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diff --git a/28558.txt b/28558.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..34f93f6 --- /dev/null +++ b/28558.txt @@ -0,0 +1,22531 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ancient History of the Egyptians, +Carthaginians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes and Persians, Macedonians and +Grecians (Vol. 1 of 6) by Charles Rollin + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: The Ancient History of the Egyptians, Carthaginians, Assyrians, + Babylonians, Medes and Persians, Macedonians and + Grecians (Vol. 1 of + 6) + +Author: Charles Rollin + +Release Date: April 11, 2009 [Ebook #28558] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIANS, CARTHAGINIANS, ASSYRIANS, + BABYLONIANS, MEDES AND PERSIANS, MACEDONIANS AND GRECIANS (VOL. 1 OF + 6)*** + + + + + + The + + Ancient History + + Of The + + Egyptians, Carthaginians, + + Assyrians, Babylonians, + + Medes and Persians, + + Macedonians and Grecians + + By + + Charles Rollin + + Late Principal of the University of Paris + + Professor of Eloquence in The Royal College + + And Member of the Royal Academy + + Of Inscriptions and Belles Letters + + Translated From The French + + In Six Volumes + + Vol. I. + + New Edition + + Illustrated With Maps and Other Engravings + + London + + Printed for Longman And Co., J. M. Richardson, + + Hamilton And Co., Hatchard And Son, Simpkin And Co., + + Rivingtons, Whittaker And Co., Allen And Co., + + Nisbet And Co., J. Bain, T. And W. Boone, E. Hodgson, + + T. Bumpus, Smith, Elder, And Co., J. Capes, L. Booth, + + Bigg And Son, Houlston And Co., H. Washbourne, + + Bickets And Bush, Waller And Son, Cambridge, + + Wilson And Sons, York, G. And J. Robinson, Liverpool, + + And A. And C. Black, Edinburgh + + 1850 + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +Preface. +Book The First. The Ancient History Of The Egyptians. + Part The First. Description of Egypt. + Chapter I. Thebais. + Chapter II. Middle Egypt, or Heptanomis. + Chapter III. Lower Egypt. + Part The Second. Of the Manners and Customs of the Egyptians. + Chapter I. Concerning The Kings And Government. + Chapter II. Concerning the Priests And Religion Of The Egyptians. + Chapter III. Of The Egyptian Soldiers And War. + Chapter IV. Of Their Arts And Sciences. + Chapter V. Of Their Husbandmen, Shepherds, and Artificers. + Chapter VI. Of The Fertility Of Egypt. + Part The Third. The History of the Kings of Egypt. +Book The Second. The History Of The Carthaginians. + Part The First. Character, Manners, Religion, Government. + Part The Second. The History of the Carthaginians. + Chapter I. The Foundation of Carthage. + Chapter II. The History of Carthage. +Book the Third. The History of the Assyrians. + Chapter I. The First Empire of the Assyrians. + Chapter II. The Second Assyrian Empire, both of Nineveh and Babylon. + Chapter III. The History of the Kingdom of the Medes. + Chapter IV. The History of the Lydians. +Maps. +Footnotes + + + + + + + [Illustration: Portrait of Charles Rollin.] + + Charles Rollin. Born 1661. Died 1741. + + +[Transcriber's Note: The French original of this work was published +1730-38. The translation was done by Robert Lynam.] + + + + + +A Letter written by the Right Reverend Dr. FRANCIS ATTERBURY, late Lord +Bishop of Rochester, to M. ROLLIN, in commendation of this Work. + +Reverende atque Eruditissime Vir, + +Cum, monente amico quodam, qui juxta aedes tuas habitat, scirem te Parisios +revertisse; statui salutatum te ire, ut primum per valetudinem liceret. Id +officii, ex pedum infirmitate aliquandiu dilatum, cum tandem me impleturum +sperarem, frustra fui; domi non eras. Restat, ut quod coram exequi non +potui, scriptis saltem literis praestem; tibique ob ea omnia, quibus a te +auctus sum, beneficia, grates agam, quas habeo certe, et semper habiturus +sum, maximas. + +Revera munera ilia librorum nuperis a te annis editorum egregia ac +perhonorifica mihi visa sunt. Multi enim facio, et te, vir praestantissime, +et tua omnia quaecunque in isto literarum genere perpolita sunt; in quo +quidem Te caeteris omnibus ejusmodi scriptoribus facile antecellere, atque +esse eundem et dicendi et sentiendi magistrum optimum, prorsus existimo; +cumque in excolendis his studiis aliquantulum ipse et operae et temporis +posuerim, libere tamen profiteor me, tua cum legam ac relegam, ea edoctum +esse a te, non solum quae nesciebam prorsus, sed etiam quae antea didicisse +mihi visus sum. Modeste itaque nimium de opere tuo sentis, cum juventuti +tantum instituendae elaboratum id esse contendis. Ea certe scribis, quae a +viris istiusmodi rerum haud imperitis, cum voluptate et fructu legi +possunt. Vetera quidem et satis cognita revocas in memoriam; sed ita +revocas, ut illustres, ut ornes; ut aliquid vetustis adjicias quod novum +sit, alienis quod omnino tuum: bonasque picturas bona in luce collocando +efficis, ut etiam iis, a quibus saepissime conspectae sunt, elegantiores +tamen solito appareant, et placeant magis. + +Certe, dum Xenophontem saepius versas, ab illo et ea quae a te plurimis in +locis narrantur, et ipsum ubique narrandi modum videris traxisse, stylique +Xenophontei nitorem ac venustam simplicitatem non imitari tantum, sed +plane assequi: ita ut si Gallice scisset Xenophon, non aliis ilium, in eo +argumento quod tractas, verbis usurum, non alio prorsus more scripturum +judicem. + +Haec ego, haud assentandi causa, (quod vitium procul a me abest,) sed vere +ex animi sententia dico. Cum enim pulchris a te donis ditatus sim, quibus +in eodem, aut in alio quopiam doctrinae genere referendis imparem me +sentio, volui tamen propensi erga te animi gratique testimonium proferre, +et te aliquo saltem munusculo, etsi perquam dissimili, remunerari. + +Perge, vir docte admodum et venerande, de bonis literis, quae nunc neglectae +passim et spretae jacent, bene mereri: perge juventatem Gallicam (quando +illi solummodo te utilem esse vis) optimis et praeceptis et exemplis +informare. + +Quod ut facias, annis aetatis tuae elapsis multos adjiciat Deus! iisque +decurrentibus sanum te praestet atque incolumem. Hoc ex animo optat ac +vovet + +Tui observantissimus +FRANCISCUS ROFFENSIS. + +Pransurum te mecum post festa dixit mihi amicus ille noster qui tibi +vicinus est. Cum statueris tecum quo die adfuturus es, id illi +significabis. Me certe annis malisque debilitatum, quandocunque veneris, +domi invenies. + +_6 deg. Kal. Jan. 1731._ + + + + + +A Letter written by the Right Reverend Dr. FRANCIS ATTERBURY, late Lord +Bishop of Rochester, to M. ROLLIN, in commendation of this Work. + +Reverend and most Learned Sir, + +When I was informed by a friend who lives near you, that you were returned +to Paris, I resolved to wait on you, as soon as my health would admit. +After having been prevented by the gout for some time, I was in hopes at +length of paying my respects to you at your house, and went thither, but +found you not at home. It is incumbent on me therefore to do that in +writing, which I could not in person, and to return you my acknowledgments +for all the favours you have been pleased to confer upon me, of which I +beg you will be assured, that I shall always retain the most grateful +sense. + +And indeed I esteem the books you have lately published, as presents of +exceeding value, and such as do me very great honour. For I have the +highest regard, most excellent Sir, both for you, and for every thing that +comes from so masterly a hand as yours, in the kind of learning you treat; +in which I must believe that you not only excel all other writers, but are +at the same time the best master of speaking and thinking well; and I +freely confess that, though I had applied some time and pains in +cultivating these studies, when I read your volumes over and over again, I +was instructed in things by you, of which I was not only entirely +ignorant, but seemed to myself to have learnt before. You have therefore +too modest an opinion of your work, when you declare it composed solely +for the instruction of youth. What you write may undoubtedly be read with +pleasure and improvement by persons not unacquainted with learning of the +same kind. For whilst you call to mind ancient facts and things +sufficiently known, you do it in such a manner, that you illustrate, you +embellish them; still adding something new to the old, something entirely +your own to the labours of others: by placing good pictures in a good +light, you make them appear with unusual elegance and more exalted +beauties, even to those who have seen and studied them most. + +In your frequent correspondence with Xenophon, you have certainly +extracted from him, both what you relate in many places, and every where +his very manner of relating; you seem not only to have imitated, but +attained the shining elegance and beautiful simplicity of that author's +style: so that had Xenophon excelled in the French language, in my +judgment he would have used no other words, nor written in any other +method, upon the subject you treat, than you have done. + +I do not say this out of flattery, (which is far from being my vice,) but +from my real sentiments and opinion. As you have enriched me with your +fine presents, which I know how incapable I am of repaying either in the +same or in any other kind of learning, I was willing to testify my +gratitude and affection for you, and at least to make you some small, +though exceedingly unequal, return. + +Go on, most learned and venerable Sir, to deserve well of sound +literature, which now lies universally neglected and despised. Go on, in +forming the youth of France (since you will have their utility to be your +sole view) upon the best precepts and examples. + +Which that you may effect, may it please God to add many years to your +life, and during the course of them to preserve you in health and safety. +This is the earnest wish and prayer of + +Your most obedient Servant, +FRANCIS ROFFEN. + +P.S.--Our friend, your neighbour, tells me you intend to dine with me after +the holidays. When you have fixed upon the day, be pleased to let him know +it. Whenever you come, you will be sure to find one so weak with age and +ills as I am, at home. + +_December 26, 1731._ + + + + + +PREFACE. + + + + +The Usefulness of Profane History, especially with regard to Religion. + + +The study of profane history would little deserve to have a serious +attention, and a considerable length of time bestowed upon it, if it were +confined to the bare knowledge of ancient transactions, and an +uninteresting inquiry into the aeras when each of them happened. It little +concerns us to know, that there were once such men as Alexander, Caesar, +Aristides, or Cato, and that they lived in this or that period; that the +empire of the Assyrians made way for that of the Babylonians, and the +latter for the empire of the Medes and Persians, who were themselves +subjected by the Macedonians, as these were afterwards by the Romans. + +But it highly concerns us to know, by what methods those empires were +founded; by what steps they rose to that exalted pitch of grandeur which +we so much admire; what it was that constituted their true glory and +felicity; and what were the causes of their declension and fall. + +It is of no less importance to study attentively the manners of different +nations; their genius, laws, and customs; and especially to acquaint +ourselves with the character and disposition, the talents, virtues, and +even vices of those by whom they were governed; and whose good or bad +qualities contributed to the grandeur or decay of the states over which +they presided. + +Such are the great objects which ancient history presents; causing to +pass, as it were, in review before us, all the kingdoms and empires of the +world; and at the same time, all the great men who were any ways +conspicuous; thereby instructing us, by example rather than precept, in +the arts of empire and war, the principles of government, the rules of +policy, the maxims of civil society, and the conduct of life that suits +all ages and conditions. + +We acquire, at the same time, another knowledge, which cannot but excite +the attention of all persons who have a taste and inclination for polite +learning; I mean the manner in which arts and sciences were invented, +cultivated, and improved. We there discover, and trace as it were with the +eye, their origin and progress; and perceive, with admiration, that the +nearer we approach those countries which were once inhabited by the sons +of Noah, in the greater perfection we find the arts and sciences; whereas +they seem to be either neglected or forgotten, in proportion to the +remoteness of nations from them; so that, when men attempted to revive +those arts and sciences, they were obliged to go back to the source from +whence they originally flowed. + +I give only a transient view of these objects, though so very important, +in this place, because I have already treated them at some length +elsewhere.(1) + +But another object of infinitely greater importance, claims our attention. +For although profane history treats only of nations who had imbibed all +the absurdities of a superstitious worship; and abandoned themselves to +all the irregularities of which human nature, after the fall of the first +man, became capable; it nevertheless proclaims universally the greatness +of the Almighty, his power, his justice, and above all, the admirable +wisdom with which his providence governs the universe. + +If the inherent conviction of this last truth raised, according to +Cicero's observation,(2) the Romans above all other nations; we may, in +like manner, affirm, that nothing gives history a greater superiority to +many other branches of literature, than to see in a manner imprinted, in +almost every page of it, the precious footsteps and shining proofs of this +great truth, _viz._ that God disposes all events as supreme Lord and +Sovereign; that he alone determines the fate of kings and the duration of +empires; and that he transfers the government of kingdoms from one nation +to another, because of the unrighteous dealing and wickedness committed +therein.(3) + +We discover this important truth in going back to the most remote +antiquity, and the origin of profane history; I mean, to the dispersion of +the posterity of Noah into the several countries of the earth where they +settled. Liberty, chance, views of interest, a love for certain countries, +and similar motives, were, in outward appearance, the only causes of the +different choice which men made in these various migrations. But the +Scriptures inform us, that amidst the trouble and confusion that followed +the sudden change in the language of Noah's descendants, God presided +invisibly over all their counsels and deliberations; that nothing was +transacted but by the Almighty's appointment; and that he alone guided(4) +and settled all mankind, agreeably to the dictates of his mercy and +justice: "The Lord scattered them abroad from thence upon the face of the +earth."(5) + +It is true indeed that God, even in those early ages, had a peculiar +regard for that people, whom he was one day to consider as his own. He +pointed out the country which he designed for them; he caused it to be +possessed by another laborious nation, who applied themselves to cultivate +and adorn it; and to improve the future inheritance of the Israelites. He +then fixed, in that country, the like number of families, as were to be +settled in it, when the sons of Israel should, at the appointed time, take +possession of it; and did not suffer any of the nations, which were not +subject to the curse pronounced by Noah against Canaan, to enter upon an +inheritance that was to be given up entirely to the Israelites. _Quando +dividebat Altissimus gentes, quando separabat filios Adam, constituit +terminos populorum juxta numerum filiorum Israel._(6) But this peculiar +regard of God to his future people, does not interfere with that which he +had for the rest of the nations of the earth, as is evident from the many +passages of Scripture, which teach us, that the entire succession of ages +is present to him; that nothing is transacted in the whole universe, but +by his appointment; and that he directs the several events of it from age +to age. _Tu es Deus conspector seculorum. A seculo usque in seculum +respicis._(7) + +We must therefore consider, as an indisputable principle, and as the basis +and foundation of the study of profane history, that the providence of the +Almighty has, from all eternity, appointed the establishment, duration, +and destruction of kingdoms and empires, as well in regard to the general +plan of the whole universe, known only to God, who constitutes the order +and wonderful harmony of its several parts; as particularly with respect +to the people of Israel, and still more with regard to the Messiah, and +the establishment of the church, which is his great work, the end and +design of all his other works, and ever present to his sight; _Notum a +seculo est Domino opus suum._(8) + +God has vouchsafed to discover to us, in holy Scripture, a part of the +relation of the several nations of the earth to his own people; and the +little so discovered, diffuses great light over the history of those +nations, of whom we shall have but a very imperfect idea, unless we have +recourse to the inspired writers. They alone display, and bring to light, +the secret thoughts of princes, their incoherent projects, their foolish +pride, their impious and cruel ambition: they reveal the true causes and +hidden springs of victories and overthrows; of the grandeur and declension +of nations; the rise and ruin of states; and teach us, what indeed is the +principal benefit to be derived from history, the judgment which the +Almighty forms both of princes and empires, and consequently, what idea we +ourselves ought to entertain of them. + +Not to mention Egypt, that served at first as the cradle (if I may be +allowed the expression) of the holy nation; and which afterwards was a +severe prison, and a fiery furnace to it(9); and, at last, the scene of +the most astonishing miracles that God ever wrought in favour of Israel: +not to mention, I say, Egypt, the mighty empires of Nineveh and Babylon +furnish a thousand proofs of the truth here advanced. + +Their most powerful monarchs, Tiglath-Pileser, Shalmanezer, Sennacherib, +Nebuchadnezzar, and many more, were, in God's hand, as so many +instruments, which he employed to punish the transgressions of his people. +"He lifted up an ensign to the nations from far, and hissed unto them from +the end of the earth, to come and receive his orders."(10) He himself put +the sword into their hands, and appointed their marches daily. He breathed +courage and ardour into their soldiers; made their armies indefatigable in +labour, and invincible in battle; and spread terror and consternation +wherever they directed their steps. + +The rapidity of their conquests ought to have enabled them to discern the +invisible hand which conducted them. But, says one of these kings(11) in +the name of the rest, "By the strength of my hand I have done it, and by +my wisdom; for I am prudent: And I have removed the bounds of the people +and have robbed their treasures, and I have put down the inhabitants like +a valiant man. And my hand hath found as a nest the riches of the people: +and as one gathereth eggs that are left, have I gathered all the earth, +and there was none that moved the wing, or opened the mouth, or +peeped."(12) + +But this monarch, so august and wise in his own eye, how did he appear in +that of the Almighty? Only as a subaltern agent, a servant sent by his +master: "The rod of his anger, and the staff in his hand."(13) God's +design was to chastise, not to extirpate his children. But Sennacherib +"had it in his heart to destroy and cut off all nations."(14) What then +will be the issue of this kind of contest between the designs of God, and +those of this prince?(15) At the time that he fancied himself already +possessed of Jerusalem, the Lord, with a single blast, disperses all his +proud hopes; destroys, in one night, an hundred four score and five +thousand of his forces; and putting "a hook in his nose, and a bridle in +his lips",(16) (as though he had been a wild beast,) he leads him back to +his own dominions, covered with infamy, through the midst of those +nations, who, but a little before, had beheld him in all his pride and +haughtiness. + +Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, appears still more visibly governed by a +Providence, to which he himself is an entire stranger, but which presides +over all his deliberations, and determines all his actions. + +Being come at the head of his army to two highways, the one of which led +to Jerusalem, and the other to Rabbah, the chief city of the Ammonites, +this king, not knowing which of them it would be best for him to strike +into, debates for some time with himself, and at last casts lots. God +makes the lot fall on Jerusalem, to fulfil the menaces he had pronounced +against that city, _viz._ to destroy it, to burn the temple, and lead its +inhabitants into captivity.(17) + +One would imagine, at first sight, that this king had been prompted to +besiege Tyre, merely from a political view, _viz._ that he might not leave +behind him so powerful and well-fortified a city; nevertheless, a superior +will had decreed the siege of Tyre.(18) God designed, on one side, to +humble the pride of Ithobal its king, who fancying himself wiser than +Daniel, whose fame was spread over the whole East; and ascribing entirely +to his rare and uncommon prudence the extent of his dominions, and the +greatness of his riches, persuaded himself that he was "a god, and sat in +the seat of God."(19) On the other side, he also designed to chastise the +luxury, the voluptuousness, and the pride of those haughty merchants, who +thought themselves kings of the sea, and sovereigns over crowned heads; +and especially, that inhuman joy of the Tyrians, who looked upon the fall +of Jerusalem (the rival of Tyre) as their own aggrandizement. These were +the motives which prompted God himself to lead Nebuchadnezzar to Tyre; and +to make him execute, though unknowingly, his commands. _Idcirco ecce ego +adducam ad Tyrum Nabuchodonosor._ + +To recompense this monarch, whose army the Almighty had caused "to serve a +great service against Tyre"(20) (these are God's own words;) and to +compensate the Babylonish troops, for the grievous toils they had +sustained during a thirteen years' siege; "I will give,"(21) saith the +Lord God, "the land of Egypt unto Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon; and he +shall take her multitude, and take her spoil, and take her prey, and it +shall be the wages for his army."(22) + +The same Nebuchadnezzar, eager to immortalize his name by the grandeur of +his exploits, was determined to heighten the glory of his conquests by his +splendour and magnificence, in embellishing the capital of his empire with +pompous edifices, and the most sumptuous ornaments. But whilst a set of +adulating courtiers, on whom he lavished the highest honours and immense +riches, make all places resound with his name, an august senate of +watchful spirits is formed, who weigh, in the balance of truth, the +actions of kings, and pronounce upon them a sentence from which there lies +no appeal. The king of Babylon is cited before this tribunal, in which +there presides the Supreme Judge, who, to a vigilance which nothing can +elude, adds a holiness that will not allow of the least irregularity. +_Vigil et sanctus._ In this tribunal all Nebuchadnezzar's actions, which +were the admiration and wonder of the public, are examined with rigour; +and a search is made into the inward recesses of his heart, to discover +his most hidden thoughts. How will this formidable inquiry end? At the +instant that Nebuchadnezzar, walking in his palace, and revolving, with a +secret complacency, his exploits, his grandeur and magnificence, is saying +to himself, "Is not this great Babylon that I built for the house of the +kingdom, by the might of my power, and for the honour of my majesty?"(23) +in this very instant, when, by vainly flattering himself that he held his +power and kingdom from himself alone, he usurped the seat of the Almighty: +a voice from heaven pronounces his sentence, and declares to him, that +"his kingdom was departed from him, that he should be driven from men, and +his dwelling be with the beasts of the field, until he knew that the Most +High ruled in the kingdoms of men, and gave them to whomsoever he +would."(24) + +This tribunal, which is for ever assembled, though invisible to mortal +eyes, pronounced the like sentence on those famous conquerors, on those +heroes of the pagan world, who, like Nebuchadnezzar, considered themselves +as the sole authors of their exalted fortune; as independent on authority +of every kind, and as not holding of a superior power. + +As God appointed some princes to be the instruments of his vengeance, he +made others the dispensers of his goodness. He ordained Cyrus to be the +deliverer of his people; and, to enable him to support with dignity so +glorious a function, he endued him with all the qualities which constitute +the greatest captains and princes: and caused that excellent education to +be given him, which the heathens so much admired, though they neither knew +the author nor true cause of it. + +We see in profane history the extent and swiftness of his conquests, the +intrepidity of his courage, the wisdom of his views and designs; his +greatness of soul, his noble generosity; his truly paternal affection for +his subjects; and, on their part, the grateful returns of love and +tenderness, which made them consider him rather as their protector and +father, than as their lord and sovereign. We find, I say, all these +particulars in profane history; but we do not perceive the secret +principle of so many exalted qualities, nor the hidden spring which set +them in motion. + +But Isaiah discloses them, and delivers himself in words suitable to the +greatness and majesty of the God who inspired him, He represents this +all-powerful God of armies as leading Cyrus by the hand, marching before +him, conducting him from city to city, and from province to province; +"subduing nations before him, loosening the loins of kings, breaking in +pieces gates of brass, cutting in sunder the bars of iron," throwing down +the walls and bulwarks of cities, and putting him in possession "of the +treasures of darkness, and the hidden riches of secret places."(25) + +The prophet also tells us the cause and motive of all these wonderful +events.(26) It was in order to punish Babylon, and to deliver Judah, that +the Almighty conducts Cyrus, step by step, and gives success to all his +enterprises. "I have raised him up in righteousness, and I will direct all +his ways.--For Jacob my servant's sake, and Israel mine elect."(27) But +this prince is so blind and ungrateful, that he does not know his master, +nor remember his benefactor. "I have surnamed thee, though thou hast not +known me.--I girded thee, though thou hast not known me."(28) + +Men seldom form to themselves a right judgment of true glory, and the +duties essential to regal power. The Scripture alone gives us a just idea +of them, and this it does in a wonderful manner, under the image of a very +large and strong tree, whose top reaches to heaven, and whose branches +extend to the extremities of the earth.(29) As its foliage is very +abundant, and it is bowed down with fruit, it constitutes the ornament and +felicity of the plains around it. It supplies a grateful shade, and a +secure retreat to beasts of every kind: animals, both wild and tame, are +safely lodged beneath it, the birds of heaven dwell in its branches, and +it supplies food to all living creatures. + +Can there be a more just or more instructive idea of the kingly office, +whose true grandeur and solid glory does not consist in that splendour, +pomp, and magnificence which surround it; nor in that reverence and +exterior homage which are paid to it by subjects, and which are justly due +to it; but in the real services and solid advantages it procures to +nations, whose support, defence, security, and asylum it forms, (both from +its nature and institution,) at the same time that it is the fruitful +source of blessings of every kind; especially with regard to the poor and +weak, who ought to find beneath the shade and protection of royalty, a +sweet peace and tranquillity, not to be interrupted or disturbed; whilst +the monarch himself sacrifices his ease, and experiences alone those +storms and tempests from which he shelters all others? + +I think that I observe this noble image, and the execution of this great +plan (religion only excepted) realized in the government of Cyrus, of +which Xenophon has given us a picture, in his beautiful preface to the +history of that prince. He has there specified a great number of nations, +which, though separated from each other by vast tracts of country, and +still more widely by the diversity of their manners, customs, and +language, were however all united, by the same sentiments of esteem, +reverence, and love for a prince, whose government they wished, if +possible, to have continued for ever, so much happiness and tranquillity +did they enjoy under it.(30) + +To this amiable and salutary government, let us oppose the idea which the +sacred writings give us of those monarchs and conquerors so much boasted +by antiquity, who, instead of making the happiness of mankind the sole +object of their care, were prompted by no other motives than those of +interest and ambition. The Holy Spirit represents them under the symbols +of monsters generated from the agitation of the sea, from the tumult, +confusion, and dashing of the waves one against the other; and under the +image of cruel wild beasts, which spread terror and desolation +universally, and are for ever gorging themselves with blood and slaughter; +bears, lions, tigers, and leopards.(31) How strong and expressive is this +colouring! + +Nevertheless, it is often from such destructive models, that the rules and +maxims of the education generally bestowed on the children of the great +are borrowed; and it is these ravagers of nations, these scourges of +mankind, they propose to make them resemble. By inspiring them with the +sentiments of a boundless ambition, and the love of false glory, they +become (to borrow an expression from Scripture) "young lions; they learn +to catch the prey, and devour men--to lay waste cities, to turn lands and +their fatness into desolation by the noise of their roaring."(32) And when +this young lion is grown up, God tells us, that the noise of his exploits, +and the renown of his victories, are nothing but a frightful roaring, +which fills all places with terror and desolation. + +The examples I have hitherto mentioned, extracted from the history of the +Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians, prove sufficiently the +supreme power exercised by God over all empires; and the relation he has +thought fit to establish between the rest of the nations of the earth and +his own peculiar people. The same truth appears as conspicuously under the +kings of Syria and Egypt, successors of Alexander the Great: between whose +history, and that of the Jews under the Maccabees, every body knows the +close connection. + +To these incidents I cannot forbear adding another, which though +universally known, is not therefore the less remarkable; I mean the taking +of Jerusalem by Titus. When he had entered that city, and viewed all the +fortifications of it, this prince, though a heathen, owned the +all-powerful arm of the God of Israel; and, in a rapture of admiration, +cried out, "It is manifest that the Almighty has fought for us, and has +driven the Jews from those towers; since neither the utmost human force, +nor that of all the engines in the world, could have effected it."(33) + +Besides the visible and sensible connection of sacred and profane history, +there is another more secret and more distinct relation with respect to +the Messiah, for whose coming the Almighty, whose work was ever present to +his sight, prepared mankind from far, even by the state of ignorance and +dissoluteness in which he suffered them to be immersed during four +thousand years. It was to make mankind sensible of the necessity of our +having a Mediator, that God permitted the nations to walk after their own +ways; while neither the light of reason, nor the dictates of philosophy, +could dispel the clouds of error, or reform their depraved inclinations. + +When we take a view of the grandeur of empires, the majesty of princes, +the glorious actions of great men, the order of civil societies, and the +harmony of the different members of which they are composed, the wisdom of +legislators, and the learning of philosophers, the earth seems to exhibit +nothing to the eye of man but what is great and resplendent; nevertheless, +in the eye of God it was equally barren and uncultivated, as at the first +instant of the creation. "The earth was WITHOUT FORM AND VOID."(34) This +is saying but little: it was wholly polluted and impure, (the reader will +observe that I speak here of the heathens), and appeared to God only as +the haunt and retreat of ungrateful and perfidious men, as it did at the +time of the flood. "The earth was corrupt before God, and was filled with +iniquity."(35) + +Nevertheless the Sovereign Arbiter of the universe, who, pursuant to the +dictates of his wisdom, dispenses both light and darkness, and knows how +to check the impetuous torrent of human passions, would not permit +mankind, though abandoned to the utmost corruptions, to degenerate into +absolute barbarity, and brutalize themselves, in a manner, by the +extinction of the first principles of the law of nature, as is seen in +several savage nations. Such an obstacle would have too much retarded the +rapid progress, promised by him to the first preachers of the doctrine of +his Son. + +He darted from far, into the minds of men, the rays of several great +truths, to dispose them for the reception of others more important. He +prepared them for the instructions of the Gospel, by those of +philosophers; and it was with this view that God permitted the heathen +professors to examine, in their schools, several questions, and establish +several principles, which are nearly allied to religion; and to engage the +attention of mankind, by the brilliancy of their disputations. It is well +known, that the philosophers inculcate, in every part of their writings, +the existence of a God, the necessity of a Providence that presides over +the government of the world, the immortality of the soul, the ultimate end +of man, the reward of the good and punishment of the wicked, the nature of +those duties which constitute the band of society, the character of the +virtues that are the basis of morality, as prudence, justice, fortitude, +temperance, and other similar truths, which, though incapable of guiding +men to righteousness, were yet of use to scatter certain clouds, and to +dispel certain obscurities. + +It is by an effect of the same providence, which prepared, from far, the +ways of the gospel, that, when the Messiah revealed himself in the flesh, +God had united together almost all nations, by the Greek and Latin +tongues; and had subjected to one monarch, from the ocean to the +Euphrates, all the people not united by language, in order to give a more +free course to the preaching of the apostles. The study of profane +history, when entered upon with judgment and maturity, must lead us to +these reflections, and point out to us the manner in which the Almighty +makes the empires of the earth subservient to the establishment of the +kingdom of his Son. + +It ought likewise to teach us how to appreciate all that glitters most in +the eye of the world, and is most capable of dazzling it. Valour, +fortitude, skill in government, profound policy, merit in magistracy, +capacity for the most abstruse sciences, beauty of genius, delicacy of +taste, and perfection in all arts: These are the objects which profane +history exhibits to us, which excite our admiration, and often our envy. +But at the same time this very history ought to remind us, that the +Almighty, ever since the creation, has indulged to his enemies all those +shining qualities which the world esteems, and on which it frequently +bestows the highest eulogiums; while, on the contrary, he often refuses +them to his most faithful servants, whom he endues with talents of an +infinitely superior nature, though men neither know their value, nor are +desirous of them. "Happy is that people that is in such a case: Yea, happy +is that people, whose God is the Lord."(36) + +I shall conclude this first part of my preface with a reflection which +results naturally from what has been said. Since it is certain, that all +these great men, who are so much boasted of in profane history, were so +unhappy as not to know the true God, and to displease him; we should +therefore be cautious and circumspect in the praises which we bestow upon +them. St. Austin, in his _Retractions_, repents his having lavished so +many encomiums on Plato, and the followers of his philosophy; "because +these," says he, "were impious men, whose doctrine, in many points, was +contrary to that of Jesus Christ."(37) + +However, we are not to imagine, that St. Austin supposes it to be unlawful +for us to admire and praise whatever is either beautiful in the actions, +or true in the maxims, of the heathens. He only advises us to correct +whatever is erroneous, and to approve whatever is conformable to rectitude +and justice in them.(38) He applauds the Romans on many occasions, and +particularly in his books _De Civitate Dei_,(39) which is one of the last +and finest of his works. He there shows, that the Almighty raised them to +be victorious over nations, and sovereigns of a great part of the earth, +because of the gentleness and equity of their government (alluding to the +happy ages of the Republic); thus bestowing on virtues, that were merely +human, rewards of the same kind, with which that people, blind on this +subject, though so enlightened on others, were so unhappy as to content +themselves. St. Austin, therefore, does not condemn the encomiums which +are bestowed on the heathens, but only the excess of them. + +Students ought to take care, and especially we, who by the duties of our +profession are obliged to be perpetually conversant with heathen authors, +not to enter too far into the spirit of them; not to imbibe, unperceived, +their sentiments, by lavishing too great applauses on their heroes; nor to +give into excesses which the heathens indeed did not consider as such, +because they were not acquainted with virtues of a purer kind. Some +persons, whose friendship I esteem as I ought, and for whose learning and +judgment I have the highest regard, have found this defect in some parts +of my work, on the _Method of Teaching and Studying the Belles Lettres_, +&c.; and are of opinion, that I have gone too great lengths in the +encomiums which I bestow on the illustrious men of paganism. I indeed own, +that the expressions on those occasions are sometimes too strong and too +unguarded: however, I imagined that I had supplied a proper corrective to +this, by the hints which I have interspersed in those four volumes; and, +therefore, that it would be only losing time to repeat them; not to +mention my having laid down, in different places, the principles which the +Fathers of the Church establish on this head, declaring, with St. Austin, +that without true piety, that is, without a sincere worship of the true +God, there can be no true virtue; and that no virtue can be such, whose +object is worldly glory; a truth, says this Father, acknowledged +universally by those who are inspired with real and solid piety. _Illud +constat inter omnes veraciter pios, neminem sine vera pietate, id est, +veri Dei vero cultu, veram posse habere virtutem; nec eam veram esse, +quando gloriae servit humanae_.(40) + +When I observed that Perseus had not resolution enough to kill +himself,(41) I do not thereby pretend to justify the practice of the +heathens, who looked upon suicide as lawful; but simply to relate an +incident, and the judgment which Paulus AEmilius passed on it. Had I barely +hinted a word or two against that custom, it would have obviated all +mistake, and left no room for censure. + +The ostracism, employed in Athens against persons of the greatest merit; +theft connived at, as it appears, by Lycurgus in Sparta; an equality of +goods established in the same city, by the authority of the state, and +things of a like nature, may admit of some difficulty. However, I shall +pay a more immediate attention to these particulars,(42) when the course +of the history brings me to them; and shall avail myself with pleasure of +such lights as the learned and unprejudiced may favour me by +communicating. + +In a work like that I now offer the public, intended more immediately for +the instruction of youth, it were heartily to be wished, that not one +single thought or expression might occur that could contribute to +inculcate false or dangerous principles. When I first set about writing +the present history, I proposed this for my maxim, the importance of which +I perfectly conceive, but am far from imagining that I have always +observed it, though it was my intention to do so; and therefore on this, +as on many other occasions, I shall stand in need of the reader's +indulgence. + +As I write principally for young persons, and for those who do not intend +to make very deep researches into ancient history, I shall not burthen +this Work with a sort of erudition, that might have been naturally +introduced into it, but does not suit my purpose. My design is, in giving +a continued series of ancient history, to extract from the Greek and Latin +authors all that I shall judge most useful and entertaining with respect +to the transactions, and most instructive with regard to the reflections. + +I should wish to be able to avoid, at the same time, the dry sterility of +epitomes, which convey no distinct idea to the mind; and the tedious +accuracy of long histories, which tire the reader's patience. I am +sensible that it is difficult to steer exactly between the two extremes; +and although, in the two parts of history of which this first volume +consists, I have retrenched a great part of what we meet with in ancient +authors, they may still be thought too long: but I was afraid of spoiling +the incidents, by being too studious of brevity. However, the taste of the +public shall be my guide, to which I shall endeavour to conform hereafter. + +I was so happy as not to displease the public in my first attempt.(43) I +wish the present Work may be equally successful, but dare not raise my +hopes so high. The subjects I there treated, _viz._ polite literature, +poetry, eloquence, and curious and detached pieces of history, gave me an +opportunity of introducing into it from ancient and modern authors, +whatever is most beautiful, affecting, delicate, and just, with regard +both to thought and expression. The beauty and justness of the things +themselves which I offered the reader, made him more indulgent to the +manner in which they were presented to him; and besides, the variety of +the subjects supplied the want of those graces which might have been +expected from the style and composition. + +But I have not the same advantage in the present work, the choice of the +subjects not being entirely at my discretion. In a connected history, an +author is often obliged to relate a great many things that are not always +very interesting, especially with regard to the origin and rise of +empires; and these parts are generally overrun with thorns, and offer very +few flowers. However, the sequel will furnish matter of a more pleasing +nature, and events that engage more strongly the reader's attention; and I +shall take care to make use of the valuable materials which the best +authors will supply. In the mean time, I must entreat the reader to +remember that in a wide-extended and beautiful region, the eye does not +everywhere meet with golden harvests, smiling meads, and fruitful +orchards; but sees, at different intervals, wild and less cultivated +tracts of land. And, to use another comparison, furnished by Pliny,(44) +some trees in the spring emulously shoot forth a numberless multitude of +blossoms, which by this rich dress (the splendour and vivacity of whose +colours charm the eye) proclaim a happy abundance in a more advanced +season: while other trees,(45) of a less gay appearance, though they bear +good fruits, have not however the fragrance and beauty of blossoms, nor +seem to share in the joy of reviving nature. The reader will easily apply +this image to the composition of history. + +To adorn and enrich my own, I will be so ingenuous as to confess, that I +do not scruple, nor am ashamed, to rifle from all quarters, and that I +often do not cite the authors from whom I transcribe, because of the +liberty I occasionally take to make some slight alterations. I have made +the best use in my power of the solid reflections that occur in the second +and third parts of the bishop of Meaux's(46) _Universal History_, which is +one of the most beautiful and most useful books in our language. I have +also received great assistance from the learned Dean Prideaux's +_Connection of the Old and New Testament_, in which he has traced and +cleared up, in an admirable manner, the particulars relating to ancient +history. I shall take the same liberty with whatever comes in my way, that +may suit my design, and contribute to the perfection of my Work. + +I am very sensible, that it is not so much for a person's reputation, thus +to make use of other men's labours, and that it is in a manner renouncing +the name and quality of author. But I am not over fond of that title; and +shall be extremely well pleased, and think myself very happy, if I can but +deserve the name of a good compiler, and supply my readers with a +tolerable history; who will not be over solicitous to inquire whether it +be an original composition of my own, or not, provided they are but +pleased with it. + +I cannot determine the exact number of volumes which this Work will make; +but am persuaded there will be no less than ten or twelve.(47) Students, +with a very moderate application, may easily go through this course of +history in a year, without interrupting their other studies. According to +my plan, my Work should be given to the highest form but one. Youths in +this class are capable of pleasure and improvement from this history; and +I would not have them enter upon that of the Romans till they study +rhetoric. + +It would have been useful, and even necessary, to have given some idea of +the ancient authors from whence I have extracted the facts which I here +relate. But the course itself of the history will naturally give me an +opportunity of mentioning them. + +In the mean time, it may not be improper to take notice of the +superstitious credulity with which most of these authors are reproached, +on the subject of auguries, auspices, prodigies, dreams, and oracles. And +indeed, we are shocked to see writers, so judicious in all other respects, +lay it down as a kind of law, to relate these particulars with a +scrupulous accuracy; and to dwell gravely on a tedious detail of trifling +and ridiculous ceremonies, such as the flight of birds to the right or +left hand, signs discovered in the smoking entrails of beasts, the greater +or less greediness of chickens in pecking corn, and a thousand similar +absurdities. + +It must be confessed, that a sensible reader cannot, without astonishment, +see persons among the ancients in the highest repute for wisdom and +knowledge; generals who were the least liable to be influenced by popular +opinions, and most sensible how necessary it is to take advantage of +auspicious moments; the wisest councils of princes perfectly well skilled +in the arts of government; the most august assemblies of grave senators; +in a word, the most powerful and most learned nations in all ages; to see, +I say, all these so unaccountably weak, as to make to depend on these +trifling practices and absurd observances, the decision of the greatest +affairs, such as the declaring of war, the giving battle, or pursuing a +victory, deliberations that were of the utmost importance, and on which +the fate and welfare of kingdoms frequently depended. + +But, at the same time, we must be so just as to own, that their manners, +customs, and laws, would not permit men, in these ages, to dispense with +the observation of these practices: that education, hereditary tradition +transmitted from immemorial time, the universal belief and consent of +different nations, the precepts, and even examples of philosophers; that +all these, I say, made the practices in question appear venerable in their +eyes: and that these ceremonies, how absurd soever they may appear to us, +and are really so in themselves, constituted part of the religion and +public worship of the ancients. + +This religion was false, and this worship mistaken; yet the principle of +it was laudable, and founded in nature; the stream was corrupted, but the +fountain was pure. Man, assisted only by his own light, sees nothing +beyond the present moment. Futurity is to him an abyss invisible to the +most keen, the most piercing sagacity, and exhibits nothing on which he +may with certainty fix his views, or form his resolutions. He is equally +feeble and impotent with regard to the execution of his designs. He is +sensible, that he is dependent entirely on a Supreme Power, that disposes +all events with absolute authority, and which, in spite of his utmost +efforts, and of the wisdom of the best concerted schemes, by raising only +the smallest obstacles and slightest disappointments, renders it +impossible for him to execute his measures. + +This obscurity and weakness oblige him to have recourse to a superior +knowledge and power: he is forced, both by his immediate wants, and the +strong desire he has to succeed in all his undertakings, to address that +Being who he is sensible has reserved to himself alone the knowledge of +futurity, and the power of disposing it as he sees fitting. He accordingly +directs prayers, makes vows, and offers sacrifices, to prevail, if +possible, with the Deity, to reveal himself, either in dreams, in oracles, +or other signs which may manifest his will; fully convinced that nothing +can happen but by the divine appointment; and that it is a man's greatest +interest to know this supreme will, in order to conform his actions to it. + +This religious principle of dependence on, and veneration of, the Supreme +Being, is natural to man: it is imprinted deep in his heart; he is +reminded of it, by the inward sense of his extreme indigence, and by all +the objects which surround him; and it may be affirmed, that this +perpetual recourse to the Deity, is one of the principal foundations of +religion and the strongest band by which man is united to his Creator. + +Those who were so happy as to know the true God, and were chosen to be his +peculiar people, never failed to address him in all their wants and +doubts, in order to obtain his succour, and to know his will. He +accordingly vouchsafed to reveal himself to them; to conduct them by +apparitions, dreams, oracles, and prophecies; and to protect them by +miracles of the most astonishing kind. + +But those who were so blind as to substitute falsehood in the place of +truth, directed themselves, for the like aid, to fictitious and deceitful +deities, who were not able to answer their expectations, nor recompense +the homage that mortals paid them, any otherwise than by error and +illusion, and a fraudulent imitation of the conduct of the true God. + +Hence arose the vain observation of dreams, which, from a superstitious +credulity, they mistook for salutary warnings from Heaven; those obscure +and equivocal answers of oracles, beneath whose veil the spirits of +darkness concealed their ignorance; and, by a studied ambiguity, reserved +to themselves an evasion or subterfuge, whatever might be the event. To +this are owing the prognostics with regard to futurity, which men fancied +they should find in the entrails of beasts, in the flight and singing of +birds, in the aspect of the planets, in fortuitous accidents, and in the +caprice of chance; those dreadful prodigies that filled a whole nation +with terror, and which, it was believed, nothing could expiate but +mournful ceremonies, and even sometimes the effusion of human blood: in +fine, those black inventions of magic, those delusions, enchantments, +sorceries, invocations of ghosts, and many other kinds of divination. + +All I have here related was a received usage, observed by the heathen +nations in general; and this usage was founded on the principles of that +religion of which I have given a short account. We have a signal proof of +this in that passage of the Cyropaedia,(48) where Cambyses, the father of +Cyrus, gives that young prince such noble instructions; instructions +admirably well adapted to form the great captain, and great king. He +exhorts him, above all things, to pay the highest reverence to the gods; +and not to undertake any enterprise, whether important or inconsiderable, +without first calling upon and consulting them; he enjoins him to honour +the priests and augurs, as being their ministers and the interpreters of +their will, but yet not to trust or abandon himself so implicitly and +blindly to them, as not, by his own application, to learn every thing +relating to the science of divination, of auguries and auspices. The +reason which he gives for the subordination and dependence in which kings +ought to live with regard to the gods, and the benefit derived from +consulting them in all things, is this: How clear-sighted soever mankind +may be in the ordinary course of affairs, their views are always very +narrow and bounded with regard to futurity; whereas the Deity, at a single +glance, takes in all ages and events. "As the gods," says Cambyses to his +son, "are eternal, they know equally all things, past, present, and to +come. With regard to the mortals who address them, they give salutary +counsels to those whom they are pleased to favour, that they may not be +ignorant of what things they ought, or ought not, to undertake. If it is +observed, that the deities do not give the like counsels to all men; we +are not to wonder at it, since no necessity obliges them to attend to the +welfare of those persons on whom they do not vouchsafe to confer their +favour." + +Such was the doctrine of the most learned and most enlightened nations, +with respect to the different kinds of divination; and it is no wonder +that the authors who wrote the history of those nations, thought it +incumbent on them to give an exact detail of such particulars as +constituted part of their religion and worship, and was frequently in a +manner the soul of their deliberations, and the standard of their conduct. +I therefore was of opinion, for the same reason, that it would not be +proper for me to omit entirely, in the ensuing history, what relates to +this subject, though I have however retrenched a great part of it. + +Archbishop Usher is my usual guide in chronology. In the history of the +Carthaginians I commonly set down four aeras: The year from the creation of +the world, which, for brevity's sake, I mark thus, A.M.; those of the +foundation of Carthage and Rome; and lastly, the year before the birth of +our Saviour, which I suppose to be the 4004th year of the world; wherein I +follow Usher and others, though they suppose it to be four years earlier. + +We shall now proceed to give the reader the proper preliminary information +concerning this Work, according to the order in which it is executed. + +To know in what manner the states and kingdoms were founded, that have +divided the universe; the steps whereby they rose to that pitch of +grandeur related in history; by what ties families and cities were united, +in order to constitute one body or society, and to live together under the +same laws and a common authority; it will be necessary to trace things +back, in a manner, to the infancy of the world, and to those ages in which +mankind, being dispersed into different regions, (after the confusion of +tongues,) began to people the earth. + +In these early ages every father was the supreme head of his family; the +arbiter and judge of whatever contests and divisions might arise within +it; the natural legislator over his little society; the defender and +protector of those, who, by their birth, education, and weakness, were +under his protection and safeguard, and whose interests paternal +tenderness rendered equally dear to him as his own. + +But although these masters enjoyed an independent authority, they made a +mild and paternal use of it. So far from being jealous of their power, +they neither governed with haughtiness, nor decided with tyranny. As they +were obliged by necessity to associate their family in their domestic +labours, they also summoned them together, and asked their opinion in +matters of importance. In this manner all affairs were transacted in +concert, and for the common good. + +The laws which paternal vigilance established in this little domestic +senate, being dictated with no other view than to promote the general +welfare; concerted with such children as were come to years of maturity, +and accepted by the inferiors with a full and free consent; were +religiously kept and preserved in families as an hereditary polity, to +which they owed their peace and security. + +But different motives gave rise to different laws. One man, overjoyed at +the birth of a first-born son, resolved to distinguish him from his future +children, by bestowing on him a more considerable share of his +possessions, and giving him a greater authority in his family. Another, +more attentive to the interest of a beloved wife, or darling daughter whom +he wanted to settle in the world, thought it incumbent on him to secure +their rights and increase their advantages. The solitary and cheerless +state to which a wife would be reduced in case she should become a widow, +affected more intimately another man, and made him provide beforehand, for +the subsistence and comfort of a woman who formed his felicity. From these +different views, and others of the like nature, arose the different +customs of nations, as well as their rights, which are infinitely various. + +In proportion as every family increased, by the birth of children, and +their marrying into other families, they extended their little domain, and +formed, by insensible degrees, towns and cities. + +These societies growing, in process of time, very numerous; and the +families being divided into various branches, each of which had its head, +whose different interests and characters might interrupt the general +tranquillity; it was necessary to intrust one person with the government +of the whole, in order to unite all these chiefs or heads under a single +authority, and to maintain the public peace by an uniform administration. +The idea which men still retained of the paternal government, and the +happy effects they had experienced from it, prompted them to choose from +among their wisest and most virtuous men, him in whom they had observed +the tenderest and most fatherly disposition. Neither ambition nor cabal +had the least share in this choice; probity alone, and the reputation of +virtue and equity, decided on these occasions, and gave the preference to +the most worthy.(49) + +To heighten the lustre of their newly-acquired dignity, and enable them +the better to put the laws in execution, as well as to devote themselves +entirely to the public good; to defend the state against the invasions of +their neighbours, and the factions of discontented citizens; the title of +king was bestowed upon them, a throne was erected, and a sceptre put into +their hands; homage was paid them, officers were assigned, and guards +appointed for the security of their persons; tributes were granted; they +were invested with full powers to administer justice, and for this purpose +were armed with a sword, in order to restrain injustice, and punish +crimes. + +At first, every city had its particular king, who being more solicitous to +preserve his dominion than to enlarge it, confined his ambition within the +limits of his native country.(50) But the almost unavoidable feuds which +break out between neighbours; jealousy against a more powerful king; a +turbulent and restless spirit; a martial disposition, or thirst of +aggrandizement; or the display of abilities; gave rise to wars, which +frequently ended in the entire subjection of the vanquished, whose cities +were possessed by the victor, and increased insensibly his dominions. +Thus, a first victory paving the way to a second, and making a prince more +powerful and enterprising, several cities and provinces were united under +one monarch, and formed kingdoms of a greater or less extent, according to +the degree of ardour with which the victor had pushed his conquests.(51) + +But among these princes were found some, whose ambition being too vast to +confine itself within a single kingdom, broke over all bounds, and spread +universally like a torrent, or the ocean; swallowed up kingdoms and +nations; and fancied that glory consisted in depriving princes of their +dominions, who had not done them the least injury; in carrying fire and +sword into the most remote countries, and in leaving every where bloody +traces of their progress! Such was the origin of those famous empires +which included a great part of the world. + +Princes made a various use of victory, according to the diversity of their +dispositions or interests. Some, considering themselves as absolute +masters of the conquered, and imagining they were sufficiently indulged in +sparing their lives, bereaved them, as well as their children, of their +possessions, their country, and their liberty; subjected them to a most +severe captivity; employed them in those arts which are necessary for the +support of life, in the lowest and most servile offices of the house, in +the painful toils of the field; and frequently forced them, by the most +inhuman treatment, to dig in mines, and ransack the bowels of the earth, +merely to satiate their avarice; and hence mankind were divided into +freemen and slaves, masters and bondmen. + +Others introduced the custom of transporting whole nations into new +countries, where they settled them, and gave them lands to cultivate. + +Other princes again, of more gentle dispositions, contented themselves +with only obliging the vanquished nations to purchase their liberties, and +the enjoyment of their laws and privileges by annual tributes laid on them +for that purpose; and sometimes they would suffer kings to sit peaceably +on their thrones, upon condition of their paying them some kind of homage. + +But such of these monarchs as were the wisest and ablest politicians, +thought it glorious to establish a kind of equality betwixt the nations +newly conquered and their other subjects; granting the former almost all +the rights and privileges which the others enjoyed: and by this means a +great number of nations, that were spread over different and far distant +countries, constituted, in some measure, but one city, at least but one +people. + +Thus I have given a general and concise idea of mankind, from the earliest +monuments which history has preserved on this subject; the particulars +whereof I shall endeavour to relate, in treating of each empire and +nation. I shall not touch upon the history of the Jews, nor that of the +Romans. + +The history of the Carthaginians, that of the Assyrians, and the Lydians, +which occurs in the second volume, is supported by the best authorities; +but it is highly necessary to review the geography, the manners, and +customs of the different nations here treated of; and first with regard to +the religion, manners, and institutions of the Persians and Grecians; +because these show their genius and character, which we may call, in some +measure, the soul of history. For to take notice only of facts and dates, +and confine our curiosity and researches to them, would be imitating the +imprudence of a traveller, who, in visiting many countries, should content +himself with knowing their exact distance from each other, and consider +only the situation of the several places, their buildings, and the dresses +of the people; without giving himself the least trouble to converse with +the inhabitants, in order to inform himself of their genius, manners, +disposition, laws, and government. Homer, whose design was to give, in the +person of Ulysses, a model of a wise and intelligent traveller, tells us, +at the very opening of his _Odyssey_, that his hero informed himself very +exactly of the manners and customs of the several people whose cities he +visited; in which he ought to be imitated by every person who applies +himself to the study of history. + +As Asia will hereafter be the principal scene of the history we are now +entering upon, it may not be improper to give the reader such a general +idea of it, as may at least make him acquainted with its most considerable +provinces and cities. + +The northern and eastern parts of Asia are less known in ancient history. + +To the north are ASIATIC SARMATIA and ASIATIC SCYTHIA, which answer to +Tartary. + +Sarmatia is situated between the river _Tanais_, which separates Europe +and Asia, and the river _Rha_, or _Volga_. Scythia is divided into two +parts; the one on this, the other on the other side of mount _Imaus_. The +nations of Scythia best known to us are the _Sacae_ and the _Massagetae_. + +The most eastern parts are, SERICA, Cathay; SINARUM REGIO, China; and +INDIA. This last country was better known anciently than the two former. +It was divided into two parts; the one on this side the _Ganges_, included +between that river and the _Indus_, which now composes the dominions of +the Great Mogul; the other part was that on the other side of the Ganges. + +The remaining part of Asia, of which much greater mention is made in +history, may be divided into five or six parts, taking it from east to +west. + +I. UPPER ASIA, which begins at the river Indus. The chief provinces are +GEDROSIA, CARMANIA, ARACHOSIA, DRANGIANA, BACTRIANA, the capital of which +was _Bactra_; SOGDIANA, MARGIANA, HYRCANIA, near the Caspian sea; PARTHIA, +MEDIA, its chief city _Ecbatana_; PERSIA, the cities of _Persepolis_ and +_Elymais_; SUSIANA, the city of _Susa_; ASSYRIA, the city of _Nineveh_, +situated on the river _Tigris_; MESOPOTAMIA, between the _Euphrates_ and +_Tigris_; BABYLONIA, the city of _Babylon_ on the river Euphrates. + +II. ASIA BETWEEN THE PONTUS EUXINUS AND THE CASPIAN SEA. Therein we may +distinguish four provinces. 1. COLCHIS, the river _Phasis_, and mount +_Caucasus_. 2. IBERIA. 3. ALBANIA; which two last-mentioned provinces now +form part of Georgia. 4. The greater ARMENIA. This is separated from the +lesser by the Euphrates; from Mesopotamia by mount _Taurus_; and from +Assyria by mount _Niphates_. Its cities are _Artaxata_ and _Tigranocerta_, +and the river _Araxes_ runs through it. + +III. ASIA MINOR. This may be divided into four or five parts, according to +the different situation of its provinces. + +1. _Northward_, on the shore of the Pontus Euxinus; PONTUS, under three +different names. Its cities are, _Trapezus_, not far from which are the +people called _Chalybes_ or _Chaldaei_; _Themiscyra_, a city on the river +_Thermodon_, and famous for having been the abode of the Amazons. +PAPHLAGONIA, BITHYNIA; the cities of which are, _Nicaea_, _Prusa_, +_Nicomedia_, _Chalcedon_ opposite to Constantinople, and _Heraclea_. + +2. _Westward_, going down by the shores of the AEgean sea; MYSIA, of which +there are two. The LESSER, in which stood _Cyzicus_, _Lampsacus_, +_Parium_, _Abydos_ opposite to Sestos, from which it is separated only by +the Dardanelles; _Dardanum_, _Sigaeum_, _Ilion_, or _Troy_; and almost on +the opposite side, the little island of _Tenedos_. The rivers are, the +_AEsepus_, the _Granicus_, and the _Simois_. Mount _Ida_. This region is +sometimes called Phrygia Minor, of which _Troas_ is part. + +The GREATER MYSIA. _Antandros_, _Trajanopolis_, _Adramyttium_, _Pergamus_. +Opposite to this Mysia is the island of LESBOS; the cities of which are, +_Methymna_, where the celebrated _Arion_ was born; and _Mitylene_, which +has given to the whole island its modern name Metelin. + +AEOLIA. _Elea_, _Cumae_, _Phocaea_. + +IONIA. _Smyrna_, _Clazomenae_, _Teos_, _Lebedus_, _Colophon_, _Ephesus_, +_Priene_, _Miletus_. + +CARIA. _Laodicea_, _Antiochia_, _Magnesia_, _Alabanda_. The river +_Maeander_. + +DORIS. _Halicarnassus_, _Cnidos_. + +Opposite to these four last countries, are the islands CHIOS, SAMOS, +PATHMOS, COS; and lower, towards the south, RHODES. + +3. _Southward_, along the Mediterranean; + +LYCIA, the cities of which are, _Telmessus_, _Patara_. The river +_Xanthus_. Here begins mount _Taurus_, which runs the whole length of +Asia, and assumes different names, according to the several countries +through which it passes. + +PAMPHYLIA. _Perga_, _Aspendus_, _Sida_. + +CILICIA. _Seleucia_, _Corycium_, _Tarsus_, on the river _Cydnus_. Opposite +to Cilicia is the island of _Cyprus_. The cities are, _Salamis_, +_Amathus_, and _Paphos_. + +4. _Along the banks of the Euphrates_, going up northward; + +The LESSER ARMENIA. _Comana_, _Arabyza_, _Melitene_, _Satala_. The river +_Melas_, which empties itself into the Euphrates. + +5. _Inland_: + +CAPPADOCIA; the cities whereof are, _Neocaesarea_, _Comana Pontica_, +_Sebastia_, _Sebastopolis_, _Diocaesarea_, _Caesarea_, otherwise called +_Mazaca_, and _Tyana_. + +LYCAONIA and ISAURIA. _Iconium_, _Isauria_. + +PISIDIA. _Seleucia_ and _Antiochia_ of _Pisidia_. + +LYDIA. Its cities are, _Thyatira_, _Sardis_, _Philadelphia_. The rivers +are, _Caystrus_ and _Hermus_, into which the _Pactolus_ empties itself. +Mount _Sipylus_ and _Tmolus_. + +PHRYGIA MAJOR. _Synnada_, _Apamia_. + +IV. SYRIA, now named _Suria_, called under the Roman emperors the _East_, +the chief provinces of which are, + +1. PALESTINE, by which name is sometimes understood all Judea. Its cities +are, _Jerusalem_, _Samaria_, and _Caesarea Palestina_. The river _Jordan_ +waters it. The name of Palestine is also given to the land of Canaan, +which extended along the Mediterranean; the chief cities of which were, +_Gaza_, _Ascalon_, _Azotus_, _Accaron_, and _Gath_. + +2. PHOENICIA, whose cities are, _Ptolemais_, _Tyre_, _Sidon_, and +_Berytus_. Its mountains, _Libanus_ and _Antilibanus_. + +3. SYRIA, properly so called, or ANTIOCHENA; the cities whereof are, +_Antiochia_, _Apamia_, _Laodicea_, and _Seleucia_. + +4. COMAGENA. The city of _Samosata_. + +5. COELESYRIA. The cities are, _Zeugma_, _Thapsacus_, _Palmyra_, and +_Damascus_. + +V. ARABIA PETRAEA. Its cities are, _Petra_, and _Bostra_. Mount _Casius_. +DESERTA. FELIX. + + + + +Of Religion. + + +It is observable, that in all ages and in every country, the several +nations of the world, however various and opposite in their characters, +inclinations and manners, have always united in one essential point; the +inherent opinion of an adoration due to a Supreme Being, and of external +forms calculated to evince such a belief. Into whatever country we cast +our eyes, we find priests, altars, sacrifices, festivals, religious +ceremonies, temples, or places consecrated to religious worship. Among +every people we discover a reverence and awe of the Divinity; an homage +and honour paid to him; and an open profession of an entire dependence +upon him in all their undertakings, in all their necessities, in all their +adversities and dangers. Incapable of themselves to penetrate into +futurity and to ensure success, we find them careful to consult the +Divinity by oracles, and by other methods of a like nature; and to merit +his protection by prayers, vows, and offerings. It is by the same supreme +authority they believe the most solemn treaties are rendered inviolable. +It is that which gives sanction to their oaths; and to it by imprecations +is referred the punishment of such crimes and enormities as escape the +knowledge and power of men. On all their private concerns, voyages, +journeys, marriages, diseases, the Divinity is still invoked. With him +their every repast begins and ends. No war is declared, no battle fought, +no enterprise formed, without his aid being first implored; to which the +glory of the success is constantly ascribed by public acts of +thanksgiving, and by the oblation of the most precious of the spoils, +which they never fail to set apart as appertaining by right to the +Divinity. + +No variety of opinion is discernible in regard to the foundation of this +belief. If some few persons, depraved by false philosophy, presume from +time to time to rise up against this doctrine, they are immediately +disclaimed by the public voice. They continue singular and alone, without +making parties, or forming sects: the whole weight of the public authority +falls upon them; a price is set upon their heads; whilst they are +universally regarded as execrable persons, the bane of civil society, with +whom it is criminal to have any kind of commerce. + +So general, so uniform, so perpetual a consent of all the nations of the +universe, which neither the prejudice of the passions, the false reasoning +of some philosophers, nor the authority and example of certain princes, +have ever been able to weaken or vary, can proceed only from a first +principle, which forms a part of the nature of man; from an inward +sentiment implanted in his heart by the Author of his being; and from an +original tradition as ancient as the world itself. + +Such were the source and origin of the religion of the ancients; truly +worthy of man, had he been capable of persisting in the purity and +simplicity of these first principles: but the errors of the mind, and the +vices of the heart, those sad effects of the corruption of human nature, +have strangely disfigured their original beauty. There are still some +faint rays, some brilliant sparks of light, which a general depravity has +not been able to extinguish utterly; but they are incapable of dispelling +the profound darkness of the gloom which prevails almost universally, and +presents nothing to view but absurdities, follies, extravagancies, +licentiousness, and disorder; in a word, a hideous chaos of frantic +excesses and enormous vices. + +Can any thing be more admirable than these principles laid down by +Cicero?(52) That we ought above all things to be convinced that there is a +Supreme Being, who presides over all the events of the world, and disposes +every thing as sovereign lord and arbiter: that it is to him mankind are +indebted for all the good they enjoy: that he penetrates into, and is +conscious of, whatever passes in the most secret recesses of our hearts: +that he treats the just and the impious according to their respective +merits: that the true means of acquiring his favour, and of being pleasing +in his sight, is not by employing of riches and magnificence in the +worship that is paid to him, but by presenting him with a heart pure and +blameless, and by adoring him with an unfeigned and profound veneration. + +Sentiments so sublime and religious were the result of the reflections of +some few who employed themselves in the study of the heart of man, and had +recourse to the first principles of his institution, of which they still +retained some valuable relics. But the whole system of their religion, the +tendency of their public feasts and ceremonies, the essence of the Pagan +theology, of which the poets were the only teachers and professors, the +very example of the gods, whose violent passions, scandalous adventures, +and abominable crimes, were celebrated in their hymns or odes, and +proposed in some measure to the imitation, as well as adoration, of the +people; these were certainly very unfit means to enlighten the minds of +men, and to form them to virtue and morality. + +It is remarkable, that in the greatest solemnities of the Pagan religion, +and in their most sacred and venerable mysteries, far from perceiving any +thing which can recommend virtue, piety, or the practice of the most +essential duties of ordinary life, we find the authority of laws, the +imperious power of custom, the presence of magistrates, the assembly of +all orders of the state, the example of fathers and mothers, all conspire +to train up a whole nation from their infancy in an impure and +sacrilegious worship, under the name, and in a manner under the sanction, +of religion itself; as we shall soon see in the sequel. + +After these general reflections upon Paganism, it is time to proceed to a +particular account of the religion of the Greeks. I shall reduce this +subject, though infinite in itself, to four articles, which are, 1. The +feasts. 2. The oracles, auguries, and divinations. 3. The games and +combats. 4. The public shows and representations of the theatre. In each +of these articles, I shall treat only of what appears most worthy of the +reader's curiosity, and has most relation to this history. I omit saying +any thing of sacrifices, having given a sufficient idea of them +elsewhere.(53) + + + +Of the Feasts. + + +An infinite number of feasts were celebrated in the several cities of +Greece, and especially at Athens, of which I shall describe only three of +the most famous, the Panathenea, the feasts of Bacchus, and those of +Eleusis. + + +The Panathenea. + + +This feast was celebrated at Athens in honour of Minerva, the tutelary +goddess of that city, to which she gave her name,(54) as well as to the +feast of which we are speaking. Its institution was ancient, and it was +called at first the Athenea; but after Theseus had united the several +towns of Attica into one city, it took the name of Panathenea. These +feasts were of two kinds, the great and the less, which were solemnized +with almost the same ceremonies; the less annually, and the great upon the +expiration of every fourth year. + +In these feasts were exhibited racing, the gymnastic combats, and the +contentions for the prizes of music and poetry. Ten commissaries, elected +from the ten tribes, presided on this occasion, to regulate the forms, and +distribute the rewards to the victors. This festival continued several +days. + +In the morning of the first day a race was run on foot, in which each of +the runners carried a lighted torch in his hand, which they exchanged +continually with each other without interrupting their race. They started +from the Ceramicus, one of the suburbs of Athens, and crossed the whole +city. The first that came to the goal, without having put out his torch, +carried the prize. In the afternoon they ran the same course on horseback. + +The gymnastic or athletic combats followed the races. The place for that +exercise was upon the banks of the Ilissus, a small river, which runs +through Athens, and empties itself into the sea at the Piraeus. + +Pericles first instituted the prize of music. In this dispute were sung +the praises of Harmodius and Aristogiton who, at the expense of their +lives, delivered Athens from the tyranny of the Pisistratidae; to which was +afterwards added the eulogium of Thrasybulus, who expelled the thirty +tyrants. The prize was warmly disputed, not only amongst the musicians, +but still more so amongst the poets; and it was highly glorious to be +declared victor in this contest. AEschylus is reported to have died with +grief upon seeing the prize adjudged to Sophocles, who was much younger +than himself. + +These exercises were followed by a general procession, wherein was +carried, with great pomp and ceremony, a sail, embroidered with gold, on +which were curiously delineated the warlike actions of Pallas against the +Titans and Giants. This sail was affixed to a vessel which bore the name +of the goddess. The vessel, equipped with sails, and with a thousand oars, +was conducted from the Ceramicus to the temple of Eleusis, not by horses +or beasts of draught, but by machines concealed in the bottom of it, which +put the oars in motion, and made the vessel glide along. + +The march was solemn and majestic. At the head of it were old men, who +carried olive-branches in their hands, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, and these were chosen +for the symmetry of their shape, and the vigour of their complexion. +Athenian matrons, of great age, also accompanied them in the same +equipage. + +The grown and robust men formed the second class. They were armed at all +points, and had bucklers and lances. After them came the strangers that +inhabited Athens, carrying mattocks, instruments proper for tillage. Next +followed the Athenian women of the same age, attended by the foreigners of +their own sex, carrying vessels in their hands for the drawing of water. + +The third class was composed of the young persons of both sexes, selected +from the best families in the city. The young men wore vests, with crowns +upon their heads, and sang a peculiar hymn in honour of the goddess. The +maids carried baskets, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, in which were placed the sacred utensils +proper to the ceremony, covered with veils to keep them from the sight of +the spectators. The person, to whose care those sacred things were +intrusted, was bound to observe a strict continence for several days +before he touched them, or distributed them to the Athenian virgins;(55) +or rather, as Demosthenes says, his whole life and conduct ought to have +been a perfect model of virtue and purity. It was a high honour for a +young woman to be chosen for so noble and august an office, and an +insupportable affront to be deemed unworthy of it. We shall see that +Hipparchus offered this indignity to the sister of Harmodius, which +extremely incensed the conspirators against the Pisistratidae. These +Athenian virgins were followed by the foreign young women, who carried +umbrellas and seats for them. + +The children of both sexes closed the pomp of the procession. + +In this august ceremony, the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} were appointed to sing certain verses +of Homer; a manifest proof of the estimation in which the works of that +poet were held, even with regard to religion. Hipparchus, son of +Pisistratus, first introduced that custom. + +I have observed elsewhere,(56) that in the gymnastic games of this feast a +herald proclaimed, that the people of Athens had conferred a crown of gold +upon the celebrated physician Hippocrates, in gratitude for the signal +services which he had rendered the state during the pestilence. + +In this festival the people of Athens put themselves, and the whole +republic, under the protection of Minerva, the tutelary goddess of their +city, and implored of her all kind of prosperity. From the time of the +battle of Marathon, in these public acts of worship, express mention was +made of the Plataeans, and they were joined in all things with the people +of Athens. + + +Feasts of Bacchus. + + +The worship of Bacchus had been brought out of Egypt to Athens, where +several feasts had been established in honour of that god; two +particularly more remarkable than all the rest, called the great and the +less feasts of Bacchus. The latter were a kind of preparation for the +former, and were celebrated in the open field about autumn. They were +named Lenea, from a Greek word(57) that signifies a wine-press. The great +feasts were commonly called Dionysia, from one of the names of that +god,(58) and were solemnized in the spring within the city. + +In each of these feasts the public were entertained with games, shows, and +dramatic representations, which were attended with a vast concourse of +people, and exceeding magnificence, as will be seen hereafter: at the same +time the poets disputed the prize of poetry, submitting to the judgment of +arbitrators, expressly chosen for that purpose, their pieces, whether +tragic or comic, which were then represented before the people. + +These feasts continued many days. Those who were initiated, mimicked +whatever the poets had thought fit to feign of the god Bacchus. They +covered themselves with the skins of wild beasts, carried a thyrsus in +their hands, a kind of pike with ivy-leaves twisted round it; had drums, +horns, pipes, and other instruments calculated to make a great noise; and +wore upon their heads wreaths of ivy and vine-branches, and of other trees +sacred to Bacchus. Some represented Silenus, some Pan, others the Satyrs, +all drest in suitable masquerade. Many of them were mounted on asses; +others dragged goats(59) along for sacrifices. Men and women, ridiculously +dressed in this manner, appeared night and day in public; and imitating +drunkenness, and dancing with the most indecent gestures, ran in throngs +about the mountains and forests, screaming and howling furiously; the +women especially seemed more outrageous than the men; and, quite out of +their senses, in their furious(60) transports invoked the god, whose feast +they celebrated, with loud cries; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, or {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, or {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, or +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}. + +This troop of Bacchanalians was followed by the virgins of the noblest +families in the city, who were called {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, from carrying baskets on +their heads, covered with vine leaves and ivy. + +To these ceremonies others were added, obscene to the last excess, and +worthy of the god who chose to be honoured in such a manner. The +spectators gave into the prevailing humour, and were seized with the same +frantic spirit. Nothing was seen but dancing, drunkenness, debauchery, and +all that the most abandoned licentiousness can conceive of gross and +abominable. And this an entire people, reputed the wisest of all Greece, +not only suffered, but admired and practised. I say an entire people; for +Plato, speaking of the Bacchanalia, says in direct terms, that he had seen +the whole city of Athens drunk at once.(61) + +Livy informs us,(62) that this licentiousness of the Bacchanalia having +secretly crept into Rome, the most horrid disorders were committed there +under cover of the night, and the inviolable secresy which all persons, +who were initiated into these impure and abominable mysteries, were +obliged, under the most horrid imprecations, to observe. The senate, being +apprized of the affair, put a stop to those sacrilegious feasts by the +most severe penalties; and first banished the practisers of them from +Rome, and afterwards from Italy. These examples inform us, how far a +mistaken sense of religion, that covers the greatest crimes with the +sacred name of the Divinity, is capable of misleading the mind of man.(63) + + +The Feast of Eleusis. + + +There is nothing in all Pagan antiquity more celebrated than the feast of +Ceres Eleusina. The ceremonies of this festival were called, by way of +eminence, "the mysteries," from being, according to Pausanias, as much +above all others, as the gods are above men. Their origin and institution +are attributed to Ceres herself, who, in the reign of Erechtheus, coming +to Eleusis, a small town of Attica, in search of her daughter Proserpine, +whom Pluto had carried away, and finding the country afflicted with a +famine, invented corn as a remedy for that evil, with which she rewarded +the inhabitants. She not only taught them the use of corn, but instructed +them in the principles of probity, charity, civility, and humanity;(64) +from whence her mysteries were called {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, and _Initia_. To these +first happy lessons fabulous antiquity ascribed the courtesy, politeness, +and urbanity, so remarkable amongst the Athenians. + +These mysteries were divided into the less and the greater; of which the +former served as a preparation for the latter. The less were solemnized in +the month Anthesterion, which answers to our November; the great in the +month Boedromion, which corresponds to August. Only Athenians were +admitted to these mysteries; but of them, each sex, age, and condition, +had a right to be received. All strangers were absolutely excluded, so +that Hercules, Castor, and Pollux, were obliged to be adopted as Athenians +in order to their admission; which, however, extended only to the lesser +mysteries. I shall consider principally the great, which were celebrated +at Eleusis. + +Those who demanded to be initiated into them, were obliged, before their +reception, to purify themselves in the lesser mysteries, by bathing in the +river Ilissus, by saying certain prayers, offering sacrifices, and, above +all, by living in strict continence during a certain interval of time +prescribed them. That time was employed in instructing them in the +principles and elements of the sacred doctrine of the great mysteries. + +When the time for their initiation arrived, they were brought into the +temple; and to inspire the greater reverence and terror, the ceremony was +performed in the night. Wonderful things took place upon this occasion. +Visions were seen, and voices heard of an extraordinary kind. A sudden +splendour dispelled the darkness of the place, and, disappearing +immediately, added new horrors to the gloom. Apparitions, claps of +thunder, earthquakes, heightened the terror and amazement; whilst the +person to be admitted, overwhelmed with dread, and sweating through fear, +heard, trembling, the mysterious volumes read to him, if in such a +condition he was capable of hearing at all. These nocturnal rites gave +birth to many disorders, which the severe law of silence, imposed on the +persons initiated, prevented from coming to light, as St. Gregory +Nazianzen observes.(65) What cannot superstition effect upon the mind of +man, when once his imagination is heated? The president in this ceremony +was called Hierophantes. He wore a peculiar habit, and was not permitted +to marry. The first who served in this function, and whom Ceres herself +instructed, was Eumolpus; from whom his successors were called Eumolpidae. +He had three colleagues; one who carried a torch;(66) another a +herald,(67) whose office was to pronounce certain mysterious words; and a +third to attend at the altar. + +Besides these officers, one of the principal magistrates of the city was +appointed to take care that all the ceremonies of this feast were exactly +observed. He was called the king,(68) and was one of the nine Archons. His +business was to offer prayers and sacrifices. The people gave him four +assistants,(69) one chosen from the family of the Eumolpidae, a second from +that of the Ceryces, and the two last from two other families. He had +besides ten other ministers to assist him in the discharge of his duty, +and particularly in offering sacrifices, from whence they derived their +name.(70) + +The Athenians initiated their children of both sexes very early into these +mysteries, and would have thought it criminal to have let them die without +such an advantage. It was their general opinion, that this ceremony was an +engagement to lead a more virtuous and regular life; that it recommended +them to the peculiar protection of the goddesses (Ceres and Proserpine,) +to whose service they devoted themselves; and procured to them a more +perfect and certain happiness in the other world: whilst, on the contrary, +such as had not been initiated, besides the evils they had to apprehend in +this life, were doomed, after their descent to the shades below, to wallow +eternally in dirt, filth, and excrement. Diogenes the Cynic believed +nothing of the matter,(71) and when his friends endeavoured to persuade +him to avoid such a misfortune, by being initiated before his +death--"What," said he, "shall Agesilaus and Epaminondas lie amongst mud +and dung, whilst the vilest Athenians, because they have been initiated, +possess the most distinguished places in the regions of the blessed?" +Socrates was not more credulous; he would not be initiated into these +mysteries, which was perhaps one reason that rendered his religion +suspected. + +Without this qualification none were admitted to enter the temple of +Ceres;(72) and Livy informs us of two Acarnanians, who, having followed +the crowd into it upon one of the feast-days, although out of mistake and +with no ill design, were both put to death without mercy. It was also a +capital crime to divulge the secrets and mysteries of this feast. Upon +this account Diagoras the Melian was proscribed, and had a reward set upon +his head. It very nearly cost the poet AEschylus his life, for speaking too +freely of it in some of his tragedies. The disgrace of Alcibiades +proceeded from the same cause. Whoever had violated this secresy, was +avoided as a wretch accursed and excommunicated.(73) Pausanias, in several +passages, wherein he mentions the temple of Eleusis, and the ceremonies +practised there, stops short, and declares he cannot proceed, because he +had been forbidden by a dream or vision.(74) + +This feast, the most celebrated of profane antiquity, was of nine days' +continuance. It began the fifteenth of the month Boedromion. After some +previous ceremonies and sacrifices on the first three days, upon the +fourth in the evening began the procession of "the Basket;" which was laid +upon an open chariot slowly drawn by oxen,(75) and followed by a long +train of the Athenian women. They all carried mysterious baskets in their +hands, filled with several things, which they took great care to conceal, +and covered with a veil of purple. This ceremony represented the basket +into which Proserpine put the flowers she was gathering when Pluto seized +and carried her off. + +The fifth day was called the day of "the Torches:" because at night the +men and women ran about with them in imitation of Ceres, who having +lighted a torch at the fire at mount AEtna, wandered about from place to +place in search of her daughter. + +The sixth was the most famous day of all. It was called Iacchus, which is +the same as Bacchus, the son of Jupiter and Ceres, whose statue was then +brought out with great ceremony, crowned with myrtle, and holding a torch +in its hand. The procession began at the Ceramicus, and passing through +the principal places of the city, continued to Eleusis. The way leading to +it was called "the sacred way," and lay across a bridge over the river +Cephisus. This procession was very numerous, and generally consisted of +thirty thousand persons.(76) The temple of Eleusis, where it ended, was +large enough to contain the whole of this multitude; and Strabo says, its +extent was equal to that of the theatres, which every body knows were +capable of holding a much greater number of people.(77) The whole way +reechoed with the sound of trumpets, clarions, and other musical +instruments. Hymns were sung in honour of the goddesses, accompanied with +dancing, and other extraordinary marks of rejoicing. The route before +mentioned, through the sacred way, and over the Cephisus, was the usual +one: but after the Lacedaemonians, in the Peloponnesian war, had fortified +Decelia, the Athenians were obliged to make their procession by sea, till +Alcibiades reestablished the ancient custom. + +The seventh day was solemnized by games, and the gymnastic combats, in +which the victor was rewarded with a measure of barley; without doubt +because it was at Eleusis the goddess first taught the method of raising +that grain, and the use of it. The two following days were employed in +some particular ceremonies, neither important nor remarkable. + +During this festival it was prohibited, under very great penalties, to +arrest any person whatsoever, in order to their being imprisoned, or to +present any bill of complaint to the judges. It was regularly celebrated +every fifth year, that is, after a revolution of four years: and history +does not mention that it was ever interrupted, except upon the taking of +Thebes by Alexander the Great.(78) The Athenians, who were then upon the +point of celebrating the great mysteries, were so much affected with the +ruin of that city, that they could not resolve, in so general an +affliction, to solemnize a festival which breathed nothing but merriment +and rejoicing. It was continued down to the time of the Christian +emperors.(79) Valentinian would have abolished it, if Praetextatus, the +proconsul of Greece, had not represented, in the most lively and affecting +terms, the universal sorrow which the abrogation of that feast would +occasion among the people; upon which it was suffered to subsist. It is +supposed to have been finally suppressed by Theodosius the Great; as were +all the rest of the Pagan solemnities. + + + +Of Auguries, Oracles, &c. + + +Nothing is more frequently mentioned in ancient history, than oracles, +auguries, and divinations. No war was made, or colony settled; nothing of +consequence was undertaken, either public or private, without having first +consulted the gods. This was a custom universally established amongst the +Egyptian, Assyrian, Grecian, and Roman nations; which is no doubt a proof, +as has been already observed, that it was derived from ancient tradition, +and that it had its origin in the religion and worship of the true God. It +is not indeed to be questioned, but that God, before the deluge, did +manifest his will to mankind in different methods, as he has since done to +his people, sometimes in his own person and _viva voce_, sometimes by the +ministry of angels or of prophets inspired by himself, and at other times +by apparitions or in dreams. When the descendants of Noah dispersed +themselves into different regions, they carried this tradition along with +them, which was every where retained, though altered and corrupted by the +darkness and ignorance of idolatry. None of the ancients have insisted +more upon the necessity of consulting the gods on all occasions by +auguries and oracles than Xenophon; and he founds that necessity, as I +have more than once observed elsewhere, upon a principle deduced from the +most refined reason and discernment. He represents, in several places, +that man of himself is very frequently ignorant of what is advantageous or +pernicious to him; that, far from being capable of penetrating the future, +the present itself escapes him; so narrow and short-sighted is he in all +his views, that the slightest obstacles can frustrate his greatest +designs; that the Divinity alone, to whom all ages are present, can impart +a certain knowledge of the future to him: that no other being has power to +facilitate the success of his enterprises; and that it is reasonable to +believe he will enlighten and protect those, who adore him with the purest +affection, who invoke him at all times with greatest constancy and +fidelity, and consult him with most sincerity and integrity. + + +Of Auguries. + + +What a reproach is it to human reason, that so luminous a principle should +have given birth to the absurd reasonings, and wretched notions, in favour +of the science of augurs and soothsayers, and been the occasion of +espousing, with blind devotion, the most ridiculous puerilities: should +have made the most important affairs of state depend upon a bird's +happening to sing upon the right or left hand; upon the greediness of +chickens in pecking their grain; the inspection of the entrails of beasts; +the liver's being entire and in good condition, which, according to them, +did sometimes entirely disappear, without leaving any trace or mark of its +having ever subsisted! To these superstitious observances may be added, +accidental rencounters, words spoken by chance, and afterwards turned into +good or bad presages; forebodings, prodigies, monsters, eclipses, comets; +every extraordinary phenomenon, every unforeseen accident, with an +infinity of chimeras of the like nature. + +Whence could it happen, that so many great men, illustrious generals, able +politicians, and even learned philosophers, have actually given into such +absurd imaginations? Plutarch, in particular, so estimable in other +respects, is to be pitied for his servile observance of the senseless +customs of the Pagan idolatry, and his ridiculous credulity in dreams, +signs, and prodigies. He tells us in his works, that he abstained a great +while from eating eggs, upon account of a dream, with which he has not +thought fit to make us further acquainted.(80) + +The wisest of the Pagans knew well how to appreciate the art of +divination, and often spoke of it to each other, and even in public, with +the utmost contempt, and in a manner best adapted to expose its absurdity. +The grave censor Cato was of opinion, that one soothsayer could not look +at another without laughing. Hannibal was amazed at the simplicity of +Prusias, whom he had advised to give battle, upon his being diverted from +it by the inspection of the entrails of a victim. "What," said he, "have +you more confidence in the liver of a beast, than in so old and +experienced a captain as I am?" Marcellus, who had been five times consul, +and was augur, said, that he had discovered a method of not being put to a +stand by the sinister flight of birds, which was, to keep himself close +shut up in his litter. + +Cicero explains himself upon the subject of auguries without ambiguity or +reserve. Nobody was more capable of speaking pertinently upon it than +himself, (as M. Morin observes in his dissertation upon the same subject.) +As he was adopted into the college of augurs, he had made himself +acquainted with their most abstruse secrets, and had all possible +opportunity of informing himself fully in their science. That he did so, +sufficiently appears from the two books he has left us upon divination, in +which, it may be said, he has exhausted the subject. In the second, +wherein he refutes his brother Quintus, who had espoused the cause of the +augurs, he combats and defeats his false reasonings with a force, and at +the same time with so refined and delicate a raillery, as leaves us +nothing to wish; and he demonstrates by proofs, each more convincing than +the other, the falsity, contrariety, and impossibility of that art. But +what is very surprising, in the midst of all his arguments, he takes +occasion to blame the generals and magistrates, who on important +conjunctures had contemned the prognostics; and maintains, that the use of +them, as great an abuse as it was in his own opinion, ought nevertheless +to be respected, out of regard to religion, and the prejudices of the +people.(81) + +All that I have hitherto said tends to prove, that Paganism was divided +into two sects, almost equally enemies of religion; the one by their +superstitious and blind regard for auguries, the other by their +irreligious contempt and derision of them. + +The principle of the first, founded on one side upon the ignorance and +weakness of man in the affairs of life, and on the other upon the +prescience of the Divinity and his almighty providence, was true; but the +consequence deduced from it in favour of auguries, false and absurd. They +ought to have proved that it was certain, that the Divinity himself had +established these external signs to denote his intentions, and that he had +obliged himself to a punctual conformity to them upon all occasions: but +they had nothing of this in their system. These auguries and divinations +therefore were the effect and invention of the ignorance, rashness, +curiosity, and blind passions of man, who presumed to interrogate God, and +to oblige him to give answers upon every idle imagination and unjust +enterprise. + +The others, who gave no real credit to any thing enjoined by the science +of augury, did not fail, however, to observe its trivial ceremonies +through policy, in order the better to subject the minds of the people to +themselves, and to reconcile them to their own purposes, by the assistance +of superstition: but by their contempt for auguries, and their inward +conviction of their falsity, they were led into a disbelief of the Divine +Providence, and to despise religion itself; conceiving it inseparable from +the numerous absurdities of this kind, which rendered it ridiculous, and +consequently unworthy a man of sense. + +Both the one and the other behaved in this manner, because, having +mistaken the Creator, and abused the light of nature, which might have +taught them to know and to adore him, they were deservedly abandoned to +their own darkness, and to a reprobate mind; and, if we had not been +enlightened by the true religion, we, even at this day, should give +ourselves up to the same superstitions. + + +Of Oracles + + +No country was ever richer in, or more productive of oracles, than Greece. +I shall confine myself to those which were the most noted. + +The oracle of Dodona, a city of the Molossians, in Epirus, was much +celebrated; where Jupiter gave answers either by vocal oaks,(82) or doves, +which had also their language, or by resounding basins of brass, or by the +mouths of priests and priestesses. + +The oracle of Trophonius in Boeotia, though he was nothing more than a +hero, was in great reputation.(83) After many preliminary ceremonies, as +washing in the river, offering sacrifices, drinking a water called Lethe, +from its quality of making people forget every thing, the votaries went +down into his cave, by small ladders, through a very narrow passage. At +the bottom was another little cavern, the entrance of which was also +exceeding small. There they lay down upon the ground, with a certain +composition of honey in each hand, which they were indispensably obliged +to carry with them. Their feet were placed within the opening of the +little cave; which was no sooner done, than they perceived themselves +borne into it with great force and velocity. Futurity was there revealed +to them; but not to all in the same manner. Some saw, others heard, +wonders. From thence they returned quite stupified, and out of their +senses, and were placed in the chair of Mnemosyne, the goddess of memory; +not without great need of her assistance to recover their remembrance, +after their great fatigue, of what they had seen and heard; admitting they +had seen or heard any thing at all. Pausanias, who had consulted that +oracle himself, and gone through all these ceremonies, has left a most +ample description of it; to which Plutarch adds some particular +circumstances,(84) which I omit, to avoid a tedious prolixity. + +The temple and oracle of the Branchidae, in the neighbourhood of Miletus, +so called from Branchus, the son of Apollo, was very ancient, and in great +esteem with all the Ionians and Dorians of Asia.(85) Xerxes, in his return +from Greece, burnt this temple, after the priests had delivered its +treasures to him. That prince, in return, granted them an establishment in +the remotest parts of Asia, to secure them against the vengeance of the +Greeks. After the war was over, the Milesians reestablished that temple +with a magnificence which, according to Strabo, surpassed that of all the +other temples of Greece. When Alexander the Great had overthrown Darius, +he utterly destroyed the city where the priests Branchidae had settled, of +which their descendants were at that time in actual possession, punishing +in the children the sacrilegious perfidy of their fathers. + +Tacitus relates something very singular, though not very probable, of the +oracle of Claros, a town of Ionia, in Asia Minor, near Colophon.(86) +"Germanicus," says he, "went to consult Apollo at Claros. It is not a +woman that gives the answers there, as at Delphi, but a man, chosen out of +certain families, and almost always of Miletus. It is sufficient to let +him know the number and names of those who come to consult him. After +which he retires into a cave, and having drunk of the waters of a spring +within it, he delivers answers in verse upon what the persons have in +their thoughts, though he is often ignorant, and knows nothing of +composing in measure. It is said, that he foretold to Germanicus his +sudden death, but in dark and ambiguous terms, according to the custom of +oracles." + +I omit a great number of other oracles, to proceed to the most famous of +them all. It is very obvious that I mean the oracle of Apollo at Delphi. +He was worshipped there under the name of the Pythian, a title derived +from the serpent Python, which he had killed, or from a Greek word, that +signifies to inquire, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, because people came thither to consult +him. From thence the Delphic priestess was called Pythia, and the games +there celebrated, the Pythian games. + +Delphi was an ancient city of Phocis in Achaia. It stood upon the +declivity, and about the middle, of the mountain Parnassus, built upon a +small extent of even ground, and surrounded with precipices, that +fortified it without the help of art. + +Diodorus says,(87) that there was a cavity upon Parnassus, from whence an +exhalation rose, which made the goats dance and skip about, and +intoxicated the brain. A shepherd having approached it, out of a desire to +know the causes of so extraordinary an effect, was immediately seized with +violent agitations of body, and pronounced words, which, without doubt, he +did not understand himself; but which, however, foretold futurity. Others +made the same experiment, and it was soon rumoured throughout the +neighbouring countries. The cavity was no longer approached without +reverence. The exhalation was concluded to have something divine in it. A +priestess was appointed for the reception of its effects, and a tripod +placed upon the vent, called by the Latins Cortina, perhaps from the +skin(88) that covered it. From thence she gave her oracles. The city of +Delphi rose insensibly round about this cave; and a temple was erected, +which, at length, became very magnificent. The reputation of this oracle +almost effaced, or at least very much exceeded, that of all others. + +At first a single Pythia sufficed to answer those who came to consult the +oracle, as they did not yet amount to any great number: but in process of +time, when it grew into universal repute, a second was appointed to mount +the tripod alternately with the first, and a third chosen to succeed in +case of death, or disease. There were other assistants besides these to +attend the Pythia in the sanctuary, of whom the most considerable were +called prophets;(89) it was their business to take care of the sacrifices, +and to inspect them. To these the demands of the inquirers were delivered +by word of mouth, or in writing; and they returned the answers, as we +shall see in the sequel. + +We must not confound the Pythia with the Sibyl of Delphi. The ancients +represent the latter as a woman that roved from country to country, +venting her predictions. She was at the same time the Sibyl of Delphi, +Erythrae, Babylon, Cumae, and many other places, from her having resided in +them all. + +The Pythia could not prophesy till she was intoxicated by the exhalation +from the sanctuary of Apollo. This miraculous vapour had not that effect +at all times and upon all occasions. The god was not always in the +inspiring humour. At first he imparted himself only once a year, but at +length he was prevailed upon to visit the Pythia every month. All days +were not proper, and upon some it was not permitted to consult the oracle. +These unfortunate days occasioned an oracle's being given to Alexander the +Great worthy of remark. He went to Delphi to consult the god, at a time +when the priestess pretended it was forbidden to ask him any questions, +and would not enter the temple. Alexander, who was always warm and +tenacious, took hold of her by the arm to force her into it, when she +cried out, "Ah, my son, you are not to be resisted!" or, "My son, you are +invincible!"(90) Upon which words he declared he would have no other +oracle, and was contented with that he had received. + +The Pythia, before she ascended the tripod, was a long time preparing for +it by sacrifices, purifications, a fast of three days, and many other +ceremonies. The god denoted his approach by the moving of a laurel, that +stood before the gate of the temple, which shook also to its very +foundations. + +As soon as the divine vapour,(91) like a penetrating fire, had diffused +itself through the entrails of the priestess, her hair stood upright upon +her head, her looks grew wild, she foamed at the mouth, a sudden and +violent trembling seized her whole body, with all the symptoms of +distraction and frenzy.(92) She uttered, at intervals, some words almost +inarticulate, which the prophets carefully collected, and arranged with a +certain degree of order and connection. After she had been a certain time +upon the tripod, she was reconducted to her cell, where she generally +continued many days to recover from her fatigue; and, as Lucan says,(93) a +sudden death was often either the reward or punishment of her enthusiasm: + + + Numinis aut poena est mors immatura recepti, + Aut pretium. + + +The prophets had poets under them, who made the oracles into verses, which +were often bad enough, and gave occasion to remark that, it was very +surprising that Apollo, who presided over the choir of the muses, should +inspire his priestess no better. But Plutarch informs us, that it was not +the god who composed the verses of the oracle. He inflamed the Pythia's +imagination, and kindled in her soul that living light, which unveiled all +futurity to her. The words she uttered in the heat of her enthusiasm, +having neither method nor connection, and coming only by starts, if that +expression may be used, from the bottom of her stomach, or rather(94) from +her belly, were collected with care by the prophets, who gave them +afterwards to the poets to be turned into verse. These Apollo left to +their own genius and natural talents; as we may suppose he did the Pythia +when she herself composed verses, which, though not often, happened +sometimes. The substance of the oracle was inspired by Apollo, the manner +of expressing it was the priestess's own: the oracles were however often +given in prose. + +The general characteristics of oracles were ambiguity,(95) obscurity, and +convertibility, (if I may use that expression,) so that one answer would +agree with several various, and sometimes directly opposite, events. By +the help of this artifice, the daemons, who of themselves are not capable +of knowing futurity, concealed their ignorance, and amused the credulity +of the Pagan world. When Croesus was upon the point of invading the Medes, +he consulted the oracle of Delphi upon the success of that war, and was +answered, that by passing the river Halys, he would ruin a great empire. +What empire, his own, or that of his enemies? He was to guess that; but +whatever the event might be, the oracle could not fail of being in the +right. As much may be said upon the same god's answer to Pyrrhus: + + + Aio te, AEacida, Romanos vincere posse. + + +I repeat it in Latin, because the equivocality, which equally implies, +that Pyrrhus could conquer the Romans, and the Romans Pyrrhus, will not +subsist in a translation. Under the cover of such ambiguities, the god +eluded all difficulties, and was never in the wrong. + +It must, however, be confessed, that sometimes the answer of the oracle +was clear and circumstantial. I have related, in the history of Croesus, +the stratagem he made use of to assure himself of the veracity of the +oracle, which was, to demand of it, by his ambassador, what he was doing +at a certain time prefixed. The oracle of Delphi replied, in verse, that +he was causing a tortoise and a lamb to be drest in a vessel of brass, +which was really the case. The emperor Trajan made a similar trial of the +god at Heliopolis, by sending him a letter sealed up,(96) to which he +demanded an answer.(97) The oracle made no other return, than to command a +blank paper, well folded and sealed, to be delivered to him. Trajan, upon +the receipt of it, was struck with amazement to see an answer so +correspondent with his own letter, in which he knew he had written +nothing. The wonderful facility with which daemons can transfer themselves +almost in an instant from place to place, made it not impossible for them +to give the two answers, which I have last mentioned, and to foretell in +one country, what they had seen in another; this is Tertullian's +opinion.(98) + +Admitting it to be true, that some oracles have been followed precisely by +the events foretold, we may believe that God, to punish the blind and +sacrilegious credulity of the Pagans, has sometimes permitted the daemons +to have a knowledge of things to come, and to foretell them distinctly +enough. Which conduct of God, though very much above human comprehension, +is frequently attested in the Holy Scriptures. + +It has been questioned, whether the oracles, mentioned in profane history, +should be ascribed to the operations of daemons, or only to the wickedness +and imposture of men. Van dale, a Dutch physician, has maintained the +latter opinion, and Monsieur Fontenelle, when a young man, adopted it, in +the persuasion (to use his own words) that it was indifferent, as to the +truth of Christianity, whether the oracles were the effect of the agency +of spirits, or a series of impostures. Father Baltus, the Jesuit, +professor of the Holy Scriptures in the university of Strasburgh, has +refuted them both in a very solid treatise, wherein he demonstrates, +invincibly, from the unanimous authority of the Fathers, that daemons were +the real agents in the oracles. He attacks, with equal force and success, +the rashness and presumption of the Anabaptist physician; who, calling in +question the capacity and discernment of those holy doctors, secretly +endeavoured to efface the high idea all true believers should entertain of +those great leaders of the Church, and to depreciate their venerable +authority, which is so great a difficulty to all who deviate from the +principles of ancient tradition. Now, if that was ever certain and uniform +in any thing, it is so in this point; for all the Fathers of the Church, +and ecclesiastical writers of all ages, maintain, and attest, that the +devil was the author of idolatry in general, and of oracles in particular. + +This opinion does not hinder our believing that the priests and +priestesses were frequently guilty of fraud and imposture in the answers +of the oracles. For is not the devil the father and prince of lies? In the +Grecian history, we have seen more than once the Delphic priestess suffer +herself to be corrupted by presents. It was from that motive, she +persuaded the Lacedaemonians to assist the people of Athens in the +expulsion of the thirty tyrants; that she caused Demaratus to be divested +of the royal dignity, to make way for Cleomenes; and drest up an oracle to +support the imposture of Lysander, when he endeavoured to change the +succession to the throne of Sparta. And I am apt to believe that +Themistocles, who well knew the importance of acting against the Persians +by sea, inspired the god with the answer he gave, "to defend themselves +with wooden walls." Demosthenes, convinced that the oracles were +frequently suggested by passion or interest, and suspecting, with reason, +that Philip had instructed them to speak in his favour, boldly +declared,(99) that the Pythia "philippized;" and bade the Athenians and +Thebans remember that Pericles and Epaminondas, instead of listening to, +and amusing themselves with, the frivolous answers of the oracle, those +idle bugbears of the base and cowardly, consulted only reason in the +choice and execution of their measures. + +The same father Baltus examines, with equal success, a second point in +dispute, namely, the cessation of oracles. Mr. Vandale, to oppose with +some advantage a truth so glorious to Jesus Christ, the subverter of +idolatry, had falsified the sense of the Fathers, by making them say, +"that oracles ceased precisely at the moment of Christ's birth." The +learned apologist for the Fathers shows, that they all allege that oracles +ceased after our Saviour's birth, and the preaching of his Gospel; not on +a sudden, but in proportion as his salutary doctrines became known to +mankind, and gained ground in the world. This unanimous opinion of the +Fathers is confirmed by the unexceptionable evidence of great numbers of +the Pagans, who agree with them as to the time when the oracles ceased. + +What an honour to the Christian religion was this silence imposed upon the +oracles by the victory of Jesus Christ! Every Christian had this power. +Tertullian, in one of his _Apologies_,(100) challenges the Pagans to make +the experiment, and consents that a Christian should be put to death, if +he did not oblige these givers of oracles to confess themselves devils. +Lactantius informs us, that every Christian could silence them by only the +sign of the cross.(101) And all the world knows, that when Julian the +Apostate was at Daphne, a suburb of Antioch, to consult Apollo, the god, +notwithstanding all the sacrifices offered to him, continued mute, and +only recovered his speech to answer those who inquired the cause of his +silence, that they must ascribe it to the interment of certain bodies in +the neighbourhood. Those were the bodies of Christian martyrs, amongst +which was that of St. Babylas. + +This triumph of the Christian religion ought to give us a due sense of our +obligations to Jesus Christ, and, at the same time, of the darkness to +which all mankind were abandoned before his coming. We have seen amongst +the Carthaginians, fathers and mothers, more cruel than wild beasts, +inhumanly giving up their children, and annually depopulating their +cities, by destroying the most vigorous of their youth, in obedience to +the bloody dictates of their oracles and false gods.(102) The victims were +chosen without any regard to rank, sex, age, or condition. Such bloody +executions were honoured with the name of sacrifices, and designed to make +the gods propitious. "What greater evil," cries Lactantius, "could they +inflict in their most violent displeasure, than thus to deprive their +adorers of all sense of humanity, to make them cut the throats of their +own children, and pollute their sacrilegious hands with such execrable +parricides?" + +A thousand frauds and impostures, openly detected at Delphi, and every +where else, had not opened men's eyes, nor in the least diminished the +credit of the oracles; which subsisted upwards of two thousand years, and +was carried to an inconceivable height, even in the minds of the greatest +men, the most profound philosophers, the most powerful princes, and +generally among the most civilized nations, and such as valued themselves +most upon their wisdom and policy. The estimation they were in, may be +judged from the magnificence of the temple of Delphi, and the immense +riches amassed in it through the superstitious credulity of nations and +monarchs. + +The temple of Delphi having been burnt about the fifty-eighth Olympiad, +the Amphictyons, those celebrated judges of Greece, took upon themselves +the care of rebuilding it.(103) They agreed with an architect for three +hundred talents, which amounts to nine hundred thousand livres.(104) The +cities of Greece were to furnish that sum. The inhabitants of Delphi were +taxed a fourth part of it, and collected contributions in all parts, even +in foreign nations, for that service. Amasis, at that time king of Egypt, +and the Grecian inhabitants of his country, contributed considerable sums +towards it. The Alcmaeonidae, a potent family of Athens, took upon +themselves the conduct of the building, and made it more magnificent, by +considerable additions of their own, than had been proposed in the model. + +Gyges, king of Lydia, and Croesus, one of his successors, enriched the +temple of Delphi with an incredible number of presents. Many other +princes, cities, and private persons, by their example, in a kind of +emulation of each other, had heaped up in it tripods, vases, tables, +shields, crowns, chariots, and statues of gold and silver of all sizes, +equally infinite in number and value. The presents of gold which Croesus +alone made to this temple, amounted, according to Herodotus,(105) to +upwards of 254 talents; that is, about 762,000 French livres;(106) and +perhaps those of silver to as much. Most of these presents were in being +in the time of Herodotus. Diodorus Siculus,(107) adding those of other +princes to them, makes their amount ten thousand talents, or thirty +millions of livres.(108) + +Amongst the statues of gold, consecrated by Croesus in the temple of +Delphi, was placed that of his female baker, the occasion of which was +this:(109) Alyattes, Croesus's father, having married a second wife, by +whom he had children, she laid a plan to get rid of her son-in-law, that +the crown might descend to her own issue. For this purpose she engaged the +female baker to put poison into a loaf, that was to be served at the young +prince's table. The woman, who was struck with horror at the crime, (in +which she ought to have had no part at all,) gave Croesus notice of it. The +poisoned loaf was served to the queen's own children, and their death +secured the crown to the lawful successor. When he ascended the throne, in +gratitude to his benefactress, he erected a statue to her in the temple of +Delphi. But, it may be said, could a person of so mean a condition deserve +so great an honour? Plutarch answers in the affirmative; and with a much +better title, he says, than many of the so-much-vaunted conquerors and +heroes, who have acquired their fame only by murder and devastation. + +It is not to be wondered at, that such immense riches should have tempted +the avarice of mankind, and exposed Delphi to being frequently pillaged. +Without mentioning more ancient times, Xerxes, who invaded Greece with a +million of men, endeavoured to seize upon the spoils of this temple. Above +an hundred years after, the Phoceans, near neighbours of Delphi, plundered +it at several times. The same rich booty was the sole motive of the +irruption of the Gauls into Greece under Brennus. The guardian god of +Delphi, if we may believe historians, sometimes defended this temple by +surprising prodigies; and at others, either from impotence or want of +presence of mind, suffered himself to be plundered. When Nero made this +temple, so famous throughout the universe, a visit, and found in it five +hundred fine brass statues of illustrious men and gods to his liking, +which had been consecrated to Apollo, (those of gold and silver having +undoubtedly disappeared upon his approach,) he ordered them to be taken +down, and shipping them on board his vessels, carried them with him to +Rome. + +Those who are desirous of more particular information concerning the +oracles and riches of the temple of Delphi, may consult some dissertations +upon this subject, printed in the _Memoirs of the Academy of Belles +Lettres_,(110) of which I have made good use, according to my custom. + + + +Of the Games and Combats. + + +Games and combats made a part of the religion, and had a share in almost +all the festivals of the ancients; and for that reason it is proper that +they should find a place in this Work. Whether we consider their origin, +or the design of their institution, we shall not be surprised at their +being so prevalent in the best governed states. + +Hercules, Theseus, Castor and Pollux, and the greatest heroes of +antiquity, were not only the institutors or restorers of them, but thought +it glorious to share in the exercise of them, and meritorious to succeed +therein. These subduers of monsters, and of the common enemies of mankind, +thought it no disgrace to them, to aspire to the victories in these +combats; nor that the new wreaths with which their brows were encircled in +the solemnization of these games, detracted from the lustre of those they +had before acquired. Hence the most famous poets made these combats the +subject of their verses; the beauty of whose poetry, whilst it +immortalized themselves, seemed to promise an eternity of fame to those +whose victories it celebrated. Hence arose that uncommon ardour which +animated all Greece, to tread in the steps of those ancient heroes, and +like them, to signalize themselves in the public combats. + +A reason more solid, and originating in the very nature of these combats, +and of the people who used them, may be given for their prevalence. The +Greeks, by nature warlike, and equally intent upon forming the bodies and +minds of their youth, introduced these exercises, and annexed honours to +them, in order to prepare the younger sort for the profession of arms, to +confirm their health, to render them stronger and more robust, to inure +them to fatigues, and to make them intrepid in close fight, in which, the +use of fire-arms being then unknown, strength of body generally decided +the victory. These athletic exercises supplied the place of those in use +amongst our nobility, as dancing, fencing, riding the great horse, &c.; +but they did not confine themselves to a graceful mien, nor to the +beauties of a shape and face; they were for joining strength to the charms +of person. + +It is true, these exercises, so illustrious by their founders, and so +useful in the ends at first proposed from them, introduced public masters, +who taught them to young persons, and from practising them with success, +made public show and ostentation of their skill. This sort of men applied +themselves solely to the practice of this art, and carrying it to an +excess, they formed it into a kind of science, by the addition of rules +and refinements; often challenging each other out of a vain emulation, +till at length they degenerated into a profession of people, who, without +any other employment or merit, exhibited themselves as a sight for the +diversion of the public. Our dancing-masters are not unlike them in this +respect, whose natural and original designation was to teach youth a +graceful manner of walking, and a good address; but now we see them mount +the stage, and perform ballets in the garb of comedians, capering, +jumping, skipping, and making variety of strange unnatural motions. We +shall see in the sequel, what opinion the wiser among the ancients had of +their professed combatants and wrestling-masters. + +There were four games solemnized in Greece. The _Olympic_, so called from +Olympia, otherwise Pisa, a town of Elis in Peloponnesus, near which they +were celebrated, after the expiration of every four years, in honour of +Jupiter Olympicus. The _Pythian_, sacred to Apollo Pythius,(111) so called +from the serpent Python, killed by him; they were celebrated at Delphi +every four years. The _Nemaean_, which took their name from Nemaea, a city +and forest of Peloponnesus, and were either instituted or restored by +Hercules, after he had slain the lion of the Nemaean forest. They were +solemnized every two years. And lastly, the _Isthmian_, celebrated upon +the isthmus of Corinth, every four years, in honour of Neptune. +Theseus(112) was the restorer of them, and they continued even after the +ruin of Corinth. That persons might be present at these public sports with +greater quiet and security, there was a general suspension of arms, and +cessation of hostilities throughout all Greece, during the time of their +celebration. + +In these games, which were solemnized with incredible magnificence, and +drew together a prodigious concourse of spectators and combatants from all +parts, a simple wreath was all the reward of the victors. In the Olympic +games, it was composed of wild olive. In the Pythian, of laurel. In the +Nemaean, of green parsley;(113) and in the Isthmian, of the same herb +dried. The institutors of these games wished that it should be implied +from hence, that honour alone, and not mean and sordid interest, ought to +be the motive of great actions. Of what were men not capable, accustomed +to act solely from so glorious a principle! We have seen in the Persian +war,(114) that Tigranes, one of the most considerable captains in the army +of Xerxes, having heard the prizes in the Grecian games described, cried +out with astonishment, addressing himself to Mardonius, who commanded in +chief, "Heavens! against what men are you leading us? Insensible to +interest, they combat only for glory!"(115) Which exclamation, though +looked upon by Xerxes as an effect of abject fear, abounds with sense and +judgment. + +It was from the same principle that the Romans, whilst they bestowed upon +other occasions crowns of gold of great value, persisted always in giving +only a wreath of oaken leaves to him who had saved the life of a +citizen.(116) "O manners, worthy of eternal remembrance!" cried Pliny, in +relating this laudable custom, "O grandeur, truly Roman, that would assign +no other reward but honour, for the preservation of a citizen! a service, +indeed, above all reward; thereby sufficiently evincing their opinion, +that it was criminal to save a man's life from the motive of lucre and +interest!" _O mores aeternos, qui tanta opera honore solo donaverint; et +cum reliquas coronas auro commendarent, salutem civis in pretio esse +noluerint, clara professione servari quidem hominem nefus esse lucri +causa!_ + +Amongst all the Grecian games, the Olympic held undeniably the first rank, +and that for three reasons. They were sacred to Jupiter, the greatest of +the gods; instituted by Hercules, the first of the heroes; and celebrated +with more pomp and magnificence, amidst a greater concourse of spectators +attracted from all parts, than any of the rest. + +If Pausanias may be believed,(117) women were prohibited to be present at +them upon pain of death; and during their continuance, it was ordained, +that no woman should approach the place where the games were celebrated, +or pass on that side of the river Alpheus. One only was so bold as to +violate this law, and slipt in disguise amongst those who were training +the wrestlers. She was tried for the offence, and would have suffered the +penalty enacted by the law, if the judges, in regard to her father, her +brother, and her son, who had all been victors in the Olympic games, had +not pardoned her offence, and saved her life. + +This law was very conformable with the manners of the Greeks, amongst whom +the ladies were very reserved, seldom appeared in public, had separate +apartments, called _Gynaecea_, and never ate at table with the men when +strangers were present. It was certainly inconsistent with decency to +admit them at some of the games, as those of wrestling and the Pancratium, +in which the combatants fought naked. + +The same Pausanias tells us in another place,(118) that the priestess of +Ceres had an honourable seat in these games, and that virgins were not +denied the liberty of being present at them. For my part, I cannot +conceive the reason of such inconsistency, which indeed seems incredible. + +The Greeks thought nothing comparable to the victory in these games. They +looked upon it as the perfection of glory, and did not believe it +permitted to mortals to desire any thing beyond it. Cicero assures +us,(119) that with them it was no less honourable than the consular +dignity in its original splendour with the ancient Romans. And in another +place he says,(120) that to conquer at Olympia, was almost, in the +estimation of the Grecians, more great and glorious, than to receive the +honour of a triumph at Rome. Horace speaks in still stronger terms of this +kind of victory. He is not afraid to say,(121) that "it exalts the victor +above human nature; they were no longer men but gods." + +We shall see hereafter what extraordinary honours were paid the victor, of +which one of the most affecting was, to date the year with his name. +Nothing could more effectually stimulate their endeavours, and make them +regardless of expenses, than the assurance of immortalizing their names, +which, through all future ages would be enrolled in their annals, and +stand in the front of all laws made in the same year with the victory. To +this motive may be added the joy of knowing, that their praises would be +celebrated by the most famous poets, and form the subject of conversation +in the most illustrious assemblies; for these odes were sung in every +house, and formed a part in every entertainment. What could be a more +powerful incentive to a people, who had no other object and aim than that +of human glory? + +I shall confine myself upon this head to the Olympic games, which +continued five days; and shall describe, in as brief a manner as possible, +the several kinds of combats of which they were composed. M. Burette has +treated this subject in several dissertations, printed in the _Memoirs of +the Academy of Belles Lettres_; wherein purity, perspicuity, and elegance +of style are united with profound erudition. I make no scruple in +appropriating to my use the riches of my brethren; and, in what I have +already said upon the Olympic games, have made very free with the late +Abbe Massieu's remarks upon the _Odes_ of Pindar. + +The combats which had the greatest share in the solemnity of the public +games, were boxing, wrestling, the pancratium, the discus or quoit, and +racing. To these may be added the exercises of leaping, throwing the dart, +and that of the trochus or wheel; but as these were neither important nor +of any great reputation, I shall content myself with having only mentioned +them in this place. For the better methodizing the particulars of these +games and exercises, it will be necessary to begin with an account of the +Athletae, or combatants. + + +Of the Athletae, or Combatants. + + +The term Athletae is derived from the Greek word {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, which signifies +labour, combat. This name was given to those who exercised themselves with +an intention to dispute the prizes in the public games. The art by which +they formed themselves for these encounters, was called Gymnastic, from +the Athletae's practising naked. + +Those who were designed for this profession frequented, from their most +tender age, the Gymnasia or Palaestrae, which were a kind of academies +maintained for that purpose at the public expense. In these places, such +young people were under the direction of different masters, who employed +the most effectual methods to inure their bodies for the fatigues of the +public games, and to train them for the combats. The regimen they were +under was very hard and severe. At first they had no other nourishment +than dried figs, nuts, soft cheese, and a coarse heavy sort of bread, +called {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. They were absolutely forbidden the use of wine, and enjoined +continence; which Horace expresses thus:(122) + + + Qui studet optatam cursu contingere metam + Multa tulit fecitque puer, sudavit et alsit, + Abstinuit venere et vino. + + Who in th' Olympic race the prize would gain, + Has borne from early youth fatigue and pain, + Excess of heat and cold has often try'd, + Love's softness banish'd, and the glass deny'd. + + +St. Paul, by a comparison drawn from the Athletae, exhorts the Corinthians, +near whose city the Isthmian games were celebrated, to a sober and +penitent life. "Those who strive," says he, "for the mastery, are +temperate in all things: Now they do it to obtain a corruptible crown, but +we an incorruptible." Tertullian uses the same thought to encourage the +martyrs.(123) He makes a comparison from what the hopes of victory made +the Athletae endure. He repeats the severe and painful exercises they were +obliged to undergo; the continual denial and constraint, in which they +passed the best years of their lives; and the voluntary privation which +they imposed upon themselves, of all that was most pleasing and grateful +to their passions. It is true, the Athletae did not always observe so +severe a regimen, but at length substituted in its stead a voracity and +indolence extremely remote from it. + +The Athletae, before their exercises,(124) were rubbed with oils and +ointments to make their bodies more supple and vigorous. At first they +made use of a belt, with an apron or scarf fastened to it, for their more +decent appearance in the combats; but one of the combatants happening to +lose the victory by this covering's falling off, that accident was the +occasion of sacrificing modesty to convenience, and retrenching the apron +for the future. The Athletae were naked only in some exercises, as +wrestling, boxing, the pancratium, and the foot-race. They practised a +kind of novitiate in the Gymnasia for ten months, to accomplish themselves +in the several exercises by assiduous application; and this they did in +the presence of such, as curiosity or idleness conducted to look on. But +when the celebration of the Olympic games drew nigh, the Athletae who were +to appear in them were kept to double exercise. + +Before they were admitted to combat, other proofs were required; as to +birth, none but Greeks were to be received. It was also necessary, that +their manners should be unexceptionable, and their condition free. No +foreigner was admitted to combat in the Olympic games; and when Alexander, +the son of Amyntas, king of Macedon, presented himself to dispute the +prize, his competitors, without any regard to the royal dignity, opposed +his reception as a Macedonian, and consequently a barbarian and a +stranger; nor could the judges be prevailed upon to admit him, till he had +proved in due form his family originally descended from the Argives. + +The persons who presided in the games were called _Agonothetae_, +_Athlothetae_, and _Hellanodicae_: they registered the name and country of +each champion; and upon the opening of the games a herald proclaimed the +names of the combatants. They were then made to take an oath, that they +would religiously observe the several laws prescribed in each kind of +combat, and do nothing contrary to the established orders and regulations +of the games. Fraud, artifice, and excessive violence, were absolutely +prohibited; and the maxim so generally received elsewhere,(125) that it is +indifferent whether an enemy is conquered by deceit or valour, was +banished from these combats. The address of a combatant, expert in all the +niceties of his art, who knows how to shift and ward dexterously, to put +the change upon his adversary with art and subtlety, and to improve the +least advantages, must not be confounded here with the cowardly and +knavish cunning of one who, without regard to the laws prescribed, employs +the most unfair means to vanquish his competitor. Those who disputed the +prize in the several kinds of combats, drew lots for their precedency in +them. + +It is time to bring our champions to blows, and to run over the different +kinds of combats, in which they exercised themselves. + + +Of Wrestling. + + +Wrestling is one of the most ancient exercises of which we have any +knowledge, having been practised in the time of the patriarchs, as the +wrestling of the angel with Jacob proves.(126) Jacob supported the angel's +attack so vigorously, that the latter, perceiving he could not throw so +rough a wrestler, was reduced to make him lame by touching the sinew of +his thigh, which immediately shrunk up. + +Wrestling, among the Greeks, as well as other nations, was practised at +first with simplicity, little art, and in a natural manner; the weight of +the body, and the strength of the muscles, having more share in it than +address and skill. Theseus was the first that reduced it to method, and +refined it by the rules of art. He was also the first who established the +public schools, called _Palaestrae_, where the young people had masters to +instruct them in it. + +The wrestlers, before they began the combat, were rubbed all over in a +rough manner, and afterwards anointed with oils, which added to the +strength and flexibility of their limbs. But as this unction, by making +the skin too slippery, rendered it difficult for them to take good hold of +each other, they remedied that inconvenience, sometimes by rolling +themselves in the dust of the Palaestra, sometimes by throwing a fine sand +upon each other, kept for that purpose in the Xystae, or porticoes of the +Gymnasia. + +Thus prepared, the wrestlers began their combat. They were matched two +against two, and sometimes several couples contended at the same time. In +this combat, the whole aim and design of the wrestlers was to throw their +adversary upon the ground. Both strength and art were employed for this +purpose: they seized each other by the arms, drew forwards, pushed +backwards, used many distortions and twistings of the body; locking their +limbs into each other's, seizing by the neck, throttling, pressing in +their arms, struggling, plying on all sides, lifting from the ground, +dashing their heads together like rams, and twisting one another's necks. +The most considerable advantage in the wrestler's art, was to make himself +master of his adversary's legs, of which a fall was the immediate +consequence. From whence Plautus says in his _Pseudolus_, speaking of +wine, "He is a dangerous wrestler, he presently trips up the heels."(127) +The Greek terms {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} and {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, and the Latin word +_supplantare_, seem to imply, that one of these arts consisted in stooping +down to seize the antagonist under the soles of his feet, and in raising +them up to give him a fall. + +In this manner the Athletae wrestled standing, the combat ending with the +fall of one of the competitors. But when it happened that the wrestler who +was down, drew his adversary along with him, either by art or accident, +the combat continued upon the sand, the antagonists tumbling and twining +with each other in a thousand different ways, till one of them got +uppermost, and compelled the other to ask quarter, and confess himself +vanquished. There was a third sort of wrestling, called {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, +from the Athletae's using only their hands in it, without taking hold of +the body, as in the other kinds; and this exercise served as a prelude to +the greater combat. It consisted in intermingling their fingers, and in +squeezing them with all their force; in pushing one another, by joining +the palms of their hands together; in twisting their fingers, wrists, and +other joints of the arm, without the assistance of any other member; and +the victory was his, who obliged his opponent to ask quarter. + +The combatants were to fight three times successively, and to throw their +antagonists at least twice, before the prize could be adjudged to them. + +Homer describes the wrestling of Ajax and Ulysses; Ovid, that of Hercules +and Achelous; Lucan, of Hercules and Antaeus; and Statius, in his +_Thebaid_, that of Tydeus and Agylleus.(128) + +The wrestlers of greatest reputation amongst the Greeks, were Milo of +Crotona, whose history I have related elsewhere at large, and Polydamas. +The latter, alone and without arms, killed a furious lion upon mount +Olympus, in imitation of Hercules, whom he proposed to himself as a model +in this action. Another time having seized a bull by one of his hinder +legs, the beast could not get loose without leaving his hoof in his hands. +He could hold a chariot behind, while the coachman whipt his horses in +vain to make them go forward. Darius Nothus, king of Persia, hearing of +his prodigious strength, was desirous of seeing him, and invited him to +Susa. Three soldiers of that Prince's guard, and of that band which the +Persians called "immortal," esteemed the most warlike of their troops, +were ordered to fall upon him. Our champion fought and killed them all +three. + + +Of Boxing, or the Cestus. + + +Boxing is a combat at blows with the fist, from whence it derives its +name. The combatants covered their fists with a kind of offensive arms, +called _Cestus_, and their heads with a sort of leather cap, to defend +their temples and ears, which were most exposed to blows, and to deaden +their violence. The Cestus was a kind of gauntlet, or glove, made of +straps of leather, and plated with brass, lead or iron. Their use was to +strengthen the hands of the combatants, and to add violence to their +blows. + +Sometimes the Athletae came immediately to the most violent blows, and +began their onset in the most furious manner. Sometimes whole hours passed +in harassing and fatiguing each other, by a continual extension of their +arms, rendering each other's blows ineffectual, and endeavouring by that +sparring to keep off their adversary. But when they fought with the utmost +fury, they aimed chiefly at the head and face, which parts they were most +careful to defend, by either avoiding or parrying the blows made at them. +When a combatant came on to throw himself with all his force and vigour +upon another, they had a surprising address in avoiding the attack, by a +nimble turn of the body, which threw the imprudent adversary down, and +deprived him of the victory. + +However fierce the combatants were against each other, their being +exhausted by the length of the combat, would frequently reduce them to the +necessity of making a truce; upon which the battle was suspended by mutual +consent for some minutes, that were employed in recovering their fatigue, +and rubbing off the sweat in which they were bathed: after which they +renewed the fight, till one of them, by letting fall his arms through +weakness and faintness, explained that he could no longer support the pain +or fatigue, and desired quarter; which was confessing himself vanquished. + +Boxing was one of the roughest and most dangerous of the gymnastic +combats; because, besides the danger of being crippled, the combatants ran +the hazard of their lives. They sometimes fell down dead, or dying upon +the sand; though that seldom happened, except the vanquished person +persisted too long in not acknowledging his defeat: yet it was common for +them to quit the fight with a countenance so disfigured, that it was not +easy to know them afterwards; carrying away with them the sad marks of +their vigorous resistance, such as bruises and contusions in the face, the +loss of an eye, their teeth knocked out, their jaws broken, or some more +considerable fracture. + +We find in the poets, both Latin and Greek, several descriptions of this +kind of combat. In Homer, that of Epeus and Euryalus; in Theocritus, of +Pollux and Amycus; in Apollonius Rhodius, the same battle of Pollux and +Amycus; in Virgil, that of Dares and Entellus; and in Statius, and +Valerius Flaccus, of several other combatants.(129) + + +Of the Pancratium. + + +The Pancratium was so called from two Greek words,(130) which signify that +the whole force of the body was necessary for succeeding in it. It united +boxing and wrestling in the same fight, borrowing from one its manner of +struggling and flinging, and from the other, the art of dealing blows and +of avoiding them with success. In wrestling it was not permitted to strike +with the hand, nor in boxing to seize each other in the manner of the +wrestlers; but in the Pancratium, it was not only allowed to make use of +all the gripes and artifices of wrestling, but the hands and feet, and +even the teeth and nails, might be employed to conquer an antagonist. + +This combat was the most rough and dangerous. A Pancratiast in the Olympic +games (called Arrichion, or Arrachion,) perceiving himself almost +suffocated by his adversary, who had got fast hold of him by the throat, +at the same time that he held him by the foot, broke one of his enemy's +toes, the extreme anguish of which obliged him to ask quarter at the very +instant that Arrichion himself expired. The Agonothetae crowned Arrichion, +though dead, and proclaimed him victor. Philostratus has left us a very +lively description of a painting, which represented this combat. + + +Of the Discus, or Quoit. + + +The Discus was a kind of quoit of a round form, made sometimes of wood, +but more frequently of stone, lead, or other metal; as iron or brass. +Those who used this exercise were called Discoboli, that is, flingers of +the Discus. The epithet {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, which signifies "borne upon the +shoulders," given to this instrument by Homer, sufficiently shows, that it +was of too great a weight to be carried from place to place in the hands +only, and that the shoulders were necessary for the support of such a +burden for any length of time. + +The intent of this exercise, as of almost all the others, was to +invigorate the body, and to make men more capable of supporting the weight +and use of arms. In war they were often obliged to carry such loads, as +appear excessive in these days, either of provisions, fascines, palisades; +or in scaling of walls, when, to equal the height of them, several of the +besiegers mounted upon the shoulders of each other. + +The Athletae, in hurling the Discus, put themselves into the posture best +adapted to add force to their cast; that is, they advanced one foot, upon +which they leaned the whole weight of their bodies. They then poised the +Discus in their hands, and whirling it round several times almost +horizontally, to add force to its motion, they threw it off with the joint +strength of hands, arms, and body, which had all a share in the vigour of +the discharge. He that flung the Discus farthest was the victor. + +The most famous painters and sculptors of antiquity, in their endeavours +to represent naturally the attitudes of the Discoboli, have left to +posterity many masterpieces in their several arts. Quintilian exceedingly +extols a statue of that kind, which had been finished with infinite care +and application by the celebrated Myron: "What can be more finished," says +he, "or express more happily the muscular distortions of the body in the +exercise of the Discus, than the Discobolus of Myron?"(131) + + +Of the Pentathlum. + + +The Greeks gave this name to an exercise composed of five others. It is +the common opinion, that those five exercises were wrestling, running, +leaping, throwing the dart, and the Discus. It is believed that this sort +of combat was decided in one day, and sometimes the same morning: and that +to obtain the prize, which was single, it was required that a combatant +should be the victor in all those exercises. + +The exercise of leaping, and throwing the javelin, of which the first +consisted in leaping a certain length, and the other in hitting a mark +with a javelin at a certain distance, contributed to the forming of a +soldier, by making him nimble and active in battle, and expert in flinging +the spear and dart. + + +Of Races. + + +Of all the exercises which the Athletae cultivated with so much pains and +industry to enable them to appear in the public games, running held the +foremost rank. The Olympic games generally opened with races, and were +solemnized at first with no other exercise. + +The place where the Athletae exercised themselves in running was generally +called the _Stadium_ by the Greeks; as was that wherein they disputed in +earnest for the prize. As the lists or course for these games was at first +but one Stadium(132) in length, it took its name from its measure, and was +called the Stadium, whether precisely of that extent, or of a much +greater. Under that denomination was included not only the space in which +the Athletae ran, but also that which contained the spectators of the +gymnastic games. The place where the Athletae contended was called Scamma, +from its lying lower than the rest of the Stadium, on each side of which, +and at the extremity ran an ascent or kind of terrace, covered with seats +and benches, upon which the spectators were seated. The most remarkable +parts of the Stadium were its entrance, middle, and extremity. + +The entrance of the course, from whence the competitors started, was +marked at first only by a line drawn on the sand from side to side of the +Stadium. To that at length was substituted a kind of barrier, which was +only a cord strained tight in the front of the horses or men that were to +run. It was sometimes a rail of wood. The opening of this barrier was the +signal for the racers to start. + +The middle of the Stadium was remarkable only by the circumstance of +having the prizes allotted to the victors set up there. St. +Chrysostom(133) draws a fine comparison from this custom. "As the judges," +says he, "in the races and other games, expose in the midst of the +Stadium, to the view of the champions, the crowns which they are to +receive; in like manner the Lord, by the mouth of his prophets, has placed +in the midst of the course, the prizes which he designs for those who have +the courage to contend for them." + +At the extremity of the Stadium was a goal, where the footraces ended, but +in those of chariots and horses they were to run several times round it +without stopping, and afterwards conclude the race by regaining the other +extremity of the lists, from whence they started. + +There were three kinds of races, the chariot, the horse, and the footrace. +I shall begin with the last, as the most simple, natural, and ancient. + + +1. Of the Foot-race. + + +The runners, of whatever number they were, ranged themselves in a line, +after having drawn lots for their places. Whilst they waited the signal to +start, they practised, by way of prelude, various motions to awaken their +activity, and to keep their limbs pliable and in a right temper.(134) They +kept themselves in wind by small leaps, and making little excursions, that +were a kind of trial of their speed and agility. Upon the signal being +given they flew towards the goal, with a rapidity scarce to be followed by +the eye, which was solely to decide the victory. For the Agonistic laws +prohibited, under the penalty of infamy, the attaining it by any foul +method. + +In the simple race the extent of the Stadium was run but once, at the end +of which the prize attended the victor, that is, he who came in first. In +the race called {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, the competitors ran twice that length; that is, +after having arrived at the goal, they returned to the barrier. To these +may be added a third sort, called {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, which was the longest of all, +as its name implies, and was composed of several Diauli. Sometimes it +consisted of twenty-four Stadia backwards and forwards, turning twelve +times round the goal. + +There were some runners in ancient times, as well among the Greeks as +Romans, who have been much celebrated for their swiftness. Pliny tells +us,(135) that it was thought prodigious in Phidippides to run eleven +hundred and forty Stadia(136) between Athens and Lacedaemon in the space of +two days, till Anystis of the latter place, and Philonides, the runner of +Alexander the Great, went twelve hundred Stadia(137) in one day, from +Sicyon to Elis. These runners were denominated {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} as we find in +that passage of Herodotus, which mentions Phidippides.(138) In the +consulate of Fonteius and Vipsanus, in the reign of Nero, a boy of nine +years old ran seventy-five thousand paces(139) between noon and night. +Pliny adds, that in his time there were runners, who ran one hundred and +sixty thousand paces(140) in the circus. Our wonder at such a prodigious +speed will increase, (continues he,)(141) if we reflect, that when +Tiberius went to Germany to his brother Drusius, then at the point of +death, he could not arrive there in less than four-and-twenty hours, +though the distance was but two hundred thousand paces,(142) and he +changed his carriage three times,(143) and went with the utmost diligence. + + +2. Of the Horse-races. + + +The race of a single horse with a rider was less celebrated among the +ancients, yet it had its favourers amongst the most considerable persons, +and even kings themselves, and was attended with uncommon glory to the +victor. Pindar, in his first ode, celebrates a victory of this kind, +obtained by Hiero, king of Syracuse, to whom he gives the title of {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, +that is, "Victor in the horse-race;" which name was given to the horses +carrying only a single rider, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. Sometimes the rider led another +horse by the bridle, and then the horses were called _Desultorii_, and +their riders _Desultores_; because, after a number of turns in the +Stadium, they changed horses, by dexterously vaulting from one to the +other. A surprising address was necessary upon this occasion, especially +in an age unacquainted with the use of stirrups, and when the horses had +no saddles, which made the leap still more difficult. Among the African +troops there were also cavalry,(144) called _Desultores_, who vaulted from +one horse to another, as occasion required; and these were generally +Numidians. + + +3. Of the Chariot-races. + + +This kind of race was the most renowned of all the exercises used in the +games of the ancients, and that from whence most honour redounded to the +victors; which is not to be wondered at, if we consider whence it arose. +It is plain that it was derived from the constant custom of princes, +heroes, and great men, of fighting in battle upon chariots. Homer has an +infinity of examples of this kind. This custom being admitted, it is +natural to suppose it very agreeable to these heroes, to have their +charioteers as expert as possible in driving, as their success depended, +in a very great measure, upon the address of their drivers. It was +anciently, therefore, only to persons of the first consideration that this +office was confided. Hence arose a laudable emulation to excel others in +the art of guiding a chariot, and a kind of necessity to practise it very +much, in order to succeed. The high rank of the persons who made use of +chariots ennobled, as it always happens, an exercise peculiar to them. The +other exercises were adapted to private soldiers and horsemen, as +wrestling, running, and the single horse-race; but the use of chariots in +the field was always reserved to princes, and generals of armies. + +Hence it was, that all those who presented themselves in the Olympic games +to dispute the prize in the chariot-races, were persons considerable +either for their riches, their birth, their employments, or great actions. +Kings themselves eagerly aspired to this glory, from the belief that the +title of victor in these games was scarce inferior to that of conqueror, +and that the Olympic palm added new dignity to the splendours of a throne. +Pindar's odes inform us, that Gelon and Hiero, kings of Syracuse, were of +that opinion. Dionysius, who reigned there long after them, carried the +same ambition much higher. Philip of Macedon had these victories stampt +upon his coins, and seemed as much gratified with them as with those +obtained against the enemies of his state. All the world knows the answer +of Alexander the Great on this subject.(145) When his friends asked him +whether he would not dispute the prize of the races in these games? "Yes," +said he, "if kings were to be my antagonists." Which shows, that he would +not have disdained these contests, if there had been competitors in them +worthy of him. + +The chariots were generally drawn by two or four horses, ranged abreast; +_bigae_, _quadrigae_. Sometimes mules supplied the place of horses, and then +the chariot was called {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}. Pindar, in the fifth ode of his first book, +celebrates one Psaumis, who had obtained a triple victory; one by a +chariot drawn by four horses, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}; another by one drawn by mules, +{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}; and the third by a single horse, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, which the title of the ode +expresses. + +These chariots, upon a signal given, started together from a place called +_Carceres_. Their places were regulated by lot, which was not an +indifferent circumstance as to the victory; for as they were to turn round +a boundary, the chariot on the left was nearer than those on the right, +which consequently had a greater compass to take. It appears from several +passages in Pindar, and especially from one in Sophocles, which I shall +cite very soon, that they ran twelve times round the Stadium. He that came +in first the twelfth round was victor. The chief art consisted in taking +the best ground at the turning of the boundary: for if the charioteer +drove too near it, he was in danger of dashing the chariot to pieces; and +if he kept too wide of it, his nearest antagonist might cut between him, +and get foremost. + +It is obvious that these chariot-races could not be run without some +danger; for as the motion(146) of the wheels was very rapid, and it was +requisite to graze against the boundary in turning, the least error in +driving would have broken the chariot in pieces, and might have +dangerously wounded the charioteer. An example of which we find in the +_Electra_ of Sophocles, who gives an admirable description of a +chariot-race run by ten competitors. The pretended Orestes, at the twelfth +and last round, which was to decide the victory, having only one +antagonist, the rest having been thrown out, was so unfortunate as to +break one of his wheels against the boundary, and falling out of his seat +entangled in the reins, the horses dragged him violently forwards along +with them, and tore him to pieces. But this very seldom happened. To avoid +such danger, Nestor gave the following directions to his son Antilochus, +who was going to dispute the prize in the chariot-race.(147) "My son," +says he, "drive your horses as near as possible to the boundary; for which +reason, always inclining your body over your chariot, get the left of your +competitors, and encouraging the horse on the right, give him the rein, +whilst the near horse, hard held, turns the boundary so close that the +nave of the wheel seems to graze upon it; but have a care of running +against the stone, lest you wound your horses, and dash the chariot in +pieces." + +Father Montfaucon mentions a difficulty, in his opinion of much +consequence, in regard to the places of those who contended for the prize +in the chariot-race. They all started indeed from the same line, and at +the same time, and so far had no advantage of each other; but he, whose +lot gave him the first place, being nearest the boundary at the end of the +career, and having but a small compass to describe in turning about it, +had less way to make than the second, third, fourth, &c. especially when +the chariots were drawn by four horses, which took up a greater space +between the first and the others, and obliged them to make a larger circle +in coming round. This advantage twelve times together, as must happen, +admitting the Stadium was to be run round twelve times, gave such a +superiority to the first, as seemed to assure him infallibly of the +victory against all his competitors. To me it seems, that the fleetness of +the horses, joined with the address of the driver, might countervail this +odds; either by getting before the first, or by taking his place; if not +in the first, at least in some of the subsequent rounds; for it is not to +be supposed, that in the progress of the race the antagonists always +continued in the same order in which they started. They often changed +places in a short interval of time, and in that variety and vicissitude +consisted all the diversion of the spectators. + +It was not required, that those who aspired to the victory should enter +the lists, and drive their chariots in person. Their being spectators of +the games, or even sending their horses thither, was sufficient; but in +either case, it was previously necessary to register the names of the +persons for whom the horses were to run, either in the chariot or single +horse-races. + +At the time that the city of Potidaea surrendered to Philip, three couriers +brought him advices; the first, that the Illyrians had been defeated in a +great battle by his general Parmenio; the second, that he had carried the +prize of the horse-race in the Olympic games; and the third, that the +queen was delivered of a son. Plutarch seems to insinuate, that Philip was +equally delighted with each of these circumstances.(148) + +Hiero sent horses to Olympia, to run for the prize, and caused a +magnificent pavilion to be erected for them.(149) Upon this occasion +Themistocles harangued the Greeks, to persuade them to pull down the +tyrant's pavilion, who had refused his aid against the common enemy, and +to hinder his horses from running with the rest. It does not appear that +any regard was had to this remonstrance; for we find, by one of Pindar's +odes, composed in honour of Hiero, that he won the prize in the equestrian +races. + +No one ever carried the ambition of making a great figure in the public +games of Greece so far as Alcibiades,(150) in which he distinguished +himself in the most splendid manner, by the great number of horses and +chariots which he kept only for the races. There never was either private +person or king that sent, as he did, seven chariots at once to the Olympic +games, wherein he carried the first, second, and third prizes; an honour +no one ever had before him. The famous poet Euripides celebrated these +victories in an ode, of which Plutarch has preserved a fragment. The +victor, after having made a sumptuous sacrifice to Jupiter, gave a +magnificent feast to the innumerable multitude of spectators at the games. +It is not easy to comprehend, how the wealth of a private person should +suffice for so enormous an expense: but Antisthenes, the scholar of +Socrates, who relates what he saw, informs us, that many cities of the +allies, in emulation of each other, supplied Alcibiades with all things +necessary for the support of such incredible magnificence; equipages, +horses, tents, sacrifices, the most exquisite provisions, the most +delicate wines; in a word, all that was necessary to the support of his +table or train. The passage is remarkable; for the same author assures us, +that this was not only done when Alcibiades went to the Olympic games, but +in all his military expeditions and journeys by land or sea. "Wherever," +says he, "Alcibiades travelled, he made use of four of the allied cities +as his servants. Ephesus furnished him with tents, as magnificent as those +of the Persians; Chios took care to provide for his horses; Cyzicum +supplied him with sacrifices, and provisions for his table; and Lesbos +gave him wine, with whatever else was requisite for his house." + +I must not omit, in speaking of the Olympic games, that the ladies were +admitted to dispute the prize in them as well as the men; and that many of +them obtained it. Cynisca, sister of Agesilaus, king of Sparta, first +opened this new path of glory to her sex, and was proclaimed conqueror in +the race of chariots with four horses.(151) This victory, of which till +then there had been no example, did not fail of being celebrated with all +possible splendour.(152) A magnificent monument was erected at Sparta in +honour of Cynisca;(153) and the Lacedaemonians, though otherwise very +little sensible to the charms of poetry, appointed a poet to transmit this +new triumph to posterity, and to immortalize its memory by an inscription +in verse. She herself dedicated a chariot of brass, drawn by four horses, +in the temple of Delphi;(154) in which the charioteer was also +represented; a certain proof that she did not drive it herself. In process +of time, the picture of Cynisca, drawn by the famous Apelles, was annexed +to it, and the whole adorned with many inscriptions in honour of that +Spartan heroine.(155) + + +Of the honours and rewards granted to the victors. + + +These honours and rewards were of several kinds. The acclamations of the +spectators in honour of the victors were only a prelude to the prizes +designed them. These prizes were different wreaths of wild olive, pine, +parsley, or laurel, according to the different places where the games were +celebrated. Those crowns were always attended with branches of palm, that +the victors carried in their right hands; which custom, according to +Plutarch,(156) arose (perhaps) from a property of the palm-tree, which +displays new vigour the more endeavours are used to crush or bend it, and +is a symbol of the courage and resistance of the champion who had obtained +the prize. As he might be victor more than once in the same games, and +sometimes on the same day, he might also receive several crowns and palms. + +When the victor had received the crown and palm, a herald, preceded by a +trumpet, conducted him through the Stadium, and proclaimed aloud the name +and country of the successful champion, who passed in that kind of review +before the people, whilst they redoubled their acclamations and applauses +at the sight of him. + +When he returned to his own country, the people came out in a body to meet +him, and conducted him into the city, adorned with all the marks of his +victory, and riding upon a chariot drawn by four horses. He made his entry +not through the gates, but through a breach purposely made in the walls. +Lighted torches were carried before him, and a numerous train followed to +do honour to the procession. + +The athletic triumph almost always concluded with feasts made for the +victors, their relations, and friends, either at the expense of the +public, or by private individuals, who regaled not only their families and +friends, but often a great part of the spectators. Alcibiades,(157) after +having sacrificed to the Olympian Jupiter, which was always the first care +of the victor, treated the whole assembly. Leophron did the same, as +Athenaeus reports;(158) who adds, that Empedocles of Agrigentum, having +conquered in the same games, and not having it in his power, being a +Pythagorean, to regale the people with flesh or fish, caused an ox to be +made of a paste, composed of myrrh, incense, and all sorts of spices, of +which pieces were given to all who were present. + +One of the most honourable privileges granted to the Athletic victors, was +the right of precedency at the public games. At Sparta it was a custom for +the king to take them with him in military expeditions, to fight near his +person, and to be his guard; which, with reason, was judged very +honourable. Another privilege, in which advantage was united with honour, +was that of being maintained for the rest of their lives at the expense of +their country. That this expense might not become too chargeable to the +state, Solon(159) reduced the pension of a victor in the Olympic games to +five hundred drachmas;(160) in the Isthmian to a hundred;(161) and in the +rest in proportion. The victor and his country considered this pension, +less as a relief of the champion's indigence, than as a mark of honour and +distinction. They were also exempted from all civil offices and +employments. + +The celebration of the games being over, one of the first cares of the +magistrates, who presided in them, was to inscribe, in the public +register, the name and country of the Athletae who had carried the prizes, +and to annex the species of combat in which they had been victorious. The +chariot-race had the preference to all other games. Hence the historians, +who date occurrences by the Olympiads, as Thucydides, Dionysius of +Halicarnassus, Diodorus Siculus, and Pausanias, almost always express the +Olympiad by the name and country of the victors in that race. + +The praises of the victorious Athletae were amongst the Greeks one of the +principal subjects of their lyric poetry. We find, that all the odes of +the four books of Pindar turn upon it, each of which takes its title from +the games in which the combatants signalized themselves, whose victories +those poems celebrate. The poet, indeed, frequently enriches his matter, +by calling in to the champion's assistance, incapable alone of inspiring +all the enthusiasm necessary, the aid of the gods, heroes, and princes, +who have any relation to his subject; and to support the flights of +imagination, to which he abandons himself. Before Pindar, the poet +Simonides practised the same manner of writing, intermingling the praises +of the gods and heroes with those of the champions, whose victories he +sang. It is related upon this head,(162) that one of the victors in +boxing, called Scopas, having agreed with Simonides for a poem upon his +victory, the poet, according to custom, after having given the highest +praises to the champion, expatiated in a long digression to the honour of +Castor and Pollux. Scopas, satisfied in appearance with the performance of +Simonides, paid him however only the third part of the sum agreed on, +referring him for the remainder to the Tyndaridae, whom he had celebrated +so well. And in fact he was well paid by them, if we may believe the +sequel; for, at the feast given by the champion, whilst the guests were at +table, a servant came to Simonides, and told him, that two men, covered +with dust and sweat, were at the door, and desired to speak with him in +all haste. He had scarce set his foot out of the chamber, in order to go +to them, when the roof fell in, and crushed the champion, with all his +guests, to death. + +Sculpture united with poetry to perpetuate the fame of the champions. +Statues were erected to the victors, especially in the Olympic games, in +the very place where they had been crowned, and sometimes in that of their +birth also; which was commonly done at the expense of their country. +Amongst the statues which adorned Olympia, were those of several children +of ten or twelve years old, who had obtained the prize at that age in the +Olympic games. They did not only raise such monuments to the champions, +but to the very horses, to whose swiftness they were indebted for the +Agonistic crown: and Pausanias(163) mentions one, which was erected in +honour of a mare, called Aura, whose history is worth repeating. Phidolas +her rider, having fallen off in the beginning of the race, the mare +continued to run in the same manner as if he had been upon her back. She +outstripped all the rest; and upon the sound of the trumpets, which was +usual toward the end of the race to animate the competitors, she redoubled +her vigour and courage, turned round the goal; and, as if she had been +sensible that she had gained the victory, presented herself before the +judges of the games. The Eleans declared Phidolas victor, with permission +to erect a monument to himself and the mare, that had served him so well. + + + +The different Taste of the Greeks and Romans, in regard to Public Shows. + + +Before I make an end of these remarks upon the combats and games so much +in estimation amongst the Greeks, I beg the reader's permission to make a +reflection, that may serve to explain the difference of character between +the Greeks and Romans, with regard to this subject. + +The most common entertainment of the latter, at which the fair sex, by +nature tender and compassionate, were present in throngs, was the combat +of the gladiators, and of men with bears and lions; in which the cries of +the wounded and dying, and the abundant effusion of human blood, supplied +a grateful spectacle for a whole people, who feasted their cruel eyes with +the savage pleasure of seeing men murder one another in cool blood; and in +the times of the persecutions, with the tearing in pieces of old men and +infants, of women and tender virgins, whose age and weakness are apt to +excite compassion in the hardest hearts. + +In Greece these combats were absolutely unknown, and were only introduced +into some cities, after their subjection to the Roman people. The +Athenians, however, whose distinguishing characteristics were benevolence +and humanity, never admitted them into their city;(164) and when it was +proposed to introduce the combats of the gladiators, that they might not +be outdone by the Corinthians in that point, "First throw down," cried out +an Athenian(165) from the midst of the assembly, "throw down the altar, +erected above a thousand years ago by our ancestors to Mercy." + +It must be allowed that in this respect the conduct and wisdom of the +Greeks were infinitely superior to that of the Romans. I speak of the +wisdom of Pagans. Convinced that the multitude, too much governed by the +objects of sense to be sufficiently amused and entertained with the +pleasures of the understanding, could be delighted only with sensible +objects, both nations were studious to divert them with games and shows, +and such external contrivances, as were proper to affect the senses; in +the institution of which, each evinced and followed its peculiar +inclination and disposition. + +The Romans, educated in war, and accustomed to battles, always retained, +notwithstanding the politeness upon which they piqued themselves, +something of their ancient ferocity; and hence it was, that the effusion +of blood, and the murders exhibited in their public shows, far from +inspiring them with horror, formed a grateful entertainment to them. + +The insolent pomp of triumphs flowed from the same source, and argued no +less inhumanity. To obtain this honour, it was necessary to prove, that +eight or ten thousand men had been killed in battle. The spoils, which +were carried with so much ostentation, proclaimed, that an infinity of +worthy families had been reduced to the utmost misery. The innumerable +troop of captives had been free persons a few days before, and were often +distinguishable for honour, merit, and virtue. The representation of the +towns that had been taken in the war, explained that they had sacked, +plundered, and burnt the most opulent cities; and had either destroyed or +enslaved their inhabitants. In short, nothing was more inhuman, than to +drag kings and princes in chains before the chariot of a Roman citizen, +and to insult their misfortunes and humiliation in that public manner. + +The triumphal arches, erected under the emperors, where the enemies +appeared with chains upon their hands and legs, could proceed only from a +haughty fierceness of disposition, and an inhuman pride, that took delight +in immortalizing the shame and sorrow of subjected nations. + +The joy of the Greeks after a victory was far more modest.(166) They +erected trophies indeed, but of wood, a substance of no long duration, +which time would soon consume; and these it was prohibited to renew. +Plutarch's reason for this is admirable.(167) After time had destroyed and +obliterated the marks of dissension and enmity that had divided nations, +it would have been the excess of odious and barbarous animosity, to have +thought of reestablishing them, to perpetuate the remembrance of ancient +quarrels, which could not be buried too soon in silence and oblivion. He +adds, that the trophies of stone and brass, since substituted to those of +wood, reflect no honour upon those who introduced the custom. + +I am pleased with the grief depicted on Agesilaus's countenance,(168) +after a considerable victory, wherein a great number of his enemies, that +is to say, of Greeks, were left upon the field, and to hear him utter with +sighs and groans, these words, so full of moderation and humanity: "Oh +unhappy Greece, to deprive thyself of so many brave citizens, and to +destroy those who had been sufficient to have conquered all the +Barbarians!" + +The same spirit of moderation and humanity prevailed in the public shows +of the Greeks. Their festivals had nothing mournful or afflictive in them. +Every thing in those feasts tended to delight, friendship, and harmony: +and in that consisted one of the greatest advantages which resulted to +Greece, from the solemnization of these games. The republics, separated by +distance of country, and diversity of interests, having the opportunity of +meeting from time to time, in the same place, and in the midst of +rejoicing and festivity, allied themselves more strictly with one another, +stimulated each other against the Barbarians and the common enemies of +their liberty, and made up their differences by the mediation of some +neutral state in alliance with them. The same language, manners, +sacrifices, exercises, and worship, all conspired to unite the several +little states of Greece into one great and formidable nation; and to +preserve amongst them the same disposition, the same principles, the same +zeal for their liberty, and the same fondness for the arts and sciences. + + +Of the Prizes of Wit, and the Shows and Representations of the Theatre. + + +I have reserved for the conclusion of this head another kind of +competition, which does not at all depend upon the strength, activity, and +address of the body, and may be called with reason the combat of the mind; +wherein the orators, historians, and poets, made trial of their +capacities, and submitted their productions to the censure and judgment of +the public. The emulation in this sort of dispute was so much the more +lively and ardent, as the victory in question might justly be deemed to be +infinitely superior to all others, because it affects the man more nearly, +is founded on his personal and internal qualities, and decides upon the +merit of his intellectual capacity; which are advantages we are apt to +aspire after with the utmost vivacity and passion, and of which we are +least of all inclined to renounce the glory to others. + +It was a great honour, and at the same time a most sensible pleasure, for +writers, who are generally fond of fame and applause, to have known how to +unite in their favour the suffrages of so numerous and select an assembly +as that of the Olympic games; in which were present all the finest +geniuses of Greece, and all who were most capable of judging of the +excellency of a work. This theatre was equally open to history, eloquence, +and poetry. + +Herodotus read his history(169) at the Olympic games to all Greece, +assembled at them, and was heard with such applause, that the names of the +nine Muses were given to the nine books which compose his work, and the +people cried out wherever he passed, "That is he, who has written our +history, and celebrated our glorious successes against the Barbarians so +excellently." + +All who had been present at the games, caused afterwards every part of +Greece to resound with the name and glory of this illustrious historian. + +Lucian, who writes the fact which I have related, adds, that after the +example of Herodotus, many of the sophists and rhetoricians went to +Olympia, to read the harangues of their composing; finding that the +shortest and most certain method of acquiring a great reputation in a +little time. + +Plutarch observes,(170) that Lysias, the famous Athenian orator, +contemporary with Herodotus, pronounced a speech in the Olympic games, +wherein he congratulated the Greeks upon their reconciliation with each +other, and their having united to reduce the power of Dionysius the +Tyrant, as upon the greatest action they had ever done. + +We may judge of the eagerness of the poets to signalize themselves in +these solemn games, from that of Dionysius himself.(171) That prince, who +had the foolish vanity to believe himself the most excellent poet of his +time, appointed readers, called in Greek, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} (_Rhapsodists_,) to read +several pieces of his composing at Olympia. When they began to pronounce +the verses of the royal poet, the strong and harmonious voices of the +readers occasioned a profound silence, and they were heard at first with +the greatest attention, which continually decreased as they went on, and +turned at last into downright horse-laughs and hooting; so miserable did +the verses appear. He comforted himself for this disgrace by a victory he +gained some time after in the feast of Bacchus at Athens, in which he +caused a tragedy of his composition to be represented.(172) + +The disputes of the poets in the Olympic games were nothing, in comparison +with the ardour and emulation that prevailed at Athens; which is what +remains to be said upon this subject, and therefore I shall conclude with +it: taking occasion to give my readers, at the same time, a short view of +the shows and representations of the theatre of the ancients. + +Those who would be more fully informed on this subject, will find it +treated at large in a work lately made public by the reverend father +Brumoi the Jesuit; a work which abounds with profound knowledge and +erudition, and with reflections entirely new, deduced from the nature of +the poems of which it treats. I shall make considerable use of that piece, +and often without citing it; which is not uncommon with me. + + +Extraordinary Fondness of the Athenians for the Entertainments of the +Stage. Emulation of the Poets in disputing the Prizes in those +Representations. A short Idea of Dramatic Poetry. + + +No people ever expressed so much ardour and eagerness for the +entertainments of the theatre as the Greeks, and especially the Athenians. +The reason is obvious: as no people ever demonstrated such extent of +genius, nor carried so far the love of eloquence and poesy, taste for the +sciences, justness of sentiments, elegance of ear, and delicacy in all the +refinements of language. A poor woman, who sold herbs at Athens, +discovered Theophrastus to be a stranger, by a single word which he +affectedly made use of in expressing himself.(173) The common people got +the tragedies of Euripides by heart. The genius of every nation expresses +itself in the people's manner of passing their time, and in their +pleasures. The great employment and delight of the Athenians were to amuse +themselves with works of wit, and to judge of the dramatic pieces, that +were acted by public authority several times a year, especially at the +feasts of Bacchus, when the tragic and comic poets disputed for the prize. +The former used to present four of their pieces at a time; except +Sophocles, who did not think fit to continue so laborious an exercise, and +confined himself to one performance, when he disputed the prize. + +The state appointed judges, to determine upon the merit of the tragic or +comic pieces, before they were represented in the festivals. They were +acted before them in the presence of the people; but undoubtedly with no +great preparation. The judges gave their suffrages, and that performance, +which had the most voices, was declared victorious, received the crown as +such, and was represented with all possible pomp at the expense of the +republic. This did not, however, exclude such pieces, as were only in the +second or third class. The best had not always the preference; for what +times have been exempt from party, caprice, ignorance, and prejudice? +AElian(174) is very angry with the judges, who, in one of these disputes, +gave only the second place to Euripides. He accuses them of judging either +without capacity, or of suffering themselves to be bribed. It is easy to +conceive the warmth and emulation, which these disputes and public rewards +excited amongst the poets, and how much they contributed to the +perfection, to which Greece carried dramatic performances. + +The dramatic poem introduces the persons themselves, speaking and acting +upon the stage: in the epic, on the contrary, the poet only relates the +different adventures of his characters. It is natural to be delighted with +fine descriptions of events, in which illustrious persons and whole +nations are interested; and hence the epic poem had its origin. But we are +quite differently affected with hearing those persons themselves, with +being the confidents of their most secret sentiments, and auditors and +spectators of their resolutions, enterprises, and the happy or unhappy +events attending them. To read and see an action, are quite different +things; we are infinitely more moved with what is acted, than with what we +merely read. Our eyes as well as our minds are addressed at the same time. +The spectator, agreeably deceived by an imitation so nearly approaching +life, mistakes the picture for the original, and thinks the object real. +This gave birth to dramatic poetry, which includes tragedy and comedy. + +To these may be added the satiric poem, which derives its name from the +satyrs, rural gods, who were always the chief characters in it; and not +from the "satire," a kind of abusive poetry, which has no resemblance to +this, and is of a much later date. The satiric poem was neither tragedy +nor comedy, but something between both, participating of the character of +each. The poets, who disputed the prize, generally added one of these +pieces to their tragedies, to allay the gravity and solemnity of the one, +with the mirth and pleasantry of the other. There is but one example of +this ancient poem come down to us, which is the _Cyclops_ of Euripides. + +I shall confine myself upon this head to tragedy and comedy; both which +had their origin amongst the Greeks, who looked upon them as fruits of +their own growth, of which they could never have enough. Athens was +remarkable for an extraordinary appetite of this kind. These two poems, +which were for a long time comprised under the general name of tragedy, +received there by degrees such improvements, as at length raised them to +their highest perfection. + + +The Origin and Progress of Tragedy. Poets who excelled in it at Athens; +AEschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. + + +There had been many tragic and comic poets before Thespis; but as they had +made no alterations in the original rude form of this poem, and as Thespis +was the first that made any improvement in it, he was generally esteemed +its inventor. Before him, tragedy was no more than a jumble of buffoon +tales in the comic style, intermixed with the singing of a chorus in +praise of Bacchus; for it is to the feasts of that god, celebrated at the +time of the vintage, that tragedy owes its birth. + + + La tragedie, informe et grossiere en na'ssant, + N'etoit qu'un simple choeur, ou chacun en dansant, + Et du dieu des raisins entonnant les louanges, + S'efforcoit d'attirer de fertiles vendanges. + La, le vin et la joie eveillant les esprits, + Du plus habile chantre un bouc etoit le prix. + + Formless and gross did tragedy arise, + A simple chorus, rather mad than wise; + For fruitful vintages the dancing throng + Roar'd to the god of grapes a drunken song: + Wild mirth and wine sustain'd the frantic note, + And the best singer had the prize, a goat.(175) + + +Thespis made several alterations in it, which Horace describes after +Aristotle, in his _Art of Poetry_. The first(176) was to carry his actors +about in a cart, whereas before they used to sing in the streets, wherever +chance led them. Another was to have their faces smeared over with +wine-lees, instead of acting without disguise, as at first. He also +introduced a character among the chorus, who, to give the actors time to +rest themselves and to take breath, repeated the adventures of some +illustrious person; which recital, at length, gave place to the subjects +of tragedy. + + + Thespis fut le premier, qui barbouille de lie, + Promena par les bourgs cette heureuse folie, + Et d'acteurs mal oines chargeant un tombereau, + Amusa les passans d'un spectacle nouveau.(177) + + First Thespis, smear'd with lees, and void of art, + The grateful folly vented from a cart; + And as his tawdry actors drove about, + The sight was new, and charm'd the gaping rout. + + +(M1) Thespis lived in the time of Solon.(178) That wise legislator, upon +seeing his pieces performed, expressed his dislike, by striking his staff +against the ground; apprehending that these poetical fictions and idle +stories, from mere theatrical representations, would soon become matters +of importance, and have too great a share in all public and private +affairs. + +(M2) It is not so easy to invent, as to improve the inventions of others. +The alterations Thespis made in tragedy, gave room for AEschylus to make +new and more considerable of his own. He was born at Athens, in the first +year of the sixtieth Olympiad. He took upon him the profession of arms, at +a time when the Athenians reckoned almost as many heroes as citizens. He +was at the battles of Marathon, Salamis, and Plataea, where he did his +duty. (M3) But his disposition called him elsewhere, and put him upon +entering into another course, where no less glory was to be acquired; and +where he was soon without any competitors. As a superior genius, he took +upon him to reform, or rather to create tragedy anew; of which he has, in +consequence, been always acknowledged the inventor and father. Father +Brumoi, in a dissertation which abounds with wit and good sense, explains +the manner in which AEschylus conceived the true idea of tragedy from +Homer's epic poems. The poet himself used to say, that his works were the +remnants of the feasts given by Homer in the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_. + +Tragedy therefore took a new form under him. He gave masks(179) to his +actors, adorned them with robes and trains, and made them wear buskins. +Instead of a cart, he erected a theatre of a moderate elevation, and +entirely changed their style; which from being merry and burlesque, as at +first, became majestic and serious. + + + Eschyle dans le choeur jetta les personages: + D'un masque plus honnete habilla les visages: + Sur les ais d'un theatre en public exhausse + Fit paroitre l'acteur d'un brodequin chausse.(180) + + From AEschylus the chorus learnt new grace: + He veil'd with decent masks the actor's face, + Taught him in buskins first to tread the stage, + And rais'd a theatre to please the age. + + +But that was only the external part or body of tragedy. Its soul, which +was the most important and essential addition of AEschylus, consisted in +the vivacity and spirit of the action, sustained by the dialogue of the +persons of the drama introduced by him; in the artful working up of the +stronger passions, especially of terror and pity, which, by alternately +afflicting and agitating the soul with mournful or terrible objects, +produce a grateful pleasure and delight from that very trouble and +emotion; in the choice of a subject, great, noble, interesting, and +contained within due bounds by the unity of time, place, and action: in +short, it is the conduct and disposition of the whole piece, which, by the +order and harmony of its parts, and the happy connection of its incidents +and intrigues, holds the mind of the spectator in suspense till the +catastrophe, and then restores him his tranquillity, and dismisses him +with satisfaction. + +The chorus had been established before AEschylus, as it composed alone, or +next to alone, what was then called tragedy. He did not therefore exclude +it, but, on the contrary, thought fit to incorporate it, to sing as chorus +between the acts. Thus it supplied the interval of resting, and was a kind +of person of the drama, employed either(181) in giving useful advice and +salutary instructions, in espousing the party of innocence and virtue, in +being the depository of secrets, and the avenger of violated religion, or +in sustaining all those characters at the same time according to Horace. +The coryphaeus, or principal person of the chorus, spoke for the rest. + +In one of AEschylus's pieces, called the _Eumenides_, the poet represents +Orestes at the bottom of the stage, surrounded by the Furies, laid asleep +by Apollo. Their figure must have been extremely horrible, as it is +related, that upon their waking and appearing tumultuously on the theatre, +where they were to act as a chorus, some women miscarried with the +surprise, and several children died of the fright. The chorus at that time +consisted of fifty actors. After this accident, it was reduced to fifteen +by an express law, and at length to twelve. + +I have observed, that one of the alterations made by AEschylus in tragedy, +was the mask worn by his actors. These dramatic masks had no resemblance +to ours, which only cover the face, but were a kind of case for the whole +head, and which, besides the features, represented the beard, the hair, +the ears, and even the ornaments used by women in their head-dresses. +These masks varied according to the different pieces that were acted. The +subject is treated at large in a dissertation of M. Boindin's, inserted in +the _Memoirs of the Academy of Belles Lettres_.(182) + +I could never comprehend, as I have observed elsewhere,(183) in speaking +of pronunciation, how masks came to continue so long upon the stage of the +ancients; for certainly they could not be used, without considerably +deadening the spirit of the action, which is principally expressed in the +countenance, the seat and mirror of what passes in the soul. Does it not +often happen, that the blood, according as it is put in motion by +different passions, sometimes covers the face with a sudden and modest +blush, sometimes enflames it with the heat of rage and fury, sometimes +retires, leaving it pale with fear, and at others diffuses a calm and +amiable serenity over it? All these affections are strongly imaged and +distinguished in the lineaments of the face. The mask deprives the +features of this energetic language, and of that life and soul, by which +it is the faithful interpreter of all the sentiments of the heart. I do +not wonder, therefore, at Cicero's remark upon the action of Roscius.(184) +"Our ancestors,"' says he, "were better judges than we are. They could not +wholly approve even Roscius himself, whilst he performed in a mask." + +(M4) AEschylus was in the sole possession of the glory of the stage, with +almost every voice in his favour, when a young rival made his appearance +to dispute the palm with him. This was Sophocles. He was born at Colonos, +a town in Attica, in the second year of the seventy-first Olympiad. His +father was a blacksmith, or one who kept people of that trade to work for +him. His first essay was a masterpiece. (M5) When, upon the occasion of +Cimon's having found the bones of Theseus, and their being brought to +Athens, a dispute between the tragic poets was appointed, Sophocles +entered the lists with AEschylus, and carried the prize against him. The +ancient victor, laden till then with the wreaths he had acquired, believed +them all lost by failing of the last, and withdrew in disgust into Sicily +to king Hiero, the protector and patron of all the learned in disgrace at +Athens. He died there soon after in a very singular manner, if we may +believe Suidas. As he lay asleep in the fields, with his head bare, an +eagle, taking his bald crown for a stone, let a tortoise fall upon it, +which killed him. Of ninety, or at least seventy, tragedies, composed by +him, only seven are now extant. + +Nor have those of Sophocles escaped the injury of time better, though one +hundred and seventeen in number, and according to some one hundred and +thirty. He retained to extreme old age all the force and vigour of his +genius, as appears from a circumstance in his history. His children, +unworthy of so great a father, upon pretence that he had lost his senses, +summoned him before the judges, in order to obtain a decree, that his +estate might be taken from him, and put into their hands. He made no other +defence, than to read a tragedy he was at that time composing, called +_OEdipus at Colonos_, with which the judges were so charmed, that he +carried his cause unanimously; and his children, detested by the whole +assembly, got nothing by their suit, but the shame and infamy due to so +flagrant ingratitude. He was twenty times crowned victor. Some say he +expired in repeating his _Antigone_, for want of power to recover his +breath, after a violent endeavour to pronounce a long period to the end; +others, that he died of joy upon his being declared victor, contrary to +his expectation. The figure of a hive was placed upon his tomb, to +perpetuate the name of Bee, which had been given him, from the sweetness +of his verses: whence, it is probable, the notion was derived, of the bees +having settled upon his lips when in his cradle. (M6) He died in his +ninetieth year, the fourth of the ninety-third Olympiad, after having +survived Euripides six years, who was not so old as himself. + +(M7) The latter was born in the first year of the seventy-fifth Olympiad, +at Salamis, whither his father Mnesarchus and mother Clito had retired +when Xerxes was preparing for his great expedition against Greece. He +applied himself at first to philosophy, and, amongst others, had the +celebrated Anaxagoras for his master. But the danger incurred by that +great man, who was very near being made the victim of his philosophical +tenets, inclined him to the study of poetry. He discovered in himself a +genius for the drama, unknown to him at first; and employed it with such +success, that he entered the lists with the great masters of whom we have +been speaking. His works(185) sufficiently denote his profound application +to philosophy. They abound with excellent maxims of morality; and it is in +that view that Socrates in his time, and Cicero long after him,(186) set +so high a value upon Euripides. + +One cannot sufficiently admire the extreme delicacy expressed by the +Athenian audience on certain occasions, and their solicitude to preserve +the reverence due to morality, virtue, decency, and justice. It is +surprising to observe the warmth with which they unanimously reproved +whatever seemed inconsistent with them, and called the poet to an account +for it, notwithstanding his having a well-founded excuse, as he had given +such sentiments only to persons notoriously vicious, and actuated by the +most unjust passions. + +Euripides had put into the mouth of Bellerophon a pompous panegyric upon +riches, which concluded with this thought: "Riches are the supreme good of +the human race, and with reason excite the admiration of the gods and +men." The whole theatre cried out against these expressions; and he would +have been banished directly, if he had not desired the sentence to be +respited till the conclusion of the piece, in which the advocate for +riches perished miserably. + +He was in danger of incurring serious inconveniences from an answer he +puts into the mouth of Hippolytus. Phaedra's nurse represented to him, that +he had engaged himself under an inviolable oath to keep her secret. "My +tongue, it is true, pronounced that oath," replied he, "but my heart gave +no consent to it." This frivolous distinction appeared to the whole +people, as an express contempt of the religion and sanctity of an oath, +that tended to banish all sincerity and good faith from society and the +intercourse of life. + +Another maxim(187) advanced by Eteocles in the tragedy called the +_Phoenicians_, and which Caesar had always in his mouth, is no less +pernicious: "If justice may be violated at all, it is when a throne is in +question; in other respects, let it be duly revered." It is highly +criminal in Eteocles, or rather in Euripides, says Cicero, to make an +exception in that very point, wherein such violation is the highest crime +that can be committed. Eteocles is a tyrant, and speaks like a tyrant, who +vindicates his unjust conduct by a false maxim; and it is not strange that +Caesar, who was a tyrant by nature, and equally unjust, should lay great +stress upon the sentiments of a prince whom he so much resembled. But what +is remarkable in Cicero, is his falling upon the poet himself, and +imputing to him as a crime the having advanced so pernicious a principle +upon the stage. + +Lycurgus, the orator,(188) who lived in the time of Philip and Alexander +the Great, to reanimate the spirit of the tragic poets, caused three +statues of brass to be erected, in the name of the people, to AEschylus, +Sophocles, and Euripides; and having ordered their works to be +transcribed, he appointed them to be carefully preserved amongst the +public archives, from whence they were taken from time to time to be read; +the players not being permitted to represent them on the stage. + +The reader expects, no doubt, after what has been said relating to the +three poets, who invented, improved, and carried tragedy to its +perfection, that I should point out the peculiar excellencies of their +style and character. For that I must refer to father Brumoi, who will do +it much better than it is in my power. After having laid down, as an +undoubted principle, that the epic poem, that is to say Homer, pointed out +the way for the tragic poets; and having demonstrated, by reflections +drawn from human nature, upon what principles and by what degrees this +happy imitation was conducted to its end, he goes on to describe the three +poets above mentioned, in the most lively and brilliant colours. + +Tragedy took at first from AEschylus its inventor, a much more lofty style +than the _Iliad_; that is, the _magnum loqui_ mentioned by Horace. Perhaps +AEschylus, who had a full conception of the grandeur of the language of +tragedy, carried it too high. It is not Homer's trumpet, but something +more. His pompous, swelling, gigantic diction, resembles rather the +beating of drums and the shouts of battle, than the noble harmony of the +trumpets. The elevation and grandeur of his genius would not permit him to +speak the language of other men, so that his Muse seemed rather to walk in +stilts, than in the buskins of his own invention. + +Sophocles understood much better the true excellence of the dramatic +style: he therefore copies Homer more closely, and blends in his diction +that honeyed sweetness, from whence he was denominated "the Bee," with a +gravity that gives his tragedy the modest air of a matron, compelled to +appear in public with dignity, as Horace expresses it. + +The style of Euripides, though noble, is less removed from the familiar; +and he seems to have affected rather the pathetic and the elegant, than +the nervous and the lofty. + +As Corneille, says father Brumoi in another place, after having opened to +himself a path entirely new and unknown to the ancients, seems like an +eagle towering in the clouds, from the sublimity, force, unbroken +progress, and rapidity of his flight; and, as Racine, in copying the +ancients in a manner entirely his own, imitates the swan, that sometimes +floats upon the air, sometimes rises, then falls again with an elegance of +motion, and a grace peculiar to herself; so AEschylus, Sophocles, and +Euripides, have each of them a particular characteristic and method. The +first, as the inventor and father of tragedy, is like a torrent rolling +impetuously over rocks, forests, and precipices; the second resembles a +canal,(189) which flows gently through delicious gardens; and the third a +river, that does not follow its course in a continued line, but loves to +turn and wind his silver wave through flowery meads and rural scenes. + +This is the character which father Brumoi gives of the three poets, to +whom the Athenian stage was indebted for its perfection in tragedy. +AEschylus(190) drew it out of its original chaos and confusion, and made it +appear in some degree of lustre; but it still retained the rude unfinished +air of things in their beginning, which are generally defective in point +of art and method. Sophocles and Euripides added infinitely to the dignity +of tragedy. The style of the first, as has been observed, is more noble +and majestic; of the latter, more tender and pathetic; each perfect in +their way. In this diversity of character, it is difficult to decide which +is most excellent. The learned have always been divided upon this head; as +we are at this day, with respect to the two poets of our own nation,(191) +whose tragedies have made our stage illustrious, and not inferior to that +of Athens. + +I have observed, that the tender and pathetic distinguishes the +compositions of Euripides, of which Alexander of Pherae, the most cruel of +tyrants, was a proof. That barbarous man, upon seeing the _Troades_ of +Euripides acted, found himself so moved with it, that he quitted the +theatre before the conclusion of the play, professing that he was ashamed +to be seen in tears for the distress of Hecuba and Andromache, who had +never shown the least compassion for his own citizens, of whom he had +butchered such numbers. + +When I speak of the tender and pathetic, I would not be understood to mean +a passion that softens the heart into effeminacy, and which, to our +reproach, is almost alone, or at least more than any other passion +received upon our stage, though rejected by the ancients, and condemned by +the nations around us of greatest reputation for their genius, and taste +for the sciences and polite learning. The two great principles for moving +the passions amongst the ancients, were terror and pity.(192) And, indeed, +as we naturally refer every thing to ourselves, or our own particular +interest, when we see persons of exalted rank or virtue sinking under +great evils, the fear of the like misfortunes, with which we know that +human life is on all sides invested, seizes upon us, and from a secret +impulse of self-love we find ourselves sensibly affected with the +distresses of others: besides which, the sharing a common nature(193) with +the rest of our species, makes us sensible to whatever befalls them. Upon +a close and attentive inquiry into those two passions, they will be found +the most deeply inherent, active, extensive, and general affections of the +soul; including all orders of men, great and small, rich and poor, of +whatever age or condition. Hence the ancients, accustomed to consult +nature, and to take her for their guide in all things, with reason +conceived terror and compassion to be the soul of tragedy; and that those +affections ought to prevail in it. The passion of love was in no +estimation amongst them, and had seldom any share in their dramatic +pieces; though with us it is a received opinion, that they cannot be +supported without it. + +It is worth our trouble to examine briefly in what manner this passion, +which has always been deemed a weakness and a blemish in the greatest +characters, got such footing upon our stage. Corneille, who was the first +who brought the French tragedy to any perfection, and whom all the rest +have followed, found the whole nation enamoured with the perusal of +romances, and little disposed to admire any thing not resembling them. +From the desire of pleasing his audience, who were at the same time his +judges, he endeavoured to move them in the manner they had been accustomed +to be affected; and, by introducing love in his scenes, to bring them the +nearer to the predominant taste of the age for romance. From the same +source arose that multiplicity of incidents, episodes, and adventures, +with which our tragic pieces are crowded and obscured; so contrary to +probability, which will not admit such a number of extraordinary and +surprising events in the short space of four-and-twenty hours; so contrary +to the simplicity of ancient tragedy; and so adapted to conceal, by the +assemblage of so many different objects, the sterility of the genius of a +poet, more intent upon the marvellous, than upon the probable and natural. + +Both the Greeks and Romans have preferred the iambic to the heroic verse +in their tragedies; not only because the first has a kind of dignity +better adapted to the stage, but, whilst it approaches nearer to prose, +retains sufficiently the air of poetry to please the ear; and yet has too +little of it to put the audience in mind of the poet, who ought not to +appear at all in representations, where other persons are supposed to +speak and act. Monsieur Dacier makes a very just reflection on this +subject. He says, that it is the misfortune of our tragedy to have almost +no other verse than what it has in common with epic poetry, elegy, +pastoral, satire, and comedy; whereas the learned languages have a great +variety of versification. + +This inconvenience is highly obvious in our tragedy; which consequently is +obliged to lose sight of nature and probability, as it obliges heroes, +princes, kings, and queens, to express themselves in a pompous strain in +their familiar conversation, which it would be ridiculous to attempt in +real life. The giving utterance to the most impetuous passions in an +uniform cadence, and by hemistichs and rhymes, would undoubtedly be +tedious and offensive to the ear, if the charms of poetry, the elegance of +expression, and the spirit of the sentiments, and perhaps, more than all +of them, the resistless force of custom, had not in a manner subjected our +reason, and spread a veil before our judgment. + +It was not chance, therefore, which suggested to the Greeks the use of +iambics in their tragedy. Nature itself seems to have dictated that kind +of verse to them. Instructed by the same unerring guide, they made choice +of a different versification for the chorus, better adapted to the motions +of the dance, and the variations of the song; because it was necessary for +poetry here to shine out in all its lustre, whilst the mere conversation +between the real actors was suspended. The chorus was an embellishment of +the representation, and a relaxation to the audience, and therefore +required more exalted poetry and numbers to support it, when united with +music and dancing. + + +Of the Old, Middle, and New Comedy. + + +Whilst tragedy was thus rising to perfection at Athens, comedy, the second +species of dramatic poetry, and which, till then, had been much neglected, +began to be cultivated with more attention. Nature was the common parent +of both. We are sensibly affected with the dangers, distresses, +misfortunes, and, in a word, with whatever relates to the lives and +conduct of illustrious persons; and this gave birth to tragedy. And we are +as curious to know the adventures, conduct, and defects of our equals; +which supply us with occasions of laughing, and being merry at the expense +of others. Hence comedy derives itself; which is properly an image of +private life. Its design is to expose defects and vices upon the stage, +and, by affixing ridicule to them, to make them contemptible; and, +consequently, to instruct by diverting. Ridicule, therefore, (or, to +express the same word by another, pleasantry,) ought to prevail in comedy. + +This species of entertainment took at different times three different +forms at Athens, as well from the genius of the poets, as from the +influence of the government, which occasioned various alterations in it. + +The old comedy, so called by Horace,(194) and which he dates after the +time of AEschylus, retained something of its original rudeness, and the +liberty it had been used to take of throwing out coarse jests and reviling +the spectators from the cart of Thespis. Though it was become regular in +its plan, and worthy of a great theatre, it had not learnt to be more +reserved. It represented real transactions, with the names, dress, +gestures, and likeness, in masks, of whomsoever it thought fit to +sacrifice to the public derision. In a state where it was held good policy +to unmask whatever carried the air of ambition, singularity, or knavery, +comedy assumed the privilege to harangue, reform, and advise the people +upon their most important interests. No one was spared in a city of so +much liberty, or rather licentiousness, as Athens was at that time. +Generals, magistrates, government, the very gods were abandoned to the +poet's satirical vein; and all was well received, provided the comedy was +diverting, and the Attic salt not wanting. + +In one of these comedies,(195) not only the priest of Jupiter determines +to quit his service, because no more sacrifices are offered to the god; +but Mercury himself comes, in a starving condition, to seek his fortune +amongst mankind, and offers to serve as a porter, sutler, bailiff, guide, +door-keeper; in short, in any capacity, rather than return to heaven. In +another,(196) the same gods, reduced to the extremity of famine, from the +birds having built a city in the air, whereby their provisions are cut +off, and the smoke of incense and sacrifices prevented from ascending to +heaven, depute three ambassadors in the name of Jupiter to conclude a +treaty of accommodation with the birds, upon such conditions as they shall +approve. The chamber of audience, where the three famished gods are +received, is a kitchen well stored with excellent game of all sorts. Here +Hercules, deeply smitten with the smell of roast meat, which he apprehends +to be more exquisite and nutritious than that of incense, begs leave to +make his abode, and to turn the spit, and assist the cook upon occasion. +The other pieces of Aristophanes abound with strokes still more satirical +and severe upon the principal divinities. + +I am not much surprised at the poet's insulting the gods, and treating +them with the utmost contempt, as from them he had nothing fear; but I +cannot help wondering at his having brought the most illustrious and +powerful persons of Athens upon the stage, and presuming to attack the +government itself, without any manner of respect or reserve. + +Cleon having returned triumphant, contrary to the general expectation, +from the expedition against Sphacteria, was looked upon by the people as +the greatest captain of that age. Aristophanes, to set that bad man in a +true light, who was the son of a tanner, and a tanner himself, and whose +rise was owing solely to his temerity and impudence, was so bold as to +make him the subject of a comedy,(197) without being awed by his power and +influence: but he was obliged to play the part of Cleon himself, and +appeared for the first time upon the stage in that character; not one of +the comedians daring to represent it, nor to expose himself to the +resentment of so formidable an enemy. His face was smeared over with +wine-lees; because no workman could be found, that would venture to make a +mask resembling Cleon, as was usual when persons were brought upon the +stage. In this piece he reproaches him with embezzling the public +treasures, with a violent passion for bribes and presents, with craft in +seducing the people, and denies him the glory of the action at Sphacteria, +which he attributes chiefly to the share his colleague had in it. + +In the _Acharnians_, he accuses Lamachus of having been made general, +rather by bribery than merit. He imputes to him his youth, inexperience, +and idleness; at the same time that he, and many others, whom he covertly +designates, convert to their own use the rewards due only to valour and +real services. He reproaches the republic with their preference of the +younger citizens to the elder, in the government of the state, and the +command of their armies. He tells them plainly, that when peace shall be +concluded, neither Cleonymus, Hyperbolus, nor many other such knaves, all +mentioned by name, shall have any share in the public affairs; they being +always ready to accuse their fellow-citizens of crimes, and to enrich +themselves by such informations. + +In his comedy called the _Wasps_, imitated by Racine in his _Plaideurs_, +he exposes the mad passion of the people for prosecutions and trials at +law, and the enormous injustice frequently committed in passing sentence +and giving judgment. + +The poet,(198) concerned to see the republic obstinately bent upon the +unhappy expedition to Sicily, endeavours to excite in the people a +thorough disgust for so ruinous a war, and to inspire them with the desire +of a peace, as much the interest of the victors as the vanquished, after a +war of several years' duration, equally pernicious to each party, and +capable of involving all Greece in ruin. + +None of Aristophanes's pieces explains better his boldness, in speaking +upon the most delicate affairs of the state in the crowded theatre, than +his comedy called _Lysistrata_. One of the principal magistrates of Athens +had a wife of that name, who is supposed to have taken it into her head to +compel Greece to conclude a peace. She relates, how, during the war, the +women inquiring of their husbands the result of their counsels, and +whether they had not resolved to make peace with Sparta, received no +answers but imperious looks, and orders to mind their own business: that, +however, they perceived plainly to what a low condition the government was +declined: that they took the liberty to remonstrate mildly to their +husbands upon the sad consequences of their rash determinations, but that +their humble representations had no other effect than to offend and enrage +them: that, at length, being confirmed by the general opinion of all +Attica, that there were no longer any men in the state, nor heads for the +administration of affairs, their patience being quite exhausted, the women +had thought it proper and advisable to take the government upon +themselves, and preserve Greece, whether it would or no, from the folly +and madness of its resolves. "For her part, she declares, that she has +taken possession of the city and treasury, in order," says she, "to +prevent Pisander and his confederates, the four hundred administrators, +from exciting troubles, according to their custom, and from robbing the +public as usual." (Was ever any thing so bold?) She goes on to prove, that +the women only are capable of retrieving affairs by this burlesque +argument; that admitting things to be in such a state of perplexity and +confusion, the sex, accustomed to untangling their threads, were the only +persons to set them right again, as being best qualified with the +necessary address, patience, and moderation. The Athenian politics are +thus made inferior to those of the women, who are only represented in a +ridiculous light, to turn the derision upon their husbands, who were +engaged in the administration of the government. + +These extracts from Aristophanes, taken almost word for word from father +Brumoi, seemed to me very proper to give an insight into that poet's +character, and the genius of the ancient comedy, which was, as we see, a +satire of the most poignant and severe kind, that had assumed to itself an +independency from respect to persons, and to which nothing was sacred. It +is no wonder that Cicero condemns so licentious and uncurbed a liberty. It +might, he says,(199) have been tolerable, had it attacked only bad +citizens, and seditious orators, who endeavoured to raise commotions in +the state, such as Cleon, Cleophon, and Hyperbolus; but when a Pericles, +who for many years had governed the commonwealth both in war and peace +with equal wisdom and authority (he might have added, and a Socrates, +declared by Apollo the wisest of mankind) is brought upon the stage to be +laughed at by the public, it is as if our Plautus or Naevius had attacked +the Scipios, or Caecilius had dared to revile Marcus Cato in his plays. + +That liberty is still more offensive to us, who are born, and live under a +monarchical government, which is far from being favourable to +licentiousness. But without intending to justify the conduct of +Aristophanes, which is certainly inexcusable, I think, to judge properly +of it, it would be necessary to lay aside the prejudices of birth, +nations, and times, and to imagine we live in those remote ages in a state +purely democratical. We must not fancy Aristophanes to have been a person +of little consequence in his republic, as the comic writers generally are +in our days. The king of Persia had a very different idea of him.(200) It +is a known story, that in an audience of the Greek ambassadors, his first +inquiry was after a certain comic poet (meaning Aristophanes) that put all +Greece in motion, and gave such effectual counsels against him. +Aristophanes did that upon the stage, which Demosthenes did afterwards in +the public assemblies. The poet's reproaches were no less animated than +the orator's. In his comedies he uttered the same sentiments as he had a +right to deliver from the public rostrum. They were addressed to the same +people, upon the same occasions of the state, the same means of success, +and the same obstacles to their measures. In Athens the whole people were +the sovereign, and each of them had an equal share in the supreme +authority. Upon this they were continually intent, were fond of +discoursing upon it themselves, and of hearing the sentiments of others. +The public affairs were the business of every individual, on which they +were desirous of being fully informed, that they might know how to conduct +themselves on every occasion of war or peace, which frequently offered, +and to decide upon their own, as well as upon the destiny of their allies +or enemies. Hence rose the liberty taken by the comic poets, of discussing +affairs of the state in their performances. The people were so far from +being offended at it, or at the manner in which those writers treated the +principal persons of the state, that they conceived their liberty in some +measure to consist in it. + +Three poets(201) particularly excelled in the old comedy; Eupolis, +Cratinus, and Aristophanes. The last is the only one of them, whose pieces +have come down to us entire; and, out of the great number which he +composed, eleven are all that remain. He flourished in an age when Greece +abounded with great men, and was contemporary with Socrates and Euripides, +whom he survived. During the Peloponnesian war, he made his greatest +figure; less as a writer to amuse the people with his comedies, than as a +censor of the government, retained to reform the state, and to be almost +the arbiter of his country. + +He is admired for an elegance, poignancy, and happiness of expression, or, +in a word, that Attic salt and spirit, to which the Roman language could +never attain, and for which Aristophanes(202) is more remarkable than any +other of the Greek authors. His particular excellence was raillery. None +ever touched what was ridiculous in the characters whom he wished to +expose with such success, or knew better how to convey it in all its full +force to others. But it would be necessary to have lived in his times, to +be qualified to judge of this. The subtle salt and spirit of the ancient +raillery, according to father Brumoi, is evaporated through length of +time, and what remains of it is become flat and insipid to us; though the +sharpest part will retain its vigour throughout all ages. + +Two considerable defects are justly imputed to this poet, which very much +obscure, if not entirely efface, his glory. These are, low buffoonery, and +gross obscenity; and it has in vain been attempted to offer, in excuse for +the first of these faults, the character of his audience; the bulk of +which generally consisted of the poor, the ignorant, and dregs of the +people, whom, however, it was as necessary to please, as the learned and +the rich. The depraved taste of the lower order of people, which once +banished Cratinus and his company, because his scenes were not grossly +comic enough for them, is no excuse for Aristophanes, as Menander could +find out the art of changing that grovelling taste, by introducing a +species of comedy, not altogether so modest as Plutarch seems to +insinuate, yet much less licentious than any before his time. + +The gross obscenities, with which all Aristophanes's comedies abound, have +no excuse; they only denote to what a pitch the libertinism of the +spectators, and the depravity of the poet, had proceeded. Had he even +impregnated them with the utmost wit, which however is not the case, the +privilege of laughing himself, or of making others laugh, would have been +too dearly purchased at the expense of decency and good manners.(203) And +in this case it may well be said, that it were better to have no wit at +all, than to make so ill a use of it.(204) F. Brumoi is very much to be +commended for having taken care, in giving a general idea of +Aristophanes's writings, to throw a veil over those parts of them that +might have given offence to modesty. Though such behaviour be the +indispensable rule of religion, it is not always observed by those who +pique themselves most on their erudition, and sometimes prefer the title +of scholar to that of Christian. + +The old comedy subsisted till Lysander's time; who, upon having made +himself master of Athens, changed the form or the government, and put it +into the hands of thirty of the principal citizens. The satirical liberty +of the theatre was offensive to them, and therefore they thought fit to +put a stop to it. The reason of this alteration is evident, and confirms +the reflection made before upon the privilege which the poets possessed of +criticizing with impunity the persons at the head of the state. The whole +authority of Athens was then invested in tyrants. The democracy was +abolished. The people had no longer any share in the government. They were +no more the prince; their sovereignty had expired. The right of giving +their opinions and suffrages upon affairs of state was at an end; nor +dared they, either in their own persons or by the poets, presume to +censure the sentiments and conduct of their masters. The calling persons +by their names upon the stage was prohibited: but poetical ill-nature soon +found the secret of eluding the intention of the law, and of making itself +amends for the restraint which was imposed upon it by the necessity of +using feigned names. It then applied itself to discover what was +ridiculous in known characters, which it copied to the life, and from +thence acquired the double advantage of gratifying the vanity of the +poets, and the malice of the audience, in a more refined manner: the one +had the delicate pleasure of putting the spectators upon guessing their +meaning, and the other of not being mistaken in their suppositions, and of +affixing the right name to the characters represented. Such was the +comedy, since called the _Middle Comedy_, of which there are some +instances in Aristophanes. + +It continued till the time of Alexander the Great, who, having entirely +assured himself of the empire of Greece by the defeat of the Thebans, +caused a check to be put upon the licentiousness of the poets, which +increased daily. From thence the _New Comedy_ took its birth, which was +only an imitation of private life, and brought nothing upon the stage but +feigned names, and fictitious adventures. + + + Chacun peint avec art dans ce nouveau miroir, + S'y vit avec plaisir, ou crut ne s'y pas voir. + L'avare des premiers rit du tableau fidele + D'un avare souvent trace sur son modele; + Et mille fois un fat, finement exprime, + Meconnut le portrait sur lui-meme forme. + + In this new glass, whilst each himself survey'd, + He sat with pleasure, though himself was play'd: + The miser grinn'd whilst avarice was drawn, + Nor thought the faithful likeness was his own; + His own dear self no imag'd fool could find, + But saw a thousand other fops design'd.(205) + + +This may properly be called fine comedy, and is that of Menander. Of one +hundred and eighty, or rather eighty plays, according to Suidas, composed +by him, all of which Terence is said to have translated, there remain only +a few fragments. We may form a judgment of the merit of the originals from +the excellence of the copy. Quintilian, in speaking of Menander, is not +afraid to say,(206) that with the beauty of his works, and the height of +his reputation, he obscured, or rather obliterated, the fame of all other +writers in the same way. He observes in another passage,(207) that his own +times were not so just to his merit as they ought to have been, which has +been the fate of many others; but that he was sufficiently made amends by +the favourable opinion of posterity. And indeed Philemon, a comic poet, +who flourished about the same period, though older than Menander, was +preferred before him. + + +The Theatre of the Ancients described. + + +I have already observed, that AEschylus was the first founder of a fixed +and durable theatre adorned with suitable decorations. It was at first, as +well as the amphitheatres, composed of wooden planks, the seats in which +rose one above another; but those having one day broke down, by having too +great a weight upon them, the Athenians, excessively enamoured of dramatic +representations, were induced by that accident to erect those superb +structures, which were imitated afterwards with so much splendour by the +Roman magnificence. What I shall say of them, has almost as much relation +to the Roman as the Athenian theatres; and is extracted entirely from M. +Boindin's learned dissertation upon the theatre of the ancients,(208) who +has treated the subject in its fullest extent. + +The theatre of the ancients was divided into three principal parts; each +of which had its peculiar appellation. The division for the actors was +called in general the scene, or stage; that for the spectators was +particularly termed the theatre, which must have been of vast extent,(209) +as at Athens it was capable of containing above thirty thousand persons; +and the orchestra, which amongst the Greeks was the place assigned for the +pantomimes and dancers, though at Rome it was appropriated to the senators +and vestal virgins. + +The theatre was of a semicircular form on one side, and square on the +other. The space contained within the semicircle was allotted to the +spectators, and had seats placed one above another to the top of the +building. The square part in the front of it was appropriated to the +actors; and in the interval, between both, was the orchestra. + +The great theatres had three rows of porticoes, raised one upon another, +which formed the body of the edifice, and at the same time three different +stories for the seats. From the highest of those porticoes the women saw +the representation, sheltered from the weather. The rest of the theatre +was uncovered, and all the business of the stage was performed in the open +air. + +Each of these stories consisted of nine rows of seats, including the +landing-place, which divided them from each other, and served as a passage +from side to side. But as this landing-place and passage took up the space +of two benches, there were only seven to sit upon, and consequently in +each story there were seven rows of seats. They were from fifteen to +eighteen inches in height, and twice as much in breadth; so that the +spectators had room to sit at their ease, and without being incommoded by +the legs of the people above them, no foot-boards being provided for them. + +Each of these stories of benches were divided in two different manners; in +their height by the landing-places, called by the Romans _Praecinctiones_, +and in their circumferences by several staircases, peculiar to each story, +which intersecting them in right lines, tending towards the centre of the +theatre, gave the form of wedges to the quantity of seats between them, +from whence they were called _Cunei_. + +Behind these stories of seats were covered galleries, through which the +people thronged into the theatre by great square openings, contrived for +that purpose in the walls next the seats. Those openings were called +_Vomitoria_, from the multitude of people crowding through them into their +places. + +As the actors could not be heard to the extremity of the theatre, the +Greeks contrived a means to supply that defect, and to augment the force +of the voice, and make it more distinct and articulate. For that purpose +they invented a kind of large vessels of copper, which were disposed under +the seats of the theatre, in such a manner, as made all sounds strike upon +the ear with more force and distinctness. + +The orchestra being situated, as I have observed, between the two other +parts of the theatre, of which one was circular, and the other square, it +participated of the form of each, and occupied the space between both. It +was divided into three parts. + +The first and most considerable was more particularly called the +orchestra, from a Greek word(210) that signifies to dance. It was +appropriated to the pantomimes and dancers, and to all such subaltern +actors as played between the acts, and at the end of the representations. + +The second was named {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}, from its being square, in the form of an +altar. Here the chorus was generally placed. + +And in the third the Greeks disposed their band of music. They called it +{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, from its being situate at the bottom of the principal part of +the theatre, to which they gave the general name of the scene. + +I shall describe here this third part of the theatre, called the scene; +which was also subdivided into three different parts. + +The first and most considerable was properly called the scene, and gave +its name to this whole division. It occupied the whole front of the +building from side to side, and was the place allotted for the +decorations. This front had two small wings at its extremity, from which +hung a large curtain, that was let down to open the scene, and drawn up +between the acts, when any thing in the representation made it necessary. + +The second, called by the Greeks indifferently {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, and {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} and +by the Romans _proscenium_, and _pulpitum_, was a large open space in +front of the scene, in which the actors performed their parts, and which, +by the help of the decorations, represented either a public square or +forum, a common street, or the country; but the place so represented was +always in the open air. + +The third division was a part reserved behind the scenes, and called by +the Greeks {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. Here the actors dressed themselves, and the +decorations were locked up. In the same place were also kept the machines, +of which the ancients had abundance in their theatres. + +As only the porticoes and the building of the scene were roofed, it was +necessary to draw sails, fastened with cords to masts, over the rest of +the theatre, to screen the audience from the heat of the sun. But as this +contrivance did not prevent the heat, occasioned by the perspiration and +breath of so numerous an assembly, the ancients took care to allay it by a +kind of rain; conveying the water for that use above the porticoes, which +falling again in form of dew through an infinity of small pores concealed +in the statues, with which the theatre abounded, did not only diffuse a +grateful coolness all around, but the most fragrant exhalations along with +it; for this dew was always perfumed. Whenever the representations were +interrupted by storms, the spectators retired into the porticoes behind +the seats of the theatre. + +The fondness of the Athenians for representations of this kind cannot be +expressed. Their eyes, their ears, their imagination, their understanding, +all shared in the satisfaction. Nothing gave them so sensible a pleasure +in dramatic performances, either tragic or comic, as the strokes which +were aimed at the affairs of the public; whether pure chance occasioned +the application, or the address of the poets, who knew how to reconcile +the most remote subjects with the transactions of the republic. They +entered by that means into the interests of the people, took occasion to +soothe their passions, authorize their pretensions, justify, and sometimes +condemn, their conduct, entertain them with agreeable hopes, instruct them +in their duty in certain nice conjunctures; in consequence of which they +often not only acquired the applauses of the spectators, but credit and +influence in the public affairs and counsels: hence the theatre became so +grateful and so interesting to the people. It was in this manner, +according to some authors, that Euripides artfully adapted his tragedy of +_Palamedes_(211) to the sentence passed against Socrates; and pointed out, +by an illustrious example of antiquity, the innocence of a philosopher, +oppressed by malignity supported by power and faction. + +Accident was often the occasion of sudden and unforeseen applications, +which from their appositeness were very agreeable to the people. Upon this +verse of AEschylus, in praise of Amphiaraus, + + + ---- 'Tis his desire + Not to appear, but be the great and good, + + +the whole audience rose up, and unanimously applied it to Aristides.(212) +The same thing happened to Philopoemen at the Nemaean games. At the instant +he entered the theatre, these verses were singing upon the stage: + + + ---- He comes, to whom we owe + Our liberty, the noblest good below. + + +All the Greeks cast their eyes upon Philopoemen,(213) and with clapping of +hands and acclamations of joy expressed their veneration for the hero. + +In the same manner at Rome, during the banishment of Cicero,(214) when +some verses of Accius,(215) which reproached the Greeks with their +ingratitude in suffering the banishment of Telamon, were repeated by AEsop, +the best actor of his time, they drew tears from the eyes of the whole +assembly. + +Upon another, though very different, occasion, the Roman people applied to +Pompey the Great some verses to this effect: + + + 'Tis our unhappiness has made thee great;(216) + + +and then addressing the people; + + + The time shall come when you shall late deplore + So great a power confided to such hands; + + +the spectators obliged the actor to repeat these verses several times. + + +Fondness for Theatrical Representations one of the principal Causes of the +Decline, Degeneracy, and Corruption of the Athenian State. + + +When we compare the happy times of Greece, in which Europe and Asia +resounded with nothing but the fame of the Athenian victories, with the +later ages, when the power of Philip and Alexander the Great had in a +manner reduced it to slavery, we shall be surprised at the strange +alteration in that republic. But what is most material, is the +investigation of the causes and progress of this declension; and these M. +de Tourreil has discussed in an admirable manner in the elegant preface to +his translation of Demosthenes's orations. + +There were no longer, he observes, at Athens any traces of that manly and +vigorous policy, equally capable of planning good and retrieving bad +success. Instead of that, there remained only an inconsistent loftiness, +apt to evaporate in pompous decrees. They were no more those Athenians, +who, when menaced by a deluge of barbarians, demolished their houses to +build ships with the timber, and whose women stoned the abject wretch to +death that proposed to appease the great king by tribute or homage. The +love of ease and pleasure had almost entirely extinguished that of glory, +liberty, and independence. + +Pericles, that great man, so absolute, that those who envied him treated +him as a second Pisistratus, was the first author of this degeneracy and +corruption. With the design of conciliating the favour of the people, he +ordained that upon such days as games or sacrifices were celebrated, a +certain number of oboli should be distributed amongst them; and that in +the assemblies in which affairs of state were to be discussed, every +individual should receive a certain pecuniary gratification in right of +being present. Thus the members of the republic were seen for the first +time to sell their care in the administration of the government, and to +rank amongst servile employments the most noble functions of the sovereign +power. + +It was not difficult to foresee where so excessive an abuse would end: and +to remedy it, it was proposed to establish a fund for the support of the +war, and to make it a capital crime to advise, upon any account +whatsoever, the application of it to other uses: but, notwithstanding, the +abuse always subsisted. At first it seemed tolerable, whilst the citizen, +who was supported at the public expense, endeavoured to deserve it by +doing his duty in the field for nine months together. Every one was to +serve in his turn, and whoever failed was treated as a deserter without +distinction: but at length the number of the transgressors carried it +against the law; and impunity, as it commonly happens, multiplied their +number. People accustomed to the delightful abode of a city, where feasts +and games were perpetually taking place, conceived an invincible +repugnance for labour and fatigue, which they looked upon as unworthy of +free-born men. + +It was therefore necessary to find amusement for this indolent people, to +fill up the great void of an unactive, useless life. Hence arose +principally their fondness, or rather frenzy, for public shows. The death +of Epaminondas, which seemed to promise them the greatest advantage, gave +the final stroke to their ruin and destruction. "Their courage," says +Justin,(217) "did not survive that illustrious Theban. Freed from a rival, +who kept their emulation alive, they sunk into a lethargic sloth and +effeminacy. The funds for armaments by land and sea were soon lavished +upon games and feasts. The seaman's and soldier's pay was distributed to +the idle citizen. An indolent and luxurious mode of life enervated every +breast. The representations of the theatre were preferred to the exercises +of the camp. Valour and military knowledge were entirely disregarded. +Great captains were in no estimation; whilst good poets and excellent +comedians engrossed the universal applause." + +Extravagance of this kind makes it easy to comprehend in what multitudes +the people thronged to the dramatic performances. As no expense was spared +in embellishing them, exorbitant sums were sunk in the service of the +theatre. "If," says Plutarch,(218) "an accurate calculation were to be +made what each representation of the dramatic pieces cost the Athenians, +it would appear, that their expenses in playing the _Bacchanalians_, the +_Phoenicians_, _OEdipus_, _Antigone_, _Medea_, and _Electra_, (tragedies +written either by Sophocles or Euripides,) were greater than those which +had been employed against the Barbarians, in defence of the liberty and +for the preservation of Greece." This gave a Spartan just reason to +exclaim, on seeing an estimate of the enormous sums laid out in these +contests of the tragic poets, and the extraordinary pains taken by the +magistrates who presided in them,(219) "that a people must be void of +sense to apply themselves in so warm and serious a manner to things so +frivolous. For," added he, "games should be only games; and nothing is +more unreasonable than to purchase a short and trivial amusement at so +great a price. Pleasures of this kind agree only with public rejoicings +and seasons of festivity, and were designed to divert people at their +leisure hours; but should by no means interfere with the affairs of the +public, nor the necessary expenses of the government." + +After all, says Plutarch, in the passage which I have already cited, of +what utility have these tragedies been to Athens, though so much boasted +by the people, and admired by the rest of the world? I find that the +prudence of Themistocles enclosed the city with strong walls; that the +fine taste and magnificence of Pericles improved and adorned it; that the +noble fortitude of Miltiades preserved its liberty; and that the moderate +conduct of Cimon acquired it the empire and government of all Greece. If +the wise and learned poetry of Euripides, the sublime diction of +Sophocles, the lofty buskin of AEschylus, have obtained equal advantages +for the city of Athens, by delivering it from impending calamities, or by +adding to its glory, I am willing (he goes on) that dramatic pieces should +be placed in competition with trophies of victory, the poetic theatre with +the field of battle, and the compositions of the poets with the great +exploits of the generals. But what a comparison would this be? On the one +side would be seen a few writers, crowned with wreaths of ivy, and +dragging a goat or an ox after them, the rewards and victims assigned them +for excelling in tragic poetry: on the other, a train of illustrious +captains, surrounded by the colonies which they founded, the cities which +they captured, and the nations which they subjected. It is not to +perpetuate the victories of AEschylus and Sophocles, but in remembrance of +the glorious battles of Marathon, Salamis, Eurymedon, and many others, +that so many feasts are celebrated every month with such pomp by the +Grecians. + +The inference which Plutarch draws from hence, in which we ought to agree +with him, is,(220) that it was the highest imprudence in the Athenians +thus to prefer pleasure to duty, fondness for the theatre to the love of +their country, trivial shows to application to public business, and to +consume, in useless expenses and dramatic entertainments, the funds +intended for the support of fleets and armies. Macedon, till then obscure +and inconsiderable, well knew how to take advantage of the Athenian +indolence and effeminacy;(221) and Philip, instructed by the Greeks +themselves, amongst whom he had for several years applied himself +successfully to the art of war, was not long before he gave Greece a +master, and subjected it to the yoke, as we shall see in the sequel. + +I am now to open an entirely new scene to the reader's view, not unworthy +his curiosity and attention. We have seen two states of no great +consideration, Media and Persia, extend themselves far and wide, under the +conduct of Cyrus, like a torrent or a conflagration; and, with amazing +rapidity, conquer and subdue many provinces and kingdoms. We shall see now +that vast empire setting the nations under its dominion in motion, the +Persians, Medes, Phoenicians, Egyptians, Babylonians, Indians, and many +others; and falling, with all the forces of Asia and the East upon a +little country, of very small extent, and destitute of all foreign +assistance; I mean Greece. When, on the one hand, we behold so many +nations united together, such preparations of war made for several years +with so much diligence; innumerable armies by sea and land, and such +fleets as the sea could hardly contain; and, on the other hand, two weak +cities, Athens and Lacedaemon, abandoned by all their allies, and left +almost entirely to themselves; have we not reason to believe, that these +two little cities are going to be utterly destroyed and swallowed up by so +formidable an enemy; and that no footsteps of them will be left remaining? +And yet we shall find that they will prove victorious; and by their +invincible courage, and the several battles they gain, both by sea and +land, will make the Persian empire lay aside all thoughts of ever again +turning their arms against Greece. + +The history of the war between the Persians and the Greeks will illustrate +the truth of this maxim, that it is not the number, but the valour of the +troops, and the conduct of the generals, on which depends the success of +military expeditions. The reader will admire the surprising courage and +intrepidity of the great men at the head of the Grecian affairs, whom +neither all the world in motion against them could deject, nor the +greatest misfortunes disconcert; who undertook, with an handful of men, to +make head against innumerable armies; who, notwithstanding such a +prodigious inequality of forces, dared to hope for success; who even +compelled victory to declare on the side of merit and virtue; and taught +all succeeding generations what infinite resources are to be found in +prudence, valour, and experience; in a zeal for liberty and our country; +in the love of our duty; and in all the sentiments of noble and generous +souls. + +This war of the Persians against the Grecians will be followed by another +amongst the Greeks themselves, but of a very different kind from the +former. In the latter, there will scarce be any actions, but what in +appearance are of little consequence, and seemingly unworthy of a reader's +curiosity who is fond of great events; in this he will meet with little +besides private quarrels between certain cities, or some small +commonwealths; some inconsiderable sieges, (excepting that of Syracuse, +one of the most important related in ancient history,) though several of +these sieges were of no short duration; some battles between armies, where +the numbers were small, and but little blood shed. What is it, then, that +has rendered these wars so famous in history? Sallust informs us in these +words: "The actions of the Athenians doubtless were great; and yet I +believe they were somewhat less than fame will have us conceive of them. +But because Athens abounded in noble writers, the acts of that republic +are celebrated throughout the whole world as most glorious; and the +gallantry of those heroes who performed them, has had the good fortune to +be thought as transcendent as the eloquence of those who have described +them."(222) + +Sallust, though jealous enough of the glory the Romans had acquired by a +series of distinguished actions, with which their history abounds, yet +does justice in this passage to the Grecians, by acknowledging, that their +exploits were truly great and illustrious, though somewhat inferior, in +his opinion, to their fame. What is then this foreign and borrowed lustre, +which the Athenian actions have derived from the eloquence of their +historians? It is, that the whole universe agrees in looking upon them as +the greatest and most glorious that ever were performed: _Per terrarum +orbem Atheniensium facta_ PRO MAXIMIS CELEBRANTUR. All nations, seduced +and enchanted as it were with the beauties of the Greek authors, think +that people's exploits superior to any thing that was ever done by any +other nation. This, according to Sallust, is the service which the Greek +authors have done the Athenians, by their excellent manner of describing +their actions; and very unhappy it is for us, that our history, for want +of similar assistance, has left a thousand brilliant actions and fine +sayings unrecorded, which would have been put in the strongest light by +the writers of antiquity, and have done great honour to our country. + +But, be this as it may, it must be confessed, that we are not always to +judge of the value of an action, or the merit of the persons who shared in +it, by the importance of the event. It is rather in such sieges and +engagements as we find recorded in the history of the Peloponnesian war, +that the conduct and abilities of a general are truly conspicuous. +Accordingly, it is observed, that it was chiefly at the head of small +armies, and in countries of no great extent, that our best generals of the +last age displayed their great capacity, and showed themselves not +inferior to the most celebrated captains of antiquity. In actions of this +sort chance has no share, and does not cover any oversights that are +committed. Every thing is conducted and carried on by the prudence of the +general. He is truly the soul of the forces, which neither act nor move +but by his direction. He sees every thing, and is present every where. +Nothing escapes his vigilance and attention. Orders are seasonably given, +and seasonably executed. Contrivances, stratagems, false marches, real or +feigned attacks, encampments, decampments; in a word, every thing depends +upon him alone. + +On this account, the reading of the Greek historians, such as Thucydides, +Xenophon, and Polybius, is of infinite service to young officers; because +those historians, who were also excellent commanders, enter into all the +particulars of the events which they relate, and lead the readers, as it +were by the hand, through all the sieges and battles they describe; +showing them, by the example of the greatest generals of antiquity, and by +a kind of anticipated experience, in what manner war is to be carried on. + +Nor is it only with regard to military exploits, that the Grecian history +affords us such excellent models. We shall there find celebrated +legislators, able politicians, magistrates born for government, men that +have excelled in all arts and sciences, philosophers that carried their +inquiries as far as was possible in those early ages, and who have left us +such maxims of morality, as might put many Christians to the blush. + +If the virtues of those who are celebrated in history may serve us for +models in the conduct of our lives; their vices and failings, on the other +hand, are no less proper to caution and instruct us; and the strict regard +which an historian is obliged to pay to truth will not allow him to +dissemble the latter, through fear of eclipsing the lustre of the former. +Nor does what I here advance contradict the rule laid down by Plutarch, on +the same subject, in his preface to the life of _Cimon_.(223) He requires, +that the illustrious actions of great men be represented in their full +light; but as to the faults, which may sometimes escape them through +passion or surprise, or into which they may be drawn by the necessity of +affairs, considering them rather as a certain degree of perfection wanting +to their virtue,(224) than as vices or crimes that proceed from any +corruption of the heart; such imperfections as these, he would have the +historian, out of compassion to the weakness of human nature, which +produces nothing entirely perfect, content himself with touching very +lightly; in the same manner as an able painter, when he has a fine face to +draw, in which he finds some little blemish or defect, does neither +entirely suppress it, nor think himself obliged to represent it with a +strict exactness, because the one would spoil the beauty of the picture, +and the other would destroy the likeness. The very comparison Plutarch +uses, shows, that he speaks only of slight and excusable faults. But as to +actions of injustice, violence, and brutality, they ought not to be +concealed or disguised on any pretence; nor can we suppose, that the same +privilege should be allowed in history as is in painting, which invented +the profile, to represent the side-face of a prince who had lost an eye, +and by that means ingeniously concealed so disagreeable a deformity.(225) +History, the most essential rule of which is sincerity, will by no means +admit of such indulgences, as indeed would deprive it of its greatest +advantage. + +Shame, reproach, infamy, hatred, and the execrations of the public, which +are the inseparable attendants on criminal and brutal actions, are no less +proper to excite a horror for vice, than the glory, which perpetually +attends good actions, is to inspire us with the love of virtue. And these, +according to Tacitus, are the two ends which every historian ought to +propose to himself, by making a judicious choice of what is most +extraordinary both in good and evil, in order to occasion that public +homage to be paid to virtue, which is justly due to it, and to create the +greater abhorrence for vice, on account of that eternal infamy that +attends it.(226) + +The history which I am writing furnishes but too many examples of the +latter sort. With respect to the Persians, it will appear, by what is said +of their kings, that those princes, whose power has no other bounds than +those of their will, often abandon themselves to all their passions; that +nothing is more difficult than to resist the illusions of a man's own +greatness, and the flatteries of those that surround him; that the liberty +of gratifying all one's desires, and of doing evil with impunity, is a +dangerous situation; that the best dispositions can hardly withstand such +a temptation; that even after having begun their career favourably, they +are insensibly corrupted by softness and effeminacy, by pride, and their +aversion to sincere counsels; and that it rarely happens they are wise +enough to consider, that, when they find themselves exalted above all laws +and restraints, they stand then most in need of moderation and wisdom, +both in regard to themselves and others; and that in such a situation they +ought to be doubly wise, and doubly strong, in order to set bounds within, +by their reason, to a power that has none without. + +With respect to the Grecians, the Peloponnesian war will show the +miserable effects of their intestine divisions, and the fatal excesses +into which they were led by their thirst of dominion: scenes of injustice, +ingratitude, and perfidy, together with the open violation of treaties, or +mean artifices and unworthy tricks to elude their execution. It will show, +how scandalously the Lacedaemonians and Athenians debased themselves to the +barbarians, in order to beg aids of money from them: how shamefully the +great deliverers of Greece renounced the glory of all their past labours +and exploits, by stooping and making their court to haughty and insolent +satrapae, and by going successively, with a kind of emulation, to implore +the protection of the common enemy, whom they had so often conquered; and +in what manner they employed the succours they obtained from them, in +oppressing their ancient allies, and extending their own territories by +unjust and violent methods. + +On both sides, and sometimes in the same person, we shall find a +surprising mixture of good and bad, of virtues and vices, of glorious +actions and mean sentiments; and sometimes, perhaps, we shall be ready to +ask ourselves, whether these can be the same persons and the same people, +of whom such different things are related: and whether it be possible, +that such a bright and shining light, and such thick clouds of smoke and +darkness, can proceed from the same source? + +The Persian history includes the space of one hundred and seventeen years, +during the reigns of six kings of Persia: Darius, the first of the name, +the son of Hystaspes; Xerxes the first; Artaxerxes, surnamed Longimanus; +Xerxes the second; Sogdianus (these two last reigned but a very little +time); and Darius the second, commonly called Darius Nothus. This history +begins at the year of the world 3483, and extends to the year 3600. As +this whole period naturally divides itself into two parts, I shall also +divide it into two distinct books. + +The first part, which consists of ninety years, extends from the beginning +of the reign of Darius the first, to the forty-second year of Artaxerxes, +the same year in which the Peloponnesian war began; that is, from the year +of the world 3483, to the year 3573. This part chiefly contains the +different enterprises and expeditions of the Persians against Greece, +which never produced more great men and great events, nor ever displayed +more conspicuous or more solid virtues. Here will be seen the famous +battles of Marathon, Thermopylae, Artemisium, Salamis, Plataeae, Mycale, +Eurymedon, &c. Here the most eminent commanders of Greece signalized their +courage; Miltiades, Leonidas, Themistocles, Aristides, Cimon, Pausanias, +Pericles, Thucydides, &c. + +To enable the reader the more easily to recollect what passed within this +space of time among the Jews, and also among the Romans, the history of +both which nations is entirely foreign to that of the Persians and Greeks, +I shall here set down in few words the principal epochas relating to them. + + + + +Epochas of the Jewish History. + + +The people of God were at this time returned from their Babylonish +captivity to Jerusalem, under the conduct of Zorobabel. Usher is of +opinion, that the history of Esther ought to be placed in the reign of +Darius. The Israelites, under the shadow of this prince's protection, and +animated by the earnest exhortations of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, +did at last finish the building of the temple, which had been interrupted +for many years by the cabals of their enemies. Artaxerxes was no less +favourable to the Jews than Darius: he first of all sent Ezra to +Jerusalem, who restored the public worship, and the observation of the +law; then Nehemiah, who caused walls to be built round the city, and +fortified it against the attacks of their neighbours, who were jealous of +its reviving greatness. It is thought that Malachi, the last of the +prophets, was contemporary with Nehemiah, or that he prophesied not long +after him. + +This interval of the sacred history extends from the reign of Darius I. to +the beginning of the reign of Darius Nothus; that is to say, from the year +of the world 3485, to the year 3581. After which the Scripture is entirely +silent, till the time of the Maccabees. + + + + +Epochas of the Roman History. + + +The first year of Darius I. was the 233d of the building of Rome. Tarquin +the Proud was then on the throne, and about ten years afterwards was +expelled, when the consular government was substituted to that of the +kings. In the succeeding part of this period happened the war against +Porsenna; the creation of the tribunes of the people; Coriolanus's retreat +among the Volsci, and the war that ensued thereupon; the wars of the +Romans against the Latins, the Veientes, the Volsci, and other +neighbouring nations; the death of Virginia under the Decemvirate; the +disputes between the people and senate about marriages and the consulship, +which occasioned the creating of military tribunes instead of consuls. +This period of time terminates in the 323d year from the foundation of +Rome. + +The second part, which consists of twenty-seven years, extends from the +43d year of Artaxerxes Longimanus, to the death of Darius Nothus; that is, +from the year of the world 3573, to the year 3600. It contains the first +nineteen years of the Peloponnesian war, which continued twenty-seven, of +which Greece and Sicily were the seat, and wherein the Greeks, who had +before triumphed over the barbarians, turned their arms against each +other. Among the Athenians, Pericles, Nicias, and Alcibiades; among the +Lacedaemonians, Brasidas, Gylippus, and Lysander, distinguished themselves +in the most extraordinary manner. + +Rome continues to be agitated by different disputes between the senate and +the people. Towards the end of this period, and about the 350th year of +Rome, the Romans formed the siege of Veji, which lasted ten years. + +(M8) I have already observed, that eighty years after the taking of Troy, +the Heraclidae, that is, the descendants of Hercules, returned into the +Peloponnesus, and made themselves masters of Lacedaemon, where two +brothers, Eurysthenes and Procles, sons of Aristodemus, reigned jointly +together. + +Herodotus observes,(227) that these two brothers were, during their whole +lives, at variance; and that almost all their descendants inherited the +like disposition of mutual hatred and antipathy; so true it is, that the +sovereign power will admit of no partnership, and that two kings will +always be too many for one kingdom! However, after the death of these two, +the descendants of both still continued to sway the sceptre jointly: and, +what is very remarkable, these two branches subsisted for near nine +hundred years, from the return of the Heraclidae into the Peloponnesus, to +the death of Cleomenes, and supplied Sparta with kings without +interruption, and that generally in a regular succession from father to +son, especially in the elder branch of the family. + + + + +The Origin and Condition of the Elotae, or Helots. + + +When the Lacedaemonians first began to settle in Peloponnesus, they met +with great opposition from the inhabitants of the country, whom they were +obliged to subdue one after another by force of arms, or receive into +their alliance on easy and equitable terms, with the imposition of a small +tribute. Strabo(228) speaks of a city, called Elos, not far from Sparta, +which, after having submitted to the yoke, as others had done, revolted +openly, and refused to pay the tribute. Agis, the son of Eurysthenes, +newly settled in the throne, was sensible of the dangerous tendency of +this first revolt, and therefore immediately marched with an army against +them, together with Soues, his colleague. They laid siege to the city, +which, after a pretty long resistance, was forced to surrender at +discretion. This prince thought it proper to make such an example of them +as should intimidate all their neighbours, and deter them from the like +attempts, and yet not alienate their minds by too cruel a treatment; for +which reason he put none to death. He spared the lives of all the +inhabitants, but at the same time deprived them of their liberty, and +reduced them all to a state of slavery. From thenceforward they were +employed in all mean and servile offices, and treated with extreme rigour. +These were the people who were called Elotae, or Helots. The number of them +exceedingly increased in process of time, the Lacedaemonians giving +undoubtedly the same name to all the people whom they reduced to the same +condition of servitude. As they themselves were averse to labour, and +entirely addicted to war, they left the cultivation of their lands to +these slaves, assigning every one of them a certain portion of ground, the +produce of which they were obliged to carry every year to their respective +masters, who endeavoured, by all sorts of ill usage, to make their yoke +more grievous and insupportable. This was certainly very bad policy, and +could only tend to breed a vast number of dangerous enemies in the very +heart of the state, who were always ready to take arms and revolt on every +occasion. The Romans acted more prudently; for they incorporated the +conquered nations into their state, by associating them into the freedom +of their city, and thereby converted them from enemies, into brethren and +fellow-citizens. + + + + +Lycurgus, the Lacedaemonian Lawgiver + + +Eurytion, or Eurypon, as he is named by others, succeeded Soues.(229) In +order to gain the affection of his people, and render his government +agreeable, he thought fit to recede in some points from the absolute power +exercised by the kings his predecessors: this rendered his name so dear to +his subjects, that all his descendants were, from him, called Eurytionidae. +But this relaxation gave birth to horrible confusion, and an unbounded +licentiousness in Sparta; and for a long time occasioned infinite +mischiefs. The people became so insolent, that nothing could restrain +them. If Eurytion's successors attempted to recover their authority by +force, they became odious; and if, through complaisance or weakness, they +chose to dissemble, their mildness served only to render them +contemptible; so that order in a manner was abolished, and the laws no +longer regarded. These confusions hastened the death of Lycurgus's father, +whose name was Eunomus, and who was killed in an insurrection. Polydectes, +his eldest son and successor, dying soon after without children, every +body expected Lycurgus would have been king. And indeed he was so in +effect, as long as the pregnancy of his brother's wife was uncertain; but +as soon as that was manifest, he declared, that the kingdom belonged to +her child, in case it proved a son: and from that moment he took upon +himself the administration of the government, as guardian to his unborn +nephew, under the title of Prodicos, which was the name given by the +Lacedaemonians to the guardians of their kings. When the child was born, +Lycurgus took him in his arms, and cried out to the company that was +present, _Behold, my lords of Sparta, your new-born king!_ and, at the +same time, he put the infant into the king's seat, and named him +Charilaus, because of the joy the people expressed upon occasion of his +birth. The reader will find, in the second volume of this history, all +that relates to the history of Lycurgus, the reformation he made, and the +excellent laws he established in Sparta. Agesilaus was at this time king +in the elder branch of the family. + + + + +War between the Argives and the Lacedaemonians. + + +Some time after this, in the reign of Theopompus, a war broke out between +the Argives and Lacedaemonians, on account of a little country, called +Thyrea, that lay upon the confines of the two states, and to which each of +them pretended a right.(230) When the two armies were ready to engage, it +was agreed on both sides, in order to spare the effusion of blood, that +the quarrel should be decided by three hundred of the bravest men chosen +from their respective armies; and that the land in question should become +the property of the victorious party. To leave the combatants more room to +engage, the two armies retired to some distance. Those generous champions +then, who had all the courage of two mighty armies, boldly advanced +towards each other, and fought with so much resolution and fury, that the +whole number, except three men, two on the side of the Argives, and one on +that of the Lacedaemonians, lay dead upon the spot; and only the night +parted them. The two Argives, looking upon themselves as the conquerors, +made what haste they could to Argos to carry the news; the single +Lacedaemonian, Othryades by name, instead of retiring, stripped the dead +bodies of the Argives, and carrying their arms into the Lacedaemonian camp, +continued in his post. The next day the two armies returned to the field +of battle. Both sides laid equal claim to the victory: the Argives, +because they had more of their champions left alive than the enemy had; +the Lacedaemonians, because the two Argives that remained alive had fled; +whereas their single soldier had remained master of the field of battle, +and had carried off the spoils of the enemy: in short, they could not +determine the dispute without coming to another engagement. Here fortune +declared in favour of the Lacedaemonians, and the little territory of +Thyrea was the prize of their victory. But Othryades, not able to bear the +thoughts of surviving his brave companions, or of enduring the sight of +Sparta after their death, killed himself on the same field of battle where +they had fought, resolving to have one fate and tomb with them. + + + + +Wars between the Messenians and Lacedaemonians. + + +There were no less than three several wars between the Messenians and the +Lacedaemonians, all of them very fierce and bloody. Messenia was a country +in Peloponnesus, towards the west, and not far from Sparta: it was of +considerable strength, and was governed by its own kings. + + + +The First Messenian War. + + +(M9) The first Messenian war lasted twenty years, and broke out the second +year of the ninth Olympiad.(231) The Lacedaemonians pretended to have +received several considerable injuries from the Messenians, and among +others, that of having had their daughters ravished by the inhabitants of +Messenia, when they went, according to custom, to a temple, that stood on +the borders of the two nations; as also that of the murder of Telecles, +their king, which was a consequence of the former outrage. Probably a +desire of extending their dominion, and of seizing a territory which lay +so convenient for them, might be the true cause of the war. But be that as +it may, the war broke out in the reign of Polydorus and Theopompus, kings +of Sparta, at the time when the office of archon at Athens was still +decennial. + +Euphaes, the thirteenth descendant from Hercules, was then king of +Messenia.(232) He gave the command of his army to Cleonnis. The +Lacedaemonians opened the campaign with the siege of Amphea, a small, +inconsiderable city, which, however, they thought would suit them very +well as a place for military stores. The town was taken by storm, and all +the inhabitants put to the sword. This first blow served only to animate +the Messenians, by showing them what they were to expect from the enemy, +if they did not defend themselves with vigour. The Lacedaemonians, on their +part, bound themselves by an oath not to lay down their arms, nor to +return to Sparta, till they had made themselves masters of all the cities +and lands belonging to the Messenians: so much did they rely upon their +strength and valour. + +Two battles were fought, wherein the loss was nearly equal on both +sides.(233) But after the second, the Messenians suffered extremely +through the want of provisions, which occasioned a great desertion in +their troops, and at last brought a pestilence among them. + +Hereupon they consulted the oracle of Delphi, which directed them, in +order to appease the wrath of the gods, to offer up a virgin of the royal +blood in sacrifice. Aristomenes, who was of the race of the Epytides, +offered his own daughter. The Messenians then considering, that if they +left garrisons in all their towns they should extremely weaken their army, +resolved to abandon them all, except Ithome, a little place seated on the +top of a hill of the same name, about which they encamped and fortified +themselves. In this situation were seven years spent, during which nothing +passed but slight skirmishes on both sides; the Lacedaemonians not daring +in all that time to force the enemy to a battle. + +Indeed, they almost despaired of being able to reduce them: nor was there +any thing but the obligation of the oath, by which they had bound +themselves, that made them continue so burthensome a war. What gave them +the greatest uneasiness was, their apprehension, lest their absence from +their wives for so many years, an absence which might still continue many +more, should destroy their families at home, and leave Sparta destitute of +citizens.(234) To prevent this misfortune, they sent home such of their +soldiers as were come to the army since the forementioned oath had been +taken, and made no scruple of prostituting their wives to their embraces. +The children that sprung from this unlawful intercourse were called +Partheniae, a name given them to denote the infamy of their birth. As soon +as they were grown up, not being able to endure such an opprobrious +distinction, they banished themselves from Sparta with one consent, and, +under the conduct of Phalantus, went and settled at Tarentum in Italy, +after driving out the ancient inhabitants.(235) + +At last, in the eighth year of the war, which was the thirteenth of +Euphaes's reign, a fierce and bloody battle was fought near Ithome.(236) +Euphaes pierced through the battalions of Theopompus with too much heat +and precipitation for a king. He there received a multitude of wounds, +several of which were mortal. He fell, and seemed to give up the ghost. +Whereupon, wonderful efforts of courage were exerted on both sides; by the +one, to carry off the king; by the other, to save him. Cleonnis killed +eight Spartans, who were dragging him along, and spoiled them of their +arms, which he committed to the custody of some of his soldiers. He +himself received several wounds, all in the fore part of his body, which +was a certain proof that he had never turned his back upon his enemies. +Aristomenes, fighting on the same occasion, and for the same end, killed +five Lacedaemonians, whose spoils he likewise carried off, without +receiving any wound. In short, the king was saved and carried off by the +Messenians; and, all mangled and bloody as he was, he expressed great joy +that he had not been worsted. Aristomenes, after the battle was over, met +Cleonnis, who, by reason of his wounds, could neither walk by himself, nor +with the assistance of those that lent him their hands. He therefore took +him upon his shoulders, without quitting his arms, and carried him to the +camp. + +As soon as they had applied the first dressing to the wounds of the king +of Messenia and of his officers, there arose a new contention among the +Messenians, that was pursued with as much warmth as the former, but was of +a very different kind, and yet the consequence of the other. The affair in +question was the adjudging the prize of glory to him that had signalized +his valour most in the late engagement. It was a custom among them, which +had long been established, publicly to proclaim, after a battle, the name +of the man that had showed the greatest courage. Nothing could be more +proper to animate the officers and soldiers, to inspire them with +resolution and intrepidity, and to stifle the natural apprehension of +death and danger. Two illustrious champions entered the lists on this +occasion, namely, Cleonnis and Aristomenes. + +The king, notwithstanding his weak condition, attended by the principal +officers of his army, presided in the council, where this important +dispute was to be decided. Each competitor pleaded his own cause. Cleonnis +founded his pretensions upon the great number of the enemies he had slain, +and upon the multitude of wounds he had received in the action, which were +so many undoubted testimonies of the courage with which he had faced both +death and danger; whereas, the condition in which Aristomenes came out of +the engagement, without hurt and without wound, seemed to show, that he +had been very careful of his own person, or, at most, could only prove +that he had been more fortunate, but not more brave or courageous, than +himself. And as to his having carried him on his shoulders into the camp, +that action indeed might serve to prove the strength of his body, but +nothing farther; and the thing in dispute at this time, says he, is not +strength, but valour. + +The only thing Aristomenes was reproached for, was his not being wounded; +therefore he confined himself to that point: "I am," says he, "called +fortunate because I have escaped from the battle without wounds. If that +were owing to my cowardice, I should deserve another epithet than that of +fortunate; and, instead of being admitted to dispute the prize, ought to +undergo the rigour of the laws that punish cowards. But what is objected +to me as a crime, is in truth my greatest glory. For, if my enemies, +astonished at my valour, durst not venture to attack or oppose me, it is +no small degree of merit that I made them fear me; or, if whilst they +engaged me, I had at the same time strength to cut them in pieces, and +skill to guard against their attacks, I must then have been at once both +valiant and prudent. For whoever, in the midst of an engagement, can +expose himself to dangers with caution and security, shows that he excels +at the same time both in the virtues of the mind and the body. As for +courage, no man living can reproach Cleonnis with any want of it; but, for +his honour's sake, I am sorry that he should appear to want gratitude." + +After the conclusion of these harangues, the question was put to the vote. +The whole army is in suspense, and impatiently waits for the decision. No +dispute could be so warm and interesting as this. It is not a competition +for gold or silver, but solely for honour. The proper reward of virtue is +pure disinterested glory. Here the judges are unsuspected. The actions of +the competitors still speak for them. It is the king himself, surrounded +with his officers, who presides and adjudges. A whole army are the +witnesses. The field of battle is a tribunal without partiality and cabal. +In short, all the votes concurred in favour of Aristomenes, and adjudged +him the prize. + +Euphaes died not many days after the decision of this affair.(237) He had +reigned thirteen years, and during all that time had been engaged in war +with the Lacedaemonians. As he died without children, he left the +Messenians at liberty to choose his successor. Cleonnis and Damis were +candidates in opposition to Aristomenes; but he was elected king in +preference to them. When he was on the throne, he did not scruple to +confer on his two rivals the principal offices of the state; all strongly +attached to the public good, even more than to their own glory; +competitors, but not enemies, these great men were actuated by a zeal for +their country, and were neither friends nor adversaries to one another, +but for its preservation. + +In this relation, I have followed the opinion of the late Monsieur Boivin, +the elder,(238) and have made use of his learned dissertation upon a +fragment of Diodorus Siculus, which the world was little acquainted with. +He supposes, and proves in it, that the king, spoken of in that fragment, +is Euphaes; and that Aristomenes is the same that Pausanias calls +Aristodemus, according to the custom of the ancients, who were often +called by two different names. + +Aristomenes, otherwise called Aristodemus, reigned near seven years, and +was equally esteemed and beloved by his subjects. The war still continued +all this time.(239) Towards the end of his reign he beat the +Lacedaemonians, took their king Theopompus, and, in honour of Jupiter of +Ithome, sacrificed three hundred of them, among whom their king was the +principal victim. Shortly after, Aristodemus sacrificed himself upon the +tomb of his daughter, in conformity to the answer of an oracle. Damis was +his successor, but without taking upon him the title of king. + +After his death, the Messenians never had any success in their affairs, +but found themselves in a very wretched and hopeless condition.(240) Being +reduced to the last extremity, and utterly destitute of provisions, they +abandoned Ithome, and fled to such of their allies as were nearest to +them. The city was immediately razed, and the other part of the country +submitted. They were made to engage by oath never to forsake the party of +the Lacedaemonians, and never to revolt from them: a very useless +precaution, only proper to make them add the guilt of perjury to their +rebellion. Their new masters imposed no tribute upon them; but contented +themselves with obliging them to bring to the Spartan market one half of +the corn they should reap every harvest. It was likewise stipulated, that +the Messenians, both men and women, should attend, in mourning, the +funerals of the kings and chief citizens of Sparta; which the +Lacedaemonians probably looked upon as a mark of dependence, and as a kind +of homage paid to their nation. (M10) Thus ended the first Messenian war, +after having lasted twenty years. + + + +The Second Messenian War. + + +The lenity with which the Lacedaemonians treated the Messenians at first, +was of no long duration.(241) When once they found the whole country had +submitted, and thought the people incapable of giving them any further +trouble, they returned to their natural character of insolence and +haughtiness, that often degenerated into cruelty, and sometimes even into +ferocity. Instead of treating the vanquished with kindness, as friends and +allies, and endeavouring by gentle methods to win those whom they had +subdued by force, they seemed intent upon nothing but aggravating their +yoke, and making them feel the whole weight of subjection. They laid heavy +taxes upon them, delivered them up to the avarice of the collectors of +those taxes, gave no ear to their complaints, rendered them no justice, +treated them with contempt like vile slaves, and committed the most +heinous outrages against them. + +Man, who is born for liberty, can never reconcile himself to servitude: +the most gentle slavery exasperates, and provokes him to rebel. What could +be expected then from so cruel a one, as that under which the Messenians +groaned? After having endured it with great uneasiness(242) near forty +years, they resolved to throw off the yoke, and to recover their ancient +liberty. (M11) This was in the fourth year of the twenty-third Olympiad: +the office of archon at Athens was then made annual; and Anaxander and +Anaxidamus reigned at Sparta. + +The Messenians' first care was to strengthen themselves by the alliance of +the neighbouring nations. These they found well inclined to enter into +their views, as very agreeable to their own interests. For it was not +without jealousy and apprehensions, that they saw so powerful a city +rising up in the midst of them, which manifestly seemed to aim at +extending her dominion over all the rest. The people therefore of Elis, +the Argives and Sicyonians, declared for the Messenians. But before their +forces were joined, a battle was fought between the Lacedaemonians and +Messenians. Aristomenes, the second of that name,(243) was at the head of +the latter. He was a commander of intrepid courage, and of great abilities +in war. The Lacedaemonians were beaten in this engagement. Aristomenes, to +give the enemy at first an advantageous opinion of his bravery, knowing +what influence it has on the success of future enterprises, boldly +ventured to enter into Sparta by night, and upon the gate of the temple of +Minerva, surnamed Chalcioecos, to hang up a shield, on which was an +inscription, signifying, that it was a present offered by Aristomenes to +the goddess, out of the spoils of the Lacedaemonians. + +This bravado did in reality astonish the Lacedaemonians. But they were +still more alarmed at the formidable league that was formed against them. +The Delphic oracle, which they consulted, in order to know by what means +they should be successful in this war, directed them to send to Athens for +a commander, and to submit to his counsel and conduct. This was a very +mortifying step to so haughty a city as Sparta. But the fear of incurring +the god's displeasure by a direct disobedience prevailed over all other +considerations. They sent an embassy therefore to the Athenians. The +people of Athens were somewhat perplexed at the request. On the one hand, +they were not sorry to see the Lacedaemonians at war with their neighbours, +and were far from desiring to furnish them with a good general: on the +other, they were afraid also of disobeying the god. To extricate +themselves out of this difficulty, they offered the Lacedaemonians Tyrtaeus. +He was a poet by profession, and had something original in the turn of his +mind, and disagreeable in his person; for he was lame. Notwithstanding +these defects, the Lacedaemonians received him as a general, sent them by +Heaven itself. Their success did not at first answer their expectation, +for they lost three battles successively. + +The kings of Sparta, discouraged by so many disappointments, and out of +all hopes of better success for the future, were absolutely bent upon +returning to Sparta, and marching home again with their forces. Tyrtaeus +opposed this design very warmly, and at length brought them over to his +opinion. He addressed the troops, and repeated to them some verses he had +made with that intention, and on which he had bestowed great pains and +application. He first endeavoured to comfort them for their past losses, +which he imputed to no fault of theirs, but only to ill fortune, or to +fate, which no human wisdom can surmount. He then represented to them, how +shameful it would be for Spartans to fly from an enemy; and how glorious +it would be for them rather to perish sword in hand, if it was so decreed +by fate, in fighting for their country. Then, as if all danger was +vanished, and the gods, fully satisfied and appeased with their late +calamities, were entirely turned to their side, he set victory before +their eyes as present and certain, and as if she herself were inviting +them to battle. All the ancient authors,(244) who have made any mention of +the style and character of Tyrtaeus's poetry, observe, that it was full of +a certain fire, ardour, and enthusiasm, that inflamed the minds of men, +that exalted them above themselves, that inspired them with something +generous and martial, that extinguished all fear and apprehension of +danger or death, and made them wholly intent upon the preservation of +their country and their own glory.(245) Tyrtaeus's verses had really this +effect on the soldiers upon this occasion. They all desired, with one +voice, to march against the enemy. Being become indifferent as to their +lives, they had no thoughts but to secure themselves the honour of a +burial. To this end they all tied strings round their right arms, on which +were inscribed their own and their fathers' names, that, if they chanced +to be killed in the battle, and to have their faces so altered through +time, or accidents, as not to be distinguishable, it might certainly be +known who each of them was by these marks. Soldiers determined to die are +very valiant. This appeared in the battle that ensued. It was very bloody, +the victory being a long time disputed on both sides; but at last the +Messenians gave way. When Tyrtaeus went afterwards to Sparta, he was +received with the greatest marks of distinction, and incorporated into the +body of citizens. + +The gaining of this battle did not put an end to the war, which had +already lasted three years. Aristomenes, having assembled the remains of +his army, retired to the top of a mountain, of difficult access, which was +called Ira. The conquerors attempted to carry the place by assault, but +that brave prince defended himself there for the space of eleven years, +and performed the most extraordinary actions of valour. He was at last +obliged to quit it, only by surprise and treachery, after having defended +it like a lion. Such of the Messenians as fell into the hands of the +Lacedaemonians on this occasion were reduced to the condition of the +Helots. The rest, seeing their country ruined, went and settled at Zancle, +a city in Sicily, which afterwards took its name from this people, and was +called Messana; the same place as is called at this day Messina. +Aristomenes, after having conducted one of his daughters to Rhodes, whom +he had given in marriage to the tyrant of that place, thought of passing +on to Sardis, to remain with Ardys, king of the Lydians, or to Ecbatana, +with Phraortes, king of the Medes; but death prevented the execution of +all his designs. + +(M12) The second Messenian war was of fourteen years' duration, and ended +the first year of the twenty-seventh Olympiad. + +There was a third war between these people and the Lacedaemonians, which +began both at the time and on the occasion of a great earthquake that +happened at Sparta. We shall speak of this war in its place. + +The history, of which it remains for me to treat in this work, is that of +the successors of Alexander, and comprehends the space of two hundred and +ninety-three years; from the death of that monarch, and the commencement +of the reign of Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, in Egypt, to the death of +Cleopatra, when that kingdom became a Roman province, under the emperor +Augustus. + +The history will present to our view a series of all the crimes which +usually arise from inordinate ambition; scenes of jealousy and perfidy, +treason, ingratitude, and flagrant abuses of sovereign power; cruelty, +impiety, an utter oblivion of the natural sentiments of probity and +honour, with the violation of all laws human and divine, will rise before +us. We shall behold nothing but fatal dissensions, destructive wars, and +dreadful revolutions. Men, originally friends, brought up together, and +natives of the same country, companions in the same dangers, and +instruments in the accomplishment of the same exploits and victories, will +conspire to tear in pieces the empire they had all concurred to form at +the expense of their blood. We shall see the captains of Alexander +sacrifice the mother, the wives, the brother, the sisters, of that prince, +to their own ambition; without sparing even those to whom they themselves +either owed or gave life. We shall no longer behold those glorious times +of Greece, that were once so productive of great men and great examples; +or, if we should happen to discover some traces and remains of them, they +will only resemble the gleams of lightning that shoot along in a rapid +track, and attract attention only in consequence of the profound darkness +that precedes and follows them. + +I acknowledge myself to be sufficiently sensible how much a writer is to +be pitied, for being obliged to represent human nature in such colours and +lineaments as dishonour her, and which cannot fail of inspiring disgust +and a secret affliction in the minds of those who are made spectators of +such a picture. History loses whatever is most interesting and most +capable of conveying pleasure and instruction, when she can only produce +those effects, by inspiring the mind with horror for criminal actions, and +by a representation of the calamities which usually succeed them, and are +to be considered as their just punishment. It is difficult to engage the +attention of a reader, for any considerable time, on objects which only +raise his indignation, and it would be affronting him, to seem desirous of +dissuading him from the excess of inordinate passions, of which he +conceives himself incapable. + +How is it possible to diffuse any interest through a narration, which has +nothing to offer but an uniform series of vices and great crimes; and +which makes it necessary to enter into a particular detail of the actions +and characters of men born for the calamity of the human race, and whose +very name should not be transmitted to posterity? It may even be thought +dangerous, to familiarize the minds of the generality of mankind to +uninterrupted scenes of too successful iniquity and to be particular in +describing the unjust success which waited on those illustrious criminals, +the long duration of whose prosperity being frequently attended with the +privileges and rewards of virtue, may be thought an imputation on +Providence by persons of weak understandings. + +This history, which seems likely to prove very disagreeable, from the +reasons I have just mentioned, will become more so from the obscurity and +confusion in which the several transactions will be involved, and which it +will be difficult, if not impossible, to remedy. Ten or twelve of +Alexander's captains were engaged in a course of hostilities against each +other, for the partition of his empire after his death; and to secure to +themselves some portion, greater or less, of that vast body. Sometimes +feigned friends, sometimes declared enemies, they are continually forming +different parties and leagues, which are to subsist no longer than is +consistent with the interest of each individual. Macedonia changed its +master five or six times in a very short space; by what means then can +order and perspicuity be preserved, in so prodigious a variety of events +that are perpetually crossing and breaking in upon each other? + +Besides which, I am no longer supported by any ancient authors capable of +conducting me through this darkness and confusion. Diodorus will entirely +abandon me, after having been my guide for some time; and no other +historian will appear to take his place. No proper series of affairs will +remain; the several events are not to be disposed into any regular +connection with each other; nor will it be possible to point out, either +the motives to the resolutions formed, or the proper character of the +principal actors in this scene of obscurity. I think myself happy when +Polybius, or Plutarch, lend me their assistance. In my account of +Alexander's successors, whose transactions are, perhaps, the most +complicated and perplexed part of ancient history, Usher, Prideaux, and +Vaillant, will be my usual guides; and, on many occasions, I shall only +transcribe from Prideaux; but, with all these aids, I shall not promise to +throw so much light upon this history as I could desire. + +After a war of more than twenty years, the number of the principal +competitors was reduced to four; Ptolemy, Cassander, Seleucus, and +Lysimachus; the empire of Alexander was divided into four fixed kingdoms, +agreeably to the prediction of Daniel, by a solemn treaty concluded +between the parties. Three of these kingdoms, Egypt, Macedonia, Syria, or +Asia, will have a regular succession of monarchs, sufficiently clear and +distinct; but the fourth, which comprehended Thrace, with part of the +Lesser Asia, and some neighbouring provinces, will suffer a number of +variations. + +As the kingdom of Egypt was that which was subject to the fewest changes, +because Ptolemy, who was established there as governor, at the death of +Alexander, retained the possession of it ever after, and left it to his +posterity: we shall, therefore, consider this prince as the basis of our +chronology, and our several epochas shall be fixed from him. + +The fourth volume contains the events for the space of one hundred and +twenty years, under the first four kings of Egypt, _viz._ Ptolemy, the son +of Lagus, who reigned thirty-eight years; Ptolemy Philadelphus, who +reigned forty; Ptolemy Euergetes, who reigned twenty-five; and Ptolemy +Philopator, whose reign continued seventeen. + +In order to throw some light upon the history contained therein, I shall, +in the first place, give the principal events of it, in a chronological +abridgement. + +Introductory to which, I must desire the reader to accompany me in some +reflections, which have not escaped Monsieur Bossuet, with relation to +Alexander. This prince, who was the most renowned and illustrious +conqueror in all history, was the last monarch of his race. Macedonia, his +ancient kingdom, which his ancestors had governed for so many ages, was +invaded from all quarters, as a vacant succession; and after it had long +been a prey to the strongest, it was at last transferred to another +family. If Alexander had continued peaceably in Macedonia, the grandeur of +his empire would not have excited the ambition of his captains; and he +might have transmitted the sceptre of his progenitors to his own +descendants; but, as he had not prescribed any bounds to his power, he was +instrumental in the destruction of his house, and we shall behold the +extermination of his family, without the least remaining traces of them in +history. His conquests occasioned a vast effusion of blood, and furnished +his captains with a pretext for murdering one another. These were the +effects that flowed from the boasted bravery of Alexander, or rather from +that brutality, which, under the specious names of ambition and glory, +spread desolation, and carried fire and sword through whole provinces, +without the least provocation, and shed the blood of multitudes who had +never injured him. + +We are not to imagine, however, that Providence abandoned these events to +chance; but, as it was then preparing all things for the approaching +appearance of the Messiah, it was vigilant to unite all the nations that +were to be first enlightened with the Gospel, by the use of one and the +same language, which was that of Greece: and the same Providence made it +necessary for them to learn this foreign tongue, by subjecting them to +such masters as spoke no other. The Deity, therefore, by the agency of +this language, which became more common and universal than any other, +facilitated the preaching of the apostles, and rendered it more uniform. + +The partition of the empire of Alexander the Great, among the generals of +that prince, immediately after his death, did not subsist for any length +of time, and hardly took place, if we except Egypt, where Ptolemy had +first established himself, and on the throne of which he always maintained +himself without acknowledging any superior. + +(M13) It was not till after the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, wherein +Antigonus, and his son Demetrius, surnamed Poliorcetes, were defeated, and +the former lost his life, that this partition was fully regulated and +fixed. The empire of Alexander was then divided into four kingdoms, by a +solemn treaty, as had been foretold by Daniel. Ptolemy had Egypt, Libya, +Arabia, Coelesyria, and Palestine. Cassander, the son of Antipater, +obtained Macedonia and Greece. Lysimachus acquired Thrace, Bithynia, and +some other provinces on the other side of the Hellespont and the +Bosphorus. And Seleucus had Syria, and all that part of the greater Asia +which extended to the other side of the Euphrates, and as far as the river +Indus. + +Of these four kingdoms, those of Egypt and Syria subsisted, almost without +any interruption, in the same families, through a long succession of +princes. The kingdom of Macedonia had several masters of different +families successively. That of Thrace was at last divided into several +branches, and no longer constituted one entire body, by which means all +traces of regular succession ceased to subsist. + + + + +I. The Kingdom of Egypt. + + +The kingdom of Egypt had fourteen monarchs, including Cleopatra, after +whose death, those dominions became a province of the Roman empire. All +these princes had the common name of Ptolemy, but each of them was +likewise distinguished by a peculiar surname. They had also the +appellation of Lagides, from Lagus the father of that Ptolemy who reigned +the first in Egypt. The fourth and fifth volumes contain the histories of +six of these kings, and I shall give their names a place here, with the +duration of their reigns, the first of which commenced immediately upon +the death of Alexander the Great. + +(M14) Ptolemy Soter. He reigned thirty-eight years and some months. + +(M15) Ptolemy Philadelphus. He reigned forty years including the two years +of his reign in the lifetime of his father. + +(M16) Ptolemy Euergetes, twenty-five years. + +(M17) Ptolemy Philopator, seventeen. + +(M18) Ptolemy Epiphanes, twenty-four. + +(M19) Ptolemy Philometor, thirty-four. + + + + +II. The Kingdom of Syria. + + +The kingdom of Syria had twenty-seven kings; which makes it evident, that +their reigns were often very short: and indeed several of these princes +waded to the throne through the blood of their predecessors. + +They are usually called the Seleucidae, from Seleucus, who reigned the +first in Syria. History reckons up six kings of this name, and thirteen +who are called by that of Antiochus; but they are all distinguished by +different surnames. Others of them assumed different names, and the last, +Antiochus XIII., was surnamed Epiphanes, Asiaticus, and Commagenus. In his +reign Pompey reduced Syria into a Roman province, after it had been +governed by kings for the space of two hundred and fifty years, according +to Eusebius. + +The kings of Syria, the transactions of whose reigns are contained in the +fourth and fifth volumes, are eight in number. + +(M20) Seleucus Nicator. He reigned twenty years. + +(M21) Antiochus Soter, nineteen. + +(M22) Antiochus Theos, fifteen. + +(M23) Seleucus Callinicus, twenty. + +(M24) Seleucus Ceraunus, three. + +(M25) Antiochus the Great, thirty-six. + +(M26) Seleucus Philopator, twelve. + +(M27) Antiochus Epiphanes, brother of Seleucus Philopator, eleven. + + + + +III. The Kingdom of Macedonia. + + +(M28) Macedonia frequently changed its masters, after the solemn partition +had been made between the four princes. Cassander died three or four years +after that partition, and left three sons. Philip, the eldest, died +shortly after his father. The other two contended for the crown without +enjoying it, both dying soon after without issue. + +(M29) Demetrius Poliorcetes, Pyrrhus, and Lysimachus, made themselves +masters of all, or the greatest part of Macedonia; sometimes in +conjunction, and at other times separately. + +(M30) After the death of Lysimachus, Seleucus possessed himself of +Macedonia, but did not long enjoy it. + +(M31) Ptolemy Ceraunus having slain the preceding prince, seized the +kingdom, and possessed it but a very short time, having lost his life in a +battle with the Gauls, who had made an irruption into that country. + +(M32) Sosthenes, who defeated the Gauls, reigned but a short time in +Macedonia. + +(M33) Antigonus Gonatas, the son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, at length +obtained the peaceable possession of the kingdom of Macedonia, and +transmitted it to his descendants, after he had reigned thirty-four years. + +(M34) He was succeeded by his son Demetrius, who reigned ten years, and +then died, leaving a son named Philip, who was but two years old. + +(M35) Antigonus Doson reigned twelve years in the quality of guardian to +the young prince. + +(M36) Philip, after the death of Antigonus, ascended the throne at the age +of fourteen years, and reigned something more than forty. + +(M37) His son Perseus succeeded him, and reigned about eleven years. He +was defeated and taken prisoner by Paulus Emilius; and Macedonia, in +consequence of that victory, was added to the provinces of the Roman +empire. + + + + +IV. The Kingdom of Thrace, and Bithynia, &c. + + +This fourth kingdom, composed of several separate provinces very remote +from one another, had not any succession of princes, and did not long +subsist in its first condition; Lysimachus, who first obtained it, having +been killed in a battle after a reign of twenty years, and all his family +being exterminated by assassinations, his dominions were dismembered, and +no longer constituted one kingdom. + +Beside the provinces which were divided among the captains of Alexander, +there were others which had been either formed before, or were then +erected into different states, independent of the Greeks, whose power +greatly increased in process of time. + + + +Kings of Bithynia + + +(M38) Whilst Alexander was extending his conquests in the east, Zypethes +had laid the foundations of the kingdom of Bithynia. It is not certain who +this Zypethes was, unless that Pausanias,(246) from his name, conjectures +that he was a Thracian. His successors, however, are better known. + +(M39) Nicomedes I. This prince invited the Gauls to assist him against his +brother, with whom he was engaged in a war. + +Prusias I. + +(M40) Prusias II., surnamed the Hunter, in whose court Hannibal took +refuge, and assisted him with his counsels, in his war against Eumenes II. +king of Pergamus. + +Nicomedes II. was killed by his son Socrates. + +Nicomedes III. was assisted by the Romans in his wars with Mithridates, +and bequeathed to them at his death the kingdom of Bithynia, as a +testimonial of his gratitude to them; by which means these territories +became a Roman province. + + + +Kings of Pergamus + + +This kingdom at first comprehended only one of the smallest provinces of +Mysia, on the coast of the AEgean sea, over-against the island of Lesbos. + +(M41) It was founded by Philetaerus, an eunuch, who had served under +Docimus, a commander of the troops of Antigonus. Lysimachus confided to +him the treasures he had deposited in the castle of the city of Pergamus, +and he became master both of these and the city after the death of that +prince. He governed this little sovereignty for the space of twenty years, +and then left it to Eumenes his nephew. + +(M42) Eumenes I. enlarged his principality, by the addition of several +cities, which he took from the kings of Syria, having defeated Antiochus, +the son of Seleucus, in a battle. He reigned twenty-two years. + +(M43) He was succeeded by Attalus I., his cousin-german, who assumed the +title of king, after he had conquered the Galatians; and transmitted it to +his posterity, who enjoyed it to the third generation. He assisted the +Romans in their war with Philip, and died after a reign of forty-three +years. He left four sons. + +(M44) His successor was Eumenes II., his eldest son, who founded the +famous library of Pergamus. He reigned thirty-nine years, and left the +crown to his brother Attalus, in the quality of guardian to one of his +sons, whom he had by Stratonice, the sister of Ariarathes, king of +Cappadocia. The Romans enlarged his dominions considerably, after the +victory they obtained over Antiochus the Great. + +(M45) Attalus II. espoused Stratonice his brother's widow, and took +extraordinary care of his nephew, to whom he left the crown, after he had +worn it twenty-one years. + +(M46) Attalus III., surnamed Philometor, distinguished himself by his +barbarous and extravagant conduct. He died after he had reigned five +years, and bequeathed his riches and dominions to the Romans. + +(M47) Aristonicus, who claimed the succession, endeavoured to defend his +pretensions against the Romans; but the kingdom of Pergamus was reduced +after a war of four years, into a Roman province. + + + +Kings of Pontus. + + +(M48) The kingdom of Pontus in Asia Minor was anciently dismembered from +the monarchy of Persia, by Darius the son of Hystaspes, in favour of +Artabazus, who is said, by some historians, to have been the son of one of +those Persian lords who conspired against the Magi. + +Pontus is a region of Asia Minor, situated partly along the coast of the +Euxine sea (_Pontus Euxinus_), from which it derives its name. It extends +from the river Halys, as far as Colchis. Several princes reigned in that +country since Artabazus. + +(M49) The sixth monarch was Mithridates I., who is properly considered as +the founder of the kingdom of Pontus, and his name was assumed by the +generality of his successors. + +(M50) He was succeeded by his son Ariobarzanes, who had governed Phrygia +under Artaxerxes Mnemon: he reigned twenty-six years. + +(M51) His successor was Mithridates II. Antigonus suspecting, in +consequence of a dream, that he favoured Cassander, had determined to +destroy him, but he eluded the danger by flight. This prince was called +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, or _the Founder_, and reigned thirty-five years. + +(M52) Mithridates III., who succeeded him, added Cappadocia and +Paphlagonia to his dominions, and reigned thirty-six years. + +After the reigns of two other kings, Mithridates IV., the great +grandfather of Mithridates the Great, ascended the throne, and espoused a +daughter of Seleucus Callinicus, king of Syria, by whom he had Laodice, +who was married to Antiochus the Great. + +(M53) He was succeeded by his son Pharnaces, who had some disagreement +with the kings of Pergamus. He made himself master of Sinope, which +afterwards became the capital of the kingdom of Pontus. + +After him reigned Mithridates V., surnamed Euergetes, the first who was +called the friend of the Romans, because he had assisted them against the +Carthaginians in the third Punic war. + +(M54) He was succeeded by his son Mithridates VI., surnamed Eupator. This +is the great Mithridates who sustained so long a war with the Romans: he +reigned sixty-six years. + + + +Kings of Cappadocia. + + +Strabo informs us,(247) that Cappadocia was divided into two satrapies, or +governments, under the Persians, as it also was under the Macedonians. The +maritime part of Cappadocia formed the kingdom of Pontus: the other tracts +constituted Cappadocia properly so called, or Cappadocia Major, which +extended along mount Taurus, and to a great distance beyond it. + +(M55) When Alexander's captains divided the provinces of his empire among +themselves, Cappadocia was governed by a prince named Ariarathes. +Perdiccas attacked and defeated him, after which he caused him to be +slain. + +His son Ariarathes re-entered the kingdom of his father some time after +this event, and established himself so effectually, that he left it to his +posterity. + +The generality of his successors assumed the same name, and will have +their place in the series of the history. + +Cappadocia, after the death of Archelaus, the last of its kings, became a +province of the Roman empire, as the rest of Asia also did much about the +same time. + + + +Kings of Armenia. + + +Armenia, a vast country of Asia, extending on each side of the Euphrates, +was conquered by the Persians; after which it was transferred, with the +rest of the empire, to the Macedonians, and at last fell to the share of +the Romans. It was governed for a great length of time by its own kings, +the most considerable of whom was Tigranes, who espoused the daughter of +the great Mithridates king of Pontus, and was also engaged in a long war +with the Romans. This kingdom supported itself many years, between the +Roman and Parthian empires, sometimes depending on the one, and sometimes +on the other, till at last the Romans became its masters. + + + +Kings of Epirus. + + +Epirus is a province of Greece, separated from Thessaly and Macedonia by +mount Pindus. The most powerful people of this country were the +Molossians. + +The kings of Epirus pretended to derive their descent from Pyrrhus the son +of Achilles, who established himself in that country, and called +themselves AEacides, from AEacus the grandfather of Achilles. + +The genealogy of the latter kings, who were the only sovereigns of this +country of whom any accounts remain, is variously related by authors, and +consequently must be doubtful and obscure.(248) + +Arymbas ascended the throne, after a long succession of kings; and as he +was then very young, the states of Epirus, who were sensible that the +welfare of the people depends on the proper education of their princes, +sent him to Athens, which was the residence and centre of all the arts and +sciences, in order to cultivate, in that excellent school, such knowledge +as was necessary to form the mind of a king. He there learned the art of +reigning, and as he surpassed all his ancestors in ability and knowledge, +he was in consequence infinitely more esteemed and beloved by his people +than they had been.(249) When he returned from Athens, he made laws, +established a senate and magistracy, and regulated the form of the +government. + +Neoptolemus, whose daughter Olympias had espoused Philip king of Macedon, +attained an equal share in the regal government with Arymbas his elder +brother, by the influence of his son-in-law. After the death of Arymbas, +AEacides his son ought to have been his successor; but Philip had still +sufficient influence to procure his expulsion from the kingdom by the +Molossians, who established Alexander the son of Neoptolemus sole monarch +of Epirus. + +Alexander espoused Cleopatra the daughter of Philip, and marched with an +army into Italy, where he lost his life in the country of the Brutians. + +AEacides then ascended the throne, and reigned without any associate in +Epirus. He espoused Phthia, the daughter of Menon the Thessalian, by whom +he had two daughters, Deidamia and Troias, and one son, the celebrated +Pyrrhus. + +As he was marching to the assistance of Olympias, his troops mutinied +against him, condemned him to exile, and slaughtered most of his friends. +Pyrrhus, who was then an infant, happily escaped this massacre. + +Neoptolemus, a prince of the blood, but whose particular extraction is +little known, was placed on the throne by the people of Epirus. + +Pyrrhus, being recalled by his subjects at the age of twelve years, first +shared the sovereignty with Neoptolemus; but having afterwards divested +him of his dignity, he reigned alone. + +(M56) This history will treat of the various adventures of this prince. He +died in the city of Argos, in an attack to make himself master of it. + +Helenus his son reigned after him for some time in Epirus, which was +afterwards united to the Roman empire. + + + +Tyrants of Heraclea. + + +Heraclea is a city of Pontus, anciently founded by the Boeotians, who sent +a colony into that country by the order of an oracle. + +When the Athenians, having conquered the Persians, had imposed a tribute +on the cities of Greece and Asia Minor, for the fitting out and support of +a fleet intended for the defence of the common liberty, the inhabitants of +Heraclea, in consequence of their attachment to the Persians, were the +only people who refused to acquiesce in so just a contribution.(250) +Lamachus was therefore sent against them, and he ravaged their +territories; but a violent tempest having destroyed his whole fleet, he +beheld himself abandoned to the mercy of that people, whose innate +ferocity might naturally have been increased by the severe treatment they +had lately received. But they had recourse to no other vengeance than +kindness;(251) they furnished him with provisions and troops for his +return, and were willing to consider the depredations which had been +committed in their country as advantageous to them, if at that price they +could convert the enmity of the Athenians into friendship. + +(M57) Some time after this event, the populace of Heraclea excited a +violent commotion against the rich citizens and senators, who having +implored assistance to no effect, first from Timotheus the Athenian, and +afterwards from Epaminondas the Theban, were necessitated to recall +Clearchus, a senator, to their defence, whom themselves had banished; but +his exile had neither improved his morals nor rendered him a better +citizen than he was before. He therefore made the troubles, in which he +found the city involved, subservient to his design of subjecting it to his +own power. With this view he openly declared for the people, caused +himself to be invested with the highest office in the magistracy, and +assumed a sovereign authority in a short time. Being thus become a +professed tyrant, there were no kinds of violence to which he had not +recourse against the rich, and the senators, to satiate his avarice and +cruelty. He proposed for his model Dionysius the Tyrant, who had +established his power over the Syracusans at the same time. + +After a hard and inhuman servitude of twelve years, two young citizens, +who were Plato's disciples, and had been instructed in his maxims, formed +a conspiracy against Clearchus, and slew him; but, though they delivered +their country from the tyrant, the tyranny still subsisted. + +(M58) Timotheus, the son of Clearchus, assumed his place, and pursued his +conduct for the space of fifteen years.(252) + +(M59) He was succeeded by his brother Dionysius, who was in danger of +being dispossessed of his authority by Perdiccas; but as this last was +soon destroyed, Dionysius contracted a friendship with Antigonus, whom he +assisted against Ptolemy in the Cyprian war.(253) + +He espoused Amastris, the widow of Craterus, and daughter of Oxiathres, +the brother of Darius. This alliance inspired him with so much courage, +that he assumed the title of king, and enlarged his dominions by the +addition of several places, which he seized, on the confines of Heraclea. + +(M60) He died two or three years before the battle of Ipsus, after a reign +of thirty-three years, leaving two sons and a daughter under the tutelage +and regency of Amastris. + +This princess was rendered happy in her administration, by the affection +Antigonus entertained for her. She founded a city, and called it by her +own name; into which she transplanted the inhabitants of three other +cities, and espoused Lysimachus, after the death of Antigonus.(254) + + + +Kings of Syracuse. + + +(M61) Hiero, and his son Hieronymus, reigned at Syracuse; the first +fifty-four years, the second but one year. + +(M62) Syracuse recovered its liberty by the death of the last, but +continued in the interest of the Carthaginians, which Hieronymus had +caused it to espouse. (M63) His conduct obliged Marcellus to form the +siege of that city, which he took the following year. I shall enlarge upon +the history of these two kings in another place. + + + +Other Kings. + + +Several kings likewise reigned in the Cimmerian Bosphorus, as also in +Thrace, Cyrene in Africa, Paphlagonia, Colchis, Iberia, Albania, and a +variety of other places; but their history is very uncertain, and their +successions have but little regularity. + +These circumstances are very different with respect to the kingdom of the +Parthians, who formed themselves, as we shall see in the sequel, into such +a powerful monarchy, as became formidable even to the Roman empire. That +of the Bactrians received its original about the same period: I shall +treat of each in their proper places. + + + + +Catalogue of the Editions of the principal Greek Authors cited in this +Work. + + +HERODOTUS. Francof. An. 1608. + +THUCYDIDES. Apud Henricum Stephanum, An. 1588. + +XENOPHON. Lutetiae Parisiorum, apud Societatem Graecarum Editionum, An. +1625. + +POLYBIUS. Parisiis, An. 1609. + +DIODORUS SICULUS. Hanoviae, Typis Wechelianis, An 1604. + +PLUTARCHUS. Lutetiae Parisiorum, apud Societatem Graecanum Editionum, An. +1624. + +STRABO. Lutetiae Parisiorum, Typis regiis, An. 1620. + +ATHENAEUS. Lugdani, An. 1612. + +PAUSANIAS. Hanoviae, Typis Wechelianis, An. 1613. + +APPIANUS ALEXANDER. Apud Henric. Stephan. An. 1592. + +PLATO. Ex nova Joannis Serrani interpretatione. Apud Henricum Stephanum, +An. 1578. + +ARISTOTELES. Lutetiae Parisiorum, apud Societatem Graecarum Editionum, An. +1619. + +ISOCRATES. Apud Paulum Stephanum, An. 1604. + +DIOGENES LAERTIUS. Apud Henricum Stepnanum, An. 1594. + +DEMOSTHENES. Francof. An. 1604. + +ARRIANUS. Lugd. Batav. An. 1704. + + + + + +BOOK THE FIRST. THE ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIANS. + + + + +Part The First. Description of Egypt: with an Account of whatever is most +curious and remarkable in that Country. + + +Egypt comprehended anciently, within limits of no very great extent, a +prodigious number of cities,(255) and an incredible multitude of +inhabitants. + +It is bounded on the east by the Red-Sea and the Isthmus of Suez; on the +south by Ethiopia, on the west by Libya, and on the north by the +Mediterranean. The Nile runs from south to north, through the whole +country, about two hundred leagues in length. This country is enclosed on +each side with a ridge of mountains, which very often leave, between the +foot of the hills and the river Nile, a tract of ground, of not above half +a day's journey in length,(256) and sometimes less. + +On the west side, the plain grows wider in some places, and extends to +twenty-five or thirty leagues. The greatest breadth of Egypt is from +Alexandria to Damietta, being about fifty leagues. + +Ancient Egypt may be divided into three principal parts: Upper Egypt, +otherwise called Thebais, which was the most southern part; Middle Egypt, +or Heptanomis, so called from the seven Nomi or districts it contained; +Lower Egypt, which included what the Greeks call Delta, and all the +country as far as the Red-Sea, and along the Mediterranean to Rhinocolura, +or Mount Casius. Under Sesostris, all Egypt became one kingdom, and was +divided into thirty-six governments, or Nomi; ten in Thebais, ten in +Delta, and sixteen in the country between both.(257) + +The cities of Syene and Elephantina divided Egypt from Ethiopia; and in +the days of Augustus were the boundaries of the Roman empire: _Claustra +olim Romani Imperii_, Tacit. _Annal._ Lib. ii. cap. 61. + + + +Chapter I. Thebais. + + +Thebes, from whence Thebais had its name, might vie with the noblest +cities in the universe. Its hundred gates, celebrated by Homer,(258) are +universally known; and acquired it the surname of Hecatompylos, to +distinguish it from the other Thebes in Boeotia. Its population was +proportionate to its extent; and, according to History, it could send out +at once two hundred chariots, and ten thousand fighting men at each of its +gates.(259) The Greeks and Romans have celebrated its magnificence and +grandeur, though they saw it only in its ruins; so august were the remains +of this city.(260) + +In the Thebaid, now called Said, have been discovered temples and palaces +which are still almost entire, adorned with innumerable columns and +statues.(261) One palace especially is admired, the remains whereof seem +to have existed purely to eclipse the glory of the most pompous edifices. +Four walks extending farther than the eye can see, and bounded on each +side with sphinxes, composed of materials as rare and extraordinary as +their size is remarkable, serve as avenues to four porticos, whose height +is amazing to behold. And even they who have given us the description of +this wonderful edifice, had not time to go round it; and are not sure that +they saw above half: however, what they had a sight of was astonishing. A +hall, which, in all appearance, stood in the middle of this stately +palace, was supported by a hundred-and-twenty pillars, six fathoms round, +of a proportionable height, and intermixed with obelisks, which so many +ages have not been able to demolish. Painting had displayed all her art +and magnificence in this edifice. The colours themselves, which soonest +feel the injury of time, still remain amidst the ruins of this wonderful +structure, and preserve their beauty and lustre; so happily could the +Egyptians imprint a character of immortality on all their works. Strabo, +who was on the spot, describes a temple he saw in Egypt, very much +resembling that of which I have been speaking.(262) + +The same author, describing the curiosities of Thebais,(263) speaks of a +very famous statue of Memnon, the remains whereof he had seen. It is said +that this statue, when the beams of the rising sun first shone upon it in +the morning, uttered an articulate sound.(264) And, indeed, Strabo himself +was an ear-witness of this; but then he doubts whether the sound came from +the statue. + + + +Chapter II. Middle Egypt, or Heptanomis. + + +Memphis was the capital of this part of Egypt. In this city were to be +seen many stately temples, among them that of the god Apis, who was +honoured here after a peculiar manner. I shall speak of it hereafter, as +well as of the pyramids which stood in the neighbourhood of this place, +and rendered it so famous. Memphis was situated on the west side of the +Nile. + +Grand Cairo, which seems to have succeeded Memphis, is built on the other +side of that river.(265) The castle of Cairo is one of the greatest +curiosities in Egypt. It stands on a hill without the city, has a rock for +its foundation, and is surrounded with walls of a vast height and +solidity. You go up to the castle by a way hewn out of the rock, and which +is so easy of ascent, that loaded horses and camels get up without +difficulty. The greatest rarity in this castle is Joseph's well, so +called, either because the Egyptians are pleased with ascribing what is +most remarkable among them to that great man, or because such a tradition +has been preserved in the country. This is a proof, at least, that the +work in question is very ancient; and it is certainly worthy the +magnificence of the most powerful kings of Egypt. This well has, as it +were, two stories, cut out of the solid rock to a prodigious depth. The +descent to the reservoir of water, between the two wells, is by a +staircase seven or eight feet broad, consisting of two hundred and twenty +steps, and so contrived, that the oxen employed to throw up the water, go +down with all imaginable ease, the descent being scarcely perceptible. The +well is supplied from a spring, which is almost the only one in the whole +country. The oxen are continually turning a wheel with a rope, to which a +number of buckets are fastened. The water thus drawn from the first and +lower-most well, is conveyed by a little canal into a reservoir, which +forms the second well; from whence it is drawn to the top in the same +manner, and then conveyed by pipes to all parts of the castle. As this +well is supposed by the inhabitants of the country to be of great +antiquity, and has, indeed, much of the antique manner of the Egyptians, I +thought it might deserve a place among the curiosities of ancient Egypt. + +Strabo speaks of a similar engine, which, by wheels and pulleys, threw up +the water of the Nile to the top of a very high hill; with this +difference, that, instead of oxen, a hundred and fifty slaves were +employed to turn these wheels.(266) + +The part of Egypt of which we now speak, is famous for several rarities, +each of which deserves a particular examination. I shall mention only the +principal, such as the obelisks, the pyramids, the labyrinth, the lake of +Moeris, and the Nile. + +SECT. I. THE OBELISKS.--Egypt seemed to place its chief glory in raising +monuments for posterity. Its obelisks form at this day, on account of +their beauty as well as height, the principal ornament of Rome; and the +Roman power, despairing to equal the Egyptians, thought it honour enough +to borrow the monuments of their kings. + +An obelisk is a quadrangular, taper, high spire or pyramid, raised +perpendicularly, and terminating in a point, to serve as an ornament to +some open square; and is very often covered with inscriptions or +hieroglyphics, that is, with mystical characters or symbols used by the +Egyptians to conceal and disguise their sacred things, and the mysteries +of their theology. + +Sesostris erected in the city of Heliopolis two obelisks of extreme hard +stone, brought from the quarries of Syene, at the extremity of Egypt.(267) +They were each one hundred-and-twenty cubits high, that is, thirty +fathoms, or one hundred and eighty feet.(268) The emperor Augustus, having +made Egypt a province of the empire, caused these two obelisks to be +transported to Rome, one whereof was afterwards broken to pieces. He dared +not venture to make the same attempt upon a third, which was of a +monstrous size.(269) It was made in the reign of Rameses: it is said that +twenty thousand men were employed in the cutting of it. Constantius, more +daring than Augustus, caused it to be removed to Rome. Two of these +obelisks are still to be seen there, as well as another a hundred cubits, +or twenty-five fathoms high, and eight cubits, or two fathoms, in +diameter. Caius Caesar had it brought from Egypt in a ship of so odd a +form, that, according to Pliny, the like had never been seen.(270) + +Every part of Egypt abounded with this kind of obelisks; they were for the +most part cut in the quarries of Upper Egypt, where some are now to be +seen half finished. But the most wonderful circumstance is, that the +ancient Egyptians should have had the art and contrivance to dig even in +the very quarry a canal, through which the water of the Nile ran in the +time of its inundation; from whence they afterwards raised up the columns, +obelisks, and statues on rafts,(271) proportioned to their weight, in +order to convey them into Lower Egypt. And as the country was intersected +every where with canals, there were few places to which those huge bodies +might not be carried with ease; although their weight would have broken +every other kind of engine. + +SECT. II. THE PYRAMIDS.--A PYRAMID is a solid or hollow body, having a +large, and generally a square base, and terminating in a point.(272) + +There were three pyramids in Egypt more famous than the rest, one whereof +was justly ranked among the seven wonders of the world; they stood not +very far from the city of Memphis. I shall take notice here only of the +largest of the three. This pyramid, like the rest, was built on a rock, +having a square base, cut on the outside as so many steps, and decreasing +gradually quite to the summit. It was built with stones of a prodigious +size, the least of which were thirty feet, wrought with wonderful art, and +covered with hieroglyphics. According to several ancient authors, each +side was eight hundred feet broad, and as many high. The summit of the +pyramid, which to those who viewed it from below seemed a point, was a +fine platform, composed of ten or twelve massy stones, and each side of +that platform sixteen or eighteen feet long. + +M. de Chazelles, of the Academy of Sciences, who went purposely to the +spot in 1693, gives us the following dimensions: + +The side of the square base 110 fathoms; the fronts are equilateral +triangles, and therefore the superficies of the base is 12100 square +fathoms; the perpendicular height, 77-3/4 fathoms; the solid contents, +313590 cubical fathoms. A hundred thousand men were constantly employed +about this work, and were relieved every three months by the same number. +Ten complete years were spent in hewing out the stones, either in Arabia +or Ethiopia, and in conveying them to Egypt; and twenty years more in +building this immense edifice, the inside of which contained numberless +rooms and apartments. There were expressed on the pyramid, in Egyptian +characters, the sums it cost only for garlic, leeks, onions, and other +vegetables of this description, for the workmen; and the whole amounted to +sixteen hundred talents of silver,(273) that is, four millions five +hundred thousand French livres; from whence it was easy to conjecture what +a vast sum the whole expense must have amounted to. + +Such were the famous Egyptian pyramids, which by their figure, as well as +size, have triumphed over the injuries of time and the Barbarians. But +what efforts soever men may make, their nothingness will always appear. +These pyramids were tombs; and there is still to be seen, in the middle of +the largest, an empty sepulchre, cut out of one entire stone, about three +feet deep and broad, and a little above six feet long.(274) Thus all this +bustle, all this expense, and all the labours of so many thousand men for +so many years, ended in procuring for a prince, in this vast and almost +boundless pile of building, a little vault six feet in length. Besides, +the kings who built these pyramids, had it not in their power to be buried +in them; and so did not enjoy the sepulchre they had built. The public +hatred which they incurred, by reason of their unheard-of cruelties to +their subjects, in laying such heavy tasks upon them, occasioned their +being interred in some obscure place, to prevent their bodies from being +exposed to the fury and vengeance of the populace. + +This last circumstance, which historians have taken particular notice of, +teaches us what judgment we ought to pass on these edifices, so much +boasted of by the ancients.(275) It is but just to remark and esteem the +noble genius which the Egyptians had for architecture; a genius that +prompted them from the earliest times, and before they could have any +models to imitate, to aim in all things at the grand and magnificent; and +to be intent on real beauties, without deviating in the least from a noble +simplicity, in which the highest perfection of the art consists. But what +idea ought we to form of those princes, who considered as something grand, +the raising by a multitude of hands, and by the help of money, immense +structures, with the sole view of rendering their names immortal; and who +did not scruple to destroy thousands of their subjects to satisfy their +vain glory! They differed very much from the Romans, who sought to +immortalize themselves by works of a magnificent kind, but, at the same +time, of public utility. + +Pliny gives us, in few words,(276) a just idea of these pyramids, when he +calls them a foolish and useless ostentation of the wealth of the Egyptian +kings; _Regum pecuniae otiosa ac stulta ostentatio._ And adds, that by a +just punishment their memory is buried in oblivion; the historians not +agreeing among themselves about the names of those who first raised those +vain monuments: _Inter eos non constat a quibus factae sint, justissimo +casu obliteratis tantae vanitatis auctoribus._ In a word, according to the +judicious remark of Diodorus, the industry of the architects of those +pyramids is no less valuable and praiseworthy, than the design of the +Egyptian kings is contemptible and ridiculous. + +But what we should most admire in these ancient monuments, is, the true +and standing evidence they give of the skill of the Egyptians in +astronomy; that is, in a science which seems incapable of being brought to +perfection, but by a long series of years, and a great number of +observations. M. de Chazelles, when he measured the great pyramid in +question, found that the four sides of it were turned exactly to the four +quarters of the world; and, consequently, showed the true meridian of that +place. Now, as so exact a situation was, in all probability, purposely +pitched upon by those who piled up this huge mass of stones, above three +thousand years ago, it follows, that during so long a space of time, there +has been no alteration in the heavens in that respect, or (which amounts +to the same thing) in the poles of the earth or the meridians. This is M. +de Fontenelle's remark in his eulogium of M. de Chazelles. + +SECT. III. THE LABYRINTH.--What has been said concerning the judgment we +ought to form of the pyramids, may also be applied to the labyrinth, which +Herodotus, who saw it, assures us, was still more surprising than the +pyramids.(277) It was built at the southern extremity of the lake of +Moeris, whereof mention will be made presently, near the town of +Crocodiles, the same with Arsinoe. It was not so much one single palace, +as a magnificent pile composed of twelve palaces, regularly disposed, +which had a communication with each other. Fifteen hundred rooms, +interspersed with terraces, were ranged round twelve halls, and discovered +no outlet to such as went to see them. There was the like number of +buildings under ground. These subterraneous structures were designed for +the burying-place of the kings, and also (who can speak this without +confusion, and without deploring the blindness of man!) for keeping the +sacred crocodiles, which a nation, so wise in other respects, worshipped +as gods. + +In order to visit the rooms and halls of the labyrinth, it was necessary, +as the reader will naturally suppose, for people to take the same +precaution as Ariadne made Theseus use, when he was obliged to go and +fight the Minotaur in the labyrinth of Crete. Virgil describes it in this +manner:-- + + + Ut quondam Creta fertur labyrinthus in alta + Parietibus textum caecis iter ancipitemque + Mille viis habuisse dolum, qua signa sequendi + Falleret indeprensus et irremeabilis error.(278) + Hic labor ille domus, et inextricabilis error. + Daedalus, ipse dolos tecti ambagesque resolvit, + Caeca regens filo vestigia.(279) + + And as the Cretan labyrinth of old, + With wand'ring ways, and many a winding fold, + Involv'd the weary feet without redress, + In a round error, which deny'd recess: + Not far from thence he grav'd the wond'rous maze; + A thousand doors, a thousand winding ways + + +SECT. IV. THE LAKE OF MOERIS.--The noblest and most wonderful of all the +structures or works of the kings of Egypt, was the lake of Moeris: +accordingly, Herodotus considers it as vastly superior to the pyramids and +labyrinth.(280) As Egypt was more or less fruitful in proportion to the +inundations of the Nile; and as in these floods, the too great or too +little rise of the waters was equally fatal to the lands, king Moeris, to +prevent these two inconveniences, and to correct, as far as lay in his +power, the irregularities of the Nile, thought proper to call art to the +assistance of nature; and so caused the lake to be dug, which afterwards +went by his name. This lake was in circumference about three thousand six +hundred stadia, that is, about one hundred and eighty French leagues, and +three hundred feet deep.(281) Two pyramids, on each of which was placed a +colossal statue, seated on a throne, raised their heads to the height of +three hundred feet, in the midst of the lake, whilst their foundations +took up the same space under the water; a proof that they were erected +before the cavity was filled, and a demonstration that a lake of such vast +extent was the work of man's hands, in one prince's reign. This is what +several historians have related concerning the lake Moeris, on the +testimony of the inhabitants of the country. And M. Bossuet, the bishop of +Meaux, in his discourse on universal history, relates the whole as fact. +For my part, I will confess that I do not see the least probability in it. +Is it possible to conceive, that a lake of a hundred and eighty leagues in +circumference, could have been dug in the reign of one prince? In what +manner, and where, could the earth taken from it be conveyed? What should +prompt the Egyptians to lose the surface of so much land? By what arts +could they fill this vast tract with the superfluous waters of the Nile? +Many other objections might be made. In my opinion, therefore, we ought to +follow Pomponius Mela, an ancient geographer; especially as his account is +confirmed by several modern travellers. According to that author, this +lake is but twenty thousand paces; that is, seven or eight French leagues +in circumference. _Moeris, aliquando campus, nunc lacus, viginti millia +passuum in circuitu patens._(282) + +This lake had a communication with the Nile, by a great canal, more than +four leagues long,(283) and fifty feet broad. Great sluices either opened +or shut the canal and lake, as there was occasion. + +The charge of opening or shutting them amounted to fifty talents, that is, +fifty thousand French crowns.(284) The fishing of this lake brought the +monarch immense sums; but its chief utility related to the overflowing of +the Nile. When it rose too high, and was like to be attended with fatal +consequences, the sluices were opened; and the waters, having a free +passage into the lake, covered the lands no longer than was necessary to +enrich them. On the contrary, when the inundation was too low, and +threatened a famine, a sufficient quantity of water, by the help of +drains, was let out of the lake, to water the lands. In this manner the +irregularities of the Nile were corrected; and Strabo remarks, that, in +his time, under Petronius, a governor of Egypt, when the inundation of the +Nile was twelve cubits, a very great plenty ensued; and even when it rose +but to eight cubits, the dearth was scarce felt in the country; doubtless +because the waters of the lake made up for those of the inundation, by the +help of canals and drains. + +SECT. V. THE INUNDATIONS OF THE NILE.--The Nile is the greatest wonder of +Egypt. As it seldom rains there, this river, which waters the whole +country by its regular inundations, supplies that defect, by bringing, as +a yearly tribute, the rains of other countries; which made a poet say +ingeniously, "the Egyptian pastures, how great soever the drought may be, +never implore Jupiter for rain:" + + + Te propter nullos tellus tua postulat imbres, + Arida nec pluvio supplicat herba Jovi.(285) + + +To multiply so beneficent a river, Egypt was cut into numberless canals, +of a length and breadth proportioned to the different situations and wants +of the lands. The Nile brought fertility every where with its salutary +streams; united cities one with another, and the Mediterranean with the +Red-Sea; maintained trade at home and abroad, and fortified the kingdom +against the enemy; so that it was at once the nourisher and protector of +Egypt. + +The fields were delivered up to it; but the cities that were raised with +immense labour, and stood like islands in the midst of the waters, looked +down with joy on the plains which were overflowed, and at the same time +enriched, by the Nile. + +This is a general idea of the nature and effects of this river, so famous +among the ancients. But a wonder so astonishing in itself, and which has +been the object of the curiosity and admiration of the learned in all +ages, seems to require a more particular description, in which I shall be +as concise as possible. + +1. _The Sources of the Nile._--The ancients placed the sources of the Nile +in the mountains of the moon (as they are commonly called), in the 10th +degree of south latitude. But our modern travellers have discovered that +they lie in the 12th degree of north latitude; and by that means they cut +off about four or five hundred leagues of the course which the ancients +gave that river. It rises at the foot of a great mountain in the kingdom +of Gojam in Abyssinia, from two springs, or eyes, to speak in the language +of the country, the same word in Arabic signifying eye and fountain. These +springs are thirty paces from one another, each as large as one of our +wells or a coach-wheel. The Nile is increased with many rivulets which run +into it; and after passing through Ethiopia in a very winding course, +flows at last into Egypt. + +2. _The Cataracts of the Nile._--This name is given to some parts of the +Nile, where the water falls down from the steep rocks.(286) This river, +which at first glided smoothly along the vast deserts of Ethiopia, before +it enters Egypt, passes by the cataracts. Then growing on a sudden, +contrary to its nature, raging and violent in those places where it is +pent up and restrained; after having, at last, broken through all +obstacles in its way, it precipitates itself from the top of some rocks to +the bottom, with so loud a noise, that it is heard three leagues off. + +The inhabitants of the country, accustomed by long practice to this sport, +exhibit here a spectacle to travellers that is more terrifying than +diverting. Two of them go into a little boat; the one to guide it, the +other to throw out the water. After having long sustained the violence of +the raging waves, by managing their little boat very dexterously, they +suffer themselves to be carried away with the impetuous torrent as swift +as an arrow. The affrighted spectator imagines they are going to be +swallowed up in the precipice down which they fall; when the Nile, +restored to its natural course, discovers them again, at a considerable +distance, on its smooth and calm waters. This is Seneca's account, which +is confirmed by our modern travellers. + +3. _Causes of the Inundations of the Nile._--The ancients have invented +many subtle reasons for the Nile's great increase, as may be seen in +Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, and Seneca.(287) But it is now no longer a +matter of dispute, it being almost universally allowed, that the +inundations of the Nile are owing to the great rains which fall in +Ethiopia, from whence this river flows. These rains swell it to such a +degree, that Ethiopia first, and then Egypt, are overflowed; and that +which at first was but a large river, rises like a sea, and overspreads +the whole country. + +Strabo observes,(288) that the ancients only guessed that the inundations +of the Nile were owing to the rains which fall in great abundance in +Ethiopia; but adds, that several travellers have since been eye-witnesses +of it; Ptolemy Philadelphus, who was very curious in all things relating +to arts and sciences, having sent thither able persons, purposely to +examine this matter, and to ascertain the cause of so uncommon and +remarkable an effect. + +4. _The Time and Continuance of the Inundations._--Herodotus, and after him +Diodorus Siculus, and several other authors, declare, that the Nile begins +to swell in Egypt at the summer solstice, that is, about the end of June, +and continues to rise till the end of September; and then decreases +gradually during the months of October and November; after which it +returns to its channel, and resumes its wonted course.(289) This account +agrees very nearly with the relations of all the moderns, and is founded +in reality on the natural cause of the inundation, _viz._ the rains which +fall in Ethiopia. Now, according to the constant testimony of those who +have been on the spot, these rains begin to fall in the month of April, +and continue, during five months, till the end of August and beginning of +September. The Nile's increase in Egypt must, consequently, begin three +weeks or a month after the rains have begun to fall in Abyssinia; and +accordingly travellers observe, that the Nile begins to rise in the month +of May, but so slowly at the first, that it probably does not yet overflow +its banks. The inundation happens not till about the end of June, and +lasts the three following months, according to Herodotus. + +I must point out to such as consult the originals, a contradiction in this +place between Herodotus and Diodorus on one side; and between Strabo, +Pliny, and Solinus, on the other. These last shorten very much the +continuance of the inundation; and suppose the Nile to draw off from the +lands in three months or a hundred days. And what adds to the difficulty, +is, that Pliny seems to ground his opinion on the testimony of Herodotus: +_In totum autem revocatur Nilus intra ripas in Libra, ut tradit Herodotus, +centesimo die._ I leave to the learned the reconciling of this +contradiction. + +5. _The Height of the Inundations._--The just height of the inundation, +according to Pliny, is sixteen cubits.(290) When it rises but to twelve or +thirteen, a famine is threatened; and when it exceeds sixteen, there is +danger. It must be remembered, that a cubit is a foot and a half. The +emperor Julian takes notice, in a letter to Ecdicius, prefect of +Egypt,(291) that the height of the Nile's overflowing was fifteen cubits, +the 20th of September, in 362. The ancients do not agree entirely with one +another, nor with the moderns, with regard to the height of the +inundation; but the difference is not very considerable, and may proceed, +1. from the disparity between the ancient and modern measures, which it is +hard to estimate on a fixed and certain foot; 2. from the carelessness of +the observers and historians; 3. from the real difference of the Nile's +increase, which was not so great the nearer it approached the sea. + +As the riches of Egypt depended on the inundation of the Nile, all the +circumstances and different degrees of its increase had been carefully +considered; and by a long series of regular observations, made during many +years, the inundation itself discovered what kind of harvest the ensuing +year was likely to produce.(292) The kings had placed at Memphis a measure +on which these different increases were marked; and from thence notice was +given to all the rest of Egypt, the inhabitants of which knew, by that +means, beforehand, what they might fear or promise themselves from the +harvest. Strabo speaks of a well on the banks of the Nile near the town of +Syene, made for that purpose.(293) + +The same custom is observed to this day at Grand Cairo. In the court of a +mosque there stands a pillar, on which are marked the degrees of the +Nile's increase; and common criers every day proclaim, in all parts of the +city, how high it is risen. The tribute paid to the Grand Signior for the +lands, is regulated by the inundation. The day on which it rises to a +certain height, is kept as a grand festival, and solemnized with +fire-works, feastings, and all the demonstrations of public rejoicing; and +in the remotest ages, the overflowing of the Nile was always attended with +an universal joy throughout all Egypt, that being the fountain of its +happiness. + +The heathens ascribed the inundation of the Nile to their god Serapis; and +the pillar on which was marked the increase, was preserved religiously in +the temple of that idol.(294) The emperor Constantine having ordered it to +be removed into the church of Alexandria, the Egyptians spread a report, +that the Nile would rise no more by reason of the wrath of Serapis; but +the river overflowed and increased as usual the following years. Julian +the apostate, a zealous protector of idolatry, caused this pillar to be +replaced in the same temple, out of which it was again removed by the +command of Theodosius. + +6. _The Canals of the Nile and Spiral Pumps._--Divine Providence, in giving +so beneficent a river to Egypt, did not thereby intend that the +inhabitants of it should be idle, and enjoy so great a blessing without +taking any pains. One may naturally suppose, that as the Nile could not of +itself cover the whole country, great labour was to be used to facilitate +the overflowing of the lands; and numberless canals cut, in order to +convey the waters to all parts. The villages, which stand very thick on +the banks of the Nile on eminences, have each their canals, which are +opened at proper times, to let the water into the country. The more +distant villages have theirs also, even to the extremities of the kingdom. +Thus the waters are successively conveyed to the most remote places. +Persons are not permitted to cut the trenches to receive the waters, till +the river is at a certain height; nor to open them all at once; because +otherwise some lands would be too much overflowed, and others not covered +enough. They begin with opening them in Upper, and afterwards in Lower +Egypt, according to the rules prescribed in a roll or book, in which all +the measures are exactly set down. By this means the water is husbanded +with such care, that it spreads itself over all the lands. The countries +overflowed by the Nile are so extensive, and lie so low, and the number of +canals so great, that of all the waters which flow into Egypt during the +months of June, July, and August, it is believed that not a tenth part of +them reaches the sea. + +But as, notwithstanding all these canals, there are still abundance of +high lands which cannot receive the benefit of the Nile's overflowing; +this want is supplied by spiral pumps, which are turned by oxen, in order +to bring the water into pipes, which convey it to these lands. Diodorus +speaks of a similar engine invented by Archimedes in his travels into +Egypt, which is called _Cochlea AEgyptia_.(295) + +7. _The Fertility caused by the Nile._--There is no country in the world +where the soil is more fruitful than in Egypt; which is owing entirely to +the Nile. For whereas other rivers, when they overflow lands, wash away +and exhaust their vivific moisture; the Nile, on the contrary, by the +excellent slime it brings along with it, fattens and enriches them in such +a manner, as sufficiently compensates for what the foregoing harvest had +impaired.(296) The husbandman, in this country, never tires himself with +holding the plough, or breaking the clods of earth. As soon as the Nile +retires, he has nothing to do but to turn up the earth, and temper it with +a little sand, in order to lessen its rankness; after which he sows it +with great ease, and with little or no expense. Two months after, it is +covered with all sorts of corn and pulse. The Egyptians generally sow in +October and November, according as the waters draw off; and their harvest +is in March and April. + +The same land bears, in one year, three or four different kinds of crops. +Lettuces and cucumbers are sown first; then corn; and, after harvest, +several sorts of pulse which are peculiar to Egypt. As the sun is +extremely hot in this country, and rains fall very seldom in it, it is +natural to suppose that the earth would soon be parched, and the corn and +pulse burnt up by so scorching a heat, were it not for the canals and +reservoirs with which Egypt abounds; and which, by the drains from thence, +amply supply wherewith to water and refresh the fields and gardens. + +The Nile contributes no less to the nourishment of cattle, which is +another source of wealth to Egypt. The Egyptians begin to turn them out to +grass in November, and they graze till the end of March. Words could never +express how rich their pastures are; and how fat the flocks and herds +(which, by reason of the mildness of the air, are out night and day) grow +in a very little time. During the inundation of the Nile, they are fed +with hay and cut straw, barley and beans, which are their common food. + +A man cannot, says Corneille de Bruyn in his Travels,(297) help observing +the admirable providence of God towards this country, who sends at a fixed +season such great quantities of rain in Ethiopia, in order to water Egypt, +where a shower of rain scarce ever falls; and who, by that means, causes +the driest and most sandy soil to become the richest and most fruitful +country in the universe. + +Another thing to be observed here is, that (as the inhabitants say) in the +beginning of June, and the four following months, the north-east winds +blow constantly, in order to keep back the waters, which otherwise would +draw off too fast; and to hinder them from discharging themselves into the +sea, the entrance to which these winds bar up, as it were, from them. The +ancients have not omitted this circumstance. + +The same Providence, whose ways are wonderful and infinitely various, +displayed itself after a quite different manner in Palestine, in rendering +it exceeding fruitful;(298) not by rains, which fall during the course of +the year, as is usual in other places; nor by a peculiar inundation like +that of the Nile in Egypt; but by sending fixed rains at two seasons, when +his people were obedient to him, to make them more sensible of their +continual dependence upon him. God himself commands them, by his servant +Moses, to make this reflection: "The land whither thou goest in to possess +it, is not as the land of Egypt, from whence ye came out, where thou +sowedst thy seed, and wateredst it with thy foot, as a garden of herbs: +but the land whither ye go to possess it, is a land of hills and valleys, +and drinketh water of the rain of heaven."(299) After this, God promises +to give his people, so long as they shall continue obedient to him, "the +former" and "the latter rain:" the first in autumn, to bring up the corn; +and the second in the spring and summer, to make it grow and ripen. + +8. _The different Prospects exhibited by the Nile._--There cannot be a +finer sight than Egypt at two seasons of the year. For if a man ascends +some mountain, or one of the largest pyramids of Grand Cairo, in the +months of July and August, he beholds a vast sea, in which numberless +towns and villages appear, with several causeys leading from place to +place; the whole interspersed with groves and fruit trees, whose tops only +are visible; all which forms a delightful prospect.(300) This view is +bounded by mountains and woods, which terminate, at the utmost distance +the eye can discover, the most beautiful horizon that can be imagined. On +the contrary, in winter, that is to say, in the months of January and +February, the whole country is like one continued scene of beautiful +meadows, whose verdure, enamelled with flowers, charms the eye. The +spectator beholds, on every side, flocks and herds dispersed over all the +plains, with infinite numbers of husbandmen and gardeners. The air is then +perfumed by the great quantity of blossoms on the orange, lemon, and other +trees; and is so pure, that a wholesomer or more agreeable is not found in +the world; so that nature, being then dead, as it were, in all other +climates, seems to be alive only for so delightful an abode. + +9. _The Canal formed by the Nile, by which a communication in made between +the two Seas._--The canal, by which a communication was made between the +Red-Sea and the Mediterranean, ought to have a place here, as it was not +one of the least advantages which the Nile procured to Egypt.(301) +Sesostris, or, according to others, Psammetichus, first projected the +design, and began this work. Necho, successor to the last prince, laid out +immense sums upon it, and employed a prodigious number of men. It is said, +that above six score thousand Egyptians perished in the undertaking. He +gave it over, terrified by an oracle, which told him that he would thereby +open a door for Barbarians (for by this name they called all foreigners) +to enter Egypt. The work was continued by Darius, the first of that name; +but he also desisted from it, upon his being told, that as the Red-Sea lay +higher than Egypt, it would drown the whole country. But it was at last +finished under the Ptolemies, who, by the help of sluices, opened or shut +the canal as there was occasion. It began not far from the Delta, near the +town of Bubastus. It was a hundred cubits, that is, twenty-five fathoms +broad, so that two vessels might pass with ease; it had depth enough to +carry the largest ships; and was about a thousand stadia, that is, above +fifty leagues long. This canal was of great service to the trade of Egypt. +But it is now almost filled up, and there are scarce any remains of it to +be seen. + + + +Chapter III. Lower Egypt. + + +I am now to speak of Lower Egypt. Its shape, which resembles a triangle, +or Delta, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}, gave occasion to its bearing the latter name, which is that +of one of the Greek letters. Lower Egypt forms a kind of island; it begins +at a place where the Nile is divided into two large canals, through which +it empties itself into the Mediterranean: the mouth on the right hand is +called the Pelusian, and the other the Canopic, from two cities in their +neighbourhood, Pelusium and Canopus, now called Damietta and Rosetta. +Between these two large branches, there are five others of less note. This +island is the best cultivated, the most fruitful, and the richest part of +Egypt. Its chief cities (very anciently) were Heliopolis, Heracleopolis, +Naucratis, Sais, Tanis, Canopus, Pelusium; and, in latter times, +Alexandria, Nicopolis, &c. It was in the country of Tanis that the +Israelites dwelt. + +There was at Sais,(302) a temple dedicated to Minerva, who is supposed to +be the same as Isis, with the following inscription: "I am whatever hath +been, and is, and shall be; and no mortal hath yet pierced through the +veil that shrouds me." + +Heliopolis, that is, the city of the sun, was so called from a magnificent +temple there dedicated to that planet.(303) Herodotus, and other authors +after him, relate some particulars concerning the Phoenix and this temple, +which, if true, would indeed be very wonderful. Of this kind of birds, if +we may believe the ancients, there is never but one at a time in the +world. He is brought forth in Arabia, lives five or six hundred years, and +is of the size of an eagle. His head is adorned with a shining and most +beautiful crest; the feathers of his neck are of a gold colour, and the +rest of a purple; his tail is white, intermixed with red, and his eyes +sparkling like stars. When he is old, and finds his end approaching, he +builds a nest with wood and aromatic spices, and then dies. Of his bones +and marrow, a worm is produced, out of which another Phoenix is formed. His +first care is to solemnize his parent's obsequies, for which purpose he +makes up a ball in the shape of an egg, with abundance of perfumes of +myrrh, as heavy as he can carry, which he often essays beforehand; then he +makes a hole in it, where he deposits his parent's body, and closes it +carefully with myrrh and other perfumes. After this he takes up the +precious load on his shoulders, and flying to the altar of the sun, in the +city of Heliopolis, he there burns it. + +Herodotus and Tacitus dispute the truth of some of the circumstances of +this account, but seem to suppose it true in general. Pliny, on the +contrary, in the very beginning of his account of it, insinuates plainly +enough, that he looks upon the whole as fabulous; and this is the opinion +of all modern authors. + +This ancient tradition, though grounded on an evident falsehood, hath yet +introduced into almost all languages, the custom of giving the name of +phoenix to whatever is singular and uncommon in its kind: _Rara avis in +terris_, says Juvenal,(304) speaking of the difficulty of finding an +accomplished woman in all respects. And Seneca observes the same of a good +man.(305) + +What is reported of swans, _viz._ that they never sing but in their +expiring moments, and that then they warble very melodiously, is likewise +grounded merely on a vulgar error; and yet it is used, not only by the +poets, but also by the orators, and even the philosophers. _O mutis quoque +piscibus donatura cycni, si libeat, sonum_,(306) says Horace to Melpomene. +Cicero compares the excellent discourse which Crassus made in the Senate, +a few days before his death, to the melodious singing of a dying swan: +_Illa tanquam cycnea fuit divini hominis vox et oratio._ _De Orat._ l. +iii. n. 6. And Socrates used to say, that good men ought to imitate swans, +who, perceiving by a secret instinct, and a sort of divination, what +advantage there is in death, die singing and with joy: _Providentes quid +in morte boni sit, cum cantu et voluptate moriuntur._ _Tusc. Qu._ l. i. n. +73. I thought this short digression might be of service to youth; and +return now to my subject. + +It was in Heliopolis, that an ox, under the name of Mnevis, was worshipped +as a god.(307) Cambyses, king of Persia, exercised his sacrilegious rage +on this city; burning the temples, demolishing the palaces, and destroying +the most precious monuments of antiquity in it. There are still to be seen +some obelisks which escaped his fury; and others were brought from thence +to Rome, to which city they are an ornament even at this day. + +Alexandria, built by Alexander the Great, from whom it had its name, vied +almost in magnificence with the ancient cities in Egypt. It stands four +days' journey from Cairo, and was formerly the chief mart of all the trade +of the East. The merchandises were unloaded at Portus Murius,(308) a town +on the western coast of the Red-Sea;(309) from whence they were brought +upon camels to a town of Thebais, called Copht, and afterwards conveyed +down the Nile to Alexandria, whither merchants resorted from all parts. + +It is well known that the trade of the East hath, at all times, enriched +those who carried it on. This was the chief source of the vast treasures +that Solomon amassed, and which enabled him to build the magnificent +temple of Jerusalem. David, by conquering Idumaea, became master of Elath +and Esiongeber, two towns situated on the eastern shore of the +Red-Sea.(310) From these two ports,(311) Solomon sent fleets to Ophir and +Tarshish, which always brought back immense riches.(312) This traffic, +after having been enjoyed some time by the Syrians, who regained Idumaea, +passed from them into the hands of the Tyrians. These got all their +merchandise conveyed, by the way of Rhinocolura (a sea-port town lying +between the confines of Egypt and Palestine) to Tyre, from whence they +distributed them all over the western world.(313) Hereby the Tyrians +enriched themselves exceedingly, under the Persian empire, by the favour +and protection of whose monarchs they had the full possession of this +trade. But when the Ptolemies had made themselves masters of Egypt, they +soon drew all this trade into their kingdom, by building Berenice and +other ports on the western side of the Red-Sea, belonging to Egypt; and +fixed their chief mart at Alexandria, which thereby rose to be the city of +the greatest trade in the world. There it continued for a great many +centuries after; and all the traffic which the western parts of the world +from that time had with Persia, India, Arabia, and the eastern coasts of +Africa, was wholly carried on through the Red-Sea and the mouth of the +Nile, till a way was discovered, a little above two hundred years since, +of sailing to those parts by the Cape of Good Hope. After this, the +Portuguese for some time were masters of this trade; but now it is in a +manner engrossed wholly by the English and Dutch. This short account of +the East-India trade, from Solomon's time, to the present age, is +extracted from Dr. Prideaux.(314) + +For the convenience of trade, there was built near Alexandria, in an +island called Pharos, a tower which bore the same name.(315) At the top of +this tower was kept a fire, to light such ships as sailed by night near +those dangerous coasts, which were full of sands and shelves, from whence +all other towers, designed for the same use, have derived their name, as, +Pharo di Messina, &c. The famous architect Sostratus built it by order of +Ptolemy Philadelphus, who expended eight hundred talents upon it.(316) It +was reckoned one of the seven wonders of the world. Some, through a +mistake, have commended that prince, for permitting the architect to put +his name in the inscription, which was fixed on the tower, instead of his +own.(317) It was very short and plain, according to the manner of the +ancients. _Sostratus Cnidius Dexiphanis F. Diis Servatoribus pro +navigantibus_: _i.e._ Sostratus the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the +protecting deities, for the use of sea-faring people. But certainly +Ptolemy must have very much undervalued that kind of immortality which +princes are generally so fond of, to suffer, that his name should not be +so much as mentioned in the inscription of an edifice so capable of +immortalizing him. What we read in Lucian concerning this matter, deprives +Ptolemy of a modesty, which indeed would be very ill placed here.(318) +This author informs us that Sostratus, to engross in after-times the whole +glory of that noble structure to himself, caused the inscription with his +own name to be carved in the marble, which he afterwards covered with +lime, and thereon put the king's name. The lime soon mouldered away; and +by that means, instead of procuring the architect the honour with which he +had flattered himself, served only to discover to future ages his mean +fraud and ridiculous vanity. + +Riches failed not to bring into this city, as they usually do in all +places, luxury and licentiousness; so that the Alexandrian voluptuousness +became a proverb.(319) In this city arts and sciences were also +industriously cultivated, witness that stately edifice, surnamed the +Museum, where the literati used to meet, and were maintained at the public +expense; and the famous library, which was augmented considerably by +Ptolemy Philadelphus; and which, by the magnificence of the kings his +successors, at last contained seven hundred thousand volumes. In Caesar's +wars with the Alexandrians, part of this library, (situate in the +Bruchion,(320)) which consisted of four hundred thousand volumes, was +unhappily consumed by fire.(321) + + + + +Part The Second. Of the Manners and Customs of the Egyptians. + + +Egypt was ever considered, by all the ancients, as the most renowned +school for wisdom and politics, and the source from whence most arts and +sciences were derived. This kingdom bestowed its noblest labours and +finest arts on the improvement of mankind; and Greece was so sensible of +this, that its most illustrious men, as Homer, Pythagoras, Plato; even its +great legislators, Lycurgus and Solon, with many more whom it is needless +to mention, travelled into Egypt, to complete their studies, and draw from +that fountain whatever was most rare and valuable in every kind of +learning. God himself has given this kingdom a glorious testimony, when +praising Moses, he says of him, that "He was learned in all the wisdom of +the Egyptians."(322) + +To give some idea of the manners and customs of Egypt, I shall confine +myself principally to these particulars: its kings and government; priests +and religion; soldiers and war; sciences, arts, and trades. + +The reader must not be surprised if he sometimes finds, in the customs I +take notice of, a kind of contradiction. This circumstance is owing either +to the difference of countries and nations, which did not always follow +the same usages; or to the different way of thinking of the historians +whom I copy. + + + +Chapter I. Concerning The Kings And Government. + + +The Egyptians were the first people who rightly understood the rules of +government. A nation so grave and serious immediately perceived, that the +true end of politics is, to make life easy, and a people happy. + +The kingdom was hereditary; but, according to Diodorus,(323) the Egyptian +princes conducted themselves in a different manner from what is usually +seen in other monarchies, where the prince acknowledges no other rule of +his actions than his own arbitrary will and pleasure. But here, kings were +under greater restraint from the laws than their subjects. They had some +particular ones digested by a former monarch, that composed part of what +the Egyptians called the sacred books. Thus every thing being settled by +ancient custom, they never sought to live in a different way from their +ancestors. + +No slave nor foreigner was admitted into the immediate service of the +prince; such a post was too important to be intrusted to any persons, +except those who were the most distinguished by their birth, and had +received the most excellent education; to the end that, as they had the +liberty of approaching the king's person day and night, he might, from men +so qualified, hear nothing which was unbecoming the royal majesty; nor +have any sentiments instilled into him but such as were of a noble and +generous kind. For, adds Diodorus, it is very rarely seen that kings fly +out into any vicious excess, unless those who approach them approve their +irregularities, or serve as instruments to their passions. + +The kings of Egypt freely permitted, not only the quality and proportion +of what they ate and drank to be prescribed them, (a thing customary in +Egypt, whose inhabitants were all sober, and whose air inspired +frugality,) but even that all their hours, and almost every action, should +be under the regulation of the laws. + +In the morning at day break, when the head is clearest, and the thoughts +most unperplexed, they read the several letters they received; to form a +more just and distinct idea of the affairs which were to come under their +consideration that day. + +As soon as they were dressed, they went to the daily sacrifice performed +in the temple; where, surrounded with their whole court, and the victims +placed before the altar, they assisted at the prayer pronounced aloud by +the high priest, in which he asked of the gods, health and all other +blessings for the king, because he governed his people with clemency and +justice, and made the laws of his kingdom the rule and standard of his +actions. The high priest entered into a long detail of his royal virtues; +observing, that he was religious to the gods, affable to men, moderate, +just, magnanimous, sincere; an enemy to falsehood; liberal; master of his +passions; punishing crimes with the utmost lenity, but boundless in +rewarding merit. He next spoke of the faults which kings might be guilty +of; but supposed at the same time that they never committed any, except by +surprise or ignorance; and loaded with imprecations such of their +ministers as gave them ill council, and suppressed or disguised the truth. +Such were the methods of conveying instruction to their kings. It was +thought that reproaches would only sour their tempers; and that the most +effectual method to inspire them with virtue, would be to point out to +them their duty in praises conformable to the sense of the laws, and +pronounced in a solemn manner before the gods. After the prayers and +sacrifices were ended, the councils and actions of great men were read to +the king out of the sacred books, in order that he might govern his +dominions according to their maxims, and maintain the laws which had made +his predecessors and their subjects so happy. + +I have already observed, that the quantity as well as quality of what he +ate or drank were prescribed, by the laws, to the king: his table was +covered with nothing but the most common food; because eating in Egypt was +designed, not to tickle the palate, but to satisfy the cravings of nature. +One would have concluded, (observes the historian,) that these rules had +been laid down by some able physician, who was attentive only to the +health of the prince, rather than by a legislator. The same simplicity was +seen in all other things; and we read in Plutarch of a temple in Thebes, +which had one of its pillars inscribed with imprecations against that king +who first introduced profusion and luxury into Egypt.(324) + +The principal duty of kings, and their most essential function, is the +administering justice to their subjects. Accordingly the kings of Egypt +cultivated more immediately this duty; convinced that on this depended not +only the ease and comfort of individuals, but the happiness of the state; +which would be a herd of robbers rather than a kingdom, should the weak be +unprotected, and the powerful enabled by their riches and influence to +commit crimes with impunity. + +Thirty judges were selected out of the principal cities, to form a body +for dispensing justice through the whole kingdom. The prince, in filling +these vacancies, chose such as were most renowned for their honesty; and +put at their head, him who was most distinguished for his knowledge and +love of the laws, and was had in the most universal esteem. They had +revenues assigned them, to the end that, being freed from domestic cares, +they might devote their whole time to the execution of the laws. Thus +honourably maintained by the generosity of the prince, they administered +gratuitously to the people, that justice to which they have a natural +right, and which ought to be equally open to all; and, in some sense, to +the poor more than the rich, because the latter find a support within +themselves; whereas the very condition of the former exposes them more to +injuries, and therefore calls louder for the protection of the laws. To +guard against surprise, affairs were transacted by writing in the +assemblies of these judges. That false eloquence was dreaded, which +dazzles the mind, and moves the passions. Truth could not be expressed +with too much plainness, as it alone was to have the sway in judgments; +because in that alone the rich and poor, the powerful and weak, the +learned and the ignorant, were to find relief and security. The president +of this senate wore a collar of gold set with precious stones, at which +hung a figure represented blind, this being called the emblem of truth. +When the president put this collar on, it was understood as a signal to +enter upon business. He touched the party with it who was to gain his +cause, and this was the form of passing sentence. + +The most excellent circumstance in the laws of the Egyptians, was, that +every individual, from his infancy, was nurtured in the strictest +observance of them. A new custom in Egypt was a kind of miracle.(325) All +things there ran in the old channel; and the exactness with which little +matters were adhered to, preserved those of more importance; and +consequently no nation ever retained their laws and customs longer than +the Egyptians. + +Wilful murder was punished with death,(326) whatever might be the +condition of the murdered person, whether he was free-born or otherwise. +In this the humanity and equity of the Egyptians were superior to that of +the Romans, who gave the master an absolute power of life and death over +his slave. The emperor Adrian, indeed, abolished this law; from an +opinion, that an abuse of this nature ought to be reformed, let its +antiquity or authority be ever so great. + +Perjury was also punished with death,(327) because that crime attacks both +the gods, whose majesty is trampled upon by invoking their name to a false +oath, and men, by breaking the strongest tie of human society, _viz._ +sincerity and veracity. + +The false accuser was condemned to undergo the punishment which the person +accused was to have suffered, had the accusation been proved.(328) + +He who had neglected or refused to save a man's life when attacked, if it +was in his power to assist him, was punished as rigorously as the +assassin:(329) but if the unfortunate person could not be succoured, the +offender was at least to be impeached; and penalties were decreed for any +neglect of this kind. Thus the subjects were a guard and protection to one +another; and the whole body of the community united against the designs of +the bad. + +No man was allowed to be useless to the state;(330) but every one was +obliged to enter his name and place of abode in a public register, that +remained in the hands of the magistrate, and to describe his profession, +and his means of support. If he gave a false account of himself, he was +immediately put to death. + +To prevent borrowing of money, the parent of sloth, frauds, and chicane, +king Asychis made a very judicious law.(331) The wisest and best regulated +states, as Athens and Rome, ever found insuperable difficulties, in +contriving a just medium, to restrain, on one hand, the cruelty of the +creditor in the exaction of his loan; and on the other, the knavery of the +debtor, who refused or neglected to pay his debts. Now Egypt took a wise +course on this occasion; and, without doing any injury to the personal +liberty of its inhabitants, or ruining their families, pursued the debtor +with incessant fears of infamy in case he were dishonest. No man was +permitted to borrow money without pawning to the creditor the body of his +father, which every Egyptian embalmed with great care; and kept +reverentially in his house, (as will be observed in the sequel,) and +therefore might be easily moved from one place to another. But it was +equally impious and infamous not to redeem soon so precious a pledge; and +he who died without having discharged this duty, was deprived of the +customary honours paid to the dead.(332) + +Diodorus remarks an error committed by some of the Grecian +legislators.(333) They forbid, for instance, the taking away (to satisfy +debts) the horses, ploughs, and other implements of husbandry employed by +peasants; judging it inhuman to reduce, by this security, these poor men +to an impossibility of discharging their debts, and getting their bread: +but, at the same time, they permitted the creditor to imprison the +peasants themselves, who alone were capable of using these implements, +which exposed them to the same inconveniences, and at the same time +deprived the government of persons who belong, and are necessary, to it; +who labour for the public emolument, and over whose person no private man +has any right. + +Polygamy was allowed in Egypt, except to the priests, who could marry but +one woman.(334) Whatever was the condition of the woman, whether she was +free or a slave, her children were deemed free and legitimate. + +One custom that was practised in Egypt, shows the profound darkness into +which such nations as were most celebrated for their wisdom have been +plunged; and this is the marriage of brothers with their sisters, which +was not only authorized by the laws, but even, in some measure, originated +from their religion, from the example and practice of such of their gods +as had been the most anciently and universally adored in Egypt, that is, +Osiris and Isis.(335) + +A very great respect was there paid to old age.(336) The young were +obliged to rise up for the old; and on every occasion, to resign to them +the most honourable seat. The Spartans borrowed this law from the +Egyptians. + +The virtue in the highest esteem among the Egyptians, was gratitude. The +glory which has been given them of being the most grateful of all men, +shows that they were the best formed of any nation for social life. +Benefits are the band of concord, both public and private. He who +acknowledges favours, loves to confer them; and in banishing ingratitude, +the pleasure of doing good remains so pure and engaging, that it is +impossible for a man to be insensible of it. But it was particularly +towards their kings that the Egyptians prided themselves on evincing their +gratitude. They honoured them whilst living, as so many visible +representations of the Deity; and after their death lamented for them as +the fathers of their country. These sentiments of respect and tenderness +proceeded from a strong persuasion, that the Divinity himself had placed +them upon the throne, as he distinguished them so greatly from all other +mortals; and that kings bore the most noble characteristics of the Supreme +Being, as the power and will of doing good to others were united in their +persons. + + + +Chapter II. Concerning the Priests And Religion Of The Egyptians. + + +Priests, in Egypt, held the second rank to kings. They had great +privileges and revenues; their lands were exempted from all imposts; of +which some traces are seen in Genesis, where it is said, "Joseph made it a +law over the land of Egypt, that Pharaoh should have the fifth part, +except the land of the priests only, which became not Pharaoh's."(337) + +The prince usually honoured them with a large share in his confidence and +government, because they, of all his subjects, had received the best +education, had acquired the greatest knowledge, and were most strongly +attached to the king's person and the good of the public. They were at one +and the same time the depositaries of religion and of the sciences; and to +this circumstance was owing the great respect which was paid them by the +natives as well as foreigners, by whom they were alike consulted upon the +most sacred things relating to the mysteries of religion, and the most +profound subjects in the several sciences. + +The Egyptians pretend to be the first institutors of festivals and +processions in honour of the gods.(338) One festival was celebrated in the +city of Bubastus, whither persons resorted from all parts of Egypt, and +upwards of seventy thousand, besides children, were seen at it. Another, +surnamed the feast of the lights, was solemnized at Sais. All persons, +throughout Egypt, who did not go to Sais, were obliged to illuminate their +windows. + +Different animals were sacrificed in different countries, but one common +and general ceremony was observed in all sacrifices, _viz._ the laying of +hands upon the head of the victim, loading it at the same time with +imprecations; and praying the gods to divert upon that victim all the +calamities which might threaten Egypt.(339) + +It is to Egypt that Pythagoras owed his favourite doctrine of the +Metempsychosis or transmigration of souls.(340) The Egyptians believed, +that at the death of men their souls transmigrated into other human +bodies; and that, if they had been vicious, they were imprisoned in the +bodies of unclean or ill-conditioned beasts, to expiate in them their past +transgressions; and that after a revolution of some centuries they again +animated other human bodies. + +The priests had the possession of the sacred books, which contained, at +large, the principles of government, as well as the mysteries of divine +worship. Both were uncommonly involved in symbols and enigmas, which, +under these veils, made truth more venerable, and excited more strongly +the curiosity of men.(341) The figure of Harpocrates, in the Egyptian +sanctuaries, with his finger upon his mouth, seemed to intimate, that +mysteries were there enclosed, the knowledge of which was revealed to very +few. The sphinxes, placed at the entrance of all temples, implied the +same. It is very well known that pyramids, obelisks, pillars, statues, in +a word, all public monuments, were usually adorned with hieroglyphics; +that is, with symbolical writings; whether these were characters unknown +to the vulgar, or figures of animals, under which was couched a hidden and +parabolical meaning. Thus, by a hare, was signified a lively and piercing +attention, because this creature has a very delicate sense of +hearing.(342) The statue of a judge without hands, and with eyes fixed +upon the ground, symbolized the duties of those who were to exercise the +judiciary functions.(343) + +It would require a volume to treat fully of the religion of the Egyptians. +But I shall confine myself to two articles, which form the principal part +of it; and these are the worship of the different deities, and the +ceremonies relating to funerals. + +SECT. I. THE WORSHIP OF THE VARIOUS DEITIES.--Never were any people more +superstitious than the Egyptians; they had a great number of gods, of +different orders and degrees, which I shall omit, because they belong more +to fable than to history. Among the rest, two were universally adored in +that country, and these were Osiris and Isis, which are thought to be the +sun and moon; and, indeed, the worship of those planets gave rise to +idolatry. + +Besides these gods, the Egyptians worshipped a great number of beasts; as +the ox, the dog, the wolf, the hawk, the crocodile, the ibis,(344) the +cat, &c. Many of these beasts were the objects of the superstition only of +some particular cities; and whilst one people worshipped one species of +animals as gods, their neighbours held the same animals in abomination. +This was the source of the continual wars which were carried on between +one city and another; and this was owing to the false policy of one of +their kings, who, to deprive them of the opportunity and means of +conspiring against the state, endeavoured to draw off their attention, by +engaging them in religious contests. I call this a false and mistaken +policy; because it directly thwarts the true spirit of government, the aim +of which is, to unite all its members in the strictest ties, and to make +all its strength consist in the perfect harmony of its several parts. + +Every nation had a great zeal for their gods. "Among us," says +Cicero,(345) "it is very common to see temples robbed, and statues carried +off, but it was never known that any person in Egypt ever abused a +crocodile, an ibis, a cat; for its inhabitants would have suffered the +most, extreme torments, rather than be guilty of such sacrilege." It was +death for any person to kill one of these animals voluntarily; and even a +punishment was decreed against him who should have killed an ibis, or cat, +with or without design.(346) Diodorus relates an incident,(347) to which +he himself was an eye-witness during his stay in Egypt. A Roman having +inadvertently, and without design, killed a cat, the exasperated populace +ran to his house; and neither the authority of the king, who immediately +detached a body of his guards, nor the terror of the Roman name, could +rescue the unfortunate criminal. And such was the reverence which the +Egyptians had for these animals, that in an extreme famine they chose to +eat one another, rather than feed upon their imagined deities. + +Of all these animals, the bull Apis, called Epaphus by the Greeks, was the +most famous.(348) Magnificent temples were erected to him; extraordinary +honours were paid him while he lived, and still greater after his death. +Egypt went then into a general mourning. His obsequies were solemnized +with such a pomp as is hardly credible. In the reign of Ptolemy Lagus, the +bull Apis dying of old age,(349) the funeral pomp, besides the ordinary +expenses, amounted to upwards of fifty thousand French crowns.(350) After +the last honours had been paid to the deceased god, the next care was to +provide him a successor; and all Egypt was sought through for that +purpose. He was known by certain signs, which distinguished him from all +other animals of that species; upon his forehead was to be a white spot, +in form of a crescent; on his back, the figure of an eagle; upon his +tongue, that of a beetle. As soon as he was found, mourning gave place to +joy; and nothing was heard, in all parts of Egypt, but festivals and +rejoicings. The new god was brought to Memphis, to take possession of his +dignity, and there installed with a great number of ceremonies. The reader +will find hereafter, that Cambyses, at his return from his unfortunate +expedition against Ethiopia, finding all the Egyptians in transports of +joy for the discovery of their new god Apis, and imagining that this was +intended as an insult upon his misfortunes, killed, in the first impulse +of his fury, the young bull, who, by that means, had but a short enjoyment +of his divinity. + +It is plain, that the golden calf set up near mount Sinai by the +Israelites, was owing to their abode in Egypt, and an imitation of the god +Apis; as well as those which were afterwards set up by Jeroboam (who had +resided a considerable time in Egypt) in the two extremities of the +kingdom of Israel. + +The Egyptians, not contented with offering incense to animals, carried +their folly to such an excess, as to ascribe a divinity to the pulse and +roots of their gardens. For this they are ingeniously reproached by the +satirist: + + + Who has not heard where Egypt's realms are nam'd, + What monster-gods her frantic sons have fram'd? + Here Ibis gorg'd with well-grown serpents, there + The Crocodile commands religious fear: + Where Memnon's statue magic strings inspire + With vocal sounds, that emulate the lyre; + And Thebes, such, Fate, are thy disastrous turns! + Now prostrate o'er her pompous ruins mourns; + A monkey-god, prodigious to be told! + Strikes the beholder's eye with burnish'd gold: + To godship here blue Triton's scaly herd, + The river-progeny is there preferr'd: + Through towns Diana's power neglected lies, + Where to her dogs aspiring temples rise: + And should you leeks or onions eat, no time + Would expiate the sacrilegious crime + Religious nations sure, and blest abodes, + Where ev'ry orchard is o'errun with gods.(351) + + +It is astonishing to see a nation, which boasted its superiority above all +others with regard to wisdom and learning, thus blindly abandon itself to +the most gross and ridiculous superstitions. Indeed, to read of animals +and vile insects, honoured with religious worship, placed in temples, and +maintained with great care, and at an extravagant expense;(352) to read, +that those who murdered them were punished with death; and that these +animals were embalmed, and solemnly deposited in tombs assigned them by +the public; to hear that this extravagance was carried to such lengths, as +that leeks and onions were acknowledged as deities; were invoked in +necessity, and depended upon for succour and protection; are absurdities +which we, at this distance of time, can scarce believe; and yet they have +the evidence of all antiquity. "You enter," says Lucian,(353) "into a +magnificent temple, every part of which glitters with gold and silver. You +there look attentively for a god, and are cheated with a stork, an ape, or +a cat;" "a just emblem," adds that author, "of too many palaces, the +masters of which are far from being the brightest ornaments of them." + +Several reasons are assigned for the worship paid to animals by the +Egyptians.(354) + +The first is drawn from fabulous history. It is pretended that the gods, +in a rebellion made against them by men, fled into Egypt, and there +concealed themselves under the form of different animals; and that this +gave birth to the worship which was afterwards paid to those animals. + +The second is taken from the benefit which these several animals procure +to mankind:(355) oxen by their labour; sheep by their wool and milk; dogs +by their service in hunting, and guarding houses, whence the god Anubis +was represented with a dog's head: the ibis, a bird very much resembling a +stork, was worshipped, because he put to flight the winged serpents, with +which Egypt would otherwise have been grievously infested; the crocodile, +an amphibious creature, that is, living alike upon land and water, of a +surprising strength and size,(356) was worshipped, because he defended +Egypt from the incursions of the wild Arabs; the ichneumon was adored, +because he prevented the too great increase of crocodiles, which might +have proved destructive to Egypt. Now the little animal in question does +this service to the country two ways. First, it watches the time when the +crocodile is absent, and breaks his eggs, but does not eat them. Secondly, +when the crocodile is asleep upon the banks of the Nile, (and he always +sleeps with his mouth open,) the ichneumon, which lies concealed in the +mud, leaps at once into his mouth; gets down to his entrails, which he +gnaws; then piercing his belly, the skin of which is very tender, he +escapes with safety; and thus, by his address and subtilty, returns +victorious over so terrible an animal. + +Philosophers, not satisfied with reasons which were too trifling to +account for such strange absurdities as dishonoured the heathen system, +and at which themselves secretly blushed, have, since the establishment of +Christianity, supposed a third reason for the worship which the Egyptians +paid to animals, and declared, that it was not offered to the animals +themselves, but to the gods, of whom they are symbols. Plutarch, in his +treatise where he examines professedly the pretensions of Isis and Osiris, +the two most famous deities of the Egyptians, says as follows:(357) +"Philosophers honour the image of God wherever they find it, even in +inanimate beings, and consequently more in those which have life. We are +therefore to approve, not the worshippers of these animals, but those who, +by their means, ascend to the Deity; they are to be considered as so many +mirrors, which nature holds forth, and in which the Supreme Being displays +himself in a wonderful manner; or, as so many instruments, which he makes +use of to manifest outwardly his incomprehensible wisdom. Should men +therefore, for the embellishing of statues, amass together all the gold +and precious stones in the world; the worship must not be referred to the +statues, for the Deity does not exist in colours artfully disposed, nor in +frail matter destitute of sense and motion." Plutarch says in the same +treatise,(358) "that as the sun and moon, heaven, earth, and the sea, are +common to all men, but have different names, according to the difference +of nations and languages; in like manner, though there is but one Deity, +and one providence which governs the universe, and which has several +subaltern ministers under it; men give to the Deity, which is the same, +different names, and pay it different honours, according to the laws and +customs of every country." + +But were these reflections, which offer the most rational vindication that +can be suggested of idolatrous worship, sufficient to cover the absurdity +of it; could it be called a raising of the divine attributes in a suitable +manner, to direct the worshipper to admire and seek for the image of them +in beasts of the most vile and contemptible kinds, as crocodiles, +serpents, and cats? Was not this rather degrading and debasing the Deity, +of whom even the most stupid usually entertain a much greater and more +august idea? + +And even these philosophers were not always so just, as to ascend from +sensible beings to their invisible Author. The Scriptures tell us, that +these pretended sages deserved, on account of their pride and ingratitude, +to be "given over to a reprobate mind; and whilst they professed +themselves wise, to become fools, for having changed the glory of the +incorruptible God, into an image made like to corruptible man, and to +birds, and four-footed beasts, and creeping things."(359) To show what man +is when left to himself, God permitted that very nation, which had carried +human wisdom to its greatest height, to be the theatre in which the most +ridiculous and absurd idolatry was acted. And, on the other side, to +display the almighty power of his grace, he converted the frightful +deserts of Egypt into a terrestrial paradise; by peopling them, in the +time appointed by his providence, with numberless multitudes of +illustrious hermits, whose fervent piety and rigorous penance have done so +much honour to the Christian religion. I cannot not forbear giving here a +famous instance of it; and I hope the reader will excuse this kind of +digression. + +"The great wonder of Lower Egypt," says Abbe Fleury, in his Ecclesiastical +History,(360) "was the city of Oxyrinchus, peopled with monks, both within +and without, so that they were more numerous than its other inhabitants. +The public edifices and idol temples had been converted into monasteries, +and these likewise were more in number than the private houses. The monks +lodged even over the gates and in the towers. The people had twelve +churches to assemble in, exclusive of the oratories belonging to the +monasteries. There were twenty thousand virgins and ten thousand monks in +this city, every part of which echoed night and day with the praises of +God. By order of the magistrates, sentinels were posted at the gates, to +take notice of all strangers and poor who came into the city; and the +inhabitants vied with each other who should first receive them, in order +to have an opportunity of exercising their hospitality towards them." + +SECT. II. THE CEREMONIES OF THE EGYPTIAN FUNERALS.--I shall now give a +concise account of the funeral ceremonies of the Egyptians. + +The honours which have been paid in all ages and nations to the bodies of +the dead, and the religious care which has always been taken of +sepulchres, seem to insinuate an universal persuasion, that bodies were +lodged in sepulchres merely as a deposit or trust. + +We have already observed, in our mention of the pyramids, with what +magnificence sepulchres were built in Egypt for, besides that they were +erected as so many sacred monuments, destined to transmit to future times +the memory of great princes; they were likewise considered as the mansions +where the body was to remain during a long succession of ages: whereas +common houses were called inns, in which men were to abide only as +travellers, and that during the course of a life which was too short to +engage their affections. + +When any person in a family died, all the kindred and friends quitted +their usual habits, and put on mourning, and abstained from baths, wine, +and dainties of every kind. This mourning continued forty or seventy days, +probably according to the quality of the person. + +Bodies were embalmed three different ways.(361) The most magnificent was +bestowed on persons of distinguished rank, and the expense amounted to a +talent of silver, or three thousand French livres.(362) + +Many hands were employed in this ceremony.(363) Some drew the brain +through the nostrils, by an instrument made for that purpose. Others +emptied the bowels and intestines, by cutting a hole in the side, with an +Ethiopian stone that was as sharp as a razor; after which the cavities +were filled with perfumes and various odoriferous drugs. As this +evacuation (which was necessarily attended with some dissections) seemed +in some measure cruel and inhuman, the persons employed fled as soon as +the operation was over, and were pursued with stones by the standers-by. +But those who embalmed the body were honourably treated. They filled it +with myrrh, cinnamon, and all sorts of spices. After a certain time, the +body was swathed in lawn fillets, which were glued together with a kind of +very thin gum, and then crusted over with the most exquisite perfumes. By +this means, it is said, that the entire figure of the body, the very +lineaments of the face, and even the hairs on the lids and eye-brows were +preserved in their natural perfection. The body, thus embalmed, was +delivered to the relations, who shut it up in a kind of open chest, fitted +exactly to the size of the corpse; then they placed it upright against the +wall, either in their sepulchres (if they had any) or in their houses. +These embalmed bodies are what we now call Mummies, which are still +brought from Egypt, and are found in the cabinets of the curious. This +shows the care which the Egyptians took of their dead. Their gratitude to +their deceased relations was immortal. Children, by seeing the bodies of +their ancestors thus preserved, recalled to mind those virtues for which +the public had honoured them; and were excited to a love of those laws +which such excellent persons had left for their security. We find that +part of these ceremonies were performed in the funeral honours paid to +Joseph in Egypt. + +I have said that the public recognised the virtues of deceased persons, +because that, before they could be admitted into the sacred asylum of the +tomb, they underwent a solemn trial. And this circumstance in the Egyptian +funerals, is one of the most remarkable to be found in ancient history. + +It was a consolation among the heathens, to a dying man, to leave a good +name behind him; and they imagined that this is the only human blessing of +which death cannot deprive us. But the Egyptians would not suffer praises +to be bestowed indiscriminately on all deceased persons. This honour was +to be obtained only from the public voice. The assembly of the judges met +on the other side of a lake, which they crossed in a boat. He who sat at +the helm was called Charon, in the Egyptian language; and this first gave +the hint to Orpheus, who had been in Egypt, and after him, to the other +Greeks, to invent the fiction of Charon's boat. As soon as a man was dead, +he was brought to his trial. The public accuser was heard. If he proved +that the deceased had led a bad life, his memory was condemned, and he was +deprived of burial. The people admired the power of the laws, which +extended even beyond the grave; and every one, struck with the disgrace +inflicted on the dead person, was afraid to reflect dishonour on his own +memory, and his family. But if the deceased person was not convicted of +any crime, he was interred in an honourable manner. + +A still more astonishing circumstance, in this public inquest upon the +dead, was, that the throne itself was no protection from it. Kings were +spared during their lives, because the public peace was concerned in this +forbearance; but their quality did not exempt them from the judgment +passed upon the dead, and even some of them were deprived of sepulture. +This custom was imitated by the Israelites. We see, in Scripture, that bad +kings were not interred in the monuments of their ancestors. This practice +suggested to princes, that if their majesty placed them out of the reach +of men's judgment while they were alive, they would at last be liable to +it when death should reduce them to a level with their subjects. + +When therefore a favourable judgment was pronounced on a deceased person, +the next thing was to proceed to the ceremonies of interment. In his +panegyric, no mention was made of his birth, because every Egyptian was +deemed noble. No praises were considered as just or true, but such as +related to the personal merit of the deceased. He was applauded for having +received an excellent education in his younger years; and in his more +advanced age, for having cultivated piety towards the gods, justice +towards men, gentleness, modesty, moderation, and all other virtues which +constitute the good man. Then all the people besought the gods to receive +the deceased into the assembly of the just, and to admit him as a partaker +with them of their everlasting felicity. + +To conclude this article of the ceremonies of funerals, it may not be +amiss to observe to young pupils the different manners in which the bodies +of the dead were treated by the ancients. Some, as we observed of the +Egyptians, exposed them to view after they had been embalmed, and thus +preserved them to after-ages. Others, as the Romans, burnt them on a +funeral pile; and others again, laid them in the earth. + +The care to preserve bodies without lodging them in tombs, appears +injurious to human nature in general, and to those persons in particular +to whom respect is designed to be shown by this custom; because it exposes +too visibly their wretched state and deformity; since, whatever care may +be taken, spectators see nothing but the melancholy and frightful remains +of what they once were. The custom of burning dead bodies has something in +it cruel and barbarous, in destroying so hastily the remains of persons +once dear to us. That of interment is certainly the most ancient and +religious. It restores to the earth what had been taken from it; and +prepares our belief of a second restitution of our bodies, from that dust +of which they were at first formed. + + + +Chapter III. Of The Egyptian Soldiers And War. + + +The profession of arms was in great repute among the Egyptians. After the +sacerdotal families, the most illustrious, as with us, were those devoted +to a military life. They were not only distinguished by honours, but by +ample liberalities. Every soldier was allowed twelve Arourae, that is, a +piece of arable land very near answering to half a French acre,(364) +exempt from all tax or tribute. Besides this privilege, each soldier +received a daily allowance of five pounds of bread, two of flesh, and a +quart of wine.(365) This allowance was sufficient to support part of their +family. Such an indulgence made them more affectionate to the person of +their prince, and the interests of their country, and more resolute in +their defence of both; and as Diodorus observes,(366) it was thought +inconsistent with good policy, and even common sense, to commit the +defence of a country to men who had no interest in its preservation. + +Four hundred thousand soldiers were kept in continual pay;(367) all +natives of Egypt, and trained up in the exactest discipline. They were +inured to the fatigues of war, by a severe and rigorous education. There +is an art of forming the body as well as the mind. This art, lost by our +sloth, was well known to the ancients, and especially to the Egyptians. +Foot, horse, and chariot races, were performed in Egypt with wonderful +agility, and the world could not show better horsemen than the Egyptians. +The Scripture in several places speaks advantageously of their +cavalry.(368) + +Military laws were easily preserved in Egypt, because sons received them +from their fathers; the profession of war, as all others, being +transmitted from father to son. Those who fled in battle, or discovered +any signs of cowardice, were only distinguished by some particular mark of +ignominy; it being thought more advisable to restrain them by motives of +honour, than by the terrors of punishment.(369) + +But notwithstanding this, I will not pretend to say, that the Egyptians +were a warlike people. It is of little advantage to have regular and +well-paid troops; to have armies exercised in peace, and employed only in +mock fights; it is war alone, and real combats, which form the soldier. +Egypt loved peace, because it loved justice, and maintained soldiers only +for its security. Its inhabitants, content with a country which abounded +in all things, had no ambitious dreams of conquest. The Egyptians extended +their reputation in a very different manner, by sending colonies into all +parts of the world, and with them laws and politeness. They triumphed by +the wisdom of their counsels, and the superiority of their knowledge; and +this empire of the mind appeared more noble and glorious to them, than +that which is achieved by arms and conquest. But, nevertheless, Egypt has +given birth to illustrious conquerors, as will be observed hereafter, when +we come to treat of its kings. + + + +Chapter IV. Of Their Arts And Sciences. + + +The Egyptians had an inventive genius, but directed it only to useful +projects. Their Mercuries filled Egypt with wonderful inventions, and left +it scarcely ignorant of any thing which could contribute to accomplish the +mind, or procure ease and happiness. The discoverers of any useful +invention received, both living and dead, rewards worthy of their +profitable labours. It is this which consecrated the books of their two +Mercuries, and stamped them with a divine authority. The first libraries +were in Egypt; and the titles they bore inspired an eager desire to enter +them, and dive into the secrets they contained. They were called the +_remedy for the diseases of the soul_,(370) and that very justly, because +the soul was there cured of ignorance, the most dangerous, and the parent +of all other maladies. + +As their country was level, and the sky always serene and unclouded, the +Egyptians were among the first who observed the courses of the planets. +These observations led them to regulate the year(371) from the course of +the sun; for as Diodorus observes, their year, from the most remote +antiquity, was composed of three hundred sixty-five days and six hours. To +adjust the property of their lands, which were every year covered by the +overflowing of the Nile, they were obliged to have recourse to surveys; +and this first taught them geometry. They were great observers of nature, +which, in a climate so serene, and under so intense a sun, was vigorous +and fruitful. + +By this study and application they invented or improved the science of +physic. The sick were not abandoned to the arbitrary will and caprice of +the physician. He was obliged to follow fixed rules, which were the +observations of old and experienced practitioners, and written in the +sacred books. While these rules were observed, the physician was not +answerable for the success; otherwise, a miscarriage cost him his life. +This law checked, indeed, the temerity of empirics; but then it might +prevent new discoveries, and keep the art from attaining to its just +perfection. Every physician, if Herodotus may be credited,(372) confined +his practice to the cure of one disease only; one was for the eyes, +another for the teeth, and so on. + +What we have said of the pyramids, the labyrinth, and that infinite number +of obelisks, temples, and palaces, whose precious remains still strike the +beholder with admiration, and in which the magnificence of the princes who +raised them, the skill of the workmen, the riches of the ornaments +diffused over every part of them, and the just proportion and beautiful +symmetry of the parts, in which their greatest beauty consisted, seemed to +vie with each other; works, in many of which the liveliness of the colours +remains to this day, in spite of the rude hand of time, which commonly +deadens or destroys them: all this, I say, shows the perfection to which +architecture, painting, sculpture, and all other arts, had arrived in +Egypt. + +The Egyptians entertained but a mean opinion of those gymnastic exercises, +which did not contribute to invigorate the body, or improve health;(373) +as well as of music, which they considered as a diversion not only useless +but dangerous, and only fit to enervate the mind.(374) + + + +Chapter V. Of Their Husbandmen, Shepherds, and Artificers. + + +Husbandmen, shepherds, and artificers, formed the three classes of lower +life in Egypt, but were nevertheless had in very great esteem, +particularly husbandmen and shepherds.(375) The body politic requires a +superiority and subordination of its several members; for as in the +natural body, the eye may be said to hold the first rank, yet its lustre +does not dart contempt upon the feet, the hands, or even on those parts +which are less honourable. In like manner, among the Egyptians, the +priests, soldiers, and scholars were distinguished by particular honours; +but all professions, to the meanest, had their share in the public esteem, +because the despising any man, whose labours, however mean, were useful to +the state, was thought a crime. + +A better reason than the foregoing might have inspired them at the first +with these sentiments of equity and moderation, which they so long +preserved. As they all descended from Cham,(376) their common father, the +memory of their still recent origin occurring to the minds of all in those +first ages, established among them a kind of equality, and stamped, in +their opinion, a nobility on every person derived from the common stock. +Indeed the difference of conditions, and the contempt with which persons +of the lowest rank are treated, are owing merely to the distance from the +common root; which makes us forget that the meanest plebeian, when his +descent is traced back to the source, is equally noble with those of the +most elevated rank and titles. + +Be that as it will, no profession in Egypt was considered as grovelling or +sordid. By this means arts were raised to their highest perfection. The +honour which cherished them mixed with every thought and care for their +improvement. Every man had his way of life assigned him by the laws, and +it was perpetuated from father to son. Two professions at one time, or a +change of that which a man was born to, were never allowed. By this means, +men became more able and expert in employments which they had always +exercised from their infancy; and every man, adding his own experience to +that of his ancestors, was more capable of attaining perfection in his +particular art. Besides, this wholesome institution, which had been +established anciently throughout Egypt, extinguished all irregular +ambition, and taught every man to sit down contented with his condition, +without aspiring to one more elevated, from interest, vain-glory, or +levity. + +From this source flowed numberless inventions for the improvement of all +the arts, and for rendering life more commodious, and trade more easy. I +once could not believe that Diodorus was in earnest, in what he relates +concerning the Egyptian industry,(377) _viz._ that this people had found +out a way, by an artificial fecundity, to hatch eggs without the sitting +of the hen; but all modern travellers declare it to be a fact, which +certainly is worthy our investigation, and is said to be practised also in +Europe. Their relations inform us, that the Egyptians stow eggs in ovens, +which are heated to such a temperament, and with such just proportion to +the natural warmth of the hen, that the chickens produced by these means +are as strong as those which are hatched the natural way. The season of +the year proper for this operation is, from the end of December to the end +of April; the heat in Egypt being too violent in the other months. During +these four months, upwards of three hundred thousand eggs are laid in +these ovens, which, though they are not all successful, nevertheless +produce vast numbers of fowls at an easy rate. The art lies in giving the +ovens a due degree of heat, which must not exceed a fixed proportion. +About ten days are bestowed in heating these ovens, and very near as much +time in hatching the eggs. It is very entertaining, say these travellers, +to observe the hatching of these chickens, some of which show at first +nothing but their heads, others but half their bodies, and others again +come quite out of the egg: these last, the moment they are hatched, make +their way over the unhatched eggs, and form a diverting spectacle. +Corneille le Bruyn, in his Travels,(378) has collected the observations of +other travellers on this subject. Pliny likewise mentions it;(379) but it +appears from him, that the Egyptians, anciently, employed warm dung, not +ovens, to hatch eggs. + +I have said, that husbandmen particularly, and those who took care of +flocks, were in great esteem in Egypt, some parts of it excepted, where +the latter were not suffered.(380) It was, indeed, to these two +professions that Egypt owed its riches and plenty. It is astonishing to +reflect what advantages the Egyptians, by their art and labour, drew from +a country of no great extent, but whose soil was made wonderfully fruitful +by the inundations of the Nile, and the laborious industry of the +inhabitants. + +It will be always so with every kingdom whose governors direct all their +actions to the public welfare. The culture of lands, and the breeding of +cattle, will be an inexhaustible fund of wealth in all countries, where, +as in Egypt, these profitable callings are supported and encouraged by +maxims of state and policy: and we may consider it as a misfortune, that +they are at present fallen into so general a disesteem; though it is from +them that the most elevated ranks (as we esteem them) are furnished, not +only with the necessaries, but even the luxuries of life. "For," says Abbe +Fleury, in his admirable work, _Of the manners of the Israelites_, where +the subject I am upon is thoroughly examined, "it is the peasant who feeds +the citizen, the magistrate, the gentleman, the ecclesiastic: and whatever +artifice and craft may be used to convert money into commodities, and +these back again into money; yet all must ultimately be owned to be +received from the products of the earth, and the animals which it sustains +and nourishes. Nevertheless, when we compare men's different stations of +life together, we give the lowest place to the husbandman: and with many +people a wealthy citizen, enervated with sloth, useless to the public, and +void of all merit, has the preference, merely because he has more money, +and lives a more easy and delightful life. + +"But let us imagine to ourselves a country where so great a difference is +not made between the several conditions; where the life of a nobleman is +not made to consist in idleness and doing nothing, but in a careful +preservation of his liberty; that is, in a due subjection to the laws and +the constitution; by a man's subsisting upon his estate without a +dependence on any one, and being contented to enjoy a little with liberty, +rather than a great deal at the price of mean and base compliances: a +country, where sloth, effeminacy, and the ignorance of things necessary +for life, are held in just contempt; and where pleasure is less valued +than health and bodily strength: in such a country, it will be much more +for a man's reputation to plough, and keep flocks, than to waste all his +hours in sauntering from place to place, in gaming and expensive +diversions." + +But we need not have recourse to Plato's commonwealth, for instances of +men who have led these useful lives. It was thus that the greatest part of +mankind lived during near four thousand years; and that not only the +Israelites, but the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans, that is to say, +nations the most civilized, and most renowned for arms and wisdom. They +all inculcate the regard which ought to be paid to agriculture, and the +breeding of cattle: one of which (without saying any thing of hemp and +flax so necessary for our clothing) supplies us by corn, fruits, and +pulse, with not only a plentiful but delicious nourishment; and the other, +besides its supply of exquisite meats to cover our tables, almost alone +gives life to manufactures and trade, by the skins and stuffs it +furnishes. + +Princes are commonly desirous, and their interest certainly requires it, +that the peasant who, in a literal sense, sustains the heat and burden of +the day, and pays so great a proportion of the national taxes, should meet +with favour and encouragement. But the kind and good intentions of princes +are too often defeated by the insatiable and merciless avarice of those +who are appointed to collect their revenues. History has transmitted to us +a fine saying of Tiberius on this head. A prefect of Egypt having +augmented the annual tribute of the province, and, doubtless, with the +view of making his court to the emperor, remitted to him a much larger sum +than was customary; that prince, who, in the beginning of his reign, +thought, or at least spoke justly, answered, "that it was his design not +to flay, but to shear his sheep."(381) + + + +Chapter VI. Of The Fertility Of Egypt. + + +Under this head, I shall treat only of some plants peculiar to Egypt, and +of the abundance of corn which it produced. + +Papyrus. This is a plant, from the root of which shoot out a great many +triangular stalks, to the height of six or seven cubits. The ancients writ +at first upon palm leaves;(382) next, on the inside of the bark of trees, +from whence the word _liber_, or book, is derived; after that, upon tables +covered over with wax, on which the characters were impressed with an +instrument called Stylus, sharp-pointed at one end to write with, and flat +at the other, to efface what had been written; which gave occasion to the +following expression of Horace: + + + Saepe stylum vertas, iterum quae digna legi sint + Scripturus: + + _Sat._ lib. i. x. ver. 72. + + Oft turn your style, if you desire to write + Things that will bear a second reading---- + + +The meaning of which is, that a good performance is not to be expected +without many erasures and corrections. At last the use of paper(383) was +introduced, and this was made of the bark of Papyrus, divided into thin +flakes or leaves, which were very proper for writing; and this Papyrus was +likewise called Byblus. + + + Nondum flumineas Memphis contexere byblos + Noverat. + + Lucan. + + Memphis as yet knew not to form in leaves + The wat'ry Byblos. + + +Pliny calls it a wonderful invention,(384) so useful to life, that it +preserves the memory of great actions, and immortalizes those who achieved +them. Varro ascribes this invention to Alexander the Great, when he built +Alexandria; but he had only the merit of making paper more common, for the +invention was of much greater antiquity. The same Pliny adds, that +Eumenes, king of Pergamus, substituted parchment instead of paper, in +emulation of Ptolemy, king of Egypt, whose library he was ambitious to +excel by this invention, which had the advantage over paper. Parchment is +the skin of a sheep dressed and made fit to write upon. It was called +Pergamenum from Pergamus, whose kings had the honour of the invention. All +the ancient manuscripts are either upon parchment, or vellum, which is +calf-skin, and a great deal finer than the common parchment. It is very +curious to see white fine paper wrought out of filthy rags picked up in +the streets. The plant Papyrus was useful likewise for sails, tackling, +clothes, coverlets, &c.(385) + +Linum. Flax is a plant whose bark, full of fibres or strings, is useful in +making fine linen. The method of making this linen in Egypt was wonderful, +and carried to such perfection, that the threads which were drawn out of +them, were almost too small for the observation of the sharpest eye. +Priests were always habited in linen, and never in woollen; and all +persons of distinction generally wore linen clothes. This flax formed a +considerable branch of the Egyptian trade, and great quantities of it were +exported into foreign countries. The manufacture of flax employed a great +number of hands in Egypt, especially of the women, as appears from that +passage of Isaiah, in which the prophet menaces Egypt with a drought of so +terrible a nature, that it should interrupt every kind of labour. +"Moreover, they that work in fine flax, and they that weave network, shall +be confounded."(386) We likewise find in Scripture, that one effect of the +plague of hail, called down by Moses upon Egypt, was the destruction of +all the flax which was then bolled.(387) This storm was in March. + +Byssus. This was another kind of flax extremely fine and delicate, which +often received a purple dye.(388) It was very dear; and none but rich and +wealthy persons could afford to wear it. Pliny, who gives the first place +to the Asbeston or Asbestinum, (_i.e._ the incombustible flax,) places the +Byssus in the next rank; and says, "that the dress and ornaments of the +ladies were made of it."(389) It appears from the Holy Scriptures, that it +was chiefly from Egypt that cloth made of this fine flax was brought: +"fine linen with broidered work from Egypt."(390) + +I take no notice of the Lotus, a very common plant, and in great request +among the Egyptians, of whose berries, in former times, they made bread. +There was another Lotus in Africa, which gave its name to the Lotophagi or +Lotus-eaters; because they lived upon the fruit of this tree, which had so +delicious a taste, if Homer may be credited, that it made those who ate it +forget all the sweets of their native country,(391) as Ulysses found to +his cost in his return from Troy. + +In general, it may be said, that the Egyptian pulse and fruits were +excellent; and might, as Pliny observes,(392) have sufficed singly for the +nourishment of the inhabitants, such was their excellent quality, and so +great their plenty. And, indeed, working men lived then almost upon +nothing else, as appears from those who were employed in building the +pyramids. + +Besides these rural riches, the Nile, from its fish, and the fatness it +gave to the soil for the feeding of cattle, furnished the tables of the +Egyptians with the most exquisite fish of every kind, and the most +succulent flesh. This it was which made the Israelites so deeply regret +the loss of Egypt, when they found themselves in the wilderness: "Who," +say they, in a plaintive, and at the same time, seditious tone, "shall +give us flesh to eat? We remember the flesh which we did eat in Egypt +freely; the cucumbers and melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the +garlick.(393) We sat by the flesh-pots, and we did eat bread to the +full."(394) + +But the great and matchless wealth of Egypt arose from its corn, which, +even in an almost universal famine, enabled it to support all the +neighbouring nations, as it particularly did under Joseph's +administration. In later ages, it was the resource and most certain +granary of Rome and Constantinople. It is a well-known story, how a +calumny raised against St. Athanasius, _viz._ of his having threatened to +prevent in future the importation of corn into Constantinople from +Alexandria, incensed the emperor Constantine against that holy bishop, +because he knew that his capital city could not subsist without the corn +which was brought to it from Egypt. The same reason induced all the +emperors of Rome to take so great a care of Egypt, which they considered +as the nursing mother of the world's metropolis. + +Nevertheless, the same river which enabled this province to subsist the +two most populous cities in the world, sometimes reduced even Egypt itself +to the most terrible famine: and it is astonishing that Joseph's wise +foresight, which in fruitful years had made provision for seasons of +sterility, should not have taught these so much boasted politicians, to +adopt similar precautions against the changes and inconstancy of the Nile. +Pliny, in his panegyric upon Trajan, paints with wonderful strength the +extremity to which that country was reduced by a famine under that +prince's reign, and his generous relief of it. The reader will not be +displeased to read here an extract of it, in which a greater regard will +be had to Pliny's thoughts, than to his expressions. + +"The Egyptians," says Pliny, "who gloried that they needed neither rain +nor sun to produce their corn, and who believed they might confidently +contest the prize of plenty with the most fruitful countries of the world, +were condemned to an unexpected drought, and a fatal sterility; from the +greatest part of their territories being deserted and left unwatered by +the Nile, whose inundation is the source and sure standard of their +abundance. 'They then implored that assistance from their prince which +they had been accustomed to expect only from their river.'(395) The delay +of their relief was no longer than that which employed a courier to bring +the melancholy news to Rome; and one would have imagined, that this +misfortune had befallen them only to display with greater lustre the +generosity and goodness of Caesar. It was an ancient and general opinion, +that our city could not subsist without provisions drawn from Egypt.(396) +This vain and proud nation boasted, that though conquered, they +nevertheless fed their conquerors; that, by means of their river, either +abundance or scarcity were entirely in their own disposal. But we now have +returned the Nile his own harvests, and given him back the provisions he +sent us. Let the Egyptians be then convinced, by their own experience, +that they are not necessary to us, and are only our vassals. Let them know +that their ships do not so much bring us the provision we stand in need +of, as the tribute which they owe us. And let them never forget that we +can do without them, but that they can never do without us. This most +fruitful province had been ruined, had it not worn the Roman chains. The +Egyptians, in their sovereign, found a deliverer, and a father. Astonished +at the sight of their granaries, filled without any labour of their own, +they were at a loss to know to whom they owed this foreign and gratuitous +plenty. The famine of a people, though at such a distance from us, yet so +speedily stopped, served only to let them feel the advantage of living +under our empire. The Nile may, in other times, have diffused more plenty +on Egypt, but never more glory upon us.(397) May Heaven, content with this +proof of the people's patience, and the prince's generosity, restore for +ever back to Egypt its ancient fertility!" + +Pliny's reproach to the Egyptians, for their vain and foolish pride with +regard to the inundations of the Nile, points out one of their most +peculiar characteristics, and recalls to my mind a fine passage of +Ezekiel, where God thus speaks to Pharaoh, one of their kings, "Behold I +am against thee, Pharaoh, king of Egypt, the great Dragon that lieth in +the midst of his rivers, which hath said, My river is my own, and I have +made it for myself."(398) God perceived an insupportable pride in the +heart of this prince: a sense of security and confidence in the +inundations of the Nile, independent entirely on the influences of heaven; +as though the happy effects of this inundation had been owing to nothing +but his own care and labour, or those of his predecessors: "the river is +mine, and I have made it." + +Before I conclude this second part, which treats of the manners of the +Egyptians, I think it incumbent on me to bespeak the attention of my +readers to different passages scattered in the history of Abraham, Jacob, +Joseph, and Moses, which confirm and illustrate part of what we meet with +in profane authors upon this subject. They will there observe the perfect +polity which reigned in Egypt, both in the court and the rest of the +kingdom; the vigilance of the prince, who was informed of all +transactions, had a regular council, a chosen number of ministers, armies +ever well maintained and disciplined, both of horse, foot, and armed +chariots; intendants in all the provinces; overseers or guardians of the +public granaries; wise and exact dispensers of the corn lodged in them; a +court composed of great officers of the crown, a captain of his guards, a +chief cup-bearer, a master of his pantry; in a word, all things that +compose a prince's household, and constitute a magnificent court. But +above all these, the readers will admire the fear in which the +threatenings of God were held, the inspector of all actions, and the judge +of kings themselves; and the horror the Egyptians had for adultery, which +was acknowledged to be a crime of so heinous a nature, that it alone was +capable of bringing destruction on a nation.(399) + + + + +Part The Third. The History of the Kings of Egypt. + + +No part of ancient history is more obscure or uncertain, than that of the +first kings of Egypt. This proud nation, fondly conceited of its antiquity +and nobility, thought it glorious to lose itself in an abyss of infinite +ages, which seemed to carry its pretensions backward to eternity. +According to its own historians,(400) first, gods, and afterwards demigods +or heroes, governed it successively, through a series of more than twenty +thousand years. But the absurdity of this vain and fabulous claim is +easily discovered. + +To gods and demigods, men succeeded as rulers or kings in Egypt, of whom +Manetho has left us thirty dynasties or principalities. This Manetho was +an Egyptian high priest, and keeper of the sacred archives of Egypt, and +had been instructed in the Grecian learning: he wrote a history of Egypt, +which he pretended to have extracted from the writings of Mercurius, and +other ancient memoirs, preserved in the archives of the Egyptian temples. +He drew up this history under the reign, and at the command of Ptolemy +Philadelphus. If his thirty dynasties are allowed to be successive, they +make up a series of time, of more than five thousand three hundred years, +to the reign of Alexander the Great; but this is a manifest forgery. +Besides, we find in Eratosthenes,(401) who was invited to Alexandria by +Ptolemy Euergetes, a catalogue of thirty-eight kings of Thebes, all +different from those of Manetho. The clearing up of these difficulties has +put the learned to a great deal of trouble and labour. The most effectual +way to reconcile such contradictions, is to suppose, with almost all the +modern writers upon this subject, that the kings of these different +dynasties did not reign successively after one another, but many of them +at the same time, and in different countries of Egypt. There were in Egypt +four principal dynasties, that of Thebes, of Thin, of Memphis, and of +Tanis. I shall not here give my readers a list of the kings who have +reigned in Egypt, of most of whom we have only the names transmitted to +us. I shall only take notice of what seems to me most proper, to give +youth the necessary light into this part of history, for whose sake +principally I engaged in this undertaking; and I shall confine myself +chiefly to the memoirs left us by Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, +concerning the Egyptian kings, without even scrupulously preserving the +exactness of succession, at least in the early part of the monarchy, which +is very obscure; and without pretending to reconcile these two historians. +Their design, especially that of Herodotus, was not to lay before us an +exact series of the kings of Egypt, but only to point out those princes +whose history appeared to them most important and instructive. I shall +follow the same plan, and hope to be forgiven, for not having involved +either myself or my readers in a labyrinth of almost inextricable +difficulties, from which the most able can scarce disengage themselves, +when they pretend to follow the series of history, and reduce it to fixed +and certain dates. The curious may consult the learned pieces,(402) in +which this subject is treated in all its extent. + +I am to premise, that Herodotus, upon the credit of the Egyptian priests, +whom he had consulted, gives us a great number of oracles and singular +incidents, all which, though he relates them as so many facts, the +judicious reader will easily discover to be what they really are--I mean, +fictions. + +The ancient history of Egypt comprehends 2158 years, and is naturally +divided into three periods. + +The first begins with the establishment of the Egyptian monarchy, by Menes +or Misraim, the son of Cham,(403) in the year of the world 1816; and ends +with the destruction of that monarchy by Cambyses, king of Persia, in the +year of the world 3479. This first period contains 1663 years. + +The second period is intermixed with the Persian and Grecian history, and +extends to the death of Alexander the Great, which happened in the year +3681, and consequently includes 202 years. + +The third period is that in which a new monarchy was formed in Egypt by +the Lagidae, or Ptolemies, descendants from Lagus, to the death of +Cleopatra, the last queen of Egypt, in 3974; and this last comprehends 293 +years. + +I shall now treat only of the first period, reserving the two others for +the AEras to which they belong. + +(M64) THE KINGS OF EGYPT.--MENES. Historians are unanimously agreed, that +Menes was the first king of Egypt. It is pretended, and not without +foundation, that he is the same with Misraim, the son of Cham. + +Cham was the second son of Noah. When the family of the latter, after the +extravagant attempt of building the tower of Babel, dispersed themselves +into different countries, Cham retired to Africa; and it doubtless was he +who afterwards was worshipped as a god, under the name of Jupiter Ammon. +He had four children, Chus,(404) Misraim, Phut, and Canaan. Chus settled +in Ethiopia, Misraim in Egypt, which generally is called in Scripture +after his name, and by that of Cham,(405) his father; Phut took possession +of that part of Africa which lies westward of Egypt; and Canaan, of the +country which afterwards bore his name. The Canaanites are certainly the +same people who are called almost always Phoenicians by the Greeks, of +which foreign name no reason can be given, any more than of the oblivion +of the true one. + +I return to Misraim.(406) He is allowed to be the same with Menes, whom +all historians declare to be the first king of Egypt, the institutor of +the worship of the gods, and of the ceremonies of the sacrifices. + +BUSIRIS, some ages after him, built the famous city of Thebes, and made it +the seat of his empire. We have elsewhere taken notice of the wealth and +magnificence of this city. This prince is not to be confounded with +Busiris, so infamous for his cruelties. + +OSYMANDYAS. Diodorus gives a very particular description of many +magnificent edifices raised by this king;(407) one of which was adorned +with sculptures and paintings of exquisite beauty, representing his +expedition against the Bactrians, a people of Asia, whom he had invaded +with four hundred thousand foot and twenty thousand horse. In another part +of the edifice was exhibited an assembly of the judges, whose president +wore, on his breast, a picture of Truth, with her eyes shut, and himself +was surrounded with books--an emphatic emblem, denoting that judges ought +to be perfectly versed in the laws, and impartial in the administration of +them. + +The king likewise was painted here, offering to the gods gold and silver, +which he drew every year from the mines of Egypt, amounting to the sum of +sixteen millions.(408) + +Not far from hence was seen a magnificent library, the oldest mentioned in +history. Its title or inscription on the front was, _The office, or +treasury, of remedies for the diseases of the soul_. Near it were placed +statues, representing all the Egyptian gods, to each of whom the king made +suitable offerings; by which he seemed to be desirous of informing +posterity that his life and reign had been crowned with piety to the gods, +and justice to men. + +His mausoleum displayed uncommon magnificence; it was encompassed with a +circle of gold, a cubit in breadth, and 365 cubits in circumference; each +of which showed the rising and setting of the sun, moon, and the rest of +the planets. For so early as this king's reign, the Egyptians divided the +year into twelve months, each consisting of thirty days; to which they +added every year five days and six hours.(409) The spectator did not know +which to admire most in this stately monument, whether the richness of its +materials, or the genius and industry of the artists. + +UCHOREUS, one of the successors of Osymandyas, built the city of +Memphis.(410) This city was 150 furlongs, or more than seven leagues in +circumference, and stood at the point of the Delta, in that part where the +Nile divides itself into several branches or streams. Southward from the +city, he raised a lofty mole. On the right and left he dug very deep moats +to receive the river. These were faced with stone, and raised, near the +city, by strong causeys; the whole designed to secure the city from the +inundations of the Nile, and the incursions of the enemy. A city so +advantageously situated, and so strongly fortified, that it was almost the +key of the Nile, and by this means commanded the whole country, became +soon the usual residence of the Egyptian kings. It kept possession of this +honour till Alexandria was built by Alexander the Great. + +MOERIS. This king made the famous lake, which went by his name, and whereof +mention has been already made, + +(M65) Egypt had long been governed by its native princes, when strangers, +called Shepherd-kings, (Hycsos in the Egyptian language,) from Arabia or +Phoenicia, invaded and seized a great part of Lower Egypt, and Memphis +itself; but Upper Egypt remained unconquered, and the kingdom of Thebes +existed till the reign of Sesostris. These foreign princes governed about +260 years. + +(M66) Under one of these princes, called Pharaoh in Scripture,(411) (a +name common to all the kings of Egypt,) Abraham arrived there with his +wife Sarah, who was exposed to great hazard, on account of her exquisite +beauty, which reaching the prince's ear, she was by him taken from +Abraham, upon the supposition that she was not his wife, but only his +sister. + +(M67) THETHMOSIS, or Amosis, having expelled the Shepherd-kings, reigned +in Lower Egypt. + +(M68) Long after his reign, Joseph was brought a slave into Egypt, by some +Ishmaelitish merchants; sold to Potiphar; and, by a series of wonderful +events, enjoyed the supreme authority, by his being raised to the chief +employment of the kingdom. I shall pass over his history, as it is so +universally known. But I must take notice of a remark of Justin, (the +epitomizer of Trogus Pompeius,(412) an excellent historian of the Augustan +age,) _viz._ that Joseph, the youngest of Jacob's children, whom his +brethren, through envy, had sold to foreign merchants, being endowed from +heaven(413) with the interpretation of dreams, and a knowledge of +futurity, preserved, by his uncommon prudence, Egypt from the famine with +which it was menaced, and was extremely caressed by the king. + +(M69) Jacob also went into Egypt with his whole family, which met with the +kindest treatment from the Egyptians, whilst Joseph's important services +were fresh in their memories. But after his death, say the +Scriptures,(414) "there arose up a new king, which knew not Joseph." + +(M70) RAMESES-MIAMUN, according to archbishop Usher, was the name of this +king, who is called Pharaoh in Scripture. He reigned sixty-six years, and +oppressed the Israelites in a most grievous manner. "He set over them +task-masters, to afflict them with their burdens, and they built for +Pharaoh treasure-cities,(415) Pithom and Raamses--and the Egyptians made +the children of Israel to serve with rigour, and they made their lives +bitter with hard bondage, in mortar and in brick, and in all manner of +service in the field; all their service wherein they made them serve, was +with rigour."(416) This king had two sons, Amenophis and Busiris. + +(M71) AMENOPHIS, the eldest, succeeded him. He was the Pharaoh, under +whose reign the Israelites departed out of Egypt, and was drowned in +passing the Red-Sea. + +(M72) Father Tournemine makes Sesostris, of whom we shall speak +immediately, the Pharaoh who raised the persecution against the +Israelites, and oppressed them with the most painful toils. This is +exactly agreeable to the account given by Diodorus of this prince, who +employed in his Egyptian works only foreigners; so that we may place the +memorable event of the passage of the Red-Sea, under his son Pheron;(417) +and the characteristic of impiety ascribed to him by Herodotus, greatly +strengthens the probability of this conjecture. The plan I have proposed +to follow in this history, excuses me from entering into chronological +discussions. + +Diodorus, speaking of the Red-Sea,(418) has made one remark very worthy +our observation; a tradition (says that historian) has been transmitted +through the whole nation, from father to son, for many ages, that once an +extraordinary ebb dried up the sea, so that its bottom was seen; and that +a violent flow immediately after brought back the waters to their former +channel. It is evident, that the miraculous passage of Moses over the +Red-Sea is here hinted at; and I make this remark, purposely to admonish +young students, not to slip over, in their perusal of authors, these +precious remains of antiquity; especially when they bear, like this +passage, any relation to religion. + +Archbishop Usher says, that Amenophis left two sons, one called Sesothis +or Sesostris, and the other Armais. The Greeks call him Belus, and his two +sons Egyptus and Danaus. + +SESOSTRIS(419) was not only one of the most powerful kings of Egypt, but +one of the greatest conquerors that antiquity boasts of. His father, +whether by inspiration, caprice, or, as the Egyptians say, by the +authority of an oracle, formed a design of making his son a conqueror. +This he set about after the Egyptian manner, that is, in a great and noble +way. All the male children, born the same day with Sesostris, were, by the +king's order, brought to court. Here they were educated as if they had +been his own children, with the same care bestowed on Sesostris, with whom +they were brought up. He could not possibly have given him more faithful +ministers, nor officers who more zealously desired the success of his +arms. The chief part of their education was, the enuring them, from their +infancy, to a hard and laborious life, in order that they might one day be +capable of sustaining with ease the toils of war. They were never suffered +to eat, till they had run, on foot or horseback, a considerable race. +Hunting was their most common exercise. + +AElian remarks(420) that Sesostris was taught by Mercury, who instructed +him in politics, and the art of government. This Mercury is he whom the +Greeks called Trismegistus, _i.e._ thrice great. Egypt, his native +country, owes to him the invention of almost every art. The two books, +which go under his name, bear such evident characters of novelty, that the +forgery is no longer doubted. There was another Mercury who also was very +famous amongst the Egyptians for his rare knowledge; and of much greater +antiquity than he of whom we have been speaking. Jamblicus, a priest of +Egypt, affirms, that it was customary with the Egyptians, to affix the +name of Hermes or Mercury to all the new books or inventions that were +offered to the public. + +When Sesostris was more advanced in years, his father sent him against the +Arabians, in order to acquire military knowledge. Here the young prince +learned to bear hunger and thirst; and subdued a nation which till then +had never been conquered. The youths educated with him attended him in all +his campaigns. + +Accustomed by this conquest to martial toils, he was next sent by his +father to try his fortune westward. He invaded Libya, and subdued the +greatest part of that vast country. + +(M73) SESOSTRIS. During this expedition his father died, and left him +capable of attempting the greatest enterprises. He formed no less a design +than that of the conquest of the world. But before he left his kingdom, he +provided for his domestic security, in winning the hearts of his subjects +by his generosity, justice, and a popular and obliging behaviour. He was +no less studious to gain the affection of his officers and soldiers, whom +he wished to be ever ready to shed the last drop of their blood in his +service; persuaded that his enterprises would all be unsuccessful, unless +his army should be attached to his person, by all the ties of esteem, +affection, and interest. He divided the country into thirty-six +governments (called Nomi,) and bestowed them on persons of merit, and the +most approved fidelity. + +In the mean time he made the requisite preparations, levied forces, and +headed them with officers of the greatest bravery and reputation, and +these were taken chiefly from among the youths who had been educated with +him. He had seventeen hundred of these officers, who were all capable of +inspiring his troops with resolution, a love of discipline, and a zeal for +the service of their prince. His army consisted of six hundred thousand +foot, and twenty-four thousand horse, besides twenty-seven thousand armed +chariots. + +He began his expedition by invading AEthiopia, situated to the south of +Egypt. He made it tributary, and obliged the nations of it to furnish him +annually with a certain quantity of ebony, ivory, and gold. + +He had fitted out a fleet of four hundred sail, and ordering it to advance +to the Red-Sea, made himself master of the isles and cities lying on the +coasts of that sea. He himself heading his land army, overran and subdued +Asia with amazing rapidity, and advanced farther into India than Hercules, +Bacchus, and in after-times Alexander himself, had ever done; for he +subdued the countries beyond the Ganges, and advanced as far as the Ocean. +One may judge from hence how unable the more neighbouring countries were +to resist him. The Scythians, as far as the river Tanais, as well as +Armenia, and Cappadocia, were conquered. He left a colony in the ancient +kingdom of Colchos, situated to the east of the Black Sea, where the +Egyptian customs and manners have been ever since retained. Herodotus saw +in Asia Minor, from one sea to the other, monuments of his victories. In +several countries was read the following inscription engraven on pillars: +"Sesostris, king of kings, and lord of lords, subdued this country by the +power of his arms." Such pillars were found even in Thrace, and his empire +extended from the Ganges to the Danube. In his expeditions, some nations +bravely defended their liberties, and others yielded them up without +making the least resistance. This disparity was denoted by him in +hieroglyphical figures, on the monuments erected to perpetuate the +remembrance of his victories, agreeably to the Egyptian practice. + +The scarcity of provisions in Thrace stopped the progress of his +conquests, and prevented his advancing farther in Europe. One remarkable +circumstance is observed in this conqueror, who never once thought, as +others had done, of preserving his acquisitions; but contenting himself +with the glory of having subdued and despoiled so many nations; after +having made wild havoc up and down the world for nine years, he confined +himself almost within the ancient limits of Egypt, a few neighbouring +provinces excepted; for we do not find any traces or footsteps of this new +empire, either under himself or his successors. + +He returned therefore laden with the spoils of the vanquished nations, +dragging after him a numberless multitude of captives, and covered with +greater glory than any of his predecessors; that glory, I mean, which +employs so many tongues and pens in its praise; which consists in invading +a great number of provinces in a hostile way, and is often productive of +numberless calamities. He rewarded his officers and soldiers with a truly +royal magnificence, in proportion to their rank and merit. He made it both +his pleasure and duty, to put the companions of his victory in such a +condition as might enable them to enjoy, during the remainder of their +days, a calm and easy repose, the just reward of their past toils. + +With regard to himself, for ever careful of his own reputation, and still +more of making his power advantageous to his subjects, he employed the +repose which peace allowed him, in raising works that might contribute +more to the enriching of Egypt, than the immortalizing his name; works, in +which the art and industry of the workman were more admired, than the +immense sums which had been expended on them. + +A hundred famous temples, raised as so many monuments of gratitude to the +tutelar gods of all the cities, were the first, as well as the most +illustrious, testimonies of his victories; and he took care to publish in +the inscriptions on them, that these mighty works had been completed +without burdening any of his subjects. He made it his glory to be tender +of them, and to employ only captives in these monuments of his conquests. +The Scriptures take notice of something like this, where they speak of the +buildings of Solomon.(421) But he prided himself particularly in adorning +and enriching the temple of Vulcan at Pelusium, in acknowledgment of the +protection which he fancied that god had bestowed on him, when, on his +return from his expeditions, his brother had a design of destroying him in +that city, with his wife and children, by setting fire to the apartment +where he then lay. + +His great work was, the raising, in every part of Egypt, a considerable +number of high banks or moles, on which new cities were built, in order +that these might be a security for men and beasts during the inundations +of the Nile. + +From Memphis, as far as the sea, he cut, on both sides of the river, a +great number of canals, for the conveniency of trade, and the conveying of +provisions, and for the settling an easy correspondence between such +cities as were most distant from one another. Besides the advantages of +traffic, Egypt was, by these canals, made inaccessible to the cavalry of +its enemies, which before had so often harassed it by repeated incursions. + +He did still more. To secure Egypt from the inroads of its nearer +neighbours, the Syrians and Arabians, he fortified all the eastern coast +from Pelusium to Heliopolis, that is, for upwards of seven leagues.(422) + +Sesostris might have been considered as one of the most illustrious and +most boasted heroes of antiquity, had not the lustre of his warlike +actions, as well as his pacific virtues, been tarnished by a thirst of +glory, and a blind fondness for his own grandeur, which made him forget +that he was a man. The kings and chiefs of the conquered nations came, at +stated times, to do homage to their victor, and pay him the appointed +tribute. On every other occasion, he treated them with sufficient humanity +and generosity. But when he went to the temple, or entered his capital, he +caused these princes to be harnessed to his car, four abreast, instead of +horses; and valued himself upon his being thus drawn by the lords and +sovereigns of other nations. What I am most surprised at, is, that +Diodorus should rank this foolish and inhuman vanity among the most +shining actions of this prince. + +Being grown blind in his old age, he died by his own hands, after having +reigned thirty-three years, and left his kingdom infinitely rich. His +empire, nevertheless, did not reach beyond the fourth generation. But +there still remained, so low as the reign of Tiberius, magnificent +monuments, which showed the extent of Egypt under Sesostris,(423) and the +immense tributes which were paid to it.(424) + +I now go back to some facts which took place in this period, but which +were omitted, in order that I might not break the thread of the history, +and now I shall but barely mention them. + +(M74) About the aera in question, the Egyptians settled themselves in +divers parts of the earth. The colony, which Cecrops led out of Egypt, +built twelve cities, or rather as many towns, of which he composed the +kingdom of Athens. + +(M75) We observed, that the brother of Sesostris, called by the Greeks +Danaus, had formed a design to murder him, on his return to Egypt, after +his conquest. But being defeated in his horrid project, he was obliged to +fly. He thereupon retired to Peloponnesus, where he seized upon the +kingdom of Argos, which had been founded about four hundred years before, +by Inachus. + +(M76) BUSIRIS, brother of Amenophis, so infamous among the ancients for +his cruelties, exercised his tyranny at that time on the banks of the +Nile; and barbarously murdered all foreigners who landed in his country: +this was probably during the absence of Sesostris. + +(M77) About the same time, Cadmus brought from Syria into Greece the +invention of letters. Some pretend, that these characters or letters were +Egyptian, and that Cadmus himself was a native of Egypt, and not of +Phoenicia; and the Egyptians, who ascribe to themselves the invention of +every art, and boast a greater antiquity than any other nation, give to +their Mercury the honour of inventing letters. Most of the learned +agree,(425) that Cadmus carried the Phoenician or Syrian letters into +Greece, and that those letters were the same as the Hebraic; the Hebrews, +who formed but a small nation, being comprehended under the general name +of Syrians. Joseph Scaliger, in his notes on the _Chronicon_ of Eusebius, +proves, that the Greek letters, and those of the Latin alphabet formed +from them, derive their original from the ancient Phoenician letters, which +are the same with the Samaritan, and were used by the Jews before the +Babylonish captivity. Cadmus carried only sixteen letters(426) into +Greece, eight others being added afterwards. + +I return to the history of the Egyptian kings, whom I shall hereafter rank +in the same order as Herodotus has assigned to them. + +(M78) PHERON succeeded Sesostris in his kingdom, but not in his glory. +Herodotus(427) relates but one action of his, which shows how greatly he +had degenerated from the religious sentiments of his father. In an +extraordinary inundation of the Nile, which exceeded eighteen cubits, this +prince, enraged at the wild havoc which was made by it, threw a javelin at +the river, as if he intended thereby to chastise its insolence; but was +himself immediately punished for his impiety, if the historian may be +credited, with the loss of sight. + +(M79) PROTEUS.(428) He was of Memphis, where, in Herodotus's time,(429) +his temple was still standing, in which was a chapel dedicated to Venus +the Stranger. It is conjectured that this Venus was Helen. For, in the +reign of this monarch, Paris the Trojan, returning home with Helen whom he +had stolen, was driven by a storm into one of the mouths of the Nile, +called Canopic; and from thence was conducted to Proteus at Memphis, who +reproached him in the strongest terms for his base perfidy and guilt, in +stealing the wife of his host, and with her all the effects in his house. +He added, that the only reason why he did not punish him with death (as +his crime deserved) was, because the Egyptians were careful not to imbrue +their hands in the blood of strangers: that he would keep Helen, with all +the riches that were brought with her, in order to restore them to their +lawful owner: that as for himself, (Paris,) he must either quit his +dominions in three days, or expect to be treated as an enemy. The king's +order was obeyed. Paris continued his voyage, and arrived at Troy, whither +he was closely pursued by the Grecian army. The Greeks summoned the +Trojans to surrender Helen, and with her all the treasures of which her +husband had been plundered. The Trojans answered, that neither Helen, nor +her treasures, were in their city. And, indeed, was it at all likely, says +Herodotus, that Priam, who was so wise an old prince, should choose to see +his children and country destroyed before his eyes, rather than give the +Greeks the just and reasonable satisfaction they desired? But it was to no +purpose for them to affirm with an oath, that Helen was not in their city; +the Greeks, being firmly persuaded that they were trifled with, persisted +obstinately in their unbelief: the deity, continues the same historian, +being resolved that the Trojans, by the total destruction of their city +and empire, should teach the affrighted world this lesson:(430)--THAT GREAT +CRIMES ARE ATTENDED WITH AS GREAT AND SIGNAL PUNISHMENTS FROM THE OFFENDED +GODS. Menelaus, on his return from Troy, called at the court of king +Proteus, who restored him Helen, with all her treasure. Herodotus proves, +from some passages in Homer, that the voyage of Paris to Egypt was not +unknown to this poet. + +RHAMPSINITUS. What is related by Herodotus(431) concerning the treasury +built by this king, who was the richest of all his predecessors, and his +descent into hell, has so much the air of romance and fiction, as to +deserve no mention here. + +Till the reign of this king, there had been some shadow, at least, of +justice and moderation in Egypt; but in the two following reigns, violence +and cruelty usurped their place. + +CHEOPS and CEPHREN.(432) These two princes, who were truly brothers by the +similitude of their manners, seem to have vied with each other which of +them should distinguish himself most, by a barefaced impiety towards the +gods, and a barbarous inhumanity to men. Cheops reigned fifty years, and +his brother Cephren fifty-six years after him. They kept the temples shut +during the whole time of their long reigns; and forbid the offering of +sacrifices under the severest penalties. On the other hand, they oppressed +their subjects by employing them in the most grievous and useless works; +and sacrificed the lives of numberless multitudes of men, merely to +gratify a senseless ambition of immortalizing their names by edifices of +an enormous magnitude, and a boundless expense. It is remarkable, that +those stately pyramids, which have so long been the admiration of the +whole world, were the effect of the irreligion and merciless cruelty of +those princes. + +MYCERINUS.(433) He was the son of Cheops, but of a character opposite to +that of his father. So far from walking in his steps, he detested his +conduct, and pursued quite different measures. He again opened the temples +of the gods, restored the sacrifices, did all that lay in his power to +comfort his subjects, and make them forget their past miseries; and +believed himself set over them for no other purpose but to exercise +justice, and to make them taste all the blessings of an equitable and +peaceful administration. He heard their complaints, dried their tears, +alleviated their misery, and thought himself not so much the master as the +father of his people. This procured him the love of them all. Egypt +resounded with his praises, and his name commanded veneration in all +places. + +One would naturally conclude, that so prudent and humane a conduct must +have drawn down on Mycerinus the protection of the gods. But it happened +far otherwise. His misfortunes began from the death of a darling and only +daughter, in whom his whole felicity consisted. He ordered extraordinary +honours to be paid to her memory, which were still continued in +Herodotus's time. This historian informs us, that in the city of Sais, +exquisite odours were burnt, in the day-time, at the tomb of this +princess; and that during the night, a lamp was kept constantly burning. + +He was told by an oracle, that his reign would continue but seven years. +And as he complained of this to the gods, and inquired the reason why so +long and prosperous a reign had been granted to his father and uncle, who +were equally cruel and impious, whilst his own, which he had endeavoured +so carefully to render as equitable and mild as it was possible for him to +do, should be so short and unhappy; he was answered, that these were the +very causes of it, it being the will of the gods, to oppress and afflict +Egypt during the space of one hundred and fifty years, as a punishment for +its crimes; and that his reign, which was to have been like those of the +preceding monarchs, of fifty years' continuance, was shortened on account +of his too great lenity. Mycerinus likewise built a pyramid, but much +inferior in dimensions to that of his father. + +ASYCHIS.(434) He enacted the law relating to loans, which forbade a son to +borrow money, without giving the dead body of his father by way of +security for it. The law added, that in case the son took no care to +redeem his father's body by restoring the loan, both himself and his +children should be deprived for ever of the rights of sepulture. + +He valued himself for having surpassed all his predecessors, by the +building a pyramid of brick, more magnificent, if this king was to be +credited, than any hitherto seen. The following inscription, by its +founder's order, was engraved upon it. COMPARE ME NOT WITH PYRAMIDS BUILT +OF STONE; WHICH I AS MUCH EXCEL AS JUPITER DOES ALL THE OTHER GODS.(435) + +If we suppose the six preceding reigns (the exact duration of some of +which is not fixed by Herodotus) to comprise one hundred and seventy +years, there will remain an interval of near three hundred years, to the +reign of Sabachus the Ethiopian. In this interval, I place a few +circumstances related in Holy Scripture. + +(M80) PHARAOH, king of Egypt, gave his daughter in marriage to Solomon +king of Israel; who received her in that part of Jerusalem called the city +of David, till he had built her a palace.(436) + +SESACH or Shishak, otherwise called Sesonchis. (M81) It was to him that +Jeroboam fled, to avoid the wrath of Solomon, who intended to kill +him.(437) He abode in Egypt till Solomon's death, and then returned to +Jerusalem, when, putting himself at the head of the rebels, he won from +Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, ten tribes, over whom he declared himself +king. + +(M82) This Sesach, in the fifth year of the reign of Rehoboam, marched +against Jerusalem, because the Jews had transgressed against the Lord. He +came with twelve hundred chariots of war, and sixty thousand horse.(438) +He had brought numberless multitudes of people, who were all Libyans,(439) +Troglodytes, and Ethiopians. He made himself master of all the strongest +cities of Judah, and advanced as far as Jerusalem. Then the king, and the +princes of Israel, having humbled themselves, and implored the protection +of the God of Israel; God told them, by his prophet Shemaiah, that, +because they humbled themselves, he would not utterly destroy them as they +had deserved; but that they should be the servants of Sesach: in order +"that they might know the difference of his service, and the service of +the kingdoms of the country."(440) Sesach retired from Jerusalem, after +having plundered the treasures of the house of the Lord, and of the king's +house; he carried off every thing with him, "and even also the three +hundred shields of gold which Solomon had made." + +(M83) ZERAH, king of Ethiopia, and doubtless of Egypt at the same time, +made war upon Asa king of Judah.(441) His army consisted of a million of +men, and three hundred chariots of war. Asa marched against him, and +drawing up his army in order of battle, in full reliance on the God whom +he served: "Lord," says he, "it is nothing for thee to help whether with +many, or with them that have no power. Help us, O Lord our God, for we +rest on thee, and in thy name we go against this multitude; O Lord, thou +art our God, let not man prevail against thee." A prayer offered up with +such strong faith was heard. God struck the Ethiopians with terror; they +fled, and all were irrevocably defeated, being "destroyed before the Lord, +and before his host." + +ANYSIS.(442) He was blind, and under his reign SABACHUS, king of Ethiopia, +being encouraged by an oracle, entered Egypt with a numerous army, and +possessed himself of it. He reigned with great clemency and justice. +Instead of putting to death such criminals as had been sentenced to die by +the judges, he made them repair the causeys, on which the respective +cities to which they belonged were situated. He built several magnificent +temples, and among the rest, one in the city of Bubastus, of which +Herodotus gives a long and elegant description. After a reign of fifty +years, which was the time appointed by the oracle, he retired voluntarily +to his old kingdom of Ethiopia, and left the throne of Egypt to Anysis, +who, during this time, had concealed himself in the fens. + +(M84) It is believed that this Sabachus was the same with So, whose aid +was implored by Hoshea, king of Israel, against Shalmanezer, king of +Assyria.(443) + +SETHON. He reigned fourteen years. + +(M85) He is the same with Sevechus, the son of Sabacon, or So, the +Ethiopian, who reigned so long over Egypt. This prince, so far from +discharging the functions of a king, was ambitious of those of a priest; +causing himself to be consecrated high-priest of Vulcan. Abandoning +himself entirely to superstition, he neglected to defend his kingdom by +force of arms; paying no regard to military men, from a firm persuasion +that he should never have occasion for their assistance; he, therefore, +was so far from endeavouring to gain their affections, that he deprived +them of their privileges, and even dispossessed them of their revenues of +such lands as his predecessors had given them. + +He was soon made sensible of their resentment in a war that broke out +suddenly, and from which he delivered himself solely by a miraculous +protection, if Herodotus may be credited, who intermixes his account of +this war with a great many fabulous particulars. Sanacharib (so Herodotus +calls this prince) king of the Arabians and Assyrians, having entered +Egypt with a numerous army, the Egyptian officers and soldiers refused to +march against him. The high priest of Vulcan, being thus reduced to the +greatest extremity, had recourse to his god, who bid him not despond, but +march courageously against the enemy with the few soldiers he could raise. +Sethon obeyed. A small number of merchants, artificers, and others who +were the dregs of the populace, joined him; and with this handful of men, +he marched to Pelusium, where Sanacharib had pitched his camp. The night +following, a prodigious multitude of rats entered the camp of the +Assyrians, and gnawing to pieces all their bowstrings, and the thongs of +their shields, rendered them incapable of making the least defence. Being +disarmed in this manner, they were obliged to fly; and they retreated with +the loss of a great part of their forces. Sethon, when he returned home, +ordered a statue of himself to be set up in the temple of Vulcan, holding +in his right hand a rat, and these words to be inscribed thereon:--LET THE +MAN WHO BEHOLDS ME LEARN TO REVERENCE THE GODS.(444) + +It is very obvious that this story, as related here from Herodotus, is an +alteration of that which is told in the second book of Kings. We there +see,(445) that Sennacherib, king of the Assyrians, having subdued all the +neighbouring nations, and made himself master of all the other cities of +Judah, resolved to besiege Hezekiah in Jerusalem, his capital city. The +ministers of this holy king, in spite of his opposition, and the +remonstrances of the prophet Isaiah, who promised them, in God's name, a +sure and certain protection, provided they would trust in him only, sent +secretly to the Egyptians and Ethiopians for succour. Their armies, being +united, marched to the relief of Jerusalem at the time appointed, and were +met and vanquished by the Assyrian in a pitched battle. He pursued them +into Egypt and entirely laid waste the country. At his return from thence, +the very night before he was to have given a general assault to Jerusalem, +which then seemed lost to all hopes, the destroying angel made dreadful +havoc in the camp of the Assyrians; destroyed a hundred fourscore and five +thousand men by fire and sword; and proved evidently, that they had great +reason to rely, as Hezekiah had done, on the promise of the God of Israel. + +This is the real fact. But as it was no ways honourable to the Egyptians, +they endeavoured to turn it to their own advantage, by disguising and +corrupting the circumstances of it. Nevertheless, the footsteps of this +history, though so much defaced, ought yet to be highly valued, as coming +from an historian of so great antiquity and authority as Herodotus. + +The prophet Isaiah had foretold, at several times, that this expedition of +the Egyptians, which had been concerted, seemingly, with such prudence, +conducted with the greatest skill, and in which the forces of two powerful +empires were united, in order to relieve the Jews, would not only be of no +service to Jerusalem, but even destructive to Egypt itself, whose +strongest cities would be taken, its territories plundered, and its +inhabitants of all ages and sexes led into captivity. See the 18th, 19th, +20th, 30th, 31st, &c. chapters of his prophecy. + +Archbishop Usher and Dean Prideaux suppose that it was at this period that +the ruin of the famous city No-Amon,(446) spoken of by the prophet Nahum, +happened. That prophet says,(447) that "she was carried away--that her +young children were dashed in pieces at the top of all the streets--that +the enemy cast lots for her honourable men, and that all her great men +were bound in chains." He observes, that all these misfortunes befell that +city, when Egypt and Ethiopia were her strength; which seems to refer +clearly enough to the time of which we are here speaking, when Tharaca and +Sethon had united their forces. However, this opinion is not without some +difficulties, and is contradicted by some learned men. It is sufficient +for me to have hinted it to the reader. + +Till the reign of Sethon, the Egyptian priests computed three hundred and +forty-one generations of men;(448) which make eleven thousand three +hundred and forty years; allowing three generations to a hundred years. +They counted the like number of priests and kings. The latter, whether +gods or men, had succeeded one another without interruption, under the +name of Piromis, an Egyptian word signifying good and virtuous. The +Egyptian priests showed Herodotus three hundred and forty-one wooden +colossal statues of these Piromis, all ranged in order in a great hall. +Such was the folly of the Egyptians, to lose themselves as it were in a +remote antiquity, to which no other people could dare to pretend. + +(M86) THARACA. He it was who joined Sethon, with an Ethiopian army, to +relieve Jerusalem.(449) After the death of Sethon, who had sitten fourteen +years on the throne, Tharaca ascended it, and reigned eighteen years. He +was the last Ethiopian king who reigned in Egypt. + +After his death, the Egyptians, not being able to agree about the +succession, were two years in a state of anarchy, during which there were +great disorders and confusions among them. + +(M87) At last,(450) twelve of the principal noblemen, conspiring together, +seized upon the kingdom, and divided it amongst themselves into as many +parts. It was agreed by them, that each should govern his own district +with equal power and authority, and that no one should attempt to invade +or seize the dominions of another. They thought it necessary to make this +agreement, and to bind it with the most dreadful oaths, to elude the +prediction of an oracle, which had foretold, that he among them who should +offer his libation to Vulcan out of a brazen bowl, should gain the +sovereignty of Egypt. They reigned together fifteen years in the utmost +harmony: and to leave a famous monument of their concord to posterity, +they jointly, and at a common expense, built the famous labyrinth, which +was a pile of building consisting of twelve large palaces, with as many +edifices underground as appeared above it. I have spoken elsewhere of this +labyrinth. + +One day, as the twelve kings were assisting at a solemn and periodical +sacrifice offered in the temple of Vulcan, the priests, having presented +each of them a golden bowl for the libation, one was wanting; when +Psammetichus,(451) without any design, supplied the want of this bowl with +his brazen helmet, (for each wore one,) and with it performed the ceremony +of the libation. This accident struck the rest of the kings, and recalled +to their memory the prediction of the oracle above mentioned. They thought +it therefore necessary to secure themselves from his attempts, and +therefore, with one consent, banished him into the fenny parts of Egypt. + +After Psammetichus had passed some years there, waiting a favourable +opportunity to revenge himself for the affront which had been put upon +him, a courier brought him advice, that brazen men were landed in Egypt. +These were Grecian soldiers, Carians and Ionians, who had been cast upon +the coasts of Egypt by a storm, and were completely covered with helmets, +cuirasses, and other arms of brass. Psammetichus immediately called to +mind the oracle, which had answered him, that he should be succoured by +brazen men from the sea-coast. He did not doubt but the prediction was now +fulfilled. He therefore made a league with these strangers; engaged them +with great promises to stay with him; privately levied other forces; and +put these Greeks at their head; when giving battle to the eleven kings, he +defeated them, and remained sole possessor of Egypt. + +(M88) PSAMMETICHUS. As this prince owed his preservation to the Ionians +and Carians, he settled them in Egypt, (from which all foreigners hitherto +had been excluded;) and, by assigning them sufficient lands and fixed +revenues, he made them forget their native country.(452) By his order, +Egyptian children were put under their care to learn the Greek tongue; and +on this occasion, and by this means, the Egyptians began to have a +correspondence with the Greeks; and from that aera, the Egyptian history, +which, till then, had been intermixed with pompous fables, by the artifice +of the priests, begins, according to Herodotus, to speak with greater +truth and certainty. + +As soon as Psammetichus was settled on the throne, he engaged in war +against the king of Assyria, on the subject of the boundaries of the two +empires. This war was of long continuance. Ever since Syria had been +conquered by the Assyrians, Palestine, being the only country that +separated the two kingdoms, was the subject of continual discord; as +afterwards it was between the Ptolemies and the Seleucidae. They were +eternally contending for it, and it was alternately won by the stronger. +Psammetichus, seeing himself the peaceable possessor of all Egypt, and +having restored the ancient form of government,(453) thought it high time +for him to look to his frontiers, and to secure them against the Assyrian, +his neighbour, whose power increased daily. For this purpose, he entered +Palestine at the head of an army. + +Perhaps we are to refer to the beginning of this war, an incident related +by Diodorus;(454) that the Egyptians, provoked to see the Greeks posted on +the right wing by the king himself, in preference to them, quitted the +service, to the number of upwards of two hundred thousand men, and retired +into Ethiopia, where they met with an advantageous settlement. + +Be this as it will, Psammetichus entered Palestine,(455) where his career +was stopped by Azotus, one of the principal cities of the country, which +gave him so much trouble, that he was forced to besiege it twenty-nine +years before he could take it. This is the longest siege mentioned in +ancient history. + +This was anciently one of the five capital cities of the Philistines. The +Egyptians, having seized it some time before, had fortified it with such +care, that it was their strongest bulwark on that side. Nor could +Sennacherib enter Egypt, till he had first made himself master of this +city,(456) which was taken by Tartan, one of his generals. The Assyrians +had possessed it hitherto; and it was not till after the long siege just +now mentioned, that the Egyptians recovered it. + +In this period,(457) the Scythians, leaving the banks of the Palus Maeotis, +made an inroad into Media, defeated Cyaxares, the king of that country, +and deprived him of all Upper Asia, of which they kept possession during +twenty-eight years. They pushed their conquests in Syria as far as to the +frontiers of Egypt. But Psammetichus marching out to meet them, prevailed +so far, by his presents and entreaties, that they advanced no farther, and +by that means delivered his kingdom from these dangerous enemies. + +Till his reign,(458) the Egyptians had imagined themselves to be the most +ancient nation upon earth. Psammetichus was desirous to prove this +himself, and he employed a very extraordinary experiment for this purpose. +He commanded (if we may credit the relation) two children, newly born of +poor parents, to be brought up (in the country) in a hovel, that was to be +kept continually shut. They were committed to the care of a shepherd, +(others say, of nurses, whose tongues were cut out,) who was to feed them +with the milk of goats; and was commanded not to suffer any person to +enter into this hut, nor himself to speak even a single word in the +hearing of these children. At the expiration of two years, as the shepherd +was one day coming into the hut to feed these children, they both cried +out, with hands extended towards their foster-father, _beccos, beccos_. +The shepherd, surprised to hear a language that was quite new to him, but +which they repeated frequently afterwards, sent advice of this to the +king, who ordered the children to be brought before him, in order that he +himself might be a witness to the truth of what was told him; and +accordingly both of them began, in his presence, to stammer out the sounds +above mentioned. Nothing now was wanting but to ascertain what nation it +was that used this word; and it was found that the Phrygians called bread +by this name. From this time they were allowed the honour of antiquity, or +rather of priority, which the Egyptians themselves, notwithstanding their +jealousy of it, and the many ages they had possessed this glory, were +obliged to resign to them. As goats were brought to these children, in +order that they might feed upon their milk, and historians do not say that +they were deaf, some are of opinion that they might have learnt the word +_bec_, or _beccos_, by mimicking the cry of those creatures. + +Psammetichus died in the 24th year of Josias, king of Judah, and was +succeeded by his son Nechao. + +(M89) NECHAO.(459) This prince is often mentioned in Scripture under the +name of Pharaoh-Necho.(460) + +He attempted to join the Nile to the Red-Sea, by cutting a canal from one +to the other. The distance which separates them is at least a thousand +stadia.(461) After a hundred and twenty thousand workmen had lost their +lives in this attempt, Nechao was obliged to desist; the oracle which had +been consulted by him, having answered, that this new canal would open a +passage to the Barbarians (for so the Egyptians called all other nations) +to invade Egypt. + +Nechao was more successful in another enterprise.(462) Skilful Phoenician +mariners, whom he had taken into his service, having sailed from the +Red-Sea in order to discover the coasts of Africa, went successfully round +it; and the third year after their setting out, returned to Egypt through +the Straits of Gibraltar. This was a very extraordinary voyage, in an age +when the compass was not known. It was made twenty-one centuries before +Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese, (by discovering the Cape of Good Hope, in the +year 1497,) found out the very same way to sail to the Indies, by which +these Phoenicians had come from thence into the Mediterranean. + +The Babylonians and Medes, having destroyed Nineveh, and with it the +empire of the Assyrians, were thereby become so formidable, that they drew +upon themselves the jealousy of all their neighbours.(463) Nechao, alarmed +at the danger, advanced to the Euphrates, at the head of a powerful army, +in order to check their progress. Josiah, king of Judah, so famous for his +uncommon piety, observing that he took his route through Judea, resolved +to oppose his passage. With this view, he raised all the forces of his +kingdom, and posted himself in the valley of Megiddo, (a city on this side +Jordan, belonging to the tribe of Manasseh, and called Magdolus by +Herodotus.) Nechao informed him, by a herald, that his enterprise was not +designed against him; that he had other enemies in view, and that he had +undertaken this war in the name of God, who was with him; that for this +reason he advised Josiah not to concern himself with this war, for fear +lest it otherwise should turn to his disadvantage. However, Josiah was not +moved by these reasons: he was sensible that the bare march of so powerful +an army through Judea, would entirely ruin it. And besides, he feared that +the victor, after the defeat of the Babylonians, would fall upon him, and +dispossess him of part of his dominions. He therefore marched to engage +Nechao; and was not only overthrown by him, but unfortunately received a +wound, of which he died at Jerusalem, whither he had ordered himself to be +carried. + +Nechao, animated by this victory, continued his march, and advanced +towards the Euphrates. He defeated the Babylonians; took Carchemish, a +large city in that country; and securing to himself the possession of it +by a strong garrison, returned to his own kingdom, after having been +absent from it three months. + +Being informed in his march homeward, that Jehoahaz had caused himself to +be proclaimed king at Jerusalem, without first asking his consent, he +commanded him to meet him at Riblah in Syria.(464) The unhappy prince was +no sooner arrived there, than he was put in chains by Nechao's order, and +sent prisoner to Egypt, where he died. From thence, pursuing his march, he +came to Jerusalem, where he placed Eliakim, (called by him Jehoiakim,) +another of Josiah's sons, upon the throne, in the room of his brother: and +imposed an annual tribute on the land, of a hundred talents of silver, and +one talent of gold.(465) This being done, he returned in triumph to Egypt. + +Herodotus, mentioning this king's expedition,(466) and the victory gained +by him at Magdolus,(467) (as he calls it,) says, that he afterwards took +the city Cadytis, which he represents as situated in the mountains of +Palestine, and equal in extent to Sardis, the capital at that time not +only of Lydia, but of all Asia Minor: this description can suit only +Jerusalem, which was situated in the manner above described, and was then +the only city in those parts that could be compared to Sardis. It appears +besides from Scripture, that Nechao, after his victory, made himself +master of this capital of Judea; for he was there in person, when he gave +the crown to Jehoiakim. The very name Cadytis, which in Hebrew signifies +the Holy, clearly denotes the city of Jerusalem, as is proved by the +learned Dean Prideaux.(468) + +(M90) Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, observing that, since the taking of +Carchemish by Nechao, all Syria and Palestine had shaken off their +allegiance to him, and that his years and infirmities would not permit him +to march against the rebels in person, he therefore associated his son +Nabuchodonosor, or Nebuchadnezzar, with him in the empire, and sent him at +the head of an army into those countries. This young prince vanquished the +army of Nechao near the river Euphrates, recovered Carchemish, and reduced +the revolted provinces to their allegiance, as Jeremiah had foretold.(469) +Thus he dispossessed the Egyptians of all that belonged to them,(470) from +the little river(471)(472) of Egypt to the Euphrates, which comprehended +all Syria and Palestine. + +Nechao dying after he had reigned sixteen years, left the kingdom to his +son. + +(M91) PSAMMIS. His reign was but of six years' duration; and history has +left us nothing memorable concerning him, except that he made an +expedition into Ethiopia.(473) + +It was to this prince that the Eleans sent a splendid embassy, after +having instituted the Olympic games. They had established all the +regulations, and arranged every circumstance relating to them, with such +care, that, in their opinion, nothing seemed wanting to their perfection, +and envy itself could not find any fault with them. However, they did not +desire so much to have the opinion, as to gain the approbation of the +Egyptians, who were looked upon as the wisest and most judicious people in +the world.(474) Accordingly, the king assembled the sages of his nation. +After every thing had been heard which could be said in favour of this +institution, the Eleans were asked, whether citizens and foreigners were +admitted indifferently to these games; to which answer was made, that they +were open to every one. To this the Egyptians replied, that the rules of +justice would have been more strictly observed, had foreigners only been +admitted to these combats; because it was very difficult for the judges, +in their award of the victory and the prize, not to be prejudiced in +favour of their fellow citizens. + +(M92) APRIES. In Scripture he is called Pharaoh-Hophra. He succeeded his +father Psammis, and reigned twenty-five years.(475) + +During the first years of his reign, he was as fortunate as any of his +predecessors. He turned his arms against the island of Cyprus; besieged +the city of Sidon by sea and land; took it, and made himself master of all +Phoenicia and Palestine.(476) + +So rapid a success elated his heart to a prodigious degree, and, as +Herodotus informs us, swelled him with so much pride and infatuation, that +he boasted, it was not in the power of the gods themselves to dethrone +him; so great was the idea he had formed to himself of the firm +establishment of his own power. It was with a view to these arrogant +notions, that Ezekiel put the vain and impious words following into his +mouth: "My river is mine own, and I have made it for myself."(477) But the +true God proved to him afterwards that he had a master, and that he was a +mere man; and he had threatened him long before, by his prophets, with all +the calamities he was resolved to bring upon him, in order to punish him +for his pride. + +Shortly after Hophra had ascended the throne, Zedekiah, king of Judah, +sent an embassy, and concluded an alliance with him; and the year +following, breaking the oath of fidelity which he had taken to the king of +Babylon, he rebelled openly against him.(478) + +Notwithstanding God had so often forbidden his people to have recourse to +the Egyptians, or to put any confidence in that people; notwithstanding +the repeated calamities which had ensued upon the various attempts which +they had made to procure assistance from them; they still thought this +nation their most sure refuge in danger, and accordingly could not forbear +applying to it. This they had already done in the reign of the holy king +Hezekiah; which gave occasion to God's message to his people, by the mouth +of his prophet Isaiah: "Wo to them that go down to Egypt for help, and +stay on horses and trust in chariots, because they are many; but they look +not unto the holy One of Israel, neither seek the Lord. The Egyptians are +men, and not God; and their horses flesh, not spirit: when the Lord shall +stretch out his hand, both he that helpeth shall fall, and he that is +holpen shall fall down, and they shall fail together."(479) But neither +the prophet nor the king were heard; and nothing but the most fatal +experience could open their eyes, and make them see evidently the truth of +God's threatenings. + +The Jews behaved in the very same manner on this occasion. Zedekiah, +notwithstanding all the remonstrances of Jeremiah to the contrary, +resolved to conclude an alliance with the Egyptian monarch; who, puffed up +with the success of his arms, and confident that nothing could resist his +power, declared himself the protector of Israel, and promised to deliver +it from the tyranny of Nabuchodonosor. But God, offended that a mortal had +dared to intrude himself into his place, thus declared himself to another +prophet: "Son of man, set thy face against Pharaoh king of Egypt, and +prophesy against him, and against all Egypt. Speak and say, Thus saith the +Lord God, Behold, I am against thee, Pharaoh, king of Egypt, the great +dragon that lieth in the midst of his rivers, which hath said, My river is +my own, and I have made it for myself. But I will put hooks in thy +jaws,"(480) &c. God, after comparing him to a reed, which breaks under the +man who leans upon it, and wounds his hand, adds, "Behold, I will bring a +sword upon thee, and cut off man and beast out of thee; the land of Egypt +shall be desolate, and they shall know that I am the Lord, because he hath +said, The river is mine, and I have made it."(481) The same prophet, in +several succeeding chapters, continues to foretell the calamities with +which Egypt was going to be overwhelmed.(482) + +Zedekiah was far from giving credit to these predictions. When he heard of +the approach of the Egyptian army, and saw Nabuchodonosor raise the siege +of Jerusalem, he fancied that his deliverance was completed, and +anticipated a triumph. His joy, however, was but of short duration; for +the Egyptians seeing the Chaldeans advancing, did not dare to encounter so +numerous and well-disciplined an army. (M93) They therefore marched back +into their own country, and left the unfortunate Zedekiah exposed to all +the dangers of a war in which they themselves had involved him.(483) +Nabuchodonosor again sat down before Jerusalem, took and burnt it, as +Jeremiah had prophesied. + +(M94) Many years after, the chastisements with which God had threatened +Apries (Pharaoh-Hophra) began to fall upon him.(484) For the Cyrenians, a +Greek colony, which had settled in Africa, between Libya and Egypt, having +seized upon, and divided among themselves, a great part of the country +belonging to the Libyans, forced these nations, who were thus dispossessed +by violence, to throw themselves into the arms of this prince, and implore +his protection. Immediately Apries sent a mighty army into Libya to oppose +the Cyrenians; but this army being defeated and almost cut to pieces, the +Egyptians imagined that Apries had sent it into Libya, only to get it +destroyed; and by that means to attain the power of governing his subjects +without check or control. This reflection prompted the Egyptians to shake +off the yoke of a prince, whom they now considered as their enemy. But +Apries, hearing of the rebellion, despatched Amasis, one of his officers, +to suppress it, and force the rebels to return to their allegiance. But +the moment Amasis began to address them, they placed a helmet upon his +head, in token of the exalted dignity to which they intended to raise him, +and proclaimed him king. Amasis having accepted the crown, staid with the +mutineers, and confirmed them in their rebellion. + +Apries, more exasperated than ever at this news, sent Patarbemis, another +of his great officers, and one of the principal lords of his court, to put +Amasis under an arrest, and bring him before him; but Patarbemis not being +able to carry off Amasis from the midst of the rebel army, by which he was +surrounded, was treated by Apries, at his return, in the most ignominious +and inhuman manner; for his nose and ears were cut off by the command of +that prince, who never considered, that only his want of power had +prevented his executing his commission. So barbarous an outrage, committed +upon a person of such high distinction, exasperated the Egyptians so much, +that the greatest part of them joined the rebels, and the insurrection +became general. Apries was now forced to retire into Upper Egypt, where he +supported himself some years, during which Amasis made himself master of +the rest of his dominions. + +The troubles which thus distracted Egypt, afforded Nabuchodonosor a +favourable opportunity to invade that kingdom; and it was God himself who +inspired him with the resolution. This prince, who was the instrument of +God's wrath (though he did not know himself to be so) against a people +whom he was resolved to chastise, had just before taken Tyre, where +himself and his army had laboured under incredible difficulties. To +recompense their toils, God abandoned Egypt to their arms. It is wonderful +to hear the Creator himself revealing his designs on this subject. There +are few passages in Scripture more remarkable than this, or which give a +clearer idea of the supreme authority which God exercises over all the +princes and kingdoms of the earth: "Son of man, (says the Almighty to his +prophet Ezekiel,) Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, caused his army to +serve a great service against Tyrus: every head was made bald, and every +shoulder was peeled:(485) yet had he no wages, nor his army,(486) for the +service he had served against it. Therefore, thus saith the Lord God: +Behold, I will give the land of Egypt unto Nebuchadnezzar, king of +Babylon, and he shall take her multitude, and take her spoil, and take her +prey, and it shall be the wages for his army. I have given him the land of +Egypt for his labour, wherewith he served against it, because they wrought +for me, saith the Lord God."(487) Says another prophet: "He shall array +himself with the land of Egypt, as a shepherd putteth on his garment, and +he shall go forth from thence in peace."(488) Thus shall he load himself +with booty, and thus cover his own shoulders, and those of his fold, with +all the spoils of Egypt. Noble expressions! which show the ease with which +all the power and riches of a kingdom are carried away, when God appoints +the revolution; and shift, like a garment, to a new owner, who has no more +to do but to take it, and clothe himself with it. + +The king of Babylon, taking advantage, therefore, of the intestine +divisions which the rebellion of Amasis had occasioned in that kingdom, +marched thither at the head of his army. He subdued Egypt from Migdol or +Magdol, a town on the frontiers of the kingdom, as far as Syene, in the +opposite extremity where it borders on Ethiopia. He made a horrible +devastation wherever he came; killed a great number of the inhabitants, +and made such dreadful havoc in the country, that the damage could not be +repaired in forty years. Nabuchodonosor, having loaded his army with +spoils, and conquered the whole kingdom, came to an accommodation with +Amasis; and leaving him as his viceroy there, returned to Babylon. + +APRIES (Pharaoh-Hophra) now leaving the place where he had concealed +himself, advanced towards the sea-coast, (probably on the side of Libya;) +and hiring an army of Carians, Ionians, and other foreigners, he marched +against Amasis, to whom he gave battle near Memphis; but being overcome, +Apries was taken prisoner, carried to the city of Sais, and there +strangled in his own palace.(489) + +The Almighty had given, by the mouth of his prophets, an astonishing +relation of the several circumstances of this mighty event. It was He who +had broken the power of Apries, which was once so formidable; and put the +sword into the hand of Nabuchodonosor, in order that he might chastise and +humble that haughty prince. "I am," said he, "against Pharaoh king of +Egypt, and will break his arms, which were strong, but now are broken; and +I will cause the sword to fall out of his hand."(490)--"But I will +strengthen the arms of the king of Babylon, and put my sword into his +hand."(491)--"And they shall know that I am the Lord."(492) + +He enumerates the towns which were to fall a prey to the victors; Pathros, +Zoan, No, (called in the Vulgate Alexandria,) Sin, Aven, Phibeseth, +&c.(493)(494) + +He takes notice particularly of the unhappy end of the king, who was to be +delivered up to his enemies. Thus saith the Lord; "Behold, I will give +Pharaoh-Hophra, the king of Egypt, into the hand of his enemies, and into +the hand of them that seek his life."(495) + +Lastly, he declares, that during forty years the Egyptians shall be +oppressed with every species of calamity, and be reduced to so deplorable +a state, "That there shall be no more a prince of the land of Egypt."(496) +The event verified this prophecy, which was gradually accomplished. Soon +after the expiration of these forty years, Egypt was made a province of +the Persian empire, to which its kings, though natives of the country, +were tributary, and thus the accomplishment of the prediction began. It +was completely fulfilled on the death of Nectanebus, the last king of +Egyptian extraction, A.M. 3654. + +Since that time, Egypt has constantly been governed by foreigners. For +since the ruin of the Persian monarchy, it has been subject, successively, +to the Macedonians, the Romans, the Saracens, the Mamalukes, and lastly, +to the Turks, who possess it to this day. + +God was not less punctual in the accomplishment of his prophecies, with +regard to such of his own people as had retired, contrary to his +prohibition, into Egypt, after the taking of Jerusalem; and had forced +Jeremiah along with them.(497) The instant they had reached Egypt, and +were arrived at Tahpanhes, (or Tanis,) the prophet, after having hid in +their presence (by God's command) stones in a grotto, which was near the +king's palace, declared to them, that Nabuchodonosor should soon arrive in +Egypt, and that God would establish his throne in that very place; that +this prince would lay waste the whole kingdom, and carry fire and sword +into all places; that themselves should fall into the hand of these cruel +enemies, when one part of them would be massacred, and the rest led +captive to Babylon; that only a very small number should escape the common +desolation, and be at last restored to their country. All these prophecies +had their accomplishment in the appointed time. + +(M95) AMASIS. After the death of Apries, Amasis became peaceable possessor +of Egypt, and reigned over it forty years. He was, according to Plato, a +native of the city of Sais.(498) + +As he was but of mean extraction, he met with no respect in the beginning +of his reign, but was only contemned by his subjects:(499) he was not +insensible of this; but, nevertheless, thought it his interest to subdue +their tempers by management and address, and win their affections by +gentleness and reason. He had a golden cistern, in which himself and those +persons who were admitted to his table, used to wash their feet: he melted +it down, and had it cast into a statue, and then exposed the new god to +public worship. The people hasted in crowds to pay their adoration to the +statue. The king having assembled the people, informed them of the vile +uses to which this statue had once been put, which, nevertheless, was now +the object of their religious prostrations: the application was easy, and +had the desired success; the people thenceforward paid the king all the +respect that is due to majesty. + +He always used to devote the whole morning to public business, to receive +petitions, give audience, pronounce sentence, and hold his councils: the +rest of the day was given to pleasure: and as Amasis, in hours of +diversion, was extremely gay, and seemed to carry his mirth beyond due +bounds, his courtiers took the liberty to represent to him the +unsuitableness of such a behaviour; when he answered, that it was as +impossible for the mind to be always serious and intent upon business, as +for a bow to continue always bent.(500) + +It was this king who obliged the inhabitants of every town to enter their +names in a book, kept by the magistrate for that purpose, with their +profession, and manner of living. Solon inserted this custom among his +laws. + +He built many magnificent temples, especially at Sais, the place of his +birth. Herodotus admired especially a chapel there formed of one single +stone, which was twenty-one cubits(501) in front, fourteen in depth, and +eight in height; its dimensions within were not quite so large; it had +been brought from Elephantina, and two thousand men had employed three +years in conveying it along the Nile. + +Amasis had a great esteem for the Greeks. He granted them large +privileges; and permitted such of them as were desirous of settling in +Egypt, to live in the city of Naucratis, so famous for its harbour. When +the rebuilding of the temple of Delphi, which had been burnt, was debated +on, and the expense was computed at three hundred talents,(502) Amasis +furnished the Delphians with a very considerable sum towards discharging +their quota, which was the fourth part of the whole charge. + +He made an alliance with the Cyrenians, and married a wife from among +them. + +He is the only king of Egypt who conquered the island of Cyprus, and made +it tributary. + +Under his reign Pythagoras came into Egypt, being recommended to that +monarch by the famous Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, who had contracted a +friendship with Amasis, and will be mentioned hereafter. Pythagoras, +during his stay in Egypt, was initiated in all the mysteries of the +country; and instructed by the priests in whatever was most abstruse and +important in their religion. It was here he imbibed his doctrine of the +Metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls. + +In the expedition in which Cyrus conquered so great a part of the world, +Egypt doubtless was subdued, like the rest of the provinces; and Xenophon +positively declares this in the beginning of his _Cyropaedia_, or +institution of that prince.(503) Probably, after that the forty years of +desolation, which had been foretold by the prophet, were expired, Egypt +beginning gradually to regain strength, Amasis shook off the yoke, and +recovered his liberty. + +Accordingly, we find, that one of the first cares of Cambyses, the son of +Cyrus, after he had ascended the throne, was to carry his arms into Egypt. +On his arrival there, Amasis was just dead, and succeeded by his son +Psammenitus. + +(M96) PSAMMENITUS. Cambyses, after having gained a battle, pursued the +enemy to Memphis; besieged the city, and soon took it: however, he treated +the king with clemency, granted him his life, and assigned him an +honourable pension; but being informed that he was secretly concerting +measures to reascend his throne, he put him to death. Psammenitus reigned +but six months: all Egypt submitted immediately to the victor. The +particulars of this history will be related more at large, when I come to +that of Cambyses. + +Here ends the succession of the Egyptian kings. From this aera the history +of this nation, as was before observed, will be blended with that of the +Persians and Greeks, till the death of Alexander. At that period, a new +monarchy will arise in Egypt, founded by Ptolemy the son of Lagus, which +will continue to Cleopatra, that is, for about three hundred years. I +shall treat each of these subjects, in the several periods to which they +belong. + + + + + +BOOK THE SECOND. THE HISTORY OF THE CARTHAGINIANS. + + + + +Part The First. Character, Manners, Religion, And Government Of The +Carthaginians. + + +SECT. I. CARTHAGE FORMED AFTER THE MODEL OF TYRE, OF WHICH THAT CITY WAS A +COLONY. The Carthaginians were indebted to the Tyrians, not only for their +origin, but for their manners, language, customs, laws, religion, and +their great application to commerce, as will appear from every part of the +sequel. They spoke the same language with the Tyrians, and these the same +with the Canaanites and Israelites, that is, the Hebrew tongue, or at +least a language which was entirely derived from it. Their names had +commonly some particular meaning:(504) thus _Hanno_ signified _gracious_, +_bountiful_; Dido, _amiable_, or _well-beloved_; Sophonisba, _one who +keeps faithfully her husband's secrets_. From a spirit of religion, they +likewise joined the name of God to their own, conformably to the genius of +the Hebrews. Hannibal, which answers to Hananias, signifies _Baal_, [or +_the Lord_] _has been gracious to me_. Asdrubal, answering to Azarias, +implies, _the Lord will be our succour_. It is the same with other names, +Adherbal, Maharbal, Mastanabal, &c. The word Poeni, from which Punic is +derived, is the same with Phoeni, or Phoenicians, because they came +originally from Phoenicia. In the _Poenulus_ of Plautus, is a scene written +in the Punic tongue, which has very much exercised the learned.(505) + +But the strict union which always subsisted between the Phoenicians and +Carthaginians, is still more remarkable. When Cambyses had resolved to +make war upon the latter, the Phoenicians, who formed the chief strength of +his fleet, told him plainly that they could not serve him against their +countrymen; and this declaration obliged that prince to lay aside his +design.(506) The Carthaginians, on their side, were never forgetful of the +country from whence they came, and to which they owed their origin. They +sent regularly every year to Tyre a ship freighted with presents, as a +quit-rent, or acknowledgment paid to their ancient country; and an annual +sacrifice was offered to the tutelar gods of Tyre, by the Carthaginians, +who considered them as their protectors likewise.(507) They never failed +to send thither the first fruits of their revenues, nor the tithe of the +spoils taken from their enemies, as offerings to Hercules, one of the +principal gods of Tyre and Carthage. The Tyrians, to secure from Alexander +(who was then besieging their city) what they valued above all things, I +mean their wives and children, sent them to Carthage, where, though at a +time when the inhabitants of the latter were involved in a furious war, +they were received and entertained with such a kindness and generosity as +might be expected from the most tender and opulent parents. Such +uninterrupted testimonies of a warm and sincere gratitude, do a nation +more honour, than the greatest conquests and the most glorious victories. + +SECT. II. THE RELIGION OF THE CARTHAGINIANS.--It appears from several +passages of the history of Carthage, that its generals looked upon it as +an indispensable duty, to begin and end all their enterprises with the +worship of the gods. Hamilcar, father of the great Hannibal, before he +entered Spain in a hostile manner, offered up a sacrifice to the gods; and +his son, treading in his steps, before he left Spain, and marched against +Rome, went as far as Cadiz, in order to pay the vows which he had made to +Hercules, and to offer up new ones, in case that god should be propitious +to him.(508) After the battle of Cannae, when he acquainted the +Carthaginians with the joyful news, he recommended to them, above all +things, the offering up a solemn thanksgiving to the immortal gods, for +the several victories he had obtained.(509) _Pro his tantis totque +victoriis verum esse grates diis immortalibus agi haberique._ + +Neither did individuals alone pride themselves upon displaying, on every +occasion, this religious care to honour the deity; but it evidently was +the genius and disposition of the whole nation. + +Polybius has transmitted to us a treaty of peace concluded between Philip, +son of Demetrius, king of Macedon, and the Carthaginians, in which the +great respect and veneration of the latter for the deity, and their +inherent persuasion that the gods engage in, and preside over, human +affairs, and particularly over the solemn treaties made in their name and +presence, are strongly displayed.(510) Mention is therein made of five or +six different orders of deities; and this enumeration appears very +extraordinary in a public instrument, such as a treaty of peace concluded +between two nations. I will here present my reader with the very words of +the historian, as it will give some idea of the Carthaginian theology. +"This treaty was concluded in the presence of Jupiter, Juno, and Apollo; +in the presence of the daemon or genius ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}) of the Carthaginians, of +Hercules and Iolaus; in the presence of Mars, Triton, and Neptune; in the +presence of all the confederate gods of the Carthaginians; and of the sun, +the moon, and the earth; in the presence of the rivers, meads, and waters; +in the presence of all those gods who possess Carthage:" what should we +now say to an instrument of this kind, in which the tutelar angels and +saints of a kingdom should be introduced? + +The Carthaginians had two deities to whom they paid a more particular +worship, and who deserve to have some mention made of them in this place. + +The first was the goddess Coelestis, called likewise Urania, the same with +the moon, who was invoked in great calamities, and particularly in +droughts, in order to obtain rain: that very virgin Coelestis, says +Tertullian,(511) the promiser of rain, _Ista ipsa Virgo Coelestis pluviarum +pollicitatrix_. Tertullian, speaking of this goddess and of AEsculapius, +makes the heathens of that age a challenge, which is bold indeed, but at +the same time very glorious to the cause of Christianity; declaring, that +any Christian who may first come, shall oblige these false gods to confess +publicly, that they are but devils; and consenting that this Christian +shall be immediately killed, if he does not extort such a confession from +the mouth of these gods. _Nisi se daemones confessi fuerint Christiano +mentiri non audentes, ibidem illius Christiani procacissimi sanguinem +fundite._ St. Austin likewise makes frequent mention of this deity. "What +is now," says he,(512) "become of Coelestis, whose empire was once so great +in Carthage?" This was doubtless the same deity whom Jeremiah calls the +queen of heaven;(513) and who was held in so much reverence by the Jewish +women, that they addressed their vows, burnt incense, poured out +drink-offerings, and made cakes for her with their own hands, _ut faciant +placentas reginae coeli_; and from whom they boasted their having received +all manner of blessings, whilst they regularly paid her this worship; +whereas, since they had failed in it, they had been oppressed with +misfortunes of every kind. + +The second deity particularly adored by the Carthaginians, and in whose +honour human sacrifices were offered, was Saturn, known in Scripture by +the name of Moloch; and this worship had passed from Tyre to Carthage. +Philo quotes a passage from Sanchoniathon, which shows that the kings of +Tyre, in great dangers, used to sacrifice their sons to appease the anger +of the gods; and that one of them, by this action, procured himself divine +honours, and was worshipped as a god, under the name of the planet Saturn; +to this doubtless was owing the fable of Saturn's devouring his own +children. Private persons, when they were desirous of averting any great +calamity, took the same method; and, in imitation of their princes, were +so very superstitious, that such as had no children, purchased those of +the poor, in order that they might not be deprived of the merit of such a +sacrifice. This custom prevailed long among the Phoenicians and Canaanites, +from whom the Israelites borrowed it, though forbidden expressly by +heaven. At first, these children were inhumanly burnt, either in a fiery +furnace, like those in the valley of Hinnon, so often mentioned in +Scripture, or enclosed in a flaming statue of Saturn. The cries of these +unhappy victims were drowned by the uninterrupted noise of drums and +trumpets.(514) Mothers(515) made it a merit, and a part of their religion, +to view this barbarous spectacle with dry eyes, and without so much as a +groan; and, if a tear or a sigh stole from them, the sacrifice was less +acceptable to the deity, and all the effects of it were entirely lost. +This strength of mind, or rather savage barbarity, was carried to such +excess, that even mothers would endeavour, with embraces and kisses, to +hush the cries of their children;(516) lest, had the victim been offered +with an unbecoming grace, and in the midst of tears, it should be +displeasing to the god: _Blanditiis et osculis comprimebant vagitum, ne +flebilis hostia immolaretur._(517) They afterwards contented themselves +with making their children pass through the fire; as appears from several +passages of Scripture, in which they frequently perished. + +The Carthaginians retained the barbarous custom of offering human +sacrifices to their gods,(518) till the ruin of their city:(519) an action +which ought to have been called a sacrilege rather than a sacrifice. +_Sacrilegium verius quam sacrum._ It was suspended only for some years, +from the fear they were under of drawing upon themselves the indignation +and arms of Darius I. king of Persia, who forbade them the offering up of +human sacrifices, and the eating the flesh of dogs: but they soon resumed +this horrid practice, since, in the reign of Xerxes, the successor to +Darius, Gelon the tyrant of Syracuse, having gained a considerable victory +over the Carthaginians in Sicily, among other conditions of peace which he +enjoined them, inserted this article:(520) _viz._ "That no more human +sacrifices should be offered to Saturn." And, doubtless, the practice of +the Carthaginians, on this very occasion, made Gelon use this precaution. +For during the whole engagement, which lasted from morning till night, +Hamilcar, the son of Hanno their general, was perpetually offering up to +the gods sacrifices of living men, who were thrown in great numbers on a +flaming pile; and seeing his troops routed and put to flight, he himself +rushed into it, in order that he might not survive his own disgrace, and +to extinguish, says St. Ambrose speaking of this action, with his own +blood this sacrilegious fire, when he found that it had not proved of +service to him.(521)(522) + +In times of pestilence(523) they used to sacrifice a great number of +children to their gods, unmoved with pity for a tender age, which excites +compassion in the most cruel enemies; thus seeking a remedy for their +evils in guilt itself; and endeavouring to appease the gods by the most +shocking barbarity. + +Diodorus relates(524) an instance of this cruelty which strikes the reader +with horror. At the time that Agathocles was just going to besiege +Carthage, its inhabitants, seeing the extremity to which they were +reduced, imputed all their misfortunes to the just anger of Saturn, +because that, instead of offering up children nobly born, who were usually +sacrificed to him, there had been fraudulently substituted in their stead +the children of slaves and foreigners. To atone for this crime, two +hundred children of the best families in Carthage were sacrificed to +Saturn; besides which, upwards of three hundred citizens, from a sense of +their guilt of this pretended crime, voluntarily sacrificed themselves. +Diodorus adds, that there was a brazen statue of Saturn, the hands of +which were turned downward; so that when a child was laid on them, it +dropped immediately into a hollow, where was a fiery furnace. + +Can this, says Plutarch,(525) be called worshipping the gods? Can we be +said to entertain an honourable idea of them, if we suppose that they are +pleased with slaughter, thirsty of human blood, and capable of requiring +or accepting such offerings? Religion, says this judicious author,(526) is +placed between two rocks, that are equally dangerous to man, and injurious +to the deity, I mean impiety and superstition. The one, from an +affectation of free-thinking, believes nothing; and the other, from a +blind weakness, believes all things. Impiety, to rid itself of a terror +which galls it, denies the very existence of the gods: whilst +superstition, to calm its fears, capriciously forges gods, which it makes +not only the friends, but protectors and models, of crimes. Had it not +been better, says he further,(527) for the Carthaginians to have had +originally a Critias, or a Diagoras, who were open and undisguised +atheists, for their lawgivers, than to have established so frantic and +wicked a religion? Could the Typhons and the giants, (the avowed enemies +of the gods,) had they gained a victory over them, have established more +abominable sacrifices? + +Such were the sentiments which a heathen entertained of this part of the +Carthaginian worship. One would indeed scarce believe that mankind were +capable of such madness and frenzy. Men do not generally of themselves +entertain ideas so destructive of all that nature considers as most +sacred, as to sacrifice, to murder, their children with their own hands, +and to throw them in cool blood into fiery furnaces! Sentiments so +unnatural and barbarous, and yet adopted by whole nations, and even by the +most civilized, by the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Gauls, Scythians, and +even the Greeks and Romans, and consecrated by custom during a long series +of ages, can have been inspired by him only who was a murderer from the +beginning; and who delights in nothing but the humiliation, misery, and +perdition of man. + +SECT. III. FORM OF THE GOVERNMENT OF CARTHAGE.--The government of Carthage +was founded upon principles of the most consummate wisdom; and it is with +reason that Aristotle(528) ranks this republic in the number of those that +were had in the greatest esteem by the ancients, and which were fit to +serve as a model for others. He grounds his opinion on a reflection, which +does great honour to Carthage, by remarking, that, from its foundation to +his time, (that is, upwards of five hundred years,) no considerable +sedition had disturbed the peace, nor any tyrant oppressed the liberty of +that state. Indeed, mixed governments, such as that of Carthage, where the +power was divided betwixt the nobles and the people, are subject to two +inconveniences; either of degenerating into an abuse of liberty by the +seditions of the populace, as frequently happened in Athens, and in all +the Grecian republics; or into the oppression of the public liberty by the +tyranny of the nobles, as in Athens, Syracuse, Corinth, Thebes, and Rome +itself under Sylla and Caesar. It is, therefore, giving Carthage the +highest praise, to observe, that it had found out the art, by the wisdom +of its laws, and the harmony of the different parts of its government, to +shun, during so long a series of years, two rocks that are so dangerous, +and on which others so often split. + +It were to be wished, that some ancient author had left us an accurate and +regular description of the customs and laws of this famous republic. For +want of such assistance, we can only give our readers a confused and +imperfect idea of them, by collecting the several passages which lie +scattered up and down in authors. Christopher Hendrich has obliged the +learned world in this particular, and his work(529) has been of great +service to me. + +The government of Carthage,(530) like that of Sparta and Rome, united +three different authorities, which counterpoised and gave mutual +assistance to one another. These authorities were, that of the two supreme +magistrates, called Suffetes;(531) that of the Senate; and that of the +people. There afterwards was added the tribunal of One Hundred, which had +great credit and influence in the republic. + +_The Suffetes._--The power of the Suffetes was only annual, and their +authority in Carthage answered to that of the consuls at Rome.(532) In +authors they are frequently called kings, dictators, consuls, because they +exercised the functions of all three. History does not inform us of the +manner of their election. They were empowered to assemble the senate;(533) +in which they presided, proposed subjects for deliberation, and collected +the votes;(534) and they likewise presided in all debates on matters of +importance. Their authority was not limited to the city, nor confined to +civil affairs: they sometimes had the command of the armies. We find, that +when their employment of Suffetes expired, they were made praetors, which +was a considerable office, since, besides conferring upon them the +privilege of presiding in some causes, it also empowered them to propose +and enact new laws, and call to account the receivers of the public +revenues, as appears from what Livy relates(535) concerning Hannibal on +this head, and which I shall take notice of in the sequel. + +_The Senate._--The Senate, composed of persons who were venerable on +account of their age, their experience, their birth, their riches, and +especially their merit, formed the council of state; and were, if I may +use that expression, the soul of the public deliberations. Their number is +not exactly known: it must, however, have been very great, since a hundred +were selected from it to form a separate assembly, of which I shall +immediately have occasion to speak. In the senate, all affairs of +consequence were debated, the letters from generals read, the complaints +of provinces heard, ambassadors admitted to audience, and peace or war +determined, as is seen on many occasions. + +When the sentiments and votes were unanimous, the senate decided +supremely, and there lay no appeal from it.(536) When there was a +division, and the senate could not be brought to an agreement, the affair +was then laid before the people, on whom the power of deciding thereby +devolved. The reader will easily perceive the great wisdom of this +regulation: and how happily it was adapted to crush factions, to produce +harmony, and to enforce and corroborate good counsels; such an assembly +being extremely jealous of its authority, and not easily prevailed upon to +let it pass into other hands. Of this we have a memorable instance in +Polybius.(537) When after the loss of the battle fought in Africa, at the +end of the second Punic war, the conditions of peace offered by the victor +were read in the senate; Hannibal, observing that one of the senators +opposed them, represented in the strongest terms, that as the safety of +the republic lay at stake, it was of the utmost importance for the +senators to be unanimous in their resolutions, to prevent such a debate +from coming before the people; and he carried his point. This, doubtless, +laid the foundation, in the infancy of the republic, of the senate's +power, and raised its authority to so great a height. And the same author +observes, in another place,(538) that whilst the senate had the +administration of affairs, the state was governed with great wisdom, and +was successful in all its enterprises. + +_The People._--It appears from every thing related hitherto, that even so +low as Aristotle's time, who gives so beautiful a picture, and bestows so +noble an eulogium on the government of Carthage, the people spontaneously +left the care of public affairs, and the chief administration of them, to +the senate: and this it was which made the republic so powerful. But +things changed afterwards. For the people, grown insolent by their wealth +and conquests, and forgetting that they owed these blessings to the +prudent conduct of the senate, were desirous of having a share in the +government, and arrogated to themselves almost the whole power. From that +period, the public affairs were transacted wholly by cabals and factions: +and this Polybius assigns as one of the chief causes of the ruin of +Carthage. + +_The Tribunal of the Hundred._--This was a body composed of a hundred and +four persons; though often, for brevity's sake, they are called only, the +Hundred. These, according to Aristotle, were the same in Carthage, as the +Ephori in Sparta; whence it appears, that they were instituted to balance +the power of the nobles and senate: but with this difference, that the +Ephori were but five in number, and continued in office but a year; +whereas these were perpetual, and were upwards of a hundred. (M97) It is +believed, that these Centumviri are the same with the hundred judges +mentioned by Justin,(539) who were taken out of the senate, and appointed +to inquire into the conduct of their generals. The exorbitant power of +Mago's family, which, by its engrossing the chief employments both of the +state and the army, had thereby the sole direction and management of all +affairs, gave occasion to this establishment. It was intended as a curb to +the authority of their generals, which, whilst the armies were in the +field, was almost boundless and absolute; but, by this institution, it +became subject to the laws, by the obligation their generals were under, +of giving an account of their actions before these judges on their return +from the campaign: _Ut hoc metu ita in bello imperia cogitarent, ut domi +judicia legesque respicerent._(540) Of these hundred and four judges, five +had a particular jurisdiction superior to that of the rest; but it is not +known how long their authority lasted. This council of five was like the +council of ten in the Venetian senate. A vacancy in their number could be +filled by none but themselves. They also had the power of choosing those +who composed the council of the hundred. Their authority was very great, +and for that reason none were elected into this office but persons of +uncommon merit; and it was not judged proper to annex any salary or reward +to it; the single motive of the public good, being thought a tie +sufficient to engage honest men to a conscientious and faithful discharge +of their duty. Polybius, in his account of the taking of New Carthage by +Scipio,(541) distinguishes clearly two orders of magistrates established +in Old Carthage; for he says, that among the prisoners taken at New +Carthage, were two magistrates belonging to the body or assembly of old +men, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}: so he calls the council of the hundred; and fifteen +of the senate, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}. Livy mentions(542) only the fifteen of +the senators; but, in another place, he names the old men; and tells us, +that they formed the most venerable council of the government, and had +great authority in the senate. _Carthaginenses--Oratores ad pacem petendam +mittunt triginta seniorum principes. Id erat sanctius apud illos +concilium, maximaque ad ipsum senatum regendum vis._(543) + +Establishments, though constituted with the greatest wisdom and the +justest harmony of parts, degenerate, however insensibly, into disorder +and the most destructive licentiousness. These judges, who by the lawful +execution of their power were a terror to transgressors, and the great +pillars of justice, abusing their almost unlimited authority, became so +many petty tyrants. (M98) We shall see this verified in the history of the +great Hannibal, who during his praetorship, after his return to Africa, +employed all his influence to reform so horrid an abuse; and made the +authority of these judges, which before was perpetual, only annual, about +two hundred years from the first founding the tribunal of the One Hundred. + +_Defects in the Government of Carthage._--Aristotle, among other +reflections made by him on the government of Carthage, remarks two great +defects in it, both which, in his opinion, are repugnant to the views of a +wise lawgiver and the maxims of sound policy. + +The first of these defects was, the investing the same person with +different employments, which was considered at Carthage as a proof of +uncommon merit. But Aristotle thinks this practice highly prejudicial to +the public welfare. For, says this author, a man possessed but of one +employment, is much more capable of acquitting himself well in the +execution of it; because affairs are then examined with greater care, and +sooner despatched. We never see, continues our author, either by sea or +land, the same officer commanding two different bodies, or the same pilot +steering two ships. Besides, the welfare of the state requires that places +and preferments should be divided, in order to excite an emulation among +men of merit: whereas the bestowing of them on one man, too often dazzles +him by so distinguishing a preference, and always fills others with +jealousy, discontent, and murmurs. + +The second defect taken notice of by Aristotle in the government of +Carthage, was, that in order for a man to attain the first posts, a +certain income was required (besides merit and noble birth.) By which +means, poverty might exclude persons of the most exalted merit, which he +considers as a great evil in a government. For then, says he, as virtue is +wholly disregarded, and money is all-powerful, because all things are +attained by it, the admiration and desire of riches seize and corrupt the +whole community. Add to this, that when magistrates and judges are obliged +to pay large sums for their employments, they seem to have a right to +reimburse themselves.' + +There is not, I believe, one instance in all antiquity, to show that +employments, either in the state or the courts of justice, were sold. The +expense, therefore, which Aristotle talks of here to raise men to +preferments in Carthage, must doubtless be understood of the presents that +were given in order to procure the votes of the electors: a practice, as +Polybius observes, very common at Carthage, where no kind of gain was +judged a disgrace.(544) It is, therefore, no wonder, that Aristotle should +condemn a practice whose consequences, it is very plain, may prove fatal +to a government. + +But in case he pretended that the chief employments of a state ought to be +equally accessible to the rich and the poor, as he seems to insinuate, his +opinion is refuted by the general practice of the wisest republics; for +these, without any way demeaning or aspersing poverty, have thought that, +on this occasion, the preference ought to be given to riches; because it +is to be presumed that the wealthy have received a better education, have +nobler sentiments, are more out of the reach of corruption, and less +liable to commit base actions; and that even the state of their affairs +makes them more affectionate to the government, more disposed to maintain +peace and order in it, and more interested in suppressing whatever may +tend to sedition and rebellion. + +Aristotle, in concluding his reflections on the republic of Carthage, is +much pleased with a custom that prevailed there: _viz._ of sending from +time to time colonies into different countries; and in this manner +procuring its citizens commodious settlements. This provided for the +necessities of the poor, who, equally with the rich, are members of the +state: and it disburdened Carthage of multitudes of lazy, indolent people, +who were its disgrace, and often proved dangerous to it: it prevented +commotions and insurrections, by thus removing such persons as commonly +occasion them; and who being ever discontented under their present +circumstances, are always ready for innovations and tumults. + +SECT. IV. TRADE OF CARTHAGE, THE FIRST SOURCE OF ITS WEALTH AND +POWER.--Commerce, strictly speaking, was the occupation of Carthage, the +particular object of its industry, and its peculiar and predominant +characteristic. It formed the greatest strength and the chief support of +that commonwealth. In a word, we may affirm that the power, the conquests, +the credit, and glory of the Carthaginians, all flowed from their +commerce. Situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, and stretching out +their arms eastward and westward, the extent of their commerce took in all +the known world, and wafted it to the coast of Spain, of Mauritania, of +Gaul, and beyond the straits and pillars of Hercules. They sailed to all +countries, in order to buy at a cheap rate the superfluities of every +nation; which, by the wants of others, became necessaries; and these they +sold to them at the dearest rates. From Egypt the Carthaginians fetched +fine flax, paper, corn, sails and cables for ships; from the coast of the +Red-Sea, spices, frankincense, perfumes, gold, pearls, and precious +stones; from Tyre and Phoenicia, purple and scarlet, rich stuffs, +tapestry, costly furniture, and divers curious and exquisite works of art: +in a word, they fetched, from various countries, all things that can +supply the necessities, or are capable of contributing to the convenience, +the luxury, and the delights of life. They brought back from the western +parts of the world, in return for the articles carried thither, iron, tin, +lead, and copper: by the sale of these various commodities, they enriched +themselves at the expense of all nations; and put them under a kind of +contribution, which was so much the surer as it was spontaneous. + +In thus becoming the factors and agents of all nations, they had made +themselves lords of the sea; the band which held the east, the west, and +south together; and the necessary channel of their communication: so that +Carthage rose to be the common city, and the centre of the trade, of all +those nations which the sea separated from one another. + +The most considerable personages of the city were not ashamed of engaging +in trade. They applied themselves to it as industriously as the meanest +citizens; and their great wealth did not make them less in love with the +diligence, patience, and labour, which are necessary to augment it. To +this they owed their empire of the sea, the splendour of their republic; +their being able to dispute for the superiority with Rome itself; and +their exalted pitch of power, which forced the Romans to carry on a bloody +and doubtful war, for upwards of forty years, in order to humble and +subdue this haughty rival. In short, Rome, even when triumphant, thought +Carthage was not to be entirely reduced any other way, than by depriving +that city of the resources which it might still derive from its commerce, +by which it had so long been enabled to resist the whole strength of that +mighty republic. + +However, it is no wonder that, as Carthage came in a manner out of the +greatest school of traffic in the world, I mean Tyre, she should have been +crowned with such rapid and uninterrupted success. The very vessels on +which its founders had been conveyed into Africa, were afterwards employed +by them in their trade. They began to make settlements upon the coasts of +Spain, in those ports where they unloaded their goods. The ease with which +they had founded these settlements, and the conveniences they met with, +inspired them with the design of conquering those vast regions; and some +time after, _Nova Carthago_, or New Carthage, gave the Carthaginians an +empire in that country, almost equal to that which they enjoyed in Africa. + +SECT. V. THE MINES OF SPAIN, THE SECOND SOURCE OF THE RICHES AND POWER OF +CARTHAGE.--Diodorus justly remarks,(545) that the gold and silver mines +found by the Carthaginians in Spain, were an inexhaustible fund of wealth, +that enabled them to sustain such long wars against the Romans. The +natives had long been ignorant of these treasures that lay concealed in +the bowels of the earth, at least of their use and value. The Phoenicians +took advantage of this ignorance; and, by bartering some wares of little +value for this precious metal, they amassed infinite wealth. When the +Carthaginians had made themselves masters of the country, they dug much +deeper into the earth than the old inhabitants of Spain had done, who +probably were content with what they could collect on the surface; and the +Romans, when they had dispossessed the Carthaginians of Spain, profited by +their example, and drew an immense revenue from these mines of gold and +silver. + +The labour employed to come at these mines, and to dig the gold and silver +out of them, was incredible.(546) For the veins of these metals rarely +appeared on the surface; they were to be sought for and traced through +frightful depths, where very often floods of water stopped the miners, and +seemed to defeat all future pursuits. But avarice is no less patient in +undergoing fatigues, than ingenious in finding expedients. By pumps, which +Archimedes had invented when in Egypt, the Romans afterwards threw up the +water out of these pits, and quite drained them. Numberless multitudes of +slaves perished in these mines, which were dug to enrich their masters; +who treated them with the utmost barbarity, forced them by heavy stripes +to labour, and gave them no respite either day or night. + +Polybius, as quoted by Strabo,(547) says, that, in his time, upwards of +forty thousand men were employed in the mines near _Nova Carthago_; and +furnished the Romans every day with twenty-five thousand drachmas, or +eight hundred fifty-nine pounds seven shillings and sixpence.(548) + +We must not be surprised to see the Carthaginians, soon after the greatest +defeats, sending fresh and numerous armies again into the field; fitting +out mighty fleets, and supporting, at a great expense, for many years, +wars carried on by them in far-distant countries. But it must appear +surprising to us that the Romans should be capable of doing the same; they +whose revenues were very inconsiderable before those great conquests which +subjected to them the most powerful nations; and who had no resources, +either from trade, to which they were absolute strangers, or from gold or +silver mines, which were very rarely found in Italy, in case there were +any; and the expenses of which must, for that very reason, have swallowed +up all the profit. The Romans, in the frugal and simple life they led, in +their zeal for the public welfare, and their love for their country, +possessed funds which were not less ready or secure than those of +Carthage, but at the same time were far more honourable to their nation. + +SECT. VI. WAR.--Carthage must be considered as a trading, and, at the same +time, a warlike republic. Its genius and the nature of its government led +it to traffic; and it became warlike, first, from the necessity the +Carthaginians were under of defending themselves against the neighbouring +nations, and afterwards from a desire of extending their commerce and +empire. This double idea gives us, in my opinion, the true plan and +character of the Carthaginian republic. We have already spoken of its +commerce. + +The military power of the Carthaginians consisted in their alliances with +kings; in tributary nations, from which they drew both men and money; in +some troops raised from among their own citizens; and in mercenary +soldiers purchased of neighbouring states, without being themselves +obliged to levy or exercise them, because they were already well +disciplined and inured to the fatigues of war; they making choice, in +every country, of such troops as had the greatest merit and reputation. +They drew from Numidia a light, bold, impetuous, and indefatigable +cavalry, which formed the principal strength of their armies; from the +Balearic isles, the most expert slingers in the world; from Spain, a +steady and invincible infantry; from the coasts of Genoa and Gaul, troops +of acknowledged valour; and from Greece itself, soldiers fit for all the +various operations of war, for the field or the garrisons, for besieging +or defending cities. + +In this manner the Carthaginians sent out at once powerful armies, +composed of soldiers which were the flower of all the armies in the +universe, without depopulating either their fields or cities by new +levies; without suspending their manufactures, or disturbing the peaceful +artificer; without interrupting their commerce, or weakening their navy. +By venal blood they possessed themselves of provinces and kingdoms; and +made other nations the instruments of their grandeur and glory, with no +other expense of their own than their money; and even this furnished from +the traffic they carried on with foreign nations. + +If the Carthaginians, in the course of a war, sustained some losses, these +were but as so many foreign accidents, which only grazed, as it were, over +the body of the state, but did not make a deep wound in the bowels or +heart of the republic. These losses were speedily repaired, by sums +arising out of a flourishing commerce, as from a perpetual sinew of war, +by which the government was continually reinforced with new supplies for +the purchase of mercenary forces, who were ready at the first summons. And +from the vast extent of the coasts which the Carthaginians possessed, it +was easy for them to levy, in a very little time, a sufficient number of +sailors and rowers for the working of their fleets, and to procure able +pilots and experienced captains to conduct them. + +But as these parts were fortuitously brought together, they did not adhere +by any natural, intimate, or necessary tie. No common and reciprocal +interest united them in such a manner, as to form a solid and unalterable +body. Not one individual in these mercenary armies, was sincerely +interested in the success of measures, or in the prosperity of the state. +They did not act with the same zeal, nor expose themselves to dangers with +equal resolution, for a republic which they considered as foreign, and +which consequently was indifferent to them, as they would have done for +their native country, whose happiness constitutes that of the several +members who compose it. + +In great reverses of fortune, the kings in alliance with the +Carthaginians(549) might easily be detached from their interest, either by +that jealousy which the grandeur of a more powerful neighbour naturally +excites; or by the hopes of reaping greater advantages from a new friend; +or by the fear of being involved in the misfortunes of an old ally. + +The tributary nations, impatient under the weight and disgrace of a yoke +which had been forced upon their necks, generally flattered themselves +with the hopes of finding one less galling in changing their masters; or, +in case servitude was unavoidable, the choice was indifferent to them, as +will appear from many instances in the course of this history. + +The mercenary forces, accustomed to measure their fidelity by the +largeness or continuance of their pay, were ever ready, on the least +discontent, or the slightest expectation of a more considerable stipend, +to desert to the enemy with whom they had just before fought, and to turn +their arms against those who had invited them to their assistance. + +Thus the grandeur of the Carthaginians being sustained only by these +foreign supports, was shaken to the very foundation when they were once +taken away. And if to this there happened to be added an interruption of +their commerce, (which was their sole resource,) arising from the loss of +a naval engagement, they imagined themselves to be on the brink of ruin, +and abandoned themselves to despondency and despair, as was evidently seen +at the end of the first Punic war. + +Aristotle, in the treatise where he shows the advantages and defects of +the government of Carthage, finds no fault with its keeping up none but +foreign forces; it is therefore probable, that the Carthaginians did not +fall into this practice till a long time after. But the rebellions which +harassed Carthage in its later years, out to have taught its citizens, +that no miseries are comparable to those of a government which is +supported only by foreigners; since neither zeal, security, nor obedience, +can be expected from them. + +But this was not the case with the republic of Rome. As the Romans had +neither trade nor money, they were not able to hire forces to push on +their conquests with the same rapidity as the Carthaginians: but then, as +they procured every thing from within themselves; and as all the parts of +the state were intimately united; they had surer resources in great +misfortunes than the Carthaginians. And for this reason they never once +thought of suing for peace after the battle of Cannae, as the Carthaginians +had done in a less imminent danger. + +The Carthaginians had, besides, a body of troops (which was not very +numerous) levied from among their own citizens; and this was a kind of +school, in which the flower of their nobility, and those whose talents and +ambition prompted them to aspire to the first dignities, learned the +rudiments of the art of war. From among these were selected all the +general officers, who were put at the head of the different bodies of +their forces, and had the chief command in the armies. This nation was too +jealous and suspicious to employ foreign generals. But they were not so +distrustful of their own citizens as Rome and Athens; for the +Carthaginians, at the same time that they invested them with great power, +did not guard against the abuse they might make of it in order to oppress +their country. The command of armies was neither annual, nor limited to +any time, as in the two republics above-mentioned. Many generals held +their commissions for a great number of years, either till the war or +their lives ended; though they were still accountable to the commonwealth +for their conduct; and liable to be recalled, whenever a real fault, a +misfortune, or the superior interest of a cabal, furnished an opportunity +for it. + +SECT. VII. ARTS AND SCIENCES.--It cannot be said that the Carthaginians +renounced entirely the glory which results from study and knowledge. The +sending of Masinissa, son of a powerful king,(550) thither for education, +gives us room to believe that Carthage was provided with an excellent +school. The great Hannibal,(551) who in all respects was an ornament to +that city, was not unacquainted with polite literature, as will be seen +hereafter. Mago,(552) another very celebrated general, did as much honour +to Carthage by his pen as by his victories. He wrote twenty-eight volumes +upon husbandry, which the Roman senate had in such esteem, that after the +taking of Carthage, when they presented the African princes with the +libraries found there, (another proof that learning was not entirely +banished from Carthage,) they gave orders to have these books translated +into Latin,(553) though Cato had before written his books on that subject. +There is still extant a Greek version of a treatise drawn up by Hanno in +the Punic tongue,(554) relating to a voyage he made (by order of the +senate) with a considerable fleet round Africa, for the settling of +different colonies in that part of the world. This Hanno is believed to be +more ancient than that person of the same name who lived in the time of +Agathocles. + +Clitomachus, called in the Punic language Asdrubal, was a great +philosopher.(555) He succeeded the famous Carneades, whose disciple he had +been; and maintained in Athens the honour of the Academic sect. Cicero +says,(556) that he was a more sensible man, and fonder of study, than the +Carthaginians generally are. He wrote several books;(557) in one of which +he composed a piece to console the unhappy citizens of Carthage, who, by +the ruin of their city, were reduced to slavery. + +I might rank among, or rather place at the head of, the writers who have +adorned Africa, the celebrated Terence; himself singly being capable of +reflecting infinite honour on his country by the fame of his productions, +if, on this account, Carthage, the place of his birth, ought not to be +less considered as his country than Rome, where he was educated, and +acquired that purity of style, that delicacy and elegance, which have +gained him the admiration of all succeeding ages. It is supposed,(558) +that he was carried off when an infant, or at least very young, by the +Numidians in their incursions into the Carthaginian territories, during +the war carried on between these two nations, from the conclusion of the +second, to the beginning of the third Punic war. He was sold for a slave +to Terentius Lucanus, a Roman senator; who, after giving him an excellent +education, gave him his liberty, and called him by his own name, as was +then the custom. He was united in a very strict friendship with the second +Scipio Africanus, and Laelius; and it was a common report at Rome, that he +had the assistance of these two great men in composing his pieces. The +poet, so far from endeavouring to stifle a report so advantageous to him, +made a merit of it. Only six of his comedies are extant. Some authors, on +the authority of Suetonius, (the writer of his life,) say, that in his +return from Greece, whither he had made a voyage, he lost a hundred and +eight comedies, which he had translated from Menander, and could not +survive an accident which must naturally afflict him in a sensible manner; +but this incident is not very well founded. Be this as it may, he died in +the year of Rome 594, under the consulship of Cneius Cornelius Dolabella, +and M. Fulvius, at the age of thirty-five years, and consequently he was +born anno 560. + +It must yet be confessed, notwithstanding all we have said, that there +ever was a great scarcity of learned men in Carthage, since it hardly +furnished three or four writers of reputation in upwards of seven hundred +years. Although the Carthaginians held a correspondence with Greece and +the most civilized nations, yet this did not excite them to borrow their +learning, as being foreign to their views of trade and commerce. +Eloquence, poetry, history, seem to have been little known among them. A +Carthaginian philosopher was considered as a sort of prodigy by the +learned. What then would an astronomer or a geometrician have been +thought? I know not in what esteem physic, which is so highly useful to +life, was held at Carthage; or jurisprudence, so necessary to society. + +As works of wit were generally had in so much disregard, the education of +youth must necessarily have been very imperfect and unpolished. In +Carthage, the study and knowledge of youth were for the most part confined +to writing, arithmetic, book-keeping, and the buying and selling goods; in +a word, to whatever related to traffic. But polite learning, history, and +philosophy, were in little repute among them. These were, in later years, +even prohibited by the laws, which expressly forbade any Carthaginian to +learn the Greek tongue, lest it might qualify them for carrying on a +dangerous correspondence with the enemy, either by letter or word of +mouth.(559) + +Now what could be expected from such a cast of mind? Accordingly there was +never seen among them that elegance of behaviour, that ease and +complacency of manners, and those sentiments of virtue, which are +generally the fruits of a liberal education in all civilized nations. The +small number of great men which this nation has produced, must therefore +have owed their merit to the felicity of their genius, to the singularity +of their talents, and a long experience, without any great assistance from +cultivation and instruction. Hence it was, that the merit of the greatest +men of Carthage was sullied by great failings, low vices, and cruel +passions; and it is rare to meet with any conspicuous virtue among them +without some blemish; with any virtue of a noble, generous, and amiable +kind, and supported by enlightened and steady principles, such as is every +where found among the Greeks and Romans. The reader will perceive that I +here speak only of the heathen virtues, and agreeably to the idea which +the Pagans entertained of them. + +I meet with as few monuments of their skill in arts of a less noble and +necessary kind, as painting and sculpture. I find, indeed, that they had +plundered the conquered nations of a great many works in both these kinds; +but it does not appear that they themselves had produced many. + +From what has been said, one cannot help concluding, that traffic was the +predominant inclination, and the peculiar characteristic of the +Carthaginians; that it formed, in a manner, the basis of the state, the +soul of the commonwealth, and the grand spring which gave motion to all +their enterprises. The Carthaginians, in general, were skilful merchants; +employed wholly in traffic; excited strongly by the desire of gain, and +esteeming nothing but riches; directing all their talents, and placing +their chief glory, in amassing them; though at the same time they scarce +knew the purpose for which they were designed, or how to use them in a +noble or worthy manner. + +SECT. VIII. THE CHARACTER, MANNERS, AND QUALITIES OF THE CARTHAGINIANS.--In +the enumeration of the various qualities which Cicero(560) assigns to +different nations, as their distinguishing characteristics, he declares +that of the Carthaginians to be craft, skill, address, industry, cunning, +_calliditas_; which doubtless appeared in war, but was still more +conspicuous in the rest of their conduct; and this was joined to another +quality that bears a very near relation to it, and is still less +reputable. Craft and cunning lead naturally to lying, duplicity, and +breach of faith; and these, by accustoming the mind insensibly to be less +scrupulous with regard to the choice of the means for compassing its +designs, prepare it for the basest frauds and the most perfidious actions. +This was also one of the characteristics of the Carthaginians;(561) and it +was so notorious, that to signify any remarkable dishonesty, it was usual +to call it _Punic faith, fides Punica_; and to denote a knavish, deceitful +disposition, no expression was thought more proper and emphatical than +this, a Carthaginian disposition, _Punicum ingenium_. + +An excessive thirst for amassing wealth, and an inordinate love of gain, +generally gave occasion in Carthage to the committing base and unjust +actions. One single example will prove this. During a truce, granted by +Scipio to the earnest entreaties of the Carthaginians, some Roman vessels, +being driven by a storm on the coasts of Carthage, were seized by order of +the senate and people,(562) who could not suffer so tempting a prey to +escape them. They were resolved to get money, though the manner of +acquiring it were ever so scandalous.(563) The inhabitants of Carthage, +even in St. Austin's time, (as that Father informs us,) showed on a +particular occasion, that they still retained part of this characteristic. + +But these were not the only blemishes and faults of the +Carthaginians.(564) They had something austere and savage in their +disposition and genius, a haughty and imperious air, a sort of ferocity, +which, in the first transports of passion, was deaf to both reason and +remonstrances, and plunged brutally into the utmost excesses of violence. +The people, cowardly and grovelling under apprehensions, were proud and +cruel in their transports; at the same time that they trembled under their +magistrates, they were dreaded in their turn by their miserable vassals. +In this we see the difference which education makes between one nation and +another. The Athenians, whose city was always considered as the centre of +learning, were naturally jealous of their authority, and difficult to +govern; but still, a fund of good nature and humanity made them +compassionate the misfortunes of others, and be indulgent to the errors of +their leaders. Cleon one day desired the assembly, in which he presided, +to break up, because, as he told them, he had a sacrifice to offer, and +friends to entertain. The people only laughed at the request, and +immediately separated. Such a liberty, says Plutarch, at Carthage, would +have cost a man his life. + +Livy makes a like reflection with regard to Terentius Varro.(565) That +general on his return to Rome after the battle of Cannae, which had been +lost by his ill conduct, was met by persons of all orders of the state, at +some distance from Rome; and thanked by them, for his not having despaired +of the commonwealth; who, says the historian, had he been a general of the +Carthaginians, must have expected the most severe punishment: _Cui, si +Carthaginensium ductor fuisset, nihil recusandum supplicii foret._ Indeed, +a court was established at Carthage, where the generals were obliged to +give an account of their conduct; and they all were made responsible for +the events of the war. Ill success was punished there as a crime against +the state; and whenever a general lost a battle, he was almost sure, at +his return, of ending his life upon a gibbet. Such was the furious, cruel, +and barbarous disposition of the Carthaginians, who were always ready to +shed the blood of their citizens as well as of foreigners. The unheard-of +tortures which they made Regulus suffer, are a manifest proof of this +assertion; and their history will furnish us with such instances of it, as +are not to be read without horror. + + + + +Part The Second. The History of the Carthaginians. + + +The interval of time between the foundation of Carthage and its ruin, +included seven hundred years, and may be divided into two parts. The +first, which is much the longest and the least known, (as is ordinary with +the beginnings of all states,) extends to the first Punic war, and takes +up five hundred and eighty-two years. The second, which ends at the +destruction of Carthage, contains but a hundred and eighteen years. + + + +Chapter I. The Foundation of Carthage and its Aggrandizement till the Time +of the first Punic War. + + +Carthage in Africa was a colony from Tyre, the most renowned city at that +time for commerce in the world. Tyre had long before transplanted into +that country another colony, which built Utica,(566) made famous by the +death of the second Cato, who, for this reason, is generally called Cato +Uticensis. + +Authors disagree very much with regard to the aera of the foundation of +Carthage.(567) It is a difficult matter, and not very material, to +reconcile them; at least, agreeably to the plan laid down by me, it is +sufficient to know, within a few years, the time in which that city was +built. + +Carthage existed a little above seven hundred years.(568) It was destroyed +under the consulate of Cn. Lentulus, and L. Mummius, the 603d year of +Rome, 3859th of the world, and 145 before Christ. The foundation of it may +therefore be fixed in the year of the world 3158, when Joash was king of +Judah, 98 years before the building of Rome, and 846 before our Saviour. + +The foundation of Carthage is ascribed to Elisa, a Tyrian princess, better +known by the name of Dido.(569) Ithobal, king of Tyre, and father of the +famous Jezebel, called in Scripture Ethbaal, was her great-grandfather. +She married her near relation Acerbas, called otherwise Sicharbas and +Sichaeus, an extremely rich prince, and Pygmalion, king of Tyre, was her +brother. This prince having put Sichaeus to death, in order that he might +have an opportunity of seizing his immense wealth, Dido eluded the cruel +avarice of her brother, by withdrawing secretly with all her dead +husband's treasures. After having long wandered, she at last landed on the +coast of the Mediterranean, in the gulf where Utica stood, and in the +country of Africa, properly so called, distant almost fifteen(570) miles +from Tunis, so famous at this time for its corsairs; and there settled +with her few followers, after having purchased some lands from the +inhabitants of the country.(571) + +Many of the neighbouring people, invited by the prospect of lucre, +repaired thither to sell these new comers the necessaries of life; and +shortly after incorporated themselves with them. These inhabitants, who +had been thus gathered from different places, soon grew very numerous. The +citizens of Utica, considering them as their countrymen, and as descended +from the same common stock, deputed envoys with very considerable +presents, and exhorted them to build a city in the place where they had +first settled. The natives of the country, from the esteem and respect +frequently shown to strangers, did as much on their part. Thus all things +conspiring with Dido's views, she built her city, which was charged with +the payment of an annual tribute to the Africans for the ground it stood +upon; and called Carthada,(572) or Carthage, a name that, in the +Phoenician and Hebrew tongues, (which have a great affinity,) signifies +the New City. It is said, that when the foundations were dug, a horse's +head was found, which was thought a good omen, and a presage of the future +warlike genius of that people.(573) + +This princess was afterwards courted by Iarbas king of Getulia, and +threatened with a war in case of refusal. Dido, who had bound herself by +an oath not to consent to a second marriage, being incapable of violating +the faith she had sworn to Sichaeus, desired time for deliberation, and for +appeasing the manes of her first husband by sacrifice. Having therefore +ordered a pile to be raised, she ascended it; and drawing out a dagger +which she had concealed under her robe, stabbed herself with it.(574) + +Virgil has made a great alteration in this history, by supposing that +AEneas, his hero, was contemporary with Dido, though there was an interval +of near three centuries between the one and the other; Carthage being +built three hundred years after the destruction of Troy. This liberty is +very excusable in a poet, who is not tied to the scrupulous accuracy of an +historian; and we admire, with great reason, the judgment which he has +shown in his plan, when, to interest the Romans (for whom he wrote) in his +subject, he has the art of introducing into it the implacable hatred which +subsisted between Carthage and Rome, and ingeniously deduces the original +of it from the very remote foundation of those two rival cities. + +Carthage, whose beginnings, as we have observed, were very weak at first, +grew larger by insensible degrees, in the country where it was founded. +But its dominion was not long confined to Africa. This ambitious city +extended her conquests into Europe, invaded Sardinia, made herself +mistress of a great part of Sicily, and reduced to her subjection almost +the whole of Spain; and having sent out powerful colonies into all +quarters, enjoyed the empire of the seas for more than six hundred years; +and formed a state which was able to dispute preeminence with the greatest +empires of the world, by her wealth, her commerce, her numerous armies, +her formidable fleets, and, above all, by the courage and ability of her +captains. The dates and circumstances of many of these conquests are +little known. I shall take but a transient notice of them, in order to +enable my readers to form some idea of the countries, which will be often +mentioned in the course of this history. + +_Conquests of the Carthaginians in Africa._--The first wars made by the +Carthaginians were to free themselves from the annual tribute which they +had engaged to pay the Africans, for the territory which had been ceded to +them.(575) This conduct does them no honour, as the settlement was granted +them upon condition of their paying a tribute. One would be apt to +imagine, that they were desirous of covering the obscurity of their +original, by abolishing this proof of it. But they were not successful on +this occasion. The Africans had justice on their side, and they prospered +accordingly; the war being terminated by the payment of the tribute. + +The Carthaginians afterwards carried their arms against the Moors and +Numidians, and gained many conquests over both.(576) Being now emboldened +by these happy successes, they shook off entirely the tribute which gave +them so much uneasiness,(577) and possessed themselves of a great part of +Africa. + +About this time there arose a great dispute between Carthage and Cyrene, +on the subject of their respective limits. Cyrene was a very powerful +city, situated on the Mediterranean, towards the greater Syrtis, and had +been built by Battus the Lacedaemonian.(578) + +It was agreed on each side, that two young men should set out at the same +time, from either city; and that the place of their meeting should be the +common boundary of both states. The Carthaginians (these were two brothers +named Philaeni) made the most haste; and their antagonists pretending that +foul play had been used, and that the two brothers had set out before the +time appointed, refused to stand to the agreement unless the two brothers +(to remove all suspicion of unfair dealing) would consent to be buried +alive in the place where they had met. They acquiesced with the proposal; +and the Carthaginians erected, on that spot, two altars to their memories, +and paid them divine honours in their city; and from that time the place +was called the altars of the Philaeni, Arae Philaenorum,(579) and served as +the boundary of the Carthaginian empire, which extended from thence to the +pillars of Hercules. + +_Conquests of the Carthaginians in Sardinia, &c._--History does not inform +us exactly, either of the time when the Carthaginians entered Sardinia, or +of the manner in which they got possession of it. This island was of great +use to them; and during all their wars supplied them abundantly with +provisions.(580) It is separated from Corsica only by a strait of about +three leagues in breadth. The metropolis of the southern and most fertile +part of it, was Caralis or Calaris, now called Cagliari. On the arrival of +the Carthaginians, the natives withdrew to the mountains in the northern +parts of the island, which are almost inaccessible, and whence the enemy +could not dislodge them. + +The Carthaginians seized likewise on the Balearic isles, now called +Majorca and Minorca. Port Mahon, (_Portus Magonis_,) in the latter island, +was so called from Mago, a Carthaginian general, who first made use of, +and fortified it. It is not known who this Mago was; but it is very +probable that he was Hannibal's brother.(581) This harbour is, at this +day, one of the most considerable in the Mediterranean. + +These isles furnished the Carthaginians with the most expert slingers in +the world, who did them great service in battles and sieges.(582) They +slang large stones of above a pound weight; and sometimes threw leaden +bullets,(583) with so much violence, that they would pierce even the +strongest helmets, shields, and cuirasses; and were so dexterous in their +aim, that they scarce ever missed the mark. The inhabitants of these +islands were accustomed, from their infancy, to handle the sling; for +which purpose their mothers placed on the bough of a high tree, the piece +of bread designed for their children's breakfast, who were not allowed a +morsel till they had brought it down with their slings. From this +practice, these islands were called Baleares and Gymnasiae, by the +Greeks,(584) because the inhabitants used to exercise themselves so early +in slinging of stones.(585) + +_Conquests of the Carthaginians in Spain._--Before I enter on the relation +of these conquests, I think it proper to give my readers some idea of +Spain. + +Spain is divided into three parts, Boetica, Lusitania, Tarraconensis.(586) + +Boetica, so called from the river Boetis,(587) was the southern division of +it, and comprehended the present kingdom of Granada, Andalusia, part of +New Castile, and Estremadura. Cadiz, called by the ancients Gades and +Gadira, is a town situated in a small island of the same name, on the +western coast of Andalusia, about nine leagues from Gibraltar. It is well +known that Hercules, having extended his conquests to this place, halted, +from the supposition that he was come to the extremity of the world.(588) +He here erected two pillars, as monuments of his victories, pursuant to +the custom of that age. The place has always retained the name, though +time has quite destroyed these pillars. Authors are divided in opinion, +with regard to the place where these pillars were erected. Boetica was the +most fruitful, the wealthiest, and most populous part of Spain.(589) It +contained two hundred cities, and was inhabited by the Turdetani, or +Turduli. On the banks of the Boetis stood three large cities, Castulo +towards the source, Corduba lower down, the native place of Lucan and the +two Senecas, lastly, Hispalis.(590) + +Lusitania is bounded on the west by the Ocean, on the north by the river +Durius,(591) and on the south by the river Anas.(592) Between these two +rivers is the Tagus. Lusitania was what is now called Portugal, with part +of Old and New Castile. + +Tarraconensis comprehended the rest of Spain, that is, the kingdoms of +Murcia and Valentia, Catalonia, Arragon, Navarre, Biscay, the Asturias, +Gallicia, the kingdom of Leon, and the greatest part of the two Castiles. +Tarraco,(593) a very considerable city, gave its name to this part of +Spain. Pretty near it lay Barcino.(594) Its name gives rise to the +conjecture, that it was built by Hamilcar, surnamed Barca, father of the +great Hannibal. The most renowned nations of Tarraconensis were the +Celtiberi, beyond the river Iberus;(595) the Cantabri, where Biscay now +lies; the Carpetani, whose capital was Toledo; the Oretani, &c. + +Spain, abounding with mines of gold and silver, and peopled with a martial +race of men, had sufficient to excite both the avarice and ambition of the +Carthaginians, who were more of a mercantile than of a warlike +disposition, from the very genius and constitution of their republic. They +doubtless knew that their Phoenician ancestors, (as Diodorus relates,)(596) +taking advantage of the happy ignorance of the Spaniards, with regard to +the immense riches which were hid in the bowels of their lands, first took +from them these precious treasures, in exchange for commodities of little +value. They likewise foresaw, that if they could once subdue this country, +it would furnish them abundantly with well-disciplined troops for the +conquest of other nations, as actually happened. + +The occasion of the Carthaginians first landing in Spain, was to assist +the inhabitants of Cadiz, who were invaded by the Spaniards.(597) That +city was a colony from Tyre, as well as Utica and Carthage, and even more +ancient than either of them. The Tyrians having built it, established +there the worship of Hercules, and erected, in his honour, a magnificent +temple, which became famous in after ages. The success of this first +expedition of the Carthaginians made them desirous of carrying their arms +into Spain. + +It is not exactly known in what period they entered Spain, nor how far +they extended their first conquests. It is probable that these were slow +in the beginning, as the Carthaginians had to do with very warlike +nations, who defended themselves with great resolution and courage. Nor +could they ever have accomplished their design, as Strabo observes,(598) +had the Spaniards (united in a body) formed but one state, and mutually +assisted one another. But as every district, every people, were entirely +detached from their neighbours, and had not the least correspondence nor +connection with them, the Carthaginians were forced to subdue them one +after another. This circumstance occasioned, on one hand, the loss of +Spain; but on the other, protracted the war, and made the conquest of the +country much more difficult.(599) Accordingly it has been observed, that +though Spain was the first province which the Romans invaded on the +continent, it was the last they subdued;(600) and was not entirely +subjected to their power, till after having made a vigorous opposition for +upwards of 200 years. + +It appears from the accounts given by Polybius and Livy, of the wars of +Hamilcar, Asdrubal, and Hannibal in Spain, which will soon be mentioned, +that the arms of the Carthaginians had not made any considerable progress +in that country before that period, and that the greatest part of Spain +was then unconquered. But in twenty years' time they completed the +conquest of almost the whole country. + +At the time that Hannibal set out for Italy, all the coast of Africa, from +the Philaenorum Arae, by the great Syrtis, to the pillars of Hercules, was +subject to the Carthaginians.(601) Passing through the straits, they had +conquered all the western coast of Spain, along the ocean, as far as the +Pyrenean hills. The coast, which lies on the Mediterranean, had been +almost wholly subdued by them; and it was there they had built Carthagena; +and they were masters of all the country, as far as the river Iberus, +which bounded their dominions. Such was, at that time, the extent of their +empire. In the centre of the country, some nations had indeed held out +against all their efforts, and could not be subdued by them. + +_Conquests of the Carthaginians in Sicily._--The wars which the +Carthaginians carried on in Sicily are more known. I shall here relate +those which were waged from the reign of Xerxes, who first prompted the +Carthaginians to carry their arms into Sicily, till the first Punic war. +This period includes near two hundred and twenty years; _viz._ from the +year of the world 3520 to 3738. At the breaking out of these wars, +Syracuse, the most considerable as well as most powerful city of Sicily, +had invested Gelon, Hiero, and Thrasybulus, (three brothers who succeeded +one another,) with the sovereign power. After their deaths, a democracy or +popular government was established in that city, and subsisted above sixty +years. From this time, the two Dionysius's, Timoleon, and Agathocles, bore +the sway in Syracuse. Pyrrhus was afterwards invited into Sicily, but he +kept possession of it only a few years. Such was the government of Sicily +during the wars of which I am going to treat. They will give us great +light with regard to the power of the Carthaginians, at the time that they +began to be engaged in war with the Romans. + +Sicily is the largest and most considerable island in the Mediterranean. +It is of a triangular form, and for that reason was called Trinacria and +Triquetra. The eastern side, which faces the Ionian or Grecian sea, +extends from Cape Pachynum(602) to Pelorum.(603) The most celebrated +cities on this coast are Syracuse, Tauromenium, and Messana. The northern +coast, which looks towards Italy, reaches from Cape Pelorum to Cape +Lilybaeum.(604) The most noted cities on this coast are Mylae, Hymera, +Panormus, Eryx, Motya, Lilybaeum. The southern coast, which lies opposite +to Africa, extends from Cape Lilybaeum to Pachynum. The most remarkable +cities on this coast are Selinus, Agrigentum, Gela, and Camarina. This +island is separated from Italy by a strait, which is not more than a mile +and a half over, and called the Faro or strait of Messina, from its +contiguity to that city. The passage from Lilybaeum to Africa is but 1500 +furlongs,(605) that is, about seventy-five leagues.(606) + +(M99) The period in which the Carthaginians first carried their arms into +Sicily is not exactly known.(607) All we are certain of is, that they were +already possessed of some part of it, at the time that they entered into a +treaty with the Romans; the same year that the kings were expelled, and +consuls appointed in their room, _viz._ twenty-eight years before Xerxes +invaded Greece. This treaty, which is the first we find mentioned to have +been made between these two nations, speaks of Africa and Sardinia as +possessed by the Carthaginians; whereas the conventions with regard to +Sicily, relate only to those parts of the island which were subject to +them. By this treaty it is expressly stipulated, that neither the Romans +nor their allies shall sail beyond the Fair Promontory,(608) which was +very near Carthage; and that such merchants, as shall resort to this city +for traffic, shall pay only certain duties which are settled in it.(609) + +It appears by the same treaty, that the Carthaginians were particularly +careful to exclude the Romans from all the countries subject to them; as +well as from the knowledge of what was transacting in them; as though the +Carthaginians, even at that time, had taken umbrage at the rising power of +the Romans; and already harboured in their breasts the secret seeds of +that jealousy and distrust, that were one day to burst out in long and +cruel wars, and a mutual hatred and animosity, which nothing could +extinguish but the ruin of one of the contending powers. + +(M100) Some years after the conclusion of this first treaty, the +Carthaginians made an alliance with Xerxes king of Persia.(610) This +prince, who aimed at nothing less than the total extirpation of the +Greeks, whom he considered as his irreconcilable enemies, thought it would +be impossible for him to succeed in his enterprise without the assistance +of Carthage, whose power was formidable even at that time. The +Carthaginians, who always kept in view the design they entertained of +seizing upon the remainder of Sicily, greedily snatched the favourable +opportunity which now presented itself for their completing the reduction +of it. A treaty was therefore concluded; wherein it was agreed that the +Carthaginians were to invade, with all their forces, those Greeks who were +settled in Sicily and Italy, while Xerxes should march in person against +Greece itself. + +The preparations for this war lasted three years. The land army amounted +to no less than three hundred thousand men. The fleet consisted of two +thousand ships of war, and upwards of three thousand small vessels of +burden. Hamilcar, the most experienced captain of his age, sailed from +Carthage with this formidable army. He landed at Palermo;(611) and, after +refreshing his troops, he marched against Hymera, a city not far distant +from Palermo, and laid siege to it. Theron, who commanded in it, seeing +himself very much straitened, sent to Gelon, who had possessed himself of +Syracuse. He flew immediately to his relief, with fifty thousand foot, and +five thousand horse. His arrival infused new courage into the besieged, +who, from that time, made a very vigorous defence. + +Gelon was an able warrior, and excelled in stratagems. A courier was +brought to him, who had been despatched from Selinus, a city of Sicily, +with a letter for Hamilcar, to inform him of the day when he might expect +the cavalry which he had demanded of them. Gelon drew out an equal number +of his own troops, and sent them from his camp about the time agreed on. +These being admitted into the enemy's camp, as coming from Selinus, rushed +upon Hamilcar, killed him, and set fire to his ships. In this critical +conjuncture, Gelon attacked, with all his forces, the Carthaginians, who +at first made a gallant resistance. But when the news of their general's +death was brought them, and they saw their fleet in a blaze, their courage +failed them, and they fled. And now a dreadful slaughter ensued; upwards +of a hundred and fifty thousand being slain. The rest of the army, having +retired to a place where they were in want of every thing, could not make +a long defence, and were forced to surrender at discretion. This battle +was fought the very day of the famous action of Thermopylae, in which three +hundred Spartans,(612) with the sacrifice of their lives, disputed +Xerxes's entrance into Greece. + +When the sad news was brought to Carthage of the entire defeat of the +army, consternation, grief, and despair, threw the whole city into such a +confusion and alarm as are not to be expressed. It was imagined that the +enemy was already at the gates. The Carthaginians, in great reverses of +fortune, always lost their courage, and sunk into the opposite extreme. +Immediately they sent a deputation to Gelon, by which they desired peace +upon any terms. He heard their envoys with great humanity. The complete +victory he had gained, so far from making him haughty and untractable, had +only increased his modesty and clemency even towards the enemy. He +therefore granted them a peace, without any other condition, than their +paying two thousand(613) talents towards the expense of the war. He +likewise required them to build two temples, where the treaty of this +peace should be deposited, and exposed at all times to public view. The +Carthaginians did not think this a dear purchase of a peace, that was so +absolutely necessary to their affairs, and which they hardly durst hope +for. Gisgo, the son of Hamilcar, pursuant to the unjust custom of the +Carthaginians, of ascribing to the general the ill success of a war, and +making him bear the blame of it, was punished for his father's misfortune, +and sent into banishment. He passed the remainder of his days at Selinus, +a city of Sicily. + +Gelon, on his return to Syracuse, convened the people, and invited all the +citizens to appear under arms. He himself entered the assembly, unarmed +and without his guards, and there gave an account of the whole conduct of +his life. His speech met with no other interruption, than the public +testimonies which were given him of gratitude and admiration. So far from +being treated as a tyrant, and the oppressor of his country's liberty, he +was considered as its benefactor and deliverer; all, with an unanimous +voice, proclaimed him king; and the crown was bestowed, after his death, +on his two brothers. + +(M101) After the memorable defeat of the Athenians before Syracuse, where +Nicias perished with his whole fleet;(614) the Segestans, who had declared +in favour of the Athenians against the Syracusans, fearing the resentment +of their enemies, and being attacked by the inhabitants of Selinus, +implored the aid of the Carthaginians, and put themselves and city under +their protection. At Carthage the people debated some time, what course it +would be proper for them to take, the affair meeting with great +difficulties. On one hand, the Carthaginians were very desirous to possess +themselves of a city which lay so convenient for them; on the other, they +dreaded the power and forces of Syracuse, which had so lately cut to +pieces a numerous army of the Athenians; and become, by so shining a +victory, more formidable than ever. At last, the lust of empire prevailed, +and the Segestans were promised succours. + +The conduct of this war was committed to Hannibal, who at that time was +invested with the highest dignity of the state, being one of the Suffetes. +He was grandson to Hamilcar, who had been defeated by Gelon, and killed +before Himera; and son to Gisgo, who had been condemned to exile. He left +Carthage, animated with an ardent desire of revenging his family and +country, and of wiping away the disgrace of the last defeat. He had a very +great army as well as fleet under his command. He landed at a place called +the _Well of Lilybaeum_, which gave its name to a city afterwards built on +the same spot. His first enterprise was the siege of Selinus. The attack +and defence were equally vigorous, the very women showing a resolution and +bravery above their sex. The city, after making a long resistance, was +taken by storm, and the plunder of it abandoned to the soldiers. The +victor exercised the most horrid cruelties, without showing the least +regard to either age or sex. He permitted such inhabitants as had fled, to +continue in the city after it had been dismantled; and to till the lands, +on condition of their paying a tribute to the Carthaginians. This city had +been built two hundred and forty-two years. + +Himera, which he next besieged and took likewise by storm, after being +more cruelly treated than Selinus, was entirely razed, two hundred and +forty years after its foundation. He forced three thousand prisoners to +undergo every kind of ignominious punishments; and at last murdered them +all on the very spot where his grandfather had been killed by Gelon's +cavalry, to appease and satisfy his manes by the blood of these unhappy +victims. + +These expeditions being ended, Hannibal returned to Carthage, on which +occasion the whole city came out to meet him, and received him amidst the +most joyful acclamations. + +These successes reinflamed the desire, and revived the design, which the +Carthaginians had ever entertained, of making themselves masters of the +whole of Sicily.(615) Three years after, they appointed Hannibal their +general a second time; and on his pleading his great age, and refusing the +command of this war, they gave him for lieutenant, Imilcon, son of Hanno, +of the same family. The preparations for this war were proportioned to the +great design which the Carthaginians had formed. The fleet and army were +soon ready, and set out for Sicily. The number of their forces, according +to Timaeus, amounted to above six-score thousand; and, according to +Ephorus, to three hundred thousand men. The enemy, on their side, were +prepared to give the Carthaginians a warm reception. The Syracusans had +sent to all their allies, in order to levy forces among them; and to all +the cities of Sicily, to exhort them to exert themselves vigorously in +defence of their liberties. + +Agrigentum expected to feel the first fury of the enemy. This city was +prodigiously rich,(616) and strongly fortified. It was situated, as was +also Selinus, on that coast of Sicily which faces Africa. Accordingly, +Hannibal opened the campaign with the siege of this city. Imagining that +it was impregnable except on one side, he directed his whole force to that +quarter. He threw up banks and terraces as high as the walls: and made +use, on this occasion, of the rubbish and fragments of the tombs standing +round the city, which he had demolished for that purpose. Soon after, the +plague infected the army, and swept away a great number of the soldiers, +and the general himself. The Carthaginians interpreted this disaster as a +punishment inflicted by the gods, who revenged in this manner the injuries +done to the dead, whose ghosts many fancied they had seen stalking before +them in the night. No more tombs were therefore demolished, prayers were +ordered to be made according to the practice of Carthage; a child was +sacrificed to Saturn, in compliance with a most inhuman superstitious +custom; and many victims were thrown into the sea in honour of Neptune. + +The besieged, who at first had gained several advantages, were at last so +pressed by famine, that all hopes of relief seeming desperate, they +resolved to abandon the city. The following night was fixed on for this +purpose. The reader will naturally image to himself the grief with which +these miserable people must be seized, on their being forced to leave +their houses, their rich possessions, and their country; but life was +still dearer to them than all these. Never was a more melancholy spectacle +seen. To omit the rest, a crowd of women, bathed in tears, were seen +dragging after them their helpless infants, in order to secure them from +the brutal fury of the victor. But the most grievous circumstance was, the +necessity they were under of leaving behind them the aged and sick, who +were unable either to fly or to make the least resistance. The unhappy +exiles arrived at Gela, which was the nearest city, and there received all +the comforts they could expect in the deplorable condition to which they +were reduced. + +In the mean time, Imilcon entered the city, and murdered all who were +found in it. The plunder was immensely rich, and such as might be expected +from one of the most opulent cities of Sicily, which contained two hundred +thousand inhabitants, and had never been besieged, nor consequently +plundered, before. A numberless multitude of pictures, vases, and statues +of all kinds, were found here; the citizens having an exquisite taste for +the polite arts. Among other curiosities was the famous bull(617) of +Phalaris, which was sent to Carthage. + +The siege of Agrigentum had lasted eight months. Imilcon made his forces +take up their winter-quarters in it, to give them the necessary +refreshment; and left this city (after laying it entirely in ruins) in the +beginning of the spring. He afterwards besieged Gela, and took it, +notwithstanding the succours which were brought by Dionysius the Tyrant, +who had seized upon the government of Syracuse. Imilcon ended the war by a +treaty with Dionysius. The conditions of it were, that the Carthaginians, +besides their ancient acquisitions in Sicily, should still possess the +country of the Sicanians,(618) Selinus, Agrigentum, and Himera; as +likewise that of Gela and Camarina, with leave for the inhabitants to +reside in their respective dismantled cities, on condition of their paying +a tribute to Carthage; that the Leontines, the Messenians, and all the +Sicilians, should retain their own laws, and preserve their liberty and +independence: lastly, that the Syracusans should still continue subject to +Dionysius. After this treaty was concluded, Imilcon returned to Carthage, +where the plague still made dreadful havoc. + +(M102) Dionysius had concluded the late peace with the Carthaginians with +no other view than to get time to establish his new authority, and make +the necessary preparations for the war which he meditated against +them.(619) As he was very sensible how formidable the power of this state +was, he used his utmost endeavours to enable himself to invade them with +success; and his design was wonderfully well seconded by the zeal of his +subjects. The fame of this prince, the strong desire he had to distinguish +himself, the charms of gain, and the prospect of the rewards which he +promised those who should show the greatest industry; invited, from all +quarters, into Sicily, the most able artists and workmen at that time in +the world. All Syracuse now became in a manner an immense workshop, in +every part of which men were seen making swords, helmets, shields, and +military engines; and preparing all things necessary for building ships +and fitting out fleets. The invention of vessels with five benches of oars +(or _Quinqueremes_) was at that time very recent; for, till then, those +with three alone(620) had been used. Dionysius animated the workmen by his +presence, and by the applauses he gave, and the bounty which he bestowed +seasonably; but chiefly by his popular and engaging behaviour, which +excited, more strongly than any other conduct, the industry and ardour of +the workmen;(621) and he frequently allowed those of them who most +excelled in their respective arts the honour to dine with him. + +When all things were ready, and a great number of forces had been levied +in different countries, he called the Syracusans together, laid his design +before them, and represented to them that the Carthaginians were the +professed enemies to the Greeks; that they had no less in view than the +invasion of all Sicily; the subjecting all the Grecian cities; and that, +in case their progress was not checked, the Syracusans themselves would +soon be attacked: that the reason why the Carthaginians did not attempt +any enterprise, and continued unactive, was owing entirely to the dreadful +havoc made by the plague among them; which (he observed) was a favourable +opportunity, of which the Syracusans ought to take advantage. Though the +tyranny and the tyrant were equally odious to Syracuse, yet the hatred the +people bore to the Carthaginians prevailed over all other considerations; +and every one, guided more by the views of an interested policy than by +the dictates of justice, received the speech with applause. Upon this, +without the least complaint made, or any declaration of war, Dionysius +gave up to the fury of the populace the persons and possessions of the +Carthaginians. Great numbers of them resided at that time in Syracuse, and +traded there on the faith of treaties. The common people ran to their +houses, plundered their effects, and pretended they were sufficiently +authorized to exercise every ignominy, and inflict every kind of +punishment on them, for the cruelties they had exercised against the +natives of the country. And this horrid example of perfidy and inhumanity +was followed throughout the whole island of Sicily. This was the bloody +signal of the war which was declared against them. Dionysius having thus +begun to do himself justice, (in his way,) sent deputies to Carthage, to +require them to restore all the Sicilian cities to their liberties; and +that otherwise, all the Carthaginians found in them should be treated as +enemies. This news spread a general alarm in Carthage, especially when +they reflected on the sad condition to which they were reduced. + +Dionysius opened the campaign with the siege of Motya, which was the +magazine of the Carthaginians in Sicily; and he pushed on the siege with +so much vigour, that it was impossible for Imilcon, the Carthaginian +admiral, to relieve it. He brought forward his engines, battered the place +with his battering-rams, advanced to the wall towers, six stories high +(rolled upon wheels,) and of an equal height with their houses; and from +these he greatly annoyed the besieged, with his Catapultae, an engine(622) +then recently invented, which hurled, with great violence, numerous +volleys of arrows and stones against the enemy. At last, the city, after a +long and vigorous defence, was taken by storm, and all the inhabitants of +it put to the sword, those excepted who took sanctuary in the temples. The +plunder of it was abandoned to the soldiers, and Dionysius, leaving a +strong garrison and a trusty governor in it, returned to Syracuse. + +The following year Imilcon being appointed one of the Suffetes, returned +to Sicily with a far greater army than before.(623) He landed at +Palermo,(624) recovered Motya by force, and took several other cities. +Animated by these successes, he advanced towards Syracuse, with design to +besiege it; marching his infantry by land, whilst his fleet, under the +command of Mago, sailed along the coast. + +The arrival of Imilcon threw the Syracusans into great consternation. +Above two hundred ships laden with the spoils of the enemy, and advancing +in good order, entered in a kind of triumph the great harbour, being +followed by five hundred barks. At the same time, the land army, +consisting, according to some authors, of three hundred thousand +foot,(625) and three thousand horse, was seen marching forward on the +other side of the city. Imilcon pitched his tent in the very temple of +Jupiter; and the rest of the army encamped at twelve furlongs, or about a +mile and a half from the city. Marching up to it, Imilcon offered battle +to the inhabitants, who did not care to accept the challenge. Imilcon, +satisfied at his having extorted from the Syracusans this confession of +their own weakness and his superiority, returned to his camp; not doubting +but he should soon be master of the city, considering it already as a +certain prey which could not possibly escape him. For thirty days +together, he laid waste the neighbourhood about Syracuse, and ruined the +whole country. He possessed himself of the suburb of Acradina, and +plundered the temples of Ceres and Proserpine. To fortify his camp, he +beat down the tombs which stood round the city; and, among others, that of +Gelon and his wife Demarata, which was prodigiously magnificent. + +But these successes were not lasting. All the splendour of this +anticipated triumph vanished in a moment, and taught mankind, says the +historian,(626) that the proudest mortal, blasted sooner or later by a +superior power, shall be forced to confess his own weakness. Whilst +Imilcon, now master of almost all the cities of Sicily, expected to crown +his conquests by the reduction of Syracuse, a contagious distemper seized +his army, and made dreadful havoc in it. It was now the midst of summer, +and the heat that year was excessive. The infection began among the +Africans, multitudes of whom died, without any possibility of their being +relieved. At first, care was taken to inter the dead; but the number +increasing daily, and the infection spreading very fast, the dead lay +unburied, and the sick could have no assistance. This plague was attended +with very uncommon symptoms, such as violent dysenteries, raging fevers, +burning entrails, acute pains in every part of the body. The infected were +even seized with madness and fury, so that they would fall upon any +persons that came in their way, and tear them to pieces. + +Dionysius did not suffer to escape so favourable an opportunity for +attacking the enemy. Being more than half conquered by the plague, they +made but a feeble resistance. The Carthaginian ships were almost all +either taken or burnt. The inhabitants in general of Syracuse, old men, +women, and children, came pouring out of the city to behold an event which +to them appeared miraculous. With hands lifted up to heaven, they thanked +the tutelar gods of their city, for having avenged the sanctity of the +temples and tombs, which had been so brutally violated by these +barbarians. Night coming on, both parties retired; when Imilcon, taking +the opportunity of this short suspension of hostilities, sent to +Dionysius, requesting leave to carry back with him the small remains of +his shattered army, with an offer of three hundred talents,(627) which was +all the specie he had then left. But this permission could only be +obtained for the Carthaginians, with whom Imilcon stole away in the night, +and left the rest to the mercy of the conqueror. + +Such was the condition in which this Carthaginian general, who a few days +before had been so proud and haughty, retired from Syracuse. Bitterly +bewailing his own fate, and still more that of his country, he, with the +most insolent fury, accused the gods as the sole authors of his +misfortunes. "The enemy," continued he, "may indeed rejoice at our misery, +but have no reason to glory in it. We return victorious over the +Syracusans, and are defeated by the plague alone." His greatest subject of +grief, and that which most keenly distressed him, was his having survived +so many gallant soldiers, who had died in arms. "But," added he, "the +sequel shall make it appear, whether it is through fear of death, or from +the desire of leading back to their native country the miserable remains +of my fellow-citizens, that I have survived the loss of so many brave +comrades." And in fact, on his arrival at Carthage, which he found +overwhelmed with grief and despair, he entered his house, shut his doors +against the citizens, and even his own children; and then gave himself the +fatal stroke, in compliance with a practice to which the heathens falsely +gave the name of courage, though it was, in reality, no other than a +cowardly despair. + +But the calamities of this unhappy city did not stop here; for the +Africans, who had ever borne an implacable hatred to the Carthaginians, +but were now exasperated to fury, because their countrymen had been left +behind, and exposed to the murdering sword of the Syracusans, assemble in +the most frantic manner, sound the alarm, take up arms, and, after seizing +upon Tunis, march directly to Carthage, to the number of more than two +hundred thousand men. The citizens now gave themselves up for lost. This +new incident was considered by them as the sad effect of the wrath of the +gods, which pursued the guilty wretches even to Carthage. As its +inhabitants, especially in all public calamities, carried their +superstition to the greatest excess, their first care was to appease the +offended gods. Ceres and Proserpine were deities who, till that time, had +never been heard of in Africa. But now, to atone for the outrage which had +been done them in the plundering of their temples, magnificent statues +were erected to their honour; priests were selected from among the most +distinguished families of the city; sacrifices and victims, according to +the Greek ritual, (if I may use that expression,) were offered up to them; +in a word, nothing was omitted which could be thought conducive in any +manner to appease and propitiate the angry goddesses. After this, the +defence of the city was the next object of their care. Happily for the +Carthaginians, this numerous army had no leader, but was like a body +uninformed with a soul; no provisions nor military engines; no discipline +nor subordination, was seen among them: every man setting himself up for a +general, or claiming an independence on the rest. Divisions therefore +arising in this rabble of an army, and the famine increasing daily, the +individuals of it withdrew to their respective homes, and delivered +Carthage from a dreadful alarm. + +The Carthaginians were not discouraged by their late disaster, but +continued their enterprises on Sicily. Mago, their general, and one of the +Suffetes, lost a great battle, in which he was slain. The Carthaginian +chiefs demanded a peace, which was granted, on condition of their +evacuating all Sicily, and defraying the expenses of the war. They +pretended to accept the terms; but representing that it was not in their +power to deliver up the cities, without first obtaining an order from +their republic, they obtained so long a truce, as gave them time +sufficient for sending to Carthage. They took advantage of this interval, +to raise and discipline new troops, over which Mago, son of him who had +been lately killed, was appointed general. He was very young, but of great +abilities and reputation. As soon as he arrived in Sicily, at the +expiration of the truce, he gave Dionysius battle; in which Leptines,(628) +one of the generals of the latter, was killed, and upwards of fourteen +thousand Syracusans left dead in the field. By this victory the +Carthaginians obtained an honourable peace, which left them in the +possession of all they had in Sicily, with even the addition of some +strong-holds; besides a thousand talents,(629) which were paid to them +towards defraying the expenses of the war. + +About this time a law was enacted at Carthage, by which its inhabitants +were forbid to learn to write or speak the Greek language;(630) in order +to deprive them of the means of corresponding with the enemy, either by +word of mouth, or in writing. This was occasioned by the treachery of a +Carthaginian, who had written in Greek to Dionysius, to give him advice of +the departure of the army from Carthage. + +Carthage had, soon after, another calamity to struggle with.(631) The +plague spread in the city, and made terrible havoc. Panic terrors, and +violent fits of frenzy, seized on a sudden the unhappy sufferers; who +sallying, sword in hand, out of their houses, as if the enemy had taken +the city, killed or wounded all who came in their way. The Africans and +Sardinians would very willingly have taken this opportunity to shake off a +yoke which was so hateful to them; but both were subjected, and reduced to +their allegiance. Dionysius formed at this time an enterprise, in Sicily, +with the same views, which was equally unsuccessful. He died(632) some +time after, and was succeeded by his son of the same name. + +We have already taken notice of the first treaty which the Carthaginians +concluded with the Romans. There was another, which, according to Orosius, +was concluded in the 402d year of the foundation of Rome, and consequently +about the time we are now speaking of. This second treaty was very near +the same with the first, except that the inhabitants of Tyre and Utica +were expressly comprehended in it, and joined with the Carthaginians. + +(M103) After the death of the elder Dionysius, Syracuse was involved in +great troubles.(633) Dionysius the younger, who had been expelled, +restored himself by force of arms, and exercised great cruelties there. +One part of the citizens implored the aid of Icetes, tyrant of the +Leontines, and by descent a Syracusan. This seemed a very favourable +opportunity for the Carthaginians to seize upon all Sicily, and +accordingly they sent a mighty fleet thither. In this extremity, such of +the Syracusans as loved their country best, had recourse to the +Corinthians, who had often assisted them in their dangers; and were, +besides, of all the Grecian nations, the most professed enemies of +tyranny, and the most avowed and most generous assertors of liberty. +Accordingly, the Corinthians sent over Timoleon, a man of great merit, who +had signalized his zeal for the public welfare, by freeing his country +from tyranny, at the expense of his own family. He set sail with only ten +ships, and arriving at Rhegium, he eluded, by a happy stratagem, the +vigilance of the Carthaginians; who having been informed, by Icetes, of +his voyage and design, wanted to intercept him in his passage to Sicily. + +Timoleon had scarce above a thousand soldiers under his command; and yet, +with this handful of men, he marched boldly to the relief of Syracuse. His +small army increased in proportion as he advanced. The Syracusans were now +in a desperate condition, and quite hopeless. They saw the Carthaginians +masters of the port; Icetes of the city; and Dionysius of the citadel. +Happily, on Timoleon's arrival, Dionysius having no refuge left, put the +citadel into his hands, with all the forces, arms, and ammunition in it, +and escaped, by his assistance, to Corinth.(634) Timoleon had, by his +emissaries, artfully represented to the foreign soldiers, who (by that +error in the constitution of Carthage, which we have before taken notice +of) formed the principal strength of Mago's army, and the greatest part of +whom were Greeks; that it was astonishing to see Greeks using their +endeavours to make barbarians masters of Sicily, from whence they, in a +very little time, would pass over into Greece. For could they imagine, +that the Carthaginians were come so far, with no other view than to +establish Icetes tyrant of Syracuse? Such discourses being spread among +Mago's soldiers, gave this general very great uneasiness; and, as he +wanted only a pretence to retire, he was glad to have it believed, that +his forces were going to betray and desert him; and upon this, he sailed +with his fleet out of the harbour, and steered for Carthage. Icetes, after +his departure, could not hold out long against the Corinthians; so that +they now got entire possession of the whole city. + +Mago, on his arrival at Carthage, was impeached, but he prevented the +execution of the sentence passed upon him, by a voluntary death. His body +was hung upon a gallows, and exposed as a public spectacle to the people. +New forces were levied at Carthage, and a greater and more powerful fleet +than the former was sent to Sicily.(635) It consisted of two hundred ships +of war, besides a thousand transports; and the army amounted to upwards of +seventy thousand men. They landed at Lilybaeum, under the command of +Hamilcar and Hannibal, and resolved to attack the Corinthians first. +Timoleon did not wait for, but marched out to meet them. But such was the +consternation of Syracuse, that, of all the forces which were in that +city, only three thousand Syracusans and four thousand mercenaries +followed him; and even of these latter a thousand deserted upon the march, +through fear of the danger they were going to encounter. Timoleon, +however, was not discouraged; but exhorting the remainder of his forces to +exert themselves courageously for the safety and liberties of their +allies, he led them against the enemy, whose rendezvous he had been +informed was on the banks of the little river Crimisus. It appeared, at +the first reflection, madness to attack an army so numerous as that of the +enemy, with only four or five thousand foot, and a thousand horse; but +Timoleon, who knew that bravery, conducted by prudence, is superior to +number, relied on the courage of his soldiers, who seemed resolved to die +rather than yield, and with ardour demanded to be led against the enemy. +The event justified his views and hopes. A battle was fought; the +Carthaginians were routed, and upwards of ten thousand of them slain, full +three thousand of whom were Carthaginian citizens, which filled their city +with mourning and the greatest consternation. Their camp was taken, and +with it immense riches, and a great number of prisoners. + +Timoleon, at the same time that he despatched the news of this victory to +Corinth, sent thither the finest arms found among the plunder.(636) For he +was desirous of having his city applauded and admired by all men, when +they should see that Corinth alone, among all the Grecian cities, adorned +its finest temples, not with the spoils of Greece, and offerings dyed in +the blood of its citizens, the sight of which could tend only to preserve +the sad remembrance of their losses, but with those of barbarians, which, +by fine inscriptions, displayed at once the courage and religious +gratitude of those who had won them. For these inscriptions imported, +"That the Corinthians, and Timoleon their general, after having freed the +Greeks, settled in Sicily, from the Carthaginian yoke, had hung up these +arms in their temples, as an eternal acknowledgment of the favour and +goodness of the gods." + +After this, Timoleon, leaving the mercenary troops in the Carthaginian +territories to waste and destroy them, returned to Syracuse. On his +arrival there, he banished the thousand soldiers who had deserted him; and +took no other revenge than the commanding them to leave Syracuse before +sun-set. + +This victory gained by the Corinthians was followed by the capture of a +great many cities, which obliged the Carthaginians to sue for peace. + +In proportion as the appearance of success made the Carthaginians +vigorously exert themselves to raise powerful armies both by land and sea, +and prosperity led them to make an insolent and cruel use of victory; so +their courage would sink in unforeseen adversities, their hopes of new +resources vanish, and their grovelling souls condescend to ask quarter of +the most inconsiderable enemy, and without sense of shame accept the +hardest and most mortifying conditions. Those now imposed were, that they +should possess only the lands lying beyond the river Halycus;(637) that +they should give all the natives free liberty to retire to Syracuse with +their families and effects; and that they should neither continue in the +alliance, nor hold any correspondence with the tyrants of that city. + +About this time, in all probability, there happened at Carthage a +memorable incident, related by Justin.(638) Hanno, one of its most +powerful citizens, formed a design of seizing upon the republic, by +destroying the whole senate. He chose, for the execution of this bloody +plan, the day on which his daughter was to be married, on which occasion +he designed to invite the senators to an entertainment, and there poison +them all. The conspiracy was discovered; but Hanno had such influence, +that the government did not dare to punish so execrable a crime; the +magistrates contented themselves with only preventing it, by an order +which forbade, in general, too great a magnificence at weddings, and +limited the expense on those occasions. Hanno, seeing his stratagem +defeated, resolved to employ open force, and for that purpose armed all +the slaves. However, he was again discovered; and, to escape punishment, +retired, with twenty thousand armed slaves, to a castle that was very +strongly fortified, and there endeavoured, but without success, to engage +in his rebellion the Africans and the king of Mauritania. He afterwards +was taken prisoner, and carried to Carthage; where, after being whipped, +his eyes were put out, his arms and thighs broken; he was put to death in +presence of the people, and his body, all torn with stripes, was hung on a +gibbet. His children and all his relations, though they had not joined in +his guilt, shared in his punishment. They were all sentenced to die, in +order that not a single person of his family might be left, either to +imitate his crime, or revenge his death. Such was the temper of the +Carthaginians; ever severe and violent in their punishments, they carried +them to the extremes of rigour, and made them extend even to the innocent, +without showing the least regard to equity, moderation, or gratitude. + +I come now to the wars sustained by the Carthaginians, in Africa itself as +well as in Sicily, against Agathocles, which exercised their arms during +several years.(639) + +(M104) This Agathocles was a Sicilian, of obscure birth and low +fortune.(640) Supported at first by the forces of the Carthaginians, he +had invaded the sovereignty of Syracuse, and made himself tyrant over it. +In the infancy of his power, the Carthaginians kept him within bounds; and +Hamilcar, their chief, forced him to agree to a treaty, which restored +tranquillity to Sicily. But he soon infringed the articles of it, and +declared war against the Carthaginians themselves; who, under the conduct +of Hamilcar, obtained a signal victory over him,(641) and forced him to +shut himself up in Syracuse. The Carthaginians pursued him thither, and +laid siege to that important city, the capture of which would have given +them possession of all Sicily. + +Agathocles, whose forces were greatly inferior to theirs, and who moreover +saw himself deserted by all his allies, from their detestation of his +horrid cruelties, meditated a design of so daring, and, to all appearance, +so impracticable a nature, that, even after being happily carried into +execution, it yet appears almost incredible. This design was no less than +to make Africa the seat of war, and to besiege Carthage, at a time when he +could neither defend himself in Sicily, nor sustain the siege of Syracuse. +His profound secresy in the execution is as astonishing as the design +itself. He communicated his thoughts on this affair to no person +whatsoever, but contented himself with declaring, that he had found out an +infallible way to free the Syracusans from the danger that surrounded +them; that they had only to endure with patience, for a short time, the +inconveniences of a siege; but that those who could not bring themselves +to this resolution, might freely depart the city. Only sixteen hundred +persons quitted it. He left his brother Antander there, with forces and +provisions sufficient for him to make a stout defence. He set at liberty +all slaves who were of age to bear arms, and, after obliging them to take +an oath, joined them to his forces. He carried with him only fifty +talents,(642) to supply his present wants, well assured that he should +find in the enemy's country whatever was necessary to his subsistence. He +therefore set sail with two of his sons, Archagathus and Heraclides, +without letting any one person know whither he intended to direct his +course. All who were on board his fleet believed that they were to be +conducted either to Italy or Sardinia, in order to plunder those +countries, or to lay waste those coasts of Sicily which belonged to the +enemy. The Carthaginians, surprised at so unexpected a departure, +endeavoured to prevent it; but Agathocles eluded their pursuit, and made +for the main ocean. + +He did not discover his design till he had landed in Africa. There, +assembling his troops, he told them, in few words, the motives which had +prompted him to this expedition. He represented, that the only way to free +their country, was to carry the war into the territories of their enemies: +that he led them who were enured to war, and of intrepid dispositions, +against a parcel of enemies who were softened and enervated by ease and +luxury: that the natives of the country, oppressed with the yoke of a +servitude equally cruel and ignominious, would run in crowds to join them +on the first news of their arrival: that the boldness of their attempt +would alone disconcert the Carthaginians, who had no expectation of seeing +an enemy at their gates: in short, that no enterprise could possibly be +more advantageous or honourable than this; since the whole wealth of +Carthage would become the prey of the victors, whose courage would be +praised and admired by latest posterity. The soldiers fancied themselves +already masters of Carthage, and received his speech with applauses and +acclamations. One circumstance alone gave them uneasiness, and that was an +eclipse of the sun, which happened just as they were setting sail. In +these ages, even the most civilized nations understood very little the +reason of these extraordinary phenomena of nature; and used to draw from +them (by their soothsayers) superstitious and arbitrary conjectures, which +frequently would either suspend or hasten the more important enterprises. +However, Agathocles revived the drooping courage of his soldiers, by +assuring them that these eclipses always foretold some instant change: +that, therefore, good fortune was taking its leave of Carthage, and coming +over to them. + +Finding his soldiers in the good disposition he wished them, he executed, +almost at the same time, a second enterprise, which was even more daring +and hazardous than his first, of carrying them over into Africa; and this +was the burning every ship in his fleet. Many reasons determined him to so +desperate an action. He had not one good harbour in Africa where his ships +could lie in safety. As the Carthaginians were masters of the sea, they +would not have failed to possess themselves immediately of his fleet, +which was incapable of making the least resistance. In case he had left as +many hands as were necessary to defend it, he would have weakened his +army, (which was inconsiderable at the best,) and put it out of his power +to gain any advantage from this unexpected diversion, the success of which +depended entirely on the swiftness and vigour of the execution. Lastly, he +was desirous of putting his soldiers under a necessity of conquering, by +leaving them no other refuge than victory. Much courage was necessary to +adopt such a resolution. He had already prepared all his officers, who +were entirely devoted to his service, and received every impression he +gave them. He then came suddenly into the assembly with a crown upon his +head, dressed in a magnificent habit, and with the air and behaviour of a +man who was going to perform some religious ceremony, and addressing +himself to the assembly: "When we," says he, "left Syracuse, and were +warmly pursued by the enemy; in this fatal necessity I addressed myself to +Ceres and Proserpine, the tutelar divinities of Sicily; and promised, that +if they would free us from this imminent danger, I would burn all our +ships in their honour, at our first landing here. Aid me therefore, O +soldiers, to discharge my vow; for the goddesses can easily make us amends +for this sacrifice." At the same time, taking a flambeau in his hand, he +hastily led the way on board his own ship, and set it on fire. All the +officers did the like, and were cheerfully followed by the soldiers. The +trumpets sounded from every quarter, and the whole army echoed with joyful +shouts and acclamations. The fleet was soon consumed. The soldiers had not +been allowed time to reflect on the proposal made to them. They all had +been hurried on by a blind and impetuous ardour; but when they had a +little recovered their reason, and, surveying in their minds the vast +extent of ocean which separated them from their own country, saw +themselves in that of the enemy without the least resource, or any means +of escaping out of it; a sad and melancholy silence succeeded the +transport of joy and acclamations, which, but a moment before, had been so +general in the army. + +Here again Agathocles left no time for reflection. He marched his army +towards a place called the Great City, which was part of the domain of +Carthage. The country through which they marched to this place, afforded +the most delicious and agreeable prospect in the world. On either side +were seen large meads, watered by beautiful streams, and covered with +innumerable flocks of all kinds of cattle; country seats built with +extraordinary magnificence; delightful avenues planted with olive and all +sorts of fruit trees; gardens of a prodigious extent, and kept with a care +and elegance which delighted the eye. This prospect reanimated the +soldiers. They marched full of courage to the Great City, which they took +sword in hand, and enriched themselves with the plunder of it, which was +entirely abandoned to them. Tunis made as little resistance; and this +place was not far distant from Carthage. + +The Carthaginians were in prodigious alarm when it was known that the +enemy was in the country, advancing by hasty marches. This arrival of +Agathocles made the Carthaginians conclude, that their army before +Syracuse had been defeated, and their fleet lost. The people ran in +disorder to the great square of the city, whilst the senate assembled in +haste and in a tumultuous manner. Immediately they deliberated on the +means for preserving the city. They had no army in readiness to oppose the +enemy; and their imminent danger did not permit them to wait the arrival +of those forces which might be raised in the country and among the allies. +It was therefore resolved, after several different opinions had been +heard, to arm the citizens. The number of the forces thus levied, amounted +to forty thousand foot, a thousand horse, and two thousand armed chariots. +Hanno and Bomilcar, though divided betwixt themselves by some family +quarrels, were however joined in the command of these troops. They marched +immediately to meet the enemy; and, on sight of them, drew up their forces +in order of battle. Agathocles(643) had, at most, but thirteen or fourteen +thousand men. The signal was given, and an obstinate fight ensued. Hanno, +with his sacred cohort, (the flower of the Carthaginian forces,) long +sustained the fury of the Greeks, and sometimes even broke their ranks; +but at last, overwhelmed with a shower of stones, and covered with wounds, +he fell dead on the field. Bomilcar might have changed the face of things; +but he had private and personal reasons not to obtain a victory for his +country. He therefore thought proper to retire with the forces under his +command, and was followed by the whole army, which, by that means, was +forced to leave the field to Agathocles. After pursuing the enemy some +time, he returned, and plundered the Carthaginian camp. Twenty thousand +pair of manacles were found in it, with which the Carthaginians had +furnished themselves, in the firm persuasion of their taking many +prisoners. The result of this victory was the capture of a great number of +strong-holds, and the defection of many of the natives of the country, who +joined the victor. + +This descent of Agathocles into Africa, doubtless gave birth to Scipio's +design of making a like attempt upon the same republic, and from the same +place.(644) Wherefore, in his answer to Fabius, who ascribed to temerity +his design of making Africa the seat of the war, he forgot not to mention +the example of Agathocles, as an instance in favour of his enterprise; and +to show, that frequently there is no other way to get rid of an enemy who +presses too closely upon us, than by carrying the war into his own +country; and that men are much more courageous when they act upon the +offensive, than when they stand only upon the defensive. + +While the Carthaginians were thus warmly attacked by their enemies, +ambassadors arrived to them from Tyre.(645) They came to implore their +succour against Alexander the Great, who was upon the point of taking +their city, which he had long besieged. The extremity to which their +countrymen (for so they called them) were reduced, touched the +Carthaginians as sensibly as their own danger. Though they were unable to +relieve, they at least thought it their duty to comfort them; and deputed +thirty of their principal citizens to express their grief that they could +not spare them any troops, because of the present melancholy situation of +their own affairs. The Tyrians, though disappointed of the only hope they +had left, did not however despond; they committed their wives, +children,(646) and old men, to the care of these deputies; and thus, being +delivered from all inquietude, with regard to persons who were dearer to +them than any thing in the world, they thought alone of making a resolute +defence, prepared for the worst that might happen. Carthage received this +afflicted company with all possible marks of amity, and paid to guests who +were so dear and worthy of compassion, all the services which they could +have expected from the most affectionate and tender parents. + +Quintus Curtius places this embassy from Tyre to the Carthaginians at the +same time that the Syracusans were ravaging Africa, and had advanced to +the very gates of Carthage. But the expedition of Agathocles against +Africa cannot agree in time with the siege of Tyre, which was more than +twenty years before it. + +At the same time, Carthage was solicitous how to extricate itself from the +difficulties with which it was surrounded. The present unhappy state of +the republic was considered as the effect of the wrath of the gods: and it +was acknowledged to be justly deserved, particularly with regard to two +deities, towards whom the Carthaginians had been remiss in the discharge +of certain duties prescribed by their religion, and which had once been +observed with great exactness. It was a custom (coeval with the city +itself) at Carthage, to send annually to Tyre (the mother city) the tenth +of all the revenues of the republic, as an offering to Hercules, the +patron and protector of both cities. The domain, and consequently the +revenues of Carthage, having increased considerably, the portion, on the +contrary, of the god, had been lessened; and they were far from remitting +the whole tenth to him. They were seized with a scruple on this point: +they made an open and public confession of their insincerity and +sacrilegious avarice; and, to expiate their guilt, they sent to Tyre a +great number of presents, and small shrines of their deities all of gold, +which amounted to a prodigious value. + +Another violation of religion, which to their inhuman superstition seemed +as flagrant as the former, gave them no less uneasiness. Anciently, +children of the best families in Carthage used to be sacrificed to Saturn. +They now reproached themselves with having failed to pay to the god the +honours which they thought were due to him; and with having used fraud and +dishonest dealing towards him, by having substituted, in their sacrifices, +children of slaves or beggars, bought for that purpose, in the room of +those nobly born. To expiate the guilt of so horrid an impiety, a +sacrifice was made to this blood-thirsty god, of two hundred children of +the first rank; and upwards of three hundred persons, through a sense of +this terrible neglect, offered themselves voluntarily as victims, to +pacify, by the effusion of their blood, the wrath of the gods. + +After these expiations, expresses were despatched to Hamilcar in Sicily, +with the news of what had happened in Africa, and, at the same time, to +request immediate succours. He commanded the deputies to observe the +strictest silence on the subject of the victory of Agathocles; and spread +a contrary report, that he had been entirely defeated, his forces all cut +off, and his whole fleet taken by the Carthaginians; and, in confirmation +of this report, he showed the irons of the vessels pretended to be taken, +which had been carefully sent to him. The truth of this report was not at +all doubted in Syracuse; the majority were for capitulating;(647) when a +galley of thirty oars, built in haste by Agathocles, arrived in the port; +and through great difficulties and dangers forced its way to the besieged. +The news of Agathocles's victory immediately flew through the city, and +restored alacrity and resolution to the inhabitants. Hamilcar made a last +effort to storm the city, but was beaten off with loss. He then raised the +siege, and sent five thousand men to the relief of his distressed country. +Some time after,(648) having resumed the siege, and hoping to surprise the +Syracusans by attacking them in the night, his design was discovered; and +falling alive into the enemy's hands, he was put to death with the most +exquisite tortures.(649) Hamilcar's head was sent immediately to +Agathocles, who, advancing to the enemy's camp, threw it into a general +consternation, by displaying to them the head of this general, which +manifested the melancholy situation of their affairs in Sicily. + +To these foreign enemies was joined a domestic one, which was more to be +feared, as being more dangerous than the others;(650) this was Bomilcar +their general, who was then in possession of the first post in Carthage. +He had long meditated the establishment of himself as tyrant at Carthage, +and attaining the sovereign authority there; and imagined that the present +troubles offered him the wished-for opportunity. He therefore entered the +city, and being seconded by a small number of citizens, who were the +accomplices of his rebellion, and a body of foreign soldiers, he +proclaimed himself tyrant; and showed himself literally such, by cutting +the throats of all the citizens whom he met with in the streets. A tumult +arising immediately in the city, it was at first thought that the enemy +had taken it by some treachery; but when it was known that Bomilcar caused +all this disturbance, the young men took up arms to repel the tyrant, and +from the tops of the houses discharged whole volleys of darts and stones +upon the heads of his soldiers. When he saw an army marching in order +against him, he retired with his troops to an eminence, with design to +make a vigorous defence, and to sell his life as dear as possible. To +spare the blood of the citizens, a general pardon was proclaimed for all +without exception who would lay down their arms. They surrendered upon +this proclamation, and all enjoyed the benefit of it, Bomilcar their chief +excepted: for the Carthaginians, without regarding their oath, condemned +him to death, and fastened him to a cross, where he suffered the most +exquisite torments. From the cross, as from a rostrum, he harangued the +people; and thought himself justly entitled to reproach them for their +injustice, their ingratitude, and perfidy, which he did by enumerating +many illustrious generals, whose services they had rewarded with an +ignominious death. He expired on the cross whilst uttering these +reproaches.(651) + +Agathocles had won over to his interest a powerful king of Cyrene,(652) +named Ophellas, whose ambition he had flattered with the most splendid +hopes, by leading him to understand, that, contenting himself with Sicily, +he would leave to Ophellas the empire of Africa. But, as Agathocles did +not scruple to commit the most horrid crimes when he thought them +conducive to his interest, the credulous prince had no sooner put himself +and his army in his power, than, by the blackest perfidy, he caused him to +be murdered, in order that Ophellas's army might be entirely at his +devotion. Many nations were now joined in alliance with Agathocles, and +several strongholds were garrisoned by his forces. As he now saw the +affairs of Africa in a flourishing condition, he thought it proper to look +after those of Sicily; accordingly he sailed back thither, having left the +command of the army to his son Archagathus. His renown, and the report of +his victories, flew before him. On the news of his arrival in Sicily many +towns revolted to him; but bad news soon recalled him to Africa. His +absence had quite changed the face of things; and all his endeavours were +incapable of restoring them to their former condition. All his +strong-holds had surrendered to the enemy; the Africans had deserted him; +some of his troops were lost, and the remainder were unable to make head +against the Carthaginians; he had no way to transport them into Sicily, as +he was destitute of ships, and the enemy were masters at sea: he could not +hope for either peace or treaty with the barbarians, since he had insulted +them in so outrageous a manner, by his being the first who had dared to +make a descent in their country. In this extremity, he thought only of +providing for his own safety. After many adventures, this base deserter of +his army, and perfidious betrayer of his own children, who were left by +him to the wild fury of his disappointed soldiers, stole away from the +dangers which threatened him, and arrived at Syracuse with very few +followers. His soldiers, seeing themselves thus betrayed, murdered his +sons, and surrendered to the enemy. Himself died miserably soon after, and +ended, by a cruel death,(653) a life that had been polluted with the +blackest crimes. + +In this period may be placed another incident related by Justin.(654) The +fame of Alexander's conquests made the Carthaginians fear, that he might +think of turning his arms towards Africa. The disastrous fate of Tyre, +whence they drew their origin, and which he had so lately destroyed; the +building of Alexandria upon the confines of Africa and Egypt, as if he +intended it as a rival city to Carthage; the uninterrupted successes of +that prince, whose ambition and good fortune were boundless; all this +justly alarmed the Carthaginians. To sound his inclinations, Hamilcar, +surnamed Rhodanus, pretending to have been driven from his country by the +cabals of his enemies, went over to the camp of Alexander, to whom he was +introduced by Parmenio, and offered him his services. The king received +him graciously, and had several conferences with him. Hamilcar did not +fail to transmit to his country whatever discoveries he made from time to +time of Alexander's designs. Nevertheless, on his return to Carthage, +after Alexander's death, he was considered as a betrayer of his country to +that prince; and accordingly was put to death, by a sentence which +displayed equally the ingratitude and cruelty of his countrymen. + +(M105) I am now to speak of the wars of the Carthaginians in Sicily, in +the time of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus.(655) The Romans, to whom the designs +of that ambitious prince were not unknown, in order to strengthen +themselves against any attempts he might make upon Italy, had renewed +their treaties with the Carthaginians, who, on their side, were no less +afraid of his crossing into Sicily. To the articles of the preceding +treaties, there was added an engagement of mutual assistance, in case +either of the contracting powers should be attacked by Pyrrhus. + +The foresight of the Romans was well founded: Pyrrhus turned his arms +against Italy, and gained many victories.(656) The Carthaginians, in +consequence of the last treaty, thought themselves obliged to assist the +Romans; and accordingly sent them a fleet of six-score sail, under the +command of Mago. This general, in an audience before the senate, signified +to them the interest which his superiors took in the war which they heard +was carrying on against the Romans, and offered them their assistance. The +senate returned thanks for the obliging offer of the Carthaginians, but at +present thought fit to decline it. + +Mago,(657) some days after, repaired to Pyrrhus, upon pretence of offering +the mediation of Carthage for terminating his quarrel with the Romans; but +in reality to sound him, and discover, if possible, his designs with +regard to Sicily, which common fame reported he was going to invade. The +Carthaginians were afraid that either Pyrrhus or the Romans would +interfere in the affairs of that island, and transport forces thither for +the conquest of it. And, indeed, the Syracusans, who had been besieged for +some time by the Carthaginians, had sent pressingly for succour to +Pyrrhus. This prince had a particular reason to espouse their interests, +having married Lanassa, daughter of Agathocles, by whom he had a son named +Alexander. He at last sailed from Tarentum, passed the Strait, and arrived +in Sicily. His conquests at first were so rapid, that he left the +Carthaginians, in the whole island, only the single town of Lilybaeum. He +laid siege to it, but meeting with a vigorous resistance, was obliged to +raise the siege; not to mention that the urgent necessity of his affairs +called him back to Italy, where his presence was absolutely necessary. Nor +was it less so in Sicily, which, on his departure, returned to the +obedience of its former masters. Thus he lost this island with the same +rapidity that he had won it. As he was embarking, he turned his eyes back +to Sicily, and exclaimed to those about him,(658) "What a fine field of +battle(659) do we leave the Carthaginians and Romans!" His prediction was +soon verified. + +After his departure, the chief magistracy of Syracuse was conferred on +Hiero, who afterwards obtained the name and dignity of king, by the united +suffrages of the citizens; so greatly had his government pleased. He was +appointed to carry on the war against the Carthaginians, and obtained +several advantages over them. But now a common interest reunited them +against a new enemy, who began to appear in Sicily, and justly alarmed +both: these were the Romans, who, having crushed all the enemies which had +hitherto exercised their arms in Italy itself, were now powerful enough to +carry them out of it; and to lay the foundation of that vast power there +to which they afterwards attained, and of which it was probable they had +even then formed the design. Sicily lay too commodious for them, not to +form a resolution of establishing themselves in it. They therefore eagerly +snatched this opportunity for crossing into it, which caused the rupture +between them and the Carthaginians, and gave rise to the first Punic war. +This I shall treat of more at large, by relating the causes of that war. + + + +Chapter II. The History of Carthage from the first Punic War to its +destruction. + + +The plan which I have laid down does not allow me to enter into an exact +detail of the wars between Rome and Carthage; since that pertains rather +to the Roman history, which I do not intend to touch upon, except +transiently and occasionally. I shall therefore relate such facts only as +may give the reader a just idea of the republic whose history lies before +me; by confining myself to those particulars which relate chiefly to the +Carthaginians, and to their most important transactions in Sicily, Spain, +and Africa: a subject in itself sufficiently extensive. + +I have already observed, that from the first Punic war to the ruin of +Carthage, a hundred and eighteen years elapsed. This whole time may be +divided into five parts or intervals. + +I. The first Punic war lasted twenty-four years. + +II. The interval betwixt the first and second Punic war is also +twenty-four years. + +III. The second Punic war took up seventeen years. + +IV. The interval between the second and third is forty-nine years. + +V. The third Punic war, terminated by the destruction of Carthage, +continued but four years and some months. + +Total: 118 years. + +(M106) ARTICLE I. THE FIRST PUNIC WAR.--The first Punic war arose from the +following cause. Some Campanian soldiers, in the service of Agathocles, +the Sicilian tyrant, having entered as friends into Messina, soon after +murdered part of the townsmen, drove out the rest, married their wives, +seized their effects, and remained sole masters of that important +city.(660) They then assumed the name of Mamertines. In imitation of them, +and by their assistance, a Roman legion treated in the same cruel manner +the city of Rhegium, lying directly opposite to Messina, on the other side +of the strait. These two perfidious cities, supporting one another, +rendered themselves at length formidable to their neighbours; and +especially Messina, which became very powerful, and gave great umbrage and +uneasiness both to the Syracusans and Carthaginians, who possessed one +part of Sicily. As soon as the Romans had got rid of the enemies they had +so long contended with, and particularly of Pyrrhus, they began to think +of punishing the crime of their citizens, who had settled themselves at +Rhegium, in so cruel and treacherous a manner, nearly ten years before. +Accordingly, they took the city, and killed, in the attack, the greatest +part of the inhabitants, who, instigated by despair, had fought to the +last gasp: three hundred only were left, who were carried to Rome, +whipped, and then publicly beheaded in the forum. The view which the +Romans had in making this bloody execution, was, to prove to their allies +their own sincerity and innocence. Rhegium was immediately restored to its +lawful possessors. The Mamertines, who were considerably weakened, as well +by the ruin of their confederate city, as by the losses which they had +sustained from the Syracusans, who had lately placed Hiero at their head, +thought it time to provide for their own safety. But divisions arising +among them, one part surrendered the citadel to the Carthaginians, whilst +the other called in the Romans to their assistance, and resolved to put +them in possession of their city. + +The affair was debated in the Roman senate, where, being considered in all +its lights, it appeared to have some difficulties.(661) On one hand, it +was thought base, and altogether unworthy of the Roman virtue, for them to +undertake openly the defence of traitors, whose perfidy was exactly the +same with that of the Rhegians, whom the Romans had recently punished with +so exemplary a severity. On the other hand, it was of the utmost +consequence to stop the progress of the Carthaginians, who, not satisfied +with their conquests in Africa and Spain, had also made themselves masters +of almost all the islands of the Sardinian and Hetrurian seas; and would +certainly get all Sicily into their hands, if they should be suffered to +possess themselves of Messina. From thence into Italy, the passage was +very short; and it was in some manner to invite an enemy to come over, to +leave the entrance open. These reasons, though so strong, could not +prevail with the senate to declare in favour of the Mamertines; and +accordingly, motives of honour and justice prevailed in this instance over +those of interest and policy. (M107) But the people were not so +scrupulous; for, in an assembly held on this subject, it was resolved that +the Mamertines should be assisted.(662) The consul Appius Claudius +immediately set forward with his army, and boldly crossed the strait, +after he had, by an ingenious stratagem, eluded the vigilance of the +Carthaginian general. The Carthaginians, partly by art and partly by +force, were driven out of the citadel; and the city was surrendered +immediately to the consul. The Carthaginians hanged their general, for +having given up the citadel in so cowardly a manner, and prepared to +besiege the town with all their forces. Hiero joined them with his own. +But the consul, having defeated them separately, raised the siege, and +laid waste at pleasure the neighbouring country, the enemy not daring to +face him. This was the first expedition which the Romans made out of +Italy. + +It is doubted(663) whether the motives which prompted the Romans to +undertake this expedition, were very upright, and exactly conformable to +the rules of strict justice. Be this as it may, their passage into Sicily, +and the succour they gave to the inhabitants of Messina, may be said to +have been the first step by which they ascended to that height of glory +and grandeur which they afterwards attained. + +(M108) Hiero, having reconciled himself to the Romans, and entered into an +alliance with them, the Carthaginians bent all their thoughts on Sicily, +and sent numerous armies thither.(664) Agrigentum was their place of arms; +which, being attacked by the Romans, was won by them, after they had +besieged it seven months, and gained one battle. + +Notwithstanding the advantage of this victory, and the conquest of so +important a city, the Romans were sensible, that whilst the Carthaginians +should continue masters at sea, the maritime places in the island would +always side with them, and put it out of their power ever to drive them +out of Sicily.(665) Besides, they saw with reluctance Africa enjoy a +profound tranquillity, at a time that Italy was infested by the frequent +incursions of its enemies. They now first formed the design of having a +fleet, and of disputing the empire of the sea with the Carthaginians. The +undertaking was bold, and in outward appearance rash; but it evinces the +courage and magnanimity of the Romans. They were not at that time +possessed of a single vessel which they could call their own; and the +ships which had transported their forces into Sicily had been borrowed of +their neighbours. They were unexperienced in sea affairs, had no +carpenters acquainted with the building of ships, and did not know even +the shape of the Quinqueremes, or galleys with five benches of oars, in +which the chief strength of fleets at that time consisted. But happily, +the year before, one had been taken upon the coasts of Italy, which served +them as a model. They therefore applied themselves with incredible +industry and ardour to the building of ships in the same form; and in the +mean time they got together a set of rowers, who were taught an exercise +and discipline utterly unknown to them before, in the following manner. +Benches were made, on the shore, in the same order and fashion with those +of galleys. The rowers were seated on these benches, and taught, as if +they had been furnished with oars, to throw themselves backwards with +their arms drawn to their breasts; and then to throw their bodies and arms +forward in one regular motion, the instant their commanding officer gave +the signal. In two months, one hundred galleys of five benches of oars, +and twenty of three benches, were built; and after some time had been +spent in exercising the rowers on shipboard, the fleet put to sea, and +went in quest of the enemy. The consul Duillius had the command of it. + +(M109) The Romans coming up with the Carthaginians near the coast of Myle, +they prepared for an engagement.(666) As the Roman galleys, by their being +clumsily and hastily built, were neither very nimble nor easy to work; +this inconvenience was supplied by a machine invented for this occasion, +and afterwards known by the name of the Corvus,(667) (_Crow_, or _Crane_,) +by the help of which they grappled the enemy's ships, boarded them, and +immediately came to close engagement. The signal for fighting was given. +The Carthaginian fleet consisted of a hundred and thirty sail, under the +command of Hannibal.(668) He himself was on board a galley of seven +benches of oars, which had once belonged to Pyrrhus. The Carthaginians, +thoroughly despising enemies who were utterly unacquainted with sea +affairs, imagined that their very appearance would put them to flight, and +therefore came forward boldly, with little expectation of fighting; but +firmly imagining they should reap the spoils, which they had already +devoured with their eyes. They were nevertheless a little surprised at the +sight of the above-mentioned engines, raised on the prow of every one of +the enemy's ships, and which were entirely new to them. But their +astonishment increased, when they saw these engines drop down at once; and +being thrown forcibly into their vessels, grapple them in spite of all +resistance. This changed the form of the engagement, and obliged the +Carthaginians to come to close engagement with their enemies, as though +they had fought them on land. They were unable to sustain the attack of +the Romans: a horrible slaughter ensued, and the Carthaginians lost +fourscore vessels, among which was the admiral's galley, he himself +escaping with difficulty in a small boat. + +So considerable and unexpected a victory raised the courage of the Romans, +and seemed to redouble their vigour for the continuance of the war. +Extraordinary honours were bestowed on the consul Duillius, who was the +first Roman that had a naval triumph decreed him. A rostral pillar was +erected in his honour, with a noble inscription; which pillar is yet +standing in Rome.(669) + +During the two following years, the Romans grew still stronger at sea, by +their success in several engagements.(670) But these were considered by +them only as essays preparatory to the great design they meditated of +carrying the war into Africa, and of combating the Carthaginians in their +own country. There was nothing the latter dreaded more; and to divert so +dangerous a blow, they resolved to fight the enemy, whatever might be the +consequence. + +(M110) The Romans had elected M. Atilius Regulus, and L. Manlius, consuls +for this year.(671) Their fleet consisted of three hundred and thirty +vessels, on board of which were one hundred and forty thousand men, each +vessel having three hundred rowers, and a hundred and twenty soldiers. +That of the Carthaginians, commanded by Hanno and Hamilcar, had twenty +vessels more than the Romans, and a greater number of men in proportion. +The two fleets came in sight of each other near Ecnomus in Sicily. No man +could behold two such formidable navies, or be a spectator of the +extraordinary preparations they made for fighting, without being under +some concern, on seeing the danger which menaced two of the most powerful +states in the world. As the courage on both sides was equal, and no great +disparity in the forces, the fight was obstinate, and the victory long +doubtful; but at last the Carthaginians were overcome. More than sixty of +their ships were taken by the enemy, and thirty sunk. The Romans lost +twenty-four, not one of which fell into the enemy's hands. + +The fruit of this victory, as the Romans had designed it, was their +sailing to Africa, after having refitted their ships, and provided them +with all necessaries for carrying on a long war in a foreign country.(672) +They landed happily in Africa, and began the war by taking a town called +Clypea, which had a commodious haven. From thence, after having sent an +express to Rome, to give advice of their landing, and to receive orders +from the senate, they overran the open country, in which they made +terrible havoc; bringing away whole flocks of cattle, and twenty thousand +prisoners. + +(M111) The express returned in the mean time with the orders of the +senate, who decreed, that Regulus should continue to command the armies in +Africa, with the title of Proconsul; and that his colleague should return +with a great part of the fleet and the forces; leaving Regulus only forty +vessels, fifteen thousand foot, and five hundred horse. Their leaving the +latter with so few ships and troops, was a visible renunciation of the +advantages which might have been expected from this descent upon Africa. + +The people at Rome depended greatly on the courage and abilities of +Regulus; and the joy was universal, when it was known that he was +continued in the command in Africa; he alone was afflicted on that +account.(673) When news was brought him of it, he wrote to Rome, and +desired, in the strongest terms, that he might be appointed a successor. +His chief reason was, that the death of the farmer who rented his grounds, +having given one of his hirelings an opportunity of carrying off all the +implements of tillage, his presence was necessary for taking care of his +little spot of ground, (but seven acres,) which was all his family +subsisted upon. But the senate undertook to have his lands cultivated at +the public expense; to maintain his wife and children; and to indemnify +him for the loss he had sustained by the robbery of his hireling. Thrice +happy age! in which poverty was thus had in honour, and was united with +the most rare and uncommon merit, and the highest employments of the +state! Regulus thus freed from his domestic cares, bent his whole thoughts +on discharging the duty of a general. + +After taking several castles, he laid siege to Adis one of the strongest +fortresses of the country.(674) The Carthaginians, exasperated at seeing +their enemies thus laying waste their lands at pleasure, at last took the +field, and marched against them, to force them to raise the siege. With +this view, they posted themselves on a hill, which overlooked the Roman +camp, and was convenient for annoying the enemy; but, at the same time, by +its situation, rendered one part of their army useless. For the strength +of the Carthaginians lay chiefly in their horses and elephants, which are +of no service but in plains. Regulus did not give them an opportunity of +descending from the hill; but, in order to take advantage of this +essential mistake of the Carthaginian generals, fell upon them in this +post; and after meeting with a feeble resistance, put the enemy to flight, +plundered their camp, and laid waste the adjacent country. Then, having +taken Tunis,(675) an important city, and which brought him near Carthage, +he made his army encamp there. + +The enemy were in the utmost alarm. All things had succeeded ill with +them, their forces had been defeated by sea and land, and upwards of two +hundred towns had surrendered to the conqueror. Besides, the Numidians +made greater havoc in their territories than even the Romans. They +expected every moment to see their capital besieged. And their affliction +was increased by the concourse of peasants with their wives and children, +who flocked from all parts to Carthage for safety: which gave them +melancholy apprehensions of a famine in case of a siege. Regulus, afraid +of having the glory of his victories torn from him by a successor, made +some proposal of an accommodation to the vanquished enemy; but the +conditions appeared so hard, that they could not listen to them. As he did +not doubt his being soon master of Carthage, he would not abate any thing +in his demands; but, by an infatuation which is almost inseparable from +great and unexpected success, he treated them with haughtiness; and +pretended, that every thing he suffered them to possess, ought to be +esteemed a favour; adding this farther insult, "That they ought either to +overcome like brave men, or learn to submit to the victor."(676) So harsh +and disdainful a treatment only fired their resentment; and they resolved +rather to die sword in hand, than to do any thing which might derogate +from the dignity of Carthage. + +Reduced to this fatal extremity, they received, in the happiest juncture, +a reinforcement of auxiliary troops out of Greece, with Xanthippus the +Lacedaemonian at their head, who had been educated in the discipline of +Sparta, and learnt the art of war in that renowned and excellent school. +When he had heard the circumstances of the last battle, which were told +him at his request; had clearly discerned the occasion of its being lost; +and perfectly informed himself in what the strength of Carthage consisted; +he declared publicly, and repeated it often, in the hearing of the rest of +the officers, that the misfortunes of the Carthaginians were owing +entirely to the incapacity of their generals. These discourses came at +last to the ear of the public council; the members of it were struck with +them, and they requested him to attend them. He enforced his opinion with +such strong and convincing reasons, that the oversights committed by the +generals were visible to every one; and he proved as clearly, that, by a +conduct opposite to the former, they would not only secure their +dominions, but drive the enemy out of them. This speech revived the +courage and hopes of the Carthaginians; and Xanthippus was entreated, and, +in some measure, forced, to accept the command of the army. When the +Carthaginians saw, in his exercising of their forces near the city, the +manner in which he drew them up in order of battle, made them advance or +retreat on the first signal, file off with order and expedition; in a +word, perform all the evolutions and movements of the military art; they +were struck with astonishment, and owned, that the ablest generals which +Carthage had hitherto produced, knew nothing in comparison of Xanthippus. + +The officers, soldiers, and every one, were lost in admiration; and, what +is very uncommon, jealousy gave no alloy to it; the fear of the present +danger, and the love of their country, stifling, without doubt, all other +sentiments. The gloomy consternation, which had before seized the whole +army, was succeeded by joy and alacrity. The soldiers were urgent to be +led against the enemy, in the firm assurance (as they said) of being +victorious under their new leader, and of obliterating the disgrace of +former defeats. Xanthippus did not suffer their ardour to cool; and the +sight of the enemy only inflamed it. When he had approached within little +more than twelve hundred paces of them, he thought proper to call a +council of war, in order to show respect to the Carthaginian generals, by +consulting them. All unanimously deferred to his opinion; upon which it +was resolved to give the enemy battle the following day. + +The Carthaginian army was composed of twelve thousand foot, four thousand +horse, and about a hundred elephants. That of the Romans, as near as may +be guessed from what goes before, (for Polybius does not mention their +numbers here,) consisted of fifteen thousand foot and three hundred horse. + +It must be a noble sight to see two armies like these before us, not +overcharged with numbers, but composed of brave soldiers, and commanded by +very able generals, engaged in battle. In those tumultuous fights, where +two or three hundred thousand are engaged on both sides, confusion is +inevitable; and it is difficult, amidst a thousand events, where chance +generally seems to have a greater share than counsel, to discover the true +merit of commanders, and the real causes of victory. But in such +engagements as this before us, nothing escapes the curiosity of the +reader; for he clearly sees the disposition of the two armies; imagines he +almost hears the orders given out by the generals; follows all the +movements of the army; can point out the faults committed on both sides; +and is thereby qualified to determine, with certainty, the causes to which +the victory or defeat is owing. The success of this battle, however +inconsiderable it may appear from the small number of the combatants, was +nevertheless to decide the fate of Carthage. + +The disposition of both armies was as follows. Xanthippus drew up all his +elephants in front. Behind these, at some distance, he placed the +Carthaginian infantry in one body or phalanx. The foreign troops in the +Carthaginian service were posted, one part of them on the right, between +the phalanx and the horse; and the other, composed of light-armed +soldiers, in platoons, at the head of the two wings of the cavalry. + +On the side of the Romans, as they apprehended the elephants most, +Regulus, to provide against them, posted his light-armed soldiers, on a +line, in the front of the legions. In the rear of these, he placed the +cohorts one behind another, and the horse on the wings. In thus +straitening the front of his main battle, to give it more depth, he indeed +took a just precaution, says Polybius, against the elephants; but he did +not provide for the inequality of his cavalry, which was much inferior in +numbers to that of the enemy. + +The two armies being thus drawn up, waited only for the signal. Xanthippus +orders the elephants to advance, to break the ranks of the enemy; and +commands the two wings of the cavalry to charge the Romans in flank. At +the same time, the latter, clashing their arms, and shouting after the +manner of their country, advance against the enemy. Their cavalry did not +stand the onset long, being so much inferior to that of the Carthaginians. +The infantry in the left wing, to avoid the attack of the elephants, and +show how little they feared the mercenaries who formed the enemies' right +wing, attacks it, puts it to flight, and pursues it to the camp. Those in +the first ranks, who were opposed to the elephants, were broken and +trodden under foot, after fighting valiantly; and the rest of the main +body stood firm for some time, by reason of its great depth. But when the +rear, being attacked by the enemy's cavalry, was obliged to face about and +receive it; and those who had broken through the elephants, met the +phalanx of the Carthaginians, which had not yet engaged, and which +received them in good order, the Romans were routed on all sides, and +entirely defeated. The greatest part of them were crushed to death by the +enormous weight of the elephants: and the remainder, standing in the +ranks, were shot through and through with arrows from the enemy's horse. +Only a small number fled; and as they were in an open country, the horse +and elephants killed a great part of them. Five hundred, or thereabouts, +who went off with Regulus, were taken prisoners with him. The +Carthaginians lost in this battle eight hundred mercenaries, who were +opposed to the left wing of the Romans; and of the latter only two +thousand escaped, who, by their pursuing the enemy's right wing, had drawn +themselves out of the engagement. All the rest, Regulus and those taken +with him excepted, were left dead in the field. The two thousand, who had +escaped the slaughter, retired to Clypea, and were saved in an almost +miraculous manner. + +The Carthaginians, after having stripped the dead, entered Carthage in +triumph, dragging after them the unfortunate Regulus, and five hundred +prisoners. Their joy was so much the greater, as, but a very few days +before, they had seen themselves upon the brink of ruin. The men and +women, old and young people, crowded the temples, to return thanks to the +immortal gods; and several days were devoted wholly to festivities and +rejoicings. + +Xanthippus, who had contributed so much to this happy change, had the +wisdom to withdraw shortly after, from the apprehension lest his glory, +which had hitherto been unsullied, might, after this first blaze, +insensibly fade away, and leave him exposed to the darts of envy and +calumny, which are always dangerous, but most in a foreign country, when a +man stands alone, unsustained by friends and relations, and destitute of +all support. + +Polybius tells us, that Xanthippus's departure was related in a different +manner, and promises to take notice of it in another place: but that part +of his history has not come down to us. We read in Appian,(677) that the +Carthaginians, excited by a mean and detestable jealousy of Xanthippus's +glory, and unable to bear the thoughts that they should stand indebted to +Sparta for their safety; upon pretence of conducting him and his +attendants back with honour to his own country, with a numerous convoy of +ships, gave private orders to have them all put to death in their passage; +as if with him they could have buried in the waves for ever the memory of +his services, and their horrid ingratitude to him.(678) + +"This battle," says Polybius,(679) "though not so considerable as many +others, may yet furnish very salutary instructions; which," adds that +author, "is the greatest benefit that can be reaped from the study of +history." + +First, ought any man to put a great confidence in his good fortune, after +he has considered the fate of Regulus? That general, insolent with +victory, inexorable to the conquered, scarcely deigning to listen to them, +saw himself a few days after vanquished by them, and made their prisoner. +Hannibal suggested the same reflection to Scipio, when he exhorted him not +to be dazzled with the success of his arms. Regulus, said he, would have +been recorded as one of the most uncommon instances of valour and +felicity, had he, after the victory obtained in this very country, granted +our fathers the peace which they sued for. But putting no bounds to his +ambition and the insolence of success, the greater his prosperity, the +more ignominious was his fall.(680) + +In the second place, the truth of the saying of Euripides is here seen in +its full extent, "That one wise head is worth a great many hands."(681) A +single man here changes the whole face of affairs. On one hand, he defeats +troops which were thought invincible; on the other, he revives the courage +of a city and an army, whom he had found in consternation and despair. + +Such, as Polybius observes, is the use which ought to be made of the study +of history. For there being two ways of acquiring improvement and +instruction, first by one's own experience, and secondly by that of other +men; it is much more wise and useful to improve by other men's +miscarriages than by our own. + +I return to Regulus, that I may here finish what relates to him; Polybius, +to our great disappointment, taking no further notice of that +general.(682) + +(M112) After being kept some years in prison, he was sent to Rome to +propose an exchange of prisoners.(683) He had been obliged to take an +oath, that he would return in case he proved unsuccessful. He then +acquainted the senate with the subject of his voyage; and being invited by +them to give his opinion freely, he answered, that he could no longer do +it as a senator, having lost both this quality, and that of a Roman +citizen, from the time that he had fallen into the hands of his enemies; +but he did not refuse to offer his thoughts as a private person. This was +a very delicate affair. Every one was touched with the misfortunes of so +great a man. "He needed only," says Cicero, "to have spoken one word, and +it would have restored him to his liberty, his estate, his dignity, his +wife, his children, and his country;" but that word appeared to him +contrary to the honour and welfare of the state. He therefore plainly +declared, that an exchange of prisoners ought not to be so much as thought +of: that such an example would be of fatal consequence to the republic: +that citizens who had so basely surrendered their arms to the enemy, were +unworthy of the least compassion, and incapable of serving their country; +that with regard to himself, as he was so far advanced in years, his death +ought to be considered as nothing; whereas they had in their hands several +Carthaginian generals, in the flower of their age, and capable of doing +their country great services for many years. It was with difficulty that +the senate complied with so generous and unexampled a counsel. The +illustrious exile therefore left Rome, in order to return to Carthage, +unmoved either with the deep affliction of his friends, or the tears of +his wife and children, although he knew but too well the grievous torments +which were prepared for him.(684) And indeed, the moment his enemies saw +him returned without having obtained the exchange of prisoners, they put +him to every kind of torture their barbarous cruelty could invent. They +imprisoned him for a long time in a dismal dungeon, whence (after cutting +off his eye-lids) they drew him at once into the sun, when its beams +darted the strongest heat. They next put him into a kind of chest stuck +full of nails, whose points wounding him did not allow him a moment's ease +either day or night. Lastly, after having been long tormented by being +kept for ever awake in this dreadful torture, his merciless enemies nailed +him to a cross, their usual punishment, and left him to expire on it. Such +was the end of this great man. His enemies, by depriving him of some days, +perhaps years, of life, brought eternal infamy on themselves. + +The blow which the Romans had received in Africa did not discourage +them.(685) They made greater preparations than before, to retrieve their +loss; and put to sea, the following campaign, three hundred and sixty +vessels. The Carthaginians sailed out to meet them with two hundred; but +were beaten in an engagement fought on the coasts of Sicily, and a hundred +and fourteen of their ships were taken by the Romans. The latter sailed +into Africa to take in the few soldiers who had escaped the pursuit of the +enemy, after the defeat of Regulus; and had defended themselves vigorously +in Clupea,(686) where they had been unsuccessfully besieged. + +Here again we are astonished that the Romans, after so considerable a +victory, and with so large a fleet, should sail into Africa, only to bring +from thence a small garrison; whereas they might have attempted the +conquest of it, since Regulus, with much fewer forces, had almost +completed it. + +The Romans, on their return, were overtaken by a storm, which almost +destroyed their whole fleet.(687) The like misfortune befell them also the +following year.(688) However, they consoled themselves for this double +loss, by a victory which they gained over Asdrubal, from whom they took +near a hundred and forty elephants. This news being brought to Rome, +filled the whole city with joy; not only because the strength of the +enemy's army was considerably diminished by the loss of their elephants, +but chiefly because this victory had inspired the land forces with fresh +courage; who, since the defeat of Regulus, had not dared to venture upon +an engagement; so great was the terror with which those formidable animals +had filled the minds of all the soldiers. It was therefore judged proper +to make a greater effort than ever, in order to finish, if possible, a war +which had continued fourteen years. The two consuls set sail with a fleet +of two hundred ships, and arriving in Sicily, formed the bold design of +besieging Lilybaeum. This was the strongest town which the Carthaginians +possessed, and the loss of it would be attended with that of every part of +the island and open to the Romans a free passage into Africa. + +The reader will suppose, that the utmost ardour was shown, both in the +assault and defence of the place.(689) Imilcon was governor there, with +ten thousand regular forces, exclusive of the inhabitants; and Hannibal, +the son of Hamilcar, soon brought him as many more from Carthage; he +having, with the most intrepid courage, forced his way through the enemy's +fleet, and arrived happily in the port. + +The Romans had not lost any time. Having brought forward their engines, +they beat down several towers with their battering rams; and gaining +ground daily, they made such progress, as gave the besieged, who now were +closely pressed, some fears. The governor saw plainly that there was no +other way left to save the city, but by firing the engines of the +besiegers. Having therefore prepared his forces for this enterprise, he +sent them out at daybreak with torches in their hands, tow, and all kind +of combustible matters; and at the same time attacked all the engines. The +Romans exerted their utmost efforts to repel them, and the engagement was +very bloody. Every man, assailant as well as defendant, stood to his post, +and chose to die rather than quit it. At last, after a long resistance and +dreadful slaughter, the besieged sounded a retreat, and left the Romans in +possession of their works. This conflict being over, Hannibal embarked in +the night, and concealing his departure from the enemy, sailed for +Drepanum, where Adherbal commanded for the Carthaginians. Drepanum was +advantageously situated; having a commodious port, and lying about a +hundred and twenty furlongs from Lilybaeum; and the Carthaginians had been +always very desirous of preserving it. + +The Romans, animated by their late success, renewed the attack with +greater vigour than ever; the besieged not daring to make a second attempt +to burn their machines, so much were they disheartened by the ill success +of the former. But a furious wind rising suddenly, some mercenary soldiers +represented to the governor, that now was the favourable opportunity for +them to fire the engines of the besiegers, especially as the wind blew +full against them; and they offered themselves for the enterprise. The +offer was accepted, and accordingly they were furnished with every thing +necessary. In a moment the fire caught all the engines; and the Romans +could not possibly extinguish it, because the flames being spread +instantly every where, the wind carried the sparks and smoke full in their +eyes, so that they could not see where to apply relief; whereas their +enemies saw clearly where to aim their strokes, and throw their fire. This +accident made the Romans lose all hopes of being ever able to carry the +place by force. They therefore turned the siege into a blockade; raised a +strong line of contravallation round the town; and, dispersing their army +in every part of the neighbourhood, resolved to effect by time, what they +found themselves absolutely unable to perform any other way. + +When the transactions of the siege of Lilybaeum, and the loss of part of +the forces, were known at Rome, the citizens, so far from desponding at +this ill news, seemed to be fired with new vigour.(690) Every man strove +to be foremost in the muster roll; so that, in a very little time, an army +of ten thousand men was raised, who, crossing the strait, marched by land +to join the besiegers. + +(M113) At the same time, P. Claudius Pulcher, the consul, formed a design +of attacking Adherbal in Drepanum.(691) He thought himself sure of +surprising him, because, after the loss lately sustained by the Romans at +Lilybaeum, the enemy could not imagine that they would venture out again at +sea. Flushed with these hopes, he sailed out with his fleet in the night, +the better to conceal his design. But he had to do with an active general, +whose vigilance he could not elude, and who did not even give him time to +draw up his ships in line of battle, but fell vigorously upon him whilst +his fleet was in disorder and confusion. The Carthaginians gained a +complete victory. Of the Roman fleet, only thirty vessels got off, which +being in company with the consul, fled with him, and got away in the best +manner they could along the coast. All the rest, amounting to fourscore +and thirteen, with the men on board them, were taken by the Carthaginians; +a few soldiers excepted, who had escaped from the wreck of their vessels. +This victory displayed as much the prudence and valour of Adherbal, as it +reflected shame and ignominy on the Roman consul. + +Junius, his colleague, was neither more prudent nor more fortunate than +himself, but lost his whole fleet by his ill conduct.(692) Endeavouring to +atone for his misfortune by some considerable action, he held a secret +correspondence with the inhabitants of Eryx,(693) and by that means got +the city surrendered to him. On the summit of the mountain stood the +temple of Venus Erycina, which was certainly the most beautiful as well as +the richest of all the Sicilian temples. The city stood a little below the +summit of this mountain, and the only access to it was by a road very long +and very rugged. Junius posted one part of his troops upon the top, and +the remainder at the foot of the mountain, imagining that he now had +nothing to fear; but Hamilcar, surnamed Barca, father of the famous +Hannibal, found means to get into the city, which lay between the two +camps of the enemy, and there fortified himself. From this advantageous +post he harassed the Romans incessantly for two years. One can scarce +conceive how it was possible for the Carthaginians to defend themselves, +when thus attacked from both the summit and foot of the mountain; and +unable to get provisions, but from a little port, which was the only one +open to them. By such enterprises as these, the abilities and prudent +courage of a general, are as well, or perhaps better discovered, than by +the winning of a battle. + +For five years, nothing memorable was performed on either side.(694) The +Romans had imagined that their land forces would alone be capable of +finishing the siege of Lilybaeum: but as they saw it protracted beyond +their expectation, they returned to their first plan, and made +extraordinary efforts to fit out a new fleet. The public treasury was at a +low ebb; but this want was supplied by the zeal of individuals; so ardent +was the love which the Romans bore their country. Every man, according to +his circumstances, contributed to the common expense; and, upon public +security, advanced money, without the least scruple, for an expedition on +which the glory and safety of Rome depended. One man fitted out a ship at +his own charge; another was equipped by the contributions of two or three; +so that, in a very little time, two hundred were ready for sailing. (M114) +The command was given to Lutatius the consul, who immediately put to sea. +The enemy's fleet had retired into Africa: the consul therefore easily +seized upon all the advantageous posts in the neighbourhood of Lilybaeum; +and foreseeing that he should soon be forced to fight, he omitted no +precautions to ensure success; and employed the interval in exercising his +soldiers and seamen at sea. + +He was soon informed that the Carthaginian fleet drew near, under the +command of Hanno, who landed in a small island called Hiera, opposite to +Drepanum. His design was to reach Eryx undiscovered by the Romans, in +order to supply the army there; to reinforce his troops, and take Barca on +board to assist him in the expected engagement. But the consul, suspecting +his intention, was beforehand with him; and having assembled all his best +forces, sailed for the small island AEgusa,(695) which lay near the other. +He acquainted his officers with the design he had of attacking the enemy +on the morrow. Accordingly, at daybreak, he prepared to engage: +unfortunately the wind was favourable for the enemy, which made him +hesitate whether he should give him battle. But considering that the +Carthaginian fleet, when unloaded of its provisions, would become lighter +and more fit for action; and, besides, would be considerably strengthened +by the forces and presence of Barca he came to a resolution at once; and, +notwithstanding the foul weather, made directly to the enemy. The consul +had choice forces, able seamen, and excellent ships, built after the model +of a galley that had been lately taken from the enemy; and which was the +completest in its kind that had ever been seen. The Carthaginians, on the +other hand, were destitute of all these advantages. As they had been the +entire masters at sea for some years, and the Romans did not once dare to +face them, they held them in the highest contempt, and looked upon +themselves as invincible. On the first report of the enemy being in +motion, the Carthaginians had put to sea a fleet fitted out in haste, as +appeared from every circumstance of it: the soldiers and seamen being all +mercenaries, newly levied, without the least experience, resolution, or +zeal, since it was not for their own country they were going to fight. +This soon appeared in the engagement. They could not sustain the first +attack. Fifty of their vessels were sunk, and seventy taken, with their +whole crews. The rest, favoured by a wind which rose very seasonably for +them, made the best of their way to the little island from whence they had +sailed. There were upwards of ten thousand taken prisoners. The consul +sailed immediately for Lilybaeum, and joined his forces to those of the +besiegers. + +When the news of this defeat arrived at Carthage, it occasioned so much +the greater surprise and terror, as it was less expected. The senate, +however, did not lose their courage, though they saw themselves quite +unable to continue the war. As the Romans were now masters of the sea, it +was not possible for the Carthaginians to send either provisions, or +reinforcements, to the armies in Sicily. An express was therefore +immediately despatched to Barca, the general there, empowering him to act +as he should think proper. Barca, so long as he had room to entertain the +least hopes, had done every thing that could be expected from the most +intrepid courage and the most consummate wisdom. But having now no +resource left, he sent a deputation to the consul, in order to treat about +a peace. "Prudence," says Polybius, "consists in knowing how to resist and +yield at a seasonable juncture." Lutatius was not insensible how tired the +Romans were grown of a war, which had exhausted them both of men and +money; and the dreadful consequences which had attended on Regulus's +inexorable and imprudent obstinacy, were fresh in his memory. He therefore +complied without difficulty, and dictated the following treaty. + +THERE SHALL BE PEACE BETWEEN ROME AND CARTHAGE (IN CASE THE ROMAN PEOPLE +APPROVE OF IT) ON THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS: THE CARTHAGINIANS SHALL +EVACUATE ALL SICILY; SHALL NO LONGER MAKE WAR UPON HIERO, THE SYRACUSANS, +OR THEIR ALLIES: THEY SHALL RESTORE TO THE ROMANS, WITHOUT RANSOM, ALL THE +PRISONERS WHICH THEY HAVE TAKEN FROM THEM; AND PAY THEM, WITHIN TWENTY +YEARS, TWO THOUSAND TWO HUNDRED EUBOIC TALENTS OF SILVER.(696) It is worth +the reader's remarking, by the way, the simple, exact, and clear terms in +which this treaty is expressed; that, in so short a compass, adjusts the +interests of two powerful republics and their allies, both by sea and +land. + +When these conditions were brought to Rome, the people, not approving of +them, sent ten commissioners to Sicily, to terminate the affair. These +made no alteration as to the substance of the treaty;(697) only shortening +the time appointed for the payment, reducing it to ten years: a thousand +talents were added to the sum that had been stipulated, which were to be +paid immediately; and the Carthaginians were required to depart out of all +the islands situated between Italy and Sicily. Sardinia was not +comprehended in this treaty; but they gave it up by another treaty which +was made some years afterwards. + +(M115) Such was the conclusion of a war, one of the longest mentioned in +history, since it continued twenty-four years without intermission. The +obstinacy, in disputing for empire, was equal on either side: the same +resolution, the same greatness of soul, in forming as well as in executing +of projects, being conspicuous on both sides. The Carthaginians had the +superiority in their acquaintance with naval affairs; in their skill in +the construction of their vessels; the working of them; the experience and +capacity of their pilots; the knowledge of coasts, shallows, roads, and +winds; and in the inexhaustible fund of wealth, which furnished all the +expenses of so long and obstinate a war. The Romans had none of these +advantages; but their courage, zeal for the public good, love of their +country, and a noble emulation of glory, supplied all other deficiencies. +We are astonished to see a nation, so raw and inexperienced in naval +affairs, not only making head against a people who were better skilled in +them, and more powerful than any that had ever been before; but even +gaining several victories over them at sea. No difficulties or calamities +could discourage them. They certainly would not have thought of peace, in +the circumstances under which the Carthaginians demanded it. One +unfortunate campaign dispirits the latter; whereas the Romans are not +shaken by a succession of them. + +As to soldiers, there was no comparison between those of Rome and +Carthage, the former being infinitely superior in point of courage. Among +the generals who commanded in this war, Hamilcar, surnamed Barca, was, +doubtless, the most conspicuous for his bravery and prudence. + +_The Libyan War; or against the Mercenaries._(698)--The war which the +Carthaginians waged against the Romans, was succeeded immediately by +another,(699) which, though of much shorter continuance, was infinitely +more dangerous; as it was carried on in the very heart of the republic, +and attended with such cruelty and barbarity, as is scarce to be +paralleled in history; I mean the war which the Carthaginians were obliged +to sustain against their mercenary troops, who had served under them in +Sicily, and which is commonly called the African or Libyan war.(700) It +continued only three years and a half, but was a very bloody one. The +occasion of it was this: + +As soon as the treaty was concluded with the Romans,(701) Hamilcar, having +carried to Lilybaeum the forces which were in Eryx, resigned his +commission; and left to Gisgo, governor of the place, the care of +transporting these forces into Africa. Gisgo, as though he had foreseen +what would happen, did not ship them all off at once, but in small and +separate parties, in order that those who came first might be paid off, +and sent home, before the arrival of the rest. This conduct evinced great +forecast and wisdom, but was not seconded equally at Carthage. As the +republic had been exhausted by the expense of a long war, and the payment +of near one hundred and thirty thousand pounds to the Romans on signing +the peace, the forces were not paid off in proportion as they arrived; but +it was thought proper to wait for the rest, in the hopes of obtaining from +them (when they should be all together) a remission of some part of their +arrears. This was the first oversight. + +Here we discover the genius of a state composed of merchants, who know the +full value of money, but are little acquainted with that of the services +of soldiers; who bargain for blood, as though it were an article of trade, +and always go to the cheapest market. In such a republic, when an exigency +is once answered, the merit of services is no longer remembered. + +These soldiers, most of whom came to Carthage, having been long accustomed +to a licentious life, caused great disturbances in the city; to remedy +which, it was proposed to their officers, to march them all to a little +neighbouring town called Sicca, and there supply them with whatever was +necessary for their subsistence, till the arrival of the rest of their +companions; and that then they should all be paid off, and sent home. This +was a second oversight. + +A third was, the refusing to let them leave their baggage, their wives, +and children in Carthage, as they desired; and the forcing them to remove +these to Sicca; whereas, had they staid in Carthage, they would have been +in a manner so many hostages. + +Being all met together at Sicca, they began (having little else to do) to +compute the arrears of their pay, which they made amount to much more than +was really due to them. To this computation, they added the mighty +promises which had been made them, at different times, as an encouragement +for them to do their duty; and pretended that these likewise ought to be +brought into the account. Hanno, who was then governor of Africa, and had +been sent to them from the magistrates of Carthage, proposed to them to +consent to some abatement of their arrears; and to content themselves with +receiving a part, in consideration of the great distress to which the +commonwealth was reduced, and its present unhappy circumstances. The +reader will easily guess how such a proposal was received. Complaints, +murmurs, seditious and insolent clamours, were every where heard. These +troops being composed of different nations, who were strangers to one +another's language, were incapable of hearing reason when they once +mutinied. Spaniards, Gauls, Ligurians; inhabitants of the Balearic isles; +Greeks, the greatest part of them slaves or deserters, and a very great +number of Africans, composed these mercenary forces. Transported with +rage, they immediately break up, march towards Carthage, (being upwards of +twenty thousand,) and encamp at Tunis, not far from that metropolis. + +The Carthaginians discovered too late their error. There was no +compliance, how grovelling soever, to which they did not stoop, to soothe +these exasperated soldiers: who, on their side, practised every knavish +art which could be thought of, in order to extort money from them. When +one point was gained, they immediately had recourse to a new artifice, on +which to ground some new demand. Was their pay settled beyond the +agreement made with them, they still would be reimbursed for the losses +which they pretended to have sustained, either by the death of their +horses, by the excessive price which, at certain times, they had paid for +bread-corn; and still insisted on the recompense which had been promised +them. As nothing could be fixed, the Carthaginians, with great difficulty, +prevailed on them to refer themselves to the opinion of some general who +had commanded in Sicily. Accordingly they pitched upon Gisgo, who had +always been very acceptable to them. This general harangued them in a mild +and insinuating manner; recalled to their memories the long time they had +been in the Carthaginian service; the considerable sums they had received +from the republic; and granted almost all their demands. + +The treaty was upon the point of being concluded, when two mutineers +occasioned a tumult in every part of the camp. One of those was Spendius a +Capuan, who had been a slave at Rome, and had fled to the Carthaginians. +He was tall and bold. The fear he was under, of falling into the hands of +his former master, by whom he was sure to be hanged, (as was the custom,) +prompted him to break off the agreement. He was seconded by one +Matho,(702) who had been very active in forming the conspiracy. These two +represented to the Africans, that the instant after their companions +should be discharged and sent home, they, being thus left alone in their +own country, would fall a sacrifice to the rage of the Carthaginians, who +would take vengeance upon them for the common rebellion. This was +sufficient to raise them to fury. They immediately made choice of Spendius +and Matho for their chiefs. No remonstrances were heard; and whoever +offered to make any, was immediately put to death. They ran to Gisgo's +tent, plundered it of the money designed for the payment of the forces: +dragged that general himself to prison, with all his attendants; after +having treated them with the utmost indignities. All the cities of Africa, +to whom they had sent deputies to exhort them to recover their liberty, +came over to them, Utica and Hippacra excepted, which they therefore +immediately besieged. + +Carthage had never been before exposed to such imminent danger. The +citizens individually drew each his subsistence from the rents or revenues +of their lands, and the public expenses from the tribute paid by Africa. +But all this was stopped at once; and (a much worse circumstance) was +turned against them. They found themselves destitute of arms and forces, +either for sea or land; of all necessary preparations either for the +sustaining of a siege, or the equipping of a fleet; and, to complete their +misfortunes, without any hopes of foreign assistance, either from their +friends or allies. + +They might, in some sense, impute to themselves the distress to which they +were reduced. During the last war, they had treated the African nations +with the utmost rigour, by imposing excessive tributes on them, in the +exaction of which no allowance was made for poverty and extreme misery; +and governors, such as Hanno, were treated with the greater respect, the +more severe they had been in levying those tributes. So that no great +efforts were necessary to prevail upon the Africans to engage in this +rebellion. At the very first signal that was made, it broke out, and in a +moment became general. The women, who had often, with the deepest +affliction, seen their husbands and fathers dragged to prison for +non-payment, were more exasperated than the men; and with pleasure gave up +all their ornaments towards the expenses of the war; so that the chiefs of +the rebels, after paying all they had promised the soldiers, found +themselves still in the midst of plenty: an instructive lesson, says +Polybius, to ministers, how a people should be treated; as it teaches them +to look, not only to the present occasion, but to extend their views to +futurity. + +The Carthaginians, notwithstanding their present distress, did not +despond, but made the most extraordinary efforts. The command of the army +was given to Hanno. Troops were levied by land and sea; horse as well as +foot. All citizens, capable of bearing arms, were mustered; mercenaries +were invited from all parts; and all the ships which the republic had left +were refitted. + +The rebels discovered no less ardour. We related before, that they had +formed the siege of the two only cities which refused to join them. Their +army was now increased to seventy thousand men. After detachments had been +drawn from it to carry on those sieges, they pitched their camp at Tunis; +and thereby held Carthage in a kind of blockade, filling it with perpetual +alarms, and frequently advancing up to its very walls by day as well as by +night. + +Hanno had marched to the relief of Utica, and gained a considerable +advantage, which, had he made a proper use of it, might have proved +decisive: but entering the city, and only diverting himself there, the +mercenaries, who had retreated to a neighbouring hill covered with trees, +hearing how careless the enemy were, poured down upon them; found the +soldiers straggling in all parts; took and plundered the camp, and seized +upon all the supplies that had been brought from Carthage for the relief +of the besieged. Nor was this the only error committed by Hanno; and +errors, in such critical junctures, are much the most fatal. Hamilcar, +surnamed Barca, was therefore appointed to succeed him. This general +answered the idea which had been entertained of him; and his first success +was the obliging the rebels to raise the siege of Utica. He then marched +against their army which was encamped near Carthage; defeated part of it, +and seized almost all their advantageous posts. These successes revived +the courage of the Carthaginians. + +The arrival of a young Numidian nobleman, Naravasus by name, who, out of +esteem for the person and merit of Barca, joined him with two thousand +Numidians, was of great service to that general. Animated by this +reinforcement, he fell upon the rebels, who had cooped him up in a valley; +killed ten thousand of them, and took four thousand prisoners. The young +Numidian distinguished himself greatly in this battle. Barca took into his +troops as many of the prisoners as were desirous of being enlisted, and +gave the rest free liberty to go wherever they pleased, on condition that +they should never take up arms any more against the Carthaginians; +otherwise, that every man of them, if taken, should be put to death. This +conduct proves the wisdom of that general. He thought this a better +expedient than extreme severity. And indeed where a multitude of mutineers +are concerned, the greatest part of whom have been drawn in by the +persuasions of the most hotheaded, or through fear of the most furious, +clemency seldom fails of being successful. + +Spendius, the chief of the rebels, fearing that this affected lenity of +Barca might occasion a defection among his troops, thought the only +expedient left him to prevent it, would be, to strike some signal blow, +which would deprive them of all hopes of being ever reconciled to the +enemy. With this view, after having read to them some fictitious letters, +by which advice was given him, of a secret design concerted betwixt some +of their comrades and Gisgo for rescuing him out of prison, where he had +been so long detained; he brought them to the barbarous resolution of +murdering him and all the rest of the prisoners; and any man, who durst +offer any milder counsel, was immediately sacrificed to their fury. +Accordingly, this unfortunate general, and seven hundred prisoners who +were confined with him, were brought out to the front of the camp, where +Gisgo fell the first sacrifice, and afterwards all the rest. Their hands +were cut off, their thighs broken, and their bodies, still breathing, were +thrown into a hole. The Carthaginians sent a herald to demand their +remains, in order to pay them the last sad office, but were refused; and +the herald was further told, that whoever presumed to come upon the like +errand, should meet with Gisgo's fate. And, indeed, the rebels immediately +came to the unanimous resolution, of treating all such Carthaginians as +should fall into their hands in the same barbarous manner; and decreed +farther, that if any of their allies were taken, they should, after their +hands were cut off, be sent back to Carthage. This bloody resolution was +but too punctually executed. + +The Carthaginians were now just beginning to breathe, as it were, and +recover their spirits, when a number of unlucky accidents plunged them +again into fresh dangers. A division arose among their generals; and the +provisions, of which they were in extreme necessity, coming to them by +sea, were all cast away in a storm. But the misfortune which they most +keenly felt, was, the sudden defection of the two only cities which till +then had preserved their allegiance, and in all times adhered inviolably +to the commonwealth. These were Utica and Hippacra. These cities, without +the least reason, or even so much as a pretence, went over at once to the +rebels; and, transported with the like rage and fury, murdered the +governor, with the garrison sent to their relief; and carried their +inhumanity so far, as to refuse their dead bodies to the Carthaginians, +who demanded them back in order for burial. + +The rebels, animated by so much success, laid siege to Carthage, but were +obliged immediately to raise it. They nevertheless continued the war. +Having drawn together, into one body, all their own troops and those of +the allies, (making upwards of fifty thousand men in all,) they watched +the motions of Hamilcar's army, but carefully kept their own on the hills; +and avoided coming down into the plains, because the enemy would there +have had too great an advantage over them, on account of their elephants +and cavalry. Hamilcar, more skilful in the art of war than they, never +exposed himself to any of their attacks; but taking advantage of their +oversights, often dispossessed them of their posts, if their soldiers +straggled but ever so little; and harassed them a thousand ways. Such of +them as fell into his hands, were thrown to wild beasts. At last, he +surprised them at a time when they least expected it, and shut them up in +a post which was so situated, that it was impossible for them to get out +of it. Not daring to venture a battle, and being unable to get off, they +began to fortify their camp, and surrounded it with ditches and +intrenchments. But an enemy among themselves, and which was much more +formidable, had reduced them to the greatest extremity: this was hunger, +which was so raging, that they at last ate one another; Divine Providence, +says Polybius, thus revenging upon themselves the barbarous cruelty they +had exercised on others. They now had no resource left; and knew but too +well the punishments which would be inflicted on them, in case they should +fall alive into the hands of the enemy. After such bloody scenes as had +been acted by them, they did not so much as think of peace, or of coming +to an accommodation. They had sent to their forces encamped at Tunis for +assistance, but with no success. In the mean time the famine increased +daily. They had first eaten their prisoners, then their slaves; and now +their fellow-citizens only were left. Their chiefs, now no longer able to +resist the complaints and cries of the multitude, who threatened to +massacre them if they did not surrender, went themselves to Hamilcar, +after having obtained a safe conduct from him. The conditions of the +treaty were, that the Carthaginians should select any ten of the rebels, +to treat them as they should think fit, and that the rest should be +dismissed with only one suit of clothes for each. When the treaty was +signed, the chiefs themselves were arrested and detained by the +Carthaginians, who plainly showed, on this occasion, that they did not +pride themselves upon their good faith and sincerity. The rebels, hearing +that their chiefs were seized, and knowing nothing of the convention, +suspected that they were betrayed, and thereupon immediately took up arms. +But Hamilcar, having surrounded them, brought forward his elephants; and +either trod them all under foot, or cut them to pieces, they being upwards +of forty thousand. + +The consequence of this victory was, the reduction of almost all the +cities of Africa, which immediately returned to their allegiance. +Hamilcar, without loss of time, marched against Tunis, which, ever since +the beginning of the war, had been the asylum of the rebels, and their +place of arms. He invested it on one side, whilst Hannibal, who was joined +in the command with him, besieged it on the other. Then advancing near the +walls, and ordering crosses to be set up, he hung Spendius on one of them, +and his companions who had been seized with him on the rest, where they +all expired. Matho, the other chief, who commanded in the city, saw +plainly by this what he himself might expect; and for that reason was much +more attentive to his own defence. Perceiving that Hannibal, as being +confident of success, was very negligent in all his motions, he made a +sally, attacked his quarters, killed many of his men, took several +prisoners, among whom was Hannibal himself, and plundered his camp. Then +taking Spendius from the cross, he put Hannibal in his place, after having +made him suffer inexpressible torments; and sacrificed round the body of +Spendius thirty citizens of the first quality in Carthage, as so many +victims of his vengeance. One would conclude, that there had been a mutual +emulation betwixt the contending parties, which of them should outdo the +other in acts of the most barbarous cruelty. + +Barca being at that time at a distance, it was long before the news of his +colleague's misfortune reached him; and besides, the road lying betwixt +the two camps being impassable, it was impossible for him to advance +hastily to his assistance. This disastrous accident caused a great +consternation in Carthage. The reader may have observed, in the course of +this war, a continual vicissitude of prosperity and adversity, of security +and fear, of joy and grief; so various and inconstant were the events on +either side. + +In Carthage it was thought advisable to make one bold effort. Accordingly, +all the youth capable of bearing arms were pressed into the service. Hanno +was sent to join Hamilcar; and thirty senators were deputed to conjure +those generals, in the name of the republic, to forget past quarrels, and +sacrifice their resentments to their country's welfare. This was +immediately complied with; they mutually embraced, and were reconciled +sincerely to one another. + +From this time, the Carthaginians were successful in all things; and +Matho, who in every attempt after this came off with disadvantage, at last +thought himself obliged to hazard a battle; and this was just what the +Carthaginians wanted. The leaders on both sides animated their troops, as +going to fight a battle which would for ever decide their fate. An +engagement ensued. Victory was not long in suspense; for the rebels every +where giving ground, the Africans were almost all slain, and the rest +surrendered. Matho was taken alive and carried to Carthage. All Africa +returned immediately to its allegiance, except the two perfidious cities +which had lately revolted; however, they were soon forced to surrender at +discretion. + +And now the victorious army returned to Carthage, and was there received +with shouts of joy, and the congratulations of the whole city. Matho and +his soldiers, after having adorned the public triumph, were led to +execution; and finished, by a painful and ignominious death, a life that +had been polluted with the blackest treasons and unparalleled barbarities. +Such was the conclusion of the war against the mercenaries, after having +lasted three years and four months. It furnished, says Polybius, an +ever-memorable lesson to all nations, not to employ in their armies a +greater number of mercenaries than citizens; nor to rely, for the defence +of their state, on a body of men who are not attached to it either by +interest or affection. + +I have hitherto purposely deferred taking notice of such transactions in +Sardinia, as passed at the time I have been speaking of, and which were, +in some measure, dependent on, and resulting from, the war waged in Africa +against the mercenaries. They exhibit the same violent methods to promote +rebellion; the same excesses of cruelty; as if the wind had carried the +same spirit of discord and fury from Africa into Sardinia. + +When the news was brought there of what Spendius and Matho were doing in +Africa, the mercenaries in that island also shook off the yoke, in +imitation of these incendiaries. They began by the murder of Bostar their +general, and of all the Carthaginians under him. A successor was sent; but +all the forces which he carried with him went over to the rebels; hung the +general on a cross; and, throughout the whole island, put all the +Carthaginians to the sword, after having made them suffer inexpressible +torments. They then besieged all the cities one after another, and soon +got possession of the whole country. But feuds arising between them and +the natives, the mercenaries were driven entirely out of the island, and +took refuge in Italy. Thus the Carthaginians lost Sardinia, an island of +great importance to them, on account of its extent, its fertility, and the +great number of its inhabitants. + +The Romans, ever since their treaty with the Carthaginians, had behaved +towards them with great justice and moderation. A slight quarrel, on +account of some Roman merchants who were seized at Carthage for having +supplied the enemy with provisions, had embroiled them a little. But these +merchants being restored on the first complaint made to the senate of +Carthage; the Romans, who prided themselves upon their justice and +generosity on all occasions, made the Carthaginians a return of their +former friendship; served them to the utmost of their power; forbade their +merchants to furnish any other nation with provisions; and even refused to +listen to the proposals made by the Sardinian rebels, when invited by them +to take possession of the island. + +But these scruples and delicacy wore off by degrees; and Caesar's +advantageous testimony (in Sallust) of their honesty and plain-dealing, +could not with any propriety be applied here:(703) "Although," says he, +"in all the Punic wars, the Carthaginians, both in peace and during +truces, had committed a number of detestable actions, the Romans could +never (how inviting soever the opportunity might be) be prevailed upon to +retaliate such usage; being more attentive to their own glory, than to the +revenge they might have justly taken on such perfidious enemies." + +(M116) The mercenaries, who, as was observed, had retired into Italy, +brought the Romans at last to the resolution of sailing over into +Sardinia, to render themselves masters of it. The Carthaginians were +deeply afflicted at the news, upon pretence that they had a more just +title to Sardinia than the Romans; they therefore put themselves in a +posture to take a speedy and just revenge on those who had excited the +people of that island to take up arms against them. But the Romans, +pretending that these preparations were made not against Sardinia but +their state, declared war against the Carthaginians. The latter, quite +exhausted in every respect, and scarce beginning to breathe, were in no +condition to sustain a war. The necessity of the times was therefore to be +complied with, and they were forced to yield to a more powerful rival. A +fresh treaty was thereupon made, by which they gave up Sardinia to the +Romans; and obliged themselves to a new payment of twelve hundred talents, +to keep off the war with which they were menaced. This injustice of the +Romans was the true cause of the second Punic war, as will appear in the +sequel. + +_The second Punic War._(704)--The second Punic war, which I am now going to +relate, is one of the most memorable recorded in history, and most worthy +the attention of an inquisitive reader; whether we consider the boldness +of the enterprises; the wisdom employed in the execution; the obstinate +efforts of two rival nations, and the ready resources they found in their +lowest ebb of fortune; the variety of uncommon events, and the uncertain +issue of so long and bloody a war; or lastly, the assemblage of the most +perfect models in every kind of merit; and the most instructive lessons +that occur in history, either with regard to war, policy, or government. +Never did two more powerful, or at least more warlike, states or nations +make war against each other; and never had these in question seen +themselves raised to a more exalted pitch of power and glory. Rome and +Carthage were, doubtless, at that time, the two first states of the world. +Having already tried their strength in the first Punic war, and thereby +made an essay of each other's power, they knew perfectly well what either +could do. In this second war, the fate of arms was so equally balanced, +and the success so intermixed with vicissitudes and varieties, that that +party triumphed which had been most in danger of being ruined. Great as +the forces of these two nations were, it may almost be said, that their +mutual hatred was still greater. The Romans, on one side, could not +without indignation see the vanquished presuming to attack them; and the +Carthaginians, on the other, were exasperated at the equally rapacious and +harsh treatment which they pretended to have received from the victor. + +The plan which I have laid down does not permit me to enter into an exact +detail of this war, whereof Italy, Sicily, Spain, and Africa, were the +several seats; and which has a still closer connection with the Roman +history than with that I am now writing. I shall confine myself therefore, +principally, to such transactions as relate to the Carthaginians: and +endeavour, as far as I am able, to give my reader an idea of the genius +and character of Hannibal, who perhaps was the greatest warrior that +antiquity has to boast of. + +_The remote and more immediate Causes of the second Punic War._--Before I +come to speak of the declaration of war betwixt the Romans and +Carthaginians, I think it necessary to explain the true causes of it; and +to point out by what steps this rupture, betwixt these two nations, was so +long preparing, before it openly broke out. + +That man would be grossly mistaken, says Polybius,(705) who should look +upon the taking of Saguntum by Hannibal as the true cause of the second +Punic war. The regret of the Carthaginians for having so tamely given up +Sicily, by the treaty which terminated the first Punic war; the injustice +and violence of the Romans, who took advantage of the troubles excited in +Africa, to dispossess the Carthaginians of Sardinia, and to impose a new +tribute on them; and the success and conquests of the latter in Spain; +these were the true causes of the violation of the treaty, as Livy(706) +(agreeing here with Polybius) insinuates in few words, in the beginning of +his history of the second Punic war. + +And indeed Hamilcar, surnamed Barca, was highly exasperated on account of +the last treaty, which the necessity of the times had compelled the +Carthaginians to submit to; and he therefore meditated the design of +taking just, though distant measures, for breaking it on the first +favourable opportunity that should offer. + +When the troubles of Africa were appeased, he was sent upon an expedition +against the Numidians;(707) in which, giving fresh proofs of his courage +and abilities, his merit raised him to the command of the army which was +to act in Spain. Hannibal, his son, at that time but nine years of age, +begged with the utmost importunity to attend him on this occasion;(708) +and for that purpose employed all the soothing arts so common to children +of his age, and which have so much power over a tender father. Hamilcar +could not refuse him; and after having made him swear upon the altars, +that he would declare himself an enemy to the Romans as soon as age would +allow him to do it, he took his son with him. + +Hamilcar possessed all the qualities which constitute the great general. +To an invincible courage, and the most consummate prudence, he added a +most engaging and insinuating behaviour. He subdued, in a very short time, +the greatest part of the nations of Spain, either by the terror of his +arms or his engaging conduct; and after enjoying the command there nine +years, came to an end worthy his exalted character, dying gloriously in +arms for the cause of his country. + +(M117) The Carthaginians appointed Asdrubal, his son-in-law, to succeed +him.(709) This general, to strengthen his footing in the country, built a +city, which, by the advantage of its situation, the commodiousness of its +harbour, its fortifications, and opulence occasioned by its great +commerce, became one of the most considerable cities in the world. It was +called New Carthage, and is at this day known by the name of Carthagena. + +From the several steps of these two great generals, it was easy to +perceive that they were meditating some mighty design which they had +always in view, and laid their schemes at a great distance for the putting +it in execution. The Romans were sensible of this, and reproached +themselves for their indolence and torpor, which had thrown them into a +kind of lethargy; at a time that the enemy were rapidly pursuing their +victories in Spain, which might one day be turned against them. They would +have been very well pleased to attack them by open force, and to wrest +their conquests out of their hands; but the fear of another (not less +formidable) enemy, the Gauls, whom they expected shortly to see at their +very gates, kept them from showing their resentment. They therefore had +recourse to negotiations; and concluded a treaty with Asdrubal, in which, +without taking any notice of the rest of Spain, they contented themselves +with introducing an article, by which the Carthaginians were not allowed +to make any conquests beyond the Iberus. + +Asdrubal, in the mean time, still pushed on his conquests;(710) still, +however, taking care not to pass beyond the limits stipulated by the +treaty; but by sparing no endeavours to win the chiefs of the several +nations by a courteous and engaging behaviour, he furthered the interests +of Carthage still more by persuasive methods than force of arms. But +unhappily, after having governed Spain eight years, he was treacherously +murdered by a Gaul, who took so barbarous a revenge for a private grudge +he bore him.(711) + +(M118) Three years before his death, he had written to Carthage, to desire +that Hannibal, then twenty-two years of age, might be sent to him.(712) +The proposal met with some difficulty, as the senate was divided betwixt +two powerful factions, which, from Hamilcar's time, had began to follow +opposite views in the administration and affairs of the state. One faction +was headed by Hanno, whose birth, merit, and zeal for the public welfare, +gave him great influence in the public deliberations. This faction +proposed, on every occasion, the concluding of a safe peace, and the +preserving the conquests in Spain, as being preferable to the uncertain +events of an expensive war, which they foresaw would one day occasion the +ruin of Carthage. The other, called the Barcinian faction, because it +supported the interests of Barca and his family, had, to the credit and +influence which it had long enjoyed in the city, added the reputation +which the signal exploits of Hamilcar and Asdrubal had given it; and +declared openly for war. When therefore Asdrubal's demand came to be +debated in the senate, Hanno represented the danger of sending so early +into the field a young man, who already possessed all the haughtiness and +imperious temper of his father; and who ought, therefore, rather to be +kept a long time, and very carefully, under the eye of the magistrates and +the power of the laws, that he might learn obedience, and a modesty which +should teach him not to think himself superior to all other men. He +concluded with saying, that he feared this spark, which was then kindling, +would one day rise to a conflagration. His remonstrances were not heard, +so that the Barcinian faction had the superiority, and Hannibal set out +for Spain. + +The moment of his arrival there, he drew upon himself the eyes of the +whole army, who fancied they saw Hamilcar his father revive in him. He +seemed to dart the same fire from his eyes; the same martial vigour +displayed itself in the air of his countenance, with the same features and +engaging carriage. But his personal qualities endeared him still more. He +possessed almost every talent that constitutes the great man. His patience +in labour was invincible, his temperance was surprising, his courage in +the greatest dangers intrepid, and his presence of mind in the heat of +battle admirable; and, a still more wonderful circumstance, his +disposition and cast of mind were so flexible, that nature had formed him +equally for commanding or obeying; so that it was doubtful whether he was +dearer to the soldiers or the generals. He served three campaigns under +Asdrubal. + +(M119) Upon the death of that general, the suffrages of both the army and +people concurred in raising Hannibal to the supreme command.(713) I know +not whether it was not even then, or about that time, that the republic, +to heighten his influence and authority, appointed him one of its +Suffetes, the first dignity of the state, which was sometimes conferred +upon generals. It is from Cornelius Nepos(714) that we have borrowed this +circumstance of his life, who, speaking of the praetorship bestowed on +Hannibal, upon his return to Carthage, and the conclusion of the peace, +says, that this was twenty-two years after he had been nominated +king.(715) + +The moment he was created general, Hannibal, as if Italy had been allotted +to him, and he had even then been appointed to make war upon the Romans, +turned secretly his whole views on that side; and lost no time, for fear +of being prevented by death, as his father and brother-in-law had been. In +Spain he took several strong towns, and conquered many nations: and +although the Spaniards greatly exceeded him in the number of forces, +(their army amounting to upwards of a hundred thousand men,) yet he chose +his time and posts so judiciously, that he entirely defeated them. After +this victory, every thing submitted to his arms. But he still forbore +laying siege to Saguntum,(716) carefully avoiding every occasion of a +rupture with the Romans, till he should have taken every step which he +judged necessary for so important an enterprise, pursuant to the advice +given him by his father. He applied himself particularly to engage the +affections of the citizens and allies, and to gain their confidence, by +generously allotting them a large share of the plunder taken from the +enemy, and by scrupulously paying them all their arrears:(717) a wise +step, which never fails of producing its advantage at a proper season. + +The Saguntines, on their side, sensible of the danger with which they were +threatened, informed the Romans of the progress of Hannibal's +conquests.(718) Upon this, deputies were nominated by the latter, and +ordered to go and acquaint themselves with the state of affairs upon the +spot; they commanded them also to lay their complaints before Hannibal, if +it should be thought proper; and in case he should refuse to do justice, +that then they should go directly to Carthage, and make the same +complaints. + +In the mean time Hannibal laid siege to Saguntum, foreseeing that great +advantages would accrue from the taking of this city. He was persuaded, +that this would deprive the Romans of all hopes of carrying on the war in +Spain; that this new conquest would secure those he had already made; that +as no enemy would be left behind him, his march would be more secure and +unmolested; that he should find money enough in it for the execution of +his designs; that the plunder of the city would inspire his soldiers with +greater ardour, and make them follow him with greater cheerfulness; that, +lastly, the spoils which he should send to Carthage, would gain him the +favour of the citizens. Animated by these motives, he carried on the siege +with the utmost vigour. He himself set an example to his troops, was +present at all the works, and exposed himself to the greatest dangers. + +News was soon carried to Rome that Saguntum was besieged. But the Romans, +instead of flying to its relief, lost their time in fruitless debates, and +in deputations equally fruitless. Hannibal sent word to the Roman +deputies, that he was not at leisure to hear them; they therefore repaired +to Carthage, but met with no better reception, the Barcinian faction +having prevailed over the complaints of the Romans, and all the +remonstrances of Hanno. + +During all these voyages and negotiations, the siege was carried on with +great vigour. The Saguntines were now reduced to the last extremity, and +in want of all things. An accommodation was thereupon proposed; but the +conditions on which it was offered appeared so harsh, that the Saguntines +could not prevail upon themselves to accept them. Before they gave their +final answer, the principal senators, bringing their gold and silver, and +that of the public treasury, into the market-place, threw both into a fire +lighted for that purpose, and afterwards rushed headlong into it +themselves. At the same time, a tower, which had been long assaulted by +the battering rams, falling with a dreadful noise, the Carthaginians +entered the city by the breach, soon made themselves masters of it, and +cut to pieces all the inhabitants who were of age to bear arms. But +notwithstanding the fire, the Carthaginians got a very great booty. +Hannibal did not reserve to himself any part of the spoils gained by his +victories, but applied them solely to the carrying on his enterprises. +Accordingly, Polybius remarks, that the taking of Saguntum was of service +to him, as it awakened the ardour of his soldiers, by the sight of the +rich booty which they had just obtained, and by the hopes of more; and it +reconciled all the principal persons of Carthage to Hannibal, by the large +presents he made to them out of the spoils. + +Words could never express the grief and consternation with which the +melancholy news of the capture and cruel fate of Saguntum was received at +Rome.(719) Compassion for this unfortunate city, shame for having failed +to succour such faithful allies, a just indignation against the +Carthaginians, the authors of all these calamities; a strong alarm raised +by the successes of Hannibal, whom the Romans fancied they saw already at +their gates; all these sentiments caused so violent an emotion, that +during the first moments of their agitation, the Romans were unable to +come to any resolution, or do any thing but give way to the torrent of +their passion, and sacrifice floods of tears to the memory of a city which +fell the victim of its inviolable fidelity(720) to the Romans, and had +been betrayed by their unaccountable indolence and imprudent delays. When +they were a little recovered, an assembly of the people was called, and +war was decreed unanimously against the Carthaginians. + +_War proclaimed._--That no ceremony might be wanting, deputies were sent to +Carthage, to inquire whether Saguntum had been besieged by order of the +republic, and if so, to declare war; or, in case this siege had been +undertaken solely by the authority of Hannibal, to require that he should +be delivered up to the Romans.(721) The deputies perceiving that the +senate gave no direct answer to their demands, one of them taking up the +folded lappet of his robe, "I bring here," says he, in a haughty tone, +"either peace or war; the choice is left to yourselves." The senate +answering, that they left the choice to him: "I give you war then," says +he, unfolding his robe. "And we," replied the Carthaginians, with the same +haughtiness, "as heartily accept it, and are resolved to prosecute it with +the same cheerfulness." Such was the beginning of the second Punic war. + +If the cause of this war should be ascribed to the taking of Saguntum, the +whole blame, says Polybius,(722) lies upon the Carthaginians, who could +not, with any colourable pretence, besiege a city that was in alliance +with Rome, and, as such, comprehended in the treaty, which forbade either +party to make war upon the allies of the other. But, should the origin of +this war be traced higher, and carried back to the time when the +Carthaginians were dispossessed of Sardinia by the Romans, and a new +tribute was so unreasonably imposed on them; it must be confessed, +continues Polybius, that the conduct of the Romans is entirely +unjustifiable on these two points, as being founded merely on violence and +injustice; and that, had the Carthaginians, without having recourse to +ambiguous and frivolous pretences, plainly demanded satisfaction upon +these two grievances, and, upon their being refused it, had declared war +against Rome, in that case, reason and justice had been entirely on their +side. + +The interval between the conclusion of the first, and the beginning of the +second Punic war, was twenty-four years. + +(M120) _The Beginning of the Second Punic War._--When war was resolved +upon, and proclaimed on both sides, Hannibal, who then was twenty-six or +twenty-seven years of age, before he discovered his grand design, thought +it incumbent on him to provide for the security of Spain and Africa.(723) +With this view, he marched the forces out of the one into the other, so +that the Africans served in Spain and the Spaniards in Africa. He was +prompted to this from a persuasion, that these soldiers, being thus at a +distance from their respective countries, would be fitter for service; and +more firmly attached to him, as they would be a kind of hostages for each +other's fidelity. The forces which he left in Africa amounted to about +forty thousand men, twelve hundred whereof were cavalry. Those of Spain +were something above fifteen thousand, of which two thousand five hundred +and fifty were horse. He left the command of the Spanish forces to his +brother Asdrubal, with a fleet of about sixty ships to guard the coasts; +and, at the same time, gave him the wisest directions for his conduct, +whether with regard to the Spaniards or the Romans, in case they should +attack him. + +Livy observes, that Hannibal, before he set forward on this expedition, +went to Cadiz to discharge some vows which he had made to Hercules; and +that he engaged himself by new ones, in order to obtain success in the war +he was entering upon. Polybius gives us,(724) in few words, a very clear +idea of the distance of the several places through which Hannibal was to +march in his way to Italy. From New Carthage, whence he set out to the +Iberus, were computed two thousand two hundred furlongs.(725)(726) From +the Iberus to Emporium, a small maritime town, which separates Spain from +the Gauls, according to Strabo,(727) were sixteen hundred furlongs.(728) +From Emporium to the pass of the Rhone, the like space of sixteen hundred +furlongs.(729) From the pass of the Rhone to the Alps, fourteen hundred +furlongs.(730) From the Alps to the plains of Italy, twelve hundred +furlongs.(731) Thus from New Carthage to the plains of Italy, were eight +thousand furlongs.(732) + +Hannibal had long before taken the prudent precaution of acquainting +himself with the nature and situation of the places through which he was +to pass;(733) of sounding how the Gauls stood affected to the Romans; of +winning over their chiefs, whom he knew to be very greedy of gold, by his +bounty to them;(734) and of securing to himself the affection and fidelity +of one part of the nations through whose country his march lay. He was not +ignorant that the passage of the Alps would be attended with great +difficulties; but he knew they were not unsurmountable, and that was +enough for his purpose. + +Hannibal began his march early in the spring, from New Carthage, where he +had wintered.(735) His army then consisted of above a hundred thousand +men, of which twelve thousand were cavalry, and he had near forty +elephants. Having crossed the Iberus, he soon subdued the several nations +which opposed him in his march; and lost a considerable part of his army +in this expedition. He left Hanno to command all the country lying between +the Iberus and the Pyrenean hills, with eleven thousand men, who were +appointed to guard the baggage of those that were to follow him. He +dismissed the like number, sending them back to their respective +countries; thus securing to himself their affection when he should want +recruits, and affording to the rest a sure hope that they should be +allowed to return whenever they should desire it. He passed the Pyrenean +hills, and advanced as far as the banks of the Rhone, at the head of fifty +thousand foot, and nine thousand horse; a formidable army, but less so +from the number than from the valour of the troops that composed it; +troops who had served several years in Spain, and learned the art of war, +under the ablest captains that Carthage could ever boast. + +_Passage of the Rhone._--Hannibal, being arrived within about four days' +march from the mouth of the Rhone,(736) attempted to cross it, because the +river in this place took up only the breadth of its channel.(737) He +bought up all the ship-boats and little vessels he could meet with, of +which the inhabitants had a great number, because of their commerce. He +likewise built, with great diligence, a prodigious number of boats, little +vessels, and rafts. On his arrival, he found the Gauls encamped on the +opposite bank, and prepared to dispute the passage. There was no +possibility of his attacking them in front. He therefore ordered a +considerable detachment of his forces, under the command of Hanno, the son +of Bomilcar, to pass the river higher up; and in order to conceal his +march, and the design he had in view, from the enemy, he obliged them to +set out in the night. All things succeeded as he had planned; and they +passed the river(738) the next day without the least opposition. + +They passed the rest of the day in refreshing themselves, and in the night +they advanced silently towards the enemy. In the morning, when the signals +agreed upon had been given, Hannibal prepared to attempt the passage. Part +of his horses, completely harnessed, were put into boats, that their +riders might, on landing, immediately charge the enemy. The rest of the +horses swam over on both sides of the boats, from which one single man +held the bridles of three or four. The infantry crossed the river, either +on rafts, or in small boats, and in a kind of gondolas, which were only +the trunks of trees, which they themselves had made hollow. The great +boats were drawn up in a line at the top of the channel, in order to break +the force of the waves, and facilitate the passage to the rest of the +small fleet. When the Gauls saw it advancing on the river, they, according +to their custom, uttered dreadful cries and howlings; and clashing their +bucklers over their heads, one against the other, let fly a shower of +darts. But they were prodigiously astonished, when they heard a great +noise behind them, perceived their tents on fire, and saw themselves +attacked both in front and rear. They now had no way left to save +themselves but by flight, and accordingly retreated to their respective +villages. After this, the rest of the troops crossed the river quietly, +and without any opposition. + +The elephants alone occasioned a great deal of trouble. They were wafted +over the next day in the following manner. From the bank of the river was +thrown a raft, two hundred feet in length, and fifty in breadth; this was +fixed strongly to the banks by large ropes, and quite covered over with +earth; so that the elephants, deceived by its appearance, thought +themselves upon firm ground. From this first raft they proceeded to a +second, which was built in the same form, but only a hundred feet long, +and fastened to the former by chains that were easily loosened. The female +elephants were put upon the first raft, and the males followed after; and +when they were got upon the second raft, it was loosened from the first, +and, by the help of small boats, towed to the opposite shore. After this, +it was sent back to fetch those which were behind. Some fell into the +water, but they at last got safe to shore, and not a single elephant was +drowned. + +_The March after the Battle of the Rhone._--The two Roman consuls had, in +the beginning of the spring, set out for their respective provinces;(739) +P. Scipio for Spain with sixty ships, two Roman legions, fourteen thousand +foot, and twelve hundred horse of the allies; Tiberius Sempronius for +Sicily, with a hundred and sixty ships, two legions, sixteen thousand +foot, and eighteen hundred horse of the allies. The Roman legion +consisted, at that time, of four thousand foot and three hundred horse. +Sempronius had made extraordinary preparations at Lilybaeum, a seaport town +in Sicily, with the design of crossing over directly into Africa. Scipio +was equally confident that he should find Hannibal still in Spain, and +make that country the seat of war. But he was greatly astonished, when, on +his arrival at Marseilles, advice was brought him, that Hannibal was upon +the banks of the Rhone, and preparing to cross it. He then detached three +hundred horse, to view the posture of the enemy; and Hannibal detached +five hundred Numidian horse for the same purpose; during which, some of +his soldiers were employed in wafting over the elephants. + +At the same time he gave audience, in the presence of his whole army, to +one of the princes of that part of Gaul which is situated near the Po, who +assured him, by an interpreter, in the name of his subjects, that his +arrival was impatiently expected; that the Gauls were ready to join him, +and march against the Romans, and he himself offered to conduct his army +through places where they should meet with a plentiful supply of +provisions. When the prince was withdrawn, Hannibal, in a speech to his +troops, magnified extremely this deputation from the Gauls; extolled, with +just praises, the bravery which his forces had shown hitherto; and +exhorted them to sustain, to the last, their reputation and glory. The +soldiers inspired with fresh ardour and courage, all at once raised their +hands, and declared their readiness to follow whithersoever he should lead +the way. Accordingly, he appointed the next day for his march; and, after +offering up vows, and making supplications to the gods for the safety of +his troops, he dismissed them; desiring, at the same time, that they would +take the necessary refreshments. + +Whilst this was doing, the Numidians returned. They had met with, and +charged, the Roman detachment: the conflict was very obstinate, and the +slaughter great, considering the small number of the combatants. A hundred +and sixty of the Romans were left dead upon the spot, and more than two +hundred of their enemies. But the honour of this skirmish fell to the +Romans; the Numidians having retired and left them the field of battle. +This first action was interpreted as an omen(740) of the fate of the whole +war, and seemed to promise success to the Romans, but which, at the same +time, would be dearly bought, and strongly contested. On both sides, those +who had survived this engagement, and who had been engaged in +reconnoitring, returned to inform their respective generals of what they +had discovered. + +Hannibal, as he had declared, decamped the next day, and crossed through +the midst of Gaul, advancing northward; not that this was the shortest way +to the Alps, but only, as by leading him from the sea, it prevented his +meeting Scipio; and, by that means, favoured the design he had, of +marching all his forces into Italy, without having weakened them by a +battle. + +Though Scipio marched with the utmost expedition, he did not reach the +place where Hannibal had passed the Rhone, till three days after he had +set out from it. Despairing therefore to overtake him, he returned to his +fleet, and reimbarked, fully resolved to wait for Hannibal at the foot of +the Alps. But, in order that he might not leave Spain defenceless, he sent +his brother Cneius thither, with the greatest part of his army, to make +head against Asdrubal; and himself set forward immediately for Genoa, with +intention to oppose the army which was in Gaul, near the Po, to that of +Hannibal. + +The latter, after four days' march, arrived at a kind of island, formed by +the conflux(741) of two rivers, which unite their streams in this place. +Here he was chosen umpire between two brothers, who disputed their right +to the kingdom. He to whom Hannibal decreed it, furnished his whole army +with provisions, clothes, and arms. This was the country of the +Allobroges, by which name the people were called, who now inhabit the +district of Geneva,(742) Vienne, and Grenoble. His march was not much +interrupted till he arrived at the Durance, and from thence he reached the +foot of the Alps without any opposition. + +_The Passage of the Alps._--The sight of these mountains, whose tops seemed +to touch the skies, and were covered with snow, and where nothing appeared +to the eye but a few pitiful cottages, scattered here and there, on the +sharp tops of inaccessible rocks; nothing but meagre flocks, almost +perished with cold, and hairy men of a savage and fierce aspect; this +spectacle, I say, renewed the terror which the distant prospect had +raised, and chilled with fear the hearts of the soldiers.(743) When they +began to climb up, they perceived the mountaineers, who had seized upon +the highest cliffs, and were prepared to oppose their passage. They +therefore were forced to halt. Had the mountaineers, says Polybius, only +lain in ambuscade, and after having suffered Hannibal's troops to entangle +themselves in some difficult passage, had then charged them on a sudden, +the Carthaginian army would have been irrecoverably lost. Hannibal, being +informed that they kept those posts only in the daytime, and quitted them +in the evening, possessed himself of them by night. The Gauls returning +early in the morning, were very much surprised to find their posts in the +enemy's hand: but still they were not disheartened. Being used to climb up +those rocks, they attacked the Carthaginians who were upon their march, +and harassed them on all sides. The latter were obliged, at one and the +same time, to engage with the enemy, and struggle with the ruggedness of +the paths of the mountains, where they could hardly stand. But the +greatest disorder was caused by the horses and beasts of burden laden with +the baggage; who being frighted by the cries and howling of the Gauls, +which echoed dreadfully among the mountains, and being sometimes wounded +by the mountaineers, came tumbling on the soldiers, and dragged them +headlong with them down the precipices which skirted the road. Hannibal, +being sensible that the loss of his baggage alone was enough to destroy +his army, ran to the assistance of his troops, who were thus embarrassed; +and having put the enemy to flight, continued his march without +molestation or danger, and came to a castle, which was the most important +fortress in the whole country. He possessed himself of it, and of all the +neighbouring villages, in which he found a large quantity of corn, and +cattle sufficient to subsist his army three days. + +After a pretty quiet march, the Carthaginians were to encounter a new +danger. The Gauls, feigning to take advantage of the misfortunes of their +neighbours, who had suffered for opposing the passage of Hannibal's +troops, came to pay their respects to that general, brought him +provisions, offered to be his guides; and left him hostages, as pledges of +their fidelity. However, Hannibal placed no great confidence in them. The +elephants and horses marched in the front, whilst himself followed with +the main body of his foot, keeping a vigilant eye over all. They came at +length to a very narrow and rugged pass, which was commanded by an +eminence where the Gauls had placed an ambuscade. These rushing out on a +sudden, assailed the Carthaginians on every side, rolling down stones upon +them of a prodigious size. The army would have been entirely routed, had +not Hannibal exerted himself in an extraordinary manner to extricate them +out of this difficulty. + +At last, on the ninth day, they reached the summit of the Alps. Here the +army halted two days, to rest and refresh themselves after their fatigue, +after which they continued their march. As it was now autumn, a great +quantity of snow had lately fallen, and covered all the roads, which +caused a consternation among the troops, and disheartened them very much. +Hannibal perceived it, and halting on a hill from whence there was a +prospect of all Italy, he showed them the fruitful plains(744) watered by +the river Po, to which they were almost come; adding, that they had but +one effort more to make, before they arrived at them. He represented to +them, that a battle or two would put a glorious period to their toils, and +enrich them for ever, by giving them possession of the capital of the +Roman empire. This speech, filled with such pleasing hopes, and enforced +by the sight of Italy, inspired the dejected soldiers with fresh vigour +and alacrity. They therefore pursued their march. But still the road was +more craggy and troublesome than ever; and as they were now on a descent, +the difficulty and danger increased. For the ways were narrow, steep, and +slippery, in most places; so that the soldiers could neither keep upon +their feet as they marched, nor recover themselves when they made a false +step, but stumbled, and beat down one another. + +They were now come to a worse place than any they had yet met with. This +was a path naturally very rugged and craggy, which having been made more +so by the late falling in of the earth, terminated in a frightful +precipice above a thousand feet deep. Here the cavalry stopped short. +Hannibal, wondering at this sudden halt, ran to the place, and saw that it +really would be impossible for the troops to advance. He therefore was for +making a circuitous route, but this also was found impracticable. As, upon +the old snow, which was grown hard by lying, there was some newly fallen +that was of no great depth, the feet, at first, by their sinking into it, +found a firm support; but this snow being soon dissolved, by the treading +of the foremost troops and beasts of burden, the soldiers marched on +nothing but ice, which was so slippery, that they had no firm footing; and +where, if they made the least false step, or endeavoured to save +themselves with their hands or knees, there were no boughs or roots to +catch hold of. Besides this difficulty, the horses, striking their feet +forcibly into the ice to keep themselves from falling, could not draw them +out again, but were caught as in a gin. They therefore were forced to seek +some other expedient. + +Hannibal resolved to pitch his camp, and to give his troops some days' +rest on the summit of this hill, which was of a considerable extent; after +they should have cleared the ground, and removed all the old as well as +the new fallen snow, which was a work of immense labour. He afterwards +ordered a path to be cut into the rock itself, and this was carried on +with amazing patience and ardour. To open and enlarge this path, all the +trees thereabouts were cut down, and piled round the rock; after which +fire was set to them. The wind, by good fortune, blowing hard, a fierce +flame soon broke out, so that the rock glowed like the very coals with +which it was surrounded. Then Hannibal, if Livy may be credited, (for +Polybius says nothing of this matter,) caused a great quantity of vinegar +to be poured on the rock,(745) which piercing into the veins of it, that +were now cracked by the intense heat of the fire, calcined and softened +it. In this manner, taking a large compass about, in order that the +descent might be easier, they cut away along the rock, which opened a free +passage to the forces, the baggage, and even to the elephants. Four days +were employed in this work, during which the beasts of burden were dying +with hunger; there being no food for them on these mountains buried under +eternal snows. At last they came into cultivated and fruitful spots, which +yielded plenty of forage for the horses, and all kinds of food for the +soldiers. + +_Hannibal enters Italy._--When Hannibal entered into Italy, his army was +not near so numerous as when he left Spain, where we have seen it amounted +to near sixty thousand men.(746) It had sustained great losses during the +march, either in the battles it was forced to fight, or in the passage of +rivers. At his departure from the Rhone, it still consisted of +thirty-eight thousand foot, and above eight thousand horse. The march over +the Alps destroyed near half this number; so that Hannibal had now +remaining only twelve thousand Africans, eight thousand Spanish foot, and +six thousand horse. This account he himself caused to be engraved on a +pillar near the promontory called Lacinium. It was five months and a half +since his first setting out from New Carthage, including the fortnight he +employed in marching over the Alps, when he set up his standards in the +plains of the Po, at the entrance of Piedmont. It might then be September. + +His first care was to give his troops some rest, which they very much +wanted. When he perceived that they were fit for action, the inhabitants +of the territories of Turin(747) refusing to conclude an alliance with +him, he marched and encamped before their chief city; carried it in three +days, and put all who had opposed him to the sword. This expedition struck +the barbarians with so much dread, that they all came voluntarily, and +surrendered at discretion. The rest of the Gauls would have done the same, +had they not been awed by the terror of the Roman arms, which were now +approaching. Hannibal thought therefore that he had no time to lose; that +it was his interest to march up into the country, and attempt some great +exploit; such as might inspire those who should have an inclination to +join him with confidence. + +The rapid progress which Hannibal had made, greatly alarmed Rome, and +caused the utmost consternation throughout the city. Sempronius was +ordered to leave Sicily, and hasten to the relief of his country; and P. +Scipio, the other consul, advanced by forced marches towards the enemy, +crossed the Po, and pitched his camp near the Ticinus.(748) + +_Battle of the Cavalry near the Ticinus._--The armies being now in sight, +the generals on each side made a speech to their soldiers before they +engaged.(749) Scipio, after having represented to his forces the glory of +their country, the achievements of their ancestors, observed to them, that +victory was in their hands, since they were to combat only with +Carthaginians, a people who had been so often defeated by them, as well as +forced to be their tributaries for twenty years, and long accustomed to be +almost their slaves: that the advantage they had gained over the flower of +the Carthaginian horse, was a sure omen of their success during the rest +of the war: that Hannibal, in his march over the Alps, had just before +lost the best part of his army; and that those who survived were exhausted +by hunger, cold, and fatigue: that the bare sight of the Romans was +sufficient to put to flight a parcel of soldiers, who had the aspects of +ghosts rather than of men: in a word, that victory was become necessary, +not only to secure Italy, but to save Rome itself, whose fate the present +battle would decide, as that city had no other army wherewith to oppose +the enemy. + +Hannibal, that his words might make the stronger impression on the rude +minds of his soldiers, speaks to their eyes, before he addresses their +ears; and does not attempt to persuade them by arguments, till he has +first moved them by the following spectacle. He arms some of the prisoners +whom he had taken in the mountains, and obliges them to fight, two and +two, in sight of his army; promising to reward the conquerors with their +liberty and rich presents. The alacrity wherewith these barbarians engaged +upon these motives, gives Hannibal an occasion of exhibiting to his +soldiers a lively image of their present condition; which, by depriving +them of all means of returning back, puts them under an absolute necessity +either of conquering or dying, in order to avoid the endless evils +prepared for those that should be so base and cowardly as to submit to the +Romans. He displays to them the greatness of their reward, _viz._ the +conquest of all Italy; the plunder of the rich and wealthy city of Rome; +an illustrious victory, and immortal glory. He speaks contemptibly of the +Roman power, the false lustre of which (he observed) ought not to dazzle +such warriors as themselves, who had marched from the pillars of Hercules, +through the fiercest nations, into the very centre of Italy. As for his +own part, he scorns to compare himself with Scipio, a general of but six +months' standing: himself, who was almost born, at least brought up, in +the tent of Hamilcar his father; the conqueror of Spain, of Gaul, of the +inhabitants of the Alps, and what is still more, conqueror of the Alps +themselves. He rouses their indignation against the insolence of the +Romans, who had dared to demand that himself, and the rest who had taken +Saguntum, should be delivered up to them; and excites their jealousy +against the intolerable pride of those imperious masters, who imagined +that all things ought to obey them, and that they had a right to give laws +to the whole world. + +After these speeches, both sides prepare for battle. Scipio, having thrown +a bridge across the Ticinus, marched his troops over it. Two ill +omens(750) had filled his army with consternation and dread. As for the +Carthaginians, they were inspired with the boldest courage. Hannibal +animates them with fresh promises; and cleaving with a stone the skull of +the lamb he was sacrificing, he prays Jupiter to dash to pieces his head +in like manner, in case he did not give his soldiers the rewards he had +promised them. + +Scipio posts, in the first line, the troops armed with missive weapons, +and the Gaulish horse; and forming his second line of the flower of the +confederate cavalry, he advances slowly. Hannibal advanced with his whole +cavalry, in the centre of which he had posted the troopers who rid with +bridles, and the Numidian horsemen on(751) the wings, in order to surround +the enemy. The officers and cavalry being eager to engage, a charge +ensues. At the first onset, Scipio's light-armed soldiers had scarcely +discharged their darts, when, frighted at the Carthaginian cavalry, which +came pouring upon them, and fearing lest they should be trampled under the +horses' feet, they gave way, and retired through the intervals of the +squadrons. The fight continued a long time with equal success. Many +troopers on both sides dismounted, so that the battle was carried on +between infantry as well as cavalry. In the mean time, the Numidians +surround the enemy, and charge the rear of the light-armed troops, who at +first had escaped the attack of the cavalry, and tread them under their +horses' feet. The centre of the Roman forces had hitherto fought with +great bravery. Many were killed on both sides, and even more on that of +the Carthaginians. But the Roman troops were put into disorder by the +Numidians, who attacked them in the rear; and especially by a wound the +consul received, which disabled him from continuing the combat. However, +this general was rescued out of the enemy's hands by the bravery of his +son, then but seventeen years old; and who afterwards was honoured with +the surname of Africanus, for having put a glorious period to this war. + +The consul, though dangerously wounded, retreated in good order, and was +conveyed to his camp by a body of horse, who covered him with their arms +and bodies: the rest of the army followed him thither. He hastened to the +Po, which he crossed with his army, and then broke down the bridge, +whereby he prevented Hannibal from overtaking him. + +It is agreed, that Hannibal owed this first victory to his cavalry; and it +was judged from thenceforth that the main strength of his army consisted +in his horse; and therefore, that it would be proper for the Romans to +avoid large open plains, such as are those between the Po and the Alps. + +Immediately after the battle of the Ticinus, all the neighbouring Gauls +seemed to contend who should submit themselves first to Hannibal, furnish +him with ammunition, and enlist in his army. And this, as Polybius has +observed, was what chiefly induced that wise and skilful general, +notwithstanding the small number and weakness of his troops, to hazard a +battle; which he indeed was now obliged to venture, from the impossibility +of marching back whenever he should desire to do it; because nothing but a +battle would oblige the Gauls to declare for him, whose assistance was the +only refuge he then had left. + +_Battle of the Trebia._--Sempronius the consul, upon the orders he had +received from the senate, was returned from Sicily to Ariminum.(752) From +thence he marched towards the Trebia, a small river of Lombardy, which +falls into the Po a little above Placentia, where he joined his forces to +those of Scipio. Hannibal advanced towards the camp of the Romans, from +which he was separated only by that small river. The armies lying so near +one another, gave occasion to frequent skirmishes, in one of which +Sempronius, at the head of a body of horse, gained some advantage over a +party of Carthaginians, very trifling indeed, but which nevertheless very +much increased the good opinion this general naturally entertained of his +own merit. + +This inconsiderable success seemed to him a complete victory. He boasted +his having vanquished the enemy in the same kind of fight in which his +colleague had been defeated, and that he thereby had revived the courage +of the dejected Romans. Being now resolutely bent to come, as soon as +possible, to a decisive battle, he thought it proper, for decency's sake, +to consult Scipio, whom he found of a quite different opinion from +himself. Scipio represented, that in case time should be allowed for +disciplining the new levies during the winter, they would be much fitter +for service in the ensuing campaign; that the Gauls, who were naturally +fickle and inconstant, would disengage themselves insensibly from +Hannibal; that as soon as his wounds should be healed, his presence might +be of some use in an affair of such general concern: in a word, he +besought him earnestly not to proceed any further. + +These reasons, though so just, made no impression upon Sempronius. He saw +himself at the head of sixteen thousand Romans, and twenty thousand +allies, exclusive of cavalry, (a number which, in those ages, formed a +complete army,) when both consuls joined their forces. The troops of the +enemy amounted to near the same number. He thought the juncture extremely +favourable for him. He declared publicly, that all the officers and +soldiers were desirous of a battle, except his colleague, whose mind (he +observed) being more affected by his wound than his body, could not, for +that reason, bear to hear of an engagement. But still, continued +Sempronius, is it just to let the whole army droop and languish with him? +What could Scipio expect more? Did he flatter himself with the hopes that +a third consul, and a new army, would come to his assistance? Such were +the expressions he employed both among the soldiers, and even about +Scipio's tent. The time for the election of new generals drawing near, +Sempronius was afraid a successor would be sent before he had put an end +to the war; and therefore it was his opinion, that he ought to take +advantage of his colleague's illness, to secure the whole honour of the +victory to himself. As he had no regard, says Polybius, to the time proper +for action, and only to that which he thought suited his own interest, he +could not fail of taking wrong measures. He therefore ordered his army to +prepare for battle. + +This was the very thing Hannibal desired; as he held it for a maxim, that +a general who has entered a foreign country, or one possessed by the +enemy, and has formed some great design, has no other refuge left, than +continually to raise the expectations of his allies by some fresh +exploits. Besides, knowing that he should have to deal only with +new-levied and unexperienced troops, he was desirous of taking advantage +of the ardour of the Gauls, who were extremely desirous of fighting; and +of Scipio's absence, who, by reason of his wound, could not be present in +the battle. Mago was therefore ordered to lie in ambush with two thousand +men, consisting of horse and foot, on the steep banks of a small rivulet +which ran between the two camps, and to conceal himself among the bushes +that were very thick there. An ambuscade is often safer in a smooth open +country, but full of thickets, as this was, than in woods, because such a +spot is less apt to be suspected. He afterwards caused a detachment of +Numidian cavalry to cross the Trebia with orders to advance at break of +day as far as the very barriers of the enemy's camp, in order to provoke +them to fight; and then to retreat and repass the river, in order to draw +the Romans after them. What he had foreseen, came directly to pass. The +fiery Sempronius immediately detached his whole cavalry against the +Numidians, and then six thousand light-armed troops, who were soon +followed by all the rest of the army. The Numidians fled designedly; upon +which the Romans pursued them with great eagerness, and crossed the Trebia +without resistance, but not without great difficulty, being forced to wade +up to their very arm-pits through the rivulet, which was swoln with the +torrents that had fallen in the night from the neighbouring mountains. It +was then about the winter-solstice, that is, in December. It happened to +snow that day, and the cold was excessively piercing. The Romans had left +their camp fasting, and without having taken the least precaution; whereas +the Carthaginians had, by Hannibal's order, eaten and drunk plentifully in +their tents; had got their horses in readiness, rubbed themselves with +oil, and put on their armour by the fire-side. + +They were thus prepared when the fight began. The Romans defended +themselves valiantly for a considerable time, though they were half spent +with hunger, fatigue, and cold; but their cavalry was at last broken and +put to flight by that of the Carthaginians, which much exceeded theirs in +numbers and strength. The infantry also were soon in great disorder. The +soldiers in ambuscade sallying out at a proper time, rushed on a sudden +upon their rear, and completed the overthrow. A body of above ten thousand +men resolutely fought their way through the Gauls and Africans, of whom +they made a dreadful slaughter; but as they could neither assist their +friends, nor return to the camp, the way to it being cut off by the +Numidian horse, the river, and the rain, they retreated in good order to +Placentia. Most of the rest lost their lives on the banks of the river, +being trampled to pieces by the elephants and horses. Those who escaped, +went and joined the body above mentioned. The next night Scipio retired +also to Placentia. The Carthaginians gained a complete victory, and their +loss was inconsiderable, except that a great number of their horses were +destroyed by the cold, the rain, and the snow; and that, of all their +elephants, they saved but one only. + +In Spain, the Romans had better success in this and the following +campaign;(753) for Cn. Scipio extended his conquests as far as the river +Iberus,(754) defeated Hanno, and took him prisoner. + +Hannibal took the opportunity, whilst he was in winter quarters, to +refresh his troops, and gain the affection of the natives.(755) For this +purpose, after having declared to the prisoners whom he had taken from the +allies of the Romans, that he was not come with the view of making war +upon them, but of restoring the Italians to their liberty, and protecting +them against the Romans, he sent them all home to their own countries, +without requiring the least ransom. + +The winter was no sooner over, than he set out towards Tuscany,(756) +whither he hastened his march for two important reasons: first, to avoid +the ill effects which would arise from the ill will of the Gauls, who were +tired with the long stay of the Carthaginian army in their territories; +and were impatient of bearing the whole burden of a war, in which they had +engaged with no other view than to carry it into the country of their +common enemy: secondly, that he might increase, by some bold exploit, the +reputation of his arms in the minds of all the inhabitants of Italy, by +carrying the war to the very gates of Rome; and at the same time reanimate +his troops, and the Gauls his allies, by the plunder of the enemy's lands. +But in his march over the Apennines, he was overtaken by a dreadful storm, +which destroyed great numbers of his men. The cold, the rain, the wind and +hail, seemed to conspire his ruin; so that the fatigues which the +Carthaginians had undergone in crossing the Alps, seemed less dreadful +than those they now suffered. He therefore marched back to Placentia, +where he again fought Sempronius, who was returned from Rome. The loss on +both sides was very nearly equal. + +Whilst Hannibal was in these winter quarters, he hit upon a true +Carthaginian stratagem.(757) He was surrounded with fickle and inconstant +nations: the friendship he had contracted with them was but of recent +date. He had reason to apprehend a change in their disposition, and, +consequently, that attempts would be made upon his life. To secure +himself, therefore, he got perukes made, and clothes suited to every age. +Of these he sometimes wore one, sometimes another; and disguised himself +so often, that not merely such as saw him only transiently, but even his +intimate acquaintance, could scarce know him. + +(M121) At Rome, Cn. Servilius and C. Flaminius had been appointed +consuls.(758) Hannibal having advice that the latter was advanced already +as far as Arretium, a town of Tuscany, resolved to go and engage him as +soon as possible. Two ways being shown him, he chose the shortest, though +the most troublesome, nay, almost impassable, by reason of a fen which he +was forced to go through. Here the army suffered incredible hardships. +During four days and three nights they marched halfway up the leg in +water, and, consequently, could not get a moment's sleep. Hannibal +himself, who rode upon the only elephant he had left, could hardly get +through. His long want of sleep, and the thick vapours which exhaled from +that marshy place, together with the unhealthiness of the season, cost him +one of his eyes. + +_Battle of Thrasymenus._(_759_)--Hannibal being thus got, almost +unexpectedly, out of this dangerous situation, and having refreshed his +troops, marched and pitched his camp between Arretium and Fesulae, in the +richest and most fruitful part of Tuscany. His first endeavours were, to +discover the disposition of Flaminius, in order that he might take +advantage of his weak side, which, according to Polybius, ought to be the +chief study of a general. He was told, that Flaminius was greatly +conceited of his own merit, bold, enterprising, rash, and fond of glory. +To plunge him the deeper into these excesses, to which he was naturally +prone,(760) he inflamed his impetuous spirit, by laying waste and burning +the whole country in his sight. + +Flaminius was not of a temper to continue inactive in his camp, even if +Hannibal had lain still. But when he saw the territories of his allies +laid waste before his eyes, he thought it would reflect dishonour upon +him, should he suffer Hannibal to ransack Italy without control, and even +advance to the very walls of Rome without meeting any resistance. He +rejected with scorn the prudent counsels of those who advised him to wait +the arrival of his colleague, and to be satisfied, for the present, with +putting a stop to the devastation of the enemy. + +In the mean time, Hannibal was still advancing towards Rome, having +Cortona on the left hand, and the lake Thrasymenus on his right. When he +saw that the consul followed close after him, with design to give him +battle, in order to stop him in his march; having observed that the ground +was convenient for an engagement, he thought only of making preparations +for it. The lake Thrasymenus and the mountains of Cortona form a very +narrow defile, which leads into a large valley, lined on both sides with +hills of a considerable height, and closed, at the outlet, by a steep hill +of difficult access. On this hill, Hannibal, after having crossed the +valley, came and encamped with the main body of his army; posting his +light-armed infantry in ambuscade upon the hills on the right, and part of +his cavalry behind those on the left, as far almost as the entrance of the +defile, through which Flaminius was obliged to pass. Accordingly, this +general, who followed him very eagerly with the resolution to fight him, +being come to the defile near the lake, was forced to halt, because night +was coming on; but he entered it the next morning at daybreak. + +Hannibal having permitted him to advance, with all his forces, above half +way through the valley, and seeing the Roman van-guard pretty near him, +gave the signal for the battle, and commanded his troops to come out of +their ambuscade, in order that he might attack the enemy at the same time +from all quarters. The reader may guess at the consternation with which +the Romans were seized. + +They were not yet drawn up in order of battle, neither had they got their +arms in readiness, when they found themselves attacked in front, in rear, +and in flank. In a moment, all the ranks were put into disorder. +Flaminius, alone undaunted in so universal a consternation, animates his +soldiers both with his hand and voice, and exhorts them to cut themselves +a passage with their swords through the midst of the enemy. But the tumult +which reigned every where, the dreadful shouts of the enemy, and a fog +that was risen, prevented his being seen or heard. However, when the +Romans saw themselves surrounded on all sides, either by the enemy or the +lake, the impossibility of saving their lives by flight roused their +courage, and both parties began the fight with astonishing animosity. +Their fury was so great, that not a soldier in either army perceived an +earthquake which happened in that country, and buried whole cities in +ruins. In this confusion, Flaminius being slain by one of the Insubrian +Gauls, the Romans began to give ground, and at last fairly fled. Great +numbers, endeavouring to save themselves, leaped into the lake; whilst +others, directing their course towards the mountains, fell into the +enemy's hands whom they strove to avoid. Six thousand only cut their way +through the conquerors, and retreated to a place of safety; but the next +day they were taken prisoners. In this battle fifteen thousand Romans were +killed, and about ten thousand escaped to Rome by different roads. +Hannibal sent back the Latins, who were allies of the Romans, into their +own country, without demanding the least ransom. He commanded search to be +made for the body of Flaminius, in order to give it burial; but it could +not be found. He afterwards put his troops into quarters of refreshment, +and solemnized the funerals of thirty of his chief officers who were +killed in the battle. He lost in all but fifteen hundred men, most of whom +were Gauls. + +Immediately after, Hannibal despatched a courier to Carthage, with the +news of his good success hitherto in Italy. This caused the greatest joy +for the present, gave birth to the most promising hopes with regard to the +future, and revived the courage of all the citizens. They now prepared, +with incredible ardour, to send into Italy and Spain all necessary +succours. + +Rome, on the contrary, was filled with universal grief and alarm, as soon +as the praetor had pronounced from the rostra the following words, "We have +lost a great battle." The senate, studious of nothing but the public +welfare, thought that in so great a calamity and so imminent a danger, +recourse must be had to extraordinary remedies. They therefore appointed +Quintus Fabius dictator, a person as conspicuous for his wisdom as his +birth. It was the custom at Rome, that the moment a dictator was +nominated, all authority ceased, that of the tribunes of the people +excepted. M. Minucius was appointed his general of horse. We are now in +the second year of the war. + +_Hannibal's Conduct with respect to Fabius._(_761_)--Hannibal, after the +battle of Thrasymenus, not thinking it yet proper to march directly to +Rome, contented himself, in the mean time, with laying waste the country. +He crossed Umbria and Picenum; and after ten days' march, arrived in the +territory of Adria.(762) He got a very considerable booty in this march. +Out of his implacable enmity to the Romans, he commanded, that all who +were able to bear arms, should be put to the sword; and meeting no +obstacle any where, he advanced as far as Apulia; plundering the countries +which lay in his way, and carrying desolation wherever he came, in order +to compel the nations to disengage themselves from their alliance with the +Romans; and to show all Italy, that Rome itself, now quite dispirited, +yielded him the victory. + +Fabius, followed by Minucius and four legions, had marched from Rome in +quest of the enemy, but with a firm resolution not to let him take the +least advantage, nor to advance one step till he had first reconnoitred +every place; nor hazard a battle till he should be sure of success. + +As soon as both armies were in sight, Hannibal, to terrify the Roman +forces, offered them battle, by advancing almost to the very entrenchments +of their camp. But finding every thing quiet there, he retired; blaming, +in appearance, the cowardice of the enemy, whom he upbraided with having +at last lost that valour so natural to their ancestors; but fretted +inwardly, to find he had to do with a general of so different a +disposition from Sempronius and Flaminius; and that the Romans, instructed +by their defeat, had at last made choice of a commander capable of +opposing Hannibal. + +From this moment he perceived that the dictator would not be formidable to +him by the boldness of his attacks, but by the prudence and regularity of +his conduct, which might perplex and embarrass him very much. The only +circumstance he now wanted to know, was, whether the new general had +firmness enough to pursue steadily the plan he seemed to have laid down. +He endeavoured, therefore, to shake his resolution by the different +movements which he made, by laying waste the lands, plundering the cities, +and burning the villages and towns. He, at one time, would raise his camp +with the utmost precipitation; and, at another, stop short in some valley +out of the common route, to try whether he could not surprise him in the +plain. However, Fabius still kept his troops on the hills, but without +losing sight of Hannibal; never approaching near enough to come to an +engagement; nor yet keeping at such a distance, as might give him an +opportunity of escaping him. He never suffered his soldiers to stir out of +the camp, except to forage, nor ever on those occasions without a numerous +convoy. If ever he engaged, it was only in slight skirmishes, and so very +cautiously, that his troops had always the advantage. By this conduct he +revived, by insensible degrees, the courage of the soldiers, which the +loss of three battles had entirely damped; and enabled them to rely, as +they had formerly done, on their valour and good fortune. + +Hannibal, having got an immense booty in Campania, where he had resided a +considerable time, left that country, in order that he might not consume +the provisions he had laid up, and which he reserved for the winter +season. Besides, he could no longer continue in a country of gardens and +vineyards, which were more agreeable to the eye than useful for the +subsistence of an army; a country where he would have been forced to take +up his winter quarters among marshes, rocks, and sands; while the Romans +would have drawn plentiful supplies from Capua, and the richest parts of +Italy. He therefore resolved to settle elsewhere. + +Fabius naturally supposed, that Hannibal would be obliged to return the +same way he came, and that he might easily annoy him during his march. He +began by throwing a considerable body of troops into Casilinum, and +thereby securing that small town, situated on the Vulturnus, which +separated the territories of Falernum from those of Capua: he afterwards +detached four thousand men, to seize the only pass through which Hannibal +could come out; and then, according to his usual custom, posted himself +with the remainder of the army on the hills adjoining to the road. + +The Carthaginians arrive, and encamp in the plain at the foot of the +mountains. And now the crafty Carthaginian falls into the same snare he +had laid for Flaminius at the defile of Thrasymenus; and it seemed +impossible for him ever to extricate himself out of this difficulty, there +being but one outlet, of which the Romans were possessed. Fabius, fancying +himself sure of his prey, was only contriving how to seize it. He +flattered himself, and not without the appearance of probability, with the +hopes of putting an end to the war by this single battle. Nevertheless, he +thought fit to defer the attack till the next day. + +Hannibal perceived, that his own artifices were now employed against +him.(763) It is in such junctures as these, that a general has need of +unusual presence of mind and fortitude, to view danger in its utmost +extent, without being dismayed; and to find out sure and instant +expedients without deliberating. Immediately, the Carthaginian general +caused two thousand oxen to be got together, and ordered small bundles of +vine-branches to be tied to their horns. Towards the dead of night, having +commanded the branches to be set on fire, he caused the oxen to be driven +with violence to the top of the hills where the Romans were encamped. As +soon as these creatures felt the flame, the pain rendering them furious, +they flew up and down on all sides, and set fire to the shrubs and bushes +they met in their way. This squadron, of a new kind, was sustained by a +good number of light-armed soldiers, who had orders to seize upon the +summit of the mountain, and to charge the enemy, in case they should meet +them. All things happened as Hannibal had foreseen. The Romans who guarded +the defile, seeing the fires spread over the hills which were above them, +and imagining that it was Hannibal making his escape by torch-light, quit +their post, and run up to the mountains to oppose his passage. The main +body of the army not knowing what to think of all this tumult, and Fabius +himself not daring to stir, while it was dark, for fear of a surprise, +wait for the return of the day. Hannibal seizes this opportunity, marches +his troops and the spoils through the defile, which was now unguarded, and +rescues his army out of a snare in which, had Fabius been but a little +more vigorous, it would either have been destroyed, or at least very much +weakened. It is glorious for a man to turn his very errors to his +advantage, and make them subservient to his reputation. + +The Carthaginian army returned to Apulia, still pursued and harassed by +the Romans. The dictator, being obliged to take a journey to Rome on +account of some religious ceremonies, earnestly entreated his general of +horse, before his departure, not to fight during his absence. However, +Minucius did not regard either his advice or his entreaties; but the very +first opportunity he had, whilst part of Hannibal's troops were foraging, +he charged the rest, and gained some advantage. He immediately sent advice +of this to Rome, as if he had obtained a considerable victory. The news of +this, with what had just before happened at the passage of the defile, +raised complaints and murmurs against the slow and timorous circumspection +of Fabius. In a word, matters were carried so far, that the Roman people +gave his general of horse an equal authority with him; a thing unheard-of +before. The dictator was upon the road when he received advice of this: +for he had left Rome, in order that he might not be an eye-witness of what +was contriving against him. His constancy, however, was not shaken. He was +very sensible, that though his authority in the command was divided, yet +his skill in the art of war was not so.(764) This soon became manifest. + +Minucius, grown arrogant at the advantage he had gained over his +colleague, proposed that each should command a day alternately, or even a +longer time. But Fabius rejected this proposal, as it would have exposed +the whole army to danger whilst under the command of Minucius. He +therefore chose to divide the troops, in order that it might be in his +power to preserve, at least, that part which should fall to his share. + +Hannibal, fully informed of all that passed in the Roman camp, was +overjoyed to hear of this dissension between the two commanders. He +therefore laid a snare for the rash Minucius, who accordingly plunged +headlong into it; and engaged the enemy on an eminence, in which an +ambuscade was concealed. But his troops being soon put into disorder, were +just upon the point of being cut to pieces, when Fabius, alarmed by the +sudden outcries of the wounded, called aloud to his soldiers: "Let us +hasten to the assistance of Minucius: let us fly and snatch the victory +from the enemy, and extort from our fellow-citizens a confession of their +fault." This succour was very seasonable, and compelled Hannibal to sound +a retreat. The latter, as he was retiring, said, "That the cloud which had +been long hovering on the summit of the mountain, had at last burst with a +loud crack, and caused a mighty storm." So important and seasonable a +service done by the dictator, opened the eyes of Minucius. He accordingly +acknowledged his error, returned immediately to his duty and obedience, +and showed, that it is sometimes more glorious to know how to atone for a +fault, than not to have committed it. + +_The state of Affairs in Spain._(_765_)--In the beginning of this campaign, +Cn. Scipio, having suddenly attacked the Carthaginian fleet, commanded by +Hamilcar, defeated it, and took twenty-five ships, with a great quantity +of rich spoils. This victory made the Romans sensible, that they ought to +be particularly attentive to the affairs of Spain, because Hannibal could +draw considerable supplies both of men and money from that country. +Accordingly, they sent a fleet thither, the command whereof was given to +P. Scipio, who, after his arrival in Spain, having joined his brother, did +the commonwealth very great service. Till that time the Romans had never +ventured beyond the Ebro. They had been satisfied with having gained the +friendship of the nations situated between that river and Italy, and +confirming it by alliances: but under Publius, they crossed the Ebro, and +carried their arms much further up into the country. + +The circumstance which contributed most to promote their affairs, was, the +treachery of a Spaniard in Saguntum. Hannibal had left there the children +of the most distinguished families in Spain, whom he had taken as +hostages. Abelox, for so this Spaniard was called, persuaded Bostar, the +governor of the city, to send back these young men into their country, in +order, by that means, to attach the inhabitants more firmly to the +Carthaginian interest. He himself was charged with this commission. But he +carried them to the Romans, who afterwards delivered them to their +relations, and, by so acceptable a present, acquired their amity. + +(M122) _The Battle of Cannae._(_766_)--The next spring, C. Terentius Varro +and L. AEmilius Paulus were chosen consuls at Rome. In this campaign, which +was the third of the second Punic war, the Romans did what had never been +practised before, that is, they composed the army of eight legions, each +consisting of five thousand men, exclusive of the allies. For, as we have +already observed, the Romans never raised but four legions, each of which +consisted of about four thousand foot, and three hundred horse.(767) They +never, except on the most important occasions, made them consist of five +thousand of the one, and four hundred of the other. As for the troops of +the allies, their infantry was equal to that of the legions, but they had +three times as many horse. Each of the consuls had commonly half the +troops of the allies, with two legions, in order for them to act +separately; and it was very seldom that all these forces were used at the +same time, and in the same expedition. Here the Romans had not only four, +but eight legions, so important did the affair appear to them. The senate +even thought fit, that the two consuls of the foregoing year, Servilius +and Attilius, should serve in the army as proconsuls; but the latter could +not go into the field, by reason of his great age. + +Varro, at his setting out from Rome, had declared openly, that he would +fall upon the enemy the very first opportunity, and put an end to the war; +adding, that it would never be terminated, so long as men such as Fabius +should be at the head of the Roman armies. An advantage which he gained +over the Carthaginians, of whom near seventeen hundred were killed, +greatly increased his boldness and arrogance. As for Hannibal, he +considered this loss as a real advantage; being persuaded that it would +serve as a bait to the consul's rashness, and prompt him on to a battles +which he wanted extremely. It was afterwards known, that Hannibal was +reduced to such a scarcity of provisions, that he could not possibly have +subsisted ten days longer. The Spaniards were already meditating to leave +him. So that there would have been an end of Hannibal and his army, if his +good fortune had not thrown a Varro in in his way. + +Both armies, having often removed from place to place, came in sight of +each other near Cannae, a little town in Apulia, situated on the river +Aufidus. As Hannibal was encamped in a level open country, and his cavalry +much superior to that of the Romans, AEmilius did not think proper to +engage in such a place. He wished to draw the enemy into a spot, where the +infantry might have the greatest share in the action. But his colleague, +who was unexperienced, was of a contrary opinion. Such is the +inconveniency of a divided command; jealousy, a disparity of tempers, or a +diversity of views, seldom failing to create a dissension between the two +generals. + +The troops on each side were, for some time, contented with slight +skirmishes. But, at last, one day, when Varro had the command, (for the +two consuls took it by turns,) preparations were made on both sides for +battle. AEmilius had not been consulted; yet, though he extremely +disapproved the conduct of his colleague, as it was not in his power to +prevent it, he seconded him to the utmost. + +Hannibal, after having made his soldiers observe, that, being superior in +cavalry, they could not possibly have pitched upon a better spot for +fighting, had it been left to their choice: "Return, then," says he, +"thanks to the gods for having brought the enemy hither, that you may +triumph over them; and thank me also, for having reduced the Romans to a +necessity of coming to an engagement. After three great successive +victories, is not the remembrance of your own actions sufficient to +inspire you with courage? By the former battles, you are become masters of +the open country; but this will put you in possession of all the cities, +and, I presume to say it, of all the riches and power of the Romans. It is +not words that we want, but action. I trust in the gods, that you shall +soon see my promises verified." + +The two armies were very unequal in number. That of the Romans, including +the allies, amounted to fourscore thousand foot, and a little above six +thousand horse; and that of the Carthaginians consisted but of forty +thousand foot, all well disciplined, and of ten thousand horse. AEmilius +commanded the right wing of the Romans, Varro the left, and Servilius, one +of the consuls of the last year, was posted in the centre. Hannibal, who +had the art of turning every incident to advantage, had posted himself, so +as that the wind Vulturnus,(768) which rises at certain stated times, +should blow directly in the faces of the Romans during the fight, and +cover them with dust; then keeping the river Aufidus on his left, and +posting his cavalry in the wings, he formed his main body of the Spanish +and Gaulish infantry, which he posted in the centre, with half the African +heavy-armed foot on their right, and half on their left, on the same line +with the cavalry. His army being thus drawn up, he put himself at the head +of the Spanish and Gaulish infantry; and having drawn them out of the +line, advanced to give battle, rounding his front as he drew nearer the +enemy; and extending his flanks in the shape of a half moon, in order that +he might leave no interval between his main body and the rest of the line, +which consisted of the heavy-armed infantry, who had not moved from their +posts. + +The fight soon began, and the Roman legions that were in the wings, seeing +their centre warmly attacked, advanced to charge the enemy in flank. +Hannibal's main body, after a brave resistance, finding themselves +furiously attacked on all sides, gave way, being overpowered by numbers; +and retired through the interval they had left in the centre of the line. +The Romans having pursued them thither with eager confusion, the two wings +of the African infantry, which were fresh, well armed, and in good order, +wheeled about on a sudden towards that void space in which the Romans, who +were already fatigued, had thrown themselves in disorder; and attacked +them vigorously on both sides, without allowing them time to recover +themselves, or leaving them ground to draw up. In the mean time, the two +wings of the cavalry, having defeated those of the Romans, which were much +inferior to them, and having left in the pursuit of the broken and +scattered squadrons, only as many forces as were necessary to keep them +from rallying, advanced and charged the rear of the Roman infantry, which +being surrounded at once on every side by the enemy's horse and foot was +all cut to pieces, after having fought with unparalleled bravery. AEmilius +being covered with the wounds he had received in the fight, was afterwards +killed by a body of the enemy to whom he was not known; and with him two +quaestors; one and twenty military tribunes; many who had been either +consuls or praetors; Servilius, one of the last year's consuls; Minucius, +the late general of horse to Fabius; and fourscore senators. Above seventy +thousand men fell in this battle;(769) and the Carthaginians, so great was +their fury,(770) did not give over the slaughter, till Hannibal, in the +very heat of it, called out to them several times; "Stop, soldiers, spare +the vanquished." Ten thousand men, who had been left to guard the camp, +surrendered themselves prisoners of war after the battle. Varro the consul +retired to Venusia, with only seventy horse; and about four thousand men +escaped into the neighbouring cities. Thus Hannibal remained master of the +field, he being chiefly indebted for this, as well as for his former +victories, to the superiority of his cavalry over that of the Romans. He +lost four thousand Gauls, fifteen hundred Spaniards and Africans, and two +hundred horse. + +Maharbal, one of the Carthaginian generals, advised Hannibal to march +without loss of time directly to Rome, promising him, that within five +days they should sup in the Capitol. Hannibal answering, that it was an +affair which required mature deliberation; "I see," replies Maharbal, +"that the gods have not endowed the same man with all talents. You, +Hannibal, know how to conquer, but not to make the best use of a +victory."(771) + +It is pretended that this delay saved Rome and the empire. Many authors, +and among the rest Livy, charge Hannibal, on this occasion, as being +guilty of a capital error. But others, more reserved, are not for +condemning, without evident proofs, so renowned a general, who in the rest +of his conduct was never wanting, either in prudence to make choice of the +best expedients, or in readiness to put his designs in execution. They, +besides, are inclined to judge favourably of him, from the authority, or +at least the silence, of Polybius, who, speaking of the memorable +consequences of this celebrated battle, says, that the Carthaginians were +firmly persuaded, that they should possess themselves of Rome at the first +assault; but then he does not mention how this could possibly have been +effected, as that city was very populous, warlike, strongly fortified, and +defended with a garrison of two legions; nor does he any where give the +least hint that such a project was feasible, or that Hannibal did wrong in +not attempting to put it in execution. + +And indeed, if we examine matters more narrowly, we shall find, that +according to the common maxims of war it could not be undertaken. It is +certain, that Hannibal's whole infantry, before the battle, amounted but +to forty thousand men; and, as six thousand of these had been slain in the +action, and doubtless, many more wounded and disabled, there could remain +but six or seven and twenty thousand foot fit for service; now this number +was not sufficient to invest so large a city as Rome, which had a river +running through it; nor to attack it in form, because they had neither +engines, ammunition, nor any other things necessary for carrying on a +siege. For want of these, Hannibal, even after his victory at Thrasymenus, +miscarried in his attempt upon Spoletum;(772) and soon after the battle of +Cannae, was forced to raise the siege of a little city,(773) of no note, +and of no great strength. It cannot be denied, but that had he miscarried +on the present occasion, nothing less could have been expected but that he +must have been irrecoverably lost. However, to form a just judgment of +this matter, a man ought to be a soldier, and a soldier, perhaps, of those +times. This is an old dispute, on which none but those who are perfectly +well skilled in the art of war should pretend to give their opinion. + +Soon after the battle of Cannae, Hannibal had despatched his brother Mago +to Carthage, with the news of his victory, and at the same time to demand +succours, in order that he might be enabled to put an end to the war.(774) +Mago, on his arrival, made, in full senate, a lofty speech, in which he +extolled his brother's exploits, and displayed the great advantages he had +gained over the Romans. And, to give a more lively idea of the greatness +of the victory, by speaking in some measure to the eye, he poured out, in +the middle of the senate, a bushel(775) of gold rings, which had been +taken from the fingers of such of the Roman nobility as had fallen in the +battle of Cannae. He concluded with demanding money, provisions, and fresh +troops. All the spectators were struck with an extraordinary joy; upon +which Imilcon, a great stickler for Hannibal, fancying he had now a fair +opportunity to insult Hanno, the chief of the contrary faction, asked him, +whether he was still dissatisfied with the war they were carrying on +against the Romans, and was for having Hannibal delivered up to them? +Hanno, without discovering the least emotion, replied, that he was still +of the same mind; and that the victories of which they so much boasted +(supposing them real) could not give him joy, but only in proportion as +they should be made subservient to an advantageous peace: he then +undertook to prove, that the mighty exploits, on which they insisted so +much, were wholly chimerical and imaginary. "I have cut to pieces," says +he (continuing Mago's speech,) "the Roman armies: send me some +troops.--What more could you ask had you been conquered? I have twice +seized upon the enemy's camp, full (no doubt) of provisions of every +kind.--Send me provisions and money.--Could you have talked otherwise had +you lost your camp?" He then asked Mago, whether any of the Latin nations +had come over to Hannibal, and whether the Romans had made him any +proposals of peace? To this Mago answering in the negative: "I then +perceive," replied Hanno, "that we are no farther advanced, than when +Hannibal first landed in Italy." The inference he drew from hence was, +that neither men nor money ought to be sent. But Hannibal's faction +prevailing at that time, no regard was paid to Hanno's remonstrances, +which were considered merely as the effect of prejudice and jealousy; and, +accordingly, orders were given for levying, without delay, the supplies of +men and money which Hannibal required. Mago set out immediately for Spain, +to raise twenty-four thousand foot, and four thousand horse in that +country; but these levies were afterwards stopped, and sent to another +quarter; so eager was the contrary faction to oppose the designs of a +general whom they utterly abhorred. While in Rome, a consul,(776) who had +fled, was thanked because he had not despaired of the commonwealth; at +Carthage, people were almost angry with Hannibal, for being victorious. +But Hanno could never forgive him the advantages he had gained in this +war, because he had undertaken it in opposition to his counsel. Thus being +more jealous for the honour of his own opinions than for the good of his +country, and a greater enemy to the Carthaginian general than to the +Romans, he did all that lay in his power to prevent future success, and to +render of no avail that which had been already gained. + +_Hannibal takes up his Winter Quarters in Capua._(_777_)--The battle of +Cannae subjected the most powerful nations of Italy to Hannibal, drew over +to his interest Graecia Magna,(778) with the city of Tarentum; and thus +wrested from the Romans their most ancient allies, among whom the Capuans +held the first rank. This city, by the fertility of its soil, its +advantageous situation, and the blessings of a long peace, had risen to +great wealth and power. Luxury, and a fondness for pleasure, (the usual +attendants on wealth,) had corrupted the minds of all its citizens, who, +from their natural inclination, were but too much inclined to +voluptuousness and excess. + +Hannibal(779) made choice of this city for his winter quarters. Here it +was that those soldiers, who had sustained the most grievous toils, and +braved the most formidable dangers, were overthrown by abundance and a +profusion of luxuries, into which they plunged with the greater eagerness, +as they, till then, had been strangers to them. Their courage was so +greatly enervated in this bewitching retirement, that all their after +efforts were owing rather to the fame and splendour of their former +victories than to their present strength. When Hannibal marched his forces +out of the city, one would have taken them for other men, and the reverse +of those who had so lately marched into it. Accustomed, during the winter +season, to commodious lodgings, to ease and plenty, they were no longer +able to bear hunger, thirst, long marches, watchings, and the other toils +of war; not to mention that all obedience, all discipline, were entirely +laid aside. + +I only transcribe on this occasion from Livy. If we are to adopt his +opinion on this subject, Hannibal's stay at Capua was a capital blemish in +his conduct; and he pretends, that this general was guilty of an +infinitely greater error, than when he neglected to march directly to Rome +after the battle of Cannae. For this delay,(780) says Livy, might seem only +to have retarded his victory; whereas this last misconduct rendered him +absolutely incapable of ever defeating the enemy. In a word, as Marcellus +observed judiciously afterwards, Capua was to the Carthaginians and their +general, what Cannae(781) had been to the Romans. There their martial +genius, their love of discipline, were lost: there their former fame, and +their almost certain hopes of future glory, vanished at once. And, indeed, +from thenceforth the affairs of Hannibal advanced to their decline by +swift steps; fortune declared in favour of prudence, and victory seemed +now reconciled to the Romans. + +I know not whether Livy has just ground to impute all these fatal +consequences to the delicious abode of Capua. If we examine carefully all +the circumstances of this history, we shall scarce be able to persuade +ourselves, that the little progress which was afterwards made by the arms +of Hannibal, ought to be ascribed to his wintering at Capua. It might, +indeed, have been one cause, but a very inconsiderable one: and the +bravery with which the forces of Hannibal afterwards defeated the armies +of consuls and praetors; the towns they took even in sight of the Romans; +their maintaining their conquests so vigorously, and staying fourteen +years after this in Italy, in spite of the Romans: all these circumstances +may induce us to believe, that Livy lays too great a stress on the +delights of Capua. + +The real cause of the decline of Hannibal's affairs, was owing to his want +of necessary recruits and succours from Carthage. After Mago's speech, the +Carthaginian senate had judged it necessary,(782) in order for the +carrying on the conquests in Italy, to send thither a considerable +reinforcement of Numidian horse, forty elephants, and a thousand talents; +and to hire, in Spain, twenty thousand foot, and four thousand horse, to +reinforce their armies in Spain and Italy. Nevertheless, Mago could obtain +an order but for twelve thousand foot, and two thousand five hundred +horse:(783) and even when he was just going to march to Italy with this +reinforcement, so much inferior to that which had been promised him, he +was countermanded and sent to Spain. So that Hannibal, after these mighty +promises, had neither infantry, cavalry, elephants, nor money sent him; +but was left to depend upon his own personal resources. His army was now +reduced to twenty-six thousand foot, and nine thousand horse. How could it +be possible for him, with so inconsiderable an army, to seize, in an +enemy's country, on all the advantageous posts; to awe his new allies; to +preserve his old conquests and form new ones; and to keep the field, with +advantage, against two armies of the Romans which were recruited every +year? This was the true cause of the declension of Hannibal's affairs, and +of the ruin of those of Carthage. Was the part where Polybius treated this +subject extant, we doubtless should find, that he lays a greater stress on +this cause, than on the luxurious delights of Capua. + +(M123) _Transactions relating to Spain and Sardinia._(_784_)--The two +Scipios still continued in the command of Spain, and their arms were +making a considerable progress there, when Asdrubal, who alone seemed able +to cope with them, received orders from Carthage to march into Italy to +the relief of his brother. Before he left Spain, he writ to the senate, to +convince them of the absolute necessity of their sending a general in his +stead, who was capable of making head against the Romans. Imilcon was +therefore sent thither with an army; and Asdrubal set out upon his march +with his, in order to go and join his brother. The news of his departure +was no sooner known, than the greatest part of Spain was subjected by the +Scipios. These two generals, animated by such signal success, resolved to +prevent him, if possible, from leaving Spain. They considered the danger +to which the Romans would be exposed, if, being scarce able to resist +Hannibal alone, they should be attacked by the two brothers, at the head +of two powerful armies. They therefore pursued Asdrubal, and, coming up +with that general, forced him to fight against his inclination. Asdrubal +was overcome; and, so far from being able to continue his march for Italy, +he found that it would be impossible for him to continue with any safety +in Spain. + +The Carthaginians had no better success in Sardinia. Designing to take +advantage of some rebellions which they had fomented in that country, they +lost twelve thousand men in a battle fought against the Romans, who took a +still greater number of prisoners, among whom were Asdrubal, surnamed +Calvus, Hanno, and Mago,(785) who were distinguished by their birth as +well as military exploits. + +(M124) _The ill Success of Hannibal. The Sieges of Capua and +Rome._(_786_)--From the time of Hannibal's abode in Capua, the Carthaginian +affairs in Italy no longer supported their former reputation. M. +Marcellus, first as praetor, and afterwards as consul, had contributed very +much to this revolution. He harassed Hannibal's army on every occasion, +seized upon his quarters, forced him to raise sieges, and even defeated +him in several engagements; so that he was called the Sword of Rome, as +Fabius had before been named its Buckler. + +(M125) But what most affected the Carthaginian general, was, to see Capua +besieged by the Romans. In order, therefore, to preserve his reputation +among his allies, by a vigorous support of those who held the chief rank +as such, he flew to the relief of that city, brought forward his forces, +attacked the Romans, and fought several battles to oblige them to raise +the siege. (M126) At last, seeing all his measures defeated, he marched +hastily towards Rome, in order to make a powerful diversion. He was not +without hope of being able, in case he could have an opportunity, in the +first consternation, to storm some part of the city, of drawing the Roman +generals with all their forces from the siege of Capua, to the relief of +their capital; at least he flattered himself, that if, for the sake of +continuing the siege, they should divide their forces, their weakness +might then offer an occasion, either to the Capuans or himself, of +engaging and defeating them. Rome was surprised, but not confounded. A +proposal being made by one of the senators, to recall all the armies to +succour Rome; Fabius(787) declared, that it would be shameful in them to +be terrified, and forced to change their measures upon every motion of +Hannibal. They therefore contented themselves with only recalling part of +the army, and one of the generals, Q. Fulvius the proconsul, from the +siege. Hannibal, after making some devastations, drew up his army in order +of battle before the city, and the consul did the same. Both sides were +preparing to signalize themselves in a battle, of which Rome was to be the +recompense, when a violent storm obliged them to separate. They were no +sooner returned to their respective camps, than the face of the heavens +grew calm and serene. The same incident happened frequently afterwards; +insomuch that Hannibal, believing that there was something supernatural in +the event, said, according to Livy, that sometimes(788) his own will, and +sometimes fortune, would not suffer him to take Rome. + +But the circumstance which most surprised and intimidated him, was the +news, that, whilst he lay encamped at one of the gates of Rome, the Romans +had sent out recruits for the army in Spain at another gate; and that the +ground, whereon his camp was pitched, had been sold, notwithstanding that +circumstance, for its full value. So barefaced a contempt stung Hannibal +to the quick; he, therefore, on the other side, put up to auction the +shops of the goldsmiths round the Forum. After this bravado he retired, +and, in his march, plundered the rich temple of the goddess Feronia.(789) + +Capua, thus left to itself, held out but very little longer. After that +such of its senators as had the chief hand in the revolt, and consequently +could not expect any quarter from the Romans, had put themselves to a +truly tragical death,(790) the city surrendered at discretion. The success +of this siege, which, by the happy consequences wherewith it was attended, +proved decisive, and fully restored to the Romans their superiority over +the Carthaginians; displayed, at the same time, how formidable the power +of the Romans was,(791) when they undertook to punish their perfidious +allies; and the feeble protection which Hannibal could afford his friends +at a time when they most wanted it. + +(M127) _The Defeat and Death of the two Scipios in Spain._(_792_)--The face +of affairs was very much changed in Spain. The Carthaginians had three +armies in that country; one commanded by Asdrubal, the son of Gisgo; the +second by Asdrubal, son of Hamilcar; and a third under Mago, who had +joined the first Asdrubal. The two Scipios, Cneus and Publius, were for +dividing their forces, and attacking the enemy separately, which was the +cause of their ruin. They agreed that Cneus, with a small number of +Romans, and thirty thousand Celtiberians, should march against Asdrubal, +the son of Hamilcar; whilst Publius, with the remainder of the forces, +composed of Romans and the Italian allies, should advance against the +other two generals. + +Publius was vanquished first. To the two leaders whom he had to oppose, +Masinissa, elate with the victories he had lately gained over Syphax, +joined himself; and was to be soon followed by Indibilis, a powerful +Spanish prince. The armies came to an engagement. The Romans, being thus +attacked on all sides at once, made a brave resistance as long as they had +their general at their head; but the moment he fell, the few troops which +had escaped the slaughter, secured themselves by flight. + +The three victorious armies marched immediately in quest of Cneus, in +order to put an end to the war by his defeat. He was already more than +half vanquished by the desertion of his allies, who all forsook him; and +left to the Roman generals this important instruction;(793) _viz._ never +to let their own forces be exceeded in number by those of foreigners. He +guessed that his brother was slain, and his army defeated, upon seeing +such great bodies of the enemy arrive. He survived him but a short time, +being killed in the engagement. These two great men were equally lamented +by their citizens and allies; and Spain deeply felt their loss, because of +the justice and moderation of their conduct. + +These extensive countries seemed now inevitably lost; but the valour of L. +Marcius,(794) a private officer of the equestrian order, preserved them to +the Romans. Shortly after this, the younger Scipio was sent thither, who +severely revenged the death of his father and uncle, and restored the +affairs of the Romans in Spain to their former flourishing condition. + +(M128) _The Defeat and Death of Asdrubal._(_795_)--One unforeseen defeat +ruined all the measures, and blasted all the hopes of Hannibal with regard +to Italy. The consuls of this year, which was the eleventh of the second +Punic war, (for I pass over several events for brevity's sake,) were C. +Claudius Nero, and M. Livius. The latter had, for his province, the +Cisalpine Gaul, where he was to oppose Asdrubal, who, it was reported, was +preparing to pass the Alps. The former commanded in the country of the +Brutians, and in Lucania, that is, in the opposite extremity of Italy, and +was there making head against Hannibal. + +The passage of the Alps gave Asdrubal very little trouble, because his +brother had cleared the way for him, and all the nations were disposed to +receive him. Some time after this, he despatched couriers to Hannibal, but +they were intercepted. Nero found by their letters, that Asdrubal was +hastening to join his brother in Umbria. In a conjuncture of so important +a nature as this, when the safety of Rome lay at stake, he thought himself +at liberty to dispense with the established rules(796) of his duty, for +the welfare of his country. In consequence of this, it was his opinion, +that such a bold and unexpected blow ought to be struck, as might be +capable of striking terror into the enemy; by marching to join his +colleague, in order that they might charge Asdrubal unexpectedly with +their united forces. This design, if the several circumstances of it are +thoroughly examined, should not be hastily charged with imprudence. To +prevent the two brothers from joining their armies, was to save the state. +Very little would be hazarded, even though Hannibal should be informed of +the absence of the consul. From his army, which consisted of forty-two +thousand men, he drew out but seven thousand for his own detachment, which +indeed were the flower of his troops, but, at the same time, a very +inconsiderable part of them. The rest remained in the camp, which was +advantageously situated, and strongly fortified. Now could it be supposed +that Hannibal would attack, and force a strong camp defended by +thirty-five thousand men? + +Nero set out without giving his soldiers the least notice of his design. +When he had advanced so far, as that it might be communicated without any +danger, he told them, that he was leading them to certain victory: that, +in war, all things depended upon reputation; that the bare rumour of their +arrival would disconcert all the measures of the Carthaginians; and that +the whole honour of this battle would fall to them. + +They marched with extraordinary diligence, and joined the other consul in +the night, but did not pitch separate camps, the better to impose upon the +enemy. The troops which were newly arrived joined those of Livius. The +army of Porcius the praetor was encamped near that of the consul, and in +the morning a council of war was held. Livius was of opinion, that it +would be better to allow the troops some days to refresh themselves; but +Nero besought him not to ruin, by delay, an enterprise to which despatch +only could give success; and to take advantage of the error of the enemy, +as well absent as present. This advice was complied with, and accordingly +the signal for battle was given. Asdrubal, advancing to his foremost +ranks, discovered, by several circumstances, that fresh troops were +arrived; and he did not doubt but that they belonged to the other consul. +This made him conjecture, that his brother had sustained a considerable +loss, and, at the same time, fear, that he was come too late to his +assistance. + +After making these reflections, he caused a retreat to be sounded, and his +army began to march in great disorder. Night overtaking him, and his +guides deserting, he was uncertain what way to go. He marched at random, +along the banks of the river Metaurus,(797) and was preparing to cross it, +when the three armies of the enemy came up with him. In this extremity, he +saw it would be impossible for him to avoid coming to an engagement; and +therefore did every thing which could be expected from the presence of +mind and valour of a great captain. He seized an advantageous post, and +drew up his forces on a narrow spot, which gave him an opportunity of +posting his left wing (the weakest part of his army) in such a manner, +that it could neither be attacked in front, nor charged in flank; and of +giving to his main battle and right wing a greater depth than front. After +this hasty disposition of his forces, he posted himself in the centre, and +was the first to march to attack the enemy's left wing; well knowing that +all was at stake, and that he must either conquer or die. The battle +lasted a long time, and was obstinately disputed by both parties. +Asdrubal, especially, signalized himself in this engagement, and added new +glory to that he had already acquired by a series of shining actions. He +led on his soldiers, trembling and quite dispirited, against an enemy +superior to them both in numbers and resolution. He animated them by his +words, supported them by his example, and, with entreaties and menaces, +endeavoured to bring back those who fled; till, at last, seeing that +victory declared for the Romans, and being unable to survive the loss of +so many thousand men, who had quitted their country to follow his fortune, +he rushed at once into the midst of a Roman cohort, and there died in a +manner worthy the son of Hamilcar, and the brother of Hannibal. + +This was the most bloody battle the Carthaginians had fought during this +war: and, whether we consider the death of the general, or the slaughter +made of the Carthaginian forces, it may be looked upon as a reprisal for +the battle of Cannae. The Carthaginians lost fifty-five thousand men,(798) +and six thousand were taken prisoners. The Romans lost eight thousand. +These were so weary of killing, that some person telling Livius, that he +might very easily cut to pieces a body of the enemy who were flying: "It +is fit," says he, "that some should survive, in order that they may carry +the news of this defeat to the Carthaginians." + +Nero set out upon his march, on the very night which followed the +engagement. Through every place where he passed, in his return, shouts of +joy and loud acclamations welcomed him, instead of those fears and +uneasiness which his coming had occasioned. He arrived in his camp the +sixth day. Asdrubal's head being thrown into the camp of the +Carthaginians, informed Hannibal of his brother's unhappy fate. Hannibal +perceived, by this cruel stroke, the fortune of Carthage: "All is over," +says he,(799) "I shall no longer send triumphant messages to Carthage. In +losing Asdrubal, I have lost at once all my hope, all my good fortune." He +afterwards retired to the extremities of the country of the Brutians, +where he assembled all his forces, who found it a very difficult matter to +subsist there, as no provisions were sent them from Carthage. + +(M129) _Scipio conquers all Spain. Is appointed Consul, and sails into +Africa. Hannibal is recalled._(_800_)--The fate of arms was not more +propitious to the Carthaginians in Spain. The prudent vivacity of young +Scipio had restored the Roman affairs in that country to their former +flourishing state, as the courageous slowness of Fabius had before done in +Italy. The three Carthaginian generals in Spain, Asdrubal son of Gisco, +Hanno, and Mago, having been defeated with their numerous armies by the +Romans in several engagements, Scipio at last possessed himself of Spain, +and subjected it entirely to the Roman power. It was at this time that +Masinissa, a very powerful African prince, went over to the Romans, and +Syphax, on the contrary, to the Carthaginians. + +(M130) Scipio, at his return to Rome, was declared consul, being then +thirty years of age. He had P. Licinius Crassus for his colleague. Sicily +was allotted to Scipio, with permission for him to cross into Africa, if +he found it convenient. He set out with all imaginable expedition for his +province; whilst his colleague was to command in the country whither +Hannibal was retired. + +The taking of New Carthage, where Scipio had displayed all the prudence, +the courage, and capacity which could have been expected from the greatest +generals, and the conquest of all Spain, were more than sufficient to +immortalize his name: but he had considered these only as so many steps by +which he was to climb to a nobler enterprise: this was the conquest of +Africa. Accordingly, he crossed over thither, and made it the seat of the +war. + +The devastation of the country, the siege of Utica, one of the strongest +cities of Africa; the entire defeat of the two armies under Syphax and +Asdrubal, whose camp was burnt by Scipio; and afterwards the taking Syphax +himself prisoner, who was the most powerful resource the Carthaginians had +left; all these things forced them at last to turn their thoughts to +peace. For this purpose they deputed thirty of their principal senators, +who were selected from that powerful body at Carthage, called the _council +of the hundred_. Being introduced into the Roman general's tent, they all +threw themselves prostrate on the earth, (such was the custom of their +country,) spoke to him in terms of great submission, accusing Hannibal as +the author of all their calamities, and promising, in the name of the +senate, an implicit obedience to whatever the Romans should please to +ordain. Scipio answered, that though he was come into Africa not for +peace, but conquest, he would however grant them a peace, upon condition +that they should deliver up all the prisoners and deserters to the Romans; +that they should recall their armies out of Italy and Gaul; should never +set foot again in Spain; should retire out of all the islands between +Italy and Africa; should deliver up all their ships, twenty excepted, to +the victor; should give to the Romans five hundred thousand bushels of +wheat, three hundred thousand of barley, and pay fifteen thousand talents: +that in case they were pleased with these conditions, they then, he said, +might send ambassadors to the senate. The Carthaginians feigned a +compliance, but this was only to gain time, till Hannibal should be +returned. A truce was then granted to the Carthaginians, who immediately +sent deputies to Rome, and at the same time an express to Hannibal, to +order his return into Africa. + +(M131) He was then, as was observed before, in the extremity of Italy. +Here he received the orders from Carthage, which he could not listen to +without groans, and almost shedding tears; and was exasperated almost to +madness, to see himself thus forced to quit his prey. Never banished +man(801) showed so much regret at leaving his native country, as Hannibal +did in going out of that of an enemy. He often turned his eyes wishfully +to Italy, accusing gods and men of his misfortunes, and calling down a +thousand curses, says(802) Livy, upon himself, for not having marched his +soldiers directly to Rome, after the battle of Cannae, whilst they were +still reeking with the blood of its citizens. + +At Rome, the senate, greatly dissatisfied with the excuses made by the +Carthaginian deputies, in justification of their republic, and the +ridiculous offer which they made, in its name, of adhering to the treaty +of Lutatius; thought proper to refer the decision of the whole to Scipio, +who, being on the spot, could best judge what conditions the welfare of +the state required. + +About the same time, Octavius the praetor sailing from Sicily into Africa +with two hundred vessels of burden, was attacked near Carthage by a +furious storm, which dispersed all his fleet. The citizens, not bearing to +see so rich a prey escape them, demanded importunately that the +Carthaginian fleet might sail out and seize it. The senate, after a faint +resistance, complied. Asdrubal, sailing out of the harbour, seized the +greatest part of the Roman ships, and brought them to Carthage, although +the truce was still subsisting. + +Scipio sent deputies to the Carthaginian senate, to complain of this, but +they were little regarded. Hannibal's approach had revived their courage, +and filled them with great hopes. The deputies were even in great danger +of being ill treated by the populace. They therefore demanded a convoy, +which was granted, and accordingly two ships of the republic attended +them. But the magistrates, who were absolutely against peace, and +determined to renew the war, gave private orders to Asdrubal, (who was +with the fleet near Utica,) to attack the Roman galley when it should +arrive in the river Bagrada near the Roman camp, where the convoy was +ordered to leave them. He obeyed the order, and sent out two galleys +against the ambassadors, who nevertheless made their escape, but with +difficulty and danger. + +This was a fresh subject for a war between the two nations, who now were +more animated, or rather more exasperated, one against the other, than +ever: the Romans, from a desire of taking vengeance for so black a +perfidy; and the Carthaginians, from a persuasion that they were not now +to expect a peace. + +At the same time, Laelius and Fulvius, who carried the full powers with +which the senate and people of Rome had invested Scipio, arrived in the +camp, accompanied by the deputies of Carthage. As the Carthaginians had +not only infringed the truce, but violated the law of nations, in the +person of the Roman ambassadors, it might naturally be expected that they +should order the Carthaginian deputies to be seized by way of reprisal. +However, Scipio,(803) more attentive to what was required by the Roman +generosity, than by the perfidy of the Carthaginians, in order not to +deviate from the principles and maxims of his own countrymen, nor his own +character, dismissed the deputies, without offering them the least injury. +So astonishing an instance of moderation, and at such a juncture, +terrified the Carthaginians, and even put them to the blush; and made +Hannibal himself entertain a still higher idea of a general, who, to the +dishonourable practices of his enemies, opposed only a rectitude and +greatness of soul, that was still more worthy of admiration than all his +military virtues. + +In the mean time, Hannibal, being strongly importuned by his +fellow-citizens, advanced forward into the country; and arriving at Zama, +which is five days' march from Carthage, he there pitched his camp. He +thence sent out spies to observe the position of the Romans. Scipio having +seized these, so far from punishing them, only commanded them to be led +about the Roman camp, in order that they might take an exact survey of it, +and then sent them back to Hannibal. The latter knew very well whence so +noble an assurance flowed. After the strange reverses he had met with, he +no longer expected that fortune would again be propitious. Whilst every +one was exciting him to give battle, himself only meditated a peace. He +flattered himself that the conditions of it would be more honourable, as +he was at the head of an army, and as the fate of arms might still appear +uncertain. He, therefore, sent to desire an interview with Scipio, which +accordingly was agreed to, and the time and place fixed. + +(M132) _The Interview between Hannibal and Scipio in Africa, followed by a +Battle._(_804_)--These two generals, who were not only the most illustrious +of their own age, but worthy of being ranked with the most renowned +princes and warriors that had ever lived, having met at the place +appointed, continued for some time in a deep silence, as though they were +astonished, and struck with a mutual admiration at the sight of each +other. At last Hannibal spoke, and after having praised Scipio in the most +artful and delicate manner, he gave a very lively description of the +ravages of the war, and the calamities in which it had involved both the +victors and the vanquished. He conjured him not to suffer himself to be +dazzled by the splendour of his victories. He represented to him, that how +successful soever he might have hitherto been, he ought, however, to be +aware of the inconstancy of fortune: that without going far back for +examples, he himself, who was then speaking to him, was a glaring proof of +this: that Scipio was at that time what Hannibal had been at Thrasymenus +and Cannae: that he ought to make a better use of opportunity than himself +had done, by consenting to a peace, now it was in his power to propose the +conditions of it. He concluded with declaring, that the Carthaginians +would willingly resign Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, and all the islands +between Africa and Italy, to the Romans: that they must be forced, since +such was the will of the gods, to confine themselves to Africa; whilst +they should see the Romans extending their conquests to the most remote +regions, and obliging all nations to pay obedience to their laws. + +Scipio answered in few words, but not with less dignity. He reproached the +Carthaginians for their perfidy, in plundering the Roman galleys before +the truce was expired. He imputed to them alone, and to their injustice, +all the calamities with which the two wars had been attended. After +thanking Hannibal for the admonition he had given him, with regard to the +uncertainty of human events, he concluded with desiring him to prepare for +battle, unless he chose rather to accept of the conditions that had been +already proposed; to which (he observed) some others would be added, in +order to punish the Carthaginians for their having violated the truce. + +Hannibal could not prevail with himself to accept these conditions, and +the generals left one another, with the resolution to decide the fate of +Carthage by a general battle. Each commander exhorted his troops to fight +valiantly. Hannibal enumerated the victories he had gained over the +Romans, the generals he had slain, the armies he had cut to pieces. Scipio +represented to his soldiers, the conquest of both the Spains, his +successes in Africa, and the confession the enemies themselves made of +their weakness, by thus coming to sue for peace. All this he spoke(805) +with the tone and air of a conqueror. Never were motives more powerful to +prompt troops to behave gallantly. This day was to complete the glory of +the one or the other of the generals; and to decide whether Rome or +Carthage was to prescribe laws to all other nations. + +I shall not undertake to describe the order of the battle, nor the valour +of the forces on both sides. The reader will naturally suppose, that two +such experienced generals did not forget any circumstance which could +contribute to the victory. The Carthaginians, after a very obstinate +fight, were obliged to fly, leaving twenty thousand men on the field of +battle, and the like number of prisoners were taken by the Romans. +Hannibal escaped in the tumult, and entering Carthage, owned that he was +irrecoverably overthrown, and that the citizens had no other choice left +than to accept of peace on any conditions. Scipio bestowed great eulogiums +on Hannibal, chiefly with regard to his ability in taking advantages, his +manner of drawing up his army, and giving out his orders in the +engagement; and he affirmed, that Hannibal had this day surpassed himself, +although the success had not answered his valour and conduct. + +With regard to himself, he well knew how to make a proper advantage of the +victory, and the consternation with which he had filled the enemy. He +commanded one of his lieutenants to march his land army to Carthage, +whilst himself prepared to conduct the fleet thither. + +He was not far from the city, when he met a vessel covered with streamers +and olive-branches, bringing ten of the most considerable persons of the +state, as ambassadors to implore his clemency. However, he dismissed them +without making any answer, and bade them come to him at Tunis, where he +should halt. The deputies of Carthage, thirty in number, came to him at +the place appointed, and sued for peace in the most submissive terms. He +then called a council there, the majority of which were for rasing +Carthage, and treating the inhabitants with the utmost severity. But the +consideration of the time which must necessarily be employed before so +strongly fortified a city could be taken; and Scipio's fear lest a +successor might be appointed him whilst he should be employed in the +siege, made him incline to clemency. + +_A Peace concluded between the Carthaginians and the __ Romans. The End of +the Second Punic War._(_806_)--The conditions of the peace dictated by +Scipio to the Carthaginians were, "That the Carthaginians should continue +free, and preserve their laws, their territories, and the cities they +possessed in Africa before the war--That they should deliver up to the +Romans all deserters, slaves, and prisoners belonging to them; all their +ships, except ten triremes; all the elephants which they then had, and +that they should not train up any more for war--That they should not make +war out of Africa, nor even in that country, without first obtaining leave +for that purpose from the Roman people--Should restore to Masinissa every +thing of which they had dispossessed either him or his ancestors--Should +furnish money and corn to the Roman auxiliaries, till their ambassadors +should be returned from Rome--Should pay to the Romans ten thousand Euboic +talents(807) of silver in fifty annual payments; and give a hundred +hostages, who should be nominated by Scipio. And in order that they might +have time to send to Rome, he agreed to grant them a truce, upon condition +that they should restore the ships taken during the former, without which +they were not to expect either a truce or peace." + +When the deputies were returned to Carthage, they laid before the senate +the conditions dictated by Scipio. But they appeared so intolerable to +Gisgo, that rising up, he made a speech, in order to dissuade his citizens +from accepting a peace on such shameful terms. Hannibal, provoked at the +calmness with which such an orator was heard, took Gisgo by the arm, and +dragged him from his seat. A behaviour so outrageous, and so remote from +the manners of a free city like Carthage, raised an universal murmur. +Hannibal himself was vexed when he reflected on what he had done, and +immediately made an apology for it. "As I left," says he, "your city at +nine years of age, and did not return to it till after thirty-six years' +absence, I had full leisure to learn the arts of war, and flatter myself +that I have made some improvement in them. As for your laws and customs, +it is no wonder I am ignorant of them, and I therefore desire you to +instruct me in them." He then expatiated on the indispensable necessity +they were under of concluding a peace. He added, that they ought to thank +the gods for having prompted the Romans to grant them a peace even on +these conditions. He pointed out to them the great importance of their +uniting in opinion; and of not giving an opportunity, by their divisions, +for the people to take an affair of this nature under their cognizance. +The whole city came over to his opinion; and accordingly the peace was +accepted. The senate made Scipio satisfaction with regard to the ships +reclaimed by him; and, after obtaining a truce for three months, they sent +ambassadors to Rome. + +These Carthaginians, who were all venerable for their years and dignity, +were admitted immediately to an audience. Asdrubal, surnamed Hoedus, who +was still an irreconcileable enemy to Hannibal and his faction, spoke +first; and after having excused, to the best of his power, the people of +Carthage, by imputing the rupture to the ambition of some particular +persons, he added, that had the Carthaginians listened to his counsels and +those of Hanno, they would have been able to grant the Romans the peace +for which they now were obliged to sue. "But,"(808) continued he, "wisdom +and prosperity are very rarely found together. The Romans are invincible, +because they never suffer themselves to be blinded by good fortune. And it +would be surprising should they act otherwise. Success dazzles those only +to whom it is new and unusual; whereas the Romans are so much accustomed +to conquer, that they are almost insensible to the charms of victory; and +it may be said to their glory, that they have extended their empire, in +some measure, more by the humanity they have shown to the conquered, than +by the conquest itself." The other ambassadors spoke with a more plaintive +tone of voice, and represented the calamitous state to which Carthage was +going to be reduced, and the grandeur and power from which it was fallen. + +The senate and people being equally inclined to peace, sent full power to +Scipio to conclude it; left the conditions to that general, and permitted +him to march back his army, after the treaty should be concluded. + +The ambassadors desired leave to enter the city, to redeem some of their +prisoners, and they found about two hundred whom they desired to ransom. +But the senate sent them to Scipio, with orders that they should be +restored without any pecuniary consideration, in case a peace should be +concluded. + +The Carthaginians, on the return of their ambassadors, concluded a peace +with Scipio, on the terms he himself had prescribed. They then delivered +up to him more than five hundred ships, all which he burnt in sight of +Carthage; a lamentable spectacle to the inhabitants of that ill-fated +city! He struck off the heads of the allies of the Latin name, and hanged +all the Roman citizens who were surrendered up to him, as deserters. + +When the time for the payment of the first tribute imposed by the treaty +was expired, as the funds of the government were exhausted by this long +and expensive war; the difficulty of levying so great a sum, threw the +senate into deep affliction, and many could not refrain even from tears. +Hannibal on this occasion is said to have laughed; and when he was +reproached by Asdrubal Hoedus, for thus insulting his country in the +affliction which he had brought upon it, "Were it possible," says +Hannibal, "for my heart to be seen, and that as clearly as my countenance; +you would then find that this laughter which offends so much, flows not +from an intemperate joy, but from a mind almost distracted with the public +calamities. But is this laughter more unseasonable than your unbecoming +tears? Then, then, ought you to have wept, when your arms were +ingloriously taken from you, your ships burnt, and you were forbidden to +engage in any foreign wars. This was the mortal blow which laid us +prostrate.--We are sensible of the public calamity, so far only as we have +a personal concern in it; and the loss of our money gives us the most +pungent sorrow. Hence it was, that when our city was made the spoil of the +victor; when it was left disarmed and defenceless amidst so many powerful +nations of Africa, who had at that time taken the field, not a groan, not +a sigh was heard. But now, when you are called on to contribute +individually to the tax imposed upon the state, you bewail and lament as +if all were lost. Alas! I only wish that the subject of this day's grief +does not soon appear to you the least of your misfortunes." + +Scipio, after all things were concluded, embarked, in order to return to +Italy. He arrived at Rome, through crowds of people, whom curiosity had +drawn together to behold his march. The most magnificent triumph that Rome +had ever seen was decreed him, and the surname of Africanus was bestowed +upon this great man; an honour till then unknown, no person before him +having assumed the name of a vanquished nation. Such was the conclusion of +the second Punic war, after having lasted seventeen years. + +(M133) _A short Reflection on the Government of Carthage in the time of +the Second Punic War._--I shall conclude the particulars which relate to +the second Punic war, with a reflection of Polybius,(809) which will show +the difference between the two commonwealths of Rome and Carthage. It may +be affirmed, in some measure, that at the beginning of the second Punic +war, and in Hannibal's time, Carthage was in its decline. The flower of +its youth, and its sprightly vigour were already diminished. It had begun +to fall from its exalted pitch of power, and was inclining towards its +ruin; whereas Rome was then, as it were, in its bloom and prime of life, +and swiftly advancing to the conquest of the universe. The reason of the +declension of the one, and the rise of the other, is deduced, by Polybius, +from the different form of government established in these commonwealths, +at the time we are now speaking of. At Carthage, the common people had +seized upon the sovereign authority with regard to public affairs, and the +advice of their ancient men or magistrates was no longer listened to; all +affairs were transacted by intrigue and cabal. To take no notice of the +artifices which the faction adverse to Hannibal employed, during the whole +time of his command, to perplex him; the single instance of burning the +Roman vessels during a truce, a perfidious action to which the common +people compelled the senate to lend their name and assistance, is a proof +of Polybius's assertion. On the contrary, at this very time, the Romans +paid the highest regard to their senate, that is, to a body composed of +the greatest sages; and their old men were listened to and revered as +oracles. It is well known that the Roman people were exceedingly jealous +of their authority, and especially in whatever related to the election of +magistrates. A century of young men, who by lot were to give the first +vote, which generally directed all the rest, had nominated two +consuls.(810) On the bare remonstrance of Fabius,(811) who represented to +the people, that in a tempest, like that with which Rome was then +struggling, the ablest pilots ought to be chosen to steer the vessel of +the state, the century returned to their suffrages, and nominated other +consuls. Polybius infers, that a people, thus guided by the prudence of +old men, could not fail of prevailing over a state which was governed +wholly by the giddy multitude. And indeed, the Romans, under the guidance +of the wise counsels of their senate, gained at last the superiority with +regard to the war considered in general, though they were defeated in +several particular engagements; and established their power and grandeur +on the ruin of their rivals. + +_The interval between the Second and Third Punic War._--This interval, +though considerable enough with regard to its duration, since it took up +above fifty years, is very little remarkable as to the events which relate +to Carthage. They may be reduced to two heads; of which the one relates to +the person of Hannibal, and the other to some particular differences +between the Carthaginians and Masinissa king of the Numidians. We shall +treat both separately, but at no great length. + +SECT. I. CONTINUATION OF THE HISTORY OF HANNIBAL.--When the second Punic +war was ended, by the treaty of peace concluded with Scipio, Hannibal, as +he himself observed in the Carthaginian senate, was forty-five years of +age. What we have farther to say of this great man, includes the space of +twenty-five years. + +_Hannibal undertakes and completes the Reformation of the Courts of +Justice, and the Treasury of Carthage._--After the conclusion of the peace, +Hannibal, at least at first, was greatly respected at Carthage, where he +filled the first employments of the state with honour and applause. He +headed the Carthaginian forces in some wars against the Africans:(812) but +the Romans, to whom the very name of Hannibal gave uneasiness, not being +able to see him in arms without displeasure, made complaints on that +account, and accordingly he was recalled to Carthage. + +On his return he was appointed praetor, which seems to have been a very +considerable employment, and to have conferred great authority. Carthage +is therefore going to be, with regard to him, a new theatre, as it were, +on which he will display virtues and qualities of a quite different nature +from those we have hitherto admired in him, and which will finish the +picture of this illustrious man. + +Eagerly desirous of restoring the affairs of his afflicted country to +their former happy condition, he was persuaded, that the two most powerful +methods to make a state flourish, were, an exact and equal distribution of +justice to all its subjects in general, and a scrupulous fidelity in the +management of the public finances. The former, by preserving an equality +among the citizens, and making them enjoy such a delightful, undisturbed +liberty under the protection of the laws, as fully secures their honour, +their lives, and properties; unites the individuals of the commonwealth +more closely together, and attaches them more firmly to the state, to +which they owe the preservation of all that is most dear and valuable to +them. The latter, by a faithful administration of the public revenues, +supplies punctually the several wants and necessities of the state; keeps +in reserve a never failing resource for sudden emergencies, and prevents +the people from being burthened with new taxes, which are rendered +necessary by extravagant profusion, and which chiefly contribute to make +men harbour an aversion for the government. + +Hannibal saw, with great concern, the irregularities which had crept +equally into the administration of justice, and the management of the +finances. Upon his being nominated praetor, as his love for regularity and +order made him uneasy at every deviation from it, and prompted him to use +his utmost endeavours to restore it; he had the courage to attempt the +reformation of this double abuse, which drew after it a numberless +multitude of others, without dreading, either the animosity of the old +faction that opposed him, or the new enmity which his zeal for the +republic must necessarily draw upon him. + +The judges exercised the most flagrant extortion with impunity.(813) They +were so many petty tyrants, who disposed, in an arbitrary manner, of the +lives and fortunes of the citizens; without there being the least +possibility of putting a stop to their injustice, because they held their +commissions for life, and mutually supported one another. Hannibal, as +praetor, summoned before his tribunal an officer belonging to the bench of +judges, who openly abused his power. Livy tells us that he was a questor. +This officer, who was of the opposite faction to Hannibal, and had already +assumed all the pride and haughtiness of the judges, among whom he was to +be admitted at the expiration of his present office, insolently refused to +obey the summons. Hannibal was not of a disposition to suffer an affront +of this nature tamely. Accordingly, he caused him to be seized by a +lictor, and brought him before an assembly of the people. There, not +satisfied with directing his resentment against this single officer, he +impeached the whole bench of judges; whose insupportable and tyrannical +pride was not restrained, either by the fear of the laws, or a reverence +for the magistrates. And, as Hannibal perceived that he was heard with +pleasure, and that the lowest and most inconsiderable of the people +discovered, on this occasion, that they were no longer able to bear the +insolent pride of these judges, who seemed to have a design upon their +liberties; he proposed a law, (which accordingly passed,) by which it was +enacted, that new judges should be chosen annually; with a clause, that +none should continue in office beyond that term. This law, at the same +time that it acquired him the friendship and esteem of the people, drew +upon him, proportionably, the hatred of the greatest part of the grandees +and nobility. + +He attempted another reformation, which created him new enemies, but +gained him great honour.(814) The public revenues were either squandered +away by the negligence of those who had the management of them, or were +plundered by the chief men of the city and the magistrates; so that, money +being wanting to pay the annual tribute due to the Romans, the +Carthaginians were going to levy it upon the people in general. Hannibal, +entering into a large detail of the public revenues, ordered an exact +estimate of them to be laid before him; inquired in what manner they had +been applied; the employments and ordinary expenses of the state; and +having discovered, by this inquiry, that the public funds had been in a +great measure embezzled by the fraud of the officers who had the +management of them, he declared and promised, in a full assembly of the +people, that, without laying any new taxes upon private men, the republic +should hereafter be enabled to pay the tribute to the Romans; and he was +as good as his word. The farmers of the revenues, whose plunder and rapine +he had publicly detected, having accustomed themselves hitherto to fatten +upon the spoils of their country, exclaimed(815) vehemently against these +regulations, as if their own property had been forced out of their hands, +and not the sums they had plundered from the public. + +_The Retreat and Death of Hannibal._(_816_)--This double reformation of +abuses raised great clamours against Hannibal. His enemies were writing +incessantly to the chief men, or their friends, at Rome, to inform them, +that he was carrying on a secret intelligence with Antiochus king of +Syria; that he frequently received couriers from him; and that this prince +had privately despatched agents to Hannibal, to concert with him the +measures for carrying on the war he was meditating: that as some animals +are so extremely fierce, that it is impossible ever to tame them; in like +manner this man was of so turbulent and implacable a spirit, that he could +not brook ease, and therefore would, sooner or later, break out again. +These informations were listened to at Rome; and as the transactions of +the preceding war had been begun and carried on almost solely by Hannibal, +they appeared more probable. However, Scipio strongly opposed the violent +measures which the senate were going to take on their receiving this +intelligence, by representing it as derogatory to the dignity of the Roman +people, to countenance the hatred and accusations of Hannibal's enemies; +to support, with their authority, their unjust passions; and obstinately +to persecute him even in the very heart of his country; as though the +Romans had not humbled him sufficiently, in driving him out of the field, +and forcing him to lay down his arms. + +But notwithstanding these prudent remonstrances, the senate appointed +three commissioners to go and make their complaints to Carthage, and to +demand that Hannibal should be delivered up to them. On their arrival in +that city, though other motives were speciously pretended, yet Hannibal +was perfectly sensible that himself only was aimed at. The evening being +come, he conveyed himself on board a ship, which he had secretly provided +for that purpose; on which occasion he bewailed his country's fate more +than his own. _Saepius patriae quam suorum_(_817_)_ eventus miseratus._ This +was the eighth year after the conclusion of the peace. The first place he +landed at was Tyre, where he was received as in his second country, and +had all the honours paid him which were due to his exalted merit. (M134) +After staying some days here, he set out for Antioch, which the king had +lately left, and from thence waited upon him at Ephesus. The arrival of so +renowned a general gave great pleasure to the king; and did not a little +contribute to determine him to engage in war against Rome; for hitherto he +had appeared wavering and uncertain on that head. In this city, a +philosopher, who was looked upon as the greatest orator of Asia, had the +imprudence to make a long harangue before Hannibal, on the duties of a +general, and the rules of the art-military.(818) The speech charmed the +whole audience. But Hannibal being asked his opinion of it, "I have seen," +says he, "many old dotards in my life, but this exceeds them all."(819) + +The Carthaginians, justly fearing that Hannibal's escape would certainly +draw upon them the arms of the Romans, sent them advice that Hannibal was +withdrawn to Antiochus.(820) The Romans were very much disturbed at this +news; and the king might have turned it extremely to his advantage, had he +known how to make a proper use of it. + +The first advice that Hannibal gave him at this time, and which he +frequently repeated afterwards, was, to make Italy the seat of the +war.(821) He required an hundred ships, eleven or twelve thousand land +forces, and offered to take upon himself the command of the fleet; to +cross into Africa, in order to engage the Carthaginians in the war; and +afterwards to make a descent upon Italy, during which the king himself +should remain in Greece with his army, holding himself constantly in +readiness to cross over into Italy, whenever it should be thought +convenient. This was the only thing proper to be done, and the king very +much approved the proposal at first. + +Hannibal thought it would be expedient to prepare his friends at Carthage, +in order to engage them the more strongly in his views.(822) The +transmitting of information by letters, is not only unsafe, but they can +give only an imperfect idea of things, and are never sufficiently +particular. He therefore despatched a trusty person with ample +instructions to Carthage. This man was scarce arrived in the city, but his +business was suspected. Accordingly, he was watched and followed: and, at +last, orders were issued for his being seized. However, he prevented the +vigilance of his enemies, and escaped in the night; after having fixed, in +several public places, papers, which fully declared the occasion of his +journey. The senate immediately sent advice of this to the Romans. + +(M135) Villius, one of the deputies who had been sent into Asia, to +inquire into the state of affairs there, and, if possible, to discover the +real designs of Antiochus, found Hannibal in Ephesus.(823) He had many +conferences with him, paid him several visits, and speciously affected to +show a particular esteem for him on all occasions. But his chief aim, by +all this designing behaviour, was to make him be suspected, and to lessen +his credit with the king, in which he succeeded but too well.(824) + +Some authors affirm, that Scipio was joined in this embassy;(825) and they +even relate the conversation which that general had with Hannibal. They +tell us, that the Roman having asked him, who, in his opinion, was the +greatest captain that had ever lived; he answered, Alexander the Great, +because, with a handful of Macedonians, he had defeated numberless armies, +and carried his conquests into countries so very remote, that it seemed +scarce possible for any man only to travel so far. Being afterwards asked, +to whom he gave the second rank; he answered, to Pyrrhus: Because this +king was the first who understood the art of pitching a camp to advantage; +no commander ever made a more judicious choice of his posts, was better +skilled in drawing up his forces, or was more dexterous in winning the +affection of foreign soldiers; insomuch that even the people of Italy were +more desirous to have him for their governor, though a foreigner, than the +Romans themselves, who had so long been settled in their country. Scipio +proceeding, asked him next, whom he looked upon as the third: on which +Hannibal made no scruple to assign that rank to himself. Here Scipio could +not forbear laughing: "But what would you have said," continued Scipio, +"had you conquered me?" "I would," replied Hannibal, "have ranked myself +above Alexander, Pyrrhus, and all the generals the world ever produced." +Scipio was not insensible of so refined and delicate a flattery, which he +no ways expected; and which, by giving him no rival, seemed to insinuate, +that no captain was worthy of being put in comparison with him. + +The answer, as told by Plutarch,(826) is less witty, and not so probable. +In this author, Hannibal gives Pyrrhus the first place, Scipio the second, +and himself the third. + +Hannibal, sensible of the coldness with which Antiochus received him, ever +since his conferences with Villius or Scipio, took no notice of it for +some time, and seemed insensible of it.(827) But at last he thought it +advisable to come to an explanation with the king, and to open his mind +freely to him. "The hatred (says he) which I bear to the Romans, is known +to the whole world. I bound myself to it by an oath, from my most tender +infancy. It is this hatred that made me draw the sword against Rome during +thirty-six years. It is that, which, even in times of peace, has caused me +to be driven from my native country, and forced me to seek an asylum in +your dominions. For ever guided and fired by the same passion, should my +hopes be frustrated here, I will fly to every part of the globe, and rouse +up all nations against the Romans. I hate them, and will hate them +eternally; and know that they bear me no less animosity. So long as you +shall continue in the resolution to take up arms against them, you may +rank Hannibal in the number of your best friends. But if other counsels +incline you to peace, I declare to you, once for all, address yourself to +others for advice, and not to me." Such a speech, which came from his +heart, and expressed the greatest sincerity, struck the king, and seemed +to remove all his suspicions; so that he now resolved to give Hannibal the +command of part of his fleet. + +But what havoc is not flattery capable of making in courts and in the +minds of princes!(828) Antiochus was told, "that it was imprudent in him +to put so much confidence in Hannibal, an exile, a Carthaginian, whose +fortune or genius might suggest to him, in one day, a thousand different +projects: that besides, this very fame which Hannibal had acquired in war, +and which he considered as his peculiar inheritance, was too great for a +man who fought only under the ensigns of another: that none but the king +ought to be the general and conductor of the war, and that it was +incumbent on him to draw upon himself alone the eyes and attention of all +men; whereas, should Hannibal be employed, he (a foreigner) would have the +glory of all the successes ascribed to him." "No minds,"(829) says Livy, +on this occasion, "are more susceptible of envy, than those whose merit is +below their birth and dignity; such persons always abhorring virtue and +worth in others, for this reason alone, because they are strange and +foreign to themselves." This observation was fully verified on this +occasion. Antiochus had been taken on his weak side; a low and sordid +jealousy, which is the defect and characteristic of little minds, +extinguished every generous sentiment in that monarch. Hannibal was now +slighted and laid aside: however, he was greatly revenged on Antiochus, by +the ill success this prince met with; and showed how unfortunate that king +is whose soul is accessible to envy, and his ears open to the poisonous +insinuation of flatterers. + +In a council held some time after, to which Hannibal, for form sake, was +admitted, he, when it came to his turn to speak, endeavoured chiefly to +prove, that Philip of Macedon ought, on any terms, to be engaged to form +an alliance with Antiochus, which was not so difficult as might be +imagined.(830) "With regard," says Hannibal, "to the operations of the +war, I adhere immovably to my first opinion; and had my counsels been +listened to before, Tuscany and Liguria would now be all in a flame: and +Hannibal (a name that strikes terror into the Romans) in Italy. Though I +should not be very well skilled as to other matters, yet the good and ill +success I have met with must necessarily have taught me sufficiently how +to carry on a war against the Romans. I have nothing now in my power, but +to give you my counsel, and offer you my service. May the gods give +success to all your undertakings!" Hannibal's speech was received with +applause, but not one of his counsels was put in execution. + +Antiochus, imposed upon and lulled asleep by his flatterers, remained +quiet at Ephesus, after the Romans had driven him out of Greece;(831) not +once imagining that they would ever invade his dominions. Hannibal, who +was now restored to favour, was for ever assuring him, that the war would +soon be removed into Asia, and that he would soon see the enemy at his +gates: that he must resolve, either to abdicate his throne, or oppose +vigorously a people who grasped at the empire of the world. This discourse +awakened, in some little measure, the king out of his lethargy, and +prompted him to make some weak efforts. But, as his conduct was unsteady, +after sustaining a great many considerable losses, he was forced to +terminate the war by an ignominious peace; one of the articles of which +was, that he should deliver up Hannibal to the Romans. However, the latter +did not give him opportunity to put it in execution, but retired to the +island of Crete, to consider there what course it would be best for him to +take. + +The riches he had brought along with him, of which the people of the +island got some notice, had like to have proved his ruin.(832) Hannibal +was never wanting in stratagems, and he had occasion to employ them now, +to save both himself and his treasure. He filled several vessels with +molten lead, the tops of which he just covered over with gold and silver. +These he deposited in the temple of Diana, in presence of several Cretans, +to whose honesty, he said, he confided all his treasure. A strong guard +was then posted round the temple, and Hannibal left at full liberty, from +a supposition that his riches were secured. (M136) But he had concealed +them in hollow statues of brass,(833) which he always carried along with +him. And then, embracing a favourable opportunity to make his escape, he +fled to the court of Prusias, king of Bithynia.(834) + +It appears from history, that he made some stay in the court of this +prince, who soon engaged in war with Eumenes, king of Pergamus, a +professed friend to the Romans. By means of Hannibal, the troops of +Prusias gained several victories both by land and sea. + +He employed a stratagem of an extraordinary kind, in a sea-fight.(835) As +the enemy's fleet consisted of more ships than his, he had recourse to +artifice. He put into earthen vessels all kinds of serpents, and ordered +these vessels to be thrown into the enemy's ships. His chief aim was to +destroy Eumenes; and for that purpose it was necessary for him to find out +which ship he was on board of. This Hannibal discovered by sending out a +boat, upon pretence of conveying a letter to him. Having gained his point +thus far, he ordered the commanders of the respective vessels to direct +their attack principally against Eumenes's ship. They obeyed, and would +have taken it, had he not outsailed his pursuers. The rest of the ships of +Pergamus sustained the fight with great vigour, till the earthen vessels +had been thrown into them. At first they only laughed at this, and were +very much surprised to find such weapons employed against them. But when +they saw themselves surrounded with the serpents, which darted out of +these vessels when they flew to pieces, they were seized with dread, +retired in disorder, and yielded the victory to the enemy. + +(M137) Services of so important a nature seemed to secure for ever to +Hannibal an undisturbed asylum at that prince's court.(836) However, the +Romans would not suffer him to be easy there, but deputed Q. Flamininus to +Prusias, to complain of the protection he gave Hannibal. The latter easily +guessed the motive of this embassy, and therefore did not wait till his +enemies had an opportunity of delivering him up. At first he attempted to +secure himself by flight; but perceiving that the seven secret outlets, +which he had contrived in his palace, were all seized by the soldiers of +Prusias, who, by perfidiously betraying his guest, was desirous of making +his court to the Romans; he ordered the poison, which he had long kept for +this melancholy occasion, to be brought him; and taking it in his hand, +"Let us," said he, "free the Romans from the disquiet with which they have +so long been tortured, since they have not patience to wait for an old +man's death. The victory which Flamininus gains over a man disarmed and +betrayed will not do him much honour. This single day will be a lasting +testimony of the great degeneracy of the Romans. Their fathers sent notice +to Pyrrhus, to desire he would beware of a traitor who intended to poison +him, and that at a time when this prince was at war with them in the very +centre of Italy; but their sons have deputed a person of consular dignity +to spirit up Prusias, impiously to murder one who is not only his friend, +but his guest." After calling down curses upon Prusias, and having invoked +the gods, the protectors and avengers of the sacred rights of hospitality, +he swallowed the poison,(837) and died at seventy years of age. + +This year was remarkable for the death of three great men, Hannibal, +Philopoemen, and Scipio, who had this in common, that they all died out of +their native countries, by a death little correspondent to the glory of +their actions. The two first died by poison: Hannibal being betrayed by +his host; and Philopoemen being taken prisoner in a battle against the +Messenians, and thrown into a dungeon, was forced to swallow poison. As to +Scipio, he banished himself, to avoid an unjust prosecution which was +carrying on against him at Rome, and ended his days in a kind of +obscurity. + +_The Character and Eulogium of Hannibal._--This would be the proper place +for representing the excellent qualities of Hannibal, who reflected so +much glory on Carthage. But as I have attempted to draw his character +elsewhere,(838) and to give a just idea of him, by making a comparison +between him and Scipio, I think myself dispensed from giving his eulogium +at large in this place. + +Persons who devote themselves to the profession of arms, cannot spend too +much time in the study of this great man, who is looked upon, by the best +judges, as the most complete general, in almost every respect, that ever +the world produced. + +During the whole seventeen years that the war lasted, two errors only are +objected to him: first, his not marching, immediately after the battle of +Cannae, his victorious army to Rome, in order to besiege that city: +secondly, his suffering their courage to be softened and enervated during +their winter-quarters in Capua: errors, which only show that great men are +not so in all things;(839) _summi enim sunt, homine tamen_; and which, +perhaps, may be partly excused. + +But then, for these two errors, what a multitude of shining qualities +appear in Hannibal! How extensive were his views and designs, even in his +most tender years! What greatness of soul! What intrepidity! What presence +of mind must he have possessed, to be able, even in the fire and heat of +action, to turn every thing to advantage! With what surprising address +must he have managed the minds of men, that, amidst so great a variety of +nations which composed his army, who often were in want both of money and +provisions, his camp was not once disturbed with any insurrection, either +against himself or any of his generals! With what equity, what moderation +must he have behaved towards his new allies, to have prevailed so far as +to attach them inviolably to his service, though he was reduced to the +necessity of making them sustain almost the whole burthen of the war, by +quartering his army upon them, and levying contributions in their several +countries! In short, how fruitful must he have been in expedients, to be +able to carry on, for so many years, a war in a remote country, in spite +of the violent opposition made by a powerful faction at home, which +refused him supplies of every kind, and thwarted him on all occasions; it +may be affirmed, that Hannibal, during the whole series of this war, +seemed the only prop of the state, and the soul of every part of the +empire of the Carthaginians, who could never believe themselves conquered, +till Hannibal confessed that he himself was so. + +But our acquaintance with Hannibal will be very imperfect, if we consider +him only at the head of armies. The particulars we learn from history, +concerning the secret intelligence he held with Philip of Macedon; the +wise counsels he gave to Antiochus, king of Syria; the double reformation +he introduced in Carthage, with regard to the management of the public +revenues and the administration of justice, prove, that he was a great +statesman in every respect. So superior and universal was his genius, that +it took in all parts of government; and so great were his natural +abilities, that he was capable of acquitting himself in all the various +functions of it with glory. Hannibal shone as conspicuously in the cabinet +as in the field; equally able to fill the civil as the military +employments. In a word, he united in his own person the different talents +and merits of all professions, the sword, the gown, and the finances. + +He had some learning, and though he was so much employed in military +labours, and engaged in so many wars, he, however, found some leisure to +devote to literature.(840) Several smart repartees of Hannibal, which have +been transmitted to us, show that he had a great fund of natural wit; and +this he improved by the most polite education that could be bestowed at +that time, and in such a republic as Carthage. He spoke Greek tolerably +well, and even wrote some books in that language. His preceptor was a +Lacedaemonian, named Sosilus, who, with Philenius, another Lacedaemonian, +accompanied him in all his expeditions. Both these undertook to write the +history of this renowned warrior. + +With regard to his religion and moral conduct, he was not altogether so +profligate and wicked as he is represented by Livy:(841) "cruel even to +inhumanity, more perfidious than a Carthaginian; regardless of truth, of +probity, of the sacred ties of oaths; fearless of the gods, and utterly +void of religion." _Inhumana crudelitas, perfida plusquam Punica; nihil +veri, nihil sancti, nullus deum metus, nullum jusjurandum, nulla __ +religio._ According to Polybius,(842) he rejected a barbarous proposal +that was made him before he entered Italy, which was, to eat human flesh, +at a time when his army was in absolute want of provisions. Some years +after, so far from treating with barbarity, as he was advised to do, the +dead body of Sempronius Gracchus, which Mago had sent him, he caused his +funeral obsequies to be solemnized in presence of the whole army.(843) We +have seen him, on many occasions, evince the highest reverence for the +gods; and Justin,(844) who copied Trogus Pompeius, an author worthy of +credit, observes, that he always showed uncommon moderation and +continence, with regard to the great number of women taken by him during +the course of so long a war; insomuch that no one would have imagined he +had been born in Africa, where incontinence is the predominant vice of the +country. _Pudicitiamque eum tantam inter tot captivas habuisse, ut in +Africa natum quivis negaret._ + +His disregard of wealth, at a time when he had so many opportunities to +enrich himself by the plunder of the cities he stormed, and the nations he +subdued, shows that he knew the true and genuine use which a general ought +to make of riches, _viz._ to gain the affection of his soldiers, and to +attach his allies to his interest, by diffusing his beneficence on proper +occasions, and not being sparing in his rewards: a quality very essential, +and at the same time as uncommon, in a commander. The only use Hannibal +made of money was to purchase success; firmly persuaded, that a man who is +at the head of affairs is sufficiently recompensed by the glory derived +from victory. + +He always led a very regular, austere life;(845) and even in times of +peace, and in the midst of Carthage, when he was invested with the first +dignity of the city, we are told that he never used to recline himself on +a bed at meals, as was the custom in those ages, and that he drank but +very little wine. So regular and uniform a life may serve as an +illustrious example to our commanders, who often include, among the +privileges of war and the duty of officers, the keeping of splendid +tables, and living luxuriously. + +I do not, however, pretend altogether to exculpate Hannibal from all the +errors with which he is charged. Though he possessed an assemblage of the +most exalted qualities, it cannot be denied but that he had some little +tincture of the vices of his country; and that it would be difficult to +excuse some actions and circumstances of his life. Polybius observes,(846) +that Hannibal was accused of avarice in Carthage, and of cruelty in Rome. +He adds, on the same occasion, that people were very much divided in +opinion concerning him; and it would be no wonder, as he had made himself +so many enemies in both cities, that they should have drawn him in +disadvantageous colours. But Polybius is of opinion, that though it should +be taken for granted, that all the defects with which he is charged are +true; yet that they were not so much owing to his nature and disposition, +as to the difficulties with which he was surrounded, in the course of so +long and laborious a war; and to the complacency he was obliged to show to +the general officers, whose assistance he absolutely wanted, for the +execution of his various enterprises; and whom he was not always able to +restrain, any more than he could the soldiers who fought under them. + +SECT. II. DISSENSIONS BETWEEN THE CARTHAGINIANS AND MASINISSA, KING OF +NUMIDIA.--Among the conditions of the peace granted to the Carthaginians, +there was one which enacted, that they should restore to Masinissa all the +territories and cities he possessed before the war; and further, Scipio, +to reward the zeal and fidelity which that monarch had shown towards the +Romans, had added to his dominions those of Syphax. This present +afterwards gave rise to disputes and quarrels between the Carthaginians +and Numidians. + +These two princes, Syphax and Masinissa, were both kings in Numidia, but +reigned over different nations. The subjects of Syphax were called +Masaesuli, and their capital was Cirtha. Those of Masinissa were the +Massyli: but they are better known by the name of Numidians, which was +common to them both. Their principal strength consisted in their cavalry. +They always rode without saddles, and some even without bridles, whence +Virgil(847) calls them _Numidae infraeni_. + +In the beginning of the second Punic war,(848) Syphax siding with the +Romans, Gala, the father of Masinissa, to check the career of so powerful +a neighbour, thought it his interest to join the Carthaginians, and +accordingly sent out against Syphax a powerful army under the conduct of +his son, at that time but seventeen years of age. Syphax, being overcome +in a battle, in which it is said he lost thirty thousand men, escaped into +Mauritania. However, the face of things was afterwards greatly changed. + +Masinissa, after his father's death, was often reduced to the brink of +ruin;(849) being driven from his kingdom by an usurper; pursued warmly by +Syphax; in danger every instant of falling into the hands of his enemies; +destitute of forces, money, and of every resource. He was at that time in +alliance with the Romans, and the friend of Scipio, with whom he had had +an interview in Spain. His misfortunes would not permit him to bring great +succours to that general. When Laelius arrived in Africa, Masinissa joined +him with a few horse, and from that time continued inviolably attached to +the Roman interest. Syphax, on the contrary, having married the famous +Sophonisba, daughter of Asdrubal, went over to the Carthaginians.(850) + +The fate of these two princes again changed, but the change was now +final.(851) Syphax lost a great battle, and was taken alive by the enemy. +Masinissa, the victor, besieged Cirtha, his capital, and took it. But he +met with a greater danger in that city than he had faced in the field, and +this was Sophonisba, whose charms and endearments he was unable to resist. +To secure this princess to himself, he married her, but a few days after, +he was obliged to send her a dose of poison, as her nuptial present; this +being the only way that he could devise to keep his promise with his +queen, and preserve her from the power of the Romans. + +This was a considerable error in itself, and one that could not fail to +disoblige a nation that was so jealous of its authority: but this young +prince gloriously made amends for his fault, by the signal services he +afterwards rendered to Scipio. We observed, that after the defeat and +capture of Syphax, the dominions of this prince were bestowed upon +him;(852) and that the Carthaginians were forced to restore all he +possessed before. This gave rise to the divisions which we are now going +to relate. + +A territory situated towards the sea-side, near the lesser Syrtis, was the +subject of the dispute.(853) The country was very rich, and the soil +extremely fruitful; a proof of which is, that the city of Leptis alone, +which belonged to that territory, paid daily a talent to the +Carthaginians, by way of tribute. Masinissa had seized part of this +territory. Each side despatched deputies to Rome, to plead the cause of +their respective superiors before the senate. This assembly thought proper +to send Scipio Africanus, with two other commissioners, to examine the +controversy upon the spot. However, they returned without coming to any +decision, and left the business in the same uncertain state in which they +had found it. Possibly they acted in this manner by order of the senate, +and had received private instructions to favour Masinissa, who was then +possessed of the district in question. + +(M138) Ten years after, new commissioners having been appointed to examine +the same affair, they acted as the former had done, and left the whole +undetermined.(854) + +(M139) After the like distance of time, the Carthaginians again brought +their complaint before the senate, but with greater importunity than +before.(855) They represented, that besides the lands at first contested, +Masinissa had, during the two preceding years, dispossessed them of +upwards of seventy towns and castles: their hands were bound up by that +article of the last treaty, which forbade their making war upon any of the +allies of the Romans: that they could no longer bear the insolence, the +avarice, and cruelty of that prince: that they were deputed to Rome with +three requests, (one of which they desired might be immediately complied +with,) _viz._ either that the affair might be examined and decided by the +senate; or, secondly, that they might be permitted to repel force by +force, and defend themselves by arms; or, lastly, that, if favour was to +prevail over justice, they then entreated the Romans to specify once for +all, which of the Carthaginian lands they were desirous should be given up +to Masinissa, that they, by this means, might hereafter know what they had +to depend on, and that the Roman people would show some moderation in +their behalf, at a time that this prince set no other bounds to his +pretensions, than his insatiable avarice. The deputies concluded with +beseeching the Romans, that if they had any cause of complaint against the +Carthaginians since the conclusion of the last peace, that they themselves +would punish them; and not to give them up to the wild caprice of a +prince, by whom their liberties were made precarious, and their lives +insupportable. After ending their speech, being pierced with grief, +shedding floods of tears, they fell prostrate upon the earth; a spectacle +that moved all who were present to compassion, and raised a violent hatred +against Masinissa. Gulussa, his son, who was then present, being asked +what he had to reply, he answered, that his father had not given him any +instructions, not knowing that any thing would be laid to his charge. He +only desired the senate to reflect, that the circumstance which drew all +this hatred upon him from the Carthaginians, was, the inviolable fidelity +with which he had always been attached to the side of the Romans. The +senate, after hearing both sides, answered, that they were inclined to do +justice to either party to whom it might be due: that Gulussa should set +out immediately with their orders to his father, who was thereby commanded +to send immediately deputies with those of Carthage; that they would do +all that lay in their power to serve him, but not to the prejudice of the +Carthaginians: that it was but just the ancient limits should be +preserved; and that it was far from being the intention of the Romans, to +have the Carthaginians dispossessed, during the peace, of those +territories and cities which had been left them by the treaty. The +deputies of both powers were then dismissed with the usual presents. + +But all these assurances were but mere words.(856) It is plain that the +Romans did not once endeavour to satisfy the Carthaginians, or do them the +least justice; and that they protracted the business, on purpose to give +Masinissa time to establish himself in his usurpation, and weaken his +enemies. + +(M140) A new deputation was sent to examine the affair upon the spot, and +Cato was one of the commissioners.(857) On their arrival, they asked the +parties if they were willing to abide by their determination. Masinissa +readily complied. The Carthaginians answered, that they had fixed a rule +to which they adhered, and that this was the treaty which had been +concluded by Scipio, and desired that their cause might be examined with +all possible rigour. They therefore could not come to any decision. The +deputies visited all the country, and found it in a very good condition, +especially the city of Carthage: and they were surprised to see it, after +having been involved in such a calamity, so soon again raised to so +exalted a pitch of power and grandeur. The deputies, on their return, did +not fail to acquaint the senate with this circumstance; and declared, Rome +could never be in safety, so long as Carthage should subsist. From this +time, whatever affair was debated in the senate, Cato always added the +following words to his opinion, "and I conclude that Carthage ought to be +destroyed." This grave senator did not give himself the trouble to prove, +that bare jealousy of the growing power of a neighbouring state, is a +warrant sufficient for destroying a city, contrary to the faith of +treaties. Scipio Nasica on the other hand, was of opinion, that the ruin +of this city would draw after it that of their commonwealth; because that +the Romans, having then no rival to fear, would quit the ancient severity +of their manners, and abandon themselves to luxury and pleasures, the +never-failing subverters of the most flourishing empires. + +In the mean time, divisions broke out in Carthage.(858) The popular +faction, being now become superior to that of the grandees and senators, +sent forty citizens into banishment; and bound the people by an oath, +never to suffer the least mention to be made of recalling those exiles. +They withdrew to the court of Masinissa, who despatched Gulussa and +Micipsa, his two sons, to Carthage, to solicit their recall. However, the +gates of the city were shut against them, and one of them was closely +pursued by Hamilcar, one of the generals of the republic. This gave +occasion to a new war, and accordingly armies were levied on both sides. A +battle was fought; and the younger Scipio, who afterwards ruined Carthage, +was spectator of it. He had been sent from Lucullus, who was then carrying +on war in Spain, and under whom Scipio then served, to Masinissa, to +desire some elephants from that monarch. During the whole engagement, he +stood upon a neighbouring hill; and was surprised to see Masinissa, then +upwards of eighty years of age, mounted (agreeably to the custom of his +country) on a horse without a saddle; flying from rank to rank like a +young officer, and sustaining the most arduous toils. The fight was very +obstinate, and continued from morning till night, but at last the +Carthaginians gave way. Scipio used to say afterwards, that he had been +present at many battles, but at none with so much pleasure as at this; +having never before beheld so formidable an army engage, without any +danger or trouble to himself. And being very conversant in the writings of +Homer, he added, that till his time, there were but two more who had had +the pleasure of being spectators of such an action, _viz._ Jupiter from +mount Ida, and Neptune from Samothrace, when the Greeks and Trojans fought +before Troy. I know not whether the sight of a hundred thousand men (for +so many there were) butchering one another, can administer a real +pleasure; or whether such a pleasure is consistent with the sentiments of +humanity, so natural to mankind. + +The Carthaginians, after the battle was over, entreated Scipio to +terminate their contests with Masinissa.(859) Accordingly, he heard both +parties, and the Carthaginians consented to yield up the territory of +Emporium,(860) which had been the first cause of the dispute, to pay +Masinissa two hundred talents of silver down, and eight hundred more, at +such times as should be agreed. But Masinissa insisting on the return of +the exiles, and the Carthaginians being unwilling to agree to this +proposition, they did not come to any decision. Scipio, after having paid +his compliments, and returned thanks to Masinissa, set out with the +elephants for which he had been sent. + +The king, immediately after the battle was over, had blocked up the +enemy's camp, which was pitched upon a hill, whither neither troops nor +provisions could come to them.(861) During this interval, there arrived +deputies from Rome, with orders from the senate to decide the quarrel, in +case the king should be defeated; otherwise, to leave it undetermined, and +to give the king the strongest assurances of the continuation of their +friendship; and they complied with the latter injunction. In the mean +time, the famine daily increased in the enemy's camp; and to add to their +calamity, it was followed by a plague, which made dreadful havoc. Being +now reduced to the last extremity, they surrendered to Masinissa, +promising to deliver up the deserters, to pay him five thousand talents of +silver in fifty years, and restore the exiles, notwithstanding their oaths +to the contrary. They all submitted to the ignominious ceremony of passing +under the yoke,(862) and were dismissed, with only one suit of clothes for +each. Gulussa, to satiate his vengeance for the ill treatment which, as we +before observed, he had met with, sent out against them a body of cavalry, +whom, from their great weakness, they could neither escape nor resist. So +that of fifty-eight thousand men, very few returned to Carthage. + +(M141) _The Third Punic War._--The third Punic war, which was less +considerable than either of the two former, with regard to the number and +greatness of the battles, and its continuance, which was only four years, +was still more remarkable with respect to the success and event of it, as +it ended in the total ruin and destruction of Carthage. + +The inhabitants of this city, from their last defeat, knew what they had +to fear from the Romans, who had uniformly displayed great ill-will +towards them, as often as they had addressed them upon their disputes with +Masinissa.(863) To prevent the consequences of it, the Carthaginians, by a +decree of the senate, impeached Asdrubal, general of the army, and +Carthalo, commander of the auxiliary(864) forces, as guilty of high +treason, for being the authors of the war against the king of Numidia. +They then sent a deputation to Rome, to inquire what opinion that republic +entertained of their late proceedings, and what was desired of them. The +deputies were coldly answered, that it was the business of the senate and +people of Carthage to know what satisfaction was due to the Romans. A +second deputation bringing them no clearer answer, they fell into the +greatest dejection; and being seized with the strongest terrors, from the +recollection of their past sufferings, they fancied the enemy was already +at their gates, and imagined to themselves all the dismal consequences of +a long siege, and of a city taken sword in hand. + +In the mean time, the senate debated at Rome on the measures it would be +proper for them to take; and the disputes between Cato the elder and +Scipio Nasica, who entertained totally different opinions on this subject, +were renewed.(865) The former, on his return from Africa, had declared, in +the strongest terms, that he had found Carthage, not as the Romans +supposed it to be, exhausted of men or money, or in a weak and humble +state; but, on the contrary, that it was crowded with vigorous young men, +abounded with immense quantities of gold and silver, and prodigious +magazines of arms and all warlike stores; and was so haughty and confident +on account of this force, that their hopes and ambition had no bounds. It +is farther said, that after he had ended his speech, he threw, out of the +lappet of his robe, in the midst of the senate, some African figs; and, as +the senators admired their beauty and size, "Know," says he, "that it is +but three days since these figs were gathered. Such is the distance +between the enemy and us."(866) + +Cato and Nasica had each of them their reasons for voting as they +did.(867) Nasica, observing that the people had risen to such a height of +insolence, as led them into excesses of every kind; that their prosperity +had swelled them with a pride which the senate itself was not able to +check; and that their power was become so enormous, that they were able to +draw the city, by force, into every mad design they might undertake; +Nasica, I say, observing this, was desirous that they should continue in +fear of Carthage, in order that this might serve as a curb to restrain and +check their audacious conduct. For it was his opinion, that the +Carthaginians were too weak to subdue the Romans; and at the same time too +strong to be considered by them in a contemptible light. With regard to +Cato, he thought that as his countrymen were become haughty and insolent +by success, and plunged headlong into profligacy of every kind; nothing +could be more dangerous, than for them to have for a rival and an enemy, a +city that till now had been powerful, but was become, even by its +misfortunes, more wise and provident than ever; and not to remove the +fears of the inhabitants entirely with regard to a foreign power; since +they had, within their own walls, all the opportunities of indulging +themselves in excesses of every kind. + +To lay aside, for one instant, the laws of equity, I leave the reader to +determine which of these two great men reasoned most justly, according to +the maxims of sound policy, and the true interest of a state. One +undoubted circumstance is, that all historians have observed that there +was a sensible change in the conduct and government of the Romans, +immediately after the ruin of Carthage:(868) that vice no longer made its +way into Rome with a timorous pace, and as it were by stealth, but +appeared barefaced, and seized, with astonishing rapidity, upon all orders +of the republic: that the senators, plebeians, in a word, all conditions, +abandoned themselves to luxury and voluptuousness, without moderation or +sense of decency, which occasioned, as it must necessarily, the ruin of +the state. "The first Scipio,"(869) says Paterculus, speaking of the +Romans, "had laid the foundations of their future grandeur; and the last, +by his conquests, opened a door to all manner of luxury and dissoluteness. +For, after Carthage, which obliged Rome to stand for ever on its guard, by +disputing empire with that city, had been totally destroyed, the depravity +of manners was no longer slow in its progress, but swelled at once into +the utmost excess of corruption." + +Be this as it may, the senate resolved to declare war against the +Carthaginians; and the reasons or pretences urged for it were, their +having maintained ships contrary to the tenour of the treaty; their having +sent an army out of their territories, against a prince who was in +alliance with Rome, and whose son they had treated ill, at the time that +he was accompanied by a Roman ambassador.(870) + +(M142) An event, that chance occasioned to happen very fortunately, at the +time that the senate of Rome was debating on the affair of Carthage, +doubtless contributed very much to make them take that resolution.(871) +This was the arrival of deputies from Utica, who came to surrender up +themselves, their effects, their lands, and their city, into the hands of +the Romans. Nothing could have happened more seasonably. Utica was the +second city of Africa, vastly rich, and had a port equally spacious and +commodious; it stood within sixty furlongs of Carthage, so that it might +serve as a place of arms in the attack of that city. The Romans now +hesitated no longer, but formally proclaimed war. M. Manilius, and L. +Marcius Censorinus, the two consuls, were desired to set out as soon as +possible. They had secret orders from the senate, not to end the war but +by the destruction of Carthage. The consuls immediately left Rome, and +stopped at Lilybaeum in Sicily. They had a considerable fleet, on board of +which were fourscore thousand foot, and about four thousand horse. + +The Carthaginians were not yet acquainted with the resolutions which had +been taken at Rome.(872) The answer brought back by their deputies, had +only increased their fears, _viz._ "It was the business of the +Carthaginians to consider what satisfaction was due to them."(873) This +made them not know what course to take. At last they sent new deputies, +whom they invested with full powers to act as they should see fitting; and +even (what the former wars could never make them stoop to) to declare, +that the Carthaginians gave up themselves, and all they possessed, to the +will and pleasure of the Romans. This, according to the import of the +clause, _se suaque eorum arbitrio permittere_, was submitting themselves, +without reserve, to the power of the Romans, and acknowledging themselves +their vassals. Nevertheless, they did not expect any great success from +this condescension, though so very mortifying; because, as the Uticans had +been beforehand with them on that occasion, this circumstance had deprived +them of the merit of a ready and voluntary submission. + +The deputies, on their arrival at Rome, were informed that war had been +proclaimed, and that the army was set out. The Romans had despatched a +courier to Carthage, with the decree of the senate; and to inform that +city, that the Roman fleet had sailed. The deputies had therefore no time +for deliberation, but delivered up themselves, and all they possessed, to +the Romans. In consequence of this behaviour, they were answered, that +since they had at last taken a right step, the senate granted them their +liberty, the enjoyment of their laws, and all their territories and other +possessions, whether public or private, provided that, within the space of +thirty days, they should send, as hostages, to Lilybaeum, three hundred +young Carthaginians of the first distinction, and comply with the orders +of the consuls. This last condition filled them with inexpressible +anxiety: but the concern they were under would not allow them to make the +least reply, or to demand an explanation; nor, indeed, would it have been +to any purpose. They therefore set out for Carthage, and there gave an +account of their embassy. + +All the articles of the treaty were extremely severe with regard to the +Carthaginians; but the silence of the Romans, with respect to the cities +of which no notice was taken in the concessions which that people was +willing to make, perplexed them exceedingly.(874) But all they had to do +was to obey. After the many former and recent losses which the +Carthaginians had sustained, they were by no means in a condition to +resist such an enemy, since they had not been able to oppose Masinissa. +Troops, provisions, ships, allies, in a word, every thing was wanting, and +hope and vigour more than all the rest. + +They did not think it proper to wait till the thirty days, which had been +allowed them, were expired, but immediately sent their hostages, in hopes +of softening the enemy by the readiness of their obedience, though they +dared not flatter themselves with the expectation of meeting with favour +on this occasion. These hostages were the flower, and the only hopes, of +the noblest families of Carthage. Never was any spectacle more moving; +nothing was now heard but cries, nothing seen but tears, and all places +echoed with groans and lamentations. But above all, the disconsolate +mothers, bathed in tears, tore their dishevelled hair, beat their breasts, +and, as if grief and despair had distracted them, they yelled in such a +manner as might have moved the most savage breasts to compassion. But the +scene was much more mournful, when the fatal moment of their separation +was come; when, after having accompanied their dear children to the ship, +they bid them a long last farewell, persuaded that they should never see +them more; bathed them with their tears; embraced them with the utmost +fondness; clasped them eagerly in their arms; could not be prevailed upon +to part with them, till they were forced away, which was more grievous and +afflicting than if their hearts had been torn out of their breasts. The +hostages being arrived in Sicily, were carried from thence to Rome; and +the consuls told the deputies, that when they should arrive at Utica, they +would acquaint them with the orders of the republic. + +In such a situation of affairs, nothing can be more grievous than a state +of uncertainty, which, without descending to particulars, gives occasion +to the mind to image to itself every misery.(875) As soon as it was known +that the fleet was arrived at Utica, the deputies repaired to the Roman +camp; signifying, that they were come in the name of their republic, in +order to receive their commands, which they were ready to obey. The +consul, after praising their good disposition and compliance, commanded +them to deliver up to him, without fraud or delay, all their arms. This +they consented to, but besought him to reflect on the sad condition to +which he was reducing them, at a time when Asdrubal, whose quarrel against +them was owing to no other cause than their perfect submission to the +orders of the Romans, was advanced almost to their gates, with an army of +twenty thousand men. The answer returned them was, that the Romans would +set that matter right. + +This order was immediately put in execution.(876) There arrived in the +camp a long train of waggons, loaded with all the preparations of war, +taken out of Carthage: two hundred thousand complete sets of armour, a +numberless multitude of darts and javelins, with two thousand engines for +shooting darts and stones.(877) Then followed the deputies of Carthage, +accompanied by the most venerable senators and priests, who came purposely +to try to move the Romans to compassion in this critical moment, when +their sentence was going to be pronounced, and their fate would be +irreversible. Censorinus, the consul, for it was he who had all along +spoken, rose up for a moment at their coming, and expressed some kindness +and affection for them; but suddenly assuming a grave and severe +countenance: "I cannot," says he, "but commend the readiness with which +you execute the orders of the senate. They have commanded me to tell you, +that it is their absolute will and pleasure that you depart out of +Carthage, which they have resolved to destroy; and that you remove into +any other part of your dominions which you shall think proper, provided it +be at the distance of eighty stadia(878) from the sea." + +The instant the consul had pronounced this fulminating decree, nothing was +heard among the Carthaginians but lamentable shrieks and howlings.(879) +Being now in a manner thunderstruck, they neither knew where they were, +nor what they did; but rolled themselves in the dust, tearing their +clothes, and unable to vent their grief any otherwise, than by broken +sighs and deep groans. Being afterwards a little recovered, they lifted up +their hands with the air of suppliants one moment towards the gods, and +the next towards the Romans, imploring their mercy and justice towards a +people, who would soon be reduced to the extremes of despair. But as both +the gods and men were deaf to their fervent prayers, they soon changed +them into reproaches and imprecations; bidding the Romans call to mind, +that there were such beings as avenging deities, whose severe eyes were +for ever open on guilt and treachery. The Romans themselves could not +refrain from tears at so moving a spectacle, but their resolution was +fixed. The deputies could not even prevail so far, as to get the execution +of this order suspended, till they should have an opportunity of +presenting themselves again before the senate, to attempt, if possible, to +get it revoked. They were forced to set out immediately, and carry the +answer to Carthage. + +The people waited for their return with such an impatience and terror, as +words could never express.(880) It was scarce possible for them to break +through the crowd that flocked round them, to hear the answer, which was +but too strongly painted in their faces. When they were come into the +senate, and had declared the barbarous orders of the Romans, a general +shriek informed the people of their fate; and from that instant, nothing +was seen and heard in every part of the city, but howling and despair, +madness and fury. + +The reader will here give me leave to interrupt the course of the history +for a moment, to reflect on the conduct of the Romans. It is great pity +that the fragment of Polybius, where an account is given of this +deputation, should end exactly in the most interesting part of this +narrative. I should set a much higher value on one short reflection of so +judicious an author, than on the long harangues which Appian ascribes to +the deputies and the consul. I can never believe, that so rational, +judicious, and just a man as Polybius, could have approved the proceedings +of the Romans on the present occasion. We do not here discover, in my +opinion, any of the characteristics which distinguished them anciently; +that greatness of soul, that rectitude, that utter abhorrence of all mean +artifices, frauds, and impostures, which, as is somewhere said, formed no +part of the Roman disposition; _Minime Romanis artibus_. Why did not the +Romans attack the Carthaginians by open force? Why should they declare +expressly in a treaty (a most solemn and sacred thing) that they allowed +them the full enjoyment of their liberties and laws; and understand, at +the same time, certain private conditions, which proved the entire ruin of +both? Why should they conceal, under the scandalous omission of the word +_city_ in this treaty, the perfidious design of destroying Carthage? as +if, beneath the cover of such an equivocation, they might destroy it with +justice. In short, why did the Romans not make their last declaration, +till after they had extorted from the Carthaginians, at different times, +their hostages and arms, that is, till they had absolutely rendered them +incapable of disobeying their most arbitrary commands? Is it not manifest, +that Carthage, notwithstanding all its defeats and losses, though it was +weakened and almost exhausted, was still a terror to the Romans, and that +they were persuaded they were not able to conquer it by force of arms? It +is very dangerous to be possessed of so much power, as to be able to +commit injustice with impunity, and with a prospect of being a gainer by +it. The experience of all ages shows, that states seldom scruple to commit +injustice, when they think it will conduce to their advantage. + +The noble character which Polybius gives of the Achaeans, differs widely +from what was practised here.(881) That people, says he, far from using +artifice and deceit towards their allies, in order to enlarge their power, +did not think themselves allowed to employ them even against their +enemies, considering only those victories as solid and glorious, which +were obtained sword in hand, by dint of courage and bravery. He owns, in +the same place, that there then remained among the Romans but very faint +traces of the ancient generosity of their ancestors; and he thinks it +incumbent on him (as he declares) to make this remark, in opposition to a +maxim which was grown very common in his time among persons in the +administration of the government, who imagined, that sincerity is +inconsistent with good policy; and that it is impossible to succeed in the +administration of state affairs, either in war or peace, without using +fraud and deceit on some occasions. + +I now return to my subject.(882) The consuls made no great haste to march +against Carthage, not suspecting they had any thing to fear from that +city, as it was now disarmed. The inhabitants took the opportunity of this +delay to put themselves in a posture of defence, being all unanimously +resolved not to quit the city. They appointed as general, without the +walls, Asdrubal, who was at the head of twenty thousand men; and to whom +deputies were sent accordingly, to entreat him to forget, for his +country's sake, the injustice which had been done him, from the dread they +were under of the Romans. The command of the troops, within the walls, was +given to another Asdrubal, grandson of Masinissa. They then applied +themselves to the making arms with incredible expedition. The temples, the +palaces, the open markets and squares, were all changed into so many +arsenals, where men and women worked day and night. Every day were made a +hundred and and forty shields, three hundred swords, five hundred pikes or +javelins, a thousand arrows, and a great number of engines to discharge +them; and because they wanted materials to make ropes, the women cut off +their hair, and abundantly supplied their wants on this occasion. + +Masinissa was very much disgusted at the Romans, because, after he had +extremely weakened the Carthaginians, they came and reaped the fruits of +his victory, without acquainting him in any manner with their design, +which circumstance caused some coldness between them.(883) + +During this interval, the consuls were advancing towards the city, in +order to besiege it.(884) As they expected nothing less than a vigorous +resistance, the incredible resolution and courage of the besieged filled +them with the utmost astonishment. + +The Carthaginians were for ever making the boldest sallies, in order to +repulse the besiegers, to burn their engines, and harass their foragers. +Censorinus attacked the city on one side, and Manilius on the other. +Scipio, afterwards surnamed Africanus, served then as tribune in the army; +and distinguished himself above the rest of the officers, no less by his +prudence than by his bravery. The consul, under whom he fought, committed +many oversights, by having refused to follow his advice. This young +officer extricated the troops from several dangers, into which the +imprudence of their leaders had plunged them. A renowned officer, Phamaeas +by name, who was general of the enemy's cavalry, and continually harassed +the foragers, did not dare ever to keep the field, when it was Scipio's +turn to support them; so capable was he of keeping his troops in good +order, and posting himself to advantage. So great and universal a +reputation excited some envy against him at first; but as he behaved, in +all respects, with the utmost modesty and reserve, that envy was soon +changed into admiration; so that when the senate sent deputies to the +camp, to inquire into the state of the siege, the whole army gave him +unanimously the highest commendations; the soldiers, as well as officers, +nay, the very generals, with one voice extolled the merit of young Scipio: +so necessary is it for a man to deaden, if I may be allowed the +expression, the splendour of his rising glory, by a sweet and modest +carriage; and not to excite jealousy, by haughty and self-sufficient +behaviour, as this naturally awakens pride in others, and makes even +virtue itself odious! + +(M143) About the same time, Masinissa, finding his end approach, sent to +desire a visit from Scipio, in order that he might invest him with full +powers to dispose, as he should see proper, of his kingdom and property, +in behalf of his children.(885) But, on Scipio's arrival, he found that +monarch dead. Masinissa had commanded them, with his dying breath, to +follow implicitly the directions of Scipio, whom he appointed to be a kind +of father and guardian to them. I shall give no farther account here of +the family and posterity of Masinissa, because that would interrupt too +much the history of Carthage. + +The high esteem which Phamaeas had entertained for Scipio induced him to +forsake the Carthaginians, and go over to the Romans.(886) Accordingly, he +joined them with above two thousand horse, and was afterwards of great +service at the siege. + +Calpurnius Piso, the consul, and L. Mancinus, his lieutenant, arrived in +Africa in the beginning of the spring.(887) Nothing remarkable was +transacted during this campaign. The Romans were even defeated on several +occasions, and carried on the siege of Carthage but slowly. The besieged, +on the contrary, had recovered their spirits. Their troops were +considerably increased; they daily got new allies; and even sent an +express as far as Macedonia, to the counterfeit Philip,(888) who pretended +to be the son of Perseus, and was then engaged in a war with the Romans; +to exhort him to carry it on with vigour, and promising to furnish him +with money and ships. + +This news occasioned some uneasiness at Rome.(889) The people began to +doubt the success of a war, which grew daily more uncertain, and was more +important, than had at first been imagined. As much as they were +dissatisfied with the dilatoriness of the generals, and exclaimed against +their conduct, so much did they unanimously agree in applauding young +Scipio, and extolling his rare and uncommon virtues. He was come to Rome, +in order to stand candidate for the edileship. The instant he appeared in +the assembly, his name, his countenance, his reputation, a general +persuasion that he was designed by the gods to end the third Punic war, as +the first Scipio, his grandfather by adoption, had terminated the second; +these several circumstances made a very strong impression on the people, +and though it was contrary to law, and therefore opposed by the ancient +men, instead of the edileship which(M144) he sued for, the people, +disregarding for once the laws, conferred the consulship upon him, and +assigned him Africa for his province, without casting lots for the +provinces, as usual, and as Drusus his colleague demanded. + +As soon as Scipio had completed his recruits, he set out for Sicily, and +arrived soon after in Utica.(890) He came very seasonably for Mancinus, +Piso's lieutenant, who had rashly fixed himself in a post where he was +surrounded by the enemy; and would have been cut to pieces that very +morning, had not the new consul, who, on his arrival, heard of the danger +he was in, reembarked his troops in the night, and sailed with the utmost +speed to his assistance. + +Scipio's first care, after his arrival, was to revive discipline among the +troops, which he found had been entirely neglected.(891) There was not the +least regularity, subordination, or obedience. Nothing was attended to but +rapine, feasting, and diversions. He drove from the camp all useless +persons, settled the quality of the provisions he would have brought in by +the sutlers, and allowed of none but what were plain and fit for soldiers, +studiously banishing all dainties and luxuries. + +After he had made these regulations, which cost him but little time and +pains, because he himself first set the example, he was persuaded that +those under him were soldiers, and thereupon he prepared to carry on the +siege with vigour. Having ordered his troops to provide themselves with +axes, levers, and scaling-ladders, he led them in the dead of the night, +and without the least noise, to a district of the city, called Megara; +when ordering them to give a sudden and general shout, he attacked it with +great vigour. The enemy, who did not expect to be attacked in the night, +were at first in the utmost terror; however, they defended themselves so +courageously, that Scipio could not scale the walls. But perceiving a +tower that was forsaken, and which stood without the city, very near the +walls, he detached thither a party of intrepid and resolute soldiers, who, +by the help of pontons,(892) got from the tower on the walls, and from +thence into Megara, the gates of which they broke down. Scipio entered it +immediately after, and drove the enemies out of that post; who, terrified +at this unexpected assault, and imagining that the whole city was taken, +fled into the citadel, whither they were followed even by those forces +that were encamped without the city, who abandoned their camp to the +Romans, and thought it necessary for them to fly to a place of security. + +Before I proceed further, it will be proper to give some account of the +situation and dimensions of Carthage, which, in the beginning of the war +against the Romans, contained seven hundred thousand inhabitants.(893) It +stood at the bottom of a gulf, surrounded by the sea, and in the form of a +peninsula, whose neck, that is, the isthmus which joined it to the +continent, was twenty-five stadia, or a league and a quarter in breadth. +The peninsula was three hundred and sixty stadia, or eighteen leagues +round. On the west side there projected from it a long neck of land, half +a stadium, or twelve fathoms broad; which, advancing into the sea, divided +it from a morass, and was fenced on all sides with rocks and a single +wall. On the south side, towards the continent, where stood the citadel +called Byrsa, the city was surrounded with a triple wall, thirty cubits +high, exclusive of the parapets and towers, with which it was flanked all +round at equal distances, each interval being fourscore fathoms. Every +tower was four stories high, and the stalls but two; they were arched, and +in the lower part were walls to hold three hundred elephants with their +fodder, and over these were stables for four thousand horses, and lofts +for their food. There likewise was room enough to lodge twenty thousand +foot, and four thousand horse. All these were contained within the walls +alone. In one place only the walls were weak and low; and that was a +neglected angle, which began at the neck of land above-mentioned, and +extended as far as the harbours, which were on the west side. Of these +there were two, which communicated with each other, but had only one +entrance, seventy feet broad, shut up with chains. The first was +appropriated for the merchants, and had several distinct habitations for +the seamen. The second, or inner harbour, was for the ships of war, in the +midst of which stood an island called Cothon, lined, as the harbour was, +with large quays, in which were distinct receptacles(894) for sheltering +from the weather two hundred and twenty ships; over these were magazines +or storehouses, wherein was lodged whatever is necessary for arming and +equipping fleets. The entrance into each of these receptacles was adorned +with two marble pillars of the Ionic order. So that both the harbour and +the island represented on each side two magnificent galleries. In this +island was the admiral's palace; and, as it stood opposite to the mouth of +the harbour, he could from thence discover whatever was doing at sea, +though no one, from thence, could see what was transacting in the inward +part of the harbour. The merchants, in like manner, had no prospect of the +men of war; the two ports being separated by a double wall, each having +its particular gate, that led to the city, without passing through the +other harbour. So that Carthage may be divided into three parts:(895) the +harbour, which was double, and called sometimes Cothon, from the little +island of that name: the citadel, named Byrsa: the city properly so +called, where the inhabitants dwelt, which lay round the citadel, and was +called Megara. + +At daybreak,(896) Asdrubal(897) perceiving the ignominious defeat of his +troops, in order that he might be revenged on the Romans, and, at the same +time, deprive the inhabitants of all hopes of accommodation and pardon, +brought all the Roman prisoners he had taken, upon the walls, in sight of +the whole army. There he put them to the most exquisite torture; putting +out their eyes, cutting off their noses, ears, and fingers; tearing their +skin from their body with iron rakes or harrows, and then threw them +headlong from the top of the battlements. So inhuman a treatment filled +the Carthaginians with horror: however, he did not spare even them; but +murdered many senators who had ventured to oppose his tyranny. + +Scipio,(898) finding himself absolute master of the isthmus, burnt the +camp, which the enemy had deserted, and built a new one for his troops. It +was of a square form, surrounded with large and deep intrenchments, and +fenced with strong palisades. On the side which faced the Carthaginians, +he built a wall twelve feet high, flanked at proper distances with towers +and redoubts; and on the middle tower, he erected a very high wooden fort, +from whence could be seen whatever was doing in the city. This wall was +equal to the whole breadth of the isthmus, that is, twenty-five +stadia.(899) The enemy, who were within bow-shot of it, employed their +utmost efforts to put a stop to this work; but, as the whole army were +employed upon it day and night, without intermission, it was finished in +twenty-four days. Scipio reaped a double advantage from this work: first, +his forces were lodged more safely and commodiously than before: secondly, +he cut off all provisions from the besieged, to whom none could now be +brought but by sea; which was attended with many difficulties, both +because the sea is frequently very tempestuous in that place, and because +the Roman fleet kept a strict guard. This proved one of the chief causes +of the famine which raged soon after in the city. Besides, Asdrubal +distributed the corn that was brought, only among the thirty thousand men +who served under him, caring very little what became of the rest of the +inhabitants. + +To distress them still more by the want of provisions, Scipio attempted to +stop up the mouth of the haven by a mole, beginning at the above-mentioned +neck of land, which was near the harbour.(900) The besieged, at first, +looked upon this attempt as ridiculous, and accordingly they insulted the +workmen: but, at last, seeing them make an astonishing progress every day, +they began to be afraid; and to take such measures as might, if possible, +render the attempt unsuccessful. Every one, to the women and children, +fell to work, but so privately, that all that Scipio could learn from the +prisoners, was, that they had heard a great noise in the harbour, but did +not know the occasion of it. At last, all things being ready, the +Carthaginians opened, on a sudden, a new outlet on the other side of the +haven; and appeared at sea with a numerous fleet, which they had just then +built with the old materials found in their magazines. It is generally +allowed, that had they attacked the Roman fleet directly, they must +infallibly have taken it; because, as no such attempt was expected, and +every man was elsewhere employed, the Carthaginians would have found it +without rowers, soldiers, or officers. But the ruin of Carthage, says the +historian, was decreed. Having therefore only offered a kind of insult or +bravado to the Romans, they returned into the harbour. + +Two days after, they brought forward their ships, with a resolution to +fight in good earnest, and found the enemy ready for them.(901) This +battle was to determine the fate of both parties. The conflict was long +and obstinate, each exerting themselves to the utmost; the one to save +their country, now reduced to the last extremity, and the other to +complete their victory. During the fight, the Carthaginian brigantines +running along under the large Roman ships, broke to pieces sometimes their +sterns, and at other times their rudders and oars; and, when briskly +attacked, retreated with surprising swiftness, and returned immediately to +the charge. At last, after the two armies had fought with equal success +till sunset, the Carthaginians thought proper to retire; not that they +believed themselves overcome, but in order to begin the fight again on the +morrow. Part of their ships, not being able to run swiftly enough into the +harbour, because the mouth of it was too narrow, took shelter under a very +spacious terrace, which had been thrown up against the walls to unload +goods, on the side of which a small rampart had been raised during this +war, to prevent the enemy from possessing themselves of it. Here the fight +was again renewed with more vigour than ever, and lasted till late at +night. The Carthaginians suffered very much, and the few ships which got +off, sailed for refuge to the city. Morning being come, Scipio attacked +the terrace, and carried it, though with great difficulty; after which he +made a lodgement there, and fortified himself on it, and built a +brick-wall close to those of the city, and of the same height. When it was +finished, he commanded four thousand men to get on the top of it, and to +discharge from it a perpetual shower of darts and arrows upon the enemy, +which did great execution; because, as the two walls were of equal height, +almost every dart took effect. Thus ended this campaign. + +During the winter quarters, Scipio endeavoured to overpower the enemy's +troops without the city,(902) who very much harassed the convoys that +brought his provisions, and protected such as were sent to the besieged. +For this purpose he attacked a neighbouring fort, called Nepheris, where +they used to shelter themselves. In the last action, above seventy +thousand of the enemy, as well soldiers as peasants, who had been +enlisted, were cut to pieces; and the fort was carried with great +difficulty, after sustaining a siege of two and twenty days. The seizure +of this fort was followed by the surrender of almost all the strong-holds +in Africa; and contributed very much to the taking of Carthage itself, +into which, from that time, it was almost impossible to bring any +provisions. + +(M145) Early in the spring, Scipio attacked, at one and the same time, the +harbour called Cothon, and the citadel.(903) Having possessed himself of +the wall which surrounded this port, he threw himself into the great +square of the city that was near it, from whence was an ascent to the +citadel, up three streets, on each side of which were houses, from the +tops whereof a shower of darts was discharged upon the Romans, who were +obliged, before they could advance farther, to force the houses they came +first to, and post themselves in them, in order to dislodge from thence +the enemy who fought from the neighbouring houses. The combat, which was +carried on from the tops, and in every part of the houses, continued six +days, during which a dreadful slaughter was made. To clear the streets, +and make way for the troops, the Romans dragged aside, with hooks, the +bodies of such of the inhabitants as had been slain, or precipitated +headlong from the houses, and threw them into pits, the greatest part of +them being still alive and panting. In this toil, which lasted six days +and as many nights, the soldiers were relieved from time to time by fresh +ones, without which they would have been quite spent. Scipio was the only +person who did not take a wink of sleep all this time; giving orders in +all places, and scarce allowing himself leisure to take the least +refreshment. + +There was every reason to believe, that the siege would last much longer, +and occasion a great effusion of blood.(904) But on the seventh day, there +appeared a company of men in the posture and habit of suppliants, who +desired no other conditions, than that the Romans would please to spare +the lives of all those who should be willing to leave the citadel: which +request was granted them, only the deserters were excepted. Accordingly, +there came out fifty thousand men and women, who were sent into the fields +under a strong guard. The deserters, who were about nine hundred, finding +they would not be allowed quarter, fortified themselves in the temple of +AEsculapius, with Asdrubal, his wife, and two children; where, though their +number was but small, they might have held out a long time, because the +temple stood on a very high hill, upon rocks, the ascent to which was by +sixty steps. But at last, exhausted by hunger and watching, oppressed with +fear, and seeing their destruction at hand, they lost all patience; and +abandoning the lower part of the temple, they retired to the uppermost +story, resolved not to quit it but with their lives. + +In the mean time, Asdrubal, being desirous of saving his own life, came +down privately to Scipio, carrying an olive branch in his hand, and threw +himself at his feet. Scipio showed him immediately to the deserters, who, +transported with rage and fury at the sight, vented millions of +imprecations against him, and set fire to the temple. Whilst it was +kindling, we are told, that Asdrubal's wife, dressing herself as +splendidly as possible, and placing herself with her two children in sight +of Scipio, addressed him with a loud voice: "I call not down," says she, +"curses upon thy head, O Roman; for thou only takest the privilege allowed +by the laws of war: but may the gods of Carthage, and thou in concert with +them, punish, according to his deserts, the false wretch, who has betrayed +his country, his gods, his wife, his children!" Then directing herself to +Asdrubal, "Perfidious wretch," says she, "thou basest of men! this fire +will presently consume both me and my children; but as to thee, unworthy +general of Carthage, go--adorn the gay triumph of thy conqueror--suffer, in +the sight of all Rome, the tortures thou so justly deservest!" She had no +sooner pronounced these words, than, seizing her children, she cut their +throats, threw them into the flames, and afterwards rushed into them +herself; in which she was imitated by all the deserters. + +With regard to Scipio,(905) when he saw this famous city, which had been +so flourishing for seven hundred years, and might have been compared to +the greatest empires, on account of the extent of its dominions both by +sea and land; its mighty armies; its fleets, elephants, and riches; while +the Carthaginians were even superior to other nations, by their courage +and greatness of soul; as, notwithstanding their being deprived of arms +and ships, they had sustained, for three whole years, all the hardships +and calamities of a long siege; seeing, I say, this city entirely ruined, +historians relate, that he could not refuse his tears to the unhappy fate +of Carthage. He reflected, that cities, nations, and empires, are liable +to revolutions no less than private men; that the like sad fate had +befallen Troy anciently so powerful; and, in later times, the Assyrians, +Medes, and Persians, whose dominions were once of so great an extent; and +very recently, the Macedonians, whose empire had been so glorious +throughout the world. Full of these mournful ideas, he repeated the +following verses of Homer: + + + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}, + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}. + + _Il._ {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}. 164, 165. + + The day shall come, that great avenging day. + Which Troy's proud glories in the dust shall lay, + When Priam's pow'rs and Priam's self shall fall, + And one prodigious ruin swallow all. + + POPE. + + +thereby denouncing the future destiny of Rome, as he himself confessed to +Polybius, who desired Scipio to explain himself on that occasion. + +Had the truth enlightened his soul, he would have discovered what we are +taught in the Scriptures, that "because of unrighteous dealings, injuries, +and riches got by deceit, a kingdom is translated from one people to +another."(906) Carthage is destroyed, because its avarice, perfidiousness, +and cruelty, have attained their utmost height. The like fate will attend +Rome, when its luxury, ambition, pride, and unjust usurpations, concealed +beneath a specious and delusive show of justice and virtue, shall have +compelled the sovereign Lord, the disposer of empires, to give the +universe an important lesson in its fall. + +(M146) Carthage being taken in this manner, Scipio gave the plunder of it +(the gold, silver, statues, and other offerings which should be found in +the temples, excepted) to his soldiers for some days.(907) He afterwards +bestowed several military rewards on them, as well as on the officers, two +of whom had particularly distinguished themselves, _viz._ Tib. Gracchus, +and Caius Fannius, who first scaled the walls. After this, adorning a +small ship (an excellent sailer) with the enemy's spoils, he sent it to +Rome with the news of the victory. + +At the same time he invited the inhabitants of Sicily to come and take +possession of the pictures and statues which the Carthaginians had +plundered them of in the former wars.(908) When he restored to the +citizens of Agrigentum, Phalaris's famous bull,(909) he told them that +this bull, which was, at one and the same time, a monument of the cruelty +of their ancient kings, and of the lenity of their present sovereigns, +ought to make them sensible which would be most advantageous for them, to +live under the yoke of Sicilians, or the government of the Romans. + +Having exposed to sale part of the spoils of Carthage, he commanded, on +the most severe penalties, his family not to take or even buy any of them; +so careful was he to remove from himself, and all belonging to him, the +least suspicion of avarice. + +When the news of the taking of Carthage was brought to Rome, the people +abandoned themselves to the most immoderate transports of joy, as if the +public tranquillity had not been secured till that instant.(910) They +revolved in their minds, all the calamities which the Carthaginians had +brought upon them, in Sicily, in Spain, and even in Italy, for sixteen +years together; during which, Hannibal had plundered four hundred towns, +destroyed, in different engagements, three hundred thousand men, and +reduced Rome itself to the utmost extremity. Amidst the remembrance of +these past evils, the people in Rome would ask one another, whether it +were really true that Carthage was in ashes. All ranks and degrees of men +emulously strove who should show the greatest gratitude towards the gods; +and the citizens were, for many days, employed wholly in solemn +sacrifices, in public prayers, games, and spectacles. + +After these religious duties were ended, the senate sent ten commissioners +into Africa, to regulate, in conjunction with Scipio, the fate and +condition of that country for the time to come.(911) Their first care was, +to demolish whatever was still remaining of Carthage.(912) Rome,(913) +though mistress of almost the whole world, could not believe herself safe +as long as even the name of Carthage was in being. So true it is, that an +inveterate hatred, fomented by long and bloody wars, lasts even beyond the +time when all cause of fear is removed; and does not cease, till the +object that occasions it is no more. Orders were given, in the name of the +Romans, that it should never be inhabited again; and dreadful imprecations +were denounced against those, who, contrary to this prohibition, should +attempt to rebuild any parts of it, especially those called Byrsa and +Megara. In the mean time, every one who desired it, was admitted to see +Carthage: Scipio being well pleased, to have people view the sad ruins of +a city which had dared to contend with Rome for empire.(914) The +commissioners decreed farther, that those cities which, during this war, +had joined with the enemy, should all be rased, and their territories be +given to the Roman allies; they particularly made a grant to the citizens +of Utica, of the whole country lying between Carthage and Hippo. All the +rest they made tributary, and reduced it into a Roman province, whither a +praetor was sent annually. + +All matters being thus settled, Scipio returned to Rome, where he made his +entry in triumph.(915) So magnificent a one had never been seen before; +the whole exhibiting nothing but statues, rare, invaluable pictures, and +other curiosities, which the Carthaginians had, for many years, been +collecting in other countries; not to mention the money carried into the +public treasury, which amounted to immense sums. + +Notwithstanding the great precautions which were taken to hinder Carthage +from being ever rebuilt, in less than thirty years after, and even in +Scipio's lifetime, one of the Gracchi, to ingratiate himself with the +people, undertook to found it anew, and conducted thither a colony +consisting of six thousand citizens for that purpose.(916) The senate, +hearing that the workmen had been terrified by many unlucky omens, at the +time they were tracing the limits, and laying the foundations of the new +city, would have suspended the attempt; but the tribune, not being over +scrupulous in religious matters, carried on the work, notwithstanding all +these bad presages, and finished it in a few days. This was the first +Roman colony that was ever sent out of Italy. + +It is probable, that only a kind of huts were built there, since we are +told,(917) that when Marius retired hither, in his flight to Africa, he +lived in a mean and poor condition amid the ruins of Carthage, consoling +himself by the sight of so astonishing a spectacle; himself serving, in +some measure, as a consolation to that ill-fated city. + +Appian relates,(918) that Julius Caesar, after the death of Pompey, having +crossed into Africa, saw, in a dream, an army composed of a prodigious +number of soldiers, who, with tears in their eyes, called him; and that, +struck with the vision, he writ down in his pocket-book the design which +he formed on this occasion, of rebuilding Carthage and Corinth: but that +having been murdered soon after by the conspirators, Augustus Caesar, his +adopted son, who found this memorandum among his papers, rebuilt Carthage +near the spot where it stood formerly, in order that the imprecations +which had been vented, at the time of its destruction, against those who +should presume to rebuild it, might not fall upon him. + +I know not what foundation Appian has for this story; but we read in +Strabo,(919) that Carthage and Corinth were rebuilt at the same time by +Caesar, to whom he gives the name of god, by which title, a little before, +he had plainly intended Julius Caesar;(920) and Plutarch,(921) in the life +of that emperor, ascribes expressly to him the establishment of these two +colonies; and observes, that one remarkable circumstance in these two +cities is, that as both had been taken and destroyed at the same time, +they likewise were at the same time rebuilt and repeopled. However this +be, Strabo affirms, that in his time Carthage was as populous as any city +in Africa; and it rose to be the capital of Africa, under the succeeding +emperors. It existed for about seven hundred years after, in splendour, +but at last was so completely destroyed by the Saracens, in the beginning +of the seventh century, that neither its name, nor the least footsteps of +it, are known at this time in the country. + +_A Digression on the Manners and Character of the second Scipio +Africanus._--Scipio, the destroyer of Carthage, was son to the famous +Paulus AEmilius, who conquered Perseus, the last king of Macedon; and +consequently grandson to that Paulus AEmilius who lost his life in the +battle of Cannae. He was adopted by the son of the great Scipio Africanus, +and called Scipio AEmilianus; the names of the two families being so +united, pursuant to the law of adoptions. He supported, with equal lustre, +the dignity of both houses, by all the qualities that can confer honour on +the sword and gown.(922) The whole tenour of his life, says an historian, +whether with regard to his actions, his thoughts, or words, was deserving +of the highest praise. He distinguished himself particularly (an eulogium +that, at present, can seldom be applied to persons of the military +profession) by his exquisite taste for polite literature, and all the +sciences, as well as by the uncommon regard he showed to learned men. It +is universally known, that he was reported to be the author of Terence's +comedies, the most polite and elegant writings which the Romans could +boast. We are told of Scipio,(923) that no man could blend more happily +repose and action, nor employ his leisure hours with greater delicacy and +taste: thus was he divided between arms and books, between the military +labours of the camp, and the peaceful employment of the cabinet; in which +he either exercised his body in toils of war, or his mind in the study of +the sciences. By this he showed, that nothing does greater honour to a +person of distinction, of what quality or profession soever he be, than +the adorning his mind with knowledge. Cicero, speaking of Scipio, +says,(924) that he always had Xenophon's works in his hands, which are so +famous for the solid and excellent instructions they contain, both in +regard to war and policy. + +He owed this exquisite taste for polite learning and the sciences, to the +excellent education which Paulus AEmilius bestowed on his children.(925) He +had put them under the ablest masters in every art; and did not spare any +expense on that occasion, though his circumstances were very narrow: P. +AEmilius himself was present at all their lessons, as often as the affairs +of the state would permit; becoming, by this means, their chief preceptor. + +The intimate union between Polybius and Scipio put the finishing stroke to +the exalted qualities which, by the superiority of his genius and +disposition, and the excellency of his education, were already the subject +of admiration.(926) Polybius, with a great number of Achaeans, whose +fidelity the Romans suspected during the war with Perseus, was detained in +Rome, where his merit soon caused his company to be coveted by all persons +of the highest quality in that city. Scipio, when scarce eighteen, devoted +himself entirely to Polybius: and considered as the greatest felicity of +his life, the opportunity he had of being instructed by so great a master, +whose society he preferred to all the vain and idle amusements which are +generally so alluring to young persons. + +Polybius's first care was to inspire Scipio with an aversion for those +equally dangerous and ignominious pleasures, to which the Roman youth were +so strongly addicted; the greatest part of them being already depraved and +corrupted by the luxury and licentiousness which riches and new conquests +had introduced in Rome. Scipio, during the first five years that he +continued in so excellent a school, made the greatest improvement in it; +and, despising the ridicule, as well as the pernicious examples, of +persons of the same age with himself, he was looked upon, even at that +time, as a model of discretion and wisdom. + +From hence, the transition was easy and natural to generosity, to a noble +disregard of riches, and to a laudable use of them; all virtues so +requisite in persons of illustrious birth, and which Scipio carried to the +most exalted pitch, as appears from some instances of this kind related by +Polybius, which are highly worthy our admiration. + +AEmilia,(927) wife of the first Scipio Africanus, and mother of him who had +adopted the Scipio mentioned here by Polybius, had bequeathed, at her +death, a great estate to the latter. This lady, besides the diamonds and +jewels which are worn by women of her high rank, possessed a great number +of gold and silver vessels used in sacrifices, together with several +splendid equipages, and a considerable number of slaves of both sexes; the +whole suited to the opulence of the august house into which she had +married. At her death, Scipio made over all those rich possessions to +Papiria his mother, who, having been divorced a considerable time before +by Paulus AEmilius, and not being in circumstances to support the dignity +of her birth, lived in great obscurity, and never appeared in the +assemblies or public ceremonies. But when she again frequented them with a +magnificent train, this noble generosity of Scipio did him great honour, +especially in the minds of the ladies, who expatiated on it in all their +conversations, and in a city whose inhabitants, says Polybius, were not +easily prevailed upon to part with their money. + +Scipio was no less admired on another occasion. He was bound, in +consequence of the estate that had fallen to him by the death of his +grandmother, to pay, at three different times, to the two daughters of +Scipio, his grandfather by adoption, half their portions, which amounted +to 50,000 French crowns.(928) The time for the payment of the first sum +being expired, Scipio put the whole money into the hands of a banker. +Tiberius Gracchus, and Scipio Nasica, who had married the two sisters, +imagining that Scipio had made a mistake, went to him, and observed, that +the laws allowed him three years to pay this sum in, and at three +different times. Young Scipio answered, that he knew very well what the +laws directed on this occasion; that they might indeed be executed in +their greatest rigour towards strangers, but that friends and relations +ought to treat one another with a more generous simplicity; and therefore +desired them to receive the whole sum. They were struck with such +admiration at the generosity of their kinsman, that in their return home, +they reproached(929) themselves for their narrow way of thinking, at a +time when they made the greatest figure, and had the highest regard paid +to them, of any family in Rome. This generous action, says Polybius, was +the more admired, because no person in Rome, so far from consenting to pay +50,000 crowns before they were due, would pay even a thousand before the +time for payment was elapsed. + +It was from the same noble spirit that, two years after, Paulus AEmilius +his father being dead, he made over to his brother Fabius, who was not so +wealthy as himself, the part of their father's estate, which was his +(Scipio's) due, (amounting to above threescore thousand crowns,(930)) in +order that there might not be so great a disparity between his fortune and +that of his brother. + +This Fabius being desirous to exhibit a show of gladiators after his +father's decease, in honour of his memory, (as was the custom in that +age,) and not being able to defray the expenses on this occasion, which +amounted to a very heavy sum, Scipio made him a present of fifteen +thousand(931) crowns, in order to defray at least half the charges of it. + +The splendid presents which Scipio had made his mother Papiria, reverted +to him, by law as well as equity, after her demise; and his sisters, +according to the custom of those times had not the least claim to them. +Nevertheless, Scipio thought it would have been dishonourable in him, had +he taken them back again. He therefore made over to his sisters whatever +he had presented to their mother, which amounted to a very considerable +sum; and by this fresh proof of his glorious disregard of wealth, and the +tender friendship he had for his family, acquired the applause of the +whole city. + +These different benefactions, which amounted all together to a prodigious +sum, seem to have received a brighter lustre from the age in which he +bestowed them, he being still very young; and yet more from the +circumstances of the time when they were presented, as well as the kind +and obliging carriage he assumed on those occasions. + +The incidents I have here related are so repugnant to the maxims of this +age, that there might be reason to fear the reader would consider them +merely as the rhetorical flourishes of an historian who was prejudiced in +favour of his hero; if it was not well known, that the predominant +characteristic of Polybius, by whom they are related, is a sincere love +for truth, and an utter aversion to adulation of every kind. In the very +passage whence this relation is extracted, he has thought it necessary for +him to be a little guarded, where he expatiates on the virtuous actions +and rare qualities of Scipio; and he observes, that as his writings were +to be perused by the Romans, who were perfectly well acquainted with all +the particulars of this great man's life, he could not fail of being +convicted by them, should he venture to advance any falsehood; an affront, +to which it is not probable that an author, who has ever so little regard +for his reputation, would expose himself, especially if no advantage was +to accrue to him from it. + +We have already observed, that Scipio had never given into the fashionable +debaucheries and excesses to which the young people at Rome so generally +abandoned themselves. But he was sufficiently compensated for this +self-denial of all destructive pleasures, by the vigorous health he +enjoyed all the rest of his life, which enabled him to taste pleasure of a +much purer and more exalted kind, and to perform the great actions that +reflected so much glory upon him. + +Hunting, which was his darling exercise, contributed also very much to +invigorate his constitution, and enabled him also to endure the hardest +toils. Macedonia, whither he followed his father, gave him an opportunity +of indulging to the utmost of his desire his passion in this respect; for +the chase, which was the usual diversion of the Macedonian monarchs, +having been laid aside for some years on account of the wars, Scipio found +there an incredible quantity of game of every kind. Paulus AEmilius, +studious of procuring his son virtuous pleasures of every kind, in order +to divert his mind from those which reason prohibits, gave him full +liberty to indulge himself in his favourite sport, during all the time +that the Roman forces continued in that country, after the victory he had +gained over Perseus. The illustrious youth employed his leisure hours in +an exercise which suited so well his age and inclination; and was as +successful in this innocent war against the beasts of Macedonia, as his +father had been in that which he had carried on against the inhabitants of +the country. + +It was at Scipio's return from Macedon, that he met with Polybius in Rome; +and contracted the strict friendship with him, which was afterwards so +beneficial to our young Roman, and did him almost as much honour in +after-ages as all his conquests. We find, from history, that Polybius +lived with the two brothers. One day, when himself and Scipio were alone, +the latter unbosomed himself freely to him, and complained, but in the +mildest and most gentle terms, that he, in their conversations at table, +always directed himself to his brother Fabius, and never to him. "I am +sensible," says he, "that this indifference arises from your supposing, +with all our citizens, that I am a heedless young man, and wholly averse +to the taste which now prevails in Rome, because I do not devote myself to +the studies of the bar, nor cultivate the graces of elocution. But how +should I do this? I am told perpetually, that the Romans expect a general, +and not an orator, from the house of the Scipios. I will confess to you, +(pardon the sincerity with which I reveal my thoughts,) that your coldness +and indifference grieve me exceedingly." Polybius, surprised at this +unexpected address, made Scipio the kindest answer; and assured the +illustrious youth, that though he generally directed himself to his +brother, yet this was not out of disrespect to him, but only because +Fabius was the elder; not to mention (continued Polybius) that, knowing +you possessed but one soul, I conceived that I addressed both when I spoke +to either of you. He then assured Scipio, that he was entirely at his +command: that with regard to the sciences, for which he discovered the +happiest genius, he would have opportunities sufficient to improve himself +in them, from the great number of learned Grecians who resorted daily to +Rome; but that, as to the art of war, which was properly his profession, +and his favourite study, he (Polybius) might be of some little service to +him. He had no sooner spoke these words, than Scipio, grasping his hand in +a kind of rapture: "Oh! when," says he, "shall I see the happy day, when, +disengaged from all other avocations, and living with me, you will be so +much my friend, as to direct your endeavours to improve my understanding +and regulate my affections? It is then I shall think myself worthy of my +illustrious ancestors." From that time Polybius, overjoyed to see so young +a man breathe such noble sentiments, devoted himself particularly to our +Scipio, who ever after paid him as much reverence as if he had been his +father. + +However, Scipio did not esteem Polybius only as an excellent historian, +but valued him much more, and reaped much greater advantages from him, as +an able warrior and a profound politician. Accordingly, he consulted him +on every occasion, and always took his advice even when he was at the head +of his army; concerting in private with Polybius all the operations of the +campaign, all the movements of the forces, all enterprises against the +enemy, and the several measures proper for rendering them successful. + +In a word, it was the common report,(932) that our illustrious Roman did +not perform any great or good action without being under some obligation +to Polybius; nor even commit an error, except when he acted without +consulting him. + +I request the reader to excuse this long digression, which may be thought +foreign to my subject, as I am not writing the Roman history. However, it +appeared to me so well adapted to the general design I propose to myself, +in this work, _viz._ the cultivating and improving the minds of youth, +that I could not forbear introducing it here, though I was sensible this +is not directly its proper place. And indeed, these examples show, how +important it is that young people should receive a liberal and virtuous +education; and the great benefit they reap, by frequenting and +corresponding early with persons of merit; for these were the foundations +whereon were built the fame and glory which have rendered Scipio immortal. +But above all, how noble a model for our age (in which the most +inconsiderable and even trifling concerns often create feuds and +animosities between brothers and sisters, and disturb the peace of +families,) is the generous disinterestedness of Scipio; who, whenever he +had an opportunity of serving his relations, thought lightly of bestowing +the largest sums upon them! This excellent passage of Polybius had escaped +me, by its not being inserted in the folio edition of his works. It +belongs indeed naturally to that book, where, treating of the taste for +solid glory, I mentioned the contempt in which the ancients held riches, +and the excellent use they made of them. I therefore thought myself +indispensably obliged to restore, on this occasion, to young students, +what I could not but blame myself for omitting elsewhere. + +_The History of the Family and Posterity of Masinissa._--I promised, after +finishing what related to the republic of Carthage, to return to the +family and posterity of Masinissa. This piece of history forms a +considerable part of that of Africa, and therefore is not quite foreign to +my subject. + +(M147) From the time that Masinissa had declared for the Romans under the +first Scipio, he had always adhered to that honourable alliance, with an +almost unparalleled zeal and fidelity.(933) Finding his end approaching, +he wrote to the proconsul of Africa, under whose standards the younger +Scipio then fought, to desire that Roman might be sent to him; adding, +that he should die with satisfaction, if he could but expire in his arms, +after having made him executor to his will. But believing that he should +be dead, before it could be possible for him to receive this consolation, +he sent for his wife and children, and spoke to them as follows: "I know +no other nation but the Romans, and, among this nation, no other family +but that of the Scipios. I now, in my expiring moments, empower Scipio +AEmilianus to dispose, in an absolute manner, of all my possessions, and to +divide my kingdom among my children. I require, that whatever Scipio may +decree, shall be executed as punctually as if I myself had appointed it by +my will." After saying these words, he breathed his last, being upwards of +ninety years of age. + +This prince, during his youth, had met with strange reverses of fortune, +having been dispossessed of his kingdom, obliged to fly from province to +province, and a thousand times in danger of his life.(934) Being +supported, says the historian, by the divine protection, he was afterwards +favoured, till his death, with a perpetual series of prosperity, unruffled +by any sinister accident: for he not only recovered his own kingdom, but +added to it that of Syphax his enemy; and extending his dominions from +Mauritania, as far as Cyrene, he became the most powerful prince of all +Africa. He was blessed, till he left the world, with the greatest health +and vigour, which doubtless was owing to his extreme temperance, and the +care he had taken to inure himself to fatigue. Though ninety years of age, +he performed all the exercises used by young men,(935) and always rode +without a saddle; and Polybius observes, (a circumstance preserved by +Plutarch,(936)) that the day after a great victory over the Carthaginians, +Masinissa was seen, sitting at the door of his tent, eating a piece of +brown bread. + +He left fifty-four sons, of whom three only were legitimate, _viz._ +Micipsa, Gulussa, and Mastanabal.(937) Scipio divided the kingdom between +these three, and gave considerable possessions to the rest: but the two +last dying soon after, Micipsa became sole possessor of these extensive +dominions. He had two sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal, and with them he +educated in his palace Jugurtha his nephew, Mastanabal's son, and took as +much care of him as he did of his own children.(938) This last-mentioned +prince possessed several eminent qualities, which gained him universal +esteem. Jugurtha, who was finely shaped, and very handsome, of the most +delicate wit, and the most solid judgment, did not devote himself, as +young men commonly do, to a life of luxury and pleasure. He used to +exercise himself with persons of his own age, in running, riding, and +throwing the javelin; and though he surpassed all his companions, there +was not one of them but loved him. The chase was his only delight; but it +was that of lions and other savage beasts. To finish his character, he +excelled in all things, and spoke very little of himself: _Plurimum +facere, et mininum ipse de se loqui_. + +Merit so conspicuous, and so generally acknowledged, began to excite some +anxiety in Micipsa. He saw himself in the decline of life, and his +children very young. He knew the prodigious lengths which ambition is +capable of going, when a crown is in view: and that a man, with talents +much inferior to those of Jugurtha, might be dazzled by so glittering a +temptation, especially when united with such favourable +circumstances.(939) In order therefore to remove a competitor so dangerous +with regard to his children, he gave Jugurtha the command of the forces +which he sent to the assistance of the Romans, who, at that time, were +besieging Numantia, under the conduct of Scipio. Knowing Jugurtha was +actuated by the most heroic bravery, he flattered himself, that he +probably would rush upon danger, and lose his life. However, he was +mistaken. This young prince joined to an undaunted courage, the utmost +presence of mind; and, a circumstance very rarely found in persons of his +age, he preserved a just medium between a timorous foresight and an +impetuous rashness.(940) In this campaign, he won the esteem and +friendship of the whole army. Scipio sent him back to his uncle with +letters of recommendation, and the most advantageous testimonials of his +conduct, after having given him very prudent advice with regard to the +course which he ought to pursue; for knowing mankind so well, he, in all +probability, had discovered certain sparks of ambition in that prince, +which he feared would one day break out into a flame. + +Micipsa, pleased with the high character that was sent him of his nephew, +changed his behaviour towards him, and resolved, if possible, to win his +affection by kindness. Accordingly he adopted him; and by his will, made +him joint-heir with his two sons. When he found his end approaching, he +sent for all three, and bid them draw near his bed, where, in presence of +the whole court he put Jugurtha in mind of all his kindness to him; +conjuring him, in the name of the gods, to defend and protect, on all +occasions, his children; who, being before related to him by the ties of +blood, were now become his brethren, by his (Micipsa's) bounty. He told +him,(941) that neither arms nor treasure constitute the strength of a +kingdom, but friends, who are not won by arms nor gold, but by real +services and inviolable fidelity. Now where (says he) can we find better +friends than our brothers? And how can that man, who becomes an enemy to +his relations, repose any confidence in, or depend on, strangers? He +exhorted his sons to pay the highest reverence to Jugurtha; and to dispute +no otherwise with him, than by their endeavour to equal, and, if possible, +to surpass his exalted merit. He concluded with entreating them to observe +for ever an inviolable attachment towards the Romans; and to consider them +as their benefactor, their patron, and master. A few days after this, +Micipsa expired. + +(M148) Jugurtha soon threw off the mask, and began by ridding himself of +Hiempsal, who had expressed himself to him with great freedom, and +therefore he caused him to be murdered. This bloody action proved but too +evidently to Adherbal what he himself might naturally fear.(M149) Numidia +is now divided, and sides severally with the two brothers. Mighty armies +are raised by each party. Adherbal, after losing the greatest part of his +fortresses, is vanquished in battle, and forced to make Rome his asylum. +However, this gave Jugurtha no very great uneasiness, as he knew that +money was all-powerful in that city. He therefore sent deputies thither, +with orders for them to bribe the chief senators. In the first audience to +which they were introduced, Adherbal represented the unhappy condition to +which he was reduced, the injustice and barbarity of Jugurtha, the murder +of his brother, the loss of almost all his fortresses; but the +circumstance on which he laid the greatest stress was, the commands of his +dying father, _viz._ to put his whole confidence in the Romans; declaring, +that the friendship of this people would be a stronger support both to +himself and his kingdom, than all the troops and treasures in the +universe. His speech was of a great length, and extremely pathetic. +Jugurtha's deputies made only the following answer: that Hiempsal had been +killed by the Numidians, because of his great cruelty; that Adherbal was +the aggressor, and yet, after having been vanquished, was come to make +complaints, because he had not committed all the excesses he desired; that +their sovereign entreated the senate to form a judgment of his behaviour +and conduct in Africa, from that he had shown at Numantia; and to lay a +greater stress on his actions, than on the accusations of his enemies. But +these ambassadors had secretly employed an eloquence much more prevalent +than that of words, which had not proved ineffectual. The whole assembly +was for Jugurtha, a few senators excepted, who were not so void of honour +as to be corrupted by money. The senate came to this resolution, that +commissioners should be sent from Rome, to divide the provinces equally +upon the spot between the two brothers. The reader will naturally suppose, +that Jugurtha was not sparing of his treasure on this occasion; the +division was made to his advantage; and yet a specious appearance of +equity was preserved. + +This first success of Jugurtha augmented his courage, and increased his +boldness. Accordingly, he attacked his brother by open force; and whilst +the latter loses his time in sending deputations to the Romans, he storms +several fortresses, carries on his conquests; and, after defeating +Adherbal, besieges him in Cirtha, the capital of his kingdom. During this +interval ambassadors arrived from Rome, with orders, in the name of the +senate and people, to the two kings, to lay down their arms, and cease all +hostilities. Jugurtha, after protesting that he would obey, with the most +profound reverence and submission, the commands of the Roman people, +added, that he did not believe it was their intention to hinder him from +defending his own life against the treacherous snares which his brother +had laid for it. He concluded with saying, that he would send ambassadors +forthwith to Rome, to inform the senate of his conduct. By this vague +answer he eluded their orders, and would not even permit the deputies to +wait upon Adherbal. + +Though the latter was so closely blocked up in his capital, he yet(942) +found means to send to Rome, to implore the assistance of the Romans +against his brother, who had besieged him five months, and intended to +take away his life. Some senators were of opinion, that war ought to be +proclaimed immediately against Jugurtha; but still his influence +prevailed, and the Romans only ordered an embassy to be sent, composed of +senators of the highest distinction, among whom was AEmilius Scaurus, a +factious man, who had a great ascendant over the nobility, and concealed +the blackest vices under the specious appearance of virtue. Jugurtha was +terrified at first; but he again found an opportunity to elude their +demands, and accordingly sent them back without coming to any conclusion. +Upon this, Adherbal, who had lost all hopes, surrendered upon condition of +having his life spared; nevertheless, he was immediately murdered with a +great number of Numidians. + +But though the greatest part of the people at Rome were struck with horror +at this news, Jugurtha's money again obtained him defenders in the senate. +However, C. Memmius, the tribune of the people, an active man, and one who +hated the nobility, prevailed with the people not to suffer so horrid +(M150) a crime to go unpunished; and, accordingly, war being proclaimed +against Jugurtha, Calpurnius Bestia, the consul, was appointed to carry it +on.(943) He was endued with excellent qualities, but they were all +depraved and rendered useless by his avarice. Scaurus set out with him. +They at first took several towns; but Jugurtha's bribes checked the +progress of these conquests; and Scaurus(944) himself, who till now had +expressed the strongest animosity against this prince, could not resist so +powerful an attack. A treaty was therefore concluded; Jugurtha feigned to +submit to the Romans, and thirty elephants, some horses, with a very +inconsiderable sum of money, were delivered to the quaestor. + +But now the indignation of the people in general at Rome displayed itself +in the strongest manner. Memmius the tribune inflamed them by his +speeches. He caused Cassius, who was praetor, to be appointed to attend +Jugurtha; and to engage him to come to Rome, under the guarantee of the +Romans, in order that an inquiry might be made in his presence, who those +persons were that had taken bribes. Accordingly, Jugurtha was forced to +come to Rome. The sight of him raised the anger of the people still +higher; but a tribune having been bribed, he prolonged the session, and at +last dissolved it. A Numidian prince, grandson of Masinissa, called +Massiva, being at that time in the city, was advised to solicit for +Jugurtha's kingdom; which coming to the ears of the latter, he caused him +to be assassinated in the midst of Rome. The murderer was seized, and +delivered up to the civil magistrate, and Jugurtha was commanded to depart +Italy. Upon leaving the city, he cast back his eyes several times towards +it, and said, "Rome would sell itself could it meet with a purchaser; and +were one to be found, it were inevitably ruined."(945) + +And now the war broke out anew. At first the indolence, or perhaps +connivance, of Albinus the consul, made it go on very slowly; but +afterwards, when he returned to Rome to hold the public assemblies,(946) +the Roman army, by the unskilfulness of his brother Aulus, having marched +into a defile from whence there was no getting out, surrendered +ignominiously to the enemy, who forced the Romans to submit to the +ceremony of passing under the yoke, and made them engage to leave Numidia +in ten days. + +The reader will naturally imagine in what light so shameful a peace, +concluded without the authority of the people, was considered at Rome. +They could not flatter themselves with the hope of being successful in +this war, till the conduct of it was given to L. Metellus the consul.(947) +To all the rest of the virtues which constitute the great captain, he +added a perfect disregard of wealth; a quality most essentially requisite +against such an enemy as Jugurtha, who hitherto had always been +victorious, rather by money than his sword. But the African monarch found +Metellus as invincible in this, as in all other respects. He therefore was +forced to venture his life, and exert his utmost bravery, through the +defect of an expedient which now began to fail him. Accordingly, he +signalized himself in a surprising manner; and showed in this campaign, +all that could be expected from the courage, abilities, and attention of +an illustrious general, to whom despair adds new vigour, and suggests new +lights: he was, however, unsuccessful, because opposed by a consul, who +did not suffer the most inconsiderable error to escape him, nor ever let +slip an opportunity of taking advantage of the enemy. + +Jugurtha's greatest concern was, how to secure himself from traitors. From +the time he had been told that Bomilcar, in whom he reposed the utmost +confidence, had a design upon his life, he enjoyed no peace. He did not +believe himself safe any where; but all things, by day as well as by +night, the citizen as well as the foreigner, were suspected by him; and +the blackest terrors sat for ever brooding over his mind. He never got a +wink of sleep, except by stealth; and often changed his bed in a manner +unbecoming his rank. Starting sometimes from his slumbers, he would snatch +his sword, and utter loud cries; so strongly was he haunted by fear, which +almost drove him to frenzy. + +Marius was Metellus's lieutenant. His boundless ambition induced him to +endeavour to lessen his general's character secretly in the minds of his +soldiers; and becoming soon his professed enemy and slanderer, he at last, +by the most grovelling and perfidious arts, prevailed so far as to +supplant Metellus, and get himself nominated in his room, to carry on the +war against Jugurtha.(948) With what strength of mind soever Metellus +might be endued on other occasions, he was totally dejected by this +unforeseen blow, which even forced tears from his eyes, and compelled him +to utter such expressions as were altogether unworthy so great a man. +There was something very dark and vile in Marius's conduct, that displays +ambition in its native and genuine colours, and shows that it +extinguishes, in those who abandon themselves to it, all sense of honour +and integrity.(M151) Metellus, having anxiously endeavoured to avoid a man +whose sight he could not bear, arrived in Rome, and was received there +with universal acclamations. A triumph was decreed him, and the surname of +Numidicus conferred upon him. + +I thought it would be proper to reserve for the Roman history, a +particular account of the events that happened in Africa, under Metellus +and Marius, all which are very circumstantially described by Sallust, in +his admirable history of Jugurtha. I therefore hasten to the conclusion of +this war. + +Jugurtha being greatly distressed in his affairs, had recourse to Bocchus +king of Mauritania, whose daughter he had married. This country extends +from Numidia, as far as beyond the shores of the Mediterranean opposite to +Spain.(949) The Roman name was scarce known in it, and the people were +absolutely unknown to the Romans. Jugurtha insinuated to his +father-in-law, that should he suffer Numidia to be conquered, his kingdom +would doubtless be involved in its ruin; especially as the Romans, who +were sworn enemies to monarchy, seemed to have vowed the destruction of +all the thrones in the universe. He, therefore, prevailed with Bocchus to +enter into a league with him; and accordingly received, on different +occasions, very considerable succours from that king. + +This confederacy, which was cemented on either side by no other tie than +that of interest, had never been strong; and a last defeat which Jugurtha +met with, broke at once all the bands of it. Bocchus now meditated the +dark design of delivering up his son-in-law to the Romans. For this +purpose he had desired Marius to send him a trusty person. Sylla, who was +an officer of uncommon merit, and served under him as quaestor, was thought +every way qualified for this negotiation. He was not afraid to put himself +into the hands of the barbarian king; and accordingly set out for his +court. Being arrived, Bocchus, who, like the rest of his countrymen, did +not pride himself on sincerity, and was for ever projecting new designs, +debated within himself, whether it would not be his interest to deliver up +Sylla to Jugurtha. He was a long time fluctuating in this uncertainty, and +conflicting with a contrariety of sentiments: and the sudden changes which +displayed themselves in his countenance, in his air, and in his whole +person, showed evidently how strongly his mind was affected. At length, +returning to his first design, he made his terms with Sylla, and delivered +up Jugurtha into his hands, who was sent immediately to Marius. + +Sylla, says Plutarch,(950)(951) acted, on this occasion, like a young man +fired with a strong thirst of glory, the sweets of which he had just begun +to taste. Instead of ascribing to the general under whom he fought all the +honour of this event, as his duty required, and which ought to be an +inviolable maxim, he reserved the greatest part of it to himself, and had +a ring made, which he always wore, wherein he was represented receiving +Jugurtha from the hands of Bocchus; and this ring he used ever after as +his signet. But Marius was so highly exasperated at this kind of insult, +that he could never forgive him; and this circumstance gave rise to the +implacable hatred between these two Romans, which afterwards broke out +with so much fury, and cost the republic so much blood. + +(M152) Marius entered Rome in triumph,(952) exhibiting such a spectacle to +the Romans, as they could scarce believe they saw, when it passed before +their eyes; I mean, Jugurtha in chains; that so formidable an enemy, +during whose life they had not dared to flatter themselves with the hopes +of being able to put an end to this war; so well was his courage sustained +by stratagem and artifice, and his genius so fruitful in finding new +expedients, even when his affairs were most desperate. We are told, that +Jugurtha ran distracted, as he was walking in the triumph; that after the +ceremony was ended, he was thrown into prison; and that the lictors were +so eager to seize his robe, that they rent it in several pieces, and tore +away the tips of his ears, to get the rich jewels with which they were +adorned. In this condition he was cast, quite naked, and in the utmost +terrors, into a deep dungeon, where he spent six days in struggling with +hunger and the fear of death, retaining a strong desire of life to his +last gasp; an end, continues Plutarch, worthy of his wicked deeds, +Jugurtha having been always of opinion, that the greatest crimes might be +committed to satiate his ambition; ingratitude, perfidy, black treachery, +and inhuman barbarity. + +Juba, king of Mauritania, reflected so much honour on polite literature +and the sciences, that I could not, without impropriety, omit him in the +history of the family of Masinissa, to whom his father, who also was named +Juba, was great grandson, and grandson of Gulussa. The elder Juba +signalized himself in the war between Caesar and Pompey, by his inviolable +attachment to the party of the latter.(M153) He slew himself after the +battle of Thapsus, in which his forces and those of Scipio were entirely +defeated. Juba, his son, then a child, was delivered up to the conqueror, +and was one of the most conspicuous ornaments of his triumph. It appears +from history, that a noble education was bestowed upon Juba in Rome, where +he imbibed such a variety of knowledge, as afterwards equalled him to the +most learned among(M154) the Grecians. He did not leave that city till he +went to take possession of his father's dominions. Augustus restored them +to him, when, by the death of Mark Antony, the provinces of the empire +were absolutely at his disposal. Juba, by the lenity of his government, +gained the hearts of all his subjects; who, out of a grateful sense of the +felicity they had enjoyed during his reign, ranked him in the number of +their gods. Pausanias speaks of a statue which the Athenians erected in +his honour. It was, indeed just, that a city, which had been consecrated +in all ages to the Muses, should give public testimonies of its esteem for +a king who made so bright a figure among the learned. Suidas ascribes(953) +several works to this prince, of which only the fragments are now extant. +He had written the history of Arabia; the antiquities of Assyria, and +those of the Romans; the history of theatres, of painting and painters; of +the nature and properties of different animals, of grammar, and similar +subjects; a catalogue of all which is given in Abbe Sevin's short +dissertation on the life and works of the younger Juba,(954) whence I have +extracted these few particulars. + + + + + +BOOK THE THIRD. THE HISTORY OF THE ASSYRIANS. + + + + +Chapter I. The First Empire of the Assyrians. + + +SECT. I. DURATION OF THAT EMPIRE.--The Assyrian empire was undoubtedly one +of the most powerful in the world. With respect to its duration, two +opinions have chiefly prevailed. Some authors, as Ctesias, whose opinion +is followed by Justin, give it a duration of thirteen hundred years: +others reduce it to five hundred and twenty, of which number is Herodotus. +The diminution, or probably the interruption of power, which happened in +this vast empire, might possibly give occasion to this difference of +opinions, and may perhaps serve in some measure to reconcile them. + +The history of those early times is so obscure, the monuments which convey +it down to us so contrary to each other, and the systems of the +moderns(955) upon that matter so different, that it is difficult to lay +down any opinion about it, as certain and incontestable. But where +certainty is not to be had, I suppose a reasonable person will be +satisfied with probability; and, in my opinion, a man can hardly be +deceived, if he makes the Assyrian empire equal in antiquity with the city +of Babylon, its capital. Now we learn from the holy Scripture, that this +was built by Nimrod, who certainly was a great conqueror, and in all +probability the first and most ancient of all those who have ever aspired +after that denomination. + +The Babylonians, as Callisthenes, a philosopher in Alexander's retinue, +wrote to Aristotle,(956) reckoned themselves to be at least of 1903 years' +standing, when that prince entered triumphant into Babylon; which makes +their origin reach back to the year of the world 1771, that is to say, 115 +years after the deluge. This computation comes within a few years of the +time in which we suppose Nimrod to have founded that city. Indeed, this +testimony of Callisthenes, as it does not agree with any other accounts of +that empire, is not esteemed authentic by the learned; but the conformity +we find between it and the holy Scriptures should make us regard it. + +Upon these grounds, I think we may allow Nimrod to have been the founder +of the first Assyrian empire, which subsisted with more or less extent and +glory upwards of 1450 years,(957) from the time of Nimrod to that of +Sardanapalus, the last king, that is to say, from the year of the world +1800 to the year 3257. + +(M155) NIMROD. He is the same with Belus,(958) who was afterwards +worshipped as a god under that appellation. + +He was the son of Chus, grandson of Ham, and great grandson of Noah. He +was, says the Scripture, "a mighty hunter before the Lord."(959) In +applying himself to this laborious and dangerous exercise, he had two +things in view; the first was, to gain the people's affection by +delivering them from the fury and dread of wild beasts; the next was, to +train up numbers of young people by this exercise of hunting to endure +labour and hardship, to form them to the use of arms, to inure them to a +kind of discipline and obedience, that at a proper time, after they had +been accustomed to his orders and seasoned in arms, he might make use of +them for other purposes more serious than hunting. + +In ancient history we find some footsteps remaining of this artifice of +Nimrod, whom the writers have confounded with Ninus, his son: for Diodorus +has these words:(960) "Ninus, the most ancient of the Assyrian kings +mentioned in history, performed great actions. Being naturally of a +warlike disposition, and ambitious of the glory that results from valour, +he armed a considerable number of young men, that were brave and vigorous +like himself; trained them up a long time in laborious exercises and +hardships, and by that means accustomed them to bear the fatigues of war +patiently, and to face dangers with courage and intrepidity." + +What the same author adds,(961) that Ninus entered into an alliance with +the king of the Arabs, and joined forces with him, is a piece of ancient +tradition, which informs us, that the sons of Chus, and by consequence, +the brothers of Nimrod, all settled themselves in Arabia, along the +Persian gulf, from Havilah to the Ocean; and lived near enough to their +brother to lend him succours, or to receive them from him. And what the +same historian further says of Ninus, that he was the first king of the +Assyrians, agrees exactly with what the Scripture says of Nimrod, "that he +began to be mighty upon the earth;" that is, he procured himself +settlements, built cities, subdued his neighbours, united different people +under one and the same authority, by the band of the same polity and the +same laws, and formed them into one state; which, for those early times, +was of a considerable extent, though bounded by the rivers Euphrates and +Tigris; and which, in succeeding ages, made new acquisitions by degrees, +and at length extended its conquests very far. + +"The capital city of his kingdom," says the Scripture,(962) "was Babylon." +Most of the profane historians ascribe the founding of Babylon to +Semiramis,(963) others to Belus. It is evident, that both the one and the +other are mistaken, if they speak of the first founder of that city; for +it owes its beginning neither to Semiramis nor to Nimrod, but to the +foolish vanity of those persons mentioned in Scripture,(964) who desired +to build a tower and a city, that should render their memory immortal. + +Josephus relates,(965) upon the testimony of a Sibyl, (who must have been +very ancient, and whose fictions cannot be imputed to the indiscreet zeal +of any Christians,) that the gods threw down the tower by an impetuous +wind, or a violent hurricane. Had this been the case, Nimrod's temerity +must have been still greater, to rebuild a city and a tower which God +himself had overthrown with such marks of his displeasure. But the +Scripture says no such thing; and it is very probable, the building +remained in the condition it was, when God put an end to the work by the +confusion of languages; and that the tower consecrated to Belus, which is +described by Herodotus,(966) was this very tower, which the sons of men +pretended to raise to the clouds. + +It is further probable, that this ridiculous design having been defeated +by such an astonishing prodigy, as none could be the author of but God +himself, every body abandoned the place, which had given Him offence; and +that Nimrod was the first who encompassed it afterwards with walls, +settled therein his friends and confederates, and subdued those that lived +round about it, beginning his empire in that place, but not confining it +to so narrow a compass: _Fuit principium regni ejus Babylon_. The other +cities, which the Scripture speaks of in the same place, were in the land +of Shinar, which was certainly the province of which Babylon became the +metropolis. + +From this country he went into that which has the name of Assyria, and +there built Nineveh: _De terra illa egressus est Assur, et aedificavit +Nineven_.(967) This is the sense in which many learned men understand the +word Assur, looking upon it as the name of a province, and not of the +first man who possessed it, as if it were, _egressus est in Assur, in +Assyriam_. And this seems to be the most natural construction, for many +reasons not necessary to be recited in this place. The country of Assyria +is described, in one of the prophets,(968) by the particular character of +being the land of Nimrod: _Et pascent terram Assur in gladio, et terram, +Nimrod in lanceis ejus; et liberabit ab Assur, cum venerit in terram +nostram_. It derived its name from Assur the son of Shem, who, without +doubt, had settled himself and family there, and was probably driven out, +or brought under subjection, by the usurper Nimrod. + +This conqueror having possessed himself of the provinces of Assur,(969) +did not ravage them like a tyrant, but filled them with cities, and made +himself as much beloved by his new subjects as he was by his old ones; so +that the historians,(970) who have not examined into the bottom of this +affair, have thought that he made use of the Assyrians to conquer the +Babylonians. Among other cities, he built one more large and magnificent +than the rest, which he called Nineveh, from the name of his son Ninus, in +order to immortalize his memory. The son, in his turn, out of veneration +for his father, was willing that they who had served him as their king +should adore him as their god, and induce other nations to render him the +same worship. For it appears evident, that Nimrod is the famous Belus of +the Babylonians, the first king whom the people deified for his great +actions, and who showed others the way to that sort of immortality which +human acquirements are supposed capable of bestowing. + +I intend to speak of the mighty strength and greatness of the cities of +Babylon and Nineveh, under the kings to whom their building is ascribed by +profane authors, because the Scripture says little or nothing on that +subject. This silence of Scripture, so little satisfactory to our +curiosity, may become an instructive lesson to our piety. The holy penman +has placed Nimrod and Abraham, as it were, in one view before us; and +seems to have put them so near together on purpose, that we should see an +example in the former of what is admired and coveted by men, and in the +latter of what is acceptable and well-pleasing to God. These two +persons,(971) so unlike one another, are the first two and chief citizens +of two different cities, built on different motives, and with different +principles; the one, self-love, and a desire of temporal advantages, +carried even to the contemning of the Deity; the other, the love of God, +even to the contemning of one's self. + +(M156) NINUS. I have already observed, that most of the profane authors +look upon him as the first founder of the Assyrian empire, and for that +reason ascribe to him a great part of his father Nimrod's or Belus's +actions. + +Having a design to enlarge his conquests, the first thing he did was to +prepare troops and officers capable of promoting his designs.(972) And +having received powerful succours from the Arabians his neighbours, he +took the field, and in the space of seventeen years conquered a vast +extent of country, from Egypt as far as India and Bactriana, which he did +not then venture to attack. + +At his return, before he entered upon any new conquests, he conceived the +design of immortalizing his name by the building of a city answerable to +the greatness of his power; he called it Nineveh, and built it on the +eastern banks of the Tigris.(973) Possibly he did no more than finish the +work his father had begun. His design, says Diodorus, was to make Nineveh +the largest and noblest city in the world, and to put it out of the power +of those that came after him ever to build or hope to build such another. +Nor was he deceived in his view; for never did any city come up to the +greatness and magnificence of this: it was one hundred and fifty stadia +(or eighteen miles three quarters) in length, and ninety stadia (or eleven +miles and one quarter) in breadth; and consequently was an oblong square. +Its circumference was four hundred and eighty stadia, or sixty miles. For +this reason we find it said in the prophet Jonah, "That Nineveh was an +exceeding great city, of three days' journey;"(974) which is to be +understood of the whole circuit, or compass of the city.(975) The walls of +it were a hundred feet high, and of so considerable a thickness, that +three chariots might go abreast upon them with ease. They were fortified, +and adorned with fifteen hundred towers two hundred feet high. + +After he had finished this prodigious work, he resumed his expedition +against the Bactrians. His army, according to the relation of Ctesias, +consisted of seventeen hundred thousand foot, two hundred thousand horse, +and about sixteen thousand chariots armed with scythes. Diodorus adds, +that this ought not to appear incredible, since, not to mention the +innumerable armies of Darius and Xerxes, the city of Syracuse alone, in +the time of Dionysius the Tyrant, furnished one hundred and twenty +thousand foot and twelve thousand horse, besides four hundred vessels well +equipped and provided. And a little before Hannibal's time, Italy, +including the citizens and allies, was able to send into the field near a +million of men. Ninus made himself master of a great number of cities, and +at last laid siege to Bactria, the capital of the country. Here he would +probably have seen all his attempts miscarry, had it not been for the +diligence and assistance of Semiramis, wife to one of his chief officers, +a woman of an uncommon courage, and peculiarly exempt from the weakness of +her sex. She was born at Ascalon, a city of Syria. I think it needless to +recite the account Diodorus gives of her birth, and of the miraculous +manner of her being nursed and brought up by pigeons, since that historian +himself looks upon it only as a fabulous story. It was Semiramis that +directed Ninus how to attack the citadel, and by her means he took it, and +thus became master of the city, in which he found an immense treasure. The +husband of Semiramis having killed himself, to prevent the effects of the +king's threats and indignation, who had conceived a violent passion for +his wife, Ninus married her. + +After his return to Nineveh, he had a son by her, whom he called Ninyas. +Not long after this he died, and left the queen the government of the +kingdom. She, in honour of his memory, erected a magnificent monument, +which remained a long time after the ruin of Nineveh. + +I find no appearance of truth in what some authors relate concerning the +manner of Semiramis's coming to the throne.(976) According to them, having +secured the chief men of the state, and attached them to her interest by +her benefactions and promises, she solicited the king with great +importunity to put the sovereign power into her hands for the space of +five days. He yielded to her entreaties, and all the provinces of the +empire were commanded to obey Semiramis. These orders were executed but +too exactly for the unfortunate Ninus, who was put to death, either +immediately or after some years' imprisonment. + +(M157) SEMIRAMIS. This princess applied all her thoughts to immortalize +her name, and to cover the meanness of her extraction by the greatness of +her enterprises.(977) She proposed to herself to surpass all her +predecessors in magnificence, and to that end she undertook the building +of the mighty Babylon,(978) in which work she employed two millions of +men, which were collected out of all the provinces of her vast empire. +Some of her successors endeavoured to adorn that city with new works and +embellishments. I shall here speak of them all together, in order to give +the reader a more clear and distinct idea of that stupendous city. + +The principal works which rendered Babylon so famous, are the walls of the +city; the quays and the bridge; the lake, banks, and canals, made for the +draining of the river; the palaces, hanging gardens, and the temple of +Belus; works of such a surprising magnificence, as is scarce to be +comprehended. Dr. Prideaux having treated this subject with great extent +and learning, I have only to copy, or rather abridge him. + +I. _The Walls._--Babylon stood on a large plain, in a very fat and rich +soil.(979) The Avails were every way prodigious. They were in thickness +eighty-seven feet, in height three hundred and fifty, and in compass four +hundred and eighty furlongs, which make sixty of our miles. These walls +were drawn round the city in the form of an exact square, each side of +which was one hundred and twenty furlongs,(980) or fifteen miles, in +length, and all built of large bricks cemented together with bitumen, a +glutinous slime arising out of the earth in that country, which binds much +stronger and firmer than mortar, and soon grows much harder than the +bricks or stones themselves which it cements together. + +These walls were surrounded on the outside with a vast ditch, full of +water, and lined with bricks on both sides. The earth that was dug out of +it made the bricks wherewith the walls were built; and therefore, from the +vast height and breadth of the walls may be inferred the greatness of the +ditch. + +In every side of this great square were twenty-five gates, that is, a +hundred in all, which were all made of solid brass; and hence it is, that +when God promises to Cyrus the conquest of Babylon, he tells him,(981) +that he would break in pieces before him the gates of brass. Between every +two of these gates were three towers, and four more at the four corners of +this great square, and three between each of these corners and the next +gate on either side; every one of these towers was ten feet higher than +the walls. But this is to be understood only of those parts of the wall +where there was need of towers. + +From the twenty-five gates in each side of this great square went +twenty-five streets, in straight lines to the gates, which were directly +over-against them, in the opposite side; so that the whole number of the +streets was fifty, each fifteen miles long, whereof twenty-five went one +way, and twenty-five the other, directly crossing each other at right +angles. And besides these, there were also four half streets, which had +houses only on one side, and the wall on the other; these went round the +four sides of the city next the walls, and were each of them two hundred +feet broad; the rest were about a hundred and fifty. By these streets thus +crossing each other, the whole city was cut out into six hundred and +seventy-six squares, each of which was four furlongs and a half on every +side, that is, two miles and a quarter in circumference. Round these +squares, on every side towards the street, stood the houses (which were +not contiguous, but had void spaces between them,) all built three or four +stories high, and beautified with all manner of ornaments towards the +streets.(982) The space within in the middle of each square, was likewise +all void ground, employed for yards, gardens, and other such uses; so that +Babylon was greater in appearance than reality, near one half of the city +being taken up in gardens and other cultivated lands, as we are told by Q. +Curtius. + +II. _The Quays and Bridge._--A branch of the river Euphrates ran quite +cross the city, from the north to the south side;(983) on each side of the +river was a quay, and a high wall built of brick and bitumen, of the same +thickness as the walls that went round the city. In these walls, +over-against every street that led to the river, were gates of brass, and +from them descents by steps to the river, for the conveniency of the +inhabitants, who used to pass over from one side to the other in boats, +having no other way of crossing the river before the building of the +bridge. The brazen gates were always open in the daytime, and shut in the +night. + +The bridge was not inferior to any of the other buildings, either in +beauty or magnificence; it was a furlong in length,(984) and thirty feet +in breadth, built with wonderful art, to supply the defect of a foundation +in the bottom of the river, which was all sandy. The arches were made of +huge stones, fastened together with chains of iron and melted lead. Before +they began to build the bridge, they turned the course of the river, and +laid its channel dry, having another view in so doing, besides that of +laying the foundations more commodiously, as I shall explain hereafter. +And as every thing was prepared beforehand, both the bridge and the quays, +which I have already described, were built in that interval. + +III. _The Lake, Ditches, and Canals, made for the draining __ of the +River._--These works, objects of admiration for the skilful in all ages, +were still more useful than magnificent.(985) In the beginning of the +summer, on the sun's melting the snow on the mountains of Armenia, there +arises a vast increase of waters, which, running into the Euphrates in the +months of June, July, and August, makes it overflow its banks, and +occasion such another inundation as the Nile does in Egypt. To prevent the +damage which both the city and country received from these inundations, at +a very considerable distance above the town two artificial canals were +cut, which turned the course of these waters into the Tigris, before they +reached Babylon.(986) And to secure the country yet more from the danger +of inundations, and to keep the river within its channel, they raised +prodigious banks on both sides the river, built with brick cemented with +bitumen, which began at the head of the artificial canals, and extended +below the city.(987) + +To facilitate the making of these works, it was necessary to turn the +course of the river, for which purpose, to the west of Babylon, was dug a +prodigious artificial lake, forty miles square,(988) one hundred and sixty +in compass, and thirty-five feet deep, according to Herodotus, and +seventy-five, according to Megasthenes. Into this lake was the whole river +turned, by an artificial canal cut from the west side of it, till the +whole work was finished, when it was made to flow in its former channel. +But that the Euphrates, in the time of its increase, might not overflow +the city, through the gates on its sides, this lake, with the canal from +the river, was still preserved. The water received into the lake at the +time of these overflowings was kept there all the year, as in a common +reservoir, for the benefit of the country, to be let out by sluices, at +convenient times for the watering of the lands below it. The lake, +therefore, was equally useful in defending the country from inundations, +and making it fertile. I relate the wonders of Babylon as they are +delivered down to us by the ancients; but there are some of them which are +scarce to be comprehended or believed, of which number is the vast extent +of the lake which I have just described. + +Berosus, Megasthenes, and Abydenus, quoted by Josephus and Eusebius, make +Nebuchadnezzar the author of most of these works; but Herodotus ascribes +the bridge, the two quays of the river, and the lake, to Nitocris, the +daughter-in-law of that monarch. Perhaps Nitocris might finish what her +father left imperfect at his death, on which account that historian might +give her the honour of the whole undertaking. + +IV. _The Palaces, and Hanging Gardens._(_989_)--At the two ends of the +bridge were two palaces, which had a communication with each other by a +vault, built under the channel of the river, at the time of its being dry. +The old palace, which stood on the east side of the river, was thirty +furlongs (or three miles and three quarters) in compass; near which stood +the temple of Belus, of which we shall soon speak. The new palace, which +stood on the west side of the river, opposite to the other, was sixty +furlongs (or seven miles and a half) in compass. It was surrounded with +three walls, one within another, with considerable spaces between them. +These walls, as also those of the other palace, were embellished with an +infinite variety of sculptures, representing all kinds of animals, to the +life. Amongst the rest was a curious hunting-piece, in which Semiramis on +horseback was throwing her javelin at a leopard, and her husband Ninus +piercing a lion. + +In this last palace, were the hanging gardens, so celebrated among the +Greeks.(990) They contained a square of four hundred feet on every side, +and were carried up in the manner of several large terraces, one above +another, till the height equalled that of the walls of the city. The +ascent was from terrace to terrace, by stairs ten feet wide. The whole +pile was sustained by vast arches, raised upon other arches, one above +another, and strengthened by a wall, surrounding it on every side, of +twenty-two feet in thickness. On the top of the arches were first laid +large flat stones, sixteen feet long, and four broad; over these was a +layer of reeds, mixed with a great quantity of bitumen, upon which were +two rows of bricks, closely cemented together with plaster. The whole was +covered with thick sheets of lead, upon which lay the mould of the garden. +And all this floorage was contrived to keep the moisture of the mould from +running away through the arches. The earth laid hereon was so deep, that +the greatest trees might take root in it; and with such the terraces were +covered, as well as with all other plants and flowers, that were proper to +adorn a pleasure-garden. In the upper terrace there was an engine, or kind +of pump, by which water was drawn up out of the river, and from thence the +whole garden was watered. In the spaces between the several arches, upon +which this whole structure rested, were large and magnificent apartments, +that were very light, and had the advantage of a beautiful prospect. + +Amytis, the wife of Nebuchadnezzar, having been bred in Media, (for she +was the daughter of Astyages, the king of that country,) had been much +delighted with the mountains and woody parts of that country.(991) And as +she desired to have something like it in Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar, to +gratify her, caused this prodigious edifice to be erected: Diodoras gives +much the same account of the matter, but without naming the persons. + +V. _The Temple of Belus._(_992_)--Another of the great works at Babylon was +the temple of Belus, which stood, as I have mentioned already, near the +old palace. It was most remarkable for a prodigious tower, that stood in +the middle of it. At the foundation, according to Herodotus, it was a +square of a furlong on each side, that is, half a mile in the whole +compass, and (according to Strabo) it was also a furlong in height. It +consisted of eight towers, built one above the other, decreasing regularly +to the top, for which reason Strabo calls the whole a pyramid. It is not +only asserted, but proved, that this tower much exceeded the greatest of +the pyramids of Egypt in height. Therefore we have good reason to believe, +as Bochart asserts,(993) that this is the very same tower which was built +there at the confusion of languages; and the rather, because it is +attested by several profane authors, that this tower was all built of +bricks and bitumen, as the Scriptures tell us the tower of Babel was. The +ascent to the top was by stairs on the outside round it; that is, perhaps, +there was an easy sloping ascent in the side of the outer wall, which, +turning by very slow degrees in a spiral line eight times round the tower +from the bottom to the top, had the same appearance as if there had been +eight towers placed upon one another. In these different stories were many +large rooms, with arched roofs supported by pillars. Over the whole, on +the top of the tower, was an observatory, by the benefit of which the +Babylonians became more expert in astronomy than all other nations, and +made, in a short time, the great progress in it ascribed to them in +history. + +But the chief use to which this tower was designed, was the worship of the +god Belus or Baal, as also that of several other deities; for which reason +there was a multitude of chapels in different parts of the tower. The +riches of this temple in statues, tables, censers, cups, and other sacred +vessels, all of massy gold, were immense. Among other images, there was +one forty feet high, which weighed a thousand Babylonish talents. The +Babylonish talent, according to Pollux in his _Onomasticon_, contained +seven thousand Attic drachmas, and consequently was a sixth part more than +the Attic talent, which contains but six thousand drachmas. + +According to the calculation which Diodorus makes of the riches contained +in this temple, the sum total amounts to six thousand three hundred +Babylonish talents of gold. + +The sixth part of six thousand three hundred is one thousand and fifty; +consequently six thousand three hundred Babylonish talents of gold are +equivalent to seven thousand three hundred and fifty Attic talents of +gold. + +Now seven thousand three hundred and fifty Attic talents of silver are +worth upwards of two millions and one hundred thousand pounds sterling. +The proportion between gold and silver among the ancients we reckon as ten +to one; therefore seven thousand three hundred and fifty Attic talents of +gold amount to above one and twenty millions sterling. + +This temple stood till the time of Xerxes;(994) but he, on his return from +his Grecian expedition, demolished it entirely, after having first +plundered it of all its immense riches. Alexander, on his return to +Babylon from his Indian expedition, purposed to have rebuilt it; and in +order thereto, set ten thousand men to work, to rid the place of its +rubbish; but, after they had laboured herein two months, Alexander died, +and that put an end to the undertaking. + +Such were the chief works which rendered Babylon so famous; the greater +part of them are ascribed by profane authors to Semiramis, to whose +history it is now time to return. + +When she had finished all these great undertakings, she thought fit to +make a progress through the several parts of her empire;(995) and, +wherever she came, left monuments of her magnificence by many noble +structures which she erected, either for the conveniency or ornament of +her cities; she was particularly careful to have water brought by +aqueducts to such places as wanted it, and to make the highways easy, by +cutting through mountains, and filling up valleys. In the time of +Diodorus, there were still monuments to be seen in many places, with her +name inscribed upon them. + +The authority this queen had over her people seems very extraordinary, +since we find her presence alone capable of appeasing a sedition.(996) One +day, as she was dressing herself, word was brought her of a tumult in the +city. Whereupon she went out immediately, with her head half dressed, and +did not return till the disturbance was entirely appeased. A statue was +erected in remembrance of this action, representing her in that very +attitude and undress, which had not hindered her from flying to her duty. + +Not satisfied with the vast extent of dominions left her by her husband, +she enlarged them by the conquest of a great part of AEthiopia. Whilst she +was in that country, she had the curiosity to visit the temple of Jupiter +Ammon, to inquire of the oracle how long she had to live. According to +Diodorus, the answer she received was, that she should not die till her +son Ninyas conspired against her, and that after her death one part of +Asia would pay her divine honours. + +Her greatest and last expedition was against India; on this occasion she +raised an innumerable army out of all the provinces of her empire, and +appointed Bactra for the rendezvous. As the strength of the Indians +consisted chiefly in their great number of elephants, she caused a +multitude of camels to be accoutred in the form of elephants, in hopes of +deceiving the enemy. It is said that Perseus long after used the same +stratagem against the Romans; but neither of them succeeded in this +artifice. The Indian king having notice of her approach, sent ambassadors +to ask her who she was, and with what right, having never received any +injury from him, she came out of wantonness to attack his dominions; +adding, that her boldness should soon meet with the punishment it +deserved. Tell your master (replied the queen) that in a little time I +myself will let him know who I am. She advanced immediately towards the +river(997) from which the country takes its name; and having prepared a +sufficient number of boats, she attempted to pass it with her army. Their +passage was a long time disputed, but after a bloody battle she put her +enemies to flight. Above a thousand of their boats were sunk, and above a +hundred thousand of their men taken prisoners. Encouraged by this success, +she advanced directly into the country, leaving sixty thousand men behind +to guard the bridge of boats, which she had built over the river. This was +just what the king desired, who fled on purpose to bring her to an +engagement in the heart of his country. As soon as he thought her far +enough advanced, he faced about, and a second engagement ensued, more +bloody than the first. The counterfeit elephants could not long sustain +the shock of the real ones: these routed her army, crushing whatever came +in their way. Semiramis did all that lay in her power to rally and +encourage her troops, but in vain. The king, perceiving her engaged in the +fight, advanced towards her, and wounded her in two places, but not +mortally. The swiftness of her horse soon carried her beyond the reach of +her enemies. As her men crowded to the bridge, to repass the river, great +numbers of them perished, through the disorder and confusion unavoidable +on such occasions. When those that could save themselves were safely over, +she destroyed the bridge, and by that means stopt the enemy; and the king +likewise, in obedience to an oracle, had given orders to his troops not to +pass the river, nor pursue Semiramis any farther. The queen, having made +an exchange of prisoners at Bactra, returned to her own dominions with +scarce one-third of her army, which (according to Ctesias) consisted of +three million foot, and five hundred thousand horse, besides the camels +and chariots armed for war, of which she had a very considerable number. I +have no doubt that this account is highly exaggerated, or that there is +some mistake in the numeral characters. She, and Alexander after her, were +the only persons that ever ventured to carry the war beyond the river +Indus. + +I must own, I am somewhat puzzled with a difficulty which may be raised +against the extraordinary things related of Ninus and Semiramis, as they +do not seem to agree with the times so near the deluge: I mean, such vast +armies, such a numerous cavalry, so many chariots armed with scythes, and +such immense treasures of gold and silver; all which seem to be of a later +date. The same thing may likewise be said of the magnificence of the +buildings, ascribed to them. It is probable, the Greek historians, who +came so many ages afterwards, deceived by the similarity of names, by +their ignorance in chronology, and the resemblance of one event with +another, may have ascribed such things to more ancient princes, as +belonged to those of a later date; or may have attributed a number of +exploits and enterprises to one, which ought to be divided amongst a +series of them, succeeding one another. + +Semiramis, some time after her return, discovered that her son was +plotting against her, and one of her principal officers had offered him +his assistance. She then called to mind the oracle of Jupiter Ammon; and +believing that her end approached, without inflicting any punishment on +the officer, who was taken into custody, she voluntarily abdicated the +throne, put the government into the hands of her son, and withdrew from +the sight of men, hoping speedily to have divine honours paid to her +according to the promise of the oracle. And indeed we are told, she was +worshipped by the Assyrians, under the form of a dove. She lived sixty-two +years, of which she reigned forty-two. + +There are in the _Memoirs of the Academy of Belles Lettres_(998) two +learned dissertations upon the Assyrian empire, and particularly on the +reign and actions of Semiramis. + +What Justin(999) says of Semiramis, namely, that after her husband's +decease, not daring either to commit the government to her son, who was +then too young, or openly to take it upon herself, she governed under the +name and habit of Ninyas, and that, after having reigned in that manner +above forty years, falling passionately in love with her own son, she +endeavoured to induce him to comply with her criminal desires, and was +slain by him: all this, I say, is so void of all appearance of truth, that +to go about to confute it would be but losing time. It must however be +owned, that almost all the authors who have spoken of Semiramis, give us +but a disadvantageous idea of her chastity. + +I do not know but that the glorious reign of this queen might partly +induce Plato to maintain, in his Commonwealth,(1000) that women as well as +men ought to be admitted into the management of public affairs, the +conducting of armies, and the government of states; and, by necessary +consequence, ought to be trained up in the same exercises as men, as well +for the forming of the body as the mind. Nor does he so much as except +those exercises, wherein it was customary to fight stark naked, +alleging(1001) that the virtue of the sex would be a sufficient covering +for them. + +It is just matter of surprise to find a philosopher so judicious in other +respects, openly combating the most common and most natural maxims of +modesty and decency, virtues which are the principal ornament of the +female sex, and insisting so strongly upon a principle, sufficiently +confuted by the constant practice of all ages, and of almost all nations +in the world. + +Aristotle, wiser in this than his master Plato, without doing the least +injustice to the real merit and essential qualities of the sex, has with +great judgment marked(1002) out the different ends to which man and woman +are ordained, from the different qualities of body and mind, wherewith +they are endowed by the Author of nature, who has given the one strength +of body and intrepidity of mind to enable him to undergo the greatest +hardships, and face the most imminent dangers; whilst the other, on the +contrary, is of a weak and delicate constitution, accompanied with a +natural softness and modest timidity, which render her more fit for a +sedentary life, and dispose her to keep within the precincts of the house, +and to employ herself in the concerns of prudent and industrious economy. + +Xenophon is of the same opinion with Aristotle;(1003) and in order to set +off the occupation of the wife, who confines herself within her house, +agreeably compares her to the mother-bee, commonly called the queen-bee, +who alone governs and has the superintendence of the whole hive, who +distributes all their employments, encourages their industry, presides +over the building of their little cells, takes care of the nourishment and +subsistence of her numerous family; regulates the quantity of honey +appointed for that purpose, and at fixed and proper seasons sends abroad +the new swarms in colonies, to ease and disburthen the hive of its +superfluous inhabitants. He remarks, with Aristotle, the difference of +constitution and inclinations, designedly made by the Author of nature +between man and woman, to point out to each of them their proper and +peculiar offices and functions. + +This allotment, far from degrading or lessening the woman, is really for +her advantage and honour, in confiding to her a kind of domestic empire +and government, administered only by gentleness, reason, equity, and good +nature; and in giving her frequent occasions of concealing the most +valuable and excellent qualities under the inestimable veil of modesty and +submission. For it must ingenuously be owned, that at all times, and in +all conditions, there have been women, who by a real and solid merit have +distinguished themselves above their sex; as there have been innumerable +instances of men, who by their defects have dishonoured theirs. But these +are only particular cases, which form no rule, and which ought not to +prevail against an establishment founded in nature, and prescribed by the +Creator himself. + +(M158) NINYAS.(1004) This prince was in no respect like those from whom he +received his birth, and to whose throne he succeeded. Wholly intent upon +his pleasures, he kept himself shut up in his palace, and seldom showed +himself to his people. To keep them in their duty, he had always at +Nineveh a certain number of regular troops, furnished every year from the +several provinces of his empire, at the expiration of which term they were +succeeded by the like number of other troops on the same conditions; the +king putting a commander at the head of them, on whose fidelity he could +depend. He made use of this method, that the officers might not have time +to gain the affections of the soldiers, and so form any conspiracies +against him. + +His successors for thirty generations followed his example and even +surpassed him in indolence. Their history is absolutely unknown, there +remaining no footsteps of it. + +(M159) In Abraham's time the Scripture speaks of Amraphael, king of +Shinar, the country where Babylon was situated, who with two other princes +followed Chedorlaomer, king of the Elamites, whose tributary he probably +was, in the war carried on by the latter against five kings of the land of +Canaan. + +(M160) It was under the government of these inactive princes, that +Sesostris, king of Egypt, extended his conquests so far in the East. But +as his power was of a short duration, and not supported by his successors, +the Assyrian empire soon returned to its former state. + +(M161) Plato, a curious observer of antiquities, makes the kingdom of +Troy, in the time of Priam, dependent on the Assyrian empire.(1005) And +Ctesias says, that Teutamus, the twentieth king after Ninyas, sent a +considerable body of troops to the assistance of the Trojans, under the +conduct of Memnon, the son of Tithonus, at a time when the Assyrian empire +had subsisted above a thousand years; which agrees exactly with the time, +wherein I have placed the foundation of that empire. But the silence of +Homer concerning so mighty a people, and one which must needs have been +well known, renders this fact exceeding doubtful. And it must be owned, +that whatever relates to the times of the ancient history of the +Assyrians, is attended with great difficulties, into which my plan does +not permit me to enter. + +(M162) PUL. The Scripture informs us, that Pul, king of Assyria, being +come into the land of Israel, had a thousand talents of silver given him +by Menahem, king of the ten tribes, to engage him to lend him assistance, +and secure him on his throne.(1006) + +This Pul is supposed to be the king of Nineveh, who repented, with all his +people, at the preaching of Jonah. + +He is also thought to be the father of Sardanapalus, the last king of the +Assyrians, called, according to the custom of the eastern nations, +Sardanpul, that is to say, Sardan, the son of Pul. + +(M163) SARDANAPALUS. This prince surpassed all his predecessors in +effeminacy, luxury, and cowardice.(1007) He never went out of his palace, +but spent all his time amongst a company of women, dressed and painted +like them, and employed like them at the distaff. He placed all his +happiness and glory in the possession of immense treasures, in feasting +and rioting, and indulging himself in all the most infamous and criminal +pleasures. He ordered two verses to be put upon his tomb, which imported, +that he carried away with him all that he had eaten, and all the pleasures +he had enjoyed, but left all the rest behind him. + + + Haec habeo quae edi, quaeque exaturata libido + Hausit: at illa jacent multa et praeclara relicta.(1008) + + +An epitaph, says Aristotle, fit for a hog. + +Arbaces, governor of Media, having found means to get into the palace, and +having with his own eyes seen Sardanapalus in the midst of his infamous +seraglio; enraged at such a spectacle, and not able to endure that so many +brave men should be subject to a prince more soft and effeminate than the +women themselves, immediately formed a conspiracy against him. Belesis, +governor of Babylon, and several others, entered into it. On the first +rumour of this revolt, the king hid himself in the inmost part of his +palace. Being obliged afterwards to take the field with some forces which +he had assembled, he at first gained three successive victories over the +enemy, but was afterwards overcome, and pursued to the gates of Nineveh; +wherein he shut himself, in hopes the rebels would never be able to take a +city so well fortified, and stored with provisions for a considerable +time: the siege proved indeed of very great length. It had been declared +by an ancient oracle, that Nineveh could never be taken, unless the river +became an enemy to the city. These words buoyed up Sardanapalus, because +he looked upon the thing as impossible. But when he saw that the Tigris, +by a violent inundation, had thrown down twenty stadia(1009) of the city +wall, and by that means opened a passage to the enemy, he understood the +meaning of the oracle, and thought himself lost.(M164) He resolved, +however, to die in such a manner, as, according to his opinion, should +cover the infamy of his scandalous and effeminate life. He ordered a pile +of wood to be made in his palace, and setting fire to it, burnt himself, +his eunuchs, his women, and his treasures. Athenaeus makes these treasures +amount to a thousand myriads of talents of gold,(1010) and ten times as +many talents of silver, which, without reckoning any thing else, is a sum +that exceeds all credibility. A myriad contains ten thousand; and one +single myriad of talents of silver is worth thirty millions of French +money, or about one million four hundred thousand pounds sterling. A man +is lost, if he attempts to sum up the whole value; which induces me to +believe, that Athenaeus must have very much exaggerated in his computation; +however, we may be assured, from his account, that the treasures were +immensely great. + +Plutarch, in his second treatise,(1011) dedicated to the praise of +Alexander the Great, wherein he examines in what the true greatness of +princes consists, after having shown that it can arise from nothing but +their own personal merit, confirms it by two very different examples, +taken from the history of the Assyrians, in which we are now engaged. +Semiramis and Sardanapalus (says he) both governed the same kingdom; both +had the same people, the same extent of country, the same revenues, the +same forces and number of troops; but they had not the same dispositions, +nor the same views. Semiramis, raising herself above her sex, built +magnificent cities, equipped fleets, armed legions, subdued neighbouring +nations, penetrated into Arabia and Ethiopia, and carried her victorious +arms to the extremities of Asia, spreading consternation and terror +everywhere. Whereas Sardanapalus, as if he had entirely renounced his sex, +spent all his time in the heart of his palace, perpetually surrounded with +a company of women, whose dress and even manners he had adopted, applying +himself with them to the spindle and the distaff, neither understanding +nor doing any other thing than spinning, eating and drinking, and +wallowing in all manner of infamous pleasure. Accordingly, a statue was +erected to him, after his death, which represented him in the posture of a +dancer, with an inscription upon it, in which he addressed himself to the +spectator in these words: _Eat, drink, and be merry; every thing else is +nothing_: an inscription very suitable to the epitaph he himself had +ordered to be put upon his monument.(1012) + +Plutarch in this place judges of Semiramis, as almost all the profane +historians do of the glory of conquerors. But, if we would make a true +judgment of things, was the unbounded ambition of that queen much less +blamable, than the dissolute effeminacy of Sardanapalus? Which of the two +vices did most mischief to mankind? + +We are not to wonder that the Assyrian empire should fall under such a +prince; but undoubtedly it was not till after having passed through +various augmentations, diminutions, and revolutions, common to all states, +even to the greatest, during the course of several ages. This empire had +subsisted above 1450 years. + +Of the ruins of this vast empire were formed three considerable kingdoms; +that of the Medes, which Arbaces, the principal head of the conspiracy, +restored to its liberty; that of the Assyrians of Babylon, which was given +to Belesis, governor of that city; and that of the Assyrians of Nineveh, +the first king whereof took the name of Ninus the younger. + +In order to understand the history of the second Assyrian empire, which is +very obscure, and of which little is said by historians, it is proper, and +even absolutely necessary, to compare what is said of it by profane +authors with what we are informed concerning it by holy Scripture; that by +the help of that double light we may have the clearer idea of the two +empires of Nineveh and Babylon, which for some time were separate and +distinct, and afterwards united and confounded together. I shall first +treat of this second Assyrian empire, and then return to the kingdom of +the Medes. + + + + +Chapter II. The Second Assyrian Empire, both of Nineveh and Babylon. + + +This second Assyrian empire continued two hundred and ten years, reckoning +to the year in which Cyrus, who was become absolute master of the East by +the death of his father Cambyses and his father-in-law Cyaxares, published +the famous edict, whereby the Jews were permitted to return into their own +country, after a seventy years' captivity at Babylon. + +(M165) _Kings of Babylon._(_1013_)--BELESIS. He is the same as Nabonassar, +from whose reign began the famous astronomical epocha at Babylon, called +from his name the _AEra of Nabonassar_. In the holy Scriptures he is called +Baladan. He reigned but twelve years, and was succeeded by his son: + +(M166) MERODACH-BALADAN. This is the prince who sent ambassadors to king +Hezekiah, to congratulate him on the recovery of his health, of which we +shall speak hereafter.(1014) After him there reigned several other kings +of Babylon,(1015) with whose story we are entirely unacquainted. I shall +therefore proceed to the kings of Nineveh. + +(M167) _Kings of Nineveh_.--TIGLATH-PILESER. This is the name given by the +holy Scripture to the king, who is supposed to be the first that reigned +at Nineveh, after the destruction of the ancient Assyrian empire. He is +called Thilgamus, by AElian.(1016) He is said to have taken the name of +Ninus the younger, in order to honour and distinguish his reign by the +name of so ancient and illustrious a prince. + +Ahaz, king of Judah,(1017) whose incorrigible impiety could not be +reclaimed, either by the divine favours or chastisements, finding himself +attacked at the same time by the kings of Syria and Israel, robbed the +temple of part of its gold and silver, and sent it to Tiglath-Pileser, to +purchase his assistance; promising him besides to become his vassal, and +to pay him tribute. The king of Assyria finding so favourable an +opportunity of adding Syria and Palestine to his empire, readily accepted +the proposal. Advancing that way with a numerous army, he beat Rezin, took +Damascus, and put an end to the kingdom erected there by the Syrians, as +God had foretold by his prophets Isaiah and Amos(1018). From thence he +marched against Pekah, and took all that belonged to the kingdom of Israel +beyond Jordan, as well as all Galilee. But he made Ahaz pay very dear for +his protection, still exacting of him such exorbitant sums of money, that +for the payment of them he was obliged not only to exhaust his own +treasures, but to take all the gold and silver of the temple. Thus this +alliance served only to drain the kingdom of Judah, and to bring into its +neighbourhood the powerful kings of Nineveh; who afterwards became so many +instruments in the hand of God for the chastisement of his people. + +(M168) SHALMANEZER. Sabacus, the Ethiopian, whom the Scripture calls So, +having made himself master of Egypt, Hoshea, king of Samaria, entered into +an alliance with him, hoping by that means to shake off the Assyrian +yoke.(1019) To this end he withdrew from his dependence upon Shalmanezer, +refusing to pay him any further tribute, or make him the usual presents. + +Shalmanezer, to punish him for his presumption, marched against him with a +powerful army; and after having subdued all the plain country, shut him up +in Samaria, where he kept him closely besieged for three years; at the end +of which he took the city, loaded Hoshea with chains, and threw him into +prison for the rest of his days; carried away the people captive, and +planted them in Halah and Habor, cities of the Medes. And thus was the +kingdom of Israel, or of the ten tribes, destroyed, as God had often +threatened by his prophets. This kingdom, from the time of its separation +from that of Judah, lasted about two hundred and fifty years. + +It was at this time that Tobit, with Anna his wife, and his son Tobias, +was carried captive into Assyria, where he became one of the principal +officers of king Shalmanezer.(1020) + +Shalmanezer died, after having reigned fourteen years, and was succeeded +by his son: + +(M169) SENNACHERIB. He is also called Sargon in Scripture.(1021) + +As soon as this prince was settled on the throne, he renewed the demand of +the tribute exacted by his father from Hezekiah. Upon his refusal he +declared war against him, and entered into Judea with a mighty army. +Hezekiah, grieved to see his kingdom pillaged, sent ambassadors to him, to +desire peace upon any terms he would prescribe. Sennacherib, seemingly +mollified, entered into treaty with him, and demanded a very great sum of +gold and silver. The holy king exhausted both the treasures of the temple, +and his own coffers, to pay it. The Assyrian, regarding neither the +sanction of oaths nor treaties, still continued the war, and pushed on his +conquests more vigorously than ever. Nothing was able to withstand his +power, and of all the strong places of Judah, none remained untaken but +Jerusalem, which was likewise reduced to the utmost extremity. At this +very juncture,(1022) Sennacherib was informed, that Tirhakah, king of +Ethiopia, who had joined his forces with those of the king of Egypt, was +coming up to succour the besieged city. Now it was contrary to the express +command of God, as well as the remonstrances of Isaiah and Hezekiah, that +the chief men at Jerusalem had required any foreign assistance. The +Assyrian prince marched immediately to meet the approaching enemy, after +having written a letter to Hezekiah, full of blasphemy against the God of +Israel, whom he insolently boasted he would speedily vanquish, as he had +done all the gods of the other nations round about him. In short, he +discomfited the AEgyptians, and pursued them even into their own country, +which he ravaged, and returned laden with spoil. + +It was probably during Sennacherib's absence, which was pretty long, or at +least some little time before, that Hezekiah fell sick, and was cured in a +miraculous manner;(1023) and that (as a sign of God's fulfilling the +promise he had made him of curing him so perfectly, that within three days +he should be able to go to the temple,) the shadow of the sun went ten +degrees backwards upon the dial of the palace. Merodach-Baladan, king of +Babylon, being informed of the miraculous cure of king Hezekiah, sent +ambassadors to him with letters and presents, to congratulate him upon +that occasion, and to acquaint themselves with the miracle that had +happened in the land at this juncture, with respect to the sun's +retrogradation ten degrees. Hezekiah was extremely sensible of the honour +done him by that prince, and very forward to show his ambassadors the +riches and treasures he possessed, and to let them see the whole +magnificence of his palace. Humanly speaking, there was nothing in this +proceeding but what was allowable and commendable; but in the eyes of the +supreme Judge, which are infinitely more piercing and delicate than ours, +this action discovered a lurking pride, and secret vanity, with which his +righteousness was offended. Accordingly, he instantly informed the king by +his prophet Isaiah, that the riches and treasures which he had been +showing to those ambassadors with so much ostentation, should one day be +transported to Babylon; and that his children should be carried thither, +to become servants in the palace of that monarch. This was then utterly +improbable; for Babylon, at the time we are speaking of, was in friendship +and alliance with Jerusalem, as appears by her having sent ambassadors +thither: nor did Jerusalem then seem to have any thing to fear, but from +Nineveh; whose power was at that time formidable, and who had entirely +declared against her. But the fortune of those two cities was to change, +and the word of God was literally accomplished. + +But to return to Sennacherib.(1024) After he had ravaged Egypt, and taken +a vast number of prisoners, he came back with his victorious army, +encamped before Jerusalem, and besieged it anew. The city seemed to be +inevitably lost: it was without resource, and without hope from the hands +of men; but had a powerful protector in Heaven, whose jealous ears had +heard the impious blasphemies uttered by the king of Nineveh against His +sacred name. In one single night a hundred and eighty-five thousand men of +his army perished by the sword of the destroying angel. After so terrible +a blow this pretended king of kings, (for so he called himself,) this +triumpher over nations, and conqueror even of gods, was obliged to return +to his own country with the miserable remnant of his army, covered with +shame and confusion: nor did he survive his defeat more than a few months, +only to make a kind of open confession of his crime to God, whose supreme +majesty he had presumed to insult, and who now, to use the Scripture +terms, having "put a ring into his nose, and a bridle into his mouth," as +a wild beast, made him return in that humbled, afflicted condition, +through those very countries, which a little before had beheld him so +haughty and imperious. + +Upon his return to Nineveh, being enraged at his disgrace, he treated his +subjects in the most cruel and tyrannical manner. The effects of his fury +fell more heavily upon the Jews and Israelites, of whom he caused great +numbers to be massacred every day, ordering their bodies to be left +exposed in the streets, and suffering no man to give them burial.(1025) +Tobit, to avoid his cruelty, was obliged to conceal himself for some time, +and suffer all his effects to be confiscated. In short, the king's savage +temper rendered him so insupportable to his own family, that his two +eldest sons conspired against him, and killed him in the temple,(1026) in +the presence of his god Nisroch, as he lay prostrate before him. But these +two princes, being obliged after this parricide to fly into Armenia, left +the kingdom to Esarhaddon, their youngest brother. + +(M170) ESARHADDON. We have already observed, that after Merodach-Baladan +there was a succession of kings at Babylon, of whom history has +transmitted nothing but the names.(1027) The royal family becoming +extinct, there was an eight years' interregnum, full of troubles and +commotions. Esarhaddon, taking advantage of this juncture, made himself +master of Babylon, and annexing it to his former dominions, reigned over +the two united empires thirteen years. + +After having reunited to the Assyrian empire Syria and Palestine, which +had been rent from it in the preceding reign, he entered the land of +Israel, where he took captive as many as were left there, and carried them +into Assyria, except an inconsiderable number that escaped his pursuit. +But that the country might not become a desert, he sent colonies of +idolatrous people, taken out of the countries beyond the Euphrates, to +dwell in the cities of Samaria. The prediction of Isaiah was then +fulfilled;(1028) _within threescore and five years shall Ephraim be +broken, that it be no more a people_. This was exactly the space of time +which elapsed between the prediction and the event: and the people of +Israel did then truly cease to be a visible nation, what was left of them +being altogether mixed and confounded with other nations. + +This prince, having possessed himself of the land of Israel, sent some of +his generals with part of his army into Judea, to reduce that country +likewise under his subjection.(1029) These generals defeated Manasseh, and +having taken him prisoner, brought him to Esarhaddon, who put him in +chains, and carried him with him to Babylon. But Manasseh, having +afterwards appeased the wrath of God by a sincere and lively repentance, +obtained his liberty, and returned to Jerusalem. + +Meantime the colonies, that had been sent into Samaria, in the room of its +ancient inhabitants, were grievously infested with lions.(1030) The king +of Babylon being told that the cause of this calamity was their not +worshipping the God of the country, ordered an Israelitish priest to be +sent to them, from among the captives brought from that country, to teach +them the worship of the God of Israel. But these idolaters did no more +than admit the true God amongst their ancient divinities, and worshipped +him jointly with their false deities. This corrupt worship continued +afterwards, and was the primary source of the aversion entertained by the +Jews against the Samaritans. + +Esarhaddon, after a prosperous reign of thirty-nine years over the +Assyrians, and thirteen over the Babylonians, was succeeded by his son: + +(M171) SAOSDUCHINUS. This prince is called in Scripture Nabuchodonosor, +which name was common to the kings of Babylon. To distinguish this from +the others, he is called Nabuchodonosor the First. + +Tobit was still alive at this time, and dwelt among other captives at +Nineveh.(1031) Perceiving his end approaching, he foretold to his children +the sudden destruction of that city; of which at that time there was not +the least appearance. He advised them to quit the city, before its ruin +came on, and to depart as soon as they had buried him and his wife. + +"The ruin of Nineveh is at hand," says the good old man, "abide no longer +here, for I perceive the wickedness of the city will occasion its +destruction." These last words are very remarkable, "the wickedness of the +city will occasion its destruction." Men will be apt to impute the ruin of +Nineveh to any other reason, but we are taught by the Holy Ghost, that her +unrighteousness was the true cause of it, as it will be with other states +that imitate her crimes. + +Nabuchodonosor defeated the king of the Medes in a pitched battle,(1032) +fought the twelfth year of his reign, upon the plain of Ragau, took +Ecbatana, the capital of his kingdom, and returned triumphant to Nineveh. +When we come to treat of the history of the Medes, we shall give a more +particular account of this victory. + +It was immediately after this expedition, that Bethulia was besieged by +Holofernes, one of Nabuchodonosor's generals; and that the famous +enterprise of Judith was accomplished. + +(M172) SARACUS, otherwise called CHYNALADANUS. This prince succeeded +Saosduchinus;(1033) and having rendered himself contemptible to his +subjects, by his effeminacy, and the little care he took of his dominions, +Nabopolassar, a Babylonian by birth, and general of his army, usurped that +part of the Assyrian empire, and reigned over it one and twenty years. + +(M173) NABOPOLASSAR. This prince, the better to maintain his usurped +sovereignty, made an alliance with Cyaxares, king of the Medes. With their +joint forces they besieged and took Nineveh, killed Saracus, and utterly +destroyed that great city. We shall speak more largely of this great +event, when we come to the history of the Medes. From this time forwards +the city of Babylon became the only capital of the Assyrian empire. + +The Babylonians and the Medes, having destroyed Nineveh, became so +formidable, that they drew upon themselves the jealousy of all their +neighbours. Necho, king of Egypt, was so alarmed at their power, that to +stop their progress he marched towards the Euphrates at the head of a +powerful army, and made several considerable conquests. See the history of +the Egyptians(1034) for what relates to this expedition, and the +consequences that attended it. + +Nabopolassar finding,(1035) that after the taking of Carchemish by Necho, +all Syria and Palestine had revolted from him, and neither his age nor +infirmities permitting him to go in person to recover them, he made his +son Nabuchodonosor partner with him in the empire, and sent him with an +army to reduce those countries to their former subjection. + +(M174) From this time the Jews begin to reckon the years of +Nabuchodonosor, _viz._ from the end of the third year of Jehoiakim, king +of Judah, or rather from the beginning of the fourth. But the Babylonians +compute the reign of this prince only from the death of his father, which +happened two years later. + +(M175) NABUCHODONOSOR II. This prince defeated Necho's army, near the +Euphrates, and retook Carchemish.(1036) From thence he marched towards +Syria and Palestine, and reunited those provinces to his dominions. + +He likewise entered Judea, besieged Jerusalem, and took it:(1037) he +caused Jehoiakim to be put in chains, with a design to have him carried to +Babylon; but being moved with his repentance and affliction, he restored +him to the throne. Great numbers of the Jews, and, among the rest, some +children of the royal family, were carried captive to Babylon, whither all +the treasures of the king's palace, and a part of the sacred vessels of +the temple, were likewise transported. Thus was the judgment which God had +denounced by the prophet Isaiah to king Hezekiah accomplished. From this +famous epocha, which was the fourth year of Jehoiakim, king of Judah, we +are to date the captivity of the Jews at Babylon, so often foretold by +Jeremiah. Daniel, then but twelve years old,(1038) was carried captive +among the rest; and Ezekiel some time afterwards. + +Towards the end of the fifth year of Jehoiakim died Nabopolassar, king of +Babylon, after having reigned one and twenty years.(1039) As soon as his +son Nabuchodonosor had news of his death, he set out with all expedition +for Babylon, taking the nearest way through the desert, attended only with +a small retinue, leaving the bulk of his army with his generals, to be +conducted to Babylon with the captives and spoils. On his arrival, he +received the government from the hands of those that had carefully +preserved it for him, and so succeeded to all the dominions of his father, +which comprehended Chaldea, Assyria, Arabia, Syria, and Palestine, over +which, according to Ptolemy, he reigned forty-three years. + +(M176) In the fourth year of his reign he had a dream,(1040) at which he +was greatly terrified, though he could not call it again to mind. He +thereupon consulted the wise men and soothsayers of his kingdom, requiring +of them to make known to him the substance of his dream. They all +answered, that it was beyond the reach of their art to discover it; and +that the utmost they could do, was to give the interpretation of his +dream, when he had made it known to them. As absolute princes are not +accustomed to meet with opposition, but will be obeyed in all things, +Nabuchodonosor, imagining they dealt insincerely with him, fell into a +violent rage, and condemned them all to die. Now Daniel and his three +companions were included in the sentence, as being ranked among the wise +men. But Daniel, having first invoked his God, desired to be introduced to +the king, to whom he revealed the whole substance of his dream. "The thing +thou sawest," says he to him, "was an image of an enormous size, and a +terrible countenance. The head thereof was of gold, the breast and arms of +silver, the belly and thighs of brass, and the feet part of iron and part +of clay. And as the king was attentively looking upon that vision, behold +a stone was cut out of a mountain without hands, and the stone smote the +image upon his feet, and brake them to pieces; the whole image was ground +as small as dust, and the stone became a great mountain, and filled the +whole earth." When Daniel had related the dream, he gave the king likewise +the interpretation thereof, showing him how it signified the three great +empires, which were to succeed that of the Assyrians, namely, the Persian, +the Grecian, and the Roman, or (according to some,) that of the successors +of Alexander the Great. "After these kingdoms (continued Daniel) shall the +God of heaven set up a kingdom, which shall never be destroyed; and this +kingdom shall not be left to other people, but shall break in pieces and +consume all these kingdoms, and shall stand for ever." By which Daniel +plainly foretold the kingdom of Jesus Christ. The king, ravished with +admiration and astonishment, after having acknowledged and loudly +declared, that the God of the Israelites was truly the God of gods, +advanced Daniel to the highest offices in the kingdom, made him chief of +the governors over all the wise men, ruler of the whole province of +Babylon, and one of the principal lords of the council, that always +attended the court. His three friends were also promoted to honours and +dignities. + +At this time Jehoiakim revolted from the king of Babylon, whose generals, +that were still in Judea, marched against him, and committed all kinds of +hostilities upon this country.(1041) "He slept with his fathers," is all +the Scripture says of his death. Jeremiah had prophesied, that he should +neither be regretted nor lamented; but should "be buried with the burial +of an ass, drawn and cast forth beyond the gates of Jerusalem:" this was +no doubt fulfilled, though it is not known in what manner. + +Jechonias(1042) succeeded both to the throne and iniquity of his father. +Nabuchodonosor's lieutenants continuing the blockade of Jerusalem, in +three months' time he himself came at the head of his army, and made +himself master of the city. He plundered both the temple and the king's +palace of all their treasures, and sent them away to Babylon, together +with all the golden vessels remaining, which Solomon had made for the use +of the temple: he carried away likewise a vast number of captives, amongst +whom was king Jechonias, his mother, his wives, with all the chief +officers and great men of his kingdom. In the room of Jechonias, he set +upon the throne his uncle Mattaniah, who was otherwise called Zedekiah. + +This prince had as little religion and prosperity as his +forefathers.(1043) Having made an alliance with Pharaoh, king of Egypt, he +broke the oath of fidelity he had taken to the king of Babylon. The latter +soon chastised him for it, and immediately laid siege to Jerusalem. The +king of Egypt's arrival at the head of an army gave the besieged a gleam +of hope; but their joy was very short-lived; the Egyptians were defeated, +and the conqueror returned against Jerusalem, and renewed the siege, which +lasted near a twelvemonth.(M177) At last the city was taken by storm, and +a terrible slaughter ensued. Zedekiah's two sons were, by Nabuchodonosor's +orders, killed before their father's face, with all the nobles and +principal men of Judah. Zedekiah himself had both his eyes put out, was +loaded with fetters, and carried to Babylon, where he was confined in +prison as long as he lived. The city and temple were pillaged and burnt, +and all their fortifications demolished. + +Upon Nabuchodonosor's return to Babylon, after his successful war against +Judea, he ordered a golden statue to be made,(1044) sixty(1045) cubits +high, assembled all the great men of the kingdom to celebrate the +dedication of it, and commanded all his subjects to worship it, +threatening to cast those that should refuse into the midst of a burning +fiery furnace. Upon this occasion it was that the three young Hebrews, +Ananias, Misael, and Azarias, who with an invincible courage refused to +comply with the king's impious ordinance, were preserved after a +miraculous manner in the midst of the flames. The king, himself a witness +of this astonishing miracle, published an edict, whereby all persons +whatsoever were forbidden, upon pain of death, to speak any thing amiss +against the God of Ananias, Misael, and Azarias. He likewise promoted +these three young men to the highest honours and employments. + +Nabuchodonosor, in the twenty-first year of his reign, and the fourth +after the destruction of Jerusalem, marched again into Syria, and besieged +Tyre, at the time when Ithobal was king thereof. Tyre was a strong and +opulent city, which had never been subject to any foreign power, and was +then in great repute for its commerce: by which many of its citizens were +become like so many princes in wealth and magnificence.(1046) It had been +built by the Sidonians two hundred and forty years before the temple of +Jerusalem. For Sidon being taken by the Philistines of Ascalon, many of +its inhabitants made their escape in ships, and founded the city of Tyre. +And for this reason we find it called in Isaiah "the daughter of +Sidon."(1047) But the daughter soon surpassed the mother in grandeur, +riches, and power. Accordingly, at the time we are speaking of, she was in +a condition to resist, thirteen years together, a monarch, to whose yoke +all the rest of the East had submitted. + +It was not till after so long an interval, that Nabuchodonosor made +himself master of Tyre.(1048) His troops suffered incredible hardships +before it; so that, according to the prophet's expression, "every head was +made bald, and every shoulder was peeled."(1049) Before the city was +reduced to the last extremity, its inhabitants retired, with the greatest +part of their effects, into a neighbouring isle, half a mile from the +shore, where they built a new city; the name and glory whereof +extinguished the remembrance of the old one, which from thenceforward +became a mere village, retaining the name of ancient Tyre. + +Nabuchodonosor and his army having undergone the utmost fatigues during so +long and difficult a siege,(1050) and having found nothing in the place to +requite them for the service they had rendered Almighty God (it is the +expression of the prophet) in executing his vengeance upon that city, to +make them amends, God was pleased to promise by the mouth of Ezekiel, that +he would give them the spoils of Egypt. And indeed they soon after +conquered that country, as I have more fully related in the history of the +Egyptians.(1051) + +When this prince had happily finished all his wars, and was in a state of +perfect peace and tranquillity, he employed himself in putting the last +hand to the building, or rather to the embellishing of Babylon. The reader +may see in Josephus(1052) an account of the magnificent structures +ascribed to this monarch by several writers. I have mentioned a great part +of them in the description already given of that stately city. + +Whilst nothing seemed wanting to complete this prince's happiness, a +frightful dream disturbed his repose, and filled him with great +anxiety.(1053) "He saw a tree in the midst of the earth, whose height was +great: the tree grew, and was strong, and the height of it reached unto +heaven, and the sight thereof to the end of the earth. The leaves were +fair, and the fruit much; and in it was meat for all: the beasts of the +field had shadow under it, and the fowls of the heaven dwelt in the boughs +thereof; and all flesh was fed of it. Then a watcher and a holy one came +down from heaven, and cried; Hew down the tree, and cut off his branches, +shake off his leaves, and scatter his fruit; let the beasts get away from +under it, and the fowls from his branches. Nevertheless leave the stump of +his roots in the earth, even with a band of iron and brass, in the tender +grass of the field; and let it be wet with the dew of heaven, and let his +portion be with the beasts in the grass of the earth. Let his heart be +changed from man's; and let a beast's heart be given unto him; and let +seven times pass over him. This matter is by the decree of the watchers, +and the demand by the word of the holy ones; to the intent that the living +may know that the Most High ruleth in the kingdom of men, and giveth it to +whomsoever he will, and setteth up over it the basest of men." + +The king, justly terrified at this dreadful dream, consulted all his wise +men and magicians, but to no purpose. He was obliged to have recourse to +Daniel, who expounded the dream, and applied it to the king himself, +plainly declaring to him, "That he should be driven from the company of +men for seven years, should be reduced to the condition and fellowship of +the beasts of the field, and feed upon grass like an ox; that his kingdom +nevertheless should be preserved for him, and he should repossess his +throne, when he should have learnt to know and acknowledge, that all power +is from above, and cometh from Heaven. After this he exhorted him to break +off his sins by righteousness, and his iniquities by showing mercy to the +poor." + +All these things came to pass upon Nabuchodonosor, as the prophet had +foretold. At the end of twelve months, as he was walking in his palace, +and admiring the beauty and magnificence of his buildings, he said: "Is +not this great Babylon, which I have built for the house of the kingdom, +by the might of my power, and for the honour of my majesty?" Would a +secret impulse of complacency and vanity in a prince, at the sight of such +noble structures erected by himself, appear to us so very criminal? And +yet, hardly were the words out of his mouth, when a voice came down from +Heaven, and pronounced his sentence: "In the same hour his understanding +went from him; he was driven from men, and did eat grass like oxen, and +his body was wet with the dew of Heaven, till his hairs were grown like +eagles' feathers, and his nails like birds' claws." + +After the expiration of the appointed time, he recovered his senses, and +the use of his understanding: "He lifted up his eyes unto Heaven (says the +Scripture) and blessed the Most High; he praised and honoured him that +liveth for ever, whose dominion is an everlasting dominion, and his +kingdom is from generation to generation:" Confessing, "That all the +inhabitants of the earth are as nothing before him, and that he doeth +according to his will, in the army of heaven, and among the inhabitants of +the earth; and none can stay his hand, or say unto him, What doest thou?" +Now he recovered his former countenance and form. His courtiers went out +to seek him; he was restored to his throne, and became greater and more +powerful than ever. Penetrated with the heartiest gratitude, he caused, by +a solemn edict, to be published through the whole extent of his dominions, +what astonishing and miraculous things God had wrought in his person. + +One year after this he died, having reigned forty-three years, reckoning +from the death of his father. He was one of the greatest monarchs that +ever reigned in the East. He was succeeded by his son: + +(M178) EVIL-MERODACH. As soon as he was settled in the throne, he released +Jechonias, king of Judah, out of prison, where he had been confined near +seven and thirty years.(1054) + +In the reign of this Evil-Merodach, which lasted but two years, the +learned place Daniel's detection of the fraud practised by the priests of +Bel; the innocent artifice by which he contrived to destroy the dragon, +which was worshipped as a god; and the miraculous deliverance of the same +prophet out of the den of lions, where he had victuals brought him by the +prophet Habakkuk. + +Evil-Merodach rendered himself so odious by his debauchery and other +extravagancies, that his own relations conspired against him, and put him +to death.(1055) + +(M179) NERIGLISSOR, his sister's husband, and one of the chief +conspirators, reigned in his stead. + +Immediately on his accession to the crown, he made great preparations for +war against the Medes,(1056) which made Cyaxares send for Cyrus out of +Persia, to his assistance. This story will be more particularly related by +and by, where we shall find that this prince was slain in battle in the +fourth year of his reign. + +(M180) LABOROSOARCHOD, his son, succeeded to the throne. This was a very +wicked prince. Being born with the most vicious inclinations, he indulged +them without restraint when he came to the crown; as if he had been +invested with sovereign power, only to have the privilege of committing +with impunity the most infamous and barbarous actions. He reigned but nine +months; his own subjects conspiring against him, put him to death. His +successor was: + +(M181) LABYNITUS, OR NABONIDUS. This prince had likewise other names, and +in Scripture that of Belshazzar. It is on good grounds supposed that he +was the son of Evil-Merodach, by his wife Nitocris, and consequently +grandson to Nabuchodonosor, to whom, according to Jeremiah's prophecy, the +nations of the East were to be subject, as also to his son, and his +grandson after him: "All nations shall serve him, and his son, and his +son's son, until the very time of his land shall come."(1057) + +Nitocris is that queen who raised so many noble edifices in Babylon.(1058) +She caused her own monument to be placed over one of the most remarkable +gates of the city, with an inscription, dissuading her successors from +touching the treasures laid up in it, without the most urgent and +indispensable necessity. The tomb remained closed till the reign of +Darius, who, upon his breaking it open, instead of those immense treasures +he had flattered himself with discovering, found nothing but the following +inscription: + + + IF THOU HADST NOT AN INSATIABLE THIRST AFTER MONEY, AND A MOST + SORDID, AVARICIOUS SOUL, THOU WOULDST NEVER HAVE BROKEN OPEN THE + MONUMENTS OF THE DEAD. + + +In the first year of Belshazzar's reign, Daniel had the vision of the four +beasts, which represented the four great monarchies, and the kingdom of +the Messiah, which was to succeed them.(1059) In the third year of the +same reign he had the vision of the ram and the he-goat, which prefigured +the destruction of the Persian empire by Alexander the Great, and the +persecution which Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, should bring upon +the Jews.(1060) I shall hereafter make some reflections upon these +prophecies, and give a larger account of them. + +Belshazzar, whilst his enemies were besieging Babylon, gave a great +entertainment to his whole court, upon a certain festival, which was +annually celebrated with great rejoicing.(1061) The joy of this feast was +greatly disturbed by a vision, and still more so by the explication which +Daniel gave of it to the king. The sentence written upon the wall +imported, that his kingdom was taken from him, and given to the Medes and +Persians. That very night the city was taken, and Belshazzar killed. + +(M182) Thus ended the Babylonian empire, after having subsisted two +hundred and ten years from the destruction of the great Assyrian empire. + +The particular circumstances of the siege, and the taking of Babylon, +shall be related in the history of Cyrus. + + + + +Chapter III. The History of the Kingdom of the Medes. + + +(M183) I took notice, in speaking of the destruction of the ancient +Assyrian empire, that Arbaces, general of the Median army, was one of the +chief authors of the conspiracy against Sardanapalus: and several writers +believe, that he then immediately became sovereign master of Media and +many other provinces, and assumed the title of king. Herodotus is not of +this opinion. I shall relate what that celebrated historian says upon the +subject. + +The Assyrians, who had for many ages held the empire of Asia, began to +decline in their power by the revolt of several nations.(1062) The Medes +first threw off their yoke, and maintained for some time the liberty they +had acquired by their valour: but that liberty degenerating into +licentiousness, and their government not being well established, they fell +into a kind of anarchy, worse than their former subjection. Injustice, +violence, and rapine, prevailed everywhere, because there was nobody that +had either power enough to restrain them, or sufficient authority to +punish the offenders. But all these disorders at length induced the people +to settle a form of government, which rendered the state more flourishing +than ever it was before. + +The nation of the Medes was then divided into six tribes. Almost all the +people dwelt in villages, when Dejoces, the son of Phraortes, a Mede by +birth, erected the state into a monarchy. This person, seeing the great +disorders that prevailed throughout all Media, resolved to take advantage +of those troubles, and make them serve to exalt him to the royal dignity. +He had a great reputation in his own country, and passed for a man, not +only regular in his own conduct, but possessed of all the prudence and +equity necessary to govern others. + +As soon as he had formed the design of obtaining the throne, he laboured +to make the good qualities that had been observed in him more conspicuous +than ever: he succeeded so well, that the inhabitants of the village where +he lived made him their judge. In this office he acquitted himself with +great prudence; and his cares had all the success that had been expected +from them; for he brought the people of that village to a sober and +regular life. The inhabitants of other villages, whom perpetual disorders +suffered not to live in quiet, observing the good order Dejoces had +introduced in the place where he presided as judge, began to apply to him, +and make him arbitrator of their differences. The fame of his equity daily +increasing, all such as had any affair of consequence, brought it before +him, expecting to find that equity in Dejoces, which they could meet with +nowhere else. + +When he found himself thus far advanced in his designs, he judged it a +proper time to set his last engines to work for the compassing his point. +He, therefore, retired from business, pretending to be over-fatigued with +the multitude of people that resorted to him from all quarters; and would +not exercise the office of judge any longer, notwithstanding all the +importunity of such as wished well to the public tranquillity. Whenever +any persons addressed themselves to him, he told them, that his own +domestic affairs would not allow him to attend to those of other people. + +The licentiousness which had been for some time restrained by the +judicious management of Dejoces, began to prevail more than ever, as soon +as he had withdrawn himself from the administration of affairs; and the +evil increased to such a degree, that the Medes were obliged to assemble, +and deliberate upon the means of putting a stop to the public disorder. + +There are different sorts of ambition: some violent and impetuous, +carrying every thing as it were by storm, hesitating at no kind of cruelty +or murder: another sort, more gentle, like that we are speaking of, puts +on an appearance of moderation and justice, working under ground, (if I +may use that expression,) and yet arrives at her point as surely as the +other. + +Dejoces, who saw things succeeding according to his wish, sent his +emissaries to the assembly, after having instructed them in the part they +were to act. When expedients for stopping the course of the public evils +came to be proposed, these emissaries, speaking in their turn, +represented, that unless the face of the republic was entirely changed, +their country would become uninhabitable; that the only means to remedy +the present disorders was to elect a king, who should have authority to +restrain violence, and make laws for the government of the nation. Then +every man could prosecute his own affairs in peace and safety; whereas the +injustice that now reigned in all parts, would quickly force the people to +abandon the country. This opinion was generally approved; and the whole +company was convinced, that no expedient could be devised more effectual +for curing the present evil, than that of converting the state into a +monarchy. The only thing then to be done, was to choose a king; and about +this their deliberations were not long. They all agreed there was not a +man in Media so capable of governing as Dejoces; so that he was +immediately with common consent elected king. + +If we reflect in the least on the first establishment of kingdoms, in any +age or country whatsoever, we shall find, that the maintenance of order, +and the care of the public good, was the original design of monarchy. +Indeed there would be no possibility of establishing order and peace, if +all men were resolved to be independent, and would not submit to an +authority which takes from them a part of their liberty, in order to +preserve the rest. Mankind must be perpetually at war, if they will always +be striving for dominion over others, or refuse to submit to the +strongest. For the sake of their own peace and safety, they must have a +master, and must consent to obey him. This is the human origin of +government. And the Scripture teacheth us, that the Divine Providence has +not only allowed of the project, and the execution of it, but consecrated +it likewise by an immediate communication of his own power.(1063) + +There is nothing certainly nobler or greater than to see a private person, +eminent for his merit and virtue, and fitted by his excellent talents for +the highest employments, and yet through inclination and modesty +preferring a life of obscurity and retirement: than to see such a man +sincerely refuse the offer made to him, of reigning over a whole nation, +and at last consent to undergo the toil of government, from no other +motive than that of being serviceable to his fellow-citizens. His first +disposition, by which he declares that he is acquainted with the duties, +and consequently with the dangers annexed to a sovereign power, shows him +to have a soul more elevated and great than greatness itself; or, to speak +more justly, a soul superior to all ambition: nothing can show him so +perfectly worthy of that important charge, as the opinion he has of his +not being so, and his fears of being unequal to it. But when he generously +sacrifices his own quiet and satisfaction to the welfare and tranquillity +of the public, it is plain he understands what that sovereign power has in +it really good, or truly valuable; which is, that it puts a man in a +condition of becoming the defender of his country, of procuring it many +advantages, and of redressing various evils; of causing law and justice to +flourish, of bringing virtue and probity into reputation, and of +establishing peace and plenty: and he comforts himself for the cares and +troubles to which he is exposed, by the prospect of the many benefits +resulting from them to the public. Such a governor was Numa, at Rome; and +such have been some other emperors, whom the people found it necessary to +compel to accept the supreme power. + +It must be owned (I cannot help repeating it) that there is nothing nobler +or greater than such a disposition. But to put on the mask of modesty and +virtue, in order to satisfy one's ambition, as Dejoces did; to affect to +appear outwardly what a man is not inwardly; to refuse for a time, and +then accept with a seeming repugnancy, what a man earnestly desires, and +what he has been labouring by secret, underhand practices to obtain; this +double-dealing has so much meanness in it, that it necessarily lessens our +opinion of the person, and extremely sullies the lustre of those good +qualities, which in other respects, he possesses. + +(M184) DEJOCES reigned fifty-three years.(1064) When he had ascended the +throne, he endeavoured to convince the people, that they were not mistaken +in the choice they had made of him, for restoring of order. At first he +resolved to have his dignity of king attended with all the marks that +could inspire an awe and respect for his person. He obliged his subjects +to build him a magnificent palace in the place he appointed. This palace +he strongly fortified, and chose out from among his people such persons as +he judged fittest to be his guards, from their attachment to his +interests, and his reliance on their fidelity. + +After having thus provided for his own security, he applied himself to +polish and civilize his subjects, who, having been accustomed to live in +the country and in villages, almost without laws and without polity, had +contracted the disposition and manners of savages. To this end he +commanded them to build a city, marking out himself the place and +circumference of the walls. This city was compassed about with seven +distinct walls, all disposed in such a manner, that the outermost did not +hinder the parapet of the second from being seen, nor the second that of +the third, and so of all the rest. The situation of the place was +extremely favourable for such a design, for it was a regular hill, whose +ascent was equal on every side. Within the last and smallest enclosure +stood the king's palace, with all his treasures: in the sixth, which was +next to that, there were several apartments for lodging the officers of +his household; and the intermediate spaces, between the other walls, were +appointed for the habitation of the people: the first and largest +enclosure was about the bigness of Athens. The name of this city was +Ecbatana. + +The prospect of it was magnificent and beautiful; for, besides the +disposition of the walls, which formed a kind of amphitheatre, the +different colours wherewith the several parapets were painted formed a +delightful variety. + +After the city was finished, and Dejoces had obliged part of the Medes to +settle in it, he turned all his thoughts to composing of laws for the good +of the state. But being persuaded, that the majesty of kings is most +respected afar off(1065) he began to keep himself at a distance from his +people; was almost inaccessible, and, as it were, invisible to his +subjects, not suffering them to speak, or communicate their affairs to +him, but only by petitions, and the interposition of his officers. And +even those that had the privilege of approaching him, might neither laugh +nor spit in his presence. + +This able statesman acted in this manner, in order the better to secure to +himself the possession of the crown. For, having to deal with men yet +uncivilized, and no very good judges of true merit, he was afraid, that +too great a familiarity with him might induce contempt, and occasion plots +and conspiracies against a growing power, which is generally looked upon +with invidious and discontented eyes. But by keeping himself thus +concealed from the eyes of the people, and making himself known only by +the wise laws he made, and the strict justice he took care to administer +to every one, he acquired the respect and esteem of all his subjects. + +It is said, that from the innermost part of his palace he saw every thing +that was done in his dominions, by means of his emissaries, who brought +him accounts, and informed him of all transactions. By this means no crime +escaped either the knowledge of the prince, or the rigour of the law; and +the punishment treading upon the heels of the offence, kept the wicked in +awe, and stopped the course of violence and injustice. + +Things might possibly pass in this manner to a certain degree during his +administration: but there is nothing more obvious than the great +inconveniencies necessarily resulting from the custom introduced by +Dejoces, and wherein he has been imitated by the rest of the Eastern +potentates; the custom, I mean, of living concealed in his palace, of +governing by spies dispersed throughout his kingdom, of relying solely +upon their sincerity for the truth of facts; of not suffering truth, the +complaints of the oppressed, and the just reasons of innocent persons, to +be conveyed to him any other way, than through foreign channels, that is, +by men liable to be prejudiced or corrupted; men that stopped up all +avenues to remonstrances, or the reparation of injuries, and that were +capable of doing the greatest injustice themselves, with so much the more +ease and assurance, as their iniquity remained undiscovered, and +consequently unpunished. But besides all this, methinks, that very +affectation in princes of making themselves invisible, shows them to be +conscious of their slender merit, which shuns the light, and dares not +stand the test of a near examination. + +Dejoces was so wholly taken up in humanizing and softening the manners, +and in making laws for the good government of his people, that he never +engaged in any enterprise against his neighbours, though his reign was +very long, for he did not die till after having reigned fifty-three years. + +(M185) PHRAORTES reigned twenty-two years.(1066) After the death of +Dejoces, his son Phraortes, called otherwise Aphraartes,(1067) succeeded. +The affinity between these two names would alone make one believe that +this is the king called in Scripture Arphaxad: but that opinion has many +other substantial reasons to support it, as may be seen in father +Montfaucon's learned dissertation, of which I have here made great use. +The passage in Judith, _That Arphaxad built a very strong city, and called +it Ecbatana,_(1068) has deceived most authors, and made them believe, that +Arphaxad must be Dejoces, who was certainly the founder of that city. But +the Greek text of Judith, which the Vulgate translation renders +_aedificavit_, says only, _That Arphaxad added new buildings to +Ecbatana_.(1069) And what can be more natural, than that, the father not +having entirely perfected so considerable a work, the son should put the +last hand to it, and make such additions as were wanting? + +Phraortes, being of a very warlike temper, and not contented with the +kingdom of Media, left him by his father, attacked the Persians;(1070) and +defeating them in a decisive battle, brought them under subjection to his +empire. Then strengthened by the accession of their troops, he attacked +other neighbouring nations, one after another, till he made himself master +of almost all the Upper Asia, which comprehends all that lies north of +mount Taurus, from Media as far as the river Halys. Elate with this good +success, he ventured to turn his arms against the Assyrians, at that time +indeed weakened through the revolt of several nations, but yet very +powerful in themselves. Nabuchodonosor, their king, otherwise called +Saosduchinus, raised a great army in his own country, and sent ambassadors +to several other nations of the East,(1071) to require their assistance. +They all refused him with contempt, and ignominiously treated his +ambassadors, letting him see, that they no longer dreaded that empire, +which had formerly kept the greatest part of them in a slavish subjection. + +The king, highly enraged at such insolent treatment, swore by his throne +and his reign, that he would be revenged of all those nations, and put +them every one to the sword. He then prepared for battle, with what forces +he had, in the plain of Ragau. A great battle ensued there, which proved +fatal to Phraortes. He was defeated, his cavalry fled, his chariots were +overturned and put into disorder, and Nabuchodonosor gained a complete +victory. Then taking advantage of the defeat and confusion of the Medes, +he entered their country, took their cities, pushed on his conquests even +to Ecbatana, forced the towers and the walls by storm, and gave the city +to be pillaged by his soldiers, who plundered it, and stripped it of all +its ornaments. + +The unfortunate Phraortes, who had escaped into the mountains of Ragau, +fell at last into the hands of Nabuchodonosor, who cruelly caused him to +be shot to death with darts. After that, he returned to Nineveh with all +his army, which was still very numerous, and for four months together did +nothing but feast and divert himself with those that had accompanied him +in this expedition. + +In Judith, we read that the king of Assyria sent Holophernes with a +powerful army, to revenge himself of those that had refused him succours; +the progress and cruelty of that commander, the general consternation of +all the people, the courageous resolution of the Israelites to withstand +him, in assurance that their God would defend them, the extremity to which +Bethulia and the whole nation was reduced, the miraculous deliverance of +that city by the courage and conduct of the brave Judith, and the complete +overthrow of the Assyrian army, are all related in the same book. + +(M186) CYAXARES I. reigned forty years.(1072) This prince succeeded to the +throne immediately after his father's death. He was a very brave, +enterprising prince, and knew how to make his advantage of the late +overthrow of the Assyrian army. He first settled himself well in his +kingdom of Media, and then conquered all Upper Asia. But what he had most +at heart was, to go and attack Nineveh, to revenge the death of his father +by the destruction of that great city. + +The Assyrians came out to meet him, having only the remains of that great +army, which was destroyed before Bethulia. A battle ensued, wherein the +Assyrians were defeated, and driven back to Nineveh. Cyaxares, pursuing +his victory, laid siege to the city, which was upon the point of falling +inevitably into his hands, but the time was not yet come when God designed +to punish that city for her crimes, and for the calamities she had brought +upon his people, as well as other nations. It was delivered from its +present danger in the following manner. + +A formidable army of Scythians, from the neighbourhood of the Palus +Maeotis, had driven the Cimmerians out of Europe, and was still marching +under the conduct of king Madyes in pursuit of them. The Cimmerians had +found means to escape from the Scythians, who had advanced as far as +Media. Cyaxares, hearing of this irruption, raised the siege from before +Nineveh, and marched with all his forces against that mighty army, which, +like an impetuous torrent, was going to overrun all Asia. The two armies +engaged, and the Medes were vanquished. The Barbarians, finding no other +obstacle in their way, overspread not only Media, but almost all Asia. +After that, they marched towards Egypt, from whence Psammiticus diverted +their course by presents. They then returned into Palestine, where some of +them plundered the temple of Venus at Ascalon, the most ancient of the +temples dedicated to that goddess. Some of the Scythians settled at +Bethshan, a city in the tribe of Manasseh, on this side Jordan, which from +them was afterwards called Scythopolis. + +The Scythians for the space of twenty-eight years were masters of the +Upper Asia, namely, the two Armenias, Cappadocia, Pontus, Colchis, and +Iberia; during which time they spread desolation wherever they came. The +Medes had no way of getting rid of them, but by a dangerous stratagem. +Under pretence of cultivating and strengthening the alliance they had made +together, they invited the greatest part of them to a general feast, which +was made in every family. Each master of the feast made his guests drunk, +and in that condition were the Scythians massacred. The Medes then +repossessed themselves of the provinces they had lost, and once more +extended their empire to the banks of the Halys, which was their ancient +boundary westward. + +The remaining Scythians, who were not at this feast, having heard of the +massacre of their countrymen, fled into Lydia to king Halyattes, who +received them with great humanity.(1073) This occasioned a war between the +two princes. Cyaxares immediately led his troops to the frontiers of +Lydia. Many battles were fought during the space of five years, with +almost equal advantage on both sides. But the battle fought in the sixth +year was very remarkable on account of an eclipse of the sun, which +happened during the engagement, when on a sudden the day was turned into a +dark night. Thales, the Milesian, had foretold this eclipse. The Medes and +Lydians, who were then in the heat of the battle, equally terrified with +this unforeseen event, which they looked upon as a sign of the anger of +the gods, immediately retreated on both sides, and made peace. Syennesis, +king of Cilicia, and Nabuchodonosor,(1074) king of Babylon, were the +mediators. To render it more firm and inviolable, the two princes were +willing to strengthen it by the tie of marriage, and agreed, that +Halyattes should give his daughter Aryenis to Astyages, eldest son of +Cyaxares. + +The manner these people had of contracting an alliance with one another, +is very remarkable. Besides other ceremonies, which they had in common +with the Greeks, they had this in particular; the two contracting parties +made incisions in their own arms, and licked one another's blood. + +(M187) Cyaxares's first care, as soon as he found himself again in peace, +was to resume the siege of Nineveh, which the irruption of the Scythians +had obliged him to raise.(1075) Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, with whom +he had lately contracted a particular alliance, joined with him in a +league against the Assyrians. Having therefore united their forces, they +besieged Nineveh, took it, killed Saracus the king, and utterly destroyed +that mighty city. + +God had foretold by his prophets above a hundred years before, that he +would bring vengeance upon that impious city for the blood of his +servants, wherewith the kings thereof had gorged themselves, like ravenous +lions; that he himself would march at the head of the troops that should +come to besiege it; that he would cause consternation and terror to go +before them; that he would deliver the old men, the mothers, and their +children, into the merciless hands of the soldiers; that all the treasures +of the city should fall into the hands of rapacious and insatiable +plunderers; and that the city itself should be so totally and utterly +destroyed, that not so much as a vestige of it should be left; and that +the people should ask hereafter, Where did the proud city of Nineveh +stand? + +But let us hear the language of the prophets themselves: Woe unto the +bloody city, (cries Nahum,) it is all full of lies and robbery:(1076) he +that dasheth in pieces is come up before thy face.(1077) The Lord cometh +to avenge the cruelties done to Jacob and to Israel. I hear already the +noise of the whip, and the noise of the rattling of the wheels, and of the +prancing horses, and of the bounding chariots.(1078) The horseman lifteth +up both the bright sword, and the glittering spear. The shield of his +mighty men is made red; the valiant men are in scarlet.(1079) They shall +seem like torches, they shall run like the lightning. God is jealous; the +Lord revengeth, and is furious.(1080) The mountains quake at him, and the +hills melt, and the earth is burnt at his presence: who can stand before +his indignation? and who can abide in the fierceness of his anger? Behold, +I am against thee, saith the Lord of hosts: I will strip thee of all thy +ornaments.(1081) Take ye the spoil of silver, take the spoil of gold; for +there is no end of the store and glory out of all the pleasant +furniture.(1082) She is empty, and void, and waste. Nineveh is destroyed; +she is overthrown; she is desolate. The gates of the rivers shall be +opened, and the palace(1083) shall be dissolved.(1084) And Huzzab shall be +led away captive; she shall be brought up, and her maids shall lead her as +with the voice of doves tabring upon their breasts. I see a multitude of +slain, and a great number of carcasses; and there is no end of their +corpses; they stumble upon their corpses.(1085) Where is the dwelling of +the lions, and the feeding places of the young lions, where the lion, even +the old lion, walked, and the lion's whelp, and none made them afraid: +where the lion did tear in pieces enough for his whelps, and strangled for +his lionesses, and filled his holes with prey, and his dens with +rapine:(1086)(1087) The Lord shall destroy Assur.(1088) He shall +depopulate that city, which was so beautiful, and turn it into a land +where no man cometh, and into a desert. It shall be a dwelling place for +wild beasts, and the birds of night shall lurk therein. Behold, shall it +be said, see that proud city, which was so stately, and so exalted; which +said in her heart, I am the only city, and besides me there is no other. +All they that pass by her shall scoff at her, and shall insult her with +hissings and contemptuous gestures. + +The two armies enriched themselves with the spoils of Nineveh; and +Cyaxares, prosecuting his victories, made himself master of all the cities +of the kingdom of Assyria, except Babylon and Chaldea, which belonged to +Nabopolassar. + +After this expedition Cyaxares died, and left his dominions to his son +Astyages. + +ASTYAGES reigned thirty-five years. This prince is called in (M188) +Scripture Ahasuerus. Though his reign was very long, no less than +thirty-five years, yet have we no particulars recorded of it in history. +He had two children, whose names are famous, namely, Cyaxares, by his wife +Aryenis, and Mandane, by a former marriage. In his father's lifetime he +married Mandane to Cambyses, the son of Achemenes, king of Persia: from +this marriage sprung Cyrus, who was born but one year after the birth of +his uncle Cyaxares. The latter succeeded his father in the kingdom of the +Medes. + +CYAXARES II. This is the prince whom the Scripture calls Darius the Mede. + +Cyrus, having taken Babylon, in conjunction with his uncle Cyaxares, left +it under his government. After the death of his uncle, and his father +Cambyses, he united the kingdom of the Medes and the Persians into one: in +the sequel, therefore, they will be considered only as one empire. I shall +begin the history of that empire with the reign of Cyrus; which will +include also what is known of the reigns of his two predecessors, Cyaxares +and Astyages. But I shall previously give some account of the kingdom of +Lydia, because Croesus, its king, has a considerable share in the events of +which I am to speak. + + + + +Chapter IV. The History of the Lydians. + + +The kings who first reigned over the Lydians, are by Herodotus called +Atyadae, that is, descendants from Atys.(1089) These, he tells us, derived +their origin from Lydus, the son of Atys; and Lydus gave the name of +Lydians to that people, who before this time were called Moeonians. + +These Atyadae were succeeded by the Heraclidae, or descendants of Hercules, +who possessed this kingdom for the space of five hundred and five years. + +(M189) ARGO, great grandson of Alcaeus, son of Hercules, was the first of +the Heraclidae who reigned in Lydia. + +(M190) The last was CANDAULES. This prince was married to a lady of +exquisite beauty; and, being infatuated by his passion for her, was +perpetually boasting of her charms to others. Nothing would serve him, but +that Gyges, one of his chief officers, should see, and judge of them by +his own eyes; as if the husband's own knowledge of them was not sufficient +for his happiness, or the beauty of his wife would have been impaired by +his silence.(1090) The king to this end placed Gyges secretly in a +convenient place; but notwithstanding that precaution, the queen perceived +him when he retired, yet took no manner of notice of it. Judging, as the +historian represents it, that the most valuable treasure of a woman is her +modesty, she studied a signal revenge for the injury she had received; +and, to punish the fault of her husband, committed a still greater crime. +Possibly, a secret passion for Gyges had as great a share in that action, +as her resentment for the dishonour done her. Be that as it will, she sent +for Gyges, and obliged him to expiate his crime, either by his own death, +or the king's, at his own option. After some remonstrances to no purpose, +he resolved upon the latter, and by the murder of Candaules became master +of his queen and his throne.(M191) By this means the kingdom passed from +the family of the Heraclidae into that of the Mermnadae. + +Archilochus, the poet, lived at this time, and, as Herodotus informs us, +spoke of this adventure of Gyges in his poems. + +I cannot forbear mentioning in this place what is related by Herodotus, +that amongst the Lydians, and almost all other Barbarians, it was reckoned +shameful and infamous even for a man to appear naked. These footsteps of +modesty, which are met with amongst pagans, ought to be reckoned +valuable.(1091) We are assured, that among the Romans, a son, who was come +to the age of maturity, never went into the baths with his father, nor +even a son-in-law with his father-in-law; and this modesty and decency +were looked upon by them as enjoined by the law of nature, the violation +whereof was criminal. It is astonishing, that amongst us our magistrates +take no care to prevent this disorder, which, in the midst of Paris, at +the season of bathing, is openly committed with impunity; a disorder so +visibly contrary to the rules of common decency, so dangerous to young +persons of both sexes, and so severely condemned by paganism itself. + +Plato relates the story of Gyges in a different manner from +Herodotus.(1092) He tells us that Gyges wore a ring, the stone of which, +when turned towards him, rendered him invisible; so that he had the +advantage of seeing others, without being seen himself; and that by means +of this ring, with the concurrence of the queen, he deprived Candaules of +his life and throne. This probably signifies, that in order to compass his +criminal design, he used all the tricks and stratagems, which the world +calls subtle and refined policy, which penetrates into the most secret +purposes of others, without making the least discovery of its own. The +story, thus explained, carries in it a greater appearance of truth, than +what we read in Herodotus. + +Cicero, after having related this fable of Gyges's famous ring, adds, that +if a wise man had such a ring, he would not use it to any wicked purpose; +because virtue considers what is honourable and just, and has no occasion +for darkness.(1093) + +(M192) GYGES reigned thirty-eight years.(1094) The murder of Candaules +raised a sedition among the Lydians. The two parties, instead of coming to +blows, agreed to refer the matter to the decision of the Delphic oracle, +which declared in favour of Gyges. The king made large presents to the +temple of Delphi, which undoubtedly preceded, and had no little influence +upon, the oracle's answer. Among other things of value, Herodotus mentions +six golden cups, weighing thirty talents, amounting to near a million of +French money, which is about forty-eight thousand pounds sterling. + +As soon as he was in peaceable possession of the throne, he made war +against Miletus, Smyrna, and Colophon, three powerful cities belonging to +the neighbouring states. + +After he had reigned thirty-eight years, he died, and was succeeded by his +son + +ARDYS, who reigned forty-nine years.(1095) It was in the reign of(M193) +this prince, that the Cimmerians, driven out of their country by the +Scythae Nomades, went into Asia, and took the city of Sardis, with the +exception of the citadel. + +(M194) SADYATTES reigned twelve years.(1096) This prince declared war +against the Milesians, and laid siege to their city. In those days the +sieges, which were generally nothing more than blockades, were carried on +very slowly, and lasted many years. This king died before he had finished +that of Miletus, and was succeeded by his son. + +(M195) HALYATTES reigned fifty-seven years.(1097) This is the prince who +made war against Cyaxares, king of Media. He likewise drove the Cimmerians +out of Asia. He attacked and took the cities of Smyrna and Clazomenae. He +vigorously prosecuted the war against the Milesians, begun by his father; +and continued the siege of their city, which had lasted six years under +his father, and continued as many under him. It ended at length in the +following manner: Halyattes, upon an answer he received from the Delphic +oracle, had sent an ambassador into the city, to propose a truce for some +months. Thrasybulus, Tyrant of Miletus, having notice of his coming, +ordered all the corn, and other provisions, assembled by him and his +subjects for their support, to be brought into the public market; and +commanded the citizens, at the sight of a signal that should be given, to +be all in a general humour of feasting and jollity. The thing was executed +according to his orders. The Lydian ambassador at his arrival was in the +utmost surprise to see such plenty in the market, and such cheerfulness in +the city. His master, to whom he gave an account of what he had seen, +concluding that his project of reducing the place by famine would never +succeed, preferred peace to so apparently fruitless a war, and immediately +raised the siege. + +(M196) CROESUS. His very name, which is become a proverb, conveys an idea +of immense riches. The wealth of this prince, to judge of it only by the +presents he made to the temple of Delphi, must have been excessively +great. Most of those presents were still to be seen in the time of +Herodotus, and were worth several millions. We may partly account for the +treasures of this prince, from certain mines that he had, situate, +according to Strabo, between Pergamus and Atarna;(1098) as also from the +little river Pactolus, the sand of which was gold. But in Strabo's time +this river had no longer the same advantage. + +What is very extraordinary, this affluence did not enervate or soften the +courage of Croesus.(1099) He thought it unworthy of a prince to spend his +time in idleness and pleasure. For his part, he was perpetually in arms, +made several conquests, and enlarged his dominions by the addition of all +the contiguous provinces, as Phrygia, Mysia, Paphlagonia, Bithynia, +Pamphylia, and all the country of the Carians, Ionians, Dorians, and +AEolians. Herodotus observes, that he was the first conqueror of the +Greeks, who till then had never been subject to a foreign power. Doubtless +he must mean the Greeks settled in Asia Minor. + +But what is still more extraordinary in this prince, though he was so +immensely rich, and so great a warrior, yet his chief delight was in +literature and the sciences. His court was the ordinary residence of those +famous learned men, so revered by antiquity, and distinguished by the name +of the Seven Wise Men of Greece. + +Solon, one of the most celebrated amongst them, after having established +new laws at Athens, thought he might absent himself for some years, and +improve that time by travelling.(1100) He went to Sardis, where he was +received in a manner suitable to the reputation of so great a man. The +king, attended with a numerous court, appeared in all his regal pomp and +splendour, dressed in the most magnificent apparel, which was all over +enriched with gold, and glittered with diamonds. Notwithstanding the +novelty of this spectacle to Solon, it did not appear that he was the +least moved at it, nor did he utter a word which discovered the least +surprise or admiration; on the contrary, people of sense might +sufficiently discern from his behaviour, that he looked upon all this +outward pomp, as an indication of a little mind, which knows not in what +true greatness and dignity consist. This coldness and indifference in +Solon's first approach, gave the king no favourable opinion of his new +guest. + +He afterwards ordered that all his treasures, his magnificent apartments, +and costly furniture, should be showed him; as if he expected, by the +multitude of his fine vessels, jewels, statues, and paintings, to conquer +the philosopher's indifference. But these things were not the king; and it +was the king that Solon was come to visit, and not the walls and chambers +of his palace. He had no notion of making a judgment of the king, or an +estimate of his worth, by these outward appendages, but by himself and his +own personal qualities. Were we to judge at present by the same rule, we +should find many of our great men wretchedly naked and desolate. + +When Solon had seen all, he was brought back to the king. Croesus then +asked him, which of mankind in all his travels he had found the most truly +happy? "One Tellus," replied Solon, "a citizen of Athens, a very honest +and good man, who, after having lived all his days without indigence, +having always seen his country in a flourishing condition, has left +children that are universally esteemed, has had the satisfaction of seeing +those children's children, and at last died gloriously in fighting for his +country." + +Such an answer as this, in which gold and silver were accounted as +nothing, seemed to Croesus to denote a strange ignorance and stupidity. +However, as he flattered himself that he should be ranked at least in the +second degree of happiness, he asked him, "Who, of all those he had seen, +was the next in felicity to Tellus?" Solon answered, "Cleobis and Biton, +of Argos, two brothers,(1101) who had left behind them a perfect pattern +of fraternal affection, and of the respect due from children to their +parents. Upon a solemn festival, when their mother, a priestess of Juno, +was to go to the temple, the oxen that were to draw her not being ready, +the two sons put themselves to the yoke, and drew their mother's chariot +thither, which was above five miles distant. All the mothers of the place, +ravished with admiration, congratulated the priestess on being the mother +of such sons. She, in the transports of her joy and thankfulness, +earnestly entreated the goddess to reward her children with the best thing +that heaven can give to man. Her prayers were heard. When the sacrifice +was over, her two sons fell asleep in the very temple, and there +died(1102) in a soft and peaceful slumber. In honour of their piety, the +people of Argos consecrated statues to them in the temple of Delphi." + +"What then," says Croesus, in a tone that showed his discontent, "you do +not reckon me in the number of the happy?" Solon, who was not willing +either to flatter or exasperate him any further, replied calmly: "King of +Lydia, besides many other advantages, the gods have given us Grecians a +spirit of moderation and reserve, which has produced amongst us a plain, +popular kind of philosophy, accompanied with a certain generous freedom, +void of pride or ostentation, and therefore not well suited to the courts +of kings: this philosophy, considering what an infinite number of +vicissitudes and accidents the life of man is liable to, does not allow us +either to glory in any prosperity we enjoy ourselves, or to admire +happiness in others, which perhaps may prove only transient, or +superficial." From hence he took occasion to represent to him further, +"That the life of man seldom exceeds seventy years, which make up in all +six thousand two hundred and fifty days, of which no two are exactly +alike; so that the time to come is nothing but a series of various +accidents, which cannot be foreseen. Therefore, in our opinion," continued +he, "no man can be esteemed happy, but he whose happiness God continues to +the end of his life: as for others, who are perpetually exposed to a +thousand dangers, we account their happiness as uncertain as the crown is +to a person that is still engaged in battle, and has not yet obtained the +victory." Solon retired, when he had spoken these words,(1103) which +served only to mortify Croesus, but not to reform him. + +AEsop, the author of the Fables, was then at the court of this prince, by +whom he was very kindly entertained. He was concerned at the unhandsome +treatment Solon received, and said to him by way of advice: "Solon, we +must either not come near princes at all, or speak things that are +agreeable to them." "Say rather," replied Solon, "that we should either +never come near them at all, or else speak such things as may be for their +good."(1104) + +In Plutarch's time some of the learned were of opinion, that this +interview between Solon and Croesus did not agree with the dates of +chronology. But as those dates are very uncertain, that judicious author +did not think this objection ought to prevail against the authority of +several credible writers, by whom this story is attested. + +What we have now related of Croesus is a very natural picture of the +behaviour of kings and great men, who for the most part are seduced by +flattery; and shows us at the same time the two sources from whence that +blindness generally proceeds. The one is, a secret inclination which all +men have, but especially the great, of receiving praise without any +precaution, and of judging favourably of all that admire them, and show an +unlimited submission and complaisance to their humours. The other is, the +great resemblance there is between flattery and a sincere affection, or a +reasonable respect; which is sometimes counterfeited so exactly, that the +wisest may be deceived, if they are not very much upon their guard. + +Croesus, if we judge of him by the character he bears in history, was a +very good prince, and worthy of esteem in many respects. He had a great +deal of good-nature, affability, and humanity. His palace was a receptacle +for men of wit and learning, which shows that he himself was a person of +learning, and had a taste for the sciences. His weakness was, that he laid +too great stress upon riches and magnificence, thought himself great and +happy in proportion to his possessions, mistook regal pomp and splendour +for true and solid greatness, and fed his vanity with the excessive +submissions of those that stood in a kind of adoration before him. + +Those learned men, those wits and other courtiers, that surrounded this +prince, ate at his table, partook of his pleasures, shared his confidence, +and enriched themselves by his bounty and liberality, took care not to +thwart the prince's taste, and never thought of undeceiving him with +respect to his errors or false ideas. On the contrary, they made it their +business to cherish and fortify them in him, extolling him perpetually as +the most opulent prince of his age, and never speaking of his wealth, or +the magnificence of his palace, but in terms of admiration and rapture; +because they knew this was the sure way to please him, and to secure his +favour. For flattery is nothing else but a commerce of falsehood and +lying, founded upon interest on one side, and vanity on the other. The +flatterer desirous to advance himself, and make his fortune; the prince to +be praised and admired, because he is his own first flatterer, and carries +within himself a more subtile and better prepared poison than any +adulation gives him. + +That maxim of AEsop, who had formerly been a slave, and still retained +somewhat of the spirit and character of slavery, though he had varnished +it over with the address of an artful courtier; that maxim of his, I say, +which recommended to Solon, "That we should either not come near kings, or +say what is agreeable to them," shows us with what kind of men Croesus had +filled his court, and by what means he had banished all sincerity, +integrity, and duty, from his presence. In consequence of which, we see he +could not bear that noble and generous freedom in the philosopher, upon +which he ought to have set an infinite value; as he would have done, had +he but understood the worth of a friend, who, attaching himself to the +person, and not to the fortune of a prince, has the courage to tell him +disagreeable truths; truths unpalatable, and bitter to self-love at the +present, but that may prove very salutary and serviceable for the future. +_Dic illis, non quod volunt audire, sed quod audisse semper volent._ These +are Seneca's own words, where he is endeavouring to show of what great use +a faithful and sincere friend may be to a prince; and what he adds further +seems to be written on purpose for Croesus: "Give him,"(1105) says he, +"wholesome advice. Let a word of truth once reach those ears, which are +perpetually fed and entertained with flattery. You will ask me, what +service can be done to a person arrived at the highest pitch of felicity? +That of teaching him not to trust in his prosperity; of removing that vain +confidence he has in his power and greatness, as if they were to endure +for ever; of making him understand, that every thing which belongs to and +depends upon fortune, is as unstable as herself; and that there is often +but the space of a moment between the highest elevation and the most +unhappy downfall." + +It was not long before Croesus experienced the truth of what Solon had told +him.(1106) He had two sons, one of which, being dumb, was a perpetual +subject of affliction to him; the other, named Atys, was distinguished by +every good quality, and his great consolation and delight. The father one +night had a dream, which made a great impression upon his mind, that this +beloved son of his was to perish by iron. This became a new source of +anxiety and trouble, and care is taken to remove out of the young prince's +way every thing made of iron, as partisans, lances, javelins, &c. No +mention is made of armies, wars, or sieges, before him. But one day there +was to be an extraordinary hunting-match, for the killing of a wild boar, +which had committed great ravage in the neighbourhood. All the young lords +of the court were to be at this hunting. Atys very earnestly importuned +his father that he would give him leave to be present, at least as a +spectator. The king could not refuse him that request, but intrusted him +to the care of a discreet young prince, who had taken refuge in his court, +and was named Adrastus. And this very Adrastus, as he was aiming his +javelin at the boar, unfortunately killed Atys. It is impossible to +express either the affliction of the father, when he heard of this fatal +accident, or of the unhappy prince, the innocent author of the murder, who +expiated his fault with his blood, stabbing himself in the breast with his +own sword, upon the funeral pile of the unfortunate Atys. + +Two years were spent on this occasion in deep mourning,(1107) the +afflicted father's thoughts being wholly taken up with the loss he had +sustained. But the growing reputation, and great qualities of Cyrus, who +began to make himself known, roused him out of his lethargy. He thought it +behoved him to put a stop to the power of the Persians, which was +enlarging itself every day. As he was very religious in his way, he would +never enter upon any enterprise without consulting the gods. But, that he +might not act blindly, and in order to be able to form a certain judgment +on the answers he should receive, he was willing to assure himself +beforehand of the truth of the oracles. For which purpose, he sent +messengers to all the most celebrated oracles both of Greece and Africa, +with orders to inquire, every one at his respective oracle, what Croesus +was doing on such a day, and such an hour, before agreed on. His orders +were punctually observed; and of all the oracles none gave a true answer +but that of Delphi. The answer was given in Greek hexameter verses, and +was in substance as follows: "I know the number of the grains of sand on +the sea-shore, and the measure of the ocean's vast extent. I can hear the +dumb, and him that has not yet learnt to speak. A strong smell of a +tortoise boiled in brass, together with sheep's flesh, has reached my +nostrils, brass beneath, brass above." And indeed the king, thinking to +invent something that could not possibly be guessed at, had employed +himself on the day and hour set down, in boiling a tortoise and a lamb in +a brass pot, which had a brass cover. St. Austin observes in several +places, that God, to punish the blindness of the Pagans, sometimes +permitted the devils to give answers conformable to the truth. + +Croesus, thus assured of the veracity of the god whom he designed to +consult, offered three thousand victims to his honour, and ordered an +infinite number of vessels, tripods, and golden tables, to be melted down, +and converted into ingots of gold, to the number of a hundred and +seventeen, to augment the treasures of the temple of Delphi. Each of these +ingots weighed at least two talents; besides which, he made several other +presents: amongst others Herodotus mentions a golden lion, weighing ten +talents, and two vessels of an extraordinary size, one of gold, which +weighed eight talents and a half and twelve minae; the other of silver, +which contained six hundred of the measures called amphorae. All these +presents, and many more, which for brevity's sake I omit, were to be seen +in the time of Herodotus. + +The messengers were ordered to consult the god upon two points: first, +whether Croesus should undertake a war against the Persians; secondly, if +he did, whether he should require the succour of any auxiliary troops. The +oracle answered, upon the first article, that if he carried his arms +against the Persians, he would subvert a great empire; upon the second, +that he would do well to make alliances with the most powerful states of +Greece. He consulted the oracle again, to know how long the duration of +his empire would be. The answer was, that it should subsist till a mule +came to possess the throne of Media; which he considered as an assurance +of the perpetual duration of his kingdom. + +Pursuant to the direction of the oracle, Croesus entered into alliance with +the Athenians, who at that time had Pisistratus at their head, and with +the Lacedaemonians, who were indisputably the two most powerful states of +Greece. + +A certain Lydian, much esteemed for his prudence, gave Croesus, on this +occasion, very judicious advice.(1108) "O prince, (says he to him,) why do +you think of turning your arms against such a people as the Persians, who, +being born in a wild, rugged country, are inured from their infancy to +every kind of hardship and fatigue, who, being coarsely clad, and coarsely +fed, can content themselves with bread and water; who are absolute +strangers to all the delicacies and conveniencies of life; who, in a word, +have nothing to lose if you conquer them, and every thing to gain if they +conquer you; and whom it would be difficult to drive out of our country, +if they should once come to taste the sweets and advantages of it? So far +therefore from thinking of beginning a war against them, it is my opinion +we ought to thank the gods that they have never put it into the heads of +the Persians to come and attack the Lydians." But Croesus had taken his +resolution and would not be diverted from it. + +What remains of the history of Croesus will be found in that of Cyrus, +which I am now going to begin. + + + + + +MAPS. + + + [Map: The World.] + + Plate I, part A. + + + [Map: The World.] + + Plate I, part B. + + + [Map: Egypt with Lybia.] + + Plate II, part A. + + + [Map: Egypt with Lybia.] + + Plate II, part B. + + + [Map: The Carthaginian Empire in Africa.] + + Plate III, part A. + + + [Map: The Carthaginian Empire in Africa.] + + Plate III, part B. + + + [Map: The Carthaginian Empire in Africa.] + + Plate III, part C. + + + [Map: The Expedition of Hannibal.] + + Plate IV, part A. + + + [Map: The Expedition of Hannibal.] + + Plate IV, part B. + + + [Map: The Expedition of Hannibal.] + + Plate IV, part B. + + + [Map: The Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes and Persians.] + + Plate V, part A. + + + [Map: The Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes and Persians.] + + Plate V, part B. + + + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + +_ 1 Of the Method of Teaching and Studying the Belles Lettres_, &c. + vol. iii. and iv.--Trans. + + 2 Pietate ac religione, atque hac una sapientia quod deorum + immortalium numine omnia regi gubernarique perspeximus, omnes gentes + nationesque superavimus. _Orat. de Arusp. resp._ n. 19.--Trans. + + 3 Ecclus. x. 8 + + 4 The ancients themselves, according to Pindar, (_Olymp. Od._ vii.) + had retained some idea, that the dispersion of men was not the + effect of chance, but that they had been settled in different + countries by the appointment of Providence.--Trans. + + 5 Gen. xi. 8, 9. + + 6 "When the Most High divided the nations, and separated the sons of + Adam, he set the bounds of the people according to the number of the + children of Israel" (whom he had in view.) This is one of the + interpretations (which appears very natural) that is given to this + passage. Deut. xxxii. 8.--Trans. + + 7 Ecclus. xxxvi. 17, xxxix. 19. + + 8 Acts xv. 18. + + 9 I will bring you out from under the burdens of the Egyptians, and I + will rid you out of their bondage. Exod. vi. 6. Out of the iron + furnace, even out of Egypt. Deut. iv. 20.--Trans. + + 10 Isaiah v. 26, 30, x. 28, 34, xiii. 4, 5. + + 11 Sennacherib.--Trans. + + 12 Ibid. x. 13, 14. + + 13 Isaiah x. 5. + + 14 Ibid. ver. 7. + + 15 Ibid. ver. 12. + + 16 Because thy rage against me, and thy tumult is come up into mine + ears, therefore I will put my hook into thy nose, and my bridle in + thy lips, and I will turn thee back by the way by which thou camest. + 2 Kings xix. 28.--Trans. + + 17 Ezek. xxi. 19, 23. + + 18 Ibid. xxvi. xxvii. xxviii. + + 19 Ezek. xxviii. 2. + + 20 Ibid. xxix. 18, 20. + + 21 Dan. iv. 1-34. + + 22 This incident is related more at large in the history of the + Egyptians, under the reign of Amasis.--Trans. + + 23 Ibid. iv. 30. + + 24 Dan. iv. 31, 32. + + 25 Thus saith the Lord to his anointed, to Cyrus, whose right hand I + have holden, to subdue nations before him and I will loose the loins + of kings to open before him the two-leaved gates, and the gates + shall not be shut. + + I will go before thee, and make the crooked places straight: will + break in pieces the gates of brass, and cut in sunder the bars of + iron. + + And I will give thee the treasures of darkness, and hidden riches of + secret places, that thou mayest know, that I the Lord which shall + call _thee_ by thy name, _am_ the God of Israel. Isa. xlv. + 1-3.--Trans. + + 26 Isa. xlv. 13, 14. + + 27 Ibid. 13, 4. + + 28 Ibid. 4, 5. + + 29 Dan. iv. 7, 9. + + 30 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}.--Trans. + + 31 Dan. vii. + + 32 Ezek. xix. 3, 7. + + 33 Joseph. 1. iii. c. 46. + + 34 Gen. i. 2. + + 35 Ibid. vi. 11. + + 36 Psal. cxliv. 15. + + 37 Laus ipsa, qua Platonem vel Platonicos seu Academicos philosophos + tantum extuli, quantum impios homines non oportuit, non immerito + mihi displicuit; praesertim quorum contra errores magnes defendenda + est Christiana doctrina. _Retract._ 1. i. c. 1.--Trans. + + 38 Id in quoque corrigendum, quod pravum est; quod autem rectum est, + approbandum. _De Bapt. cont. Donat._ 1. vii. c. 16.--Trans. + + 39 Lib. v. c. 19, 21, &c. + +_ 40 De Civitate Dei_, 1. v. c. 19. + + 41 Vol. iv. p. 385. + + 42 This Mr Rollin has done admirably in the several volumes of his + Ancient History.--Trans. + +_ 43 The Method of Teaching and Studying the Belles Lettres_, &c. The + English translation (in four volumes) of this excellent piece of + criticism, was first printed for A. Bettesworth and C. Hitch, in + Paternoster-Row.--Trans. + + 44 Arborum flos, est pleni veris indicium, et anni renascentis; flos + gaudium arborum. Tunc se novas, aliasque quam sunt, ostendunt, tunc + variis colorum picturis in certamen usque luxuriant. Sed hoc negatum + plerisque. Non enim omnes florent, et sunt tristes quaedam, quaeque + non sentiant guadia annorum; nec ullo flore exhilarantur, natalesve + pomorum recursus annuos versicolori nuntio promittunt. Plin. _Hist. + Nat._ 1. xvi. c. 25.--Trans. + + 45 As the fig-trees.--Trans. + + 46 Mons. Bossuet.--Trans. + + 47 Former editions of this Work were printed in ten volumes.--Trans. + + 48 Xenoph. _in Cyrop._ 1. i. p. 25, 27.--Trans. + + 49 Quos ad fastigium nujus majestatis non ambitio popularis, sed + spectata inter bonos moderatio provebebat. Justin, 1. i. c. + 1.--Trans. + + 50 Fines imperii tueri magis quam proferre mos erat. Intra suam cuique + patriam regna finiebantur. Justin, 1. i. c. 1.--Trans. + + 51 Domitis proximis, cum accessione virium fortior ad alios transiret, + et proxima quaeque victoria instrumentum sequentis esset, totius + orientis populos subegit. Justin, 1. i. c. 1.--Trans. + + 52 Sit hoc jam a principio persuasum civibus: dominos esse omnium rerum + ac moderatores deos, eaque quae geruntur eorum geri judicio ac + numine; eosdemque optime de genere hominum mereri; et, qualis + quisque sit, quid agat, quid in se admittat, qua mente, qua pietate + religiones colat, intueri; piorumque et impiorem habere rationem--Ad + divos adeunto caste. Pietatem adhibento, opes amovento. Cic. _de + leg._ l. ii. n. 15, 19.--Trans. + +_ 53 Manner of Teaching_, &c. vol. i.--Trans. + + 54 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}.--Trans. + + 55 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. Demost. _in extrema Aristocratia_.--Trans. + + 56 Vol. ii. c. 3. § 2.--Trans. + + 57 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 58 Dionysius. + + 59 Goats were sacrificed, because they spoiled the vines.--Trans. + + 60 From this fury of the Bacchanalians these feasts were distinguished + by the name of Orgia, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}, _ira, furor_.--Trans. + + 61 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. Lib. i. _de + leg._ p. 637.--Trans. + + 62 Liv. 1. xxxix. n. 8, 18. + + 63 Nihil in speciem fallacius est quam prava religio, ubi deorum numen + praetenditur sceleribus. Liv. xxxix. n. 16.--Trans. + + 64 Multa eximia divinaque videntur Athenae tuae peperisse, atque in vitam + hominum attulisse; tum nihil melius illis mysteriis, quibus ex + agresti immanique vita, exculti ad humanitatem et mitigati sumus, + initiaque ut appellautur, ita re vera principia vitae cognovimus. + Cic. 1. ii. _de leg._ n. 36. + + Teque Ceres, et Libera, quarum sacra, sicut opiniones hominum ac + religiones ferunt, longe maximis atque occultissimis ceremoniis + continentur: a quibus initia vitae atque victus, legum, morum, + mansuetudinis, humanitatis exempla hominibus et civitatibus data ac + dispertita esse dicuntur. Cic. _in Verr. de supplic._ n. 186.--Trans. + + 65 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. _Orat de sacr. lumin._--Trans. + + 66 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 67 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}. + + 68 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + + 69 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + + 70 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}. + + 71 Diogen. Laert. l. vi. p. 389. + + 72 Liv. l. xxxi. n. 14. + + 73 Est et fideli tuta silentio + Merces. Vetabo, qui Cereris sacrum + Vulgarit arcana, sub iisdem + Sit trabibus, fragilemque mecum + Solvat phaselum. + + Hor. _Od._ 2. l. iii. + + Safe is the silent tongue, which none can blame + The faithful secret merit fame; + Beneath one roof ne'er let him rest with me, + Who "Ceres' mysteries" reveals; + In one frail bark ne'er let us put to sea, + Nor tempt the jarring winds with spreading sails. + + --Trans. + + 74 Lib. i. p. 26, 71. + + 75 Tardaque Eleusinae matris volventia plaustra. + + Virg. _Georg._ l. i. ver. 163. + + The Eleusinian mother's mystic car Slow rolling---- + + --Trans. + + 76 Herod. l. viii. c. 65. + + 77 Lib. ix. p. 305. + + 78 Plut. _in vit. Alex._ p. 671. + + 79 Zosim. _Hist._ l. iv. + +_ 80 Sympos._ l. ii. quaest. 3. p. 635. + + 81 Errabat multis in rebus antiquitas: quam vel usu jam, vel doctrina, + vel vetustate immutatam videmus. Retinetur autem et ad opinionem + vulgi, et ad magnas utilitates reip. mos, religio, disciplina, jus + augurum, collegii auctoritas. Nec vero non omni supplicio digni P. + Claudius, L. Junius consules, qui contra auspicia navigarunt. + Parendum enim fuit religioni, nec patrius mos tam contumaciter + repudiandus _Divin._ l. ii. n. 70, 71.--Trans. + + 82 Certain instruments were fastened to the tops of oaks, which, being + shaken by the wind, or by some other means, gave a confused sound. + Servius observes, that the same word, in the Thessalian language, + signifies _dove_ and _prophetess_, which had given room for the + fabulous tradition of doves that spoke. It was easy to make those + brazen basins sound by some secret means, and to give what + signification they pleased to a confused and inarticulate + note.--Trans. + + 83 Pausan. l. ix. p. 602, 604. + + 84 Plut. _de gen. Socr._ p. 590. + + 85 Herod, l. i. c. 157. Strab. l. xiv p. 634. + + 86 Tacit. _Annal._ l. ii. c. 54. + + 87 Lib. xiv. p. 427, 428. + + 88 Corium. + + 89 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. + + 90 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}.--Trans. + + 91 ----Cui talia fanti + Ante fores, subito non vultus, non color unus, + Non comptae mansere comae: sed pectus anhelum, + Et rabie fera corda tument; majorque videri, + Nec mortale sonans: afflata est numine quando + Jam propiore dei. + + Virg. _AEn._ l. vi. v. 46-51.--Trans. + + 92 Among the various marks which God has given us in the Scriptures to + distinguish his oracles from those of the devil, the fury or + madness, attributed by Virgil to the Pythia, _et rabie fera corda + tument_, is one. It is I, saith God, that show the falsehood of the + diviners' predictions, and give to such as divine, the motions of + fury and madness; or according to Isa. xliv. 25, "That frustrateth + the tokens of the liar, and maketh diviners mad." Instead of which, + the prophets of the true God constantly gave the divine answers in + an equal and calm tone of voice, and with a noble tranquillity of + behaviour. Another distinguishing mark is, that the daemons gave + their oracles in secret places, by-ways, and in the obscurity of + caves; whereas God gave his in open day, and before all the world. + "I have not spoken in secret, in a dark place of the earth," Isa. + xlv. 19. "I have not spoken in secret from the beginning," Isa. + xlviii. 16. So that God did not permit the devil to imitate his + oracles, without imposing such conditions upon him, as might + distinguish between the true and false inspiration.--Trans. + + 93 Lib. v. + + 94 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 95 Quod si aliquis dixerit multa ab idolis esse praedicta; hoc sciendum, + quod semper mendacium junxerint veritati, et sic sententias + temperarint, ut, seu boni seu mali quid accidisset, utrumque possit + intelligi. Hieronym. in cap. xlii. Isaiae. He cites the two examples + of Croesus and Pyrrhus.--Trans. + + 96 One method of consulting the oracle was by sealed letters, which + were laid upon the altar of the god unopened.--Trans. + + 97 Macrob. l. i. _Saturnal._ c. 23. + + 98 Omnis spiritus ales. Hoc et angeli et daemones. Igitur momento ubique + sunt; totus orbis illis locus unus est: quid ubi geratur tam facile + sciunt, quam enuntiant. Velocitas divinitas creditur, quia + substantia ignoratur.--Caeterum testudinem decoqui cum carnibus + pecudis Pythius eo modo renunciavit, quo supra diximus. Momento apud + Lydiam fuerat. Tertul _in Apolog._--Trans. + + 99 Plut. _in Demosth._ p. 854. + + 100 Tertull. _in Apolog._ + + 101 Lib. _de vera sapient._, c. 27. + + 102 Tam barbaros, tam immanes fuisse homines, ut parricidium suum, id + est tetrum atque execrabib humano generi facinus, sacrificium + vocarent. Cum teneras atque innocentes animas, quae maxime est aetas + parentibus dulcior, sine ullo respectu pietatis extinguerunt, + immanitatemque omnium bestiarum, quae tamen foetus suos amant, + seritate superarent. O dementiam insanabilem! Quid illis isti dii + amplius facere possent si essent iratissimi, quam faciunt propitii? + Cum suos cultores parricidiis inquinant, orbitatibus mactant, + humanis sensibus spoliant. Lactant. l. i. c. 21.--Trans. + + 103 Herod l. ii. c 180; l. v. c. 62. + + 104 About 44,428_l._ sterling.--Trans. + + 105 Ibid. l. i. c. 50, 51. + + 106 About 33,500_l._ sterling.--Trans. + + 107 Diod. l. xvi p. 453. + + 108 About 1,300,000_l._--Trans. + + 109 Plut. _de Pyth. orac._ p. 401. + + 110 Vol. iii. + + 111 Several reasons are given for this name.--Trans. + + 112 Pausan. l. ii. p. 88. + + 113 Apium. + + 114 Herod. l. viii. c. 26. + + 115 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.--Trans. + + 116 Plin. l. xvi. c. 4. + + 117 Pausan. l. v. p. 297. + + 118 Pausan. l. vi. p. 382. + + 119 Olympiorum victoria, Graecis consulatus ille antiquus videbatur. + _Tuscul. Quaest._ l. ii. n. 41.--Trans. + + 120 Olympionicam esse apud Graecos prope majus fuit et gloriosius quam + Romae triumphasse. _Pro Flacco_, n. 31.--Trans. + + 121 ----Palmaque nobilis + Terrarum dominos evehit ad deos. + + _Od._ i. l. i. + + Sive quos Elea domum reducit + Palma coelestes + + _Od._ ii. l. i.--Trans. + +_ 122 Art. Poet._ v. 412. + + 123 Nempe enim et Athletae segregantur ad strictiorem disciplinam, ut + robori aedificando vacent; continentui a luxuria, a cibis laetioribus, + a potu jucundiore; coguntur, cruciantur, fatigantur. Tertul. _ad + Martyr._--Trans. + + 124 The persons employed in this office were called _Aliptae_.--Trans. + + 125 Dolus an virtus, quis in noste requirat?--Trans. + + 126 Gen. xxxii. 24. + + 127 Captat pedes primum, luctator dolosus est.--Trans. + +_ 128 Iliad_. l. xxiii v. 708, &c. Ovid. _Metam._ l. ix. v. 31, &c. + _Phars._ l. iv. v. 612. Stat. l. vi. v. 847. + + 129 Dioscoi. _Idyl._ xxii. _Argonautic_, l. ii. _AEneid._ l. v. + _Thebaid._ l. vii. _Argonaut._ l. iv. + + 130 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 131 Quid tam distortum et elaboratum, quam est ille Discobolos Myronis? + Quintil. l. ii. c. 13.--Trans. + + 132 The Stadium was a measure of distance among the Greeks, and was, + according to Herodotus, l. ii. c. 149, six hundred feet in length. + Pliny says, l. ii. c. 23, that it was six hundred and twenty-five. + Those two authors may be reconciled by considering the difference + between the Greek and Roman foot; besides which, the length of the + Stadium varies, according to the difference of times and + places.--Trans. + +_ 133 Hom._ lv. _in Matth._ c. 16.--Trans. + + 134 ----Tunc rite citatos + Explorant, acuuntque gradus, variasque per artes + Instimulant docto languentia membra tumultu. + Poplite nunc flexo sidunt, nunc lubrica forti + Pectora collidunt plausu; nunc ignea tollunt + Crura, brevemque fugam nec opino fine reponunt. + + Stat. _Theb._ l. vi v. 587, &c. + + They try, they rouse their speed, with various arts; + Their languid limbs they prompt to act their parts. + Now with bent hams, amidst the practis'd crowd, + They sit; now strain their lungs, and shout aloud + Now a short flight with fiery steps they trace, + And with a sudden stop abridge the mimic race. + + --Trans. + + 135 Plin. l. vii. c. 20. + + 136 57 leagues. + + 137 60 leagues. + + 138 Herod. l. vi. c. 106. + + 139 30 leagues. + + 140 More than 53 leagues. + + 141 Val. Max. l. v. c. 5. + + 142 67 leagues. + + 143 He had only a guide and one officer with him.--Trans. + + 144 Nec omnes Numidae in dextro locati cornu, sed quibus desultorum in + modum binos trahentibus equos, inter acerrimam saepe pugnam, in + recentem equum ex fesso armatis transultare mos erat; tanta + velocitas ipsis, tamque docile equorum genus est. Liv. l. + xxiii.--Trans. + + 145 Plut. _in Alex._ p. 666. + + 146 Metaque fervidis Evitata rotis. Horat. _Od._ i. 1. i. + + The goal shunn'd by the burning wheels. + + --Trans. + + 147 Hom. _Il._ l. xxiii. v. 334, &c. + + 148 Plut. _in Alex._ p. 666. + + 149 Ibid. _in Themist._ p. 124. + + 150 Ibid. _in Alcib._ p. 196. + + 151 Pausan. l. iii. p. 172. + + 152 Ibid. p. 188. + + 153 Ibid. p. 172. + + 154 Ibid. l. v. p. 309. + + 155 Pausan. l. vi. p. 344. + +_ 156 Sympos._ l. viii. _quaest._ 4. + + 157 Plut. _in Alcib._ p. 196. + + 158 Lib. i. p. 3. + + 159 Diog. Laert. _in Solon_, p. 37. + + 160 About 11_l._ + + 161 About 2_l._ + + 162 Cic. _de Orat._ l. ii. n. 352, 353. Phaed. l. ii. _fab._ 24. Quintil. + l. xi. c 2. + + 163 Lib. vi. p. 368. + + 164 Lucian. _in vit. Demonact._ p. 1014. + + 165 It was Demonax, a celebrated philosopher, whose disciple Lucian had + been. He flourished in the reign of Marcus Aurelius.--Trans. + + 166 Plut. _in Quaest. Rom._ p. 273. + + 167 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.--Trans. + + 168 Plut. _in Lacon. Apophthegm_. p. 211. + + 169 Lucian. _in Herod._ p. 622. + + 170 Plut. _de vit Orat._ p. 836. + + 171 Diod. l. xiv. p. 318. + + 172 Ibid. l. xv. p. 384. + + 173 Attica anus Theophrastum, hominem alioqui disertissimum, annotata + unius affectatione verbi, hospitem dixit. Quint. l. viii. c. + 1.--Trans. + + 174 AElian, l ii. c. 8. + + 175 Boileau, _Art. Poet._ chant. iii. + + 176 Ignotum tragicae genus invenisse camoenae + Dicitur, et plaustris vexisse poemata Thespis, + Quae canerent agerentque peruncti faecibus ora. + + Hor. _de Art. Poet._ + + When Thespis first expos'd the tragic Muse, + Rude were the actors, and a cart the scene, + Where ghastly faces, smear'd with lees of wine, + Frighted the children, and amus'd the crowd. + + Roscom. _Art of Poet._ + + --Trans. + + 177 Boileau, _Art. Poet._ chant. iii. + + M1 A.M. 3440. Ant. J.C. 564. + + 178 Plut. _in Solon_ p. 95. + + M2 A.M. 3464. Ant. J.C. 540. + M3 A.M. 3514. Ant. J.C. 490. + + 179 Post hunc personae pallaeque repertor honestae + AEschylus, et modicis instravit pulpita tignis, + Et docuit magnumque loqui, nitique cothurno. + + Hor. _de Art. Poet._ + + This, AEschylus (with indignation) saw, + And built a stage, found out a decent dress, + Brought vizards in (a civiler disguise), + And taught men how to speak and how to act. + + Roscom. _Art of Poet._--Trans. + + 180 Boileau, _Art. Poet._ + + 181 Actoris partes chorus officiumque virile + Defendat, neu quid medios intercinat actus, + Quod non proposito conducat, et haereat apte. + Ille bonis faveatque, et concilietur amicis, + Et regat iratos, et amet peccare timentes. + Ille dapes laudet mensae brevis; ille salubrem + Justitiam, legesque, et apertis otia portis. + Ille tegat commissa, deosque precetur et oret, + Ut redeat miseris, abeat fortuna superbis. + + Hor. _de Art. Poet._ + + The chorus should supply what action wants, + And hath a generous and manly part; Bridles wild rage, loves rigid + honesty, + And strict observance of impartial laws, + Sobriety, security, and peace, + And begs the gods to turn blind Fortune's wheel, + To raise the wretched, and pull down the proud; + But nothing must be sung between the acts, + But what someway conduces to the plot. + + Roscom. _Art of Poet_. translat.--Trans. + + 182 Vol. iv. + +_ 183 Manner of Teaching_, &c. vol. iv. + + 184 Quo melius nostri illi senes, qui personatum, ne Roscium quidem, + magnopere laudabant. Lib. iii. _de Orat._ n. 221.--Trans. + + M4 A.M. 3509. Ant. J.C. 495. + M5 A.M. 3534. Ant. J.C. 470. + M6 A.M. 3599. Ant. J.C. 405. + M7 A.M. 3524. Ant. J.C. 480. + + 185 Sententiis densus, et in iis quae a sapientibus sunt, pene ipsis est + par. Quintil. l. x. c. 1.--Trans. + + 186 Cui (Euripidi) tu quantum credas nescio; ego certe singulos ejus + versus singula testimonia puto. _Epist._ viii. l. 14. _ad + Famil._--Trans. + + 187 Ipse autem socer (Caesar) in ore semper Graecos versus Euripidis de + Phoenissis habebat, quos dicam ut potero, incondite fortasse, sed + tamen ut res possit intelligi: + + Nam, si violandum est jus, regnandi gratia + Violandum est; aliis rebus pietatem colas. + + Capitalis Eteocles, vel potius Euripides, qui id unum, quod omnium + sceleratissimum fuerat, exceperit. _Offic._ l. iii. n. 82.--Trans. + + 188 Plut. _in vit._ x. _orat._ p. 841. + + 189 I know not whether the idea of "a canal, that flows gently through + delicious gardens," is well adapted to designate the character of + Sophocles, which is peculiarly distinguished by nobleness, grandeur, + and elevation. That of an impetuous and rapid stream, whose waves, + from the violence of their motion, are loud, and to be heard afar + off, seems to me a more suitable image of that poet.--Trans. + + 190 Tragaedias primus in lucem AEschylus protulit: sublimis et gravis, et + grandiloquus saepe usque ad vitium; sed rudis in plerisque et + incompositus. Quintil. l. x. c. 1.--Trans. + + 191 Corneille and Racine.--Trans. + + 192 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 193 Homo sum: humani nihil a me alienum puto. Ter.--Trans. + + 194 Successit vetus his comoedia non sinc multa Laude. Hor. _in Art. + Poet._--Trans. + +_ 195 Plutus._ + +_ 196 The Birds._ + +_ 197 The Knights._ + +_ 198 The Peace._ + + 199 Quem illa non attigit, vel potius quem non vexavit? Esto, populares + homines, improbos, in remp. seditiosos, Cleonem, Cleophontem, + Hyperbolum laesit: patiamur--Sed Periclem, cum jam suae civitati maxima + auctoritate plurimos annos domi et belli praefuisset, violari + versibus, et eos agi in scena, non plus decuit, quam si Plautus + noster voluisset, aut Naevius, P. et Cn. Scipioni, aut Caecilius M. + Catoni maledicere. Ex fragm. Cic. _de Rep._ l. iv.--Trans. + + 200 Aristophan. _in Acharn._ + + 201 Eupolis, atque Cratinus, Aristophanesque poetae, + Atque alii, quorum comoedia prisca virorum est, + Si quis erat dignus describi, quod malus, aut fur, + Quod moechus foret, aut sicarius, aut alioqui + Famosus; multa cum libertate notabant. + + Hor. _Sat._ iv. l. i. + + With Aristophanes' satiric rage, + When ancient comedy amus'd the age, + Or Eupolis's or Cratinus' wit, + And others that all-licens'd poem writ; + None, worthy to be shown, escap'd the scene, + No public knave, or thief of lofty mien; + The loose adult'rer was drawn forth to sight; + The secret murd'rer trembling lurk'd the night; + Vice play'd itself, and each ambitious spark; + All boldly branded with the poet's mark. + + --Trans. + + 202 Antiqua comoedia sinceram illam sermonis Attici gratiam prope sola + retinet. Quintil.--Trans. + + 203 Nimium risus pretium est, si probitatis impendio constat. Quintil. + l. vi. c. 3.--Trans. + + 204 Non pejus duxerim tardi ingenii esse, quam mali. Quintil. l. i. c. + 3.--Trans. + + 205 Boileau, _Art. Poet._, chant. iii. + + 206 Atque ille quidem omnibus ejusdem operis auctoribus abstulit nomen, + et fulgore quodam suae claritatis tenebras obduxit. Quintil. l. x. c. + 1.--Trans. + + 207 Quidam, sicut Menander, justiora posterorum quam suae aetatis, judicia + sunt consecuti. Quintil. l. iii. c. 6.--Trans. + +_ 208 Memoirs of the Acad. of Inscript._ &c. vol i. p. 136, &c. + + 209 Strab. l. ix. p. 395. Herod. l. viii. c. 65. + + 210 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. + + 211 It is not certain whether this piece was prior or posterior to the + death of Socrates.--Trans. + + 212 Plut. _in Aristid._ p. 320. + + 213 Plut. _in Philipoem._ p. 362. + + 214 Cic. _in Orat. pro. Sext._ n. 120, 123. + + 215 O ingratifici Argivi, inanes Graii, immemores beneficii, + Exulare sivistis, sivistis pelli, pulsum patimini. + + --Trans. + + 216 Cic. _ad Attic._ l. ii. _Epist._ 19. Val. Max. l. vi. c. 2. + + 217 Justin, l. vi. c. 9. + + 218 Plut. _de glor. Athen._ p. 349. + + 219 Plut. _Sympos._ l. vii. _quaest._ vii. p. 719. + + 220 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.--Trans. + + 221 Quibus rebus effectum est, ut inter otia Graeecorum, sordidum et + obscurum antea Macedonum nomen emergeret; et Philippus, obses + triennio Thebis habitus, Epaminondae et Pelopidae virtutibus eruditus, + regnum Macedoniae, Graeciae et Asiae cervicibus, velut jugum servitutis, + imponeret. Just. l. vi. c. 9.--Trans. + + 222 Atheniensium res gestae, sicuti ego existimo, satis amplae + magnificaeque fuerunt verum aliquanto minores tamen, quam fama + feruntur. Sed quia provenere ibi scriptorum magna ingenia, per + terrarum orbem Atheniensiam facta pro maximis celeorantur. Ita + eorum, quae fecere, virtus tanta habetur, quantum eam verbis potuere + extollere praeclara ingenia. Sallust. _in Bell. Catilin._--Trans. + + 223 In _Cim._ p. 479, 480. + + 224 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}.--Trans. + + 225 Habet in pictura speciem tota facies. Apelles tamen imaginem + Antigoni latere tantum altero ostendit, ut amissi oculi deformitas + lateret. Quintil. l. ii. c. 13.--Trans. + + 226 Exequi sententias haud institui, nisi insignes per honestum, aut + notabili dedecore: quod praecipuum munus annalium reor, ne virtutes + sileantur, utque pravis dictis factisque ex posteritate et infamia + motus sit. Tacit. _Annal._ l. iii. c. 65.--Trans. + + M8 A.M. 2900. Ant. J.C. 1104. + + 227 Lib. vi. c. 52. + + 228 Lib. viii. p. 365. Plut. _in Lycurg._ p. 40. + + 229 Plut. _in Lycurg._ p. 40. + + 230 Herod. l. i. c. 82. + + M9 A.M. 3261. Ant. J.C. 743. + + 231 Pausan. l. iv. p. 216-242. Justin, l. iii. c. 4. + + 232 Pausan. l. iv. p. 225, 226. + + 233 Ibid. l. iv. 227-234. + + 234 Diod. l. xv. p. 378. + + 235 Et regnata petam Laconi rura Phalanto. Hor. _Od._ vi. l. 2.--Trans. + + 236 Pausan. l. iv. p. 234, 235. Diod. _in Frag._ + + 237 Pausan. l. iv. p. 235, 241. + +_ 238 Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions_, vol. ii. p. 84-113.--Trans. + + 239 Clem. Alex. _in Protrep._ p. 20. Euseb. _in Proep._ l. iv. c. 16. + + 240 Pausan. l. iv. p. 241-242. + + M10 A.M. 3281. Ant. J.C. 723. + + 241 Ibid. p. 242, 261. Justin, l. iii. c. 5. + + 242 Cum per complures annos gravia servitutis verbera, plerumque ac + vincula, caeteraque captivitatis mala perpessi essent, post longam + paenarum patientiam bellum instaurant. Justin, l. iii. c. 5.--Trans. + + M11 A.M. 3320. Ant. J.C. 684. + + 243 According to several historians, there was another Aristomenes in + the first Messenian war. Diod. l. xv. p. 378.--Trans. + + 244 Plat. l. i. _de Legib._ p. 629. Plut. _in Agid. et Cleom._ p. 805. + + 245 Tyrtaeusque mares animos in martia bella + Versibus exacuit. + + Hor. _in Art. Poet._--Trans. + + M12 A.M. 3334. Ant. J.C. 670. + M13 A.M. 3704. Ant. J.C. 300. + M14 A.M. 3680. + M15 A.M. 3718. + M16 3758. + M17 3783. + M18 3800. + M19 3824. + M20 A.M. 3704. + M21 3724. + M22 3743. + M23 3758. + M24 3778. + M25 3781. + M26 3817. + M27 3829. + M28 A.M. 3707. + M29 3710. + M30 A.M. 3723. + M31 3724. + M32 3726. + M33 3728. + M34 3762. + M35 3772. + M36 3784. + M37 3824. + M38 3686. + + 246 Lib. v. p. 310.--Trans. + + M39 A.M. 3726. + M40 3820. + M41 A.M. 3721. Ant. J.C. 283. + M42 A.M. 3741. Ant. J.C. 263. + M43 A.M. 3763. Ant. J.C. 241. + M44 A.M. 3807. Ant. J.C. 197. + M45 A.M. 3845. Ant. J.C. 159. + M46 A.M. 3866. Ant. J.C. 138. + M47 A.M. 3871. Ant. J.C. 133. + M48 A.M. 3490. Ant. J.C. 514. + M49 A.M. 3600. Ant. J.C. 404. + M50 A.M. 3641. Ant. J.C. 363. + M51 A.M. 3667. Ant. J.C. 337. + M52 A.M. 3702. Ant. J.C. 302. + M53 A.M. 3819. Ant. J.C. 185. + M54 A.M. 3880. Ant. J.C. 124. + + 247 Strab. l. xii. p. 534. + + M55 A.M. 3682. Ant. J.C. 322. + + 248 Diod. l. xvi. p. 465. Justin, l. viii. c. 6. Plut. _in Pyrrho_. + + 249 Quanto doctior majoribus, tanto et gratioi populo fuit. Justin, l. + xvii. c. 3.--Trans. + + M56 A.M. 3733. Ant. J.C. 271. + + 250 Justin, l. xvi. c. 3-5. Diod. l. xv. p. 390. + + 251 Heraclienses honestiorem beneficii, quam ultionis occasionem rati, + instructos commeatibus auxiliisque aimittunt; bene agrorum suorum + populationem impensam existimantes, si, quos hostes habuerant, + amicos reddidissent. Justin.--Trans. + + M57 A.M. 3640. Ant. J.C. 364. + M58 A.M. 3652. Ant. J.C. 352. + + 252 l. xvi. p. 435. + + M59 A.M. 3667. Ant. J.C. 337. + + 253 Ibid. p. 478. + + M60 A.M. 3700. Ant. J.C. 304. + + 254 Diod. l. xx. p. 833. + + M61 A.M. 3735. Ant. J.C. 269. + M62 A.M. 3789. Ant. J.C. 215. + M63 A.M. 3791. Ant. J.C. 213. + + 255 It is related, that under Amasis there were twenty thousand + inhabited cities in Egypt. Herod 1. ii c. 177.--Trans. + + 256 A day's journey is twenty-four eastern, or thirty-three English + miles and a quarter.--Trans. + + 257 Strabo, 1 xvii. p. 787. + + 258 Hom. _Il._ i. ver. 381. + + 259 Strab. 1. xvii. p. 816. + + 260 Tacit. _Ann._ 1. ii. c. 60. + + 261 Thevenot's _Travels_. + + 262 Lib. xvii. p. 805. + + 263 P. 816. + + 264 Germanicus alus quoque miraculis intendit animum, quorum praecipua + fuere Memnonis saxea effigies, ubi radiis solis icta est, vocalem + sonum reddens, &c. Tacit _Annal._ 1. ii. c. 61.--Trans. + + 265 Thevenot. + + 266 L. xvii. p. 807. + + 267 Diod. lib. i. p. 37. + + 268 It is proper to observe, once for all, that an Egyptian cubit, + according to Mr. Greaves, was one foot nine inches, and about 3/4 of + our measure.--Trans. + + 269 Plin. l. xxxvi. c. 8, 9. + + 270 Plin. l. xxxvi c. 9. + + 271 Rafts are pieces of flat timber put together to carry goods on + rivers.--Trans. + + 272 Herod. l. ii c. 124, &c. Diod. l. i. p. 39-41. Plin. lib. xxxvi. c. + 12. + + 273 About 200,000_l._ sterl.--Trans. + + 274 Strabo mentions the sepulchre, lib. xvii. p. 808.--Trans. + + 275 Diod. lib. i. p. 40. + + 276 Lib. xxxvi. c. 12. + + 277 Herod. l. ii. c. 148. Diod. l. i. p. 42. Plin. l. xxxvi. c. 13. + Strab. l. xvii. p. 811. + + 278 AEneid, l. v. ver. 588, &c. + + 279 l. vi. ver. 27, &c. + + 280 Herod. l. ii. c. 140. Strab. l. xvii. p. 787. Diod. l. i p. 47. + Plin. l. v. c. 9. Pomp. _Mela_, l. i. + +_ 281 Vide Herod. et Diod._ Pliny agrees almost with them.--Trans. + + 282 Mela, l. i. + + 283 Eighty-five _stadia_.--Trans. + + 284 11,250_l._ sterling.--Trans. + + 285 Seneca (_Nat. Quaest._ l. iv. c. 2.) ascribes these verses to Ovid, + but they are Tibullus's.--Trans. + + 286 Excipiunt eum (Nilum) cataractae, nobilis insigni spectaculo + locus.--Illic excitatis primum aquis, quas sine tumultu leni alveo + duxerat, violentus et toriens per malignos transitus prosilit, + dissimilis sibi--tandemque eluctatus obstantia, in vastam altitudinem + subito destitutus cadit, cum ingenti circumjacentium regionum + strepitu; quem perferre gens ibi a Persis collocata non potuit, + obtusis assiduo fragore auribus, et ob hoc sedibus ad quietiora + translatis. Inter miracula fluminis incredibilem incolarum audaciam + accepi. Bini parvula navigia conscendunt, quorum alter navem regit, + alter exhaurit. Deinde multum inter rapidam insaniam Nili et + reciprocos fluctus volutati, tandem tenuissimos canales tenent, per + quos angusta rupium effugiunt: et cum toto flumine effusi navigium + ruens manu temperant, magnoque spectantium metu in caput nixi, cum + jam adploraveris, mersosque atque obrutos tanta mole credideris, + longe ab eo in quem ceciderant loco navigant, tormenti modo missi. + Nec mergit cadens unda, sed planis aquis tradit. Senec. _Nat. + Quaest._ l. iv. c. 2.--Trans. + + 287 Herod. l. ii. c. 19-27. Diod. l. i. p. 35-39. Senec. _Nat. Quaest._ + l. iv. 1 & 2. + + 288 Lib. xvii. p. 789. + + 289 Herod. l. ii. c. 19. Diod. l. i. p 32. + + 290 Justum incrementum est cubitorum xvi. Minores aquae non omnia rigant: + ampliores detinent tardius recedendo. Hae serendi tempora absumunt + solo madente: illae non dant sitiente. Utrumque reputat provincia. In + duodecim cubitis famem sentit, in tredecim etiamnum esurit: + quatuordecim cubita hilaritatem afferunt, quindecim securitatem, + sexdecim delicias. Plin. l. v. c. 9.--Trans. + + 291 Jul. _Epist._ 50. + + 292 Diod. l. i. p 33. + + 293 Lib. xvii. p. 817. + + 294 Socrat. l. i. c. 18. Sozom. l. v. c. 3. + + 295 Lib. i. p. 30. & lib. v. p. 313. + + 296 Cum caeteri amnes abluant terras et eviscerent; Nilus adeo nihil + exedit nec abradit, ut contra adjiciat vires.--Ita juvat agros duabus + ex causis, et quod inundat, et quod oblimat. Senec. _Nat. Quaest._ l. + iv. c. 2.--Trans. + + 297 Vol. ii. + + 298 Multiformis sapientia. Eph. iii. 10. + + 299 Deut. xi. 10-13. + + 300 Illa facies pulcherrima est, cum jam se in agros Nilus ingessit. + Latent campi, opertaeque sunt valles: oppida insularum modo extant. + Nullum in mediterraneis, nisi per navigia, commercium est: majorque + est laetitia in gentibus, quo minus terrarum suarum vident. Senec. + _Nat. Quaest._ l. iv. c. 2.--Trans. + + 301 Herod. l. ii. c. 158. Strab. l. xvii. p. 804. Plin l. vi. c. 29. + Diod. l. i p. 29. + + 302 Plutar. _de Isid._ p. 354. + + 303 Strab. l. xvii. p. 805. Herod l. ii. c. 73. Plin. l. x. c. 2. Tacit. + _Ann._ l. vi. c. 28. + +_ 304 Sat._ vi. + + 305 Vir bonus tam cito nec fieri potest, nec intelligi--tanquam Phoenix, + semel anno quingentesimo nascitur. _Ep._ 40.--Trans. + +_ 306 Od._ iii. l. iv. + + 307 Strab. l. xvii. p. 805. + + 308 Or Myos Hormos.--Trans. + + 309 Strab. l. xvi p. 781. + + 310 2 Sam. viii. 14. + + 311 1 Kings ix. 26. + + 312 He got in one voyage 450 talents of gold, 2 Chron. viii. 18, which + amounts to three millions two hundred and forty thousand pounds + sterling. Prid. _Connect._, vol. i. _ad ann._ 740, _not._--Trans. + + 313 Strab. l. xvi. p. 481. + + 314 Part I. i. p. 9. + + 315 Strab. l. xvii. p. 791. Plin. l. xxxvi. c. 12. + + 316 Eight hundred thousand crowns, or 180,000_l_. sterling.--Trans. + + 317 Magno animo Ptolemaei regis, quod in ea permiserit Sostrati Cnidii + architecti structurae nomen inscribi. Plin.--Trans. + +_ 318 De scribend. Hist._ p. 706. + + 319 Ne Alexandrinis quidem permittenda deliciis. Quintil.--Trans. + + 320 A quarter or division of the city of Alexandria.--Trans. + + 321 Plut. _in Caes._ p. 731. Seneca, _de Tranquill. Amm._ c. 9. + + 322 Acts vii. 22. + + 323 Diod. l. i. p. 63, &c. + +_ 324 De Isid. et Osir._ p. 354. + + 325 Plat. _in Tim._ p. 656. + + 326 Diod. l. i. p. 70. + + 327 Pag. 69. + + 328 Ibid. + + 329 Ibid. + + 330 Ibid. + + 331 Herod. l. ii. c. 136 + + 332 This law put the whole sepulchre of the debtor into the power of the + creditor, who removed to his own house the body of the father: the + debtor refusing to discharge his obligation, was to be deprived of + burial, either in his father's sepulchre or any other; and whilst he + lived, he was not permitted to bury any person descended from him. + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}--{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. Herod.--Trans. + + 333 Diod. l. i. p. 71. + + 334 Ibid. p. 72. + + 335 Diod. l. i. p. 22. + + 336 Herod. l. ii. c. 20. + + 337 Gen. xlvii. 26. + + 338 Herod. l. ii. c. 60. + + 339 Ibid. c. 39. + + 340 Diod. l. i. p. 88. + + 341 Plut. _de Isid. et Osir._ p. 354. + + 342 Plut. _Sympos._ l. iv. p. 670 + + 343 Id. _de Isid._ p. 355. + + 344 Or Egyptian stork.--Trans. + +_ 345 De Nat. Deor._ l. i. n. 82. _Tusc. Quaest._ l. v. n. 78. + + 346 Herod. l. ii. c. 65. + + 347 Diod. l. i. p. 74. 75. + + 348 Herod. l. iii. c. 27, &c. Diod. l. i. p. 76. Plin. l. viii. c. 46. + + 349 Pliny affirms, that he was not allowed to exceed a certain term of + years; and was drowned in the priests' well. Non est fas eum certos + vitae excedere annos, mersumque in sacerdotum fonte enecant. _Nat. + Hist._ l. viii. c. 46.--Trans. + + 350 Above 11,250_l._ sterling.--Trans. + + 351 Quis nescit, Volusi Bithynice, qualia demens + AEgyptus portenta colat? Crocodilon adorat + Pars haec: illa pavet saturam serpentibus Ibin. + Effigies sacri nitet aurea Cercopitheci, + Dimidio magicae resonant ubi Memnone chordae, + Atque vetus Thebe centum jacet obruta portis. + Illic coeruleos, hic piscem fluminis, illic + Oppida tota canem venerantur, nemo Dianam. + Porrum et coepe nefas violare, ac frangere morsu. + O sanctas gentes, quibus haec nascuntur in hortis + Numina! + + Juven. _Sat._ xv.--Trans. + + 352 Diodorus affirms, that in his time, the expense amounted to no less + than one hundred thousand crowns, or 22,500_l._ sterling. Lib. i. p. + 76.--Trans. + +_ 353 Imag._ + + 354 Diod. l. i. p. 77, &c. + + 355 Ipsi qui irridentur AEgyptii, nullam belluam nisi ob aliquam + utilitatem, quam ex ea caperent, consecraverunt. Cic. lib. i. _De + Nat. Deor._ n. 101.--Trans. + + 356 Which, according to Herodotus, is more than 17 cubits in length: l. + ii. c. 68.--Trans. + + 357 P. 382. + + 358 P. 377 and 378. + + 359 Rom. i. ver. 22, 25. + + 360 Tom. v. pp. 25, 26. + + 361 Herod. l. ii. c. 85, &c. + + 362 About 137_l._ 10_s._ sterling.--Trans. + + 363 Diod. l. i. p. 81. + + 364 Twelve _Arourae_. An _Egyptian Aroura_ was 10,000 square cubits, + equal to three roods, two perches, 55-1/4 square feet of our + measure.--Trans. + + 365 The Greek is, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, which some have made to + signify a determinate quantity of wine, or any other liquid: others, + regarding the etymology of the word {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}, have translated it by + _haustrum_, a bucket, as Lucretius, lib. v. 51, others by _haustus_, + a draught or sup. Herodotus says, this allowance was given only to + the two thousand guards who attended annually on the kings. Lib. ii. + c. 168.--Trans. + + 366 Lib. i. p. 67. + + 367 Herod. l. ii. c. 164, 168. + + 368 Cant. i. 8. Isa. xxxvi. 9. + + 369 Diod. p. 76. + + 370 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.--Trans. + + 371 It will not seem surprising that the Egyptians, who were the most + ancient observers of the celestial motions, should have arrived to + this knowledge, when it is considered, that the lunar year, made use + of by the Greeks and Romans, though it appears so inconvenient and + irregular, supposed nevertheless a knowledge of the solar year, such + as Diodorus Siculus ascribes to the Egyptians. It will appear at + first sight, by calculating their intercalations, that those who + first divided the year in this manner, were not ignorant, that, to + three hundred sixty-five days, some hours were to be added, to keep + pace with the sun. Their only error lay in the supposition, that + only six hours were wanting; whereas an addition of almost eleven + minutes more was requisite.--Trans. + + 372 Lib. ii. c. 84. + + 373 Diod. l. i. p. 73. + + 374 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.--Trans. + + 375 Diod. l. i. pp. 67, 68. + + 376 Or Ham.--Trans. + + 377 Diod. l. i. p. 67. + + 378 Tom. ii. p. 64. + + 379 Lib. x. c. 54. + + 380 Swineherds, in particular, had a general ill name throughout Egypt, + as they had the care of so impure an animal. Herodotus (l. ii. c. + 47.) tells us, that they were not permitted to enter the Egyptian + Temples, nor would any man give them his daughter in + marriage.--Trans. + + 381 Xiphilin. _in Apophthegm_. _Tib. Caes._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. + + 382 Plin. l. xiii. c. 11. + + 383 The Papyrus was divided into thin flakes, (into which it naturally + parted,) which being laid on a table, and moistened with the + glutinous waters of the Nile, were afterwards pressed together, and + dried in the sun.--Trans. + + 384 Postea promiscue patuit usus rei, qua cons ... immortalitas + hominum.--Chartae ... maxime humanitas constat in memoria.--Trans. + + 385 Plin. l. xix. c. 1. + + 386 Isa. xiv. 9. + + 387 Exod. ix. 31. + + 388 Plin. lib. xix. c. 1. + + 389 Proximus Byssino mulierum maxime deliciis genito: inventum jam est + etiam [scilicet Linum] quod ignibus non absumetur, vivum id vocant, + ardentesque in focis conviviorum ex eo vidimus mappas, sordibus + exustis splendescentes igni magis, quam possent aquis: _i.e._ A flax + is now found out, which is proof against the violence of fire; it is + called living flax; and we have seen table napkins of it glowing in + the fires of our dining rooms; and receiving a lustre and a + cleanness from flames, which no water could have given it.--Trans. + + 390 Ezek. xxvii. 7. + + 391 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. + + _Odyss._ ix. ver. 94, 95, 102. + + --Trans. + + 392 AEgyptus frugum quidem fertilissima, sed ut prope sola iis carere + possit, tanta est ciborum ex herbis abundantia. Plin. l. xxi. c. + 15.--Trans. + + 393 Numb. xi. 4, 5. + + 394 Exod. xvi. 3. + + 395 Inundatione, id est, ubertate regio fraudata, sic opem Caesaris + invocavit, ut solet amnem suum.--Trans. + + 396 Percrebuerat antiquitus urbem nostram nisi opibus AEgypti ali + sustentarique non posse. Superbiebat ventosa et insolens natio, quod + victorem quidem populum pasceret tamen, quodque in suo flumine, in + suis manibus, vel abundantia nostra vel fames esset. Refudimus Nilo + suas copias. Recepit frumenta quae miserat, deportatasque messes + revexit.--Trans. + + 397 Nilus AEgypto quidem saepe. sed gloriae nostrae nuaquam largior + fluxit.--Trans. + + 398 Ezek. xxix. 3, 9. + + 399 Gen. xii. 10-26. + + 400 Diod. l. i. p. 41. + + 401 An historian of Cyrene.--Trans. + + 402 Sir John Marsham's _Canon Chronic_. Father Pezron; the Dissertations + of F. Tournemine, and Abbe Sevin, &c.--Trans. + + 403 Or Ham. + + M64 A.M. 1816. Ant. J.C. 2188. + + 404 Or Cush, Gen. x. 6. + + 405 The footsteps of its old name (Mesraim) remain to this day among the + Arabians, who call it Mesre; by the testimony of Plutarch, it was + called {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, Chemia, by an easy corruption of Chamia, and this for + Cham or Ham.--Trans. + + 406 Herod. l. ii. p. 99. Diod. l. i. p. 42. + + 407 Diod. l. i. pp. 44, 45. + + 408 Three thousand two hundred myriads of Minae.--Trans. + + 409 See Sir Isaac Newton's _Chronology_, p. 30. + + 410 Diod. p. 46. + + M65 A.M. 1920. Ant. J.C. 2084. + M66 A.M. 2084. Ant. J.C. 1920. + + 411 Gen. xii. 10-20. + + M67 A.M. 2179. Ant. J.C. 1825. + M68 A.M. 2276. Ant. J.C. 1728. + + 412 Lib. xxxvi. c. 2. + + 413 Justin ascribes this gift of heaven to Joseph's skill in magical + arts: Cum magicas ibi artes (Egypto) solerti ingenio percepisset, + &c.--Trans. + + M69 A.M. 2298. Ant. J.C. 1706. + + 414 Exod. i. 8. + + M70 A.M. 2427. Ant. J.C. 1577. + + 415 Heb. urbes thesaurorum. LXX. urbes munitas. These cities were + appointed to preserve, as in a storehouse, the corn, oil, and other + products of Egypt. Vatab.--Trans. + + 416 Exod. i. 11, 13, 14. + + M71 A.M. 2494. Ant. J.C. 1510. + M72 A.M. 2513. Ant. J.C. 1491. + + 417 This name bears a great resemblance to Pharaoh, which was common to + the Egyptian kings.--Trans. + + 418 Lib. iii. p. 74. + + 419 Herod. l. ii. c. 102, 110. Diod. l. i. pp. 48, 54. + + 420 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, lib. xii. c. 4. + + M73 A.M. 2513. Ant. J.C. 1491. + + 421 2 Chron. viii. 9. But of the children of Israel did Solomon make no + servants for his work.--Trans. + + 422 150 stadia, about 18 miles English.--Trans. + + 423 Tacit. _Ann._ l. ii. c. 60. + + 424 Legebantur indicta gentibus tributa--haud minus magnifica quam nunc + vi Parthorum aut potentia Romana jubentur--Inscribed on pillars, were + read the tributes imposed on vanquished nations, which were not + inferior to those now paid to the Parthian and Roman powers.--Trans. + + M74 A.M. 2448. + M75 A.M. 2530. + M76 A.M. 2533. + M77 A.M. 2549. + + 425 The reader may consult, on this subject, two learned dissertations + of Abbe Renaudot, inserted in the second volume of _The History of + the Academy of Inscriptions_.--Trans. + + 426 The sixteen letters brought by Cadmus into Greece, are {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}. Palamedes, at the siege of Troy, + _i.e._ upwards of two hundred and fifty years lower than Cadmus, + added the four following, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}; and Simonides, a long time + after, invented the four others, namely, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}.--Trans. + + M78 A.M. 2517. Ant. J.C. 1547. + + 427 Herod. l. ii. c. 111. Diod. l. i. p. 54. + + M79 A.M. 2800. Ant. J.C. 1204. + + 428 I do not think myself obliged to enter here into a discussion, which + would be attended with very perplexing difficulties, should I + pretend to reconcile the series, or succession of the kings, as + given by Herodotus, with the opinion of archbishop Usher. This last + supposes, with many other learned men, that Sesostris is the son of + that Egyptian king who was drowned in the Red-Sea, whose reign must + consequently have begun in the year of the world 2513, and continued + till the year 2547, since it lasted thirty-three years. Should we + allow fifty years to the reign of Pheron his son, there would still + be an interval of above two hundred years between Pheron and + Proteus, who, according to Herodotus, was the immediate successor of + the former; since Proteus lived at the time of the siege of Troy, + which, according to Usher, was taken An. Mun. 2820. I know not + whether his almost total silence on the Egyptian kings after + Sesostris, was owing to his sense of this difficulty. I suppose a + long interval to have occurred between Pheron and Proteus; + accordingly, Diodorus (lib. i. p. liv.) fills it up with a great + many kings; and the same must be said of some of the following + kings.--Trans. + + 429 Herod. l. ii. c. 112, 120. + + 430 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.--Trans. + + 431 L. ii. c. 121, 123. + + 432 Herod. l. ii. c. 124, 128. Diod. l. i. p. 57. + + 433 Herod. l. ii. p. 139. 140. Diod. p. 58. + + 434 Herod. l. ii. c. 136. + + 435 The remainder of the inscription, as we find it in Herodotus, is--for + men plunging long poles down to the bottom of the lake, drew bricks + ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}) out of the mud which stuck to them, and gave me + this form.--Trans. + + M80 A.M. 2991. Ant. J.C. 1013. + + 436 1 Kings iii. 1. + + M81 A.M. 3026. Ant. J.C. 978. + + 437 1 Kings xi. 40. and xii. + + M82 A.M. 3033. Ant. J.C. 971. + + 438 2 Chron. xii. 1-9. + + 439 The English version of the Bible says, The Lubims, the Sukkiims, and + the Ethiopians.--Trans. + + 440 Or, of the kingdoms of the earth.--Trans. + + M83 A.M. 3063. Ant. J.C. 941. + + 441 2 Chron. xiv. 9-13. + + 442 Herod. l. ii. c. 137. Diod, l. i. p. 59. + + M84 A.M. 3279. Ant. J.C. 725. + + 443 2 Kings xvii. 4. + + M85 A.M. 3285. Ant. J.C. 719. + + 444 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}--Trans. + + 445 Chap. xvii. + + 446 The Vulgate calls that city Alexandria, to which the Hebrew gives + the name of No-Amon, because Alexandria was afterwards built in the + place where this stood. Dean Prideaux, after Bochart, thinks that it + was Thebes, surnamed Diospolis. Indeed, the Egyptian Amon is the + same with Jupiter. But Thebes is not the place where Alexandria was + since built. Perhaps there was another city there, which also was + called No-Amon.--Trans. + + 447 Nahum iii. 8, 10. + + 448 Herod. l. ii. c. 142. + + M86 A.M. 3299. Ant. J.C. 705. + + 449 Afric. apud Syncel. p. 74. Diod l. i. p. 59. + + M87 A.M. 3319. Ant. J.C. 685. + + 450 Herod. l. ii. c. 147, 152. + + 451 He was one of the twelve.--Trans. + + M88 A.M. 3334. Ant. J.C. 670. + + 452 Herod. l. ii. c. 153, 154. + + 453 This revolution happened about seven years after the captivity of + Manasseh, king of Judah.--Trans. + + 454 Lib. i. p. 61. + + 455 Herod. l. ii. c. 157. + + 456 Isa. xx. 1. + + 457 Herod. l. i. c. 105. + + 458 Herod. l. ii. c. 2, 3. + + M89 A.M. 3388. Ant. J.C. 616. + + 459 He is called Necho in the English version of the Scriptures.--Trans. + + 460 Herod. l. ii. c. 158. + + 461 Allowing 625 feet (or 125 geometrical paces) to each stadium, the + distance will be 118 English miles, and a little above one-third of + a mile. Herodotus says, that this design was afterwards put in + execution by Darius the Persian, b. ii. c. 158.--Trans. + + 462 Herod. l. iv. c. 42. + + 463 Joseph. _Antiq._ l. x. c. 6. 2 Kings, xxiii. 29, 30. 2 Chron. xxxv. + 20-25. + + 464 2 Kings xxiii. 33, 35. 2 Chron. xxxvi. 1, 4. + + 465 The Hebrew silver talent, according to Dr. Cumberland, is equivalent + to 353_l._ 11_s._ 10-1/2_d._ so that 100 talents, English money, + make L35,359 7_s._ 6_d._ The gold talent, according to the same + source, is 5075_l._ 15_s._ 7-1/2_d._, so the amount of the whole + tribute was 40,435_l._ 3_s._ 1-1/2_d._--Trans. + + 466 Lib. ii c. 159. + + 467 Megiddo.--Trans. + + 468 From the time that Solomon, by means of his temple, had made + Jerusalem the common place of worship to all Israel, it was + distinguished from the rest of the cities by the epithet _Holy_, and + in the Old Testament was called _Air Hakkodesh_, _i.e._ the city of + holiness, or the holy city. It bore this title upon the coins, and + the shekel was inscribed _Jerusalem Kedusha_, _i.e._ Jerusalem the + holy. At length Jerusalem, for brevity's sake, was omitted, and only + _Kedusha_ reserved. The Syriac being the prevailing language in + Herodotus's time, Kedusha, by a change in that dialect of _sh_ into + _th_, was made Kedutha; and Herodotus giving it a Greek termination, + it was writ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} or Cadytis. Prideaux's _Connection of the Old + and New Testament_, ol. i. part i. p. 80, 81. 8vo. Edit.--Trans. + + M90 A.M. 3397. Ant. J.C. 607. + + 469 Jer. xlvi. 2. + + 470 2 Kings, xxiv. 7. + + 471 A rivo AEgypti. + + 472 This little river of Egypt, so often mentioned in Scripture as the + boundary of Palestine towards Egypt, was not the Nile, but a small + river, which, running through the desert that lay betwixt those two + nations, was anciently the common boundary of both. So far the land, + which had been promised to the posterity of Abraham, and divided + among them by lot, extended. Gen. xv. 18. Josh. xv. 4.--Trans. + + M91 A.M. 3404. Ant. J.C. 600. + + 473 Herod. l. ii. c. 160. + + 474 Herod. c. 160. + + M92 A.M. 3410. Ant. J.C. 594. + + 475 Jer. xliv. 30. + + 476 Herod. l. ii. c. 161. Diod. l. i. p. 62. + + 477 Ezek. xxix. 3. + + 478 Ezek. xvii. 15. + + 479 Isa. xxxi. 1, 3. + + 480 Ezek. xxix. 2, 3, 4. + + 481 Ezek. xxix. 8, 9. + + 482 Chap. xxix. xxx. xxxi. xxxii. + + M93 A.M. 3416. Ant. J.C. 588. + + 483 Jer. xxxvii. 6, 7. + + M94 A.M. 3430. Ant. J.C. 574. + + 484 Herod. l. ii. c. 161, &c. Diod. l. i. p. 62. + + 485 The baldness of the heads of the Babylonians was owing to the + pressure of their helmets; and their peeled shoulders to their + carrying baskets of earth, and large pieces of timber, to join Tyre + to the continent. Baldness was itself a badge of slavery; and joined + to the peeled shoulders, shows that the conqueror's army sustained + even the most servile labours in this memorable siege.--Trans. + + 486 For the better understanding of this passage, we are to know that + Nabuchodonosor sustained incredible hardships at the siege of Tyre; + and that when the Tyrians saw themselves closely attacked, the + nobles conveyed themselves and their richest effects on shipboard, + and retired into other islands. So that when Nabuchodonosor took the + city, he found nothing to recompense the toil which he had undergone + in this siege. S. Jerom.--Trans. + + 487 Chap. xxix. 18, 19, 20. + + 488 Jerem. xliii. 12. + + 489 Herod. l. ii. c. 163, 169. Diod. l. i. p. 62. + + 490 Ezek. xxx. 22. + + 491 Ezek. xxx. 24. + + 492 Ezek. xxx. 25. + + 493 Ver. 14, 17. + + 494 I have given the names of these towns as they stand in our English + version. In the margin are printed against Zoan, Tanis; against Sin, + Pelusium; against Aven, Heliopolis; against Phibeseth, Pubastum, + (Bubastus;) and by these last names they are mentioned in the + original French of M. Rollin.--Trans. + + 495 Jerem. xliv. 30. + + 496 Ezek. xxx. 13 + + 497 Jerem ch. xliii. xliv. + + M95 A.M. 3435. Ant. J.C. 569. + +_ 498 In Tim._ + + 499 Herod. l. ii. c. 172. + + 500 Herod. l. ii. c. 73. + + 501 The cubit is one foot and almost ten inches. Vide supra.--Trans. + + 502 Or, 58,125_l._ sterling.--Trans. + + 503 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, p. 5. edit. Hutchinsoni.--Trans. + + M96 A.M. 3479. Ant. J.C. 525. + + 504 Bochart, part II. l. ii. c. 16. + + 505 The first scene of the fifth act, translated into Latin by Petit, in + the second book of his _Miscellanies_.--Trans. + + 506 Herod. l. iii. c. 17-19. + + 507 Polyb. 944. Q. Curt. l. iv. c. 2, 3. + + 508 Liv. l. xxi. n. 1. Ibid. n. 21. + + 509 Liv. l. xxiii. n. 1. + + 510 Lib. vii. p. 502. + +_ 511 Apolog._ c. 23. + + 512 In Psalm xcviii. + + 513 Jer. vii. 18. and xliv. 17-25. + + 514 Plut. _de Superstit._ p. 171. + + 515 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, &c. The cruel and + pitiless mother stood by as an unconcerned spectator; a groan or a + tear falling from her, "would have been punished by a fine;" and + still the child must have been sacrificed. Plut. _de + Superstitione_.--Trans. + + 516 Tertul. _in Apolog._ + + 517 Minut. Felix. + + 518 Q. Curt. l. iv. c. 5. + + 519 It appears from Tertullian's _Apology_, that this barbarous custom + prevailed in Africa long after the ruin of Carthage. Infantes penes + Africam Saturno immolabantur palam usque ad proconsulatum Tiberii, + qui eosdem sacerdotes in eisdem arboribus templi sui obumbratricibus + scelerum votivis crucibus exposuit, teste militia patriae nostrae, quae + id ipsum munus illi proconsuli functa est, _i.e._ Children were + publicly sacrificed to Saturn, down to the proconsulship of + Tiberius, who hanged the sacrificing priests themselves on the trees + which shaded their temple, as on so many crosses, raised to expiate + their crimes, of which the militia of our country are witnesses, who + were the actors of this execution at the command of this proconsul. + Tertul. _Apolog._ c. 9. Two learned men are at variance about the + proconsul, and the time of his government. Salmasius confesses his + ignorance of both; but rejects the authority of Scaliger, who, for + proconsulatum, reads proconsulem Tiberii, and thinks Tertullian, + when he writ his _Apology_, had forgot his name. However this be, it + is certain that the memory of the incident here related by + Tertullian was then recent, and probably the witnesses of it had not + been long dead.--Trans. + + 520 Plut. _de sera vindic. deorum_, p. 552. + + 521 Herod. l. vii. c. 167. + + 522 In ipsos quos adolebat sese praecipitavit ignes, ut eos vel cruore + suo extingueret, quos sibi nihil profuisse cognoverat. S. + Amb.--Trans. + + 523 Cum peste laborarent, cruenta sacrorum religione et scelere pro + remedio usi sunt. Quippe homines ut victimas immolabant, et + impuberes (quae aetas etiam hostium misericordiam provocat) aris + admovebant, pacem deorum sanguine eorum exposcentes, pro quorum vita + dii maxime rogari solent. Justin, l. xviii. c. 6. The Gauls as well + as Germans used to sacrifice men, if Dionysius and Tacitus may be + credited.--Trans. + + 524 Lib. xx. p. 756. + +_ 525 De Superstitione_, p. 169-171. + + 526 Idem. _in Camill._ p. 132. + +_ 527 De Superstitione._ + +_ 528 De Rep._ l. ii. c. 11. + + 529 It is entitled, _Carthago, sive Carthaginensium Respublica_, &c. + Francofurti ad Oderam, ann. 1664.--Trans. + + 530 Polyb. l. iv. p. 493. + + 531 This name is derived from a word, which, with the Hebrews and + Phoenicians, signifies judges. _Shophetim._--Trans. + + 532 Ut Romae consules, sic Carthagine quotannis annui bini reges + creabantur. Corn Nep. _in vita Annibalis_, c. 7. The great Hannibal + was one of the Suffetes.--Trans. + + 533 Senatum itaque Suffetes, quod velut consulare imperium apud eos + erat, voca verunt. Liv. l. xxx. n. 7.--Trans. + + 534 Cum Suffetes ad jus dicendum consedissent. Id. l. xxxiv. n. + 62.--Trans. + + 535 Lib. xxxiii. n. 46, 47. + + 536 Arist. loc. cit. + + 537 Lib. xv. p. 706, 707. + + 538 Polyb. l. vi. p. 494 + + M97 A.M. 3609. A. Carth. 487. + + 539 Lib. ix. c. 2. + + 540 Justin l. xix. + + 541 Lib. x. p. 824 edit Gionov. + + 542 Lib. xxvi. n. 51. Lib xxx. n. 16. + + 543 M. Rollin might have taken notice of some civil officers who were + established at Carthage, with a power like that of the censors of + Rome, to inspect the manners of the citizens. The chief of these + officers took from Hamilcar, the father of Hannibal, a beautiful + youth, named Asdrubal, on a report that Hamilcar was more familiar + with this youth than was consistent with modesty. Erat praeterea cum + eo [Amilcare] adolescens illustiis et formosus Hasdrubal, quem + nonnulli diligi turpius quam par erat, ab Amilcare, loquebantur.--Quo + factum est ut a praefecto morum Hasdrubal cum eo vetaretur esse. + Corn. Nep. _in vita Amalcaris_.--Trans. + + M98 A.M. 3082. A. Carth. 682. + + 544 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. Polyb. l. + vi. p. 497.--Trans. + + 545 Lib. iv. p. 312, &c. + + 546 Diod. l. iv. p. 312, &c. + + 547 Lib. iii. p. 147 + + 548 25,000 drachmas.--An Attic drachma, according to Dr. + Bernard=8-1/4_d._ English money, consequently 25,000=859_l._ 7_s._ + 6_d._--Trans. + + 549 As Syphax and Masinissa. + + 550 King of the Massylians in Africa.--Trans. + + 551 Nepos, _in vita Annibalis_. + + 552 Cic. l. i. _De Orat._ n. 249. Plin. l. xviii. c. 3. + + 553 These books were written by Mago in the Punic language, and + translated into Greek by Cassius Dionysius of Utica, from whose + version, we may probably suppose, the Latin was made.--Trans. + + 554 Voss. _de Hist. Gr._ l. iv. + + 555 Plut. _de fort. Alex._ p. 328. Diog. Laert. _in Clitom._ + + 556 Clitomachus, homo et acutus ut Poenus et valde studiosus ac diligens. + _Academ. Quaest._ l. iv. n. 98.--Trans. + +_ 557 Tusc. Quaest._ l. lii. n. 54. + + 558 Suet. _in vit. Terent._ + + 559 Factum senatus consultum ne quis postea Carthaginensis aut literis + Graecis aut sermoni studeret; ne aut loqui cum hoste, aut scribere + sine interprete posset. Justin, l. xx. c. 5. Justin ascribes the + reason of this law to a treasonable correspondence between one + Suniatus, a powerful Carthaginian, and Dionysius the tyrant of + Sicily; the former, by letters written in Greek, (which afterwards + fell into the hands of the Carthaginians,) having informed the + tyrant of the war designed against him by his country, out of hatred + to Hanno the general, to whom he was an enemy.--Trans. + + 560 Quam volumus licet ipsi nos amemus, tamen nec numero Hispanos, nec + robore Gallos, nec calliditate Poenes, &c. sed pietate ac religione, + &c. omnes gentes nationesque superavimus. _De Arusp. Resp._ n. + 19.--Trans. + + 561 Carthaginenses fraudulenti et mendaces--multis et variis mercatorum + advenarumque sermonibus ad studium fallendi quaestus cupiditate + vocabantur. Cic. _Orat. ii. in Rull._ n. 94.--Trans. + + 562 Magistratus senatum vocare, populus in curiae vestibulo fremere, ne + tanta ex oculis manibusque amitteretur praeda. Consensum est ut, &c. + Liv. l. xxx. n. 24.--Trans. + + 563 A mountebank had promised the citizens of Carthage to discover to + them their most secret thoughts, in case they would come, on a day + appointed, to hear him. Being all met, he told them, they were + desirous to buy cheap and sell dear. Every man's conscience pleaded + guilty to the charge; and the mountebank was dismissed with applause + and laughter. Vili vultis emere, et care vendere; in quo dicto + levissimi scenici omnes tamen conscientias invenerunt suas, eique + vera et tamen improvisa dicenti admirabili favore plauserunt. S. + August. l. xiii. _de Trinit._ c. 3.--Trans. + + 564 Plut. _de gen. Rep._ p. 799. + + 565 Lib. xxii. n. 61. + + 566 Utica et Carthago, ambae inclytae, ambae a Phoenicibus conditae; illa + fato Catonis insignis, haec suo. Pompon. Mel. c. 67. Utica and + Carthage, both famous, and both built by Phoenicians; the first + renowned by Cato's fate, the last by its own.--Trans. + + 567 Our countryman Howel endeavours to reconcile the three different + accounts of the foundation of Carthage, in the following manner. He + says, that the town consisted of three parts, _viz._ Cothon, or the + port and buildings adjoining to it, which he supposes to have been + first built; Megara, built next, and in respect of Cothon, called + the New Town, or Karthada; and Byrsa, or the citadel, built last of + all, and probably by Dido. + + Cothon, to agree with Appian, was built fifty years before the + taking of Troy; Megara, to correspond with Eusebius, was built a + hundred ninety-four years later; Byrsa, to agree with Menander, + (cited by Josephus,) was built a hundred sixty-six years after + Megara.--Trans. + + 568 Liv. _Epit._ l. ii. + + 569 Justin, l. xviii. c. 4-6. App. _de bello Pun._ p. 1. Strab. l. xvii. + p. 832. Paterc. l. i. c. 6. + + 570 120 Stadia. Strab. l. xiv. p. 687.--Trans. + + 571 Some authors say, that Dido put a trick on the natives, by desiring + to purchase of them, for her intended settlement, only so much land + as an ox's hide would encompass. The request was thought too + moderate to be denied. She then cut the hide into the smallest + thongs; and, with them, encompassed a large tract of ground, on + which she built a citadel called Byrsa, from the hide. But this tale + of the hide is generally exploded by the learned; who observe that + the Hebrew word _Bosra_, which signifies a fortification, gave rise + to the Greek word _Byrsa_, which is the name of the citadel of + Carthage.--Trans. + + 572 Kartha Hadath or Hadtha.--Trans. + + 573 Effodere loco signum, quod regia Juno + Monstrarat, caput acris equi; nam sic fore bello + Egregiam, et facilem victu per secula gentem. + + Virg. _AEn._ l. i. ver. 447. + + The Tyrians landing near this holy ground, + And digging here, a prosp'rous omen found: + From under earth a courser's head they drew, + Their growth and future fortune to foreshew: + This fated sign their foundress Juno gave, + Of a soil fruitful, and a people brave. + + Dryden.--Trans. + + 574 The story, as it is told more at large in Justin, (l. xviii. c. 6.) + is this--Iarbas, king of the Mauritanians, sending for ten of the + principal Carthaginians, demanded Dido in marriage, threatening to + declare war against her in case of a refusal: the ambassadors being + afraid to deliver the message of Iarbas, told her, (with Punic + honesty,) "that he wanted to have some person sent him, who was + capable of civilizing and polishing himself and his Africans; but + that there was no possibility of finding any Carthaginian, who would + be willing to quit his native place and kindred, for the + conversation of Barbarians, who were as savage as the wildest + beasts." Here the queen, with indignation, interrupting them, and + asking, "if they were not ashamed to refuse living in any manner + which might be beneficial to their country, to which they owed even + their lives?" they then delivered the king's message; and bid her + "set them a pattern, and sacrifice herself to her country's + welfare." Dido being thus ensnared, called on Sichaeus with tears and + lamentations, and answered, "that she would go where the fate of her + city called her." At the expiration of three months, she ascended + the fatal pile; and with her last breath told the spectators, that + she was going to her husband, as they had ordered her.--Trans. + + 575 Justin, l. xix. c. 1. + + 576 Justin, l. xix. c. 2. + + 577 Afri compulsi stipendium urbis conditae Carthageniensibus remittere. + Justin, l. xix. c 2.--Trans. + + 578 Sallust. _de bello Jugurth._ n. 77. Valer. Max. l. v. c. 6. + + 579 These altars were not standing in Strabo's time. Some geographers + think Arcadia to be the city which was anciently called Philaenorum + Arae; but others believe it was Naina or Tain, situated a little west + of Arcadia, in the gulf of Sidra.--Trans. + + 580 Strab. l. v. p. 224. Diod. l. v. p. 296. + + 581 Liv. l. xxviii. n. 37. + + 582 Diod. l. v. p. 298. and l. xix. p. 742. Liv. loco citato. + + 583 Liquescit excussa glans funda, et attritu aeris, velut igne, + distillat. _i.e._ The ball, when thrown from the sling, dissolves; + and, by the friction of the air, runs as if it was melted by fire. + Senec. _Nat. Quaest._ l. ii. c. 57.--Trans. + + 584 Strab. l. iii. p. 167. + + 585 Bochart derives the name of these islands from two Phoenician words, + Baal-jare, or master of the art of slinging. This strengthens the + authority of Strabo, _viz._ that the inhabitants learnt their art + from the Phoenicians, who were once their masters. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}--{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. And this is + still more probable, when we consider that both the Hebrews and + Phoenicians excelled in this art. The Balearian slings would annoy an + enemy either near at hand, or at a distance. Every slinger carried + three of them in war. One hung from the neck, a second from the + waist, and a third was carried in the hand. To this, give me leave + to add two more observations, (foreign indeed to the present + purpose, but relating to these islands,) which I hope will not be + unentertaining to the reader. The first is, that these islands were + once so infested with rabbits, that the inhabitants of it applied to + Rome, either for aid against them, or otherwise desired new + habitations, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, those creatures + having ejected them out of their old ones. Vide Strab. Plin. l. + viii. c. 55. The second observation is, that these islanders were + not only expert slingers, but likewise excellent swimmers, which + they are to this day, by the testimony of our countryman Biddulph, + who, in his _Travels_, informs us, that being becalmed near these + islands, a woman swam to him out of one of them, with a basket of + fruit to sell.--Trans. + + 586 Cluver, l. ii. c. 2. + + 587 Guadalquivir. + + 588 Strab. l. iii. p. 171. + + 589 Strab. l. iii. p. 139-142. + + 590 Seville. + + 591 Duero. + + 592 Guadiana. + + 593 Tarragona. + + 594 Barcelona. + + 595 Ebro. + + 596 Lib. v. p. 312. + + 597 Justin, l. xliv. c. 5. Diod. l. v. p. 300. + + 598 Lib. iii. p. 158. + + 599 Such a division of Britain retarded, and at the same time + facilitated, the conquest of it to the Romans. Dum singuli pugnant + universi vincuntur. Tacit.--Trans. + + 600 Hispania, prima Romanis inita Provinciarum quae quidem continentis + sint, postrema omnium perdomita est. Liv. l. xxviii. p. 12.--Trans. + + 601 Polyb. l. iii. p. 192. l. i. p. 9. + + 602 Passaro. + + 603 Il Faro. + + 604 Cape Boeo. + + 605 Strab. l. vi. p. 267. + + 606 This is Strabo's calculation; but there must be a mistake in the + numeral characters, and what he immediately subjoins, is a proof of + this mistake. He says, that a man, whose eye-sight was good, might, + from the coast of Sicily, count the vessels that came out of the + port of Carthage. Is it possible that the eye can carry so far as 60 + or 75 leagues? This passage of Strabo, therefore, must be thus + corrected. The passage from Lilybaeum to Africa, is only 25 + leagues.--Trans. + + M99 A.M. 3501. A. Carth. 343. Rome, 245. Ant. J.C. 503. + + 607 Polyb. l iii. p. 245, et seq. edit. Gronov. + + 608 The reason of this restraint, according to Polybius, was, the + unwillingness of the Carthaginians to let the Romans have any + knowledge of the countries which lay more to the south, in order + that this enterprising people might not hear of their futility. + Polyb. l. iii. p. 247. edit. Gronov.--Trans. + + 609 Idem, p. 246. + + M100 A.M. 3520. Ant. J.C. 484. + + 610 Diod. l. xi. p. 1, 16, & 22. + + 611 This city is called in Latin Panormus.--Trans. + + 612 Besides the 300 Spartans, the Thespians, a people of Boeotia, to the + number of 700, fought and died with Leonidas in this memorable + battle. Herod. l. vii. c. 202-222.--Trans. + + 613 An Attic silver talent, according to Dr. Bernard, is 206_l._ 5_s._, + consequently 2000 talents is 412,500_l._--Trans. + + M101 A.M. 3592. A. Carth. 434. A. Rom. 336. Ant. J.C. 412. + + 614 Diod. l. xiii. p. 169-171. 179-186. + + 615 Diod. l. xiii. p. 201-203. 206-211. 226-231. + + 616 The very sepulchral monuments showed the magnificence and luxury of + this city, being adorned with statues of birds and horses. But the + wealth and boundless generosity of Gellias, one of its inhabitants, + is almost incredible. He entertained the people with spectacles and + feasts; and, during a famine, prevented the citizens from dying with + hunger: he gave portions to poor maidens, and rescued the + unfortunate from want and despair: he had built houses in the city + and the country purposely for the accommodation of strangers, whom + he usually dismissed with handsome presents. Five hundred + shipwrecked citizens of Gela, applying to him, were bountifully + relieved; and every man supplied with a cloak and a coat out of his + wardrobe. Diod. l. xiii. Valer. Max. l. iv. c. ult. Empedocles the + philosopher, born in Agrigentum, has a memorable saying concerning + his fellow citizens: That the Agrigentines squandered their money so + excessively every day, as if they expected it could never be + exhausted; and built with such solidity and magnificence, as if they + thought they should live for ever.--Trans. + + 617 This bull, with other spoils here taken, was afterwards restored to + the Agrigentines by Scipio, when he took Carthage in the third Punic + war. Cic. _Orat._ iv. _in Verrem._ c. 33.--Trans. + + 618 The Sicanians and Sicilians were anciently two distinct + people.--Trans. + + M102 A.M. 3600. A. Carth. 412. A. Rom. 344. Ant. J.C. 404. + + 619 Diod. l. xiv. p. 268-278. + + 620 Triremes. + + 621 Honos alit artes. + + 622 The curious reader will find a very particular account of it in book + xxii. art. ii. sect. ii.--Trans. + + 623 Diod. l. xiv. p. 279-295. Justin, l. xix. c. 2, 3. + + 624 Panormus.--Trans. + + 625 Some authors say but thirty thousand foot, which is the more + probable account, as the fleet which blocked up the town by sea was + so formidable.--Trans. + + 626 Diodorus. + + 627 About 61,800_l._ English money.--Trans. + + 628 This Leptines was brother to Dionysius.--Trans. + + 629 About 206,000_l._--Trans. + + 630 Justin, l. xx. c. 5. + + 631 Diod. l. xv. p. 344. + + 632 This is the Dionysius who invited Plato to his court; and who, being + afterwards offended with his freedom, sold him for a slave. Some + philosophers came from Greece to Syracuse in order to redeem their + brother, which having done, they sent him home with this useful + lesson: That philosophers ought very rarely, or very obligingly, to + converse with tyrants. This prince had learning, and affected to + pass for a poet: but could not gain that name at the Olympic games, + whither he had sent his verses, to be repeated by his brother + Thearides. It had been happy for Dionysus, had the Athenians + entertained no better an opinion of his poetry; for on their + pronouncing him victor, when his poems were repeated in their city, + he was raised to such a transport of joy and intemperance, that both + together killed him; and thus, perhaps, was verified the prediction + of the oracle, _viz._ that he should die when he had overcome his + betters.--Trans. + + M103 A.M. 3656. A. Carth. 498. A. Rom. 400. Ant. J.C. 348. + + 633 Diod. l. xvi. p. 459-472. Polyb. l. iii. p. 178. Plut. _in Timol._ + + 634 Here he preserved some resemblance of his former tyranny, by turning + schoolmaster; and exercising a discipline over boys, when he could + no longer tyrannize over men. He had learning, and was once a + scholar to Plato, whom he caused to come again into Sicily, + notwithstanding the unworthy treatment he had met with from + Dionysius's father. Philip, king of Macedon, meeting him in the + streets of Corinth, and asking him how he came to lose so + considerable a principality as had been left him by his father; he + answered, that his father had indeed left him the inheritance, but + not the fortune which had preserved both himself and that.--However, + fortune did him no great injury in replacing him on the dunghill, + from which she had raised his father.--Trans. + + 635 Plut. p. 248-250. + + 636 Plut. p. 248-250. + + 637 This river is not far from Agrigentum. It is called Lycus, by + Diodorus and Plutarch; but this is thought a mistake.--Trans. + + 638 Justin, l. xvi. c. 4. + + 639 Diod. l. xix. p. 651-656-710-712-737-743-760. Justin, l. ii. c. 1-6. + + M104 A.M. 3685. A. Carth. 527. A. Rom. 429. Ant. J.C. 319. + + 640 He was, according to most historians, the son of a potter; but all + allow him to have worked at the trade. From the obscurity of his + birth and condition, Polybius raises an argument to prove his + capacity and talents, in opposition to the slanders of Timaeus. But + his greatest eulogium was the praise of Scipio. That illustrious + Roman being asked who, in his opinion, were the most prudent in the + conduct of their affairs, and most judiciously bold in the execution + of their designs; answered, Agathocles and Dionysius. Polyb. l. xv. + p. 1003. edit. Gronov. However, let his capacity have been ever so + great, it was exceeded by his cruelties.--Trans. + + 641 The battle was fought near the river and city of Himera.--Trans. + + 642 50,000 French crowns, or 11,250_l._ sterling.--Trans. + + 643 Agathocles wanting arms for many of his soldiers, provided them with + such as were counterfeit, which looked well at a distance. And + perceiving the discouragement his forces were under on sight of the + enemy's horse, he let fly a great many owls, (privately procured for + that purpose,) which his soldiers interpreted as an omen and + assurance of victory. Diod. l. xx. p. 754.--Trans. + + 644 Liv. l. xxvii. n. 43. + + 645 Diod. l. xvii. p. 519. Quint. Curt. l. iv. c. 3. + + 646 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, some of their wives and children. + Diod. l. xvii. p. 519.--Trans. + + 647 And the most forward of all the rest was Antander, the brother of + Agathocles, left commander in his absence; who was so terrified with + the report, that he was eager for having the city surrendered; and + expelled out of it eight thousand inhabitants who were of a contrary + opinion.--Trans. + + 648 Diod. p. 767-769. + + 649 He was cruelly tortured till he died, and so met with the fate which + his fellow-citizens, offended at his conduct in Sicily, had probably + allotted for him at home. He was too formidable to be attacked at + the head of his army; and therefore the votes of the senate + (whatever they were) being, according to custom, cast into a vessel, + it was immediately closed, with an order not to uncover it, till he + was returned, and had thrown up his commission. Justin, l. xxii. c. + 3.--Trans. + + 650 Diod. p. 779-781. Justin, l. xxii. c. 7. + + 651 It would seem incredible that any man could so far triumph over the + pains of the cross, as to talk with any coherence in his discourse; + had not Seneca assured us, that some have so far despised and + insulted its tortures, that they spit contemptuously upon the + spectators. Quidam ex patibulo suos spectatores conspuerunt. _De + vita beata_, c. 19.--Trans. + + 652 Diod. p. 777-779-791-802. Justin, l. xxii. c. 7, 8 + + 653 He was poisoned by one Maenon, whom he had unnaturally abused. His + teeth were putrified by the violence of the poison, and his body + tortured all over with the most racking pains. Maenon was excited to + this deed by Archagathus, grandson of Agathocles, whom he designed + to defeat of the succession, in favour of his other son Agathocles. + Before his death, he restored the democracy to the people. It is + observable, that Justin (or rather Trogus) and Diodorus disagree in + all the material part of this tyrant's history.--Trans. + + 654 Justin, l. xxi. c. 6. + + M105 A.M. 3727. A. Carth. 569. A. Rom. 471. Ant. J.C. 277. + + 655 Polyb. l. iii. p. 250. edit. Gronov. + + 656 Justin, l. xviii. c. 2. + + 657 Idem. + + 658 Plut. _in Pyrrh._ p. 398. + + 659 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. The + Greek expression is beautiful. Indeed Sicily was a kind of Palaestra, + where the Carthaginians and Romans exercised themselves in war, and + for many years seemed to play the part of wrestlers with each other. + The English language, as well as the French, has no word to express + the Greek term.--Trans. + + M106 A.M. 3724. A. Carth. 566. A. Rom. 468. Ant. J.C. 280. + + 660 Polyb. l. i. p. 8. edit Gronov. + + 661 Polyb. l. i. p. 12-15. edit. Gronov. + + M107 A.M. 3741. A. Carth. 583. A. Rom. 485. Ant. J.C. 263. + + 662 Frontin. + + 663 The Chevalier Folard examines this question in his remarks upon + Polybius, l. i. p. 16.--Trans. + + M108 A.M. 3743. A. Rom. 487. + + 664 Polyb. l. i. p. 15-19. + + 665 Id. p. 20. + + M109 A.M. 3745. A. Rom. 489. + + 666 Polyb. l. i. p. 22. + + 667 Polyb. l. i. p. 22. + + 668 A different person from the great Hannibal.--Trans. + + 669 These pillars were called _Rostratae_, from the beaks of ships with + which they were adorned; _Rostra_.--Trans. + + 670 Polyb. l. i. p. 24. + + M110 A.M. 3749. A. Rom. 493. + + 671 Polyb l. i. p. 25. + + 672 Id. p. 30. + + M111 A.M. 3750. A. Rom. 494. + + 673 Val. Max. l. iv. c. 4. + + 674 Polyb. l. i. p. 31-36. + + 675 In the interval betwixt the departure of Manlius and the taking of + Tunis, we are to place the memorable combat of Regulus and his whole + army, with a serpent of so prodigious a size, that the fabulous one + of Cadmus is hardly comparable to it. The story of this serpent was + elegantly written by Livy, but it is now lost. Valerius Maximus, + however, partly repairs that loss; and in the last chapter of his + first book, gives us this account of this monster from Livy + himself.--He [Livy] says, that on the banks of Bragada (an African + river) lay a serpent of so enormous a size, that it kept the whole + Roman army from coming to the river. Several soldiers had been + buried in the wide caverns of its belly, and many pressed to death + in the spiral volumes of its tail. Its skin was impenetrable to + darts: and it was with repeated endeavours that stones, slung from + the military engines, at last killed it. The serpent then exhibited + a sight that was more terrible to the Roman cohorts and legions than + even Carthage itself. The streams of the river were dyed with its + blood, and the stench of its putrified carcass infected the adjacent + country, so that the Roman army was forced to decamp. Its skin, one + hundred and twenty feet long, was sent to Rome: and, if Pliny may be + credited, was to be seen (together with the jaw-bone of the same + monster, in the temple where they were first deposited,) as late as + the Numantine war.--Trans. + + 676 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. Diod. _Eclog._ + l. xxiii. c. 10.--Trans. + +_ 677 De Bell. Pun._ p. 30. + + 678 This perfidious action, as it is related by Appian, may possibly be + true, when we consider the character of the Carthaginians, who were + certainly a cruel and treacherous people. But if it be fact, one + would wonder why Polybius should reserve for another occasion, the + relation of an incident which comes in most properly here, as it + finishes at once the character and life of Xanthippus. His silence + therefore in this place makes me think, that he intended to bring + Xanthippus again upon the stage; and to exhibit him to the reader in + a different light from that in which he is placed by Appian. To this + let me add, that it showed no great depth of policy in the + Carthaginians, to take this method of despatching him, when so many + others offered which were less liable to censure. In this scheme + formed for his destruction, not only himself, but all his followers, + were to be murdered, without the pretence of even a storm, or loss + of one single Carthaginian, to cover or excuse the perpetration of + so horrid a crime.--Trans. + + 679 Lib. i. p. 36, 37. + + 680 Inter pauca felicitatis virtutisque exempla M. Atilius quondam in + hac eadem terra fuisset, si victor pacem petentibus dedisset + patribus nostris. Sed non statuendo tandem felicitati modum, nec + cohibendo efferentem se fortunam, quanto altius elatus erat, eo + foedius corruit. Liv. l. xxx. n. 30.--Trans. + + 681 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}. It may not be improper + to take notice in this place (as it was forgotten before) of a + mistake of the learned Casaubon, in his translation of a passage of + Polybius concerning Xanthippus. The passage is this, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. Which is thus + rendered by Casaubon: In queis [militibus sc. Graecia allatis] + Xanthippus quidam fuit Lacedaemonius, vir disciplina Laconica + imbutus, et qui rei militaris usum mediocrem habebat. Whereas, + agreeably with the whole character and conduct of Xanthippus, I take + the sense of this passage to be, "a man formed by the Spartan + discipline, and proportionably [not moderately] skilful in military + affairs."--Trans. + + 682 This silence of Polybius has prejudiced a great many learned men + against many of the stories told of Regulus's barbarous treatment, + after he was taken by the Carthaginians. M. Rollin speaks no further + of this matter; and therefore I shall give my reader the substance + of what is brought against the general belief of the Roman writers, + (as well historians as poets,) and of Appian on this subject. First, + it is urged, that Polybius was very sensible that the story of these + cruelties was false; and therefore, that he might not disoblige the + Romans, by contradicting so general a belief, he chose rather to be + silent concerning Regulus after he was taken prisoner, than to + violate the truth of history, of which he was so strict an observer. + This opinion is further strengthened (say the adversaries of this + belief) by a fragment of Diodorus, which says, that the wife of + Regulus, exasperated at the death of her husband in Carthage, + occasioned, as she imagined, by barbarous usage, persuaded her sons + to revenge the fate of their father, by the cruel treatment of two + Carthaginian captives (thought to be Bostar and Hamilcar) taken in + the sea-fight against Sicily, after the misfortune of Regulus, and + put into her hands for the redemption of her husband. One of these + died by the severity of his imprisonment; and the other, by the care + of the senate, who detested the cruelty, survived, and was recovered + to health. This treatment of the captives, and the resentment of the + senate on that account, form a third argument or presumption against + the truth of this story of Regulus, which is thus argued. Regulus + dying in his captivity by the usual course of nature, his wife, thus + frustrated of her hopes of redeeming him by the exchange of her + captives, treated them with the utmost barbarity in consequence of + her belief of the ill usage which Regulus had received. The senate + being angry with her for it, to give some colour to her cruelties, + she gave out among her acquaintance and kindred, that her husband + died in the way generally related. This, like all other reports, + increased gradually; and, from the national hatred betwixt the + Carthaginians and Romans, was easily and generally believed by the + latter. How far this is conclusive against the testimonies of two + such weighty authors as Cicero and Seneca (to say nothing of the + poets) is left to the judgment of the reader.--Trans. + + M112 A.M. 3755. A. Rom. 499. + + 683 Appian, _de Bella Pun._ p. 2, 3. Cic. _de Off._ l. iii. n. 99, 100. + Aul. Gel. l. vi. c. 4. Senec. _Ep._ 99. + + 684 Horat. l. iii. _Od._ 3. + + 685 Polyb. l. i. p. 37. + + 686 Or Clypea.--Trans. + + 687 Polyb. l. i. p. 38-40. + + 688 P. 41, 42. + + 689 Ibid. l. i. p. 44-50. + + 690 Polyb. p. 50. + + M113 A.M. 3756. A. Rom. 500. + + 691 Ibid. p. 51. + + 692 Ibid. p. 54-59. + + 693 A city and mountain of Sicily.--Trans. + + 694 Polyb. l. i. p. 59-62. + + M114 A.M. 3763. A. Rom. 507. + + 695 These islands are also called AEgates.--Trans. + + 696 This sum amounts to near six millions one hundred and eighty + thousand French livres, or 515,000_l._ English money. + + 697 Polyb. l. iii. p. 182. + + M115 A.M. 3763. A. Carth. 605. A. Rom. 507. Ant. J.C. 241. + + 698 Polyb. l. i. p. 65-89. + + 699 The same year that the first Punic war ended.--Trans. + + 700 And sometimes {~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, or the war with the mercenaries.--Trans. + + 701 Ibid. p. 66. + + 702 Matho was an African, and free born; but as he had been active in + raising the rebellion, an accommodation would have ruined him. He, + therefore, despairing of a pardon, embraced the interests of + Spendius with more zeal than any of the rebels; and first insinuated + to the Africans the danger of concluding a peace, as this would + leave them alone, and exposed to the rage of their old masters. + Polyb. p. 98. edit. Gronov.--Trans. + + 703 Bellis Punicis omnibus, cum saepe Carthaginenses et in pace et per + inducias multa nefanda facinora fecissent, nunquam ipsi per + occasionem talia fecere: magis quod se dignum foret, quam quod in + illos jure fieri posset, quaerebant. Sallust. _in Bell. + Gatilin._--Trans. + + M116 A.M. 3767. A. Carth. 609. A. Rom. 511. Ant. J.C. 237. + + 704 Liv. l. xxi. n. 1. + + 705 Lib. iii. p. 162-168. + + 706 Angebant ingentis spiritus virum Sicilia Sardiniaque amissae: Nam et + Siciliam nimis celeri desperatione rerum concessam; et Sardiniam + inter motum Africae fraude Romanorum, stipendio etiam superimposito, + interceptam. Liv. l. xxi. n. 1.--Trans. + + 707 Polyb. l. ii. p. 90. + + 708 Polyb. l. iii. p. 167. Liv. l. xxi. n. 1. + + M117 A.M. 3776. A. Rom. 520. + + 709 Polyb. l. ii. p. 101. + + 710 Polyb. l. ii. p. 123. Liv. l. xxi. n. 2. + + 711 The murder was an effect of the extraordinary fidelity of this Gaul, + whose master had fallen by the hand of Asdrubal. It was perpetrated + in public; and the murderer being seized by the guards, and put to + the torture, expressed so strong a satisfaction in the thoughts of + his having executed his revenge so successfully, that he seemed to + ridicule all the terror of his torments. Eo fuit habitu oris, ut + superante laetitia dolores, ridentis etiam speciem praebuerit. Liv. l. + xxi. n. 1.--Trans. + + M118 A.M. 3783. A. Rom. 530. + + 712 Liv. l. xxi. n. 3, 4. + + M119 A.M. 3784. A. Carth. 626. A. Rom. 528. + + 713 Polyb. l. iii. p. 168, 169. Liv. l. xxi. n. 3-5. + +_ 714 In vit. Annib._ c. 7. + + 715 Hic, ut rediit, Praetor factus est, postquam rex fuerat anno secundo + et vigesimo.--Trans. + + 716 This city lay on the Carthaginian side of the Iberus, very near the + mouth of that river, and in a country where the Carthaginians were + allowed to make war, but Saguntum, as an ally of the Romans, was + excepted from all hostilities, by virtue of the late treaty.--Trans. + + 717 Ibi large partiendo praedam, stipendia praeterita cum fide exsolvendo, + cunctos civium sociorumque animos in se firmavit. Liv. l xxi. n. + 5.--Trans. + + 718 Polyb. l. iii. p. 170-173. Liv. l. xxi. n. 6-15. + + 719 Polyb. p. 174, 175. Liv. l. xxi. n. 16, 17. + + 720 Sanctitate disciplinae, qua fidem socialem usque ad perniciem suam + coluerunt. Liv. l. xxi. n. 7.--Trans. + + 721 Polyb. p. 187. Liv. l. xxi. n. 18, 19. + + 722 Polyb. l. iii. p. 184, 185. + + M120 A.M. 3787. A. Carth. 629. A. Rom. 531. Ant. J.C. 217. + + 723 Polyb. l. iii. p. 187. Liv. l. xxi. n. 21, 22. + + 724 Lib. iii. p. 192, 193. + + 725 275 miles. + + 726 Polybius makes the distance from New Carthage to be 2600 furlongs; + consequently, the whole number of furlongs will be 8400, or + (allowing 625 feet to the furlong) 944 English miles, and almost + one-third. See Polybius, edit. Gronov. p. 267.--Trans. + + 727 Lib. iii. p. 199. + + 728 200 miles. + + 729 200 miles. + + 730 175 miles. + + 731 150 miles. + + 732 1000 miles. + + 733 Polyb. l. iii. p. 188, 189. + + 734 Audierunt praeoccupatos jam ab Annibale Gallorum animos esse: sed ne + illi quidem ipsi satis mitem gentem fore, ni subinde anro, cujus + avidissima gens est, principum animi concilientur. Liv. l. xxi. n. + 20.--Trans. + + 735 Polyb. p. 189, 190. Liv. l. xxi. n. 22-24. + + 736 A little above Avignon.--Trans. + + 737 Polyb. l. iii. p. 270-274. edit. Gronov. Liv. l. xxi. ii. 26-28. + + 738 It is thought this was betwixt Roquemaure and Pont St. + Esprit.--Trans. + + 739 Polyb. l. iii. p. 200-202, &c. Liv. l. xxi. n. 31, 32. + + 740 Hoc principium simulque omen belli, ut summa rerum prosperum + eventum, ita haud sane incruentam ancipitisque certaminis victoriam + Romanis portendit. Liv. l. xxi. n. 29.--Trans. + + 741 The text of Polybius, as it has been transmitted to us, and that of + Livy, place this island at the meeting of the Saone and the Rhone, + that is, in that part where the city of Lyons stands. But this is a + manifest error. It was {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} in the Greek, instead of which {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} has been substituted. J. Gronovius says, that he had read, in + a manuscript of Livy, _Bisarar_, which shows, that we are to read + _Isara Rhodanusque amnes_, instead of _Arar Rhodanusque_; and, that + the island in question is formed by the conflux of the Isere and the + Rhone. The situation of the Allobroges, here spoken of, proves this + evidently.--Trans. + + 742 In Dauphine.--Trans. + + 743 Polyb. l. iii. p. 203-208. Liv. l. xxi. n. 32-37. + + 744 Of Piedmont.--Trans. + + 745 Many reject this incident as fictitious. Pliny takes notice of a + remarkable quality in vinegar; _viz._ its being able to break rocks + and stones. Saxa rumpit infusum, quae non ruperit ignis antecedens, + l. xxiii. c. 1. He therefore calls it, Succus rerum domitor, l. + xxxiii. c 2. Dion, speaking of the siege of Eleutherae, says, that + the walls of it were made to fall by the force of vinegar, l. xxxvi. + p. 8. Probably, the circumstance that seems improbable on this + occasion, is, the difficulty of Hannibal's procuring, in those + mountains, a quantity of vinegar sufficient for this purpose.--Trans. + + 746 Polyb. l. iii. p. 209 & 212-214. Liv. l. xxi. c. 39. + + 747 Taurini.--Trans. + + 748 A small river (now called Tesino) in Lombardy.--Trans. + + 749 Polyb. l. iii. p. 214-218. Liv. l. xxi. n. 39-47. + + 750 These two ill omens were, first, a wolf had stolen into the camp of + the Romans, and cruelly mangled some of the soldiers, without + receiving the least harm from those who endeavoured to kill it: and + secondly, a swarm of bees had pitched upon a tree near the Praetorium + or general's tent. Liv. l. xxi. c. 46.--Trans. + + 751 The Numidians used to ride without saddle or bridle.--Trans. + + 752 Polyb. l. iii. p. 220-227. Liv. l. xxi. n. 51-56. + + 753 Polyb. l. iii. pp. 228, 229. Liv. l. xxi. n. 60, 61. + + 754 Or Ebro.--Trans. + + 755 Polyb. p. 229. + + 756 Liv. l. xxi. n. 58. + + 757 Polyb. l. iii. p. 229. Liv. l. xxii. n. 1. Appian. _in Bell. Annib._ + p. 316. + + M121 A.M. 3788. A. Rom. 532. + + 758 Polyb. pp. 230, 231. Liv. l. xxii. n. 2. + + 759 Polyb. l. iii. p. 231-238. Liv. l. xxii. n. 3-8. + + 760 Apparebat ferociter omnia ac praepiopere acturum. Quoque pronior + esset in sua vitia, agitare eum atque irritare Poenus parat. Liv. l. + xxii. n. 3.--Trans. + + 761 Polyb. l. iii. p. 239-255. Liv. l. xxii. n. 9-30. + + 762 A small town, which gave its name to the Adriatic sea.--Trans. + + 763 Nec Annibalem lefellit suis se artibus peti. Liv.--Trans. + + 764 Satis fidens haudquaquam cum imperii jure artem imperandi aequatam. + Liv. l. xxii. n. 26.--Trans. + + 765 Polyb. l. iii. p. 245-250. Liv. l. xxii. n. 19-22. + + M122 A.M. 3789. A. Rom. 533. + + 766 Polyb. l. iii. p. 255-268. Liv. l. xxii. n. 34-54. + + 767 Polybius supposes only two hundred horse in each legion: but J. + Lipsius thinks that this is a mistake either of the author or + transcriber.--Trans. + + 768 A violent burning wind, blowing south-south-east, which, in this + flat and sandy country, raised clouds of hot dust, and blinded and + choked the Romans.--Trans. + + 769 Livy lessens very much the number of the slain, making them amount + but to about forty-three thousand. But Polybius ought rather to be + believed.--Trans. + + 770 Duo maximi exercitus caesi ad hostium satietatem, donec Annibal + diceret militi suo: Parce ferro. Flor. l. 1. c. 6.--Trans. + + 771 Tum Maharbal: Non omnia nimirum eidem Dii dedere. Vincere scis, + Annibal, victoria uti nescis. Liv. l. xxii. n. 51.--Trans. + + 772 Liv. l. xxii. n. 9. Ibid. l. xxiii. n. 18. + + 773 Casilinum.--Trans. + + 774 Liv. l. xxiii. n. 11-14. + + 775 Pliny, l. xxxiii. c. 1, says, that there were three bushels sent to + Carthage. Livy observes, that some authors make them amount to three + bushels and a half; but he thinks it most probable that there was + but one, l. xxxiii. n. 12. Florus, l. ii. c. 16, makes it two + bushels.--Trans. + + 776 De St. Evremond. + + 777 Liv. l. xxiii. n. 4-18. + + 778 Caeterum quum Graeci omnem fere oram maritimam Coloniis suis, e Graecia + deductis, obsiderent, &c. But after the Greeks had, by their + colonies, possessed themselves of almost all the maritime coast, + this very country (together with Sicily) was called Graecia Magna, + &c. Cluver. _Geograph._ l. iii. c. 30.--Trans. + + 779 Ibi partem majorem hiemis exercitum in tectis habuit; adversus omnia + humana mala saepe ac diu durantem, bonis inexpertum atque insuetum. + Itaque quos nulla mali vicerat vis, perdidere nimia bona ac + voluptates immodicae, et eo impensius quo avidius ex insolentia ineas + se merserant. Liv. l. xxiii. n. 18.--Trans. + + 780 Illa enim cunctatio distulisse modo victoriam videri potuit, hic + error vires ademisse ad vincendum. Liv. l. xxiii. n. 18.--Trans. + + 781 Capuam Annibali Cannas fuisse: ibi virtutem bellicam, ibi militarem + disciplinam, ibi praeteriti temporis famam, ibi spem futuri + extinctam. Liv. l. xxiii. n. 45.--Trans. + + 782 Liv. l. xxiii. n. 13. + + 783 Ibid. n. 32. + + M123 A.M. 3790. A. Rom. 534. + + 784 Liv. l. xxiii. n. 26-30. and n. 32, 40, 41. + + 785 Not Hannibal's brother.--Trans. + + M124 A.M. 3791. A. Rom. 535. + + 786 Liv. l. xxiii. n. 41-46. l. xxv. n. 22. l. xxvi. n. 5-16. + + M125 A.M. 3793. A. Rom 537. + M126 A.M. 3794. A. Rom. 538. + + 787 Flagitiosum esse terreri ac circumagi ad omnes Annibalis + comminationes. Liv. l. xxvi. n. 8.--Trans. + + 788 Audita vox Annibalis fertur, Potiundae sibi urbis Romae, modo mentem + non dari, modo fortunam. Liv. l. xxvi. n. 11.--Trans. + + 789 Feronia was the goddess of groves, and there was one, with a temple + in it, dedicated to her, at the foot of the mountain Soracte. + Strabo, speaking of the grove where the goddess was worshipped, + says, that a sacrifice was offered annually to her in it; and that + her votaries, inspired by this goddess, walked unhurt over burning + coals. There are still extant some medals of Augustus, in which this + goddess is represented with a crown on her head.--Trans. + + 790 Vilius Virius, the chief of this conspiracy, after having + represented to the Capuan senate, the severe treatment which his + country might expect from the Romans, prevailed with twenty-seven + senators to go with him to his own house, where, after eating a + plentiful dinner, and heating themselves with wine, they all drank + poison. Then taking their last farewell, some withdrew to their own + houses, others staid with Virius; and all expired before the gates + were opened to the Romans. Liv. l. xxvi. n. 13, 14.--Trans. + + 791 Confessio expressa hosti, quanta vis in Romanis ad expetendas poenas + ab infidelibus sociis, et quam nihil in Annibale auxilii ad receptos + in fidem tuendos esset. Liv. l. xxvi. n. 16.--Trans. + + M127 A.M. 3793. A. Rom. 537. + + 792 Liv. xxv. n. 32-39. + + 793 Id quidem cavendum semper Romanis ducibus erit, exemplaque haec vere + pro documentis habenda. Ne ita externis credant auxiliis, ut non + plus sui roboris suarumque proprie virium in castris habeant. Liv. + n. 33.--Trans. + + 794 He attacked the Carthaginians, who had divided themselves into two + camps, and were secure, as they thought, from any immediate attempt + of the Romans; killed thirty-seven thousand of them; took one + thousand eight hundred prisoners and brought off immense plunder. + Liv. l. xxv. n. 39.--Trans. + + M128 A.M. 3798. A. Rom. 542. + + 795 Polyb. l. xi. p. 622-625. Liv. l. xxvii. p. 35-51. + + 796 No general was allowed to leave his own province, to go into that of + another.--Trans. + + 797 Now called Metaro.--Trans. + + 798 According to Polybius, the loss amounted but to ten thousand men, + and that of the Romans to two thousand, l. xi. p. 870, edit. + Gronov.--Trans. + + 799 Horace makes him speak thus, in the beautiful ode where this defeat + is described: + + Carthagini jam non ego nuntios + Mittara superbos. Occidit, occidit + Spes omnis, et fortuna nostri + Nominis, Asdrubale interempto. Lib. iv. _Od._ 4.--Trans. + + M129 A.M. 3799. A. Rom. 543. + + 800 Polyb. l. xi. p. 650. & l. xiv. p. 677-687. & l. xv. p. 689-694. + Liv. l. xxviii. n. 1-4. 16. 38. 40-46. l. xxix. n. 24-36. l. xxx. n. + 20-28. + + M130 A.M. 3800. A. Rom. 544. + M131 A.M. 3802. A. Rom. 516. + + 801 Raro quenquam alium patriam exilii causa relinquentem magis moestum + abiisse ferunt, quam Annibalem hostium terra excedentem. Respexisse + saepe Italiae littora, et deos hominesque accusantem, in se quoque ac + suum ipsius caput execratum. Quod non cruentum ab Cannensi victoria + militem Romam duxisset. Liv. l. xxx. n. 20.--Trans. + + 802 Livy supposes, however, that this delay was a capital error in + Hannibal, which he himself afterwards regretted.--Trans. + + 803 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. Polyb. l. xv. p. 965. + edit. Gronov. + + Quibus Scipio. Etsi nou induciarum modo fides, sed etiam jus gentium + in legatis violatum esset; tamen se nihil nec institutis populi + Romani nec suis moribus indignum in iis facturum esse. Liv. l. xxx. + n. 25.--Trans. + + M132 A.M. 3803. A. Rom. 547. + + 804 Polyb l. xv. p. 694-703. Liv. l. xxx. n. 29-35. + + 805 Celsus haec corpore, vultuque ita laeto, ut vicisse jam crederes, + dicebat. Liv. l. xxx. n. 32.--Trans. + + 806 Polyb. l. xv. p. 704-707. Liv. l. xxx. n. 36-44. + + 807 Ten thousand Attic talents make thirty millions French money. Ten + thousand Euboic talents make something more than twenty-eight + millions, thirty-three thousand livres; because, according to + Budaeus, the Euboic talent is equivalent but to fifty-six minae and + something more, whereas the Attic talent is worth sixty minae. + + Or otherwise thus calculated in English money: + + According to Budaeus, the Euboic talent is 56 Minae + 56 Minae reduced to English money is 175_l._ + Consequently, 10,000 Euboic talents make 1,750,000_l._ + So that the Carthaginians paid annually 35,000_l._ + + This calculation is as near the truth as it can well be brought; the + Euboic talent being something more than 56 minae.--Trans. + + 808 Raro simul hominibus bonam fortunam bonamque mentem dari. Populum + Romanum eo invictum esse, quod in secundis rebus sapere et consulere + meminerit. Et hercle mirandum fuisse si aliter facerent. Ex + insolentia, quibus nova bona fortuna sit, impotentes laetitiae + insanire: populo Romano usitata ac prope obsoleta ex victoria gaudia + esse; ac plus pene parcendo victis, quam vincendo, imnerium auxisse. + Liv. l. xxx n. 42.--Trans. + + M133 A.M. 3804. A. Carth. 646. A. Rom. 548. Ant. J.C. 200. + + 809 Lib. vi. p. 493, 494. + + 810 Liv. l. xxiv. n. 8, 9. + + 811 Quilibet nautarum rectorumque tranquillo mari gubernare potest: Ubi + saeva orta tempestas est, ac turbato mari rapitur vento navis, tum + viro et gubernatore opus est. Non tranquillo navigamus, sed jam + aliquot procellis submersi pene sumus. Itaque quis ad gubernacula + sedeat, summa cura providendum ac praecavendum nubis est.--Trans. + + 812 Corn. Nep. _in Annib._ c. 7. + + 813 Liv. l. xxxiii. n. 46. + + 814 Liv. l. xxiii. n. 46, 47. + + 815 Tum vero isti quos paverat per aliquot annos publicus peculatus, + velut bonis ereptis, non furto eorum manibus extorto, infensi et + irati, Romanos in Annibaleim, et ipsos causam odii quaerentes, + instigabant. Liv.--Trans. + + 816 Liv. l. xxiii. n. 45-49. + + 817 It is probable that we should read _suos_.--Trans. + + M134 A.M. 3812. A. Rom. 556. + + 818 Cic. _de Orat._ l. ii. n. 75, 76. + + 819 Hic Poenus libere respondisse fertur, multos se deliros senes saepe + vidisse: Sed qui magis quam Phormio deliraret vidisse neminem. + Stobaeus, _Serm._ lii. gives the following account of this matter: + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. _i.e._ Hannibal hearing a + Stoic philosopher undertake to prove that the wise man was the only + general, laughed, as thinking it impossible for a man to have any + skill in war without having long practised it.--Trans. + + 820 They did more, for they sent two ships to pursue Hannibal, and bring + him back; they sold off his goods, rased his house; and, by a public + decree, declared him an exile. Such was the gratitude the + Carthaginians showed to the greatest general they ever had. Corn. + Nep. _in vita Hannib._ c. 7.--Trans. + + 821 Liv. l. xxxiv. n. 60. + + 822 Ib. n. 61. + + M135 A.M. 3813. A. Rom. 557. + + 823 Liv. l. xxxv. n. 14. Polyb. l. iii. p. 166, 167. + + 824 Polybius represents this application of Villius to Hannibal, as a + premeditated design, in order to render him suspected to Antiochus, + because of his intimacy with a Roman. Livy owns, that the affair + succeeded as if it had been designed; but, at the same time, he + gives, for a very obvious reason, another turn to this conversation, + and says, that no more was intended by it, than to sound Hannibal, + and to remove any fears or apprehensions he might be under from the + Romans.--Trans. + + 825 Liv. l. xxxv. n. 14. Plut. _in vita Flamin._ &c. + + 826 Plut. _in Pyrrho_, p. 687. + + 827 Liv. l. xxxv. n. 19. + + 828 Liv. l. xxxv. n. 42, 43. + + 829 Nulla ingenia tam prona ad invidiam sunt, quam eorum qui genus ac + fortunam suam animis non aequant: Quia virtutem et bonum alienum + oderunt. Methinks it is better to read ut bonum alienum.--Trans. + + 830 Ib. l. xxxvi. n. 7. + + 831 Liv. l. xxxvi. n. 41. + + 832 Corn. Nep. _in Annib._ c. 9, 10. Justin, l. xxxii. c. 4. + + M136 A.M. 3820. A. Rom. 564. + + 833 These statues were thrown out by him, in a place of public resort, + as things of little value. Corn. Nep.--Trans. + + 834 Corn. Nep. _in Annib._ c. 10, 11. Justin, l. xxxiii c. 4. + + 835 Justin, l. xxxii. c. 4. Corn. Nep. _in vit. Annib._ + + M137 A.M. 3882. A. Rom. 566. + + 836 Liv. l. xxxix. n. 51. + + 837 Plutarch, according to his custom, assigns him three different + deaths. Some, says he, relate, "that having wrapped his cloak about + his neck, he ordered his servant to fix his knees against his + buttocks, and not to leave twisting till he had strangled him." + Others say, that, in imitation of Themistocles and Midas, he drank + bull's blood. Livy tells us, that Hannibal drank a poison which he + always carried about him; and taking the cup into his hands, cried, + "Let us free," &c. In _vita Flaminini_.--Trans. + +_ 838 Of the Method of Studying and Teaching the Belles Lettres_, vol. + ii.--Trans. + + 839 Quintil.--Trans. + + 840 Atque hic tantus vir, tantisque bellis districtus, nonnibil temporis + tribuit litteris, &c. Corn. Nep _in vita Annib._ cap. 13.--Trans. + + 841 Lib. xxi. n, 4. + +_ 842 Excerpt. e_ Polyb. p. 33. + +_ 843 Excerpt. e_ Diod. p. 282. Liv. l. xxv. n. 17. + + 844 Lib. xxxii. c. 4. + + 845 Cibi potionisque, desiderio naturali, non voluptate, modus finitus. + Liv. l. xxi. n. 4. + + Constat Annibalem, nec tum cum Romano tonantem bello Italia + contremuit, nec cum reversus Carthaginem summum imperium tenuit, aut + cubantem coenasse, aut plus quam sextario vini indulsisse. Justin, l. + xxxii. c. 4.--Trans. + +_ 846 Except e_ Polyb. p. 34 & 37. + +_ 847 AEn._ l. iv. ver. 41.--Trans. + + 848 Liv. l. xxiv. n. 48, 49. + + 849 Id. l. xxix. n. 29-34. + + 850 Id. l. xxix. n. 23. + + 851 Id. l. xxx n. 11, 12. + + 852 Liv. l. xxx. n. 44. + + 853 Id. l. xxxiv. n. 62. + + M138 A.M. 3823. A. Rom. 567. + + 854 Id. l. xl. n. 17. + + M139 A.M. 3833. A. Rom. 577. + + 855 Id. l. xlii. n. 23, 24. + + 856 Polyb. p. 951. + + M140 A.M. 3848. A. Rom. 592. + + 857 App. _de bell. Pun._ p. 37. + + 858 App. p. 38. + + 859 App. _de bell. Pun._ 40. + + 860 Emporium, or Emporia, was a country of Africa, on the Lesser Syrtis, + in which Leptis stood. No part of the Carthaginian dominions was + more fruitful than this. Polybius, l. i. says, that the revenue that + arose from this place was so considerable, that all their hopes were + almost founded on it, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} (_viz._ their revenues from Emporia) + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. To this was owing their care and + state-jealousy above mentioned, lest the Romans should sail beyond + the Fair Promontory, that lay before Carthage; and become acquainted + with a country which might induce them to attempt the conquest of + it.--Trans. + + 861 App. _de bell. Pun._ 40. + + 862 Ils furent tous passes sous le joug: Sub jugum missi; a kind of + gallows (made by two forked sticks, standing upright) was erected, + and a spear laid across, under which vanquished enemies were obliged + to pass. Festus.--Trans. + + M141 A.M. 3855. A. Carth. 697. A. Rom. 599. Ant. J.C. 149. + + 863 Appian, p. 41, 42. + + 864 The foreign forces were commanded by leaders of their respective + nations, who were all under the command of a Carthaginian officer, + called by Appian {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.--Trans. + + 865 Plut. _in vit. Cat._ p. 352. + + 866 Plin. l. xv. c. 18. + + 867 Plut. ibid. _in vita Cat._ + + 868 Ubi Carthago, et aemula imperii Romani ab stirpe interiit, Fortuna + saevire ac miscere omnia coepit. Sallust. _in bell. Catilin._ + + Ante Carthaginem deletam populus et senatus Romanus placide + modesteque inter se Remp. tractabant.--Metus hostilis in bonis + artibus civitatem retinebat. Sed ubi formido illa mentibus decessit, + illicet ea, quae secundae res amant, lascivia atquae superbia + incessere. Idem _in bello Jugurthino_.--Trans. + + 869 Potentiae Romanorum prior Scipio viam aperuerat, luxuriae posterior + aperuit. Quippe remoto Carthaginis metu, sublataque imperii aemula, + non gradu, sed praecipiti cursu a virtute descitum, ad vitia + transcursum. Vel. Paterc. l. ii. c. 1.--Trans. + + 870 App. p. 42. + + M142 A.M. 3856. A. Rom. 600. + + 871 Ibid. + + 872 Polyb. _excerpt. legat._. p. 972 + + 873 To the Romans.--Trans. + + 874 Polyb. _excerpt. legat._ p. 972. + + 875 Polyb. p. 975. Appian, p. 44-46. + + 876 Appian, p. 46. + + 877 Balistae or Catapultae.--Trans. + + 878 Four leagues, or twelve miles.--Trans. + + 879 Appian, p. 46-53. + + 880 Appian, p. 53, 54. + + 881 Polyb. l. xiii. p. 671, 672. + + 882 Appian, p. 55. Strabo, l. xvii. p. 833. + + 883 Appian, p. 55. + + 884 Appian, p. 55-63. + + M143 A.M. 3857. A. Rom. 601. + + 885 Appian, p. 63. + + 886 Appian, p. 65. + + 887 Page 66. + + 888 Andriscus.--Trans. + + 889 Page 68. + + M144 A.M. 3858. A. Rom. 602. + + 890 Appian, p. 69. + + 891 Page 70. + + 892 A sort of movable bridge.--Trans. + + 893 Appian, p. 56, 57. Strabo, l. xvii. p. 832. + + 894 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, Strabo.--Trans. + + 895 Boch. in Phal. p. 512. + + 896 Appian, p. 72. + + 897 It was he who had first commanded without the city, but having + caused the other Asdrubal, Masinissa's grandson, to be put to death, + he got the command of the troops within the walls.--Trans. + + 898 Page 73. + + 899 Four miles and three quarters.--Trans. + + 900 Appian, p. 74. + + 901 Appian, p. 75. + + 902 Ibid. p. 78. + + M145 A.M. 3859. A. Rom. 603. + + 903 Appian, p. 79. + + 904 Ibid. p. 81. + + 905 Appian, p. 82. + + 906 Ecclus, x. 8. + + M146 A.M. 3859. A. Carth. 701. A. Rom. 603. Ant. J.C. 145. + + 907 Appian, p. 83. + + 908 Ibid. + + 909 Quem taurum Scipio cum redderet Agrigentinis, dixisse dicitur, aequum + esse illos cogitare utrum esset Siculis utilius, suisne servire, au + populo R. obtemperare, cum idem monumentum et domesticae + crudelitatis, et nostrae mansuetudinis haberent. Cicer. _Verr._ vi. + n. 73.--Trans. + + 910 Ibid. + + 911 Appian, p. 84. + + 912 We may guess at the dimensions of this famous city, by what Florus + says, _viz._ that it was seventeen days on fire, before it could be + all consumed. Quanta urbs deleta sit, ut de caeteris taceam, vel + ignium mora probari potest: quippe per continuos decem et septem + dies vix potuit incendium extingui. Lib. ii. c. 15.--Trans. + + 913 Neque se Roma, jam terrarum orbe superato, securam speravit fore, si + nomen usquam maneret Carthaginis. Adeo odium certaminibus ortum, + ultra metum durat, et ne in victis quidem deponitur, neque ante + invisum esse desinit, quam esse desiit. Vel. Paterc. l. i. c. + 12.--Trans. + + 914 Ut ipse locus eorum, qui cum hac urbe de imperio certarunt, vestigia + calamitatis ostenderet. Cic. _Agrar._ ii. n. 50.--Trans. + + 915 Ibid. + + 916 Appian, p. 85. Plut. _in vit. Gracch_ p. 839. + + 917 Marius cursum in Africam direxit, inopemque vitam in tugurio + ruinarum Carthaginensium toleravit: cum Marius aspiciens + Carthaginem, illa intuens Marium, alter alteri possent esse solatio. + Vel. Paterc. l. ii c. 19.--Trans. + + 918 Appian, p. 85. + + 919 Strabo, l. xvii. p. 833. + + 920 Ibid. 831. + + 921 Page 733. + + 922 Scipio AEmilianus, vir avitis P. Africani paternisque L. Pauli + virtutibus simillimus, omnibus belli ac togae dotibus, ingeniique ac + studiorum eminentissimus seculi sui, qui nihil in vita nisi + laudandum aut fecit aut dixit aut seusit. Vel. Paterc. l. i. c. + 12.--Trans. + + 923 Neque enim quisquam hoc Scipione elegantius intervalla negotiorum + otio dispunxit: semperque aut belli aut pacis serviit artibus, + semper inter arma ac studia versatus, aut corpus periculis, aut + animum disciplinis exercuit. Vel. Paterc. l. i. c. 13.--Trans. + + 924 Africanus semper Socraticum Xenophontem in manibus habebat. _Tusc. + Quaest._ l. ii. n. 62.--Trans. + + 925 Plut. _in vit. AEmil. Paul._ p. 258. + +_ 926 Excerpt. e_ Polyb. p. 147-163. + + 927 She was sister of Paulus AEmilius, father of the second Scipio + Africanus.--Trans. + + 928 Or, 11,250_l._ sterling.--Trans. + + 929 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.--Trans. + + 930 Or, 13,500_l._ sterling.--Trans. + + 931 Or, 5375_l._ sterling.--Trans. + + 932 Pausan. _in Arcad._ l. xiii. p. 505. + + M147 A.M. 3857. A. Rom. 601. + + 933 Appian, p. 65. Val. Max. l. v. c. 2. + + 934 Appian, p. 65. + + 935 Cicero introduces Cato, speaking as follows of Masinissa's vigorous + constitution: Arbitror te audire, Scipio, hospes tuus Masinissa quae + faciat hodie nonaginta annos natus; cum ingressus iter pedibus sit, + in equum omnino non ascendere; cum equo, ex equo non descendere; + nullo imbre, nullo frigore adduci, ut capite operto sit; summam esse + in eo corporis siccitatem. Itaque exequi omnia regis officia et + munera. _De Senectute._--Trans. + + 936 An seni gerenda sit Resp. p. 791. + + 937 Appian ibid. Val. Max. l. v. c. 2. + + 938 All this history of Jugurtha is extracted from Sallust.--Trans. + + 939 Terrebat eum natura mortalium avida imperii, et praeceps ad explendam + animi cupidinem: praeterea opportunitas suae liberorumque aetatis, quae + etiam mediocres viros spe praedae transversos agit. _Sallust._--Trans. + + 940 Ac sane, quod difficillimum imprimis est, et praelio strenuus erat, + et bonus consilio: quorum alterum ex providentia timorem, alterum ex + audacia temeritatem adferre plerumque solet.--Trans. + + 941 Non exercitus, neque thesauri, praesidia regni sunt, verum amici: + Quos neque armis cogere, neque auro parare queas; officio et fide + pariuntur. Quis autem amicior quam frater fratri? aut quem alienum + fidum invenies, si tuis hostis fueris?--Trans. + + M148 A.M. 3887. A. Rom. 631. + M149 A.M. 3888. A. Rom. 632. + + 942 He chose two of the nimblest of those who had followed him into + Cirtha; and these, induced by the great rewards he promised them, + and pitying his unhappy circumstances, undertook to pass through the + enemy's camp, in the night, to the neighbouring shore, and from + thence to Rome. Ex iis qui una Cirtam profugerant, duos maxime + impigros delegit: eos, multa pollicendo, ac miserando casum suum, + confirmat, ubi per hostium munitiones noctu ad proximum mare, dein + Romam pergerent. Sallust.--Trans. + + M150 A.M. 3894. A. Rom. 683. Ant. J.C. 110. + + 943 Multae bonaeque artes animi et corporis erant, quas omnes avaritia + praepediebat.--Trans. + + 944 Magnitudine pecuniae a bono honestoque in pravum abstractus + est.--Trans. + + 945 Postquam Roma egressus est, fertur saepe tacitus eo respiciens, + postremo dixisse. Urbem venalem et mature perituram, si emptorem + invenerit.--Trans. + + 946 For electing magistrates. Sal.--Trans. + + 947 In Numidiam proficiscitur, magma spe civium, cum propter artes + bonas, tum maxime quod adversum divitias invictum animum + gerebat.--Trans. + + 948 Quibus rebus supra bonum atque honestum perculsus, neque lacrymas + tenere, neque moderari linguam: vir egregius in aliis artibus, nimis + molliter aegritudinem pati.--Trans. + + M151 A.M. 3898. A. Rom. 642. + + 949 Now comprehending Fez, Morocco, &c.--Trans. + + 950 Plut. _in vit. Marii._ + + 951 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. Plut. _Praecept. reip. gerend._ p. 806.--Trans. + + M152 A.M. 3901. A. Rom. 615. Ant. J.C. 103. + + 952 Plut. _in vit. Marii._ + + M153 A.M. 3959. A. Rom. 703. + M154 A.M. 3974. A. Rom. 719. Ant. J.C. 30. + + 953 In voce {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.--Trans. + + 954 Vol. IV of the _Memoirs of the Academy of Belles Lettres_, p. + 457.--Trans. + + 955 They that are curious to make deeper researches into this matter, + may read the dissertations of Abbe Banier and M. Freret upon the + Assyrian empire, in the _Memoirs of the Academy of Belles Lettres_; + for the first, see tome 3, and for the other, tome 5; as also what + Father Tournemine has written upon this subject in his edition of + Menochius.--Trans. + + 956 Porphyr. apud Simplic. in l. ii. _de coelo_. + + 957 Here I depart from the opinion of Archbishop Usher, my ordinary + guide, with respect to the duration of the Assyrian empire, which he + supposes, with Herodotus, to have lasted but 520 years; but the time + when Nimrod lived and Sardanapalus died I take from him.--Trans. + + M155 Nimrod. A.M. 1800. Ant. J.C. 2204. + + 958 Belus or Baal signifies Lord.--Trans. + + 959 Gen. x. 9. + + 960 Lib. ii. p. 90. + + 961 Ibid. + + 962 Gen. x. 10. + + 963 Semiramis eam condiderat, vel, ut plerique tradidere, Belus, enjus + regia ostenditar. Q. Curt. l. v. c. 1.--Trans. + + 964 Gen. xi. 4. + +_ 965 Hist. Jud._ l. i. c. 4. + + 966 Lib. i. c. 181. + + 967 Gen. x. 11. + + 968 Mic. v. 6. + + 969 Gen. x. 11, 12. + + 970 Diod. l. ii. p. 90. + + 971 Fecerunt civitates duas amores duo: terrenam scilicet amor sui usque + ad contemptum Dei; coelestem vero amor Dei usque ad contemptum sui. + S. Aug. _de Civ. Dei_, l. xiv. c. 28.--Trans. + + M156 Ninus. + + 972 Diod. l. ii. p. 90-95. + + 973 Diodorus says it was on the bank of the Euphrates, and speaks of it + as if it was so, in many places; but he is mistaken.--Trans. + + 974 Jon. iii. 3. + + 975 It is hard to believe that Diodorus does not speak of the extent of + Nineveh with some exaggeration; therefore some learned men have + reduced the stadium to little more than one half, and reckon fifteen + of them to the Roman mile instead of eight, the usual + computation.--Trans. + + 976 Plut. _in Mor._ p. 753. + + M157 Semiramis. + + 977 Diod. l. ii. p. 95. + + 978 We are not to wonder, if we find the founding of a city ascribed to + different persons. It is common, even among the profane writers, to + say, Such a prince built such a city, whether he was the person that + first founded it, or that only embellished or enlarged it.--Trans. + + 979 Herod. l. i. c. 178, 180. Diod. l. ii. p. 95, 96. Q. Curt. l. v. c. + 1. + + 980 I relate things as I find them in the ancient authors, which Dean + Prideaux has also done; but I cannot help believing that great + abatements are to be made in what they say as to the immense extent + of Babylon and Nineveh.--Trans. + + 981 Isa. xlv. 2. + + 982 Quint. Curt. l. v. c. 1. + + 983 Herod. l. i. c. 180 and 186. Diod. l. ii. p. 96. + + 984 Diodorus says, this bridge was five furlongs in length, which can + hardly be true, since the Euphrates was but one furlong broad. + Strab. l. xvi. p 738.--Trans. + + 985 Strab. l. xvi. p. 740. Plin. l. v. c. 26. + + 986 Abyd. ap Eus. _Proep. Evang._ l. ix. + + 987 Abyd. ib. Herod. l. i. c. 185. + + 988 The author follows Herodotus, who makes it four hundred and twenty + furlongs, or fifty-two miles square; but I choose to follow Dean + Prideaux, who prefers the account of Megasthenes.--Trans. + + 989 Diod. l. ii. p. 96, 97. + + 990 Ibid. p. 98, 99. Strab. l. xvi. p. 738. Quint. Curt. l. v. c. 1. + + 991 Beros. ap. Jos. _cont. App._ l. i. c. 6. + + 992 Herod. l. i. c. 181. Diod. l. ii. p. 98. Strab. l. xvi. p. 738. + +_ 993 Phal_ part. 1 l. i. c. 9. + + 994 Herod. l. i. c. 183. Strab. l. xvi. p. 738. Arrian, l. vii. p. 480. + + 995 Diod. l. ii. p. 100-108. + + 996 Val. Max. l. ix. c. 3. + + 997 Indus.--Trans. + + 998 Vol. iii. p. 343, &c. + + 999 Lib. i. c. 2. + + 1000 Lib. v. _de Rep._ 451-457. + + 1001 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. + +_ 1002 De cura rei fam._ l. i. c. 3. + +_ 1003 De administr. dom._ p. 839. + + M158 Ninyas. + + 1004 Diod. l. ii. p. 108. + + M159 A.M. 2092. Ant. J.C. 1912. + M160 A.M. 2513. Ant. J.C. 1491. + M161 A.M. 2820. Ant. J.C. 1184. + +_ 1005 De Leg._ l. iii. p 685. + + M162 Pul. A.M. 3233. Ant. J.C. 771. + + 1006 2 Kings xv. 19. + + M163 Sardanapalus. + + 1007 Diod. l. ii. p. 109-115. Athen. l. xii. p. 529, 530. Just. l. i. c. + 3. + + 1008 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. + + Quid aliud, inquit Aristoteles, in bovis, non in regis sepulchro, + inscriberes? Haec habere se mortuum dicit, quae ne vivus quidem + diutius habebat, quam fruebatur. Cic. _Tusc. Quaest._ l. v. n. + 101.--Trans. + + 1009 Two miles and a half.--Trans. + + M164 A.M. 3257. Ant. J.C. 747. + + 1010 About fourteen hundred millions sterling.--Trans. + + 1011 Pag. 335, 336. + + 1012 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. + + M165 Belesis. A.M. 3257. Ant. J.C. 747. + + 1013 2 Kings xx. 12. + + M166 Merodach-Baladan. + + 1014 Ibid. + + 1015 Can. Ptol. + + M167 Tiglath-Pileser. A.M. 3257. Ant. J.C. 747. + + 1016 Lib. xii. _hist. anim._ c. 21. Castor apud Euseb. _Chron._ p. 49. + + 1017 2 Kings xvi. 7, &c. + + 1018 Is. viii. 4. Am. i. 5. + + M168 Shalmanezer. A.M. 3276. Ant. J.C. 728. + + 1019 2 Kings xvii. + + 1020 Tob. 1. + + M169 Sennacherib. A.M. 3287. Ant. J.C. 717. + + 1021 Is. xx. 1. 2 Kings xviii. and xix. + + 1022 2 Kings xix. 9. + + 1023 2 Kings xx. 2 Chron. xxxii. 24-31 + + 1024 2 Kings xix. 35-57. + + 1025 Tobit i. 18-24 + + 1026 2 Kings xix. 37. + + M170 Esarhaddon. A.M. 3294. Ant. J.C. 710. + + 1027 Can. Ptol. + + 1028 Is. vii. 8. + + 1029 2 Chron. xxxiii. 11, 13. + + 1030 2 Kings xvii. 25-41. + + M171 Saosduchinus. A.M. 3335. Ant. J.C. 669. + + 1031 Tobit xiv. 5-13. + + 1032 Judith i. 5, 6. + + M172 Saracus. A.M. 3356. Ant. J.C. 648. + + 1033 Alex. Polyhist. + + M173 Nabopolassar. A.M. 3378. Ant. J.C. 626. + + 1034 Pag. 70. + + 1035 Beros. apud Joseph. _Antiq._ l. x. c. 11. & _con. Ap._ l. i. + + M174 A.M. 3398. Ant. J.C. 606. + M175 Nabuchodonosor II. + + 1036 Jer. xlvi. 2. 2 Kings xxiv. 7. + + 1037 Dan. i. 1-7. 2 Chron. xxxvi. 6, 7. + + 1038 Some imagine him to have been eighteen years of age at this + time.--Trans. + + 1039 Can. Ptol. Beros. apud Joseph. _Antiq._ l. x. c. 11. & _con. Ap._ l. + x. + + M176 A.M. 3401. Ant. J.C. 603. + + 1040 Dan. ii. + + 1041 2 Kings xxiv. 1, 2. + + 1042 Al. Jehoiakim. 2 Kings xxiv. 6-18.--Trans. + + 1043 2 Kings xxiv. 17-20. and xxv. 1-10. + + M177 A.M. 3415. Ant. J.C. 589. + + 1044 Dan. iii. + + 1045 Ninety feet.--Trans. + + 1046 Ezek. xxvi. and xxvii. Is. xxiii. 8. Just. l. xviii. c. 3. + + 1047 Is. xxiii. 12. + + 1048 Jos. _Ant._ l. x. c. 11 & _con. Ap._ l. i. + + 1049 Ezek. xxix. 18, 19. + + 1050 Ibid. 18-20. + + 1051 Page 84. + +_ 1052 Antiq._ l. x. 11. + + 1053 Dan. iv. + + M178 Evil-Merodach. A.M. 3441. Ant. J.C. 563. + + 1054 2 Kings xxv. 27-30. + + 1055 Beros. Megasthen. + + M179 Neriglissor. A.M. 3444. Ant. J.C. 560. + + 1056 Cyrop. l. i. + + M180 Laborosoarchod. A.M. 3448. Ant. J.C. 556. + M181 Labynitus, or Nabonidus. A.M. 3449. Ant. J.C. 555. + + 1057 Jer. xxvii. 7. + + 1058 Herod. l. i. c. 185, &c. + + 1059 Dan. vii. + + 1060 Ibid. viii. + + 1061 Ibid. v. + + M182 A.M. 3468. Ant. J.C. 536. + M183 A.M. 3257. Ant. J.C. 747. + + 1062 Herod. l. i. c. 95. + + 1063 Rom. xiii. 1, 2. + + M184 Dejoces. A.M. 3294. Ant. J.C. 710. + + 1064 Herod. l. i. c. 96-101. + +_ 1065 major ex __ longinquo reverentia_, Tacit. + + M185 Pharaortes. A.M. 3347. Ant. J.C. 657. + + 1066 Herod. c. 102. + + 1067 He is called so by Eusebius, _Chron. Graec_ and by Geor. + Syncel.--Trans. + + 1068 Judith, i. 1. + + 1069 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. Judith, text Gr. + + 1070 Herod. l. i. c. 102. + + 1071 The Greek text places these embassies before the battle.--Trans. + + M186 Cyaxares I. A.M. 3869. Ant. J.C. 635. + + 1072 Herod. l. i. c. 103-106. + + 1073 Herod. l. i. c. 74. + + 1074 In Herodotus he is called Labynetus.--Trans. + + M187 A.M. 3378. Ant. J.C. 626. + + 1075 Herod. l. i. c. 106. + + 1076 Nahum iii. 1. + + 1077 ii. 1, 2. + + 1078 iii. 2, 3. + + 1079 ii. 3, 4. + + 1080 i. 2, 5, 6. + + 1081 Nahum, iii. 5. + + 1082 ii. 9, 10. + + 1083 The author in this place renders it, Her temple is destroyed to the + foundations. But I have chosen to follow our English Bible, though + in the Latin it is _camplum_.--Trans. + + 1084 ii. 6. + + 1085 iii. 3. + + 1086 ii. 11, 12. + + 1087 This is a noble image of the cruel avarice of the Assyrian kings, + who pillaged and plundered all their neighbouring nations, + especially Judea, and carried away the spoils of them to + Nineveh.--Trans. + + 1088 Zephan. ii. 13-15. + + M188 Astyages. A.M. 3409. Ant. J.C. 595. + + 1089 Herod. l. i. c. 7-13. + + M189 A.M. 2781. Ant. J.C. 1223. + M190 Candaules. + + 1090 Non contentus voluptatum suarum tacita conscientia--proisus quasi + silentium damnum pulchritudinis esset. Justin, l. i. c. 7.--Trans. + + M191 A.M. 3286. Ant. J.C. 718. + + 1091 Nostro quidem more cum parentibus puberes filii, cum soceris generi, + non lavantur. Retinenda est igitur hujus generis verecundia, + praesertim natura ipsa magistra et duce. Cic. l. i. _de offic._ n. + 129. + + Nadare se nefas esse credebatur. Val. Max. l. ii. c. 1.--Trans. + + 1092 Plato _de Rep._ l. ii. p. 359. + + 1093 Hunc ipsum annulum si habeat sapiens, nihilo plus sibi licere putet + peccare, quam si non haberet. Honesta enim bonis viris, non occulta + quaeruntur. Lib. iii, _de offic._ n. 38.--Trans. + + M192 Gyges. A.M. 3286. Ant. J.C. 718. + + 1094 Herod. l. i. c. 13, 14. + + 1095 Ibid. l. i. c. 15. + + M193 Ardys. A.M. 3334. Ant. J.C. 680. + M194 Sadyattes. A.M. 3373. Ant. J.C. 631. + + 1096 Herod. l. i. c. 16, 22. + + M195 Halyattes. A.M. 3385. Ant. J.C. 619. + + 1097 Ibid. c. 21, 22. + + M196 Croesus. A.M. 3442. Ant. J.C. 562. + + 1098 Strab. l. xiii. p. 625. & l. xiv. p. 680. + + 1099 Herod. l. i. c. 26-28. + + 1100 Ibid. l. i. c. 29-33. Plut. _in Sol._ p. 93, 94. + + 1101 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.--Trans. + + 1102 The fatigue of drawing the chariot might be the cause of it.--Trans. + + 1103 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.--Trans. + + 1104 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}) {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}) {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. The jingle of the + words {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, which is a beauty in the original, + because it is founded in the sense, cannot be rendered into any + other language.--Trans. + + 1105 Plenas aures adulationibus aliquando vera vox intret: da consilium + utile. Quaeris, quid felici praestare possis? Effice, ne felicitati + suae credat. Parum in illum contuleris, si illi semel stultam + fiduciam permansurae semper potentiae excusseris, docuerisque mobilia + esse quae dedit casus; ac saepe inter fortunam maximam et ultimam + nihil interesse. Sen. _de benef._ l. vi. c. 33.--Trans. + + 1106 Herod. l. i. c. 34-45. + + 1107 Ibid. 46-50. + + 1108 Herod. l. i. c. 71. + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIANS, CARTHAGINIANS, ASSYRIANS, + BABYLONIANS, MEDES AND PERSIANS, MACEDONIANS AND GRECIANS (VOL. 1 OF + 6)*** + + + +CREDITS + + +April 1 2009 + + Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1 + Produced by Paul Murray, David King, and the Online + Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. + + + +A WORD FROM PROJECT GUTENBERG + + +This file should be named 28558.txt or 28558.zip. + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + + + http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/8/5/5/28558/ + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one -- the old editions will be +renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no one +owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and +you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission +and without paying copyright royalties. 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