 26, 7, 'iuvenior es'),
+and was born at Naples or Pompeii.
+
+Sen. _Ep._ 49, 1, 'Ecce Campania et maxime Neapolis ad Pompeiorum
+tuorum conspectum incredibile est quam recens desiderium tui
+fecerint.'
+
+Lucilius had held procuratorial offices in Alpes Graiae et Poeninae,
+Epirus, Creta et Cyrene, and Sicily.
+
+_Ibid._ 44, 2, 'Eques Romanus es et ad hunc ordinem tua te perduxit
+industria.' _Ibid._ 31, 9, 'Quo modo, inquis, isto pervenitur? Non per
+Poeninum Graiumve montem, nec per deserta Candaviae, nec Syrtes tibi
+nec Scylla aut Charybdis adeundae sunt, quae tamen omnia transisti
+procuratiunculae pretio.'[80]
+
+Sen. _N.Q._ iv. praef. 1, 'Delectat te, Lucili, Sicilia et officium
+procurationis otiosae.'
+
+For his life cf. also the words put into his mouth by Sen. _N.Q._ iv.
+praef. 15-17, which show his loyalty to his friends, 'Non mihi in
+amicitia Gaetulici (died A.D. 39) vel Gaius fidem eripuit, non in
+aliorum persona infeliciter amatorum Messalla et Narcissus ...
+propositum meum avertere potuerunt ... videbam apud Gaium tormenta,
+videbam ignes.'[81]
+
+Seneca speaks of him as a pupil in philosophy in _Ep._ 34, 2, 'Adsero
+te mihi: meum opus es.'
+
+A literary work of his is spoken of by Seneca, also a poem in which he
+mentions Alpheus and Arethusa:
+
+_Ep._ 46, 1, 'Librum tuum, quem mihi promiseras, accepi. Levis mihi
+visus est, cum esset nec mei nec tui corporis, sed qui primo adspectu
+aut T. Livi aut Epicuri posset videri ... Non tantum delectatus, sed
+gavisus sum.'
+
+_N.Q._ iii. 26, 6, 'Hoc et a te traditum est ut in poemate, Lucili
+carissime, et a Vergilio, qui adloquitur Arethusam.'
+
+A poem on Aetna is referred to in _Ep._ 79, 5-7, 'Donec pudor obstet,
+ne Aetnam describas in tuo carmine et hunc sollemnem omnibus poetis
+locum adtingas; quem quo minus Ovidius tractaret, nihil obstitit, quod
+iam Vergilius impleverat ... Aut ego te non novi aut Aetna tibi
+salivam movet: iam cupis grande aliquid et par prioribus scribere.'
+
+Some authorities think that Lucilius had meant to incorporate this
+description in a larger poem, but changed his mind, and wrote a poem
+on Aetna alone.
+
+As regards the date of the poem: (1) It was written at a time when
+imitation of Ovid was common. Cf. Sen. _N.Q._ iv. 2, 2, 'Quare non cum
+poeta meo iocor et illi Ovidium suum impingo?' (2) There is no mention
+of Vesuvius in the list of volcanoes in 1. 425 _sqq._ The poem must
+therefore have been written before A.D. 79.
+
+The following are the arguments for Lucilius having been the author:
+
+(1) The poem was written by one who knew Aetna and the vicinity. Now
+Lucilius was long procurator of Sicily.
+
+(2) Military metaphors, as ll. 464-74, would fit in with his having
+been a soldier.
+
+(3) The author speaks as if he knew the neighbourhood of Naples well.
+
+(4) However, the argument that the writer shows Epicurean views, and
+that Lucilius was an Epicurean, has little weight. (_a_) There are
+Stoical doctrines in the poem. Cf. ll. 33-5, 68-70, on the divinity of
+the stars; ll. 173-4, which maintain that the world would come back to
+its former state; ll. 536-9, where Heraclitus' doctrine of fire is
+recommended. (_b_) The _Epistulae Morales_ only show that Lucilius had a
+leaning to Epicureanism, not that he was an Epicurean. Cf. _Ep._ 23,
+9, 'Vocem tibi Epicuri tui reddere,' and other playful references.
+
+(5) The views on natural science given in the poem are sometimes the
+same as those in Sen. _N.Q._ This would fix the date of the poem
+between 65 and 79 A.D. Cf. _Aetna_, 123,
+
+  'Flumina quin etiam latis currentia rivis
+   occasus habuere suos: aut illa vorago
+   derepta in praeceps fatali condidit ore
+   aut occulta fluunt tectis adoperta cavernis
+   atque inopinatos referunt procul edita cursus';
+
+and Sen. _N.Q._ iii. 26, 3, 'Quaedam flumina palam in aliquem specum
+decidunt et sic ex oculis auferuntur, quaedam consumuntur paulatim et
+intercidunt. Eadem ex intervallo revertuntur recipiuntque et nomen et
+cursum.' Cf. also _Aetna_, 96,
+
+                   'Defit namque omnis hiatu,
+  secta est omnis humus penitusque cavata latebris
+  exiles suspensa vias agit';
+
+and Sen. _N.Q._ v. 14, 1, 'Non tota solido contextu terra in imum
+usque fundatur, sed multis partibus cava et caecis suspensa latebris.'
+So the story of the Catanian brothers (ll. 624-45) is told by Sen. _De
+Benef._ iii. 37, 2-3.
+
+Imitations of Lucretius abound. Cf. ll. 219 _sqq._,
+
+  'Nunc quoniam in promptu est operis natura solique,
+   unde ipsi venti, quae res incendia pascit,' etc.
+
+For the author's attacks on superstition, cf. ll. 91-3,
+
+  'Debita carminibus libertas ista; sed omnis
+   in vero mihi cura: canam quo fervida motu
+   aestuet Aetna novosque rapax sibi congerat ignes.'
+
+A version of the _Phaenomena_ of Aratus is extant, the author of which
+is called in the MSS. 'Claudius Caesar,' or 'Germanicus.' He is
+generally identified with Germanicus, the adopted son of Tiberius (so
+Jerome and Lactantius), though in modern times the poem has been
+ascribed to Domitian, who had the title of 'Germanicus' from A.D. 84.
+There are also fragments of _Prognostica_, which are independent of
+Aratus.
+
+
+
+PLINY THE ELDER.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+There is a very brief life of Pliny by Suetonius, but most of our
+information about him is derived from his own writings and the letters
+of his nephew (Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5; v. 8; vi. 16; vi. 20).
+
+C. Plinius Secundus was born A.D. 23 or 24, for at the time of his
+death in A.D. 79 he was in his fifty-sixth year (Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5,
+7, 'decessisse anno sexto et quinquagesimo'). His birthplace was Comum
+in Cisalpine Gaul, according to Sueton. _vit. Plin._ In an anonymous
+Life he is styled 'Veronensis,' probably on account of the phrase in
+_N.H._ praef. 1, 'Catullum conterraneum meum,' where, however, _terra_
+means Gallia, the province, not the city.
+
+Pliny was the son of an _eques_, and had a sister married to L.
+Caecilius of Novum Comum (see p. 139). He came to Rome not later than
+A.D. 35 (_N.H._ xxxvii. 81, 'Servilii Noniani quem consulem vidimus'),
+and was trained in poetry and literature, probably by P. Pomponius
+Secundus[82]; his instructors in rhetoric are not known, but he
+mentions as rhetoricians Remmius Palaemon (xiv. 49) and Arellius
+Fuscus (xxxiii. 152). In botany he learned much from Antonius Castor
+(xxv. 9).
+
+At the beginning of the reign of Claudius, Pliny was an eye-witness of
+the building operations at the harbour of Ostia, A.D. 42 (ix. 14): in
+44 he practised in the law courts. Having decided on a military
+career, he would begin, according to the regulation of Claudius
+(Sueton. _Claud._ 25), with the command of a cohort of infantry. He
+was next _praefectus alae_ (Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5, 3) under Corbulo, who
+was _legatus_ of Germania Inferior, A.D. 47, in his campaign against
+the Chauci: cf. _N.H._ xvi. 2, 'Sunt vero in septemtrione visae nobis
+Chaucorum [gentes]'; and in A.D. 50 fought under Pomponius against the
+Chatti. His 'castrense contubernium' with Titus (born A.D. 41) was
+probably in 55 or 56, when he was in the army of Pompeius Paulinus:
+cf. xxxiii. 143, 'Pompeium Paulinum XII pondo argenti habuisse apud
+exercitum ferocissimis gentibus oppositum scimus.' Personal knowledge
+of Germany appears in several passages of the _N.H._, e.g. xii. 98,
+'extremo in margine imperii, qua Rhenus adluit, vidi'; xxii. 8, 'quem
+morem etiam nunc durare apud Germanos scio.'
+
+Pliny was present at the festivities at Lake Fucinus in A.D. 52
+(xxxiii. 63). During Nero's reign he spent some time in Campania (ii.
+180) and Cisalpine Gaul (xxxv. 20), was a spectator at the Vatican
+games in A.D. 59, and saw the building of Nero's golden house after
+the fire of A.D. 64 (xxxvi. iii).
+
+Under Vespasian Pliny was procurator in Italy, and in several of the
+provinces: Sueton. _vit._, 'Procurationes splendidissimas et continuas
+summa integritate administravit.' (_a_) Hispania Tarraconensis: Plin.
+_Ep._ iii. 5, 17, 'cum procuraret in Hispania'; (_b_) Gallia
+Narbonensis: _N.H._ ii. 150, 'ego vidi in Vocontiorum agro'; (_c_)
+Gallia Belgica: xviii. 183, 'nec recens subtrahemus exemplum in
+Treverico agro tertio ante hoc anno compertum'; (_d_) Africa: vii. 36,
+'ipse in Africa vidi.' For his intimacy with Vespasian cf. Plin. _Ep._
+iii. 5, 9, 'ante lucem ibat ad Vespasianum imperatorem ... inde ad
+delegatum sibi officium.'
+
+In A.D. 79 Pliny was in command of the fleet at Misenum, when his
+scientific interest in the eruption of Vesuvius led him to approach
+too near the volcano, with the result that he was suffocated by the
+ashes (24th August). For a detailed account of his death, see Plin.
+_Ep._ vi. 16 (to Tacitus). Cf. Sueton. _vit._, 'Periit clade
+Campaniae. Cum enim Misenensi classi praeesset, et flagrante Vesuvio
+ad explorandas propius causas liburnica pertendisset, neque
+adversantibus ventis remeare posset, vi pulveris ac favillae oppressus
+est, vel, ut quidam existimant, a servo suo occisus, quem aestu
+deficiens ut necem sibi maturaret oraverit.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+A chronological list of Pliny's writings is given by his nephew (_Ep._
+iii. 5).
+
+1. _De iaculatione equestri_.--'Hunc, cum praefectus alae militaret,
+pari ingenio curaque composuit.' This manual on the javelin as a
+cavalry weapon is mentioned by Pliny himself, _N.H._ viii. 162, 'Nos
+diximus in libro de iaculatione equestri condito.'
+
+2. _De vita Pomponii Secundi_, in two Books, a tribute to the memory
+of a valued friend, the tragic poet Pomponius. Cf. _N.H._ xiv. 56,
+'referentes vitam Pomponii Secundi vatis.'
+
+3. _Bella Germaniae_, in twenty Books, a narrative of the Roman wars
+in Germany; begun by Pliny when serving in that country, the
+apparition of Drusus having besought him to rescue his name from
+oblivion (so Pliny the younger). Cf. Tac. _Ann._ i. 69, 'Tradit C.
+Plinius, Germanicorum bellorum scriptor.'
+
+4. _Studiosus_, in three Books or six parts, a treatise on rhetoric
+from the very rudiments. Quintilian, though surprised at some of
+Pliny's views (xi. 3, 143; 148), numbers him among the more careful
+exponents of the subject (iii. 1, 21, 'accuratius scripsit'). The book
+contained models of good style: Gell. ix. 16, 1, 'refert plerasque
+sententias quas in declamandis controversiis lepide arguteque dictas
+putat.'
+
+5. _Dubius Sermo_, in eight Books, published A.D. 67, towards the end
+of Nero's reign, when purely technical subjects alone could be treated
+without danger to an author. Cf. _N.H._ praef. 28, 'libellos quos de
+grammatica edidi.'
+
+6. _A fine Aufidii Bassi_, in thirty-one Books. At what point Bassus'
+history ended and Pliny's began is not known: but the latter certainly
+dealt with the closing years of Nero's reign (_N.H._ ii. 199, 'anno
+Neronis principis supremo, sicut in rebus eius exposuimus'), as well
+as with the times of Vespasian and Titus (_N.H._ praef. 20, 'Vos
+omnes, patrem te fratremque diximus opere iusto, temporum nostrorum
+historiam orsi a fine Aufidii Bassi'). The work was completed in A.D.
+77, but not published till after the author's death. His nephew says
+he wrote with scrupulous care: _Ep._ v. 8, 5, 'historias et quidem
+religiosissime scripsit.' The book was used by Tacitus (_Ann._ xiii.
+20; xv. 53; _Hist._ iii. 28).
+
+7. _Naturae Historiae_, in thirty-seven Books, is Pliny's only extant
+work. As he speaks of Titus as 'sexies consul,' the date of its
+presentation to him was A.D. 77. Book i. consists of a dedicatory
+epistle to Titus and a table of contents. The body of the work is
+arranged as follows: Book ii., the universe and the elements;
+iii.-vi., geography of Europe, Asia, and Africa; vii., anthropology
+and human physiology; viii.-xi., zoology; xii.-xix., botany;
+xx.-xxvii., the use of vegetable substances in medicine;
+xxviii.-xxxii., the use of animal substances in medicine;
+xxxiii.-xxxvii., mineralogy applied to medicine and the fine arts.
+
+This work, which was meant not for continuous perusal, but for
+consultation as a book of reference, contained twenty thousand facts;
+and its preparation involved the reading of about two thousand volumes
+by one hundred authors (see _N.H._ praef. 17). The extracts he had
+made from these sources Pliny bequeathed to his nephew in one hundred
+and sixty volumes. He makes a point of acknowledging his obligations
+to other writers (praef. 21, 'in his voluminibus auctorum nomina
+praetexui, est enim benignum ... et plenum ingenui pudoris fateri per
+quos profeceris'); cf. the lists of authorities, Roman and foreign,
+prefixed to the work. Such devotion to natural science was unusual in
+men of Pliny's class, and not generally appreciated; cf. xxii. 15,
+'Plerisque ultro etiam irrisui sumus ista commentantes atque frivoli
+operis arguimur.' As a scientific writer Pliny fails because he is not
+an original investigator, and because he lacks the critical faculty.
+For his method of working see Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5.
+
+Politically, Pliny recognizes the necessity of the empire, but his
+heroes are old Romans such as Cincinnatus and Cato. His Roman and
+Italian feeling is intense: cf. xxxvii. 201, 'In toto orbe ...
+pulcherrima omnium est in rebusque merito principatum naturae obtinet
+Italia, rectrix parensque mundi altera.'
+
+His view of life is gloomy (_N.H._ ii. 25, 'nec quidquam miserius
+homine'), and through the _Naturae Historiae_ there runs a monotonous
+strain of condemnation of the immorality of his day. He is uncertain
+as to divine providence, but considers the belief in it salutary, and
+he accepts portents (ii. 92). His tendency is, in the main, Stoic; he
+was probably acquainted with Paetus Thrasea, who corresponded with
+Pomponius.
+
+
+
+VALERIUS FLACCUS.
+
+
+His full name is given in the Vatican MS. as C. Valerius Flaccus
+Setinus Balbus. It is doubtful (even if the last two names really
+belong to the poet) whether _Setinus_ means from Setia in Italy or
+from Setia in Spain. The poet's Latinity gives no evidence on the
+point. Quintilian is the only Roman writer who refers to him; x. 1,
+90, 'Multum in Valerio Flacco nuper amisimus'; which shows that he
+must have died about A.D. 90. In the beginning of the first Book of
+the _Argonautica_ (written shortly after A.D. 70), Valerius addresses
+Vespasian, referring to his exploits in Britain, and to the capture of
+Jerusalem by Titus; i. 7 _sqq._,
+
+    'Tuque o, pelagi cui maior aperti
+  fama, Caledonius postquam tua carbasa vexit
+  oceanus Phrygios prius indignatus Iulos,
+  eripe me populis et habenti nubila terrae,
+  sancte pater, veterumque fave veneranda canenti
+  facta virum. Versam proles tua pandet Idumen
+  (namque potest), Solymo nigrantem pulvere fratrem
+  spargentemque faces et in omni turre furentem.'
+
+i. 5 _sqq._ probably shows that Valerius was a quindecimvir sacris
+faciundis,
+
+  'Phoebe, mone, si Cymaeae mihi conscia vatis
+  stat casta cortina domo, si laurea digna
+  fronte viret.'
+
+Cf. the allusion in viii. 239 _sqq._ to Cybele's bath, which was under
+the management of the xv.viri; and to the rites of lustration, iii.
+417 _sqq._
+
+There are several allusions to the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in A.D.
+79, _e.g._ iv. 507.
+
+The _Argonautica_ is in eight Books, the last being incomplete, and
+the story breaking off shortly before the death of Medea's brother,
+Absyrtus. Valerius probably meant to write twelve Books, but it is not
+known how much farther he actually proceeded in his work. There is
+evidence to show that the last Books would have differed considerably
+from the story as given by Apollonius Rhodius; _e.g._ the visit to
+Phaeacia was probably omitted, as Jason was married at Peuce (Book
+viii.).
+
+Apollonius is followed very closely, many passages being translated
+from him; thus iv. 236 = Apoll. ii. 38; vii. 404 = Apoll. in. 966.
+Valerius, however, amplifies where Apollonius is brief, and vice
+versa. Thus Apoll. ii. 948 _sqq._ is dismissed by Valerius v. 110
+_sqq._ in a few words. The character painting of Valerius is superior
+to that of the original, cf. the character of Jason and of Aeetes. So
+for his artistic work; thus his portraiture of the gradual progress of
+Medea's love is superior to Apollonius' description, and to Virgil's
+of Dido.
+
+The obligations to Virgil are paramount.
+
+(1) Verbal; as i. 55,
+
+  'Tu, cui iam curaeque vigent animique viriles,'
+
+from _Aen._ ix. 311,
+
+  'Ante annos animumque gerens curamque virilem.'
+
+Cf. 'horrentem iaculis, nec credere quivi, heu quid agat, libans
+carchesia, summa dies, miscere polum, rumpere questus,' in Book i.[83]
+
+(2) In matter. The description of Fame, ii. 116 _sqq._, is from _Aen._
+iv. The character of Styrus, the betrothed of Medea, is modelled on
+that of Turnus.
+
+After Virgil, Homer (esp. in Book vi.), Ovid, and Seneca's tragedies
+are chiefly imitated. Statius is full of imitations of Valerius.
+
+Valerius often tries to connect his subject with Rome.[84] Cf. ii.
+304,
+
+  'Iam nemus Egeriae, iam te ciet altus ab Alba
+  Iuppiter et soli non mitis Aricia regi';
+
+ii 573,
+
+  'genus Aeneadum et Troiae melioris honores.'
+
+
+
+SILIUS ITALICUS.
+
+
+The full name of Silius is got from an inscription (_C.I.L._ vi.
+1984), and is Ti. Catius Silius Italicus. Our chief information about
+his life is found in Pliny, _Epist._ iii. 7, where his recent death is
+mentioned. It was probably written A.D. 101, and as it states that
+Silius was then 75 years old, the year of his birth was A.D. 25. His
+birthplace is unknown, but was not Italica in Spain, otherwise Martial
+would have claimed him as a countryman. Pliny tells us that Silius had
+risen by acting as a _delator_ under Nero, who made him consul A.D.
+68. He had taken the side of Vitellius in the war of the succession
+A.D. 69[85] and had afterwards, as proconsul, governed Asia with
+success (under Vespasian). After this he possessed great social
+influence. Towards the end of his life, he retired to Campania, and
+gave himself up to study. The account of his learned retirement,[86]
+his reverence for Virgil,[87] the consulship of his son,[88] the death
+of his younger son,[89] and other details, are corroborated by his
+contemporary Martial.
+
+The passage of Pliny is as follows:
+
+'Modo nuntiatus est Silius Italicus in Neapolitano suo inedia finisse
+vitam. Causa mortis valetudo. Erat illi natus insanabilis clavus,
+cuius taedio ad mortem inrevocabili constantia decucurrit, usque ad
+supremum diem beatus et felix, nisi quod minorem ex liberis duobus
+amisit, sed maiorem melioremque florentem atque etiam consularem
+reliquit. Laeserat famam suam sub Nerone, credebatur sponte accusasse:
+sed in Vitelli amicitia sapienter se et comiter gesserat, ex
+proconsulatu Asiae gloriam reportaverat, maculam veteris industriae
+laudabili otio abluerat. Fuit inter principes civitatis sine potentia,
+sine invidia: salutabatur, colebatur, multumque in lectulo iacens
+cubiculo semper non ex fortuna frequenti doctissimis sermonibus dies
+transigebat, cum a scribendo vacaret. Scribebat carmina maiore cura
+quam ingenio, non numquam iudicia hominum recitationibus experiebatur.
+Novissime ita suadentibus annis ab urbe secessit, seque in Campania
+tenuit, ac ne adventu quidem novi principis inde commotus est ... Erat
++philokalos+ usque ad emacitatis reprehensionem. Plures isdem
+in locis villas possidebat adamatisque novis priores neglegebat.
+Multum ubique librorum, multum statuarum, multum imaginum, quas non
+habebat modo verum etiam venerabatur, Vergilii ante omnes, cuius
+natalem religiosius quam suum celebrabat, Neapoli maxime, ubi
+monimentum eius adire ut templum solebat. In hac tranquillitate annum
+quintum et septuagensimum excessit, delicato magis corpore quam
+infirmo; utque novissimus a Nerone factus est consul, ita postremus ex
+omnibus quos Nero consules fecerat decessit.'
+
+Silius' career as an orator is mentioned by Martial vii. 63, 5-8,
+
+  'Sacra cothurnati non attigit ante Maronis,
+    implevit magni quam Ciceronis opus.
+  Hunc miratur adhuc centum gravis hasta virorum,
+    hunc loquitur grato plurimus ore cliens.'
+
+The _Punica_ is an Epic in seventeen Books on the Second Punic War,
+and treats of events down to the battle of Zama, B.C. 202. The
+historical treatment is founded mainly on Livy, and in point of style
+Silius has followed Homer and Virgil, imitations of whom are found on
+every page. For Silius' reverence for Virgil, see above, and cf. viii.
+593,
+
+  'Mantua Musarum domus, atque ad sidera cantu
+  evecta Aonio, et Smyrnaeis aemula plectris.'
+
+Silius also follows Homer and Virgil in their mythology, bringing in
+supernatural motives in a way unsuitable to a historical subject,
+_e.g._ in xv. 20, where Scipio has, like Hercules, to choose between
+Voluptas and Virtus.
+
+The example of Hannibal's dream, iii. 163-182, will show these
+different points. The story of the dream is got from Livy xxi. 22,
+but, for _iuvenis divina specie_, Silius, like Virg. _Aen._ iv. 222
+_sqq._ and 259 _sqq._ substitutes Mercury. Individual imitations in
+the passage are: l. 172, 'Turpe duci totam somno consumere noctem,'
+from _Il._ ii. 24, +ou chre pannychion heudein boulephoron
+andra+; l. 168, 'umentem noctis umbram' is from _Aen._ iv. 7,
+'umentemque Aurora polo dimoverat umbram'; l. 174, 'iam maria effusas
+cernes turbare carinas,' from _Aen._ iv. 566, 'iam mare turbari
+trabibus ... videbis'; l. 182, 'altae moenia Romae' is from _Aen._ i.
+7; l. 181, 'respexisse veto' from _Ecl._ 8, 102, 'nec respexeris.'
+
+The Epitome of the Iliad (in 1075 hexameters), which passes under the
+name of _Homerus Latinus_, has been attributed to Silius. It is a
+close adaptation from the original.
+
+
+
+STATIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+P. Papinius Statius was born at Naples (_Silv._ i. 2, 260, 'mea
+Parthenope'), probably about A.D. 60, for he speaks of himself as on
+the threshold of life at the time of his father's death, about A.D. 80
+('limine primo fatorum,' _Silv._ v. 3, 72). The apparent discrepancy
+in _Silv._ iv. 4, 69 (written A.D. 94-5), 'Nos facta aliena canendo
+vergimur in senium,' may be explained by observing that 'senium' is
+very often used for premature age induced by study (cf. 'insenuit,'
+Hor. _Ep._ ii. 2, 82).
+
+The father of Statius came of a distinguished but not wealthy family:
+_Silv._ v. 3, 116,
+
+  'Non tibi deformes obscuri sanguinis ortus
+  nec sine luce genus, quamquam fortuna parentum
+  artior expensis.'
+
+He taught first at Naples (_ibid._ l. 146) and then at Rome (l. 176);
+and died at the age of sixty-five (l. 252) soon after the eruption of
+Vesuvius, which he had intended to make the subject of a poem (l.
+205). It was from his learned father ('genitor perdocte,' l. 3) that
+Statius derived his first impulse towards poetry, and to his training
+he acknowledges deep obligations (ll. 209-214).
+
+Statius won two prizes for poetry, at the _Augustalia_ in Naples and
+at Alba; but was unsuccessful at the Capitoline competition, probably
+in A.D. 94 (_ibid._ 225-232). In that year he seems to have removed
+from Rome to Naples, and spent there the remainder of his days:
+_Silv._ iii. 5, 12,
+
+  'Anne quod Euboicos fessus remeare penates
+  auguror et patria senium componere terra?'
+
+The date of his death is unknown. The latest event mentioned in his
+poems is the seventeenth consulship of Domitian, A.D. 95 (_Silv._ iv.
+1).
+
+Statius was married to a widow named Claudia (_Silv._ iii. 5, 51
+_sqq._), but had no children (v. 5, 79).
+
+He enjoyed the favour of Domitian ('indulgentissimus imperator,'
+_Silv._ i. praef.) who granted him a supply of water for his country
+house at Alba, and occasionally invited him to his table: _Silv._ iii.
+1, 61,
+
+  'Ast ego, Dardaniae quamvis sub collibus Albae
+  rus proprium magnique ducis mihi munere currens
+  unda domi curas mulcere aestusque levare
+  sufficerent.'
+
+_Silv._ iv. praef., 'Sacratissimis eius epulis honoratus.'
+
+He more than once promises to write an epic on Domitian's career (e.g.
+_Theb._ i. 32). The emperor's freedman Earinus (_Silv._ iii. 4) was
+one of Statius' patrons.
+
+His regard for the poet Lucan produced _Silv._ ii. 7, which is a poem
+on Lucan's birthday, addressed to his widow (see p. 267). But his
+chief admiration was reserved for the memory of Virgil: Naples and
+Alba were endeared to him by their associations with the 'great
+master' and the story of Aeneas: _Silv._ iv. 4, 53,
+
+  'Tenues ignavo pollice chordas
+  pulso, Maroneique sedens in margine templi
+  sumo animum et magni tumulis adcanto magistri.'
+
+For Alba cf. _Silv._ v. 3, 37. The _Thebais_ must recognize its
+inferiority to the _Aeneid_: _Theb._ xii. 816,
+
+  'Vive, precor; nec tu divinam Aeneida tempta,
+  sed longe sequere et vestigia semper adora.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. The _Thebais_, an epic poem in twelve Books, occupied Statius for
+twelve years: xii. 811,
+
+  'O mihi bis senos multum vigilata per annos
+  Thebai.'
+
+Cf. _Silv._ iv. 7, 26,
+
+  'Thebais multa cruciata lima.'
+
+The twelve years were probably 79-91 or 80-92 A.D. _Silv._ i. praef.
+(written 91 or 92), 'Adhuc pro Thebaide mea, quamvis me reliquerit,
+timeo.' The publication apparently did not take place till A.D. 95
+(cf. _Silv._ iv. 4, 87 _sqq._ written in that year).
+
+The subject of the poem is the strife between the brothers Eteocles
+and Polynices, and the subsequent history of Thebes to the death of
+Creon. The dedication is to Domitian. For the popularity of the
+_Thebais_ cf. Juv. _Sat._ 7, 82,
+
+  'Curritur ad vocem iucundam et carmen amicae
+  Thebaidos, laetam cum fecit Statius urbem
+  promisitque diem. Tanta dulcedine captos
+  afficit ille animos tantaque libidine volgi
+  auditur; sed, cum fregit subsellia versu,
+  esurit, intactam Paridi nisi vendit Agaven.'
+
+2. The _Achilleis_, also dedicated to Domitian, is an incomplete epic,
+consisting of one Book and part of a second. It was later than the
+Thebaid, for Statius was working at it in A.D. 95: _Silv._ iv. 4, 93,
+
+  'Nunc vacuos crines alio subit infula nexu:
+  Troia quidem magnusque mihi temptatur Achilles.'
+
+The poem was intended to cover the whole career of Achilles, including
+his retreat in Scyros before the Trojan War, and his exploits after
+the death of Hector, which did not enter into the plan of the _Iliad_:
+cf. l. 3,
+
+      'Quamquam acta viri multum inclita cantu
+  Maeonio, sed plura vacant: nos ire per omnem
+  (sic amor est) heroa velis.'
+
+3. The _Silvae_, which represent the poet in his less serious mood,
+are occasional poems on miscellaneous subjects, published in five
+separate Books. Cf. 1, praef. 'Diu multumque dubitavi ... an hos
+libellos, ... cum singuli de sinu meo prodierint, congregates ipse
+dimitterem.' Many of them were thrown off in haste at the command of
+the Emperor or the request of friends: cf. such expressions as 'stili
+facilitas' (ii. praef.), 'libellorum temeritas,' 'hanc audaciam stili
+nostri' (iii. praef.). Of the poems in Book i. he says, 'nullum ex
+illis biduo longius tractum, quaedam et in singulis diebus effusa' (i.
+praef.). Each of the Books is introduced by a prose preface.
+
+None of the _Silvae_ appeared before A.D. 92; for Rutilius Gallicus,
+for whom i. 4 was written, died in that year, and the poem was not
+published till after his death (i. praef.). Book v. was probably a
+posthumous work: there is no proper preface, and the third and fifth
+poems are incomplete.
+
+Hexameter verse is employed for all the _Silvae_ except six. Of these,
+four are in hendecasyllabics, one in the Alcaic and one in the Sapphic
+stanza.
+
+4. The only other poem of which there is distinct evidence is the
+pantomime _Agave_, written not later than A.D. 84, the year in which
+the player Paris was put to death (Juv. _Sat._ 7, 86, quoted above).
+
+
+
+MARTIAL.[90]
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+M. Valerius Martialis (Coquus is added in the old glossaries) was born
+at Bilbilis in Hispania Tarraconensis on 1st March in one of the years
+A.D. 38-41. His tenth Book, written A.D. 95-8, contains a poem (x. 24)
+written on his fifty-seventh birthday. Cf. ll. 4-5,
+
+  'quinquagesima liba septimamque
+  vestris addimus hanc focis acerram';
+
+ix. 52, 3,
+
+  'ut nostras amo Martias Kalendas';
+
+x. 103, 1,
+
+  'Municipes, Augusta mihi quos Bilbilis acri
+    monte creat, rapidis quem Salo cingit aquis.'
+
+His parents' names are given, v. 34, 1, 'Fronto pater, genetrix
+Flaccilla.' Martial went through the usual education at Bilbilis or at
+a neighbouring town; ix. 73, 7,
+
+  'At me litterulas stulti docuere parentes:
+    quid cum grammaticis rhetoribusque mihi?'
+
+Martial went to Rome A.D. 64, for in A.D. 98, when he left Rome, he
+gives the length of his stay as thirty-four years; x. 103, 7,
+
+  'Quattuor accessit tricesima messibus aestas,
+    ut sine me Cereri rustica liba datis,
+  moenia dum colimus dominae pulcherrima Romae.'
+
+At Rome Martial became the client of the house of the Senecas, and was
+on intimate terms with L. Calpurnius Piso, Memmius Gemellus, and
+Vibius Crispus; xii. 36, 8,
+
+  'Pisones Senecasque Memmiosque
+  et Crispos mihi redde sed priores.'
+
+The failure of Piso's conspiracy in A.D. 65 and the consequent
+downfall of the Senecas must have affected Martial's position. In A.D.
+96 Martial addresses as his patroness Argentaria Polla, Lucan's widow,
+the only surviving member of the family; x. 64, 1,
+
+  'Contigeris regina meos si Polla libellos,' etc.
+
+From her he may have got the small vineyard near Nomentum which he
+possessed by A.D. 84 (xiii. 42 and 119).
+
+Little is known of Martial's life before the reign of Domitian. He may
+have practised at the bar; cf. ii. 30, 5,
+
+  'Is mihi "dives eris, si causas egeris" inquit';
+
+and Quintilian appears to have advised this course (ii. 90). He
+probably lived as a client of great houses to which he was recommended
+by his early-developed poetical talents. Cf. i. 113, 1,
+
+  'Quaecumque lusi iuvenis et puer quondam.'
+
+In A.D. 80 he commemorated the opening by Titus of the Flavian
+Amphitheatre by a collection of poems sent to the emperor. Cf.
+_Spectac._ 32,
+
+  'Da veniam subitis: non displicuisse meretur,
+  festinat, Caesar, qui placuisse tibi.'
+
+Martial received the 'ius trium liberorum' from two of the emperors.
+This probably means that Titus bestowed it and Domitian ratified it.
+Cf. ix. 97, 5,
+
+  'tribuit quod Caesar uterque
+  ius mihi natorum.'
+
+Martial became a titular tribune, and consequently an _eques_, an
+honour probably given him by Titus; iii. 95, 9
+
+  'vidit me Roma tribunum';
+
+v. 13, 1,
+
+  'Sum, fateor, semperque fui, Callistrate, pauper,
+  sed non obscurus nec male notus eques.'
+
+Martial is unsparing in his flattery of Domitian and his freedmen. Cf.
+ix. 79, iv. 45, of Parthenius, the emperor's chamberlain; vii. 99,
+viii. 48, of Crispinus, the emperor's favourite. In A.D. 86 we find
+his poems eagerly read by the emperor. Cf. iv. 27,
+
+  'Saepe meos laudare soles, Auguste, libellos.'
+
+He obtained citizen rights for several applicants; cf. ix. 95. 11,
+
+  'Quot mihi Caesareo facti sunt munere cives';
+
+and was occasionally invited to the emperor's table; cf. ix. 91.
+Domitian, however, refused to assist him pecuniarily (vi. 10). A
+description of Martial's life as a client of great houses is found,
+_e.g._, in v. 20. Among the friends of high rank whom Martial made
+after A.D. 86 were the poet Silius Italicus (iv. 14), the future
+emperor Nerva (v. 28), the author S. Iulius Frontinus (x. 58), the
+younger Pliny (x. 19). Martial also mentions Quintilian (ii. 90) and
+other literary men from Spain, and Juvenal (vii. 24, etc.). Statius he
+never mentions, and was probably at enmity with him; cf. his sneers at
+mythological epics (x. 4, etc.), which hint indirectly at the
+_Thebais_. Martial also attacks his critics (i. 3; xi. 20, etc.),
+plagiarists (_e.g._ xi. 94), and those who wrote scurrilous verses in
+his name (_e.g._ x. 3).
+
+Martial received rewards in return for his poetry, and often begs for
+gifts, and complains of his poverty and the unproductiveness of his
+estate at Nomentum (xii. 57); v. 36,
+
+  'Laudatus nostro quidam, Faustina, libello
+    dissimulat, quasi nil debeat: imposuit';
+
+vii. 16,
+
+  'Aera domi non sunt, superest hoc, Regule, solum,
+  ut tua vendamus munera: numquid emis?'
+
+From 86 to 90 A.D. Martial lived in lodgings on the Quirinal, three
+stairs up; i. 117, 6,
+
+  'Longum est, si velit ad Pirum venire,
+  et scalis habito tribus, sed altis.'
+
+Later he had a house of his own (ix. 18, 2, etc.), and mentions his
+slaves (i. 101; v. 34, etc.). That he was still poor in A.D. 98 is
+evident from Pliny, _Ep._ iii. 21, 2, 'Prosecutus eram viatico
+secedentem: dederam hoc amicitiae, dederam etiam versiculis quos de me
+composuit.'
+
+Martial was evidently never married (ii. 92). In A.D. 98 he left Rome
+and went to Spain, where he had liberal friends, as Terentius Priscus
+(xii. 4), and Marcella (xii. 21), who gave him an estate, described in
+xii. 18. From xii. praef. we see his longing for Rome:
+
+'In hac provinciali solitudine ... bibliothecas, theatra, convictus
+... desideramus quasi destituti. Accedit his municipalium robigo
+dentium et iudici loco livor,' etc.
+
+Martial died, at latest, about A.D. 104, being from 63 to 66 years
+old.
+
+Pliny _Ep._ iii. 21 (written not after A.D. 104), 'Audio Valerium
+Martialem decessisse et moleste fero.'
+
+Martial does not disguise the bad points of his character. Cf. his
+flattery of Domitian, and his continual begging (_passim_), his
+cynical reasons for giving panegyrics (v. 36, quoted above); the
+number of indecent poems he wrote, for which he apologizes (_e.g._ i.
+praef.). Among his good points are his 'candor,' mentioned by Pliny,
+_Ep._ iii. 21; his love of unadorned nature, _e.g._ iii. 58; his love
+for his friends, _e.g._ i. 15.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+_Publication of the Poems._--_Liber Spectaculorum_ was published A.D. 80,
+on the opening of Titus' Amphitheatre. The _Xenia_ and _Apophoreta_
+were two collections of inscriptions for presents at the _Saturnalia_
+in December 84 or 85 A.D. The numbering of these as Books xiii. and
+xiv. has no ancient authority. Martial furnished the other Books with
+numbers (cf. ii. 92, 1, 'primus liber'). Books i., ii., appeared
+together A.D. 86. Then came Books iii.-xi. at intervals of about a
+year to December, 96 A.D. Martial prepared a selection from Books x.
+and xi. for Nerva's use (no longer extant). This was presented along
+with xii. 5,
+
+  'Longior undecimi nobis decimique libelli
+  artatus labor est, et breve rasit opus.
+  Plura legant vacui, quibus otia tuta dedisti;
+  haec lege tu Caesar; forsan et illa leges.'
+
+Book xii. appeared at the beginning of A.D. 102. and shortly
+afterwards in an enlarged edition. An edition of all the Books
+probably did not appear till after Martial's death.
+
+For Martial's immediate popularity, cf. vi. 61,
+
+  'Laudat, amat, cantat nostros mea Roma libellos,
+  meque sinus omnis, me manus omnis habet';
+
+xi. 3, 3,
+
+  'Sed meus in Geticis ad Martia signa pruinis
+    a rigido teritur centurione liber,
+  dicitur et nostros cantare Britannia versus.'
+
+Pliny _Ep._ iii. 21 (written just after Martial's death), 'Erat homo
+ingeniosus acutus acer, et qui plurimum in scribendo et salis haberet
+et fellis nec candoris minus.'
+
+_Martial's Models._--His manner is very original, but some of his
+motives are taken from Greek epigrammatists, especially from
+Lucillius, who flourished under Nero. Thus iv. 53 = Lucill. 30; v. 53
+= L. 93; xii. 23 = L. 34. Many of his pieces are doubtless
+improvisations, and consequently contain careless expressions and
+errors as to facts. Thus, vii. 61, 2,
+
+  'Inque suo nullum limine limen erat';
+
+x. 2, 1,
+
+  'Festinata prior decimi mihi cura libelli
+    elapsum manibus nunc revocavit opus';
+
+x. 93, 5,
+
+  'Ut rosa delectat, metitur quae pollice primo'
+         (= the rose which has not yet been plucked).
+
+In iv. 55, 3, Arpi is given as Cicero's birthplace; in v. 30, 2, etc.,
+Calabria instead of Apulia is given as Horace's native district.
+Catullus is Martial's chief model for hendecasyllabics and
+choliambics. He mentions no other poet so often. Cf. x. 103, 5,
+
+  'Nec sua plus debet tenui Verona Catullo
+    meque velit dici non minus illa suum.'
+
+Ovid, of whom he has more than two hundred reminiscences, is Martial's
+chief pattern for elegiacs. After these Martial's chief model is
+Virgil, chiefly the _Priapea_; then Horace to a less extent;
+Propertius; and Tibullus. Domitius Marsus, Gaetulicus, Calvus, etc.,
+are mentioned frequently, and doubtless imitated.
+
+For Martial's conception of himself as a painter of manners, cf. viii.
+3, 19 (ad Musam),
+
+  'At tu Romano lepidos sale tinge libellos:
+    adgnoscat mores vita legatque suos.
+  Angusta cantare licet videaris avena,
+    dum tua multorum vincat avena tubas.'
+
+x. 4, 7,
+
+  'Quid te vana iuvant miserae ludibria chartae?
+    hoc lege, quod possit dicere vita "Meum est."
+  Non hic Centauros, non Gorgonas, Harpyiasque
+    invenies: hominem pagina nostra sapit.'
+
+Martial satirizes people under manufactured or arbitrarily chosen
+names.
+
+Cf. i. praef., 'Spero me secutum in libellis meis tale temperamentum,
+ut de illis queri non possit, quisquis de se bene senserit, cum salva
+infimarum quoque personarum reverentia ludant.'
+
+Some are tell-tale names, as Vetustilla, 'an old woman,' iii. 93;
+Dento, 'a gourmand,' v. 45; Eulogus, 'a herald,' vi. 8; but the same
+names, _e.g._ Zoilus, are often used to denote different types.
+
+The chief forms of verse used are the elegiac distich (most frequent),
+scazons, and hendecasyllabics. In vi. 65 he apologizes for using the
+pure hexameter, which is found only four times. Other metres are
+extremely rare.
+
+
+
+QUINTILIAN.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+M. Fabius Quintilianus was born at Calagurris in Spain. Auson. _prof._
+i. 7, 'Adserat usque licet Fabium Calagurris alumnum.' Cf. Jerome yr.
+Abr. 2104 (quoted below).
+
+Quintilian came at an early age to Rome, where his father was a
+rhetorician. Cf. his reminiscences:
+
+x. 1, 86, 'Utar verbis isdem quae ex Afro Domitio (died A.D. 59)
+iuvenis excepi.'
+
+v. 7, 7, 'a Domitio Afro quem adulescentulus senem colui.'
+
+vi. 1, 14, 'Nobis adulescentibus accusator Cossutiani Capitonis' (A.D.
+57), etc.
+
+From the above quotations, Quintilian must have been born somewhere
+between A.D. 35 and 40. A.D. 35 is usually given as an approximation.
+For Quintilian's father cf. ix. 3, 73, 'Et cur me prohibeat pudor uti
+domestico exemplo? Pater meus contra eum qui,' etc. He is possibly the
+person mentioned by Seneca, _Contr._ x. praef. 2, 'quo modo ...
+Quintilianus senex declamaverit.'
+
+For Quintilian's teachers of rhetoric, cf. Pliny, _Ep._ ii. 14, 10,
+'Narrabat ille [Quintilianus], Adsectabar Domitium Afrum.' Others were
+Iulius Africanus (Quint. x. 1, 118), Servilius Nonianus (x. 1, 102),
+Galerius Trachalus (x. 1, 119), Iulius Secundus (x. 1, 120), Vibius
+Crispus (xii. 10, 11), Remmius Palaemon (Schol. ad Iuv. 6, 452). After
+his education Quintilian returned to Calagurris, but was brought back
+to Rome by Galba in A.D. 68.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 2084 = A.D. 68, 'M. Fabius Quintilianus Romam a Galba
+perducitur.'
+
+Quintilian engaged as a pleader at Rome, and makes some references to
+his cases. Some of his speeches were published without his consent.
+
+vii. 2, 24, 'In causa Naevi Arpiniani ... cuius actionem et quidem
+solam in hoc tempus emiseram, quod ipsum me fecisse ductum iuvenili
+cupiditate gloriae fateor. Nam ceterae, quae sub nomine meo feruntur,
+neglegentia excipientium in quaestum notariorum corruptae minimam
+partem mei habent.'
+
+iv. 1, 19, 'Ego pro regina Berenice apud ipsam eam causam dixi.'
+
+Cf. also vii. 2, 5; ix. 2, 73-4.
+
+Quintilian was the first person who received an imperial grant as
+teacher of oratory.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 2104 = A.D. 88, 'Quintilianus ex Hispania
+Calagurritanus primus Romae publicam scholam et salarium e fisco
+accepit et claruit.' The date given by Jerome is much too late, as it
+is Quintilian that is alluded to by Sueton. _Vesp._ 18, 'Primus e
+fisco Latinis Graecisque rhetoribus annua centena constituit.' The
+appointment must therefore have been made by A.D. 79. The
+professorship is referred to by Mart. ii. 90, 1,
+
+  'Quintiliane, vagae moderator summe iuventae,
+    gloria Romanae, Quintiliane, togae.'
+
+Cf. Pliny, _Ep._ ii. 14, 10, 'Ita certe ex Quintiliano, praeceptore
+meo, audisse memini.' Quintilian's career as a teacher lasted for
+twenty years.
+
+i. prooem. 1, 'Post impetratam studiis meis quietem, quae per viginti
+annos erudiendis iuvenibus impenderam.'
+
+Teuffel thinks that the _Institutio_ was written A.D. 89-91, in which
+case Quintilian's career as professor was from A.D. 68 to 88;
+Peterson[91] thinks that Quintilian dated his educational work as from
+A.D. 70 to 90, and that the _Institutio_ was begun A.D. 92.
+
+Quintilian grew rich by the practice of his profession, from which he
+ultimately retired. Iuv. 7, 186,
+
+  'Hos inter sumptus sestertia Quintiliano,
+  ut multum, duo sufficient; res nulla minoris
+  constabit patri, quam filius. "Unde igitur tot
+  Quintilianus habet saltus?"'
+
+Quint. ii. 12, 12, 'quando et praecipiendi munus iam pridem deprecati
+sumus et in foro quoque dicendi, quia honestissimum finem putamus,
+desinere dum desideraremur.'
+
+After his retirement Quintilian was appointed tutor of Domitian's
+grandnephews, sons of his niece Flavia Domitilla and his cousin
+Flavius Clemens.
+
+Quint. iv. prooem. 2, 'Cum mihi Domitianus Augustus sororis suae
+nepotum delegaverit curam.'
+
+Through the influence of Clemens, he obtained the consulship.
+
+Auson. _grat. act._ p. 23 (Schenkl), 'Quintilianus consularia per
+Clementem ornamenta sortitus honestamenta potius videtur quam insignia
+potestatis habuisse.'
+
+Cf. Iuv. 7, 197,
+
+  'Si Fortuna volet, fies de rhetore consul;
+  si volet haec eadem, fies de consule rhetor.'
+
+His gratitude led him into fulsome flattery of Domitian.
+
+x. 1, 91, 'Germanicum Augustum ab institutis studiis deflexit cura
+terrarum, parumque dis visum est esse eum maximum poetarum' (cf. iv.
+prooem. 3-5).
+
+Quintilian married late in life. His wife died at the age of eighteen,
+his younger son soon afterwards at the age of five, the elder one
+subsequently at the age of nine.
+
+vi. prooem. S 2, 'Illum, de quo summa conceperam et in quo spem unicam
+senectutis reponebam, repetito volnere orbitatis amisi'; par. 9, 'Non
+flosculos, sicut prior, sed iam decimum aetatis ingressus annum,
+certos ac deformatos fructus ostenderat'; par. 4, 'erepta prius mihi
+matre eorumdem, quae nondum expleto aetatis undevicesimo anno duos
+enixa filios ...'; par. 5, 'cum omni virtute, quae in feminas cadit,
+functa insanabilem adtulit marito dolorem, tum aetate tam puellari,
+praesertim meae comparata, potest et ipsa numerari inter volnera
+orbitatis'; par. 6, 'Mihi filius minor quintum egressus annum prior
+alterum ex duobus eruit lumen.'
+
+The date of Quintilian's death is unknown. If he outlived Domitian it
+was not for long, as Pliny in the letters quoted above (the earlier
+written about A.D. 100) does not speak of Quintilian as alive.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+_Earlier works._--Quintilian refers to a work _de causis corruptae
+eloquentiae_, and to an _ars rhetorica_ in two Books. For speeches of
+his taken down and published, see vii. 2, 24, quoted p. 303.
+
+vi. prooem. 3, 'eum librum, quem de causis corruptae eloquentiae
+emisi.'
+
+i. prooem. 7, 'Duo iam sub nomine meo libri ferebantur artis
+rhetoricae neque editi a me neque in hoc comparati. Namque alterum,
+sermone per biduum habito, pueri, quibus id praestabatur, exceperant;
+alterum pluribus sane diebus, quantum notando consequi potuerant,
+interceptum, boni iuvenes sed nimium amantes mei, temerario editionis
+honore volgaverant.'
+
+The _Institutio Oratoria_.--For the date of publication see p. 304.
+The circumstances of publication are given by Quintilian in the
+preface addressed to his bookseller Trypho.
+
+'Efflagitasti cottidiano convicio, ut libros, quos ad Marcellum meum
+de Institutione oratoria scripseram, iam emittere inciperem. Nam ipse
+eos nondum opinabar satis maturuisse, quibus componendis, ut scis,
+paulo plus quam biennium tot alioqui negotiis districtus impendi ...
+Sed si tanto opere efflagitantur quam tu affirmas, permittamus vela
+ventis et oram solventibus bene precemur.'
+
+The work is dedicated to Vitorius Marcellus (to whom Statius'
+_Silvae_, Book iv., is addressed), and was originally written in view
+of the education of his son Geta.
+
+i. prooem. 6, 'Quod opus, Marcelle Vitori, tibi dicamus ... quod
+erudiendo Getae tuo ... non inutiles fore libri videbantur.'
+
+Book iv. prooem. was written when Quintilian had been appointed tutor
+to the young princes, who are mentioned along with Geta and
+Quintilian's elder son; Book vi. prooem. was written not long
+afterwards, and refers to his bereavements; in Book xii. prooem. no
+names are mentioned.
+
+The work deals with the whole education of the future orator.
+
+i. prooem. 5, 'Nec aliter, quam si mihi tradatur educandus orator,
+studia eius formare ab infantia incipiam.'
+
+Quintilian himself gives a sketch of the contents:
+
+i. prooem. 21-2, 'Liber primus ea quae sunt ante officium rhetoris
+continebit [including grammar and philology]. Secundo prima apud
+rhetorem elementa et quae de ipsa rhetorices substantia quaeruntur
+tractabimus. Quinque deinceps (iii.-vii.) inventioni, nam huic et
+dispositio subiungitur, quattuor (viii.-xi.) elocutioni, in cuius
+partem memoria ac pronuntiatio veniunt, dabuntur. Unus (xii.) accedet,
+in quo nobis orator ipse informandus est, ut qui mores eius, quae in
+suscipiendis, discendis, agendis causis ratio, quod eloquentiae genus,
+quis agendi debeat esse finis, quae post finem studia ... disseramus.'
+
+The ordinary handbooks of rhetoric are attacked.
+
+i. prooem. 24-5, 'Nam plerumque nudae illae artes nimia subtilitatis
+affectatione frangunt atque concidunt quidquid est in oratione
+generosius, et omnem sucum ingeni bibunt et ossa detegunt, quae ut
+esse et adstringi nervis suis debent, sic corpore operienda sunt.
+Ideoque nos non particulam illam, sicut plerique, sed quidquid utile
+ad instituendum oratorem putabamus, in hos duodecim libros contulimus
+breviter omnia demonstraturi.'
+
+Quintilian uses his own experience and the best views of different
+authorities.
+
+vi. 2, 25, 'Quod si tradita mihi sequi praecepta sufficeret,
+satisfeceram huic parti, nihil eorum, quae legi vel didici, quod modo
+probabile fuit, omittendo; sed eruere in animo est, quae latent, et
+penitus ipsa huius loci aperire penetralia, quae quidem non aliquo
+tradente sed experimento meo ac natura ipsa duce accepi.'
+
+Quintilian insists that the orator must be a good man (cf. the
+importance he attaches to early education, i. 1, etc.).
+
+xii. 1, 1, 'Sit ergo nobis orator, quem constituimus, is qui a M.
+Catone finitur, vir bonus dicendi peritus; verum, id quod et ille
+posuit prius, et ipsa natura potius ac maius est, utique vir bonus.'
+
+Cf. i. prooem. 9-10; ii. 2 (the whole chapter); ii. 15, 1.
+
+Quintilian's exposition is founded mainly on Cicero, from whom he
+seldom differs. Cf. vii. 3, 8, 'Quamquam dissentire vix audeo a
+Cicerone.'
+
+Quintilian's illustrations are mainly drawn from classical writers.
+Upwards of four hundred and fifty passages of Cicero and about one
+hundred and forty of Virgil are referred to. Quintilian not only
+attacks the modern style, but warns his pupils against the early
+writers.
+
+ii. 5, 21-2, 'Duo autem genera maxime cavenda pueris puto: unum, ne
+quis eos antiquitatis nimius admirator in Graccorum Catonisque et
+aliorum similium lectione durescere velit ... Alterum, quod huic
+diversum est, ne recentis huius lasciviae flosculis capti voluptate
+prava deleniantur, ut praedulce illud genus et puerilibus ingeniis hoc
+gratius, quo propius est, adament.'
+
+For Quintilian's high appreciation of Cicero see x. 1, 105-112; and
+for his antagonism to Seneca, x. 1, 125-131, and to philosophers in
+general, i. prooem. 10.
+
+For Quintilian's authorities see iii. 1, 'Prooemium de scriptoribus
+artis rhetoricae.' They include Dionysius of Halicarnassus; Caecilius;
+Chrysippus (for education; cf. i. 1, 16, etc.); Cicero; _Auctor ad
+Herenn._; Celsus, cf. iii. 1, 21, etc.; Rutilius, cf. ix. 3, 89;
+Remmius Palaemon.
+
+Literary criticism is treated of in Book X. as regards the Greek and
+Latin authors useful to the orator. The principal authority used was
+the +peri mimeseos+ of Dionysius Halicarnassius. Much of
+Quintilian's criticism is traditional, and the lists of great writers
+came ultimately from the critics of Alexandria. Roman literary critics
+referred to were Cicero (_e.g._ on the Attic orators, x. 1, 76-80) and
+Horace (x. 1, 24; 56, etc.).
+
+_Spurious works._--These include two collections of _declamationes_.
+
+1. Nineteen long pieces, ascribed to Quintilian by Jerome and others,
+but much later than Quintilian's time.
+
+2. One hundred and forty-five shorter pieces out of an original
+collection of three hundred and eighty-eight, the first half being
+lost. Some suppose they are the 'libri artis rhetoricae' (i. prooem.
+7, quoted above), but this is not likely.
+
+
+
+FRONTINUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Iulius Frontinus (as he is called by Tacitus: inscriptions and some
+MSS. give the _praenomen_ Sextus) was born at latest A.D. 41, for he
+was _praetor urbanus_ A.D. 70.
+
+Tac. _Hist._ iv. 39, 'in senatu quem Iulius Frontinus praetor urbanus
+vocaverat ... Mox eiurante Frontino Caesar Domitianus praeturam cepit.'
+
+He served in Gaul during the revolt of Civilis, and received the
+submission of the Lingones (Front. _Strat._ iv. 3, 14[92]). Under
+Vespasian he held the consulship, and preceded Agricola in the command
+in Britain, where he conquered the Silures, probably A.D. 76-78.
+
+Tac. _Agr._ 17, 'Et Cerealis quidem alterius successoris curam
+famamque obruisset: sustinuit molem Iulius Frontinus, vir magnus,
+quantum licebat, validamque et pugnacem Silurum gentem armis subegit,
+super virtutem hostium locorum quoque difficultates eluctatus.'
+
+His knowledge of the tactics of Domitian (_Strat._ i. 1, 8; i. 3, 10;
+ii. 3, 23; ii. 11, 7) makes it probable that he took part in the war
+with the Chatti, A.D. 83. In 97 he became _curator aquarum_ (_Aq._
+102), and at the beginning of the following year was consul for the
+second time (_C.I.L._ iii., p. 862); cf. Martial x. 48, 20, 'bis
+Frontino consule.' In 100 he was once more consul (_C.I.L._ viii.
+7066). He also held the office of augur, in which, A.D. 103 or 104, he
+was succeeded by the younger Pliny; Plin. _Ep._ iv. 8, 'gratularis
+mihi quod acceperim auguratum ... Successi Iulio Frontino, principi
+viro.' His death then may be placed in A.D. 103.
+
+Frontinus was a friend of Martial, who addresses to him _Epig._ x. 58.
+
+We get a glimpse of his character from Pliny's words, _Ep._ ix. 19, 6,
+'Vetuit exstrui monumentum: sed quibus verbis? "Impensa monumenti
+supervacua est: memoria nostri durabit si vita meruimus."'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+During the reign of Domitian (A.D. 81-96) Frontinus composed two
+works. One of these, of which only fragments survive, dealt with the
+art of land-surveying and the laws relating to land. The other,
+written after A.D. 84, when Domitian received the title of Germanicus
+(_Strat._ ii. II, 7, 'eo bello quo victis hostibus cognomen Germanici
+meruit'), is a manual of strategy, in three Books, entitled
+_Strategemata_. It is a sequel to a previous work (now lost) on the
+theory of the art of war, and illustrates its rules by historical
+examples derived chiefly from Sallust, Caesar, and Livy. The purpose
+of the book did not require the citation of authorities, and the
+mention of Livy in ii. 5, 31 and 34, is probably spurious. Frontinus
+gives either a paraphrase retaining some of the expressions of the
+original (cf. _Strat._ i. 5, 16, with Liv. xxxv. 11, 2-13), or a bald
+summary (cf. _Strat._ ii. 5, 1, with Liv. i. 14, 6-11). See G.
+Gundermann, _Jahrb. f. class. Philol._, suppl. xvi., p. 315 _sqq._
+(1888). Some later hand has added a fourth Book, which not only
+presents marked differences in style and tone from the original three,
+but deals with an entirely different subject--the maintenance of
+discipline, and other duties of a commander.
+
+Under Nerva and Trajan (A.D. 97-98) Frontinus wrote his treatise on
+the Roman water-supply, _De Aquis Urbis Romae_. Having been appointed
+_curator aquarum_, he considered it his first duty to acquaint himself
+with the details of his department, and published the result of his
+inquiries in the hope that they might be useful to his successors (cf.
+the preface). The book was begun under Nerva (praef. 'cum ... sit nunc
+mihi ab Nerva Augusto ... aquarum iniunctum officium'), but Nerva had
+been succeeded by Trajan before it was completed (118, 'divus Nerva';
+93, 'Traianum Augustum').
+
+
+
+JUVENAL.
+
+
+The sources for Juvenal's life are (1) his works; (2) an inscription
+found at Aquinum; (3) thirteen extant _vitae_; (4) information of the
+scholiasts; (5) references in Martial and other writers.
+
+The inscription at Aquinum has been much debated; but it is safe to
+follow the opinion of Mommsen, whose experience in identifying people
+mentioned in inscriptions with historical characters depends upon a
+width of knowledge that no other person possesses. The _vitae_ are all
+early mediaeval works, probably founded on a brief account of the
+poet's life composed by some unknown ancient writer, and existing at
+the early Renaissance. The extant _vitae_ contain a very few facts
+which appear to be derived from this source, together with a number of
+inferences gathered, often incorrectly, from Juvenal's works. The most
+important statement is that regarding Juvenal's birth, which is
+contained in the _vita_ in the Codex Barberinus, 8, 18, discovered by
+J. Duerr. The date is given in such precise and accurate terms, and is
+in itself so probable as solving so many of the questions connected
+with the poet's works, that to invent it requires an amount of
+knowledge with which we cannot credit the writer of this otherwise
+very poor account. The statements of the _vitae_ must be carefully
+weighed, and accepted only when rendered probable by other
+considerations.[93]
+
+Juvenal's name is given in some of the MSS. as Decimus Iunius
+Iuvenalis. He was born A.D. 55.
+
+_Codex Barberinus_, 'Iunius Iuvenalis Aquinas Iunio Iuvenale patre,
+matre vero Septumuleia ex Aquinati municipio Claudio Nerone et L.
+Antistio consulibus natus est. Sororem habuit Septumuleiam, quae
+Fuscino nupsit.'
+
+The statement about his sister and mother is very doubtful; that about
+Fuscinus is a bad inference from the fact that _Sat._ 14 (on the
+education of children) is addressed to him. The name _Septumuleia_ may
+be invented from 14, 105, _septima lux_. Juvenal's sister must have
+been called Iunia after her father; the naming of a girl after her
+mother was a mediaeval idea.
+
+Juvenal was born at Aquinum, a town of the Volscians. Twelve of the
+_vitae_ agree in this, and they are confirmed by the poet's own words
+supposed to be addressed to him by his friend Umbricius: 3, 318-21,
+
+                      'Quotiens te
+  Roma tuo refici properantem reddet Aquino,
+  me quoque ad Helvinam Cererem vestramque Dianam
+  converte a Cumis.'
+
+Cf. 6, 57,
+
+  'agello cedo paterno.'
+
+This is corroborated by the inscription found at Aquinum (_C.I.L._ x.
+5382), which gives us other information about the poet:
+
+      _cere_RI . SACRVM
+  _d . iu_NIVS . IVVENALIS
+  _trib_ COH_.i_.DELMATARVM
+    II . VIR . QVINQ . FLAMEN
+         DIVI . VESPASIANI
+    VOVIT . DEDICAV_itq_VE
+    SVA                   PEC
+
+This inscription appears to have stood near the temple of Ceres
+Helvina or Elvina, dedicated by a member of the gens Elvia, references
+to which are found on inscriptions of the district.
+
+The _vitae_ say that Juvenal was the son of a freedman.[94] Cf.
+_Vitae_ i. _a_, i. _b_, ii. _c_ (Duerr): 'libertini locupletis incertum
+filius an alumnus.' _Vita_ v. (Duerr), 'ordinis ut fertur
+libertinorum.' This story is due to a misapprehension of some of
+Juvenal's references. 1, 99-102,
+
+               'Iubet a praecone vocari
+  ipsos Troiugenas (nam vexant limen et ipsi
+  nobiscum): "da praetori, da deinde tribuno."
+  Sed libertinus prior est.'
+
+_Libertinus_ here is not to be taken to mean that the entire set are
+freedmen.
+
+As to 4, 98,
+
+  'unde fit ut malim fraterculus esse gigantis,'
+
+it gives no evidence whatever of Juvenal's position. If it meant
+anything, it would rather imply that Juvenal was the son of a poor
+Italian and not of a foreign slave. So for 11, 145-6. His family was
+respectable, his means were fair, and he could afford to look down on
+upstarts in virtue both of his birth and of his property, although it
+is clear from his own works that he had in Rome the position of a
+rather humble dependent, who would be exposed to insult at the tables
+of the rich and powerful. Cf. 3, 318; 6, 57 (above); 12, 89, 'laribus
+paternis'; 1, 24,
+
+  'patricios omnes opibus cum provocet unus,
+  quo tondente gravis iuveni mihi barba sonabat.'
+
+So 10, 225.
+
+In _vita_ iv. he is said to have attained equestrian rank.
+(Tribunician rank implied equestrian). This, on the whole, is
+confirmed by the inscription, and may be founded on the original
+_vita_.
+
+Juvenal had a full course of education, first under the _litterator_
+and the _grammaticus_, then under the _rhetor._[95] Cf. 1, 15,
+
+  'Et nos ergo manum ferulae subduximus, et nos
+  consilium dedimus Sullae, privatus ut altum
+  dormiret.'
+
+This would imply a good position, and a certain command of money. Such
+_patres libertini_ as Horace's were very rare.
+
+The inscription above quoted (_divi Vespasiani_ shows that its date is
+after A.D. 79, and probably not long after) informs us that Juvenal
+was (1) 'tribunus cohortis I. Delmatarum'[96]; (2) 'duumvir
+quinquennalis'[97] and 'flamen divi Vespasiani' at Aquinum. The dates
+when Juvenal held these posts cannot be determined exactly; but we can
+infer certain points.
+
+(1) There was a _certus ordo honorum_ in municipal life, and Juvenal
+must have held the quaestorship and the aedileship before the
+_duumviratus quinquennalis_. The lower limit of entering on a
+municipal career was twenty-five, according to an order of Augustus,
+and people did not usually begin it much later; we may therefore
+conclude that these municipal posts were held by Juvenal somewhere
+between A.D. 80 and 90. The last year is approximately fixed by the
+way in which Martial in two of his epigrams (vii. 24 and 91) belonging
+to A.D. 91 or 92 speaks of Juvenal; the words show that the latter
+must have been established in Rome for some time.
+
+(2) In ordinary course Juvenal would enter the army after the
+completion of his seventeenth year. The short time he took to arrive
+at the position of tribune, and the statement of _vita_ iv. 'cum ...
+ad dignitatem equestris ordinis pervenire sua virtute meruisset,' make
+it probable that he entered the army as _petitor militiae equestris_,
+as a preliminary step towards entering on a political career.
+
+The cohors Delmatarum I., which Juvenal commanded as tribune, was in
+Britain in A.D. 106, and in A.D. 124.[98] Probably it had been
+stationed there for a period of years, and it is likely that Juvenal
+filled his tribuneship there. Now, all the _vitae_ inform us that
+Juvenal was banished under the pretext of a military command. While
+the other _vitae_ give Egypt as the place of his banishment, _vita_
+iv. gives Scotland; and it seems highly probable that _vita_ iv. has
+confused Juvenal's regular military command in Britain, and his
+banishment, late in life, to Egypt. The words are:
+
+'[Tyrannus] sub honoris praetextu fecit eum praefectum militis contra
+Scotos, qui bellum contra Romanos moverant.'
+
+This is supported by Juvenal's references to Britain. Some of these,
+like his references to Egypt, seem, in contradistinction to most of
+his references to foreign parts, to imply personal knowledge and
+observation. They are as follows:
+
+(1) 2, 159-161,
+
+           'Arma quidem ultra
+  litora Iuvernae promovimus et modo captas
+  Orcadas ac minima contentos nocte Britannos.'
+
+Here 'Iuverna' is the old name of Ireland, which is not mentioned even
+in Tacitus' _Agricola_[99]; for the Orcades cf. Tac. _Agr._ 10; and
+the excessive shortness of the summer nights mentioned in the last
+clause is especially true of the north of Scotland.
+
+(2) 10, 14,
+
+  'Quanto delphinis balaena Britannica maior.'
+
+This is also particularly applicable to the north of Scotland, whales
+being frequently seen off the Orkney and Shetland Islands.
+
+(3) 4, 141,
+
+              'Rutupinove edita fundo
+  ostrea.'
+
+(4) 14, 196,
+
+  'Castella Brigantum.'
+
+(5) 15, 111,
+
+  'Gallia causidicos docuit facunda Britannos,
+  de conducendo loquitur iam rhetore Thule.'
+
+Cf. Tac. _Agr._ 21.
+
+(6) 15, 124, 'Brittones.' This form is rarely found except in military
+inscriptions,[100] and could scarcely have been used except by one
+familiar with the camp in Britain.[101]
+
+That Juvenal came to Rome about A.D. 90 has been shown above. This
+step he may have taken to forward his promotion in the army and
+afterwards in the procuratorial service. His failure in this direction
+may have led to his pessimism. His friendship with Martial (whom,
+however, he does not mention) is shown by Mart. vii. 24 (cf. vii. 91),
+
+  'Cum Iuvenale meo quae me committere temptas,
+  quid non audebis, perfida lingua, loqui?' etc.
+
+That he was still in Rome in B.C. 101, and had the entree of the atria
+of rich nobles is shown by Mart. xii. 18, written in that year.
+
+  'Dum tu forsitan inquietus erras
+  clamosa, Iuvenalis, in Subura
+  aut collem dominae teris Dianae,
+  dura per limina te potentiorum
+  sudatrix toga ventilat vagumque
+  maior Caelius et minor fatigant,
+  me multos repetita post Decembres
+  accepit mea rusticumque fecit
+  auro Bilbilis et superba ferro.'
+
+From this we see that he lived in the Subura, the plebeian quarter.
+Cf. 3, 5,
+
+  'ego vel Prochytam praepono Suburae.'
+
+While in Rome he still possessed his land at Aquinum and also a
+property at Tibur; 11, 65,
+
+  'de Tiburtino veniet pinguissimus agro
+  haedulus.'
+
+The statement of the _vitae_ that Juvenal studied rhetoric till middle
+life is, as already stated, improbable, as being inconsistent with his
+military and municipal career; 'facundus,' applied to him by Mart.
+vii. 91, 1, does not mean 'declaiming,' but 'poetical' or
+'oratorical.'
+
+_Vitae_ i. _a_ and _b_ (and other seven) say, 'ad mediam fere aetatem
+declamavit animi magis causa quam quod scholae se aut foro
+praepararet.'
+
+_Juvenal's literary life._--In the MSS. the satires are divided into
+Books, and the division seems ancient. Book i. includes _Sat._ 1-5;
+Book ii. = _Sat._ 6; Book iii. = _Sat._ 7-9; Book iv. = _Sat._ 10-12;
+Book v. = _Sat._ 13-16.
+
+Book i. was written under Trajan; certainly after A.D. 100, the date
+of the trial of Marius Priscus [102]; 1, 49,
+
+  'exul ab octava Marius bibit et fruitur dis
+  iratis.'
+
+Book ii. not earlier than A.D. 116. It is highly probable that 6, 407,
+'instantem regi Armenio Parthoque cometen,' refers to a comet seen at
+Rome in November A.D. 115; and 6, 411, 'nutare urbes, subsidere
+terras,' to the earthquake at Antioch, 13th December, A.D. 115.
+
+Book iii., probably about A.D. 120, was written under Hadrian, who is
+eulogized in 7, 1-35. Duerr thinks it probable that 7, 36-243, was
+written under Trajan, and that the introduction, in praise of Hadrian,
+was written afterwards. This is also Friedlaender's view; cf. l. 1, 'Et
+spes et ratio studiorum in Caesare tantum,' with Spart. _vit. Hadr._
+14, 8, 'poematum studiosissimus.' This also supports the view that the
+introduction was written not long after Hadrian's accession, when a
+new era for poets was supposed to be beginning.
+
+Book iv. was probably written about A.D. 125.
+
+Book v. A clue to the date is found in 13, 16-7,
+
+         'Stupet haec, qui iam post terga reliquit
+  sexaginta annos, Fonteio consule natus.'
+
+Fonteius Capito and C. Iulius Rufus were consuls A.D. 67, in which
+year the sexagenarian friend whom Juvenal addresses was born. The date
+of writing will therefore be A.D. 127.[103]
+
+Cf. also 15, 27, 'nuper consule Iunco.' Iuncus was consul A.D. 127, so
+that this satire could not have been written before A.D. 128. So 15,
+44,
+
+                 'Horrida sane
+  Aegyptos, sed luxuria, quantum ipse notavi,
+  barbara famoso non cedit turba Canopo.'
+
+Juvenal must have added these lines to the satire while he was an
+exile in Egypt, if he did not write the whole of it there. This is in
+accordance with what _vita_ v. says, 'in exilio ampliavit satyras.'
+Supposing this passage to be an addition, we may conclude that Book v.
+was written about A.D. 128, but not before that year.
+
+_Juvenal's banishment._--As before stated, all the _vitae_ but one
+give Egypt as the place of Juvenal's exile. The exact place, according
+to the scholiast on 1, 1 and 4, 38, was the Great Oasis (Hoasa:
+Hoasis). Three _vitae_ (i. _a_, _b_, iii. _c_) state that he was at
+that time _octogenarius_. This would make the date A.D. 135 or 136.
+Most of the _vitae_ give as the reason of his exile the fact that he
+wrote the lines,[104] 7, 90-2,
+
+  'Quod non dant proceres dabit histrio. Tu Camerinos
+  et Baream, tu nobilium magna atria curas?
+  Praefectos Pelopea facit, Philomela tribunos.'
+
+Now these lines, the first he ever wrote (_vita_ iii. _c_) were
+composed in his youth as an epigram on Paris, Domitian's favourite,
+probably about A.D. 81-3. The true story then is that, when Juvenal in
+A.D. 135 or 136 published a new edition of _Sat._ 7, he added these
+lines (_vitae_ i. _a_, _b_, 'ut ea quoque quae prima fecerat
+inferciret novis scriptis').[105] Now it has been inferred from Spart.
+_vit. Hadr._ 23 _sqq._ that at this time an actor had great influence
+over Hadrian, and the lines were taken as referring to him. The
+emperor in a rage banished Juvenal to Egypt _per honorem militiae_,
+writing maliciously on his commission 'Et te Philomela promovit'
+(_vita_ iv.). The banishment is assigned to the influence of Paris by
+Iohannes Malalas, p. 262 _sqq._ (Dindorf), and by Suidas. Cf. also
+_Sat._ 15, 44 _sqq._, already quoted, and Sidonius Apollinaris 9, 267
+_sqq._,
+
+  'Non qui tempore Caesaris secundi
+  aeterno incoluit Tomos reatu:
+  non qui consimili deinde casu
+  ad volgi tenuem strepentis auram
+  irati fuit histrionis exul.'
+
+_Vita_ iii. _b_, 'Tristitia et angore periit anno aetatis suae altero
+et octuagesimo.'
+
+_Vita_ v., 'Decessit longo senio confectus exul Antonino Pio
+imperatore.'
+
+If this last statement is correct, Juvenal died after reaching the age
+of eighty-two, as Antoninus came to the throne on 10th July, A.D. 138.
+It follows from this also that he must have been born in the second
+half of A.D. 55.
+
+_The Satires._--The following are the more important points regarding
+these:
+
+(1) Juvenal's reasons for writing satire are given in _Sat._ 1, ll.
+1-14. He is wearied with tragedies and epics on mythological subjects,
+'Semper ego auditor tantum?'
+
+He is resolved to follow in the footsteps of Lucilius; ll. 19-21,
+
+  'Cur tamen hoc potius libeat decurrere campo,
+  per quem magnus equos Auruncae flexit alumnus,
+  si vacat ac placidi rationem admittitis, edam.'
+
+His satire is due to indignation at the moral decay of the Roman
+world.
+
+l. 30, 'Difficile est satiram non scribere' (cf. ll. 63, 79).
+
+However, he does not intend to satirize the living, at least under
+their own names; and in fact he has in his mind particularly the times
+of Domitian, while most of his names are those of persons living under
+Claudius or Nero; l. 170,
+
+        'Experiar quid concedatur in illos,
+  quorum Flaminia tegitur cinis atque Latina.'
+
+In the first nine Satires Juvenal's bitterness is directed mainly
+against the senatorial class, possibly because they had given him no
+support in his office-seeking. Even his violent attack on women in
+_Sat._ 6 is launched chiefly against the women of the highest class.
+Note also the unjust way in which he speaks of the government of the
+provinces (_Sat._ 8, 87-139). Juvenal is very bitter against Greeks
+and Orientals, most of all against Egyptians (cf. _Sat._ 15, and his
+attacks on the Egyptian Crispinus in 4, 1-33, etc.). Cf. 3, 119-125,
+for his attacks on foreigners.
+
+(2) He claims a wide scope for his subject; 1, 85,
+
+  'Quidquid agunt homines, votum timor ira voluptas
+  gaudia discursus nostri farrago libelli est.'
+
+(3) His pessimism is very marked; cf. 1, 147,
+
+  'Nil erit ulterius, quod nostris moribus addat
+  posteritas; eadem facient cupientque minores,
+  omne in praecipiti vitium stetit. Utere velis,
+  totos pande sinus.'
+
+So 12, 48-9. His pessimism leads to extravagant language like 6, 29
+_sqq._ He is as hard on trifling foibles as on the most heinous
+offences. Cf. 6, 166 _sqq._, 185 _sqq._, 398 _sqq._, 434-56 (on
+learned ladies).
+
+(4) His rhetorical learning and style (found in all the Satires, but
+particularly in the later ones) are shown by
+
+(_a_) His metre and language. Thus we find rhetorical uses of _ergo_
+(3, 104; 281, etc.); _nunc_ (3, 268; 10, 210); _porro_ (3, 126; 11,
+9); and of other particles.
+
+(_b_) The way in which he chooses themes for his Satires, and
+subdivides them. Several of the Satires, as 5, 8, 10, 14, are
+_theses_, _i.e._ problems of a general character worked out in the
+manner of the rhetorical schools. Thus _Sat._ 5 discusses the
+question, 'Is the position of a client worth having?' _Sat._ 8, 'Has
+high birth a value in itself?' He sometimes uses the commonplaces of
+the schools, as 8, 56,
+
+             'Animalia muta
+  quis generosa putet nisi fortia?'
+
+So 8, 215-6. In the manner of a rhetorician he sometimes gives
+superabundant details. The best example of this is 10, 190-250, on the
+troubles of old age.
+
+(_c_) His knowledge of mythology, history, law, and philosophy. This
+is found mostly in the later Books. In the earlier Satires he dealt
+more with life as he had known it. In the later Satires he has
+recourse to republican times and to foreign history. His historical
+examples Friedlaender thinks he took mostly from Valerius Maximus.
+Juvenal's knowledge of philosophy was very superficial, and was
+probably got from his rhetorical training. Errors occur; thus in 13,
+121-2, Stoics and Cynics are looked upon as identical.[106]
+
+(_d_) His high-flown language referred to above.
+
+(_e_) His references to previous literature. Thus Horace is often
+referred to (cf. 7, 62 and 227); Virgil with great frequency (cf. 1,
+162; 6, 434 _sqq._; 7, 66 and 227; 7, 233 _sqq._). Mayor mentions
+Homer, Herodotus, Plato, Lucilius, Cicero, Ovid, Manilius, Valerius
+Maximus, Seneca, Lucan, and Martial among the authors imitated by
+Juvenal.
+
+
+
+PLINY THE YOUNGER.
+
+
+Pliny's full name on the inscriptions of the later period of his life
+reads 'C. Plinius L. f. Ouf. Caecilius Secundus.' This name he partly
+got from his mother's brother C. Plinius Secundus (Pliny the elder),
+who adopted him by will: cf. _Ep._ v. 8, 5, 'Avunculus meus idemque
+per adoptionem pater.' Pliny's name before his adoption in A.D. 79
+(see below) was P. Caecilius L. f. Ouf. Secundus. His birthplace was
+Comum, and he belonged to the Oufentina, the tribe of the people of
+Comum, as well on the side of his natural as on that of his adoptive
+father. In an inscription preserved at Como (_C.I.L._ v. 5279) Pliny's
+father, Cilo, is mentioned, and two men who are undoubtedly Cilo's
+sons, the second mentioned being Pliny the younger, who had always
+been called Secundus.
+
+'L. Caecilius L. f. Cilo iiii.vir a(edilicia) p(otestate), qui
+testamento suo (sestertium) n(ummum) xxxx. (milia) municipibus
+Comensibus legavit, ex quorum reditu quotannis per Neptunalia oleum in
+campo et in thermis et in balineis omnibus, quae sunt Comi,
+praeberentur, t(estamento) f(ieri) iussit et L. Caecilio L. f. Valenti
+et P. Caecilio L. f. Secundo et Lutullae Picti f. contubernali.'[107]
+
+For Cilo's bequests here mentioned cf. Pliny, _Ep._ i, 8, 5; Comum is
+referred to as 'patria mea' in _Ep._ iv. 30, 1. The Caecilii were a
+family of station at Comum even in Caesar's time. Cf. Catull. 35,
+
+  'Poetae tenero meo sodali
+  velim Caecilio, papyre, dicas,
+  Veronam veniat Novi relinquens
+  Comi moenia Lariumque litus.'
+
+Pliny inherited landed property there from his father and mother.
+
+_Ep._ vii. 11, 5, 'Indicavit mihi cupere se aliquid circa Larium
+nostrum possidere: ego illi ex praediis meis quod vellet ... optuli,
+exceptis maternis paternisque.'
+
+The above inscription shows that Pliny's father belonged to the
+municipal nobility, and possibly had 'equestris nobilitas.'
+
+Pliny was in his eighteenth year (_Ep._ vi. 20, 5, 'agebam
+duodevicensimum annum') on 24th August, A.D. 79, when his uncle
+perished in the eruption of Vesuvius, and he was therefore born in the
+second half of 61 or in the first half of 62 A.D. Cilo died young,
+before holding the chief municipal post, and before Pliny was of age;
+and Verginius Rufus became Pliny's guardian.
+
+_Ep._ ii. 1, 8, 'Ille mihi tutor relictus adfectum parentis
+exhibuit.' Pliny was removed to Rome with his uncle, probably at the
+end of A.D. 72. While at school he wrote poetry (_Ep._ vii. 4, 2,
+quoted below), and studied philosophy and rhetoric.
+
+_Ep._ vi. 6, 3, 'Quos tunc ego frequentabam, Quintilianum, Niceten
+Sacerdotem.' Cf. also ii. 14, 10; i. 20, 4; vii. 4, etc. For literary
+studies with his uncle cf. _Ep._ vi. 20, 5, 'Posco librum Titi Livi et
+quasi per otium lego, atque etiam, ut coeperam, excerpo.'
+
+His uncle, as above stated, died on 24th August, A.D. 79, and by his
+will adopted Pliny, whose name thereafter was C. Plinius L. f. Ouf.
+Caecilius Secundus. He therefore changed his praenomen to that of his
+adoptive father, and put his former nomen among his cognomina. By his
+contemporaries he is called Plinius (cf. Martial, x. 19), or Secundus,
+as by Trajan. The name Caecilius was confined to formal inscriptions.
+
+In A.D. 80 or 81 Pliny first appeared as an advocate. Cf. _Ep._ v. 8,
+8, 'Undevicensimo aetatis anno dicere in foro coepi.' Before entering
+the Senate, he held (as stated in the chief inscription, given below)
+the decemvirate _litibus iudicandis_, the military tribunate in the
+third Gallic legion, and the title of Sevir in the Roman knighthood.
+Pliny probably held his military tribunate under Domitian (_i.e._,
+after 13th September, A.D. 81) in Syria.
+
+Cf. _Ep._ i. 10, 2, 'Hunc [Euphraten philosophum] ego in Syria, cum
+adulescentulus militarem, penitus et domi inspexi.'
+
+The date of Pliny's praetorship as A.D. 93 is settled by _Ep._ iii.
+11, 2, the events recorded in which passage are known from Tac. _Agr._
+45 to have taken place shortly after Agricola's death in August, A.D.
+93.
+
+'Fui praetor ... cum ... occisis Senecione Rustico Helvidio, relegatis
+Maurico Gratilla Arria Fannia ... mihi quoque impendere idem exitium
+certis quibusdam notis augurarer.'
+
+The words in _Ep._ vii. 16 (of Calestrius Tiro), 'Simul quaestores
+Caesaris fuimus: ille me in tribunatu liberorum iure praecessit, ego
+illum in praetura sum consecutus, cum mihi Caesar annum remisisset,'
+refer to the fact that the emperor did not insist on the year of
+absence from office between the tribunate and the quaestorship. Pliny
+was quaestor from 1st June, 89 to 31st May, 90 A.D., being nominated
+by the emperor, as shown by the above passage. He was _trib. pleb._
+from 10th December, 90 to 9th December, 91 A.D., and during his year
+of office undertook no cases. Cf. _Ep._ i. 23, 2, 'Ipse cum tribunus
+essem ... abstinui causis agendis.' By special favour he was allowed
+to take office as praetor on 1st January, A.D. 93. In this year he
+appeared before the Senate for the people of Baetica against the
+procurator Baebius Massa.
+
+_Ep._ vii. 33, esp. par. 4, 'Dederat me senatus cum Herennio Senecione
+advocatum provinciae Baeticae contra Baebium Massam.'
+
+The inscriptions of Pliny show that he was _praefectus aerarii
+militaris_ between his praetorship in 93 and his _praefectura aerarii
+Saturni_ (from 98 onwards), and this office he held either from 94 to
+96 or from 95 to 97 A.D. Pliny tells us that he and Cornutus Tertullus
+were designated consuls, when they had held the _praefectura aerarii
+Saturni_ for less than two years.
+
+_Paneg._ 91, 'Nondum biennium compleveramus in officio laboriosissimo
+et maximo, cum tu nobis ... consulatum obtulisti.'
+
+This _designatio_ took place on 9th January, A.D. 100, whence the
+_praefectura_ must have been entered on shortly after 9th January,
+A.D. 98. Pliny was probably nominated to it by Nerva and Trajan.
+
+Cf. _ad Trai._ 3, 'Ut primum me, domine, indulgentia _vestra_ promovit
+ad praefecturam aerarii Saturni.'
+
+Mommsen[108] believes that this praefectura was held at the same time
+as the consulship, and on to December, A.D. 101, an unusual length of
+tenure. H. F. Stobbe, however, makes the trial of Classicus, on which
+the last date depends, extend from September 99 to July 100 A.D.
+(_Philologus_, xxx. 347 _sqq._).
+
+_Paneg._ 92, 'Nobis praefectis aerarii consulatum ante quam
+successorem dedisti.'
+
+Pliny, along with Cornutus Tertullus, his colleague in the
+_praefectura_, was made consul A.D. 100. He held the office in
+September of that year, and the tenure was either from July 1 to
+September 30, or from September 1 to October 31.
+
+_Paneg._ 92, 'Ei nos potissimum mensi attribuisti quem tuus natalis
+exornat.'
+
+The _Panegyricus_ is a speech of thanks to Trajan spoken on this
+occasion. In A.D. 99 Pliny, along with Tacitus, appeared for the
+Africans against the proconsul Marius Priscus (see _Ep._ ii. 11 quoted
+p. 338); and in A.D. 101, while still _praefectus aerarii_, he
+appeared for the people of Baetica against the proconsul Caecilius
+Classicus.
+
+_Ep._ iii. 4, 2, 'Legati provinciae Baeticae questuri de proconsulatu
+Caecili Classici advocatum me a senatu petierunt.'
+
+Pliny obtained the augurship, probably in 103 or 104, in succession to
+Sex. Iulius Frontinus, who probably died in 102 or 103 A.D. Cf. _Ep._
+iv. 8, 3, 'Successi Iulio Frontino.' In 103 or 104 A.D. he appeared
+against the Bithynians for the proconsul Iulius Bassus (_Ep._ iv. 9
+etc.). He held the _cura alvei Tiberis et riparum et cloacarum urbis_
+probably from 105 to 107 A.D. See Pliny's chief inscription (below),
+and cf. _Ep._ v. 14, 1-2, 'Mihi nuntiatum est Cornutum Tertullum
+accepisse Aemiliae viae curam ... aliquanto magis me delectat mandatum
+mihi officium, postquam par Cornuto datum video.'
+
+About A.D. 106 Pliny appeared against the Bithynians for the proconsul
+Varenus Rufus (_Ep._ vi. 29, 11).
+
+From 111-2 or 112-3 A.D. Pliny was governor of Pontus and Bithynia,
+being sent out for a special purpose by the emperor as _legatus pro
+praetore consulari potestate_. Cf. the chief inscription (below) and
+the words of Trajan.
+
+_Trai._ 32, 'Meminerimus idcirco te in istam provinciam missum, quoniam
+multa in ea emendanda apparuerint.'
+
+The date of Pliny's governorship is fixed by the mention of Calpurnius
+Macer in the letters (_ad Trai._ 42; 61; 62) as the governor of the
+nearest province. Mommsen has identified him with P. Calpurnius Macer
+Caulius Rufus, who is shown by an inscription (_C.I.L._ iii. 7 and 17)
+to have been governor of Lower Moesia in 112 A.D. This is corroborated
+by the fact that no mention is made of Bithynia in the chief
+collection of letters, which was not completed till A.D. 108 at least.
+Therefore the governorship falls after that time. On the other hand,
+Pliny must have been sent out not later than A.D. 113, as in the chief
+inscription _Optimus_ does not appear in Trajan's name, and this
+cognomen he assumed in A.D. 114. Finally, the fact that Trajan was at
+Rome during Pliny's governorship points to a time between the end of
+the second Dacian War in A.D. 107 and the outbreak of the Parthian War
+in A.D. 113.
+
+Our information about Pliny ends with the close of his correspondence
+with Trajan. It is certain that he held no further office, and it is
+probable that he died before A.D. 114 in his province or shortly after
+his return to Rome.
+
+As regards municipal relations, Pliny held the post of _flamen divi
+Augusti_, according to the inscription which the corporation of
+Vercellae erected to him at his own town (_C.I.L._ v. 5667).
+
+'C. Plini[o L. f. O]uf. Caec[ilio] Secundo [c]os. augur. cur. alv.
+Tib. [et ripa]r. et cloac. urb. [praef. a]er. Sat. praef. aer. mil.
+[pr. tr. pl.] imp. sevir. eq. R. tr. m[i]l. leg. iii. Gall. x. viro
+stl. iud. fl. divi T. Aug.'
+
+For bequests to his native town see the chief inscription (below).
+Besides these are mentioned gifts in his life-time. Under Domitian
+Pliny presented his townspeople with a library (_Ep._ i, 8),
+apparently worth 1,000,000 sesterces (v. 7), and endowed it with
+100,000 sesterces. He also gave 500,000 sesterces for the support of
+freeborn boys and girls (_Ep._ i, 8); and promised to pay one-third of
+the salary of the professor of rhetoric at Comum (_Ep._ iv. 13, 5).
+
+The following is the chief inscription of Pliny (as restored by
+Mommsen), which was erected at the _Thermae_ which he presented to
+Comum (_C.I.L._ v. 5262):
+
+'C. Plinius L. f. Ouf. Caecilius _Secundus cos._ augur legat. pro pr.
+provinciae Pon_ti et Bithyniae_ consulari potesta_t_. in eam
+provinciam e_x. s. c. missus ab_ Imp. Caesar. Nerva Traiano Aug.
+German_ico Dacico p.p_. curator alvei Ti_b_eris et riparum e_t
+cloacar. urb_. praef. aerari Satu_r_ni praef. aerari mil_it. pr. trib.
+pl_. quaestor imp. sevir equitum _Romanorum_ trib. milit. leg. _iii_.
+Gallicae _x.vir stli_tib. iudicand. therm_as ex HS_ ... adiectis in
+ornatum HS ccc ... _et eo amp_lius in tutela_m_ HS CC t. f. i. _item
+in alimenta_ libertor. suorum homin. C. HS XVIII LXVI DCLXVI rei_p.
+legavit, quorum inc_rement. postea ad epulum _pl_eb. urban. voluit
+pertin_ere ... item vivus_ dedit in aliment. pueror. et puellar. pleb.
+urban. HS D _item bybliothecam et_ in tutelam bybliothecae HS C.'
+
+Pliny was also patron of Tifernum Tiberinum and of the Baetici.
+
+_Ep._ iv. 1, 4, 'Oppidum est praediis nostris vicinum, nomen Tiferni
+Tiberini, quod me paene adhuc puerum patronum cooptavit ... In hoc ego
+... templum pecunia mea exstruxi, cuius dedicationem ... differre
+longius inreligiosum est.'
+
+_Ep._ iii. 4, 4, 'Legati ... inplorantes fidem meam, quam essent
+contra Massam Baebium experti, adlegantes patrocini foedus.'
+
+Pliny married three times, twice under Domitian. Cf. _ad Trai._ 2,
+'Liberos ... habere etiam tristissimo illo saeculo volui, sicut potes
+duobus matrimoniis meis credere.' For his third wife, Calpurnia, who
+died A.D. 97, see _Ep._ iv. 19. Pliny had no children, but Trajan
+conferred on him the _ius trium liberorum_ in A.D. 98. Cf. _ad Trai._
+2, 'Me dignum putasti iure trium liberorum.'
+
+_Pliny as orator and writer._--Most of Pliny's cases were before the
+_centumviri_, who dealt with inheritances: cf. _Ep._ vi. 12, 2, 'in
+harena mea, hoc est apud centumviros.' So Mart. x. 19, 14 (written
+A.D. 96),
+
+  'Totos dat tetricae dies Minervae
+  dum centum studet auribus virorum
+  hoc quod saecula posterique possint
+  Arpinis quoque comparare chartis.'
+
+For Pliny's five speeches in criminal trials before the Senate see
+above. Cf. _Ep._ vi. 29, 7 _sqq._, 'Egi quasdam a senatu iussus ...
+Adfui Baeticis contra Baebium Massam ... Adfui rursus isdem
+querentibus de Caecilio Classico ... Accusavi Marium Priscum ...
+Tuitus sum Iulium Bassum ... Dixi proxime pro Vareno.'
+
+Pliny recited his speeches before delivering them, and subsequently
+published them, sometimes with additions.
+
+_Ep._ vii. 17, 2, 'Miror quod scribis fuisse quosdam qui
+reprehenderent quod orationes omnino recitarem.'
+
+_Ep._ iii. 18, 1 (of the _Panegyricus_), 'Quod ego in senatu cum ad
+rationem et loci et temporis ex more fecissem, bono civi
+convenientissimum credidi eadem illa spatiosius et uberius volumine
+amplecti.'
+
+Pliny speaks of his early attempts at poetry:
+
+_Ep._ vii. 4, 2-3, 'Numquam a poetice (altius enim repetam) alienus
+fui; quin etiam quattuordecim natus annos Graecam tragoediam scripsi.
+Qualem? inquis: nescio: tragoedia vocabatur.'
+
+In Books i.-iii. he appears only as a lover of poetry and a patron of
+poets (cf. i. 16; iii. 15). From Book iv. (published A.D. 105) onwards
+he appears as a poet. In _Ep._ vii. 4, 6 are thirteen poor hexameter
+lines on Cicero; _ibid._ par. 7-8, 'Transii ad elegos: hos quoque non
+minus celeriter explicui: addidi iambos, facilitate corruptus ...
+Postremo placuit exemplo multorum unum separatim hendecasyllaborum
+volumen absolvere, nec paenitet. Legitur, describitur, cantatur
+etiam.' Pliny defends himself for writing light verses in _Ep._ v. 3,
+etc. In the later books he refers to another proposed collection of
+verses.
+
+_Ep._ viii. 21, 3, 'Liber fuit et opusculis varius et metris.'
+
+Pliny says he did not observe chronological order in publishing his
+letters.
+
+_Ep._ i. 1, 1, 'Collegi non servato temporis ordine (neque enim
+historiam componebam), sed ut quaeque in manus venerat.'
+
+This, however, is not convincing, as it falls in with
+Pliny's wish to give an appearance of negligence to the work, and
+besides it may apply only to Book i. Successive publication of the
+different Books is shown by many references; so _Ep._ ix. 19,
+'Significas legisse te in quadam epistula,' where _Ep._ vi. 10 is
+referred to. So also contemporaneous events are always described in
+the same Book or in two Books close together; and when a subject is
+continued in another letter, the order of the two letters fits in with
+chronology. So iii. 4 and iv. 1 deal with the building of a temple at
+Tifernum; iii. 20 and iv. 25 with ballot at elections.
+
+The following are the probable dates of publication: Book i. in A.D.
+97; Book ii. in A.D. 100; Book iii. in A.D. 101 or 102; Book iv. in
+A.D. 105; Book v. in A.D. 106; Book vi. possibly in A.D. 106; Book
+vii. in A.D. 107; Book viii. not before A.D. 109; Book ix. probably
+about the same time.
+
+The correspondence with Trajan is independent of the nine Books of
+letters. The epistles are roughly in chronological order. _Epp._ 1-14
+range from 98 to 106 A.D. _Epp._ 15 to the end were probably all
+written in Bithynia during Pliny's governorship there. Trajan's reply
+is subjoined to most of the letters. The correspondence extant
+stretches from September A.D. 111 over January A.D. 113.
+
+Pliny had intimate relations with other writers, the principal being
+Tacitus; Martial (cf. _Ep._ iii. 21); Silius Italicus (cf. _Ep._ iii.
+7). See pp. 340, 298, 289. For his literary reputation see _Ep._ ix.
+23, 2, quoted p. 338 and cf. _Ep._ i. 2, 6, 'Libelli quos emisimus
+dicuntur in manibus esse, quamvis iam gratiam novitatis exuerint; nisi
+tamen auribus nostris bibliopolae blandiuntur.'
+
+_Pliny's character._--Pliny, without being a great man, is a more
+favourable specimen of character, feeling, and gentlemanly tone, than
+almost any other Roman author. He avoided censorious writing, and most
+of the people he mentions are praised. The chief exception is Regulus
+(_Ep._ i. 5, etc.), and possibly also Iavolenus Priscus (vi. 15). When
+anybody is blamed, his name is omitted unless he is dead or has been
+banished.
+
+_Ep._ vii. 28, i, 'Ais quosdam apud te reprehendisse, tamquam amicos
+meos ex omni occasione ultra modum laudem. Agnosco crimen, amplector
+etiam. Quid enim honestius culpa benignitatis?'
+
+For his desire of praise cf. _Ep._ ix. 23, 5, 'An ... ego celebritate
+nominis mei gaudere non debeo? Ego vero et gaudeo et gaudere me dico.'
+
+For his kindness to slaves cf. _Ep._ viii. 16, 1, 'Permitto servis
+quoque quasi testamenta facere eaque ut legitima custodio' (and the
+rest of the letter).
+
+For his grief at the loss of friends cf. _Ep._ v. 21, 6, 'Sed quid ego
+indulgeo dolori? cui si frenos remittas, nulla materia non maxima est.
+Finem epistulae faciam, ut facere possim etiam lacrimis quas epistula
+expressit.'
+
+For his love of nature cf. Ep. i. 9, 6, 'O mare, o litus, verum
+secretumque +mouseion+, quam multa invenitis, quam multa
+dictatis!'
+
+Cf. also descriptions of natural scenery, as in _Epp._ ii. 17, 3; v.
+6, 13; vi. 31, 15; viii. 8.
+
+
+
+TACITUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+The historian's full name is uncertain. Other writers, _e.g._ Pliny
+the younger, call him Cornelius Tacitus, or simply Tacitus. His
+praenomen is given as P. in the best Tacitean MS. (Mediceus I.), and
+as C. in later MSS. and by Sidonius Apollinaris (_Ep._ iv. 14;
+22).[109] His birthplace is unknown. The tradition that he was born at
+Interamna in Umbria arose from the fact that the emperor Tacitus (A.D.
+275-6), who claimed descent from the historian (Vopisc. _Tac._ 10, 3),
+was born there.[110] The probable date of his birth is got from a
+comparison of two passages:
+
+_Dial._ 1, 'Disertissimorum ... hominum ... quos eamdem hanc
+quaestionem pertractantes iuvenis admodum audivi.'
+
+Pliny, _Ep._ vii. 20, 3, 'Erit rarum et insigne duos homines aetate
+dignitate propemodum aequales ... alterum alterius studia fovisse.
+Equidem adulescentulus, cum iam tu fama gloriaque floreres, te sequi,
+tibi longo sed proximus intervallo et esse et haberi concupiscebam.'
+
+The dramatic date of the Dialogue is A.D. 75 (_Dial._ 17), and at that
+time Tacitus, as _iuvenis admodum_, must have been between seventeen
+and twenty. From a consideration of the words of Pliny, who was born
+A.D. 61 or 62, the later age seems nearer the mark, and we may
+conclude that Tacitus was born A.D. 55 or 56.
+
+We have no positive information about Tacitus' family, but his
+education, political career, and marriage into a distinguished house,
+prove that he belonged to a family of station. The first person of the
+name we know of is mentioned by Pliny the elder as an _eques_, and may
+have been Tacitus' father.
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ vii. 76, 'Corneli Taciti, equitis Romani, Belgicae
+Galliae rationes procurantis.'
+
+Tacitus received the regular rhetorical training under the best
+masters.
+
+_Dial._ 2, 'M. Aper et Iulius Secundus, celeberrima tum ingenia fori
+nostri, quos ego in iudiciis non modo studiose audiebam, sed domi
+quoque et in publico adsectabar, mira studiorum cupiditate et quodam
+ardore iuvenili, ut fabulas quoque eorum et disputationes et arcana
+semotae dictionis penitus exciperem.'
+
+That Tacitus had a very great reputation as a speaker is seen from
+Pliny, _Ep._ ix. 23, 2, 'Numquam maiorem cepi voluptatem, quam nuper
+ex sermone Corneli Taciti. Narrabat sedisse se cum quodam Circensibus
+proximis: hunc post varios eruditosque sermones requisisse "Italicus
+es an provincialis?" se respondisse "nosti me, et quidem ex studiis."
+Ad hoc illum "Tacitus es an Plinius?"'
+
+In A.D. 98 (according to others, 97) Tacitus delivered the funeral
+oration over Verginius Rufus, and in A.D. 100 he and Pliny prosecuted
+Marius Priscus, proconsul of Africa, for extortion.
+
+Pliny, _Ep._ ii. 1, 6, 'Laudatus est [Verginius Rufus] a consule
+Cornelio Tacito: nam hic supremus felicitati eius cumulus accessit,
+laudator eloquentissimus.'
+
+_Ibid._ ii. 11, 2, 'Ego et Cornelius Tacitus, adesse provincialibus
+iussi.' par. 17, 'Respondit Cornelius Tacitus eloquentissime, et quod
+eximium orationi eius inest, +semnos+.'
+
+In A.D. 77 Tacitus was betrothed to the daughter of Agricola, then
+consul, and in A.D. 78 he married her.
+
+_Agr._ 9, 'Consul egregiae tum spei filiam iuveni mihi despondit ac
+post consulatum collocavit, et statim Britanniae praepositus est.'
+
+Tacitus gives us a clue to his political career in _Hist._ i. 1.
+
+'Dignitatem nostram a Vespasiano incohatam, a Tito auctam, a Domitiano
+longius provectam non abnuerim.'
+
+This probably means that Vespasian granted him the _latus clavus_,
+_i.e._ a place in the _ordo senatorius_, which was followed by the
+_vigintiviratus_ given by the Senate, and a commission in the army as
+_tribunus militum laticlavius_; that Titus appointed him quaestor A.D.
+80-1; and that Domitian made him tribune or aedile (about 84), and in
+A.D. 88 praetor. For the last office cf. _Ann._ xi. 11,
+
+'Is [Domitianus] edidit ludos saeculares, eisque intentius adfui
+sacerdotio quindecimvirali praeditus ac tunc praetor.'
+
+That Tacitus was absent from Rome A.D. 90-93 we may infer from what he
+says of Agricola's death (A.D. 93).
+
+_Agr._ 45, 'Nobis tam longae absentiae condicione ante quadriennium
+amissus est.'
+
+He must have returned to Rome soon afterwards, for he says in the same
+chapter: 'Mox nostrae duxere Helvidium in carcerem manus; nos Maurici
+Rusticique visus, nos innocenti sanguine Senecio perfudit.'
+
+Tacitus was appointed consul suffectus under Trajan A.D. 98 (see
+Pliny, _Ep._ ii. 1, 6, above quoted).
+
+An inscription found at Mylasa in Caria shows that Tacitus was
+proconsul of Asia about 112-116 A.D.[111]
+
+Tacitus probably died soon after the publication of the _Annals_ (A.D.
+115-7), as he did not live to write his contemplated works on the
+Augustan age and the reigns of Nerva and Trajan.
+
+_Hist._ i. 1, 'Quod si vita suppeditet, principatum divi Nervae et
+imperium Traiani ... senectuti seposui.'
+
+_Ann._ iii. 24, 'Cetera illius aetatis [Augusti] memorabo, si effectis
+in quae tetendi, plures ad curas vitam produxero.'
+
+Tacitus was on intimate terms with Pliny, eleven of whose letters are
+addressed to him. From vii. 20 and viii. 7 we see that they were in
+the habit of "exchanging proof-sheets." To the same circle belonged
+Fabius Iustus, to whom the _Dialogus_ is dedicated, and Asinius Rufus.
+
+Pliny, _Ep._ iv. 15, 1, 'Asinium Rufum singulariter amo. ... Idem
+Cornelium Tacitum arta familiaritate complexus est.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Dialogus de Oratoribus_, an inquiry into the causes of the decay
+of eloquence--'cur nostra potissimum aetas deserta et laude
+eloquentiae orbata vix nomen ipsum oratoris retineat' (_Dial._ 1).
+Some critics have supposed that Tacitus meant this work to be an
+_apologia pro vita sua_, a justification of his preference for a
+literary to a rhetorical career, but this cannot be proved. That
+Tacitus is the author is clear from Pliny, _Ep._ ix. 10, 2, 'Itaque
+poemata quiescunt, quae tu inter nemora et lucos commodissime perfici
+putas'--a reference to _Dial._ 9, 'poetis ... in nemora et lucos, id
+est in solitudinem, secedendum est.' The dramatic date is given in
+_Dial._ 17 as A.D. 75; the statement there and in _Dial._ 24 that one
+hundred and twenty years have passed since Cicero's death (which would
+give A.D. 77) is made in round numbers. The date of composition is
+uncertain. It was not under Domitian, as Tacitus remained silent
+during his reign (_Agr._ 2). We can hardly suppose it to have been
+written under Nerva, as its style is so different from that of the
+_Agricola_; but it may have been written under Domitian, and published
+after his death. Some authorities put it as early as A.D. 81.[112]
+
+2. _De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae liber_, an account of the life
+of Cn. Iulius Agricola, Tacitus' father-in-law, and particularly of
+his career in Britain. It was written early in the reign of Trajan,
+and therefore after 27th Jan., 98 A.D., and probably in that year.
+
+_Agr._ 3, 'quamquam primo statim beatissimi saeculi ortu Nerva Caesar
+res olim dissociabiles miscuerit, principatum ac libertatem, augeatque
+cottidie felicitatem temporum Nerva Traianus.'
+
+3. _Germania_.--The Vatican MSS. give the title as _de origine et situ_
+(another MS. adds _moribus ac populis_) Germanorum. The date of
+publication, as seen from _Germ._ 37, was A.D. 98. The book is not
+mentioned in _Agr._ 3 among the proposed works of Tacitus; and it has
+therefore been supposed that the materials were collected for the
+_Histories_, and that the work was published separately on account of
+its length, and also the interest felt in Germany at the time. There
+is nothing in the theory that the book is a political pamphlet, or
+that it contains a moral purpose. Tacitus is by no means blind to the
+faults of the Germans (c. 17 _sqq._, etc.), though he compares them
+favourably in many respects with the Romans.
+
+4. _Historiae_.--The title is guaranteed by Tertull. _apol._ 16,
+'Cornelius Tacitus in quinta historiarum suarum.' The work embraced
+the time from Galba to Domitian, _i.e._ 69-96 A.D. The first four
+Books and part of the fifth are extant, and give the history of 69 and
+most of 70 A.D. In MS. Mediceus II., the only ancient MS. that
+contains _Ann._ xi.-xvi. and the _Histories_, there is no title, but
+the Books are numbered continuously as belonging to the same work. Cf.
+Jerome, _Comm. on Zacharias_, iii. 14, 'Cornelius Tacitus, qui post
+Augustum usque ad mortem Domitiani vitas Caesarum triginta voluminibus
+exaravit.' If, therefore, the _Annals_ contained sixteen Books, the
+_Histories_ must have contained fourteen, supposing Jerome's statement
+to be correct. Some authorities think the numbers were eighteen and
+twelve respectively. The work was written under Trajan (cf. _Hist._ i.
+1, 'principatum divi Nervae et imperium Traiani'), and was probably
+brought out in instalments. Pliny's letters (vi. 16; 20; vii. 33),
+written about A.D. 106-9, contain contributions to it.
+
+5. _Annales_, or rather _Ab excessu divi Augusti_, the title given by
+MS. Med. I. Tacitus often calls his work _annales_ (as in _Ann._ iv.
+32), but uses the word to signify his plan of recording events by
+their years. Cf. _Ann._ iv. 71, 'Ni mihi destinatum foret suum quaeque
+in annum referre, avebat animus antire,' etc.
+
+He occasionally apologises (as in xii. 40) for departing from this
+order for the sake of clearness. The Books, the division into which
+was made by Tacitus himself (cf. vi. 27, 'in prioribus libris'),
+usually, however, end with some important event.
+
+The _Annals_ deal with the time from the death of Augustus to that of
+Nero, _i.e._ from 14 to 68 A.D. There are extant Books i.-iv. and a
+part of v. and vi., and Books xi.-xvi., except the beginning of xi.
+and the end of xvi. We have thus lost the whole of the reign of
+Caligula and the reign of Claudius from 41-47 (part), and Nero's reign
+from the close of 66 to 68. The work was published between A.D. 115
+and 117. This is settled by _Ann._ ii. 61, 'Exin ventum Elephantinen
+ac Syenen, claustra olim Romani imperii, quod nunc rubrum ad mare
+patescit.'
+
+The conquest here spoken of was made by Trajan A.D. 115, and his
+successor Hadrian, soon after coming to the throne (August, A.D. 117),
+gave up the regions beyond the Euphrates and Tigris (Spartianus,
+_Hadri._ 5).[113]
+
+_Tacitus' views on politics, philosophy, and religion._--
+
+(1) The ideal mixed form of government Tacitus considers to be
+impracticable.
+
+_Ann._ iv. 33, 'Cunctas nationes et urbes populus aut primores aut
+singuli regunt: delecta ex eis et consociata rei publicae forma
+laudari facilius quam evenire, vel si evenit, haud diuturna esse
+potest.'
+
+Tacitus is essentially a conservative. Thus he always uses _antiquus_
+and _priscus_ in a good sense (_H._ ii. 5; 64; _Ann._ vi. 32).
+
+In _Ann._ iii. 60 he speaks with pride of the republic: 'Magna eius
+diei species fuit, quo senatus maiorum beneficia, sociorum pacta,
+regum etiam, qui ante vim Romanam valuerant, decreta ipsorumque
+numinum religiones introspexit, libero, ut quondam, quid firmaret
+mutaretve.'
+
+See also the speech of C. Cassius in _Ann._ xiv. 43. As an aristocrat
+Tacitus is sometimes unjust to men of low birth, as in _Ann._ iv. 3,
+where he sneers at Seianus as 'municipali adultero,' and attaches
+great value to high birth (cf. vi. 27). He is prejudiced against
+slaves and barbarians.
+
+Tacitus theoretically prefers a republic (cf. _Ann._ vi. 42, 'Populi
+imperium iuxta libertatem, paucorum dominatio regiae libidini propior
+est'), but admits the impossibility of a restitution of the free state
+(_H._ ii. 37-8) and the necessity of empire. _H._ i. 1 (of Augustus),
+'omnem potentiam ad unum conferri pacis interfuit.'
+
+Cf. also Galba's speech in _H._ i. 16. The problem is to reconcile the
+empire with freedom (see _Agr._ 3 quoted p. 341). One's duty is to
+steer one's course _inter abruptam contumaciam et deforme obsequium_
+(_Ann._ iv. 20). Tacitus gives only modified approval to patriots like
+Paetus Thrasea (_Ann._ xiv. 12; 49) and Helvidius Priscus (_H._ iv.
+6), and on the other hand gives praise for moderation to men like
+Agricola (_Agr._ 42), M. Lepidus (_Ann._ iv. 20), L. Piso (_Ann._ vi.
+10).
+
+_Ann._ xiv. 12, 'Thrasea Paetus ... sibi causam periculi fecit,
+ceteris libertatis initium non praebuit.'
+
+_Agr._ 42, 'Non contumacia neque inani iactatione libertatis famam
+fatumque provocabat.'
+
+Tacitus blames those who despair of their own times. _Ann._ ii. 88,
+'dum vetera extollimus recentium incuriosi.' He thinks that the
+emperors, from their irresponsible position, were often gradually led
+into wickedness, their downward career being helped by flatterers and
+satellites, and draws a moral lesson from the servile Senate and the
+_delatores_, who, like the emperors themselves, received punishment
+for their conduct (_Ann._ i. 74; iii. 65 _sqq._).
+
+_Ann._ vi. 48, 'Cum Tiberius post tantam rerum experientiam vi
+dominationis convulsus et mutatus sit.'
+
+_Ann._ iv. 33, 'Pauci prudentia honesta ab deterioribus utilia ab
+noxiis discernunt, plures aliorum eventis docentur.'
+
+_Ann._ vi. 6, 'Adeo facinora atque flagitia sua ipsi quoque in
+supplicium verterant ... Quippe Tiberium non fortuna, non solitudines
+protegebant, quin tormenta pectoris suasque ipse poenas fateretur.'
+
+(2) Tacitus attaches himself to no particular school of philosophy,
+and deprecates too close an attention to the subject.
+
+_Agr._ 4, 'Memoria teneo solitum ipsum [Agricolam] narrare se prima in
+iuventa studium philosophiae acrius, ultra quam concessum Romano ac
+senatori, hausisse, ni prudentia matris incensum ac flagrantem animum
+coercuisset.'
+
+He cannot make up his mind as to freewill and predestination, but in
+spite of this doubt expressly states his desire to find out the causes
+of events.
+
+_Ann._ vi. 22, 'Sed mihi haec ac talia audienti in incerto iudicium
+est, fatone res mortalium et necessitate immutabili an forte
+volvantur' (and the rest of the chapter, where the Stoic and Epicurean
+views are mentioned). On the other hand, _H._ i. 4, 'Ut non modo casus
+eventusque rerum, qui plerumque fortuiti sunt, sed ratio etiam
+causaeque noscantur.'
+
+He expresses his belief in divine agency, particularly in the
+_Annals_, but sometimes adopts the pessimistic view that the gods take
+little interest in mankind.
+
+_Ann._ xiv. 5, 'Noctem sideribus inlustrem et placido mari quietam,
+quasi convincendum ad scelus, di praebuere.'
+
+_H._ v. 5, 'Pessimus quisque spretis religionibus patriis.'
+
+_H._ i. 3, 'Nec enim umquam atrocioribus populi Romani cladibus
+magisve iustis indiciis adprobatum est non esse curae deis securitatem
+nostram, esse ultionem.'
+
+_Ann._ xvi. 33, 'Aequitate deum erga bona malaque documenta.'
+
+He believes in the science of divination (see especially _Ann._ iv.
+58), but speaks contemptuously of the impostors found among
+soothsayers and astrologers.
+
+_H._ i. 22, 'Mathematicis ... genus hominum potentibus infidum,
+sperantibus fallax, quod in civitate nostra et vetabitur semper et
+retinebitur.'
+
+Prodigies are recognized, but mentioned only in the _Histories_ and
+the last books of the _Annals_ (from A.D. 51 onwards). See especially
+_H._ ii. 50.
+
+_Tacitus as a historian._--As regards his sources, Tacitus makes more
+use of his predecessors than he does of original documents. Among the
+latter he mentions _acta diurna_ (_Ann._ iii. 3) and _commentarii_ or
+_acta senatus_ (_Ann._ xv. 74); but these he did not make much use of,
+as they were apt to be falsified. He also refers to _publica acta_,
+probably inscriptions (_Ann._ xii. 24); Tiberius' speeches (_Ann._ i.
+81); memoirs of Agrippina, Nero's mother (_Ann._ iv. 53); and of
+Domitius Corbulo on his campaigns in Parthia (_Ann._ xv. 16). He also
+refers by name to several historians, especially in dealing with the
+times after Nero, as C. Plinius (_Ann._ i. 69, quoted p. 284),
+Vipstanus Messalla (_H._ iii. 25), Fabius Rusticus,[114] and Cluvius
+Rufus[115] (_Ann._ xiii. 20).
+
+Other writers are sparingly mentioned, as Sisenna (_H._ iii. 51),
+Caesar (_Germ._ 28). It is certain that Tacitus made use of other
+historians, but he generally refers to his sources without mentioning
+names (as _Ann._ i. 29, 'tradunt plerique'). He sometimes weighs the
+value of two conflicting accounts, or mentions a story only to reject
+it.
+
+_Ann._ iv. 11, 'Haec vulgo iactata, super id quod nullo auctore certo
+firmantur, prompte refutaveris.'
+
+Tacitus' credibility has been attacked, particularly as regards his
+representation of the characters of Tiberius and Nero, but not very
+successfully. He has, however, made mistakes, the most striking of
+which are his view of the Christians (_Ann._ xv. 44) and his account
+of the Jews (_H._ v. 2 _sqq._). The explanation is that he held the
+view current in the upper classes, and did not take the trouble to
+investigate these matters, as the Jews and Christians belonged mostly
+to the lower orders.
+
+Tacitus is not free from superstition (_Ann._ xi. 21; _H._ ii. 50,
+etc.), but one must not suppose he believes the fables he relates (as
+_Ann._ vi. 28; _H._ iv. 83) simply because he expresses no opinion of
+them.
+
+Tacitus is free from party spirit (_Ann._ i. 1, 'sine ira et studio,
+quorum causas procul habeo'; cf. _H._ i. 1) and just in his judgment,
+except in a few passages in the _Histories_, where he is rather unfair
+(i. 42, ii. 95). He is milder in the _Annals_ through advancing years,
+and from the better times he lived in. Generally he takes a lenient
+view of things, except (1) in offences against the state (cf. the
+character of Tiberius); (2) when the religious element comes in; cf.
+what he says of Claudius' marriage with his brother's daughter
+Agrippina: _Ann._ xiv. 2, 'Agrippina ... exercita ad omne flagitium
+patrui nuptiis.'
+
+He shows a somewhat lax morality occasionally, as in _Ann._ xiii. 17
+_sqq._, when speaking of Nero's murder of his brother Britannicus. In
+_Ann._ xi. 19 he approves of compassing a barbarian's death by
+treachery.
+
+For Tacitus' conception of history as dealing with great events cf.
+_Ann._ xiii. 31, 'pauca memoria digna evenere, nisi cui libeat
+laudandis fundamentis et trabibus, quis molem amphitheatri apud campum
+Martis Caesar extruxerat, volumina implere, cum ex dignitate populi
+Romani repertum sit res inlustres annalibus, talia diurnis urbis actis
+mandare.'
+
+His complaints as to his subject-matter in _Ann._ iv. 32, 'Nobis in
+arto et inglorius labor,' must not be taken too seriously.
+
+
+
+SUETONIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+C. Suetonius Tranquillus was the son of Suetonius Laetus, a tribune of
+the thirteenth legion, who took part in the battle of Bedriacum, A.D.
+69 (Sueton. _Otho_, 10). His birth seems to have taken place soon
+after that year,[116] for he was 'adulescens' twenty years after
+Nero's death; _Nero_ 57, 'cum post viginti annos, adulescente me,
+exstitisset condicionis incertae qui se Neronem esse iactaret.'
+
+Suetonius was a friend of the younger Pliny, to whom he was indebted
+for a military tribuneship, which he afterwards passed on to a
+relative (Plin. _Ep._ iii. 8), and for assistance in the purchase of a
+small estate (ibid. i. 24). Pliny encouraged him to publish some of
+his writings (v. 10), and obtained for him from Trajan the _ius trium
+liberorum_ (_ad Trai._ 94).
+
+Under Hadrian he was _magister epistularum_, but was dismissed from
+office in A.D. 121. Spartianus, _Hadr._ 11, 3, 'Septicio Claro
+praefecto praetorio et Suetonio Tranquillo epistularum magistro
+multisque aliis, quod apud Sabinam uxorem in usu eius familiarius se
+tunc egerant quam reverentia domus aulicae postulabat, successores
+dedit.' The remainder of his life appears to have been devoted to
+literature.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _De Vita Caesarum_, in eight Books (Books i.-vi. Iulius-Nero; vii.
+Galba, Otho, and Vitellius; viii. Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian). It
+was published A.D. 119-21, as it was dedicated (according to Joannes
+Lydus) to C. Septicius Clarus, praetorian prefect, who held office
+during those years. The preface and the beginning of the life of
+Iulius are wanting. Suetonius is a conscientious and accurate writer
+(cf. his discussion of Caligula's birthplace, _Calig._ 8), and he
+makes use of good sources, e.g. the _Monumentum Ancyranum_, _Acta
+populi_, _Acta senatus_, autograph documents of the emperors (_Aug._
+87, _Nero_ 52); but there is in his work an almost entire absence of
+dates, and the personal element is, from the point of view of history,
+unduly prominent.
+
+2. _De Viris Illustribus_, including poets, orators (beginning with
+Cicero), historians (from Sallust onwards), philosophers, grammarians,
+and rhetoricians. The greater part of the section _De grammaticis et
+rhetoribus_ is extant, as well as lives of Terence, Horace, and Lucan
+from the section _de poetis_, and of Pliny the elder from the section
+_de historicis_. Extracts from the rest of the work are preserved by
+Jerome. In each section there was (1) a list of the authors discussed,
+(2) a general survey of their branch of literature, (3) brief notices
+of the authors in chronological order. The publication took place,
+according to Roth, 106-113 A.D.
+
+3. Minor works, now lost (mentioned by Suidas), on Greek games, Roman
+games, the Roman year, on critical marks, on Cicero's _Republic_, on
+dress, on imprecations (+peri dysphemon lexeon etoi blasphemion kai
+pothen hekaste+), on Roman laws and customs. Some of these were probably
+only sections of the _Prata_, a miscellany in ten Books, which also
+treated of natural science and philology. The books on Greek games and
+on imprecations were almost certainly composed in Greek.
+
+
+
+Footnotes to Chapter IV
+
+
+[72] The praenomen 'Gaius' is rendered highly probable by the reading
+of the _editio princeps_ and by an inscription found in Africa
+(_C.I.L._ viii. 10311).
+
+[73] _Les Poetes Latins de la Decadence_, vol. i., p. 8.
+
+[74] Antwerp edition, p. 89.
+
+[75] Tacitus does not say openly that Seneca was privy to the murder.
+On the whole he is favourable to Seneca, either because he followed
+the authority of Fabius Rusticus, a friend of Seneca, or because
+Seneca perished afterwards through Nero's agency, or because he
+thought Seneca deserved his consideration.
+
+[76] Seneca's influence on the Imperial policy, especially in the
+liberal view it took regarding religion, is well brought out by Prof.
+W. M. Ramsay, in his book, _St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman
+Citizen_, pp. 354 _sqq._
+
+[77] See the very large list of parallels collected by Heitland,
+_Introduction_ to Haskins' _Lucan_, par. 51.
+
+[78] See under Varro, p. 96.
+
+[79] Ed. of _Cena Trimalchionis_, p. 7.
+
+[80] See O. Hirschfeld's note on this passage in _Roemische
+Verwaltungsgeschichte_, p. 261.
+
+[81] Messalla was a favourite of Gaius, Narcissus of Claudius.
+
+[82] Pomponius was the author of _Aeneas_ and other tragedies. Pliny
+calls him 'consularis poeta,' 'vates civisque clarissimus' (_N.H._
+vii. 80, xiii. 83). Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xii. 28.
+
+[83] Given with other examples by W. C. Summers, _Study of the
+Argonautica_ (Camb. 1894), p. 27.
+
+[84] Summers, _ibid._ p. 56.
+
+[85] Cf. Tac. _Hist._ iii. 65.
+
+[86] Mart. vii. 63.
+
+[87] Mart. xi. 48; 49.
+
+[88] Mart. viii. 66.
+
+[89] Mart. ix. 68.
+
+[90] The references are to L. Friedlaender's edition (Leipzig, 1886).
+
+[91] Ed. of Book x., Introd. p. 9 (Oxford, 1891).
+
+[92] A passage probably inserted by the pseudo-Frontinus from memoirs
+of the genuine Frontinus to give an air of authenticity to his work.
+
+[93] J. Duerr, _Das Leben Juvenals_ (Ulm, 1888). L. Friedlaender (ed. of
+Juvenal: Leipzig, 1895) attaches little importance to this and the
+other _vitae_, but his arguments do not appear to us to be convincing.
+
+[94] E. G. Hardy (ed. of Juvenal: London, 1891, introd. p. 8) thinks
+that this is supported by Juvenal's gentile name Iunius. As a
+representative of the middle classes he (thinks Hardy) could not have
+been related by blood to either of the two _gentes_ of that name.
+Hardy also states that Decimus is a common _praenomen_ of the plebeian
+_gens Iunia_, and suggests that Juvenal may have got his _praenomen_
+from them. There is no reason, however, to think that every Iunius
+must be related or associated in some way with one of these two
+_gentes_.
+
+[95] The statement of the _vitae_, 'ad mediam fere aetatem
+declamavit,' may imply no more than that he continued his studies in
+private; but it must be observed that the usual meaning of _declamare_
+is 'to attend college classes'; and the statement, in whatever way it
+is taken, must be looked upon as improbable.
+
+[96] If the number I. is right, and this appears most likely. II. is
+the only other possible reading, and it must be noted that the second
+Dalmatian cohort was in Britain at the beginning of the second
+century, and probably had been there for a considerable time. _Trib._
+in the inscription is a conjecture suggested by the _vitae_: _praef._,
+which is epigraphically possible, is preferred by some authorities.
+
+[97] E. G. Hardy thinks that A.D. 87 was one of the years when
+_duumviri quinquennales_ (appointed every five years) were elected in
+Aquinum, and hypothetically assigns Juvenal's holding of the post to
+that year.
+
+[98] _C.I.L._ vii. 1195.
+
+[99] Cf. E. G. Hardy, ed. of Juvenal.
+
+[100] Cf. E. G. Hardy, _ibid._
+
+[101] The reference in 4, 126, 'De temone Britanno excidet Arviragus,'
+proves nothing. It is the sort of reference that would be made by an
+Italian ignorant of Britain, and is, in fact, put into the mouth of
+one.
+
+[102] The view that _Sat._ i. 33 _sqq._ refers to M. Aquilius Regulus,
+who died probably A.D. 105 (Pliny, _Ep._ i. 5, 14-15), is rejected by
+Friedlaender _ad loc._
+
+[103] H. Nettleship (_Journal of Philology_, xvi., p. 45) points out
+that C. Vipstanus Apronianus and C. Fonteius Capito were consuls A.D.
+59, and suggests that this may be the year meant. This would give A.D.
+119 as the date of composition.
+
+[104] The scholiast connects with 4, 37-8.
+
+[105] This story is rejected both by Hardy and by Friedlaender.
+
+[106] Juvenal had a leaning to Stoicism: cf. _Sat._ 10 _ad fin._, and
+his references to fate, _e.g._ 7, 200; 10, 365; 12, 63. He believes in
+the gods (13, 247-9), but disbelieves the doctrines of the popular
+religion (2, 149 _sqq._).
+
+[107] The inscription records the appointment of Cilo's sons and a
+woman Lutulla as trustees of a fund, the interest of which was to be
+disbursed to the people of Comum.
+
+[108] _Hermes_, iii. 31 _sqq._
+
+[109] The inscription in Caria, formerly supposed to give P. as
+praenomen, is now shown to have been misread.
+
+[110] The inhabitants of Terni (Interamna) erected a statue to Tacitus
+as to a fellow-townsman in A.D. 1514.
+
+[111] _Bull. de Corr. Hell._, 1890, p. 621, quoted by Prof. W. M.
+Ramsay, _The Church in the Roman Empire_, p. 228.
+
+[112] One of the speakers in the Dialogue, Curiatius Maternus, was the
+author of tragedies _Medea_ and _Thyestes_, and of praetextae
+_Domitius_ and _Cato_ (_Dial._ 2-3).
+
+[113] Various attempts have been made, especially in a work published
+in London, 1878, to prove, of course unsuccessfully, that the _Annals_
+were forged in the fifteenth century by the Italian scholar Poggio
+Bracciolini.
+
+[114] Fabius Rusticus, a friend of Seneca, quoted also for the shape
+of Britain (_Agr._ 10).
+
+[115] Cluvius Rufus, governor of Hispania Tarraconensis B.C. 69 (_H._
+i. 8). Mommsen considers that he is one of the historians censured in
+_H._ ii. 101.
+
+[116] Roth gives 71, Teuffel 75 at latest.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX A
+
+ON SOME OF THE CHIEF ANCIENT AUTHORITIES FOR THE HISTORY OF ROMAN
+LITERATURE.
+
+
+1. JEROME[117] (HIERONYMUS) was born about A.D. 335 at Stridon, on the
+frontiers of Dalmatia and Pannonia, and died A.D. 420 at the monastery
+of Bethlehem. His contributions to the history of Roman literature are
+to be found in his translation of the Chronicle (+chronikoi
+kanones+) of Eusebius, in which the dates are reckoned from the first
+year of Abraham (= B.C. 2016 according to his chronology), the point
+at which Eusebius commenced. On the period between the Trojan War and
+A.D. 325 Jerome not merely translated the remarks of Eusebius, as he
+had done in the earlier period, but also added numerous extracts from
+authorities on Roman history and literature. The source from which he
+derived nearly all his information on literature is universally
+admitted to have been the work of Suetonius _De Viris Illustribus_.
+With the statements in the surviving sections of that treatise the
+observations of Jerome agree, and there can be no reasonable doubt
+that he made a similar use of the parts no longer extant. It is a
+significant fact that the important authors on whom Jerome is silent,
+_e.g._ Tacitus, Juvenal, and the younger Pliny, are precisely those
+whom Suetonius, as a contemporary, naturally could not discuss.
+
+The statements of Jerome, based as they are on the high authority of
+Suetonius, may be regarded as in the main trustworthy. Some of them,
+however, are doubtful, and others manifestly wrong.
+
+(_a_) Jerome's plan obliged him to fix every event to a definite year;
+and this, in many cases, can only be guess-work, for Suetonius, as may
+be seen from his extant writings, was often vague in his chronology.
+
+(_b_) Comparison with the remains of Suetonius shows that Jerome's
+claim to have made his extracts with care was not always well
+grounded; _e.g._ his statement that Ennius was a native of Tarentum
+(see p. 27).
+
+(_c_) In reckoning, according to his system of dates, events dated by
+one of the many confusing systems of chronology current in ancient
+times, many openings for error presented themselves; _e.g._ he
+sometimes erred through confusing consuls of the same or similar
+names, as in the case of Lucilius (p. 59); or through confusing
+similar events, as in the case of Livius Andronicus, although the
+mistake about the latter was of long standing (p. 2). Once at least he
+seems to have confused the date of an author's _floruit_ and that of
+his death, making Plautus die in B.C. 200 instead of B.C. 184 (p. 8).
+
+2. AULUS GELLIUS[118] was born probably about A.D. 123, and studied
+under the most eminent teachers both at Rome and at Athens. Of his
+subsequent life nothing is known except that he held some judicial
+post at Rome. His work, the _Noctes Atticae_ in twenty Books (of Book
+viii. only the headings of chapters are preserved), is a miscellany of
+information on philology, philosophy, rhetoric, history, biography,
+literary criticism, natural science, and antiquities. The title is due
+to the fact that the book was commenced in the winter evenings during
+the author's residence at Athens. The arrangement of the contents
+simply follows the haphazard order of the notes which Gellius made in
+the course of his reading of Greek and Roman authors. Those authors,
+and the conversation of contemporaries, are Gellius' professed
+sources, but in some cases the author he names is evidently quoted at
+second-hand, and many of the conversations are doubtless quite
+imaginary. Our obligations to Gellius are twofold.
+
+(_a_) Innumerable extracts from ancient authors are preserved by him
+alone. (No quotations are given from post-Augustan writers--a fact
+which accords with the affected archaism of his style.)
+
+(_b_) His remarks on incidents in the lives of the Roman poets are in
+the main derived from Varro, whose work _De Poetis_ is quoted for the
+epitaph of Plautus (see p. 9); elsewhere his source is indicated
+either vaguely or not at all, e.g. iii. 3, 15, 'accepimus'; xii. 4, 5,
+'ferunt.' For literary criticism Varro is quoted: iii. 3, 9, _sqq._;
+vi. 14, 6 (see pp. 10, 51).
+
+3. NONIUS MARCELLUS,[119] a Peripatetic, of Thubursicum in Numidia, is
+identified by Mommsen with the Nonius Marcellus Herculius of _C.I.L._
+viii. 4878 (date A.D. 323); but nothing is known of his life. His
+work, _De Compendiosa Doctrina ad Filium_ in twenty Books (of Book
+xvi. the title only is known; Book xx. is fragmentary), though
+modelled on that of Gellius, is immeasurably inferior in execution.
+According to the theory usually received Nonius borrowed largely from
+Gellius; but it is possible that both compilers made independent use
+of the same authorities, viz., scholars such as Verrius Flaccus,
+Valerius Probus, and Suetonius, whose works they knew either directly
+or through abridgments. The subjects with which Nonius deals are
+grammar, lexicography, and antiquities; and he is often our sole
+authority for the titles of works as well as for brief extracts.
+
+4. AMBROSIUS THEODOSIUS MACROBIUS, doubtless identical with the
+Macrobius who held, among other high offices, the proconsulship of
+Africa A.D. 410, was probably, like Nonius, of African origin. Besides
+his commentary on the _Somnium Scipionis_ of Cicero, Macrobius wrote a
+work in seven Books on Roman literature and antiquities with the title
+of _Saturnalia_. The imaginary conversations of which it consists are
+supposed to take place during the festival of the Saturnalia at Rome
+(hence the title); and the chief subject of discussion is the poetry
+of Virgil. A remarkable feature of the book is its wealth of quotation
+from Greek and Latin authors. Macrobius, like Gellius, bases his work
+on extracts from older authorities; but, unlike him, arranges his
+matter systematically.
+
+5. AELIUS DONATUS, a grammarian who flourished at Rome about A.D. 350,
+and was one of Jerome's teachers, extracted from the lost work of
+Suetonius the Lives of Terence and Virgil, and prefixed them to his
+own commentaries on Terence and on the _Georgics_ and _Aeneid_. The
+latter is lost, and the commentary on Terence contains much that is
+not from the hand of Donatus.
+
+6. SERVIUS.--There are two versions of the Servian commentary on
+Virgil. The shorter is the work of Maurus Servius Honoratus, who was
+born about 350 A.D., and lived at Rome (Macrob. _Saturn._ i. 2, 15);
+his topographical references show that he composed his commentary
+there. Servius, whose notes are chiefly on the language of the poems,
+gives illustrative quotations from Roman authors, in some cases from
+memory and inaccurately. Donatus is the authority whom he mentions
+oftenest, but he undoubtedly made extensive use of Suetonius.
+
+The longer version contains learned additions to the work of Servius
+by an anonymous Christian writer, who deals mainly with the
+subject-matter of Virgil.
+
+7. ACRO and PORPHYRIO.--Helenius Acro (probably about 200 A.D.) was
+the author of commentaries on Horace and Terence, now lost. The
+scholia on Horace extant under Acro's name are, with few exceptions,
+taken from the commentary of Pomponius Porphyrio, which we possess in
+a mutilated form. Porphyrio, who probably belonged to the 4th cent.
+A.D., names among his sources Acro and Suetonius.
+
+For ASCONIUS see p. 77; for VALERIUS PROBUS, p. 147.
+
+
+
+Footnotes to Appendix A
+
+
+[117] See _Quaestiones Suetonianae_ in Reifferscheid's _Suetonius_,
+pp. 363 _sqq._
+
+[118] See H. Nettleship, _Lectures and Essays_ (1885), p. 248 _sqq._
+
+[119] See Nettleship, _ibid._ p. 277 _sqq._
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX B
+
+SELECT LIST OF EDITIONS.
+
+
+NOTE.--All editions mentioned have explanatory notes, except those
+marked "text" (which are merely texts), and those marked "crit." (which
+have an apparatus criticus).
+
+Editions published in England and Germany have English and German
+notes respectively, unless otherwise stated.
+
+F.P.R. = Fragmenta Poetarum Romanorum, ed. E. Baehrens.
+
+  *Livius Andronicus.*
+    Plays--
+      In Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta, ed.
+        O. Ribbeck (vol. i. _Trag._, ii. _Com._) (crit.), Leip. '71-73
+      Do. (with Naevius' plays), L. Mueller,                 Berl. '85
+      Odisia, in E. Baehrens' Frag. Poet. Rom. (crit.),      Leip. '86
+
+  *Naevius.*
+    Bellum Punicum,      J. Vahlen,                          Leip. '54
+          "              F.P.R.
+    Plays (see above)
+
+  *Plautus.*
+    J. L. Ussing (Latin commentary),                    Copenh. '75-87
+    F. Ritschl, revised by G. Loewe, G. Goetz, and F.
+      Schoell (crit.),                                       Leip. '94
+    Amphitruo,           A. Palmer,                          Lond. '90
+    Asinaria,            J. H. Gray,                         Camb. '94
+    Aulularia,           W. Wagner,                          Camb. '92
+    Captivi,             J. Brix,                            Leip. '84
+    "                    W. M. Lindsay,                       Oxf. '95
+    "                    E. A. Sonnenschein,                 Lond. '80
+    "                    A. R. S. Hallidie,                  Lond. '95
+    Epidicus,            J. H. Gray,                         Camb. '93
+    Mostellaria,         A. O. F. Lorenz,                    Berl. '83
+    "                    E. A. Sonnenschein,                 Camb. '84
+    Menaechmi,           J. Brix and M. Niemeyer,            Leip. '91
+    "                    W. Wagner,                          Camb. '92
+    Miles,               J. Brix,                            Leip. '82
+    "                    A. O. F. Lorenz,                    Berl. '86
+    "                    R. Y. Tyrrell,                      Lond. '94
+    Pseudolus,           A. O. F. Lorenz,                    Berl. '76
+    Rudens,              E. A. Sonnenschein,                  Oxf. '91
+    Stichus,             C. A. M. Fennell,                   Camb. '93
+    Trinummus,           J. Brix and M. Niemeyer,            Leip. '88
+    "                    W. Wagner,                          Camb. '90
+    "                    C. E. Freeman and A. Sloman,         Oxf. '96
+
+  *Ennius.*
+    F.P.R.
+    J. Vahlen                                                Leip. '54
+    Do. (with Naevius'
+      Bell. Pun.),       L. Mueller,                  St. Petersb. '85
+
+  *Pacuvius* and *Caecilius Statius.*
+    Ribbeck, _Trag._ and _Com._
+
+  *Terence.*
+    K. Dziatzko (text),                                      Leip. '84
+    W. Wagner,                                               Lond. '92
+    Andria,              A. Spengel,                         Berl. '88
+    "                    C. E. Freeman and A. Sloman,         Oxf. '93
+    "  and Eunuchus,     T. L. Papillon,                     Lond. '70
+    Heaut. Tim.,         E. S. Shuckburgh,                   Lond. '94
+    "                    J. H. Gray,                         Camb. '95
+    Phormio,             K. Dziatzko,                        Leip. '85
+    "                    A. Sloman,                           Oxf. '94
+    "                    J. Bond and A. S. Walpole,          Lond. '95
+    Adelphoe,            K. Dziatzko,                        Leip. '81
+    "                    A. Spengel,                         Berl. '79
+    "                    A. Sloman,                           Oxf. '92
+    "                    S. G. Ashmore,                      Lond. '93
+
+  *Cato the Elder.*
+    De Agricultura (and
+      Varro, Res Rusticae), H. Keil (crit.),              Leip. '82-91
+      Other fragments,      H. Jordan (crit.),               Leip. '60
+
+  *Accius.*
+    Ribbeck, and F.P.R.
+
+  *Lucilius.*
+    L. Mueller,                                              Leip. '72
+    C. Lachmann (crit.),                                     Berl. '76
+    F.P.R.
+
+  *Atta, Afranius, Laberius.*
+    Ribbeck.
+
+  *Matius, Laevius, Bibaculus, Calvus, Cinna, Varro Atacinus.*
+    F.P.R.
+
+  *Auctor ad Herennium.*
+    C. L. Kayser,                                            Leip. '54
+    F. Marx (crit.),                                         Leip. '94
+
+  *Varro.*
+    Sat. Menipp., Logistorici,
+      Sententiae Varronis,    A. Riese (crit.),              Leip. '65
+    Sat. Menipp. (text in F. Buecheler's Petronius),         Berl. '95
+    Antiquitates (text in R. Merkel's Ovid, Fasti),          Berl. '41
+    De vita pop. Rom.,        H. Kettner (crit.),           Halle, '63
+    De gente pop. Rom.,       H. Peter (Frag. Hist. Rom.),   Leip. '83
+    De Lingua Latina,         A. Spengel (crit.),            Berl. '85
+    Res Rusticae,             H. Keil (see 'Cato').
+    Grammatical Works
+      (except _De L. L._),    A. Wilmanns (crit.),           Berl. '64
+
+  *Cicero.*
+    1. _Speeches_--
+      Pro Sex. Rosc. Amer.,   E. H. Donkin,                  Lond. '95
+      Pro Sex. Rosc. Amer.,   G. Landgraf,               Erlangen, '84
+      Pro Q. Rosc. Com.,      C. A. Schmidt,                 Leip. '39
+      Verrines,               C. G. Zumpt,                   Berl. '31
+      Div. in Caec. and in
+        Verr., Act. i.,       W. E. Heitland and H. Cowie,   Camb. '95
+        Verr., Act. i.,       J. R. King,                    Lond. '87
+      Div. in Caec. and in Verr.
+        Act ii., 4 and 5,     E. Thomas,                    Paris, '95
+      Pro Caecina,            C. A. Jordan,                  Leip. '47
+      De Imp. Cn. Pompei,     A. S. Wilkins,                 Lond. '94
+      Pro Cluentio,           W. and G. G. Ramsay,            Oxf. '89
+      Pro Cluentio,           W. Y. Fausset,                 Lond. '88
+      De Lege Agraria,        A. W. Zumpt,                   Berl. '61
+      Pro Rab. perd. reo,     W. E. Heitland,                Camb. '82
+      In Catilinam,           A. S. Wilkins,                 Lond. '95
+      Pro Murena,             W. E. Heitland,                Camb. '93
+      Pro Murena,             J. H. Freese,                  Lond. '94
+      Pro Sulla,              J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '91
+      Pro Archia,             J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '95
+      Pro Flacco,             A. du Mesnil,                  Leip. '83
+      Pro Sestio,             H. A. Holden,                  Lond. '95
+      In Vatinium,            C. Halm,                       Leip. '46
+      De Prov. Cons.,         G. Tischer,                    Berl. '61
+      Pro Balbo,              J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '90
+      Pro Plancio,            H. A. Holden,                  Camb. '93
+      Pro Milone,             J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '95
+      Pro Milone,             A. C. Clark,                    Oxf. '95
+      Pro Marcello, Ligario,
+        Deiotaro,             W. Y. Fausset,                  Oxf. '93
+      Philippics,             J. R. King.                     Oxf. '78
+      II. Phil.,              J. E. B. Mayor,                Lond. '93
+      II. Phil.,              A. G. Peskett,                 Camb. '91
+    2. _Rhetorical Works_--
+      De Oratore,             A. S. Wilkins,                  Oxf. '92
+      De Oratore,             G. Sorof,                      Berl. '82
+      De Oratore,             K. W. Piderit
+                                and O. Harnecker,         Leip. '86-90
+      De Inventione,          A. Weidner,                    Berl. '78
+      Brutus,                 K. W. Piderit
+                                and W. Friedrich,            Leip. '89
+      Brutus,                 O. Jahn and A. Eberhard,       Berl. '77
+      Orator,                 J. E. Sandys,                  Camb. '85
+      Orator,                 K. W. Piderit,                 Leip. '76
+      Orator, (with De Opt.
+        Gen. Orat.),          O. Jahn,                       Berl. '69
+      Partit. Orat.,          K. W. Piderit,                 Leip. '67
+    3. _Philosophical Works_--
+      De Re Publica,          F. Osann,                     Goett. '47
+      De Legibus,             A. du Mesnil,                  Leip. '79
+      Paradoxa,               G. H. Moser,                  Goett. '46
+      De Finibus,             J. N. Madvig (Lat. comm.),   Copenh. '78
+      "                       H. Holstein,                   Leip. '73
+      Academica,              J. S. Reid,                    Lond. '85
+      Tusc. Disp.,.           R. Kuehner (Lat.),          Hanover, '74
+      "                       O. Heine,                   Leip. '92-96
+      "                       G. Tischer and G. Sorof,    Berl. '84-87
+      De Nat. Deor.,          J. B. Mayor,                Camb. '83-91
+      "                       G. F. Schoemann,               Berl. '76
+      De Senectute,           J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '94
+      " Amicitia,             J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '93
+      " Officiis,             H. A. Holden,                  Camb. '93
+      " Divinatione, De
+        Fato,                 G. H. Moser,                 Frankf. '28
+    4. _Letters_--
+      Correspondence of C.    R. Y. Tyrrell and
+                                L. C. Purser,             Dubl. '85-94
+      Selections,             A. Watson,                      Oxf. '91
+      " (C. in his
+      Letters),               R. Y. Tyrrell,                 Lond. '96
+      Epp. ad Att.,           J. G. C. Boot (Lat.)           Amst. '86
+      Epp. ad Fam.,           L. Mendelssohn (crit.),        Leip. '93
+                              C. F. W. Mueller (crit.),      Leip. '96
+    5. _Poems_--
+      F.P.R.
+      _Complete texts_--
+      J. C. Orelli, J. G. Baiter, and C. Halm,.           Zuer. '45-61
+      C. F. A. Nobbe,                                        Leip. '50
+      C. F. W. Mueller, etc.,                             Leip. '90-96
+      J. G. Baiter and C. L. Kayser,                      Leip. '60-69
+
+  *Caesar.*
+    B. Dinter (text),                                        Leip. '96
+    B. Kuebler (text),                                    Leip. '93-94
+    Bell. Gall.,          J. Bond and A. S. Walpole,         Lond. '87
+    "                     A. G. Peskett,                     Camb. '78
+    Bell. Gall.,          C. E. Moberly,                      Oxf. '90
+    Bell. Gall.,          F. Kraner and W. Dittenberger,     Berl. '90
+    Bell. Gall.,          A. Doberenz and B. Dinter,         Leip. '92
+    Bell. Civ.,           C. E. Moberly,                      Oxf. '92
+    Bell. Civ.,           F. Kraner and F. Hofmann,          Berl. '90
+    Bell. Civ.,           A. Doberenz and B. Dinter,         Leip. '84
+    Bell. Civ., (Bk. i.), A. G. Peskett,                     Camb. '90
+    Bell. Alex.,          R. Schneider,                      Berl. '89
+    Bell. Afr.,           E. Woelfflin and A. Miodonski,     Leip. '89
+
+  *Nepos.*
+    C. Nipperdey and B. Lupus,                               Berl. '95
+    J. Siebelis and M. Jancovius,                            Leip. '96
+    O. Browning and W. R. Inge,                               Oxf. '88
+    E. S. Shuckburgh,                                        Camb. '95
+
+  *Lucretius.*
+    H. A. J. Munro,                                       Camb. '91-93
+    C. Lachmann,                                             Berl. '82
+    Books i.-iii.,            J. H. W. Lee,                  Lond. '93
+    Book v.,                  J. D. Duff,                    Camb. '96
+
+  *Sallust.*
+    Cat. and Iug.,            W. W. Capes,                    Oxf. '89
+    Cat. and Iug.,            C. Merivale,                   Lond. '84
+    Cat. and Iug., (and
+      frags. of Hist.),       R. Jacobs and H. Wirz,         Berl. '94
+    Cat.,                     A. M. Cook,                    Lond. '88
+    Hist. (text),             H. Jordan,                     Leip. '87
+    Historiarum Reliquiae,    B. Maurenbrecher,           Leip. '91-93
+
+  *Publilius Syrus.*
+    Sententiae,               W. Meyer (crit.),              Leip. '80
+    Sententiae,               R. A. H. Bickford Smith,       Camb. '95
+
+  *Catullus.*
+    A. Palmer (crit.),                                       Lond. '96
+    R. Ellis (crit.),                                         Oxf. '78
+    R. Ellis (commentary),                                    Oxf. '89
+    B. Schmidt (introd. and text),                           Leip. '87
+    F. P. Simpson (selections),                              Lond. '94
+    (With Tibullus and
+      Propertius), L. Mueller (text),                        Leip. '92
+
+  *Horace.*
+    E. C. Wickham,                                         Oxf. '90-96
+    A. Kiessling,                                         Berl. '89-95
+    J. C. Orelli, W. Hirschfelder, and W. Mewes,          Berl. '86-92
+    Satires,                  A. Palmer,                     Lond. '96
+    Odes and Epodes,          T. E. Page,                    Lond. '95
+    "                         J. Gow,                        Camb. '96
+    Epistles and A.P.,        A. S. Wilkins,                 Lond. '92
+
+  *Virgil.*
+    O. Ribbeck (crit.),                                   Leip. '94-95
+       "       (text only),                                  Leip. '95
+    T. E. Papillon and A. E. Haigh (text only),               Oxf. '92
+           [The above include the minor poems.]
+    J. Conington and H. Nettleship,                       Lond. '83-84
+    T. E. Papillon and A. E. Haigh,                           Oxf. '92
+    A. Sidgwick,                                          Camb. '90-94
+    B. H. Kennedy,                                           Lond. '79
+    T. Ladewig, C. Schaper, and P. Deuticke,                 Berl. '91
+    K. Kappes,                                            Leip. '93-95
+    Aeneid (i.-vi.),          T. E. Page,                    Lond. '94
+
+  *Tibullus.*
+    E. Hiller (text),                                        Leip. '85
+    E. Baehrens (text),                                      Leip. '78
+    L. Dissen,                                              Goett. '35
+
+  *Propertius.*
+    W. A. Hertzberg,                                     Halle, '43-45
+    F. A. Paley,                                             Lond. '72
+    A. Palmer (text),                                        Lond. '80
+    J. P. Postgate (selections),                             Lond. '94
+    "             (text),                                    Lond. '94
+
+  *Ovid.*
+    A. Riese (introd.),                                   Leip. '71-89
+    Heroides,            A. Palmer,                          Lond. '74
+    "                    E. S. Shuckburgh,                   Lond. '96
+    Metam.,              J. Sibelis and F. Polle,         Leip. '92-96
+    "                    M. Haupt, O. Korn, and
+                           H. J. Mueller,                    Berl. '85
+    Fasti,               G. H. Hallam,                       Lond. '93
+    Fasti,               R. Merkel,                          Berl. '41
+    "                    H. Peter,                           Leip. '89
+    Tristia,             S. G. Owen (crit.),                  Oxf. '89
+    "     (Bks. i., iii.), S. G. Owen,                     Oxf. '90-93
+    "     and Ibis,      R. Merkel,                          Berl. '37
+    Ibis,                R. Ellis (Lat.),                     Oxf. '82
+
+  *Manilius.*
+    F. Jacob,                                                Berl. '46
+       [See also R. Ellis, _Noctes Manilianae_, Oxf. '91.]
+
+  *Livy.*
+    W. Weissenborn and H. J. Mueller,                     Berl. '73-96
+    M. Hertz (introd. and text),                          Leip. '57-63
+    Book i.,                      J. R. Seeley,               Oxf. '81
+    Books iv., vi., ix., xxvii.,  H. M. Stephenson,       Camb. '90-94
+    Book v.,                      L. Whibley,                Camb. '94
+    Books xxi., xxii.,            M. S. Dimsdale,         Camb. '94-95
+    "                             W. W. Capes,               Lond. '95
+
+  *Trogus.*
+    A. Bielowski,                                         Lemberg, '53
+
+  *Verrius Flaccus.*
+    (Festus and Paulus),          C. O. Mueller,             Leip. '80
+
+  *Vitruvius.*
+    V. Rose and H. Mueller-Struebing (crit.),                Leip. '67
+
+  *Seneca the Elder.*
+    H. J. Mueller (text),                                  Prague, '87
+    A. Kiessling (text),                                     Leip. '72
+
+  *Velleius.*
+    C. Halm (crit.),                                         Leip. '76
+    D. Ruhnken, ed. C. H. Frotscher,                         Leip. '39
+
+  *Valerius Maximus.*
+    C. Kempf (text),                                         Leip. '88
+
+  *Celsus.*
+    C. Daremberg (text),                                     Leip. '59
+
+  *Phaedrus.*
+    J. Siebelis and F. A. Eckstein,                          Leip. '89
+
+  *Seneca the Younger.*
+   Prose Works,           F. Haase (text),                Leip. '93-95
+   Apocolocyntosis, in F. Buecheler's Petronius (text).
+   Tragedies,             R. Peiper and G. Richter (text),   Leip. '67
+
+  *Curtius Rufus.*
+    T. Vogel,                                                Leip. '93
+
+  *Columella.*
+    In _Scriptores Rei Rusticae_,
+                 ed. I. G. Schneider (Lat.),              Leip. 1794-7
+
+  *Asconius.*
+    A. Kiessling and R. Schoell,                             Berl. '75
+
+  *Mela.*
+    C. Frick (text),                                         Leip. '80
+
+  *Persius.*
+    O. Jahn and F. Buecheler (text),                         Berl. '93
+    J. Conington, ed. H. Nettleship,                          Oxf. '93
+
+  *Probus.*
+    H. Keil,                                                Halle, '48
+
+  *Lucan.*
+    C. Hosius (text),                                        Leip. '92
+    C. E. Haskins (introd. by W. E. Heitland),               Lond. '87
+    Book i.,          W. E. Heitland and C. E. Haskins,      Camb. '95
+    "                 Lejay,                                Paris, '94
+    Books i.-v.,      C. M. Francken (Lat.),               Leiden, '96
+
+  *Petronius.*
+    F. Buecheler (text),                                     Berl. '95
+    Cena Trimalchionis, L. Friedlaender (text, German
+                          trans., and notes),                Leip. '91
+
+  *Calpurnius Siculus.*
+    H. Schenkl (text),                                     Prague, '85
+    C. H. Keene,                                             Lond. '87
+
+  *Aetna.*
+    H. A. J. Munro,                                          'Camb. 67
+
+  *Pliny the Elder.*
+    L. van Jan and Mayhoff (text),                        Leip. '75-92
+    J. Sillig,                                         Hamburg, '51-58
+    J. Hardouin,                                           Paris, 1723
+    D. Detlefsen (crit.),                                 Berl, '66-82
+    (Selections) Chrestomathia
+                 Pliniana,  L. Urlichs,                      Berl. '57
+
+  *Valerius Flaccus.*
+    J. A. Wagner,                                          Goett. 1805
+    N. E. Lemaire,                                          Paris, '24
+    G. Thilo (text),                                        Halle, '63
+
+  *Silius Italicus.*
+    A. Drakenborch (Lat.),                               Utrecht, 1717
+    G. A. Ruperti, ed. Lemaire,                             Paris, '23
+    L. Bauer (text),                                         Leip. '90
+
+  *Statius.*
+    Silvae,                 E. Baehrens (text),              Leip. '76
+    Achilleis,              P. Kohlmann (text),              Leip. '79
+    Thebais,                                                 Leip. '84
+
+  *Martial.*
+    L. Friedlaender,                                         Leip. '86
+    (Selections,)           H. M. Stephenson,                Lond. '95
+                            F. A Paley and W. H. Stone,      Lond. '82
+
+  *Quintilian.*
+    G. L. Spalding and C. G. Zumpt,                    Leip. 1798-1834
+    F. Meister (text),                                  Prague, '86-87
+    C. Halm (crit.),                                         Leip. '69
+    Book X.,                J. E. B. Mayor,                  Lond. '72
+    "                       W. Peterson,                      Oxf. '91
+    "                       G. T. A. Krueger,                Leip. '88
+    "                       E. Bonnell and F. Meister,       Berl. '82
+
+  *Frontinus.*
+    A. Dederich (text),                                      Leip. '55
+    Strategemata,           G. Gundermann (text),            Leip. '88
+    De Aquis,               F. Buecheler (text),             Leip. '58
+
+  *Juvenal.*
+    L. Friedlaender,                                         Leip. '95
+    A. Weidner,                                              Leip. '89
+    XIII. Satires,          J. E. B. Mayor,                  Lond. '93
+    "                       C. H. Pearson and H. A. Strong,   Oxf. '92
+    "                       E. G. Hardy,                     Lond. '95
+
+  *Tacitus.*
+    C. Halm (text),                                       Leip. '89-93
+    Dialogus,            W. Peterson,                         Oxf. '93
+    Germania,            H. Furneaux,                         Oxf. '94
+    " and Agricola,      A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb, Lond. '91-94
+    "     "              H. M. Stephenson,                   Camb. '94
+    Histories,           E. Wolff,                        Berl. '86-88
+    "                    W. A. Spooner,                      Lond. '91
+    " (Books i., ii.),   A. D. Godley,                       Lond. '94
+    Annals,              K. Nipperdey and G. Andresen,    Berl. '84-92
+    "                    A. Draeger and F. Becher,        Leip. '82-95
+    "                    H. Furneaux,                      Oxf. '83-91
+    "                    H. Furneaux (Books i.-iv.),          Oxf. '92
+
+  *Pliny the Younger.*
+    H. Keil (text),                                          Leip. '53
+    H. Keil and Th. Mommsen (crit.),                         Leip. '70
+    G. H. Schaefer,                                         Leip. 1805
+    Epistles,         G. Cortius and P. D. Longolius,    Amsterd. 1734
+    " (Book iii.),    J. E. B. Mayor,                        Lond. '89
+    " (to Trajan),    E. G. Hardy,                           Lond. '89
+
+  *Suetonius.*
+    C. L. Roth (text),                                       Leip. '75
+    C. G. Baumgarten-Crusius,                                Leip. '16
+    Julius and Augustus,                H. T. Peck,      New York, '93
+    Augustus,                           E. S. Shuckburgh,    Camb. '96
+    Praeter Caesarum libros reliquiae,  A. Reifferscheid,    Leip. '60
+
+  *Miscellaneous.*
+    Aulus Gellius,                 M. Hertz (text),          Leip. '86
+    Macrobius,                     F. Eyssenhardt (text),    Leip. '93
+    Nonius Marcellus,              L. Mueller (crit.),       Leip. '88
+    Servius,               G. Thilo and H. Hagen (crit.), Leip. '78-94
+    Grammatici Latini, H. Keil (crit.),                   Leip. '56-80
+    Corpus Poetarum Latinorum, ed. J. P. Postgate (crit.),   Lond. '94
+      [Including Ennius, Lucretius, Catullus, Horace, Virgil,
+      Tibullus, Propertius, Ovid; other parts to follow.]
+    Oratorum Romanorum Fragmenta, H. Meyer (text),        Zuerich, '42
+    Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta, H. Peter (text),       Leip. '83
+    Selected Fragments of Roman Poetry, W. W. Merry,          Oxf. '91
+    Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin, J. Wordsworth,    Oxf. '74
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL INDEX
+
+
+  Abuccius, 99.
+
+  Accius,
+    birth, 55;
+    literary activity, friendships with leading men, 56;
+    character, 56;
+    plays and other works, 57;
+    Accius on philology and philosophy, 57;
+    views on Accius, 58;
+    relations with Pacuvius, 35;
+    on the dates of Livius, 1;
+    imit. by Lucr. 121;
+    by Virg. 161.
+
+  Acro, 354.
+
+  Acta diurna and Acta senatus,
+    used by Tac. 346;
+    by Sueton. 349.
+
+  Aedituus, _see_ Valerius.
+
+  Aelius Stilo, 10, 25, 29.
+
+  Aelius Tubero, 220.
+
+  Aemilius Macer, 182.
+
+  Aemilius Scaurus, 58.
+
+  Aeschylus,
+    imit. by Livius, 3;
+    by Accius, 57;
+    by Sen. 253;
+    trans. by Cic. 88.
+
+  Aesop, imit. by Phaedrus, 239.
+
+  Aesopus, actor, 69.
+
+  Aetna, _see_ Lucilius Iunior.
+
+  Afranius, L. 64.
+
+  Agricola, 338, 341.
+
+  Agrippina, 243 _sqq._;
+    her memoirs, 346.
+
+  Albinovanus Celsus, 181.
+
+  Albius, _see_ Tibullus.
+
+  Alcaeus, imit. by Hor. 174 _sqq._
+
+  Alexandrian influence on Catull. 139, 175;
+    on Virg. 157;
+    on Propert. 199;
+    on Ovid, 210.
+
+  Alimentus, Cincius, 53.
+
+  Amafinius, 83.
+
+  Ambivius Turpio, 38, 43 _sqq._
+
+  Amiternum, birthplace of Sallust, 125.
+
+  Anacreon, foll. by Hor. 175.
+
+  Andes,
+    birthplace of Virg. 148;
+    its position, 148 note.
+
+  Andronicus, Livius,
+    dispute as to his dates, 1;
+    facts of life, 2;
+    actor and schoolmaster, 3;
+    plays, 3;
+    Odisia, 3;
+    Hor.'s reference to, 165.
+
+  Annaeus, _see_ Cornutus, Lucanus, Seneca.
+
+  Anser, 184, 141-2.
+
+  Antias, _see_ Valerius.
+
+  Antioch, birthplace of Publilius Syrus, 145.
+
+  Antiochus,
+    teacher of Cicero, 70;
+    of Varro, 91.
+
+  Antipater, _see_ Coelius.
+
+  Antonius, C. Iullus, 181.
+
+  Antonius, M., the orator, 69.
+
+  Antonius Gnipho, rhetorician, 69.
+
+  Apollodorus, imit. by Ter. 46, 47.
+
+  Apollonius Rhodius,
+    trans. by Atac. 144;
+    imit. by Virg. 161;
+    by Val. Flaccus, 287.
+
+  Aquilius, 39.
+
+  Aquinum, birthpl. of Juv. 313.
+
+  Aratus,
+    trans. by Cic. 87;
+    this trans. used by Lucr. 120;
+    imit. by Atac. 145;
+    by Virg. 157;
+    trans. by Germanicus, 281.
+
+  Archias, 69, 75, 89.
+
+  Archilochus, imit. by Hor. 174.
+
+  Argumenta,
+    to Plautus, 18;
+    to Ter. 51;
+    to Livy, 217.
+
+  Aristius Fuscus, 181.
+
+  Aristotle,
+    foll. by Cic. 79, 85;
+    by Hor. 179.
+
+  Arpinum, birthpl. of Cic. 69.
+
+  Asconius Pedianus, 77.
+
+  Asinius, _see_ Pollio.
+
+  Asisium, birthpl. of Propert. 192.
+
+  Atacinus, _see_ Varro.
+
+  Ateius, foll. by Sall. 131.
+
+  Atellana fabula, 67.
+
+  Atilius, 39.
+
+  Atta, T. Quintius, 64.
+
+  Attalus, teacher of Seneca, 241.
+
+  Atticus, T. Pomponius, 90, 85 _sqq._;
+    on chronology, 1;
+    friend of Nepos, 113.
+
+  Attius, _see_ Accius.
+
+  Augustus,
+    works, 152;
+    relations with Virg. 149, 152, 159;
+    with Hor. 166 _sqq._
+    with Gallus, 182;
+    with Propert. 195;
+    with Ovid, 211;
+    with Livy, 215;
+    with Vitruvius, 225.
+
+
+  Bacchanalia, 12.
+
+  Bacchylides, foll. by Hor. 175.
+
+  Bassus, Aufidius, 284.
+
+  Bassus, poet, 196, 206.
+
+  Bavius, 183.
+
+  Bibaculus, _see_ Furius.
+
+  Bilbilis, birthpl. of Martial, 295.
+
+  Britannicus, 245.
+
+  Brundisium, birthpl. of Pacuvius, 34.
+
+  Brutus,
+    relations with Cic. 80 _sqq._;
+    with Hor. 165 _sqq._;
+    Lucan on, 269.
+
+  Burrus, friend of Seneca, 245 _sqq._
+
+
+  Caecilius of Novum Comum, 139.
+
+  Caecilius Statius,
+    dates, 37;
+    comedies, 38;
+    relations with Ter. 38, 42;
+    views on Caecilius, 39;
+    friend of Ennius, 28;
+    imit. by Ter. 43.
+
+  Caelius Rufus,
+    defended by Cic. 76;
+    enemy of Catull. 135.
+
+  Caesar, C. Iulius,
+    birth, 100;
+    early connexion with democrats, 100;
+    military and civil career, 101-2;
+    supports Pompey, 102;
+    first triumvirate, conquest of Gaul, civil war, 103;
+    dictator, death, 104;
+    _De Bello Gallico_, 104;
+    its objects, style, 105;
+    _De Bello Civili_, 106;
+    other works in the Corpus Caesarianum, 106;
+    theories on their authorship, 107;
+    Caesar's lost works, incl. speeches and poems, 109;
+    criticisms on his poems, 111;
+    verses on Ter. 51;
+    relations with Cic. 71, 77, 109, 110;
+    with Varro, 92;
+    with Sall. 127;
+    with Laberius, 97;
+    with Catull. 137;
+    with Calvus, 143;
+    celebrated by Bibaculus, 100;
+    by Atac. 144;
+    Livy on, 223;
+    Lucan on, 268, 270;
+    foll. by Frontinus, 311;
+    by Tac. 346.
+
+  Caesar Strabo, 66.
+
+  Calagurris, birthpl. of Quintilian, 302.
+
+  Calendar, Caesar's reform of, 104, 110.
+
+  Calidus, Iulius, 124.
+
+  Caligula, and Seneca, 242.
+
+  Callimachus,
+    imit. by Catull. 139;
+    by Propert. 198-9;
+    by Ovid, 211-2.
+
+  Calpurnius Piso, 58;
+    foll. by Livy, 220.
+
+  Calpurnius Siculus, T. 275;
+    discussion of his date, 276;
+    _Eclogae_ and sequel by Nemesianus, his models, _De laude Pisonis_,
+      277.
+
+  Calvus, C. Licinius Macer,
+    life, speeches, 142;
+    poems, relations with Caes. 143;
+    with Catull. 138-9, 143;
+    Hor.'s opinion of, 143, 176.
+
+  Canticum, 19, 50.
+
+  Cassius Hemina, 58.
+
+  Catilinarian conspiracy, 70, 75, 102.
+
+  Catius, T. 83, 112.
+
+  Cato, M. Porcius, the censor,
+    date, 53;
+    founder of Latin prose, 53;
+    works, 54-5;
+    patron of Enn. 27;
+    foll. by Nep. 117;
+    by Virg. 157, 161;
+    by Livy, 219;
+    imit, by Sall. 131.
+
+  Cato Uticensis, Lucan on, 269.
+
+  Cato, Valerius, teacher of Catullus, 133, 139.
+
+  Catullus, C. Valerius,
+    birth and dates, 132;
+    family and education, 133;
+    relations with Lesbia, 134;
+    voyage to Bithynia, 136;
+    attacks Caesar's party, 137;
+    relations with contemporaries, 138;
+    longer poems, Alexandrian influence, publication of poems, 139;
+    metre, 175;
+    friend of Nep. 114-5;
+    of Calvus, 138-9, 143;
+    of Cinna, 140;
+    Hor.'s opinion of, 143, 176;
+    imit. by Virg. 154;
+    by Mart. 301.
+
+  Catulus, _see_ Lutatius.
+
+  Celsus, Cornelius,
+    his encyclopaedia, 235;
+    its subdivisions, extant part _De Re Medica_, 236;
+    foll. by Quint. 309.
+
+  Christians, Tacitus' view of, 347.
+
+  Cicero, M. Tullius,
+    birth, education, at the bar, 69;
+    in the East, political career, Catilinarian conspiracy, banishment, 70;
+    recall, proconsul of Cilicia, in civil war, 71;
+    death, 73;
+    speeches, 73;
+    philosophical works, 79;
+    Cic. as a philosopher, 83;
+    rhetorical works, 83;
+    letters, 85;
+    their style, lost prose writings, 86;
+    poems, 87;
+    criticisms of his poetry, 88;
+    on chronology, 1, 9;
+    verses on Ter. 51;
+    conversed with Accius, 56;
+    criticises Sisenna, 67;
+    attacked by Catull. 138;
+    his reference to Lucr. 119;
+    editorship of Lucr. 120;
+    relations with Nep. 114;
+    with Calvus, 142;
+    foll. by Nep. 117;
+    by Lucr. 120;
+    by Hor. 174;
+    by Val. Max. 234;
+    largely quoted by Quint. 308;
+    admired by elder Sen. 228.
+
+  Cicero, Quintus, 89.
+
+  Cincius Alimentus, 53;
+    foll. by Livy, 219.
+
+  Cinna, C. Helvius,
+    friend of Catull. 136-9, 140;
+    partisan of Caesar, discussion of his identity, 141;
+    poems, 141;
+    patronized by Pollio, 112.
+
+  Claudius, emperor,
+    relations with Livy, 216;
+    with Sen. 243 _sqq._
+
+  Claudius Quadrigarius, 67;
+    foll. by Livy, 220.
+
+  Clodia (Lesbia), 76;
+    Catullus' relations with, 134 _sqq._
+
+  Clodius, P. 70, 76.
+
+  Clodius Licinus, 220.
+
+  Cluvius Rufus, foll. by Tac. 346.
+
+  Codrus, 183.
+
+  Coelius Antipater, 58;
+    foll. by Livy, 220.
+
+  Columella,
+    birth, military service, property, date, 258;
+    works, 258-9.
+
+  Comum, birthpl. of the two Plinii, 281, 326.
+
+  Contaminatio, 6, 13, 46 _sqq._
+
+  Corbulo, Domitius, memoirs of, 346.
+
+  Corduba, birthpl. of the two Senecas and Lucan, 226, 240, 264.
+
+  Corinna, celebrated by Ovid, 207.
+
+  Cornelius, _see_ Celsus, Gallus, Nepos, Sisenna, Tacitus.
+
+  Cornificius, 88.
+
+  Cornificius, poet, 139.
+
+  Cornutus, Annaeus,
+    teacher of Persius, 260 _sqq._;
+    of Lucan, 265.
+
+  Corvinus, _see_ Messalla.
+
+  Cremona, birthpl. of Bibaculus, 99.
+
+  Crispus, _see_ Sallustius.
+
+  Curtius Rufus,
+    his date and identity, 256;
+    _Historiae Alexandri_, 257.
+
+  Cynthia (Hostia), Propertius' relations with, 65, 193, 197 _sqq._
+
+
+  Delia (Plania), Tibullus' love for, 188-9.
+
+  Demetrius the Cynic, 251, 254.
+
+  Democritus, imit. by Lucr. 123.
+
+  Demophilus, 11.
+
+  Didascaliae, 15, 17, 44 _sqq._
+
+  Diodotus, teacher of Cic. 69.
+
+  Diphilus,
+    imit. by Plaut. 12, 15, 17;
+    by Ter. 48.
+
+  Diverbium, 19, 50.
+
+  Domitian,
+    patron of Statius, 293;
+    of Mart. 297 _sqq._;
+    of Quint. 305.
+
+  Domitius Marsus, 184;
+    epigram on Tibull. 186.
+
+  Donatus, Aelius, 354, 39, 44, 147 _sqq._
+
+  Dossenus, in fabula Atellana, 25, 67.
+
+
+  Eclecticism,
+    of Enn. 29;
+    of Cic. 83;
+    of Hor. 173.
+
+  Egnatius, 99.
+
+  Empedocles, imit. by Lucr. 122.
+
+  Ennius,
+    birth, 26;
+    in Sardinia, 26;
+    life in Rome, 27;
+    in Aetolia, a Roman citizen, death, 28;
+    character and views, 29;
+    plays, Saturae, etc. 30;
+    _Annals_, 31;
+    services to Latin literature--the hexameter, 32;
+    influence on other poets, 33;
+    views on Ennius, 34;
+    criticised by Lucilius, 62;
+    imit. by Lucr. 121;
+    by Virg. 161;
+    in _Bell. Hisp._ 109;
+    imit. Naevius, 7;
+    quoted by Phaedrus, 237;
+    taught Pacuv. 35.
+
+  Epicureanism, 83;
+    in Enn. 30;
+    discussed by Cic. 80 _sqq._;
+    in Lucr. 120 _sqq._
+    in Virg. 149;
+    in Hor. 170, 173;
+    in _Aetna_, 279.
+
+  Epidius, teacher of Virg. 149.
+
+  Euhemerism, 31, 162.
+
+  Euphorion, 156, 183.
+
+  Euripides,
+    imit. by Enn. 30;
+    by Pacuv. 36;
+    by Accius, 57;
+    by Sen. 253;
+    criticised by Lucilius, 62.
+
+
+  Fabianus, Papirius, 240.
+
+  Fabius, _see_ Quintilianus.
+
+  Fabius Labeo, 42, 52.
+
+  Fabius Pictor, 52;
+    foll. by Livy, 219.
+
+  Fabius Rusticus, 245;
+    foll. by Tac. 346.
+
+  Fannius, 58.
+
+  Fenestella, 40, 224.
+
+  Festus, 8, 224.
+
+  Flaccus, _see_ Horatius, Persius, Valerius, Verrius.
+
+  Florus, Iulius, 181, 172, 179.
+
+  Forum Iulii, birthpl. of Gallus, 182.
+
+  Frontinus, S. Iulius,
+    military and civil career, 310;
+    works, 311-2;
+    friend of Mart. 298.
+
+  Fundanius, 181.
+
+  Furius Antias, 66.
+
+  Furius Bibaculus, 99.
+
+  Furnius, 181.
+
+  Fuscus, _see_ Aristius.
+
+
+  Gades, birthpl. of Columella, 258.
+
+  Gaetulicus, 301.
+
+  Gallio, _see_ Novatus.
+
+  Gallus, Cornelius,
+    life, 182;
+    poems, 183;
+    relations with Virg. 150, 156.
+
+  Gellius, Aulus, 352.
+
+  Geminus, _see_ Tanusius.
+
+  Germanicus Caesar, 281.
+
+  Glycera, _see_ Nemesis.
+
+  Gracci, 58.
+
+  Guilds of poets, 2, 38.
+
+
+  Hadrian,
+    banishes Juv. 322;
+    dismisses Sueton. 349.
+
+  Helvia, 227, 240 _sqq._
+
+  Helvius, _see_ Cinna.
+
+  Hemina, _see_ Cassius.
+
+  Herennium, Rhet. ad, 88;
+    foll. by Quint. 309.
+
+  Hesiod, imit. by Virg. 157.
+
+  Hieronymus, _see_ Jerome.
+
+  Hirtius and the Corpus Caes. 106 _sqq._
+
+  Homer,
+    trans. by Livius, 3;
+    by Matius, 66;
+    by Cic. 88;
+    imit. by Hostius, 65;
+    by Virg. 161;
+    by Val. Flaccus, 288;
+    by Silius, 291;
+    parodied by Petron. 273.
+
+  Horatius Flaccus, Q.,
+    name, birth, 163;
+    parentage, 164;
+    education, in civil war, 165;
+    clerkship, 166;
+    introduction to Maecenas, journey to Brundisium, Sabine farm, 167;
+    relations with imperial house, 168;
+    death, personal appearance, 169;
+    chronology of works, 170;
+    _Satires_, 170, 172;
+    _Odes_ and _Epodes_, 171, 174;
+    _Epistles_, 171, 172, 179;
+    _Carm. Saec._ 171;
+    _Ars Poet._ 172, 179;
+    nature of the Satires, 173;
+    Odes, models of, 174;
+    metre and subjects of, 175;
+    Epistles, subjects of, 179;
+    Hor. and nature, popularity of Hor. 180;
+    relations with Virg. 151;
+    with Tibull. 189;
+    with Propert. 195;
+    patronized by Pollio, 112;
+    on Calvus and Catull. 143, 176;
+    on Atac. 144;
+    imit. Lucilius, 62;
+    Lucr. 125;
+    parodied Bibac. 100;
+    imit. by Persius, 263;
+    by Lucan, 271;
+    by Mart. 301;
+    by Juv. 325;
+    foll. by Quint. 309.
+
+  Hortensius, 74.
+
+  Hostia, _see_ Cynthia.
+
+  Hostius, 65;
+    imit. by Virg. 161.
+
+  Hyginus, C. Iulius, 224;
+    friend of Ovid, 206.
+
+
+  Iambi = satirical verses, 100, 174.
+
+  Imbrex, Licinius, 39.
+
+  Italicus, _see_ Silius.
+
+  Iulia, grand-daughter of Augustus, 203.
+
+  Iulius, _see_ Caesar, Calidus, Florus, Frontinus, Hyginus.
+
+  Iunior, _see_ Lucilius.
+
+  Iuvenalis, D. Iunius,
+    sources for his life, 312;
+    birth, 313;
+    inscription at Aquinum, 314;
+    parentage, position, and education, 314-6;
+    military and civil career, 316;
+    in Britain, 317;
+    references to Britain, 318;
+    life in Rome, 319;
+    dates of Satires, 320;
+    banishment, 322;
+    death, 323;
+    subjects of Satires, 323;
+    pessimism, rhetorical learning and style, 324-6;
+    friend of Mart. 298;
+    imit. Virg. 163.
+
+  Iuventius, 52.
+
+
+  Jerome, 351;
+    mistakes of, 2, 8, 58, 99, 144.
+
+  Jews, Tacitus' view of, 347.
+
+
+  Labeo, Fabius, 42, 52.
+
+  Laberius,
+    dates, 97;
+    contest with Publ. Syrus, 97, 145;
+    mimes, 98;
+    language and views, 99.
+
+  Laelius, literary circle of, 35, 41, 59.
+
+  Laenas, _see_ Popillius.
+
+  Laevius, 66.
+
+  Lanuvinus, _see_ Luscius.
+
+  Latro, Porcius,
+    teacher of Ovid, 201;
+    friend of Sen. 227.
+
+  Lesbia, _see_ Clodia.
+
+  Libri lintei, 68.
+
+  Licinius Imbrex, 39.
+
+  Licinius Tegula, 52.
+
+  Licinius Macer, 67;
+    foll. by Livy, 220.
+
+  Licinius Macer Calvus, _see_ Calvus.
+
+  Licinus, Porcius, 65.
+
+  Livius, _see_ Andronicus.
+
+  Livius, T.,
+    birth, intimacy with imperial house, 215;
+    death, 216;
+    works on philosophy and rhetoric, 216;
+    his history, the _Periochae_, number and scope of books, 217;
+    date of composition, 218;
+    publication, 219;
+    his sources, 68, 319;
+    comparison with Polybius, 220;
+    characteristics of his history, 220-1;
+    views on religion and morality, 222;
+    politics, 223;
+    imit. Virg. 163;
+    foll. by Ovid, 211;
+    by Val. Max. 234;
+    by Lucan, 271;
+    by Silius, 290;
+    by Frontinus, 311.
+
+  Lucanus, M. Annaeus,
+    biographies of, 264;
+    education, _Laudes Neronis_, political advancement, breach with Nero,
+      265;
+    satirizes Nero, joins Piso's conspiracy, suicide, 266;
+    his wife, 267;
+    lost works, 267;
+    _De Bello Civili_ (Pharsalia), 267, 268 _sqq._
+    popularity of his works, 268;
+    his views on politics, 268;
+    on philosophy and religion, 270;
+    rhetorical treatment, 271;
+    his models, 271;
+    criticisms of Lucan, 272;
+    friendship with Persius, 261;
+    imit. Virg. 163;
+    imit. by Juv. 326;
+    admired by Statius, 293;
+    parodied by Petron. 275.
+
+  Lucilius,
+    date, 58;
+    birthpl. and rank, 59;
+    his friends and enemies, 59-60;
+    _Saturae_, dates of composition, 61;
+    subjects of, 62;
+    on philology, 62;
+    style and character, 63;
+    imit. by Lucr. 121;
+    by Virg. 161;
+    by Hor. 173;
+    by Persius, 262-3;
+    by Juv. 326.
+
+  Lucilius Iunior, 277;
+    official career, friendship with Sen. 278;
+    date and authorship of _Aetna_, 279;
+    imit. Sen. and Lucr. 280;
+    imit. Virg. 163.
+
+  Lucillius, epigrammatist, 301.
+
+  Lucretius Carus, T.,
+    his dates, 119;
+    Cic.'s editorship of his works, recently discovered biography, 120;
+    position and character, 121;
+    _De rerum natura_, 122;
+    his ethics and physics, 123;
+    imit. Enn. 33;
+    imit. by Virg. 158, 161;
+    by Hor. 173;
+    in _Aetna_, 280.
+    Lucullus, 68.
+
+  Ludi Megalenses, 15, 17, 44;
+    Romani, 17;
+    plebei, 17.
+
+  Luscius Lanuvinus, 39, 49.
+
+  Lutatius Catulus, 65.
+
+  Lycinna, 193.
+
+  Lygdamus, 190.
+
+  Lynceus, 196.
+
+
+  Maccius, _see_ Plautus.
+
+  Macer, _see_ Aemilius, Calvus, Pompeius.
+
+  Macrobius, 354.
+
+  Maecenas, 166;
+    relations with Virg. 151, 157;
+    with Hor. 166 _sqq._;
+    with Valgius, 180;
+    with Propert. 195, 198.
+
+  Mamurra, Catullus' hostility to, 137.
+
+  Manilius, 213;
+    imit. Lucr. 125;
+    Virg. 163;
+    imit. by Juv. 326.
+
+  Marcellus, nephew of Augustus, 159, 171.
+
+  Maro, _see_ Vergilius.
+
+  Marsus, _see_ Domitius.
+
+  Martialis, M. Valerius,
+    birth, 295;
+    education, life at Rome, patrons, 296;
+    life under Domitian and Titus, 297;
+    friends of Martial, 298;
+    returns to Spain, 299;
+    character, 299;
+    publication of Epigrams, popularity, 300;
+    models, mistakes, 301;
+    satire and versification, 302;
+    imit. Catull. 140;
+    Virg. 163;
+    friend of Lucan, 267;
+    of Silius, 289;
+    of Frontinus, 311;
+    of Juv. 319;
+    of Pliny the younger, 335;
+    imit. by Juv. 326.
+
+  Maternus, Curiatius, 341.
+
+  Matius, Cn. 66.
+
+  Maximus, _see_ Valerius.
+
+  Mediocritas of Terence, 51.
+
+  Mela, Pomponius, 259.
+
+  Melissus, 149, 185.
+
+  Memmius, C. 120, 122, 136.
+
+  Menander,
+    imit. by Plaut. 13, 15, 18;
+    by Caecilius, 38;
+    by Ter. 44 _sqq._;
+    by Turpilius, 52;
+    by Afranius, 65.
+
+  Menippea Satira, 96, 273.
+
+  Messalina, 243.
+
+  Messalla Corvinus, 187;
+    patron of Tibull. 186 _sqq._;
+    relations with Ovid, 205.
+
+  Mevius, 183.
+
+  Molo,
+    teacher of Cic. 69, 70;
+    of Caes. 102.
+
+  Murena, conspiracy of, 171.
+
+
+  Naevius, Cn.,
+    birth, 4;
+    attacks Metelli, 5;
+    banishment and death, 6;
+    plays, 6;
+    _Bellum Punicum_, 7;
+    Plautus' reference to, 14;
+    imit. by Lucr. 121;
+    by Virg. 161.
+
+  Naples, birthpl. of Statius, 291.
+
+  Naso, _see_ Ovidius.
+
+  Nemesianus, 275, 277.
+
+  Nemesis (Glycera), Tibullus' love for, 188, 190.
+
+  Neoptolemus, 179.
+
+  Nepos, Cornelius,
+    discussion of date, 113;
+    intimacy with Atticus, 113;
+    with Catull. 114;
+    character and views, 114;
+    minor works, 115;
+    _De viris illustribus_, 116;
+    sources, 117;
+    value of his work, 117;
+    authenticity of his works, 118;
+    on Terence, 40;
+    on Cato, 54;
+    friend of Catull. 139;
+    foll. by Mela, 259.
+
+  Nero,
+    relations with Sen. 244 _sqq._;
+    with Lucan, 265;
+    with Petron. 272;
+    with Silius, 289;
+    Calp. Sic. on, 276;
+    his poetry parodied by Persius, 262;
+    by Petron. 275.
+
+  Nicander,
+    foll. by Virg. 158;
+    by Macer, 182;
+    by Ovid, 210.
+
+  Nonius Marcellus, 353.
+
+  Novatus, M. Annaeus (= Gallio), 227, 250, 264.
+
+  Novius, 67.
+
+
+  Oppius, and the Corpus Caes. 106.
+
+  Orbilius, 99, 165.
+
+  Ovidius Naso, P.,
+    name and birth, 200;
+    rank and education, 201;
+    official career, 202;
+    travels, 203;
+    banishment, 203;
+    probable reasons for it, 203-4;
+    life at Tomi, 204-5;
+    death, 205;
+    his literary friends, 206;
+    his property, 206;
+    poems, 207;
+    relations with Aemilius Macer, 182;
+    with Tibull. 189;
+    with Propert. 196;
+    imit. Catull. 140;
+    Virg. 163;
+    foll. Propert. 199;
+    Verrius Flaccus, 224;
+    imit. by Sen. 253;
+    by Lucan, 271;
+    in _Aetna_, 279;
+    by Val. Flaccus, 288;
+    by Mart. 301;
+    by Juv. 326;
+    on Varro Atac. 144;
+    on Gallus, 182.
+
+
+  Pacuvius,
+    birth, 34;
+    literary friends, 35;
+    tragedies, saturae, 36;
+    views and style, 36;
+    views on Pacuvius, 37;
+    imit. by Lucr. 121;
+    by Virg. 161.
+
+  Paetus Thrasea,
+    relative of Persius, 261, 286;
+    Tacitus' attitude to, 344.
+
+  Palliata fabula, 6, 10 _sqq._, 39, 44 _sqq._, 52.
+
+  Panaetius, 82.
+
+  Papinius, _see_ Statius.
+
+  Patavinitas, 215, 219.
+
+  Patavium, birthpl. of Livy, 215.
+
+  Paterculus, _see_ Velleius.
+
+  Paul, St., and Seneca, 254.
+
+  Paulus Diaconus, abridged Festus, 224.
+
+  Pedianus, _see_ Asconius.
+
+  Pedum, prob. birthpl. of Tibull. 185.
+
+  Pellio, actor of Plautus, 12.
+
+  Persius Flaccus, A.,
+    dates, birthpl., rank, education, 260;
+    his friends, property, and character, 261;
+    early works, 261;
+    Satires--their nature, 262;
+    obligations to Hor. 263;
+    popularity, 263-4;
+    imit. Lucilius, 63.
+
+  Petronius Arbiter, C.,
+    life, 272;
+    Satirae--their subject, 273;
+    dramatic scene and date, 273-4;
+    style, 274;
+    poems in the book, 275.
+
+  Phaedrus (philosopher), 69.
+
+  Phaedrus (poet),
+    life, 237;
+    persecuted by Seianus, 237;
+    personal points, 238;
+    _fabulae Aesopiae_, 239;
+    the five books, 239.
+
+  Philemon, imit. by Plaut. 14, 15, 17.
+
+  Philetas, imit. by Propert. 199.
+
+  Philo, teacher of Cic. 69.
+
+  Philology, 57, 63, 94, 307.
+
+  Phocas, 147.
+
+  Pictor, Fabius, 52.
+
+  Pindar, foll. by Hor. 175.
+
+  Pisaurum, birthpl. of Accius, 55.
+
+  Piso, _see_ Calpurnius.
+
+  Piso, conspiracy of, 248, 266, 296.
+
+  Plania, _see_ Delia.
+
+  Plato,
+    trans. by Cic. 82;
+    foll. by Nep. 117;
+    by Virg. 162.
+
+  Plautus, T. Maccius,
+    name, 7;
+    date and pl. of birth, 8;
+    varied employments, 8, 9;
+    intimacy with the Scipios, death, 9;
+    Plautine canon, 10;
+    extant plays, 10-18;
+    argumenta, 18;
+    prologues, 18;
+    acts, diverbium, canticum, characters, 19;
+    language, 20;
+    references to Greek and Roman life, 20;
+    prosody, 22;
+    views on Plautus, 25;
+    reference to Naevius, 5.
+
+  Plinius Secundus, C. (the elder), 281;
+    education, 282;
+    military and procuratorial career, 282-3;
+    death, 283;
+    lost works, 284;
+    _Naturae Historiae_, their contents and character, 285;
+    views, 286;
+    foll. by Tac. 346.
+
+  Plinius Secundus, C. (the younger),
+    name and birthpl. 326;
+    date of birth, education, 327;
+    adoption by his uncle, 328;
+    at the bar, civil career, 328;
+    _Panegyricus_, 330;
+    governor of Pontus et Bithynia, correspondence with Trajan,
+      municipal relations, 331-333;
+    as orator and writer, 333;
+    the Epistles, 334;
+    relations with other writers, character, 335;
+    love of nature, 336;
+    friend of Silius, 289;
+    of Mart. 298;
+    of Frontinus, 310;
+    of Tac. 340;
+    of Sueton. 348.
+
+  Polla Argentaria,
+    wife of Lucan, 267;
+    patroness of Mart. 297.
+
+  Pollio, Asinius, 112;
+    criticises Caesar, 105;
+    connexion with Corpus Caes. 107 _sqq._;
+    criticises Livy, 219;
+    friend of Virg. 149, 154 _sqq._
+
+  Pollio, _see_ Vitruvius.
+
+  Polybius,
+    foll. by Nep. 117;
+    by Livy, 220.
+
+  Polybius, favourite of Claudius, 250.
+
+  Pompeius Macer, poet, 203.
+
+  Pompeius Magnus,
+    Livy a supporter of, 219;
+    Lucan's view of, 268-9.
+
+  Pompeius, _see_ Trogus.
+
+  Pompilius, 65.
+
+  Pomponius, _see_ Mela, Atticus.
+
+  Pomponius Bononiensis, 67.
+
+  Pomponius Secundus, 282, 284.
+
+  Ponticus, 196, 206.
+
+  Popillius Laenas, 42, 52.
+
+  Porcius, _see_ Cato, Latro.
+
+  Porcius Licinus, 65.
+
+  Porphyrio, 355.
+
+  Posidippus, 14.
+
+  Posidonius, 70, 82.
+
+  Praetexta fabula, 7, 30, 36, 57, 341.
+
+  Probus, M. Valerius, 147;
+    his life of Persius, 260.
+
+  Probus, Aemilius, falsely credited with Nepos' works, 118.
+
+  Prologues, 18, 49.
+
+  Propertius, Sex.,
+    name, 191;
+    birth, 192;
+    youth and education, 193;
+    relations with Lycinna and Cynthia, 193-4;
+    later life, 194-5;
+    relations with Maecenas, Augustus, and contemporary poets, 195-6;
+    elegies, 196;
+    dates and contents of the four books, 196-9;
+    his archaeological tastes, 198;
+    character, 200;
+    friend of Ovid, 206;
+    imit. Virg. 163;
+    imit. by Mart. 301.
+
+  Prosody, 22, 32.
+
+  Publilius Syrus,
+    life and works, 145;
+    views on, 146;
+    contest with Laberius, 97, 145.
+
+  Pupius, 185.
+
+  Pythagoreanism,
+    in Enn. 30;
+    in Laberius, 99;
+    in Virg. 162.
+
+
+  Quadrigarius, _see_ Claudius.
+
+  Quintilianus, M. Fabius,
+    pl. of birth, 302;
+    probable date of birth, his teachers, at the bar, 303;
+    professor of oratory, date of the _Institutio_, retirement, 304;
+    tutor to Domitian's grandnephews, consul, flattery of Domitian,
+      domestic relations, 305;
+    earlier works, 306;
+    _Institutio_, 306;
+    scope of work, 307;
+    his authorities, 308;
+    spurious works, 309;
+    friend of Martial, 298;
+    teacher of Pliny the younger, 327;
+    views on Roman writers, _passim_.
+
+  Quintius, _see_ Atta.
+
+
+  Rabirius, 83.
+
+  Reate, birthpl. of Varro, 91.
+
+  Religion,
+    in Enn. 29;
+    in Pacuv. 36;
+    in Accius, 57;
+    in Lucr. 122;
+    in Virg. 161;
+    in Livy, 222;
+    in Tac. 343.
+
+  Rhinthonica, 11.
+
+  Roscius, actor, 69, 73.
+
+  Rudiae, birthpl. of Enn. 26.
+
+  Rufus, _see_ Curtius, Valgius, Varius.
+
+  Rusticus, _see_ Fabius.
+
+  Rutilius, 220.
+
+
+  Sallustius Crispus, C.,
+    dates, youth, rank, 125;
+    political and military life, 126-7;
+    retirement, 128;
+    _Bell. Cat._, object of work, 128;
+    _Bell. Iug._, object of work, 129;
+    _Hist._ 129;
+    spurious works, 130;
+    as a historian, 130;
+    authorities and models, 131;
+    style, popularity, 132;
+    criticised by Livy, 216;
+    foll. by Frontinus, 311;
+    by Val. Max. 235;
+    on Sisenna, 67.
+
+  Santra, on Terence, 42.
+
+  Sappho,
+    imit. by Catull. 139;
+    by Hor. 174.
+
+  Sarranae tibiae, 45.
+
+  Sarsina, birthpl. of Plautus, 8.
+
+  Saturae, 30, 36, 61, 64, 172, 262, 320;
+    Menippeae, 96, 273.
+
+  Saturnians, 3, 7.
+
+  Scaurus, _see_ Aemilius.
+
+  Scipio Africanus the elder, friend of Enn. 27.
+
+  Scipio Africanus the younger,
+    friend of Ter. 40;
+    of Lucilius, 59.
+
+  Sedigitus, Volcacius, 66;
+    on Plautus, 10;
+    canon, 39, 66.
+
+  Seianus,
+    praised by Velleius, 234;
+    relations with Phaedrus, 237.
+
+  Seneca, Annaeus, the elder,
+    birth, rank, 226;
+    life in Rome, death, character, 227;
+    _Controversiae_, 228-9;
+    _Suasoriae_, 229;
+    his history, 230.
+
+  Seneca, L. Annaeus, the younger,
+    birth, family, education, 240;
+    voyage to Egypt, 241;
+    political advancement, 242;
+    banishment, recall, 243;
+    tutorship of Nero, privy to Claudius' murder, 244;
+    checks Nero, 245;
+    power and wealth, 246;
+    loss of power, 247;
+    wishes to retire, 248;
+    Piso's conspiracy, death of Seneca, 248;
+    extant prose works, 249;
+    extant poems, incl. tragedies, 252;
+    lost works, 253;
+    spurious works, views and character, 254;
+    style, 255;
+    imit. Curtius Rufus, 257;
+    friend of Persius, 261;
+    of Calp. Sic. 276;
+    of Lucilius Iunior, 277 _sqq._;
+    foll. by Lucan, 271;
+    imit. by Lucilius, 280;
+    by Val. Flaccus, 288;
+    by Juv. 326;
+    patron of Mart. 296;
+    Quintilian's antagonism to, 309.
+
+  Servius, 354, 147 _sqq._
+
+  Sextius, 237, 240 _sqq._
+
+  Siculus, _see_ Calpurnius.
+
+  Silanus, D. 203.
+
+  Silius Italicus,
+    life, 289;
+    _Punica_, 290;
+    models, 291;
+    Homerus Latinus, 291;
+    friend of Mart. 298;
+    of Pliny the younger, 335;
+    on life of Ennius, 26;
+    imit. Virg. 163.
+
+  Siron, 149, 150.
+
+  Sisenna, L. Cornelius, 67;
+    foll. by Sall. 129;
+    by Tac. 346.
+
+  Sophocles,
+    imit. by Pacuv. 36;
+    by Accius, 57;
+    by Virg. 161;
+    by Sen. 253.
+
+  Soranus, _see_ Valerius.
+
+  Sotadean metre, 31, 57.
+
+  Sotion, 240.
+
+  Stataria, 11, 46.
+
+  Statius, _see_ Caecilius.
+
+  Statius, P. Papinius,
+    birth, 291;
+    poetical competitions, 292;
+    patronized by Domitian, admiration for Lucan and Virgil, 293;
+    works, 293-5;
+    imit. Virg. 163;
+    Val. Flaccus, 288;
+    friend of Lucan, 267;
+    sneered at by Mart. 298.
+
+  Stilo, Aelius, 10, 25, 29.
+
+  Stoicism,
+    discussed by Cic. 79 _sqq._;
+    in Virg. 162;
+    Hor.'s attitude to, 173;
+    in Sen. 241, 254;
+    in Persius, 262;
+    in Lucan, 270;
+    in _Aetna_, 279;
+    in Juv. 325.
+
+  Sueius, 66.
+
+  Suessa, birthpl. of Lucilius, 59.
+
+  Suetonius Tranquillus, C.,
+    life, 348;
+    works, 349;
+    biography of Lucan, 264.
+
+  Sulla, 68, 129.
+
+  Sulmo, birthpl. of Ovid, 200.
+
+  Sulpicia, 191.
+
+  Sulpicius, 181.
+
+  Sulpicius Apollinaris, 18, 51.
+
+  Syrus, see Publilius.
+
+
+  Tabernaria fabula, 6, 64.
+
+  Tacitus, Cornelius, 336;
+    birth and rank, 337;
+    reputation as an orator, 338;
+    political career, death, 339;
+    works, 340-3;
+    views, 343;
+    sources, 346;
+    his credibility, 347;
+    friend of Pliny the younger, 335;
+    imit. Sall. 132;
+    Virg. 163;
+    Pliny the elder, 285.
+
+  Tanusius Geminus, 138.
+
+  Tegula, Licinius, 52.
+
+  Terentius Afer, P.,
+    date and pl. of birth, 39, 40;
+    relations with Laelius, Scipio, and Caecilius, 41-2;
+    death, 43;
+    personal appearance, 44;
+    comedies, 44;
+    prologues, representation, 49;
+    names of characters, 50;
+    arguments, prosody, views on Ter. 51;
+    imit. by Afranius, 65;
+    relations with Caecilius, 38;
+    attacks on Luscius, 39.
+
+  Terentius, _see_ Varro.
+
+  Theocritus,
+    imit. by Virg. 156;
+    by Calp. Sic. 277.
+
+  Theophrastus, imit. by Cic. 79, 82.
+
+  Thrasea, _see_ Paetus.
+
+  Thucydides,
+    imit. by Sall. 132;
+    by Lucr. 123;
+    foll. by Nep. 117.
+
+  Tiberius,
+    Tac.'s view of, 344 _sqq._;
+    praised by Hor. 172;
+    by Velleius, 233;
+    by Val. Max. 235.
+
+  Tibiae, 45, 50.
+
+  Tibullus, Albius,
+    birth, 185;
+    rank and wealth, 186;
+    friendship with Messalla, 187;
+    relations with Delia and Nemesis, 188;
+    with other poets, 189;
+    poems, 189;
+    imit. Virg. 163;
+    friend of Ovid, 206;
+    imit. by Mart. 301.
+
+  Ticidas, 140.
+
+  Ticinum, birthpl. of Nepos, 113.
+
+  Tingentera, birthpl. of Mela, 259.
+
+  Tiro, M. Tullius, 90;
+    edits Cicero's works, 78, 85.
+
+  Titinius, 52.
+
+  Titius, 181.
+
+  Togata fabula, 6, 52, 64, 185.
+
+  Trabea, 39.
+
+  Trabeata fabula, 185.
+
+  Tragicomoedia, 10.
+
+  Tranquillus, _see_ Suetonius.
+
+  Trogus, Pompeius, 223;
+    followed by Val. Max. 235.
+
+  Tucca, 154, 160.
+
+  Tullia, 72, 80.
+
+  Tullius, _see_ Cicero, Tiro.
+
+  Turpilius, 52.
+
+  Tusculum, birthpl. of Cato, 53.
+
+
+  Vacca, biographer of Lucan, 264.
+
+  Valerius, _see_ Catullus, Probus, Martialis.
+
+  Valerius, writer of palliatae, 52.
+
+  Valerius Aedituus, 65.
+
+  Valerius Antias, 67;
+    foll. by Livy, 220.
+
+  Valerius Cato, 133.
+
+  Valerius Flaccus,
+    life, 234.
+    the _Argonautica_, 287;
+    imit. Virg. 163.
+
+  Valerius Maximus, 234;
+    his _Facta et Dicta Memorabilia_, 234;
+    foll. by Juv. 325.
+
+  Valerius Soranus, 65.
+
+  Valgius Rufus, 180.
+
+  Varius Rufus, L., 181;
+    friend of Virg. 154, 160;
+    of Horace, 166 _sqq._
+
+  Varro Atacinus, P. Terentius, 144;
+    imit. by Virg. 161.
+
+  Varro, M. Terentius,
+    birth, 91;
+    military and political career, 91-2;
+    death, 93;
+    works, 93-7;
+    on chronology, 5, 6, 26;
+    on criticism, 10, 51;
+    on Sallust, 126;
+    foll. by Virg. 157, 161;
+    by Ovid, 211;
+    friend of Cic. 81, 94.
+
+  Vatinius,
+    attacked by Cic. 76;
+    by Catull. 137;
+    by Calvus, 142.
+
+  Vatronius, 52.
+
+  Velleius Paterculus, C.,
+    military and civil career, 231-2;
+    his _Historia Romana_, 232.
+
+  Venusia, birthpl. of Hor. 163.
+
+  Vergilius Maro, P.,
+    name, 147;
+    parentage and education, 148;
+    evictions from farm, 149, 150;
+    friendship of Augustus, 149;
+    literary life, 151;
+    later years, 152;
+    personal appearance and character, 153;
+    minor poems, 153;
+    _Bucolica_, 154;
+    the separate Eclogues, 155;
+    sources, 156;
+    scenery in the Eclogues, 156;
+    _Georgics_, 157;
+    sources, 157;
+    political purpose, 158;
+    natural scenery, 158;
+    _Aeneid_, 159;
+    method of composition, 159;
+    posthumous publication, subject, why chosen, 160;
+    the Aeneas legend, 161;
+    sources of _Aeneid_, religion in _Aeneid_, 161;
+    political significance, 162;
+    influence of Virg. 163;
+    popularity of Virg. 180;
+    patronized by Pollio, 112;
+    imit. Naevius, 7;
+    Enn. 33;
+    Accius, 58;
+    Lucilius, 62;
+    Hostius, 65;
+    Bibaculus, 100;
+    Lucr. 125;
+    Catull. 140;
+    Atac. 145;
+    Hyginus, 224;
+    relations with Hor. 166 _sqq._;
+    with Aemilius Macer, 182;
+    with Gallus, 183;
+    with Propert. 196;
+    imit. by Manilius, 214;
+    by Lucan, 271;
+    by Calp. Sic. 277;
+    by Val. Flaccus, 288;
+    by Silius, 291;
+    by Statius, 293;
+    by Mart. 301;
+    by Juv. 325;
+    supplemented by Colum. 258;
+    _Aetna_ attributed to, 277;
+    quoted largely by Quint. 308;
+    half-lines in, 144.
+
+  Verona,
+    birthpl. of Catull. 132;
+    of Aemilius Macer, 182.
+
+  Verrius Flaccus, 224.
+
+  Visci, 181.
+
+  Vitruvius Pollio, 224;
+    his _Architectura_, 225.
+
+  Volaterrae, birthpl. of Persius, 260.
+
+  Volcacius, _see_ Sedigitus.
+
+  Volusius, 138.
+
+
+  Xenophon,
+    trans. by Cic. 87;
+    foll. by Nep. 117.
+
+
+  Zeno, 69.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF TITLES
+
+
+  A fine Aufidii Bassi, 284
+  Ab excessu divi Augusti, 342
+  Ab urbe condita, 217
+  Academica, 80
+  Achilleis, 294
+  Achilles, 3
+  Actis Scenicis, De, 95
+  Adelphoe, 48
+  Admiranda, 87
+  Aegisthus, 3
+  Aeneadae, 57
+  Aeneas, 282
+  Aeneid, 159
+  Aethiopis, 100
+  Aetia, 95
+  Aetna, 277
+  Agamemnon, 253
+  Agave, 295
+  Agricola, 341
+  Agricultura, De
+    (Cato), 54
+    (Hyginus), 224
+  Ajax, 152
+  Alexandri Historiae, 256
+  Amazonis, 184
+  Ambracia, 30
+  Amicitia, De
+    (Cic.), 82
+    (Sen.), 253
+  Amores
+    (Marsus), 185
+    (Ovid), 207
+  Amphitruo, 10
+  Analogia, De, 109
+  Andria, 44
+  +Anekdota+, 87
+  Annales of
+    Accius, 57
+    Q. Cicero, 90
+    Ennius, 31
+    Fenestella, 224
+    Hortensius, 74
+    Sueius, 66
+    Tacitus, 342
+    Varro, 95
+  Annalis, 90
+  Anticatones, 110
+  Antiopa, 36
+  Antiquitate litterarum, De, 94
+  Antiquitates, 94
+  Antonianae orationes, 78
+  Apocolocyntosis, 251
+  Apophoreta, 300
+  +Apophthegmata+
+    (Cato), 55
+    (Caes.), 110
+  Aquis urbis Romae, De, 312
+  Arboribus, De, 259
+  Archia, Pro, 75
+  Architectura, De, 225
+  Argonautae, 144
+  Argonautica, 287
+  Ars Amatoria, 209
+  Ars Poetica, 172, 179
+  Asinaria, 11
+  Astris, De, 110
+  Astrologia, De, 95
+  Astronomica, 213
+  Attis, 139
+  Auguriis, De, 82
+  Aulularia, 11
+
+  Bacchides, 13
+  Balbo, Pro, 76
+  Balistam, In, 153
+  Bella Germaniae, 284
+  Bello Civili, De (Lucan), 267
+  Bellum
+    Africum, 106
+    Alexandrinum, 106
+    Civile, 106
+    Gallicum
+      (Bibaculus), 100
+      (Caes.), 104
+    Hispaniense, 106
+    Histricum, 65
+    Iugurthinum, 129
+    Punicum, 7
+    Sequanicum, 144
+  Beneficiis, De, 251
+  Bibliothecis, De, 95
+  Boeotia, 39
+  Brevitate vitae, De, 250
+  Brundusinae, 64
+  Brutus
+    (Accius), 57
+    (Cic.), 84
+  Bucco Adoptatus, 67
+  Bucolica, 154
+
+  Caecilium, Divinatio in, 73
+  Caecina, Pro, 74
+  Caelio, Pro, 76
+  Caesarem, Ad, 87
+  Caesaris, De morte, 181
+  Captivi, 11
+  Carmen Saeculare, 171
+  Carmina
+    (Catull.), 132
+    (Hor.), 171, 172, 174
+  Casina, 12
+  Catachthonion, 267
+  Catalecta, 153
+  Catilinae coniuratione, De, 128
+  Catilinam, In, 75
+  Cato, 341
+  Cato Maior, 82
+  Catonis vita, 115
+  Causis corruptae eloquentiae, De, 306
+  Cena Trimalchionis, 273
+  Chorographia
+    (Atacinus), 145
+    (Cic.), 87
+    (Mela), 259
+  Chronica, 115
+  Ciceronis vita, 116
+  Cicuta, 184
+  Ciris, 154
+  Cistellaria, 12
+  Claris Oratoribus, De, 84
+  Clastidium, 7
+  Clementia, De, 251
+  Cluentio, Pro, 74
+  Coma Berenices, 139
+  Commentarii
+    (Caes.), 104
+    (Donatus, Servius, etc.), 354
+  Commentariolum petitionis, 89
+  Compendiosa doctrina, De, 353
+  Compitalia, 65
+  Consolatio, 80
+  Consolatione, De,
+    ad Marc., 250
+    ad Polyb., 250
+    ad Helv., 251
+  Constantia, De, 250
+  Consulatu, De suo, 87
+  Consulatu Ciceronis, De, 91
+  Controversiae, 228
+  Copa, 154
+  Culex, 154
+  Cum populo gratias egit, 75
+  Cum senatui gratias egit, 75
+  Cupuncula, 30
+  Curculio, 11
+  Cynegetica, 277
+
+  Decius, 57
+  Declamationes, 309
+  Deiotaro, Pro rege, 77
+  Descriptionibus, De, 95
+  Dialogus de oratoribus, 340
+  Didascalica, 57
+  Diomedea, 181
+  Dirae, 154
+  Dis penatibus, De, 224
+  Disciplinae, 95
+  Divinatione, De, 82
+  Domitius, 341
+  Domo sua, De, 76
+  Drusi vita, 152
+  Dubius sermo, 284
+  Duo Dosseni, 67
+
+  Eclogae
+    (Virg), 154
+    (Calp. Sic.), 275
+  +Eisagogikos+, 95
+  Elegiae--of
+    Atacinus, 145
+    Marsus, 29
+    Propert., 196
+    Tibull., 189
+    Valgius, 180
+    Varius, 182
+  Ephemeris, 145
+  Ephemeris navalis, Eph. rustica, 95
+  Epicharmus, 31
+  Epidicus, 12
+  Epigrammata--of
+    Calvus, 143
+    Ennius, 29
+    Lucan, 267
+    Marsus, 185
+    Martial, 300
+    Seneca, 252
+    Valgius, 181
+    Virgil, 154
+  Epistolicae quaestiones, 97
+  Epistula ad Pisones, 172, 179
+  Epistulae--
+    ad Atticum, 85
+    ad Brutum, 86
+    ad Caesonium, 253
+    ad Familiares, 86
+    ad Novatum, 253
+    ad Paulum, 254
+    ad Quintum fratrem, 86
+    ad Traianum, 335
+    ex Campania, 267
+    ex Ponto, 213
+    Latinae, 97
+    morales, 252
+    of Horace, 171, 172, 179
+    of Ovid, 208
+    of Pliny, 334
+  Epithalamia, 143
+  Epodi, 171, 174
+  Erotopaegnia, 66
+  Euhemerus, 31
+  Excellentibus ducibus, De, 116
+  Exempla
+    (Nepos), 115
+    (Hyginus), 224
+  Exhortationes, 253
+
+  Fabellae, 185
+  Fabulae Aesopiae, 239
+  Facta et dicta memorabilia, 234
+  Familiis Troianis, De
+    (Hyginus), 224
+    (Varro), 95
+  Fasti
+    (Ovid), 210
+    (Verrius), 224
+  Fato, De, 82
+  Finibus, De, 80
+  Flacco, Pro, 75
+  Fonteio, Pro, 74
+  Forma mundi, De, 253
+  Forma philosophiae, De, 95
+  Formula honestae vitae, De, 254
+
+  Gente populi Romani, De, 95
+  Geometria, De, 95
+  Georgica, 157
+  Germania, 341
+  Gloria, De, 82
+
+  Halieuticon, 213
+  Haruspicum responsis, De, 76
+  Heauton Timorumenos, 45
+  Hebdomades, 95
+  Hecuba, 253
+  Hecyra, 47
+  Hedyphagetica 31
+  Herbis, De, 182
+  Hercules Furens; Herc. Oetaeus, 253
+  Heroides, 208
+  Hippolytus, 253
+  Historia Romana, 232
+  Historiae
+    (Sall.), 129
+    (Sisenna), 67
+    (Tac.), 341
+  Homerus Latinus, 291
+  Hortationes ad philosophiam, 152
+  Hortensius, 80
+  Hymenaeus, 141
+
+  Iaculatione equestri, De, 284
+  Ibis, 212
+  Iliacon, 267
+  Imagines, 95
+  Imaginibus, De, 91
+  Immatura morte, De, 253
+  Imperio Cn. Pompei, De, 74
+  Incendio urbis, De, 267
+  Institutio oratoria, 306
+  Inventione, De, 83
+  Io, 143
+  Iocularis libellus, 88
+  Ira, De, 250
+  Iter, 111
+  Iure civili, De, 95
+  Iure civili in artem redigendo, De, 87
+
+  Laelius, 82
+  Lapidum natura, De, 253
+  Lectionibus, De, 95
+  Legationum libri, 95
+  Lege agraria, De, 74
+  Lege Manilia, Pro, 74
+  Legibus, De, 79
+  Ligario, Pro, 77
+  Limon, 88
+  Lingua Latina, De, 94
+  +Logistorikoi+, 96
+  Lucubrationes, 100
+  Lucullus, 81
+  Ludus de morte Claudi, 251
+
+  Maccus Copa, Miles, Sequester, Virgo, 67
+  Marcello, Pro, 77
+  Marius, 88
+  Matrimonio, De, 253
+  Medea
+    (Ennius), 30
+    (Lucan), 267
+    (Maternus), 341
+    (Ovid), 208
+    (Sen.), 253
+  Medicamina, 209
+  Menaechmi, 14
+  Mensuralia, 95
+  Mensuris, De, 95
+  Mercator, 15
+  Metamorphoses, 209
+  Miles Gloriosus, 14
+  Milone, Pro, 77
+  Mimi
+    (Laberius), 97
+    (Syrus), 145
+  Mimiambi, 66
+  Monita, 254
+  Moralis philosophiae libri, 254
+  Moretum
+    (Sueius), 66
+    (Virg.), 154
+  Moribus, De
+    (Cato), 55
+    (Sen.), 254
+  Mostellaria, 14
+  Motu terrarum, De, 253
+  Murena, Pro, 75
+
+  Natura deorum, De, 81
+  Naturae historiae, 285
+  Naturales quaestiones, 252
+  Navales libri, 95
+  Neronem, In, 268
+  Neronis laudes, 267
+  Nidus, 66
+  Niptra, 36
+  Noctes Atticae, 352
+  Numerorum libri, 95
+
+  Octavia, 253
+  Octavium, Or. in, 267
+  Odes (Hor.), 171, 172, 174
+  +Hodoiporika+, 261
+  Odyssea, 3
+  Oedipus
+    (Caes.), 111
+    (Sen.), 253
+  Officiis, De
+    (Cic.), 82
+    (Sen.), 253
+  Optimo genere dicendi, De, 84
+  Optimo genere oratorum, De, 85
+  Ora maritima, De, 95
+  Orator, 84
+  Oratore, De, 84
+  Origine linguae Latinae, De, 94
+  Origines, 54
+  Originibus scenicis, De, 95
+  Ornithogonia, 182
+  Orpheus, 267
+  Otio, De, 250
+
+  Pancratiastes, 30
+  +Pandektai+, 90
+  Panegyricus (Plin.), 330
+  Panegyricus Messallae, 191
+  Paradoxa, 80
+  Partitiones Oratoriae, 85
+  Paulus, 36
+  Paupertate, De, 254
+  Peleus et Thetis, 139
+  +Perialges+, 165
+  Persa, 16
+  Personis, De, 95
+  Petitione consulatus, De, 89
+  Phaedra, 253
+  Phaenomena, 281
+  Pharsalia, 267
+  Philippicae Historiae, 223
+  Philippics, 78
+  Philosophia, De, 95
+  Phoenissae, 253
+  Phormio, 46
+  Piscium natura, De, 253
+  Pisonem, In, 77
+  Pisonis, De Laude, 277
+  Plancio, Pro, 77
+  Plocium, 38
+  Poematis, De, 95
+  Poenulus, 16
+  Poetis, De
+    (Sedig.), 66
+    (Varro), 95
+  Pollam, Ad, 268
+  Pompeio, De, 95
+  Pontius Glaucus, 87
+  Ponto, Epp. ex, 213
+  Praecepta, 31
+  Praecepta ad filium, 55
+  Pragmatica, 57
+  Praxidica, 57
+  Priapea, 154, 191
+  Pridie quam in exilium iret, 78
+  Principiis numerorum, De, 95
+  Prognostica, 87, 281
+  Propempticon Pollionis, 142
+  Proprietate Scriptorum, De, 95
+  Protreptica, 31
+  Providentia, De, 250
+  Provinciis consularibus, De, 76
+  Pseudolus, 15
+  Pseudotragoediae, 96
+  Pulli, 66
+  Punica, 290
+
+  Quaestiones Plautinae, 95
+  Quinctio, Pro, 73
+
+  Rabirio Postumo, Pro, 77
+  Rabirio perd. reo, Pro, 74
+  Re medica, De, 236
+  Re militari, De, 55
+  Re publica, De, 79
+  Re rustica, De
+    (Varro), 93
+    (Colum.), 258
+  Remedia Amoris, 209
+  Remediis fortuitorum, De, 254
+  Rerum natura, De
+    (Egnatius), 99
+    (Lucretius), 120
+  Res urbanae, 95
+  Rescripta, 152
+  Rhetorica
+    (Hortens.), 74
+    (Cic.), 83
+    ad Herenn., 88
+    (Varro), 95
+    (Quint.), 306
+  Ritu et sacris Aegyptiorum, De, 253
+  Romulus, 7
+  Roscio, Pro Sex., 73
+  Roscio Comoedo, Pro, 73
+  Rudens, 16
+
+  Sacra Historia, 31
+  Sallustium, In, 78, 130
+  Salticae fabulae, 267
+  Saturae Menippeae, 96
+  Saturae
+    (Enn.), 30
+    (Pacuv.), 36
+    (Lucil.), 61
+    (Atac.), 144
+    (Hor.), 170, 172
+    (Persius), 262
+    (Petron.), 272
+    (Juv.), 320, 323
+  Saturnalia (Lucan.), 267
+  Saturnalia (Macrob.), 354
+  Scenicis actionibus, De, 95
+  Scipio, 31
+  Senectute, De, 82
+  Sententiae (Varro), 97
+  Sententiae (Syrus), 145
+  Sententiae Rufi, 254
+  Sermone Latino, De, 94
+  Sermones (Hor.), 170, 172, 179
+  Sestio, Pro, 76
+  Sicilia, 152
+  Silvae (Lucan), 267
+  Silvae (Statius), 295
+  Similitudine verborum, De, 94
+  Situ Indiae, De, 253
+  Situ urbium Italicarum, De, 224
+  Somnium Scipionis, 79
+  Sota, 31
+  Spectacula, 300
+  Stichus, 17
+  Strategemata, 311
+  Studiosus, 284
+  Suasiones, 97
+  Suasoriae, 229
+  Sulla, Pro, 75
+  Superstitione, De, 253
+
+  Temporibus suis, De, 87
+  Tereus, 56
+  Thebais (Sen.), 253
+  Thebais (Stat.), 293
+  Theriaca, 182
+  Thyestes
+    (Enn.), 30
+    (Varius), 182
+    (Sen.), 253
+    (Maternus), 341
+  Topica, 85
+  Tranquillitate animi, De, 250
+  Tribuum liber, 95
+  +Trikaranos+, 92
+  Trinummus, 17
+  Tristia, 212
+  Troades, 253
+  Truculentus, 17
+  Tullium, invectiva in, 130
+  Tusculanae disputationes, 81
+
+  Urbanitate, De, 185
+  Utilitate sermonis, De, 94
+  Uxorem, Ad, 143
+
+  Vatinium, In, 76
+  Verborum significatu, De, 224
+  Verrem, In, 73
+  Vescia, 261
+  Vidularia, 18
+  Viris illustribus, De
+    (Hyg.), 224
+    (Nep.), 116
+    (Sueton.), 349
+  Virtutibus, De, 82
+  Vita beata, De, 250
+  Vita Caesarum, De, 349
+  Vita patris, De, 253
+  Vita Pomponii, De, 284
+  Vita populi Romani, De, 95
+  Vita sua, De
+    (Varro), 95
+    (Aug.), 152
+
+  Xenia, 300
+  +Charakteron, peri+, 94
+  +Chronikoi kanones+, 351
+
+  Zmyrna, 141
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+GLASGOW: PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND CO.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+    | Transcriber's note:                                          |
+    |                                                              |
+    | Typographical errors corrected in the text:                  |
+    |                                                              |
+    | Page  29: "equs" changed to "equus"                          |
+    | Page  34: single quote added following "clueret."            |
+    | Page 161: period added following "Religion in the Aeneid"    |
+    | Page 218: single quote added following "capit."              |
+    | Page 259: "B.C." changed to "A.D."                           |
+    |           "Claudius" changed to "Caligula"                   |
+    |           "Caligula" changed to "Claudius" (twice)           |
+    | Page 263: single quote added following "ineptis."            |
+    | Page 381: "Octaviam" changed to "Octavium"                   |
+    |                                                              |
+    | Inconsistencies in hyphenation have not been normalized.     |
+    +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Student's Companion to Latin
+Authors, by George Middleton and Thomas R. Mills
+
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