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diff --git a/28569-h/28569-h.htm b/28569-h/28569-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4d0efb5 --- /dev/null +++ b/28569-h/28569-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,3576 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> +<title> +The Project Gutenberg eBook of Makers of Many Things, by Eva March Tappan, Ph.D. +</title> + +<style type="text/css"> + + /* Body Attributes */ + + body { + margin-left: 15%; + margin-right: 15%; + max-width: 40em; + } + + /* Paragraphs */ + + p { + margin-top: 1em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: 1em; + line-height: 1.2em; + } + + /* Headers */ + + h1 { + text-align: center; + margin-top: 1.5em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + clear: both; + } + + h2 { + text-align: center; + clear: both; + margin-top: 1.5em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + } + + /* Horizontal Lines and Thought Breaks */ + + hr.major { + width: 65%; + margin-top: 3em; + margin-right: auto; + margin-bottom: 3em; + margin-left: auto; + clear: both; + color: silver; + } + + hr.minor { + width: 35%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-right: auto; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + clear: both; + color: silver; + } + + /* Page Numbers */ + + .nopagenum { display: none; } + + .pagenum { + position: absolute; + left: 5%; + font-size: 90%; + font-weight: bold; + font-style: normal; + text-align: center; + width: 1.5em; + color: silver; + padding-top: 0.1em; + padding-bottom: 0.1em; + } + + /* Font Attributes */ + + .smcap { font-variant: small-caps; } + + /* Layout Attributes */ + + .center { text-align: center; } + + .indr { text-align: right; + margin-right: 1em; } + + .block { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; + width: 14em; + padding-left: 1.5em + } + + .verse { text-align: left; margin: auto; } + + /* Table of Contents */ + + table.contents { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; max-width: 30em; } + + table.contents tr { vertical-align: top; } + + td.toc1 { text-align: right; + font-size: 115%; + padding-right: 0.5em; + padding-bottom: 0.5em; } + + td.toc2 { text-align: left; + font-size: 115%; + padding-left: 0.5em; + padding-bottom: 0.5em; } + + td.toc3 { text-align: right; + width: 3em; + font-size: 115%; + padding-left: 0.5em; + padding-bottom: 0.5em; } + + /* Images */ + + img { border: thin solid black; padding: 1px; } + + .caption { font-weight: bold; font-size: 90%; } + + .figcenter { + padding: 1em; + margin: auto; + text-align: center; + } + + /* Transcriber's Note and Corrections */ + + .tnote { border: dashed 1px; + padding: 1em; + margin-top: 3em; + margin-right: 0%; + margin-bottom: 3em; + margin-left: 0%; + page-break-after: always; } + + .tnote p { text-indent: 0em; margin-left: 2em; margin-top: .5em; font-size: 90%; } + + .tnote h3 { text-indent: 0em; margin-left: 0em; text-align: left; font-size: 100%; + font-style: normal; font-weight: bold; } + +</style> +</head> + +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Makers of Many Things, by Eva March Tappan + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Makers of Many Things + +Author: Eva March Tappan + +Release Date: April 21, 2009 [EBook #28569] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAKERS OF MANY THINGS *** + + + + +Produced by C. St. Charleskindt and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<hr class="major" /> + +<div class="center" style="font-size: 1.5em"> +THE INDUSTRIAL READERS<br /> +<br /> +<i>Book III</i> +</div> + +<h1>MAKERS OF MANY THINGS</h1> + +<div class="center" style="font-size: 90%"> + +BY +<br /> +<br /> +EVA MARCH TAPPAN, <span class="smcap">Ph.D.</span> +<br /> +<br /> + +<div style="margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%;"> +<i>Author of "England's Story," "American Hero Stories," +"Old World Hero Stories," "Story of the Greek People," +"Story of the Roman People," etc. Editor of +"The Children's Hour."</i> +</div> + +<br /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"> +<img style="border: none" src="images/pub_tout_bien.png" width="150" height="200" alt="Riverside Press Cambridge" title="publisher's device" /> +</div> + +<br /> + +HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY +<br /> +BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO + +</div> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<div class="center" style="font-size: 90%"> + +COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY EVA MARCH TAPPAN +<br /> +<br /> +ALL RIGHTS RESERVED +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +The Riverside Press +<br /> +CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS +<br /> +U . S . A + +</div> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<div> +<!-- Page iii --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span> +<a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a> +</div> + +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + +<p>The four books of this series have been written not merely to provide +agreeable reading matter for children, but to give them information. +When a child can look at a steel pen not simply as an article +furnished by the city for his use, but rather as the result of many +interesting processes, he has made a distinct growth in intelligence. +When he has begun to apprehend the fruitfulness of the earth, both +above ground and below, and the best way in which its products may be +utilized and carried to the places where they are needed, he has not +only acquired a knowledge of many kinds of industrial life which may +help him to choose his life-work wisely from among them, but he has +learned the dependence of one person upon other persons, of one part +of the world upon other parts, and the necessity of peaceful +intercourse. Best of all, he has learned to see. Wordsworth's familiar +lines say of a man whose eyes had not been opened,—</p> + +<div class="block"> +<div class="verse"> +"A primrose by a river's brim<br /> +A yellow primrose was to him,<br /> +And it was nothing more." +</div> +</div> + +<p>These books are planned to show the children that there is "something +more"; to broaden their horizon; to reveal to them what invention has +accomplished and what wide room for invention still remains; to teach +them that reward comes to the man + +<!-- Page iv --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span> +who improves his output beyond the +task of the moment; and that success is waiting, not for him who works +because he must, but for him who works because he may.</p> + +<p>Acknowledgment is due to the Diamond Match Company, Hood Rubber +Company, S. D. Warren Paper Company, The Riverside Press, E. Faber, +C. Howard Hunt Pen Company, Waltham Watch Company, Mark Cross Company, +I. Prouty & Company, Cheney Brothers, and others, whose advice and +criticism have been of most valuable aid in the preparation of this +volume.</p> + +<p class="indr"> +<span class="smcap">Eva March Tappan.</span> +</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> + +<div class="center"> +<table class="contents" summary="Table of Contents"> + +<tr> +<td class="toc1">I.</td> +<td class="toc2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#THE_LITTLE_FRICTION_MATCH">The Little Friction Match</a></span></td> +<td class="toc3">1</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">II.</td> +<td class="toc2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#ABOUT_INDIA_RUBBER">About India Rubber</a></span></td> +<td class="toc3">6</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">III.</td> +<td class="toc2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#KID_GLOVES">"Kid" Gloves</a></span></td> +<td class="toc3">16</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">IV.</td> +<td class="toc2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#HOW_RAGS_AND_TREES_BECOME_PAPER">How Rags and Trees become Paper</a></span></td> +<td class="toc3">25</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">V.</td> +<td class="toc2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#HOW_BOOKS_ARE_MADE">How Books are made</a></span></td> +<td class="toc3">36</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">VI.</td> +<td class="toc2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#FROM_GOOSE_QUILLS_TO_FOUNTAIN_PENS_AND_LEAD_PENCILS">From Goose Quills to Fountain Pens and Lead Pencils</a></span></td> +<td class="toc3">46</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">VII.</td> +<td class="toc2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#THE_DISHES_ON_OUR_TABLES">The Dishes on Our Tables</a></span></td> +<td class="toc3">56</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">VIII.</td> +<td class="toc2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#HOW_THE_WHEELS_OF_A_WATCH_GO_AROUND">How the Wheels of a Watch go around</a></span></td> +<td class="toc3">64</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">IX.</td> +<td class="toc2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#THE_MAKING_OF_SHOES">The Making of Shoes</a></span></td> +<td class="toc3">73</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">X.</td> +<td class="toc2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#IN_THE_COTTON_MILL">In the Cotton Mill</a></span></td> +<td class="toc3">82</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1">XI.</td> +<td class="toc2"><span class="smcap"><a href="#SILKWORMS_AND_THEIR_WORK">Silkworms and their Work</a></span></td> +<td class="toc3">92</td> +</tr> + +</table> +</div> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<div> +<!-- Page 1 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span> +<a name="MAKERS_OF_MANY_THINGS" id="MAKERS_OF_MANY_THINGS"></a> +<a name="THE_LITTLE_FRICTION_MATCH" id="THE_LITTLE_FRICTION_MATCH"></a> +</div> + +<div class="center" style="font-size: 2em"> +THE INDUSTRIAL READERS +<br /> +<br /> +BOOK III +</div> + +<hr class="minor" /> + +<h1>MAKERS OF MANY THINGS</h1> + +<h2>I +<br /><br /> +THE LITTLE FRICTION MATCH</h2> + +<p>I remember being once upon a time ten miles from a store and one mile +from a neighbor; the fire had gone out in the night, and the last +match failed to blaze. We had no flint and steel. We were neither +Indians nor Boy Scouts, and we did not know how to make a fire by +twirling a stick. There was nothing to do but to trudge off through +the snow to the neighbor a mile away and beg some matches. Then was +the time when we appreciated the little match and thought with +profound respect of the men who invented and perfected it.</p> + +<p>It is a long way from the safe and reliable match of to-day back to +the splinters that were soaked in chemicals and sold together with +little bottles of sulphuric acid. The splinter was expected to blaze +when dipped into the acid. Sometimes it did blaze, and sometimes it +did not; but it was reasonably certain how the acid would behave, for +it would always sputter and do its best to spoil some one's clothes. +Nevertheless, even such matches as these were + +<!-- Page 2 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +regarded as a wonderful +convenience, and were sold at five dollars a hundred. With the next +kind of match that appeared, a piece of folded sandpaper was sold, and +the buyer was told to pinch it hard and draw the match through the +fold. These matches were amazingly cheap—eighty-four of them for only +twenty-five cents! There have been all sorts of odd matches. One kind +actually had a tiny glass ball at the end full of sulphuric acid. To +light this, you had to pinch the ball and the acid that was thus let +out acted upon the other chemicals on the match and kindled it—or was +expected to kindle it, which was not always the same thing.</p> + +<p>Making matches is a big business, even if one hundred of them are sold +for a cent. It is estimated that on an average each person uses seven +matches every day. To provide so many would require some seven hundred +million matches a day in this country alone. It seems like a very +simple matter to cut a splinter of wood, dip it into some chemicals, +and pack it into a box for sale; and it would be simple if it were all +done by hand, but the matches would also be irregular and extremely +expensive. The way to make anything cheap and uniform is to +manufacture it by machinery.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;"> + +<img src="images/p02_match_machine.jpg" width="330" height="525" alt="THE ENDLESS MATCH MACHINE" /> + +<span class="caption">THE ENDLESS MATCH MACHINE<br /> +<br /> +The match splints are set in tiny holes like pins in a pincushion, and +the belt revolves, passing their heads through various chemicals.</span> + +</div> + +<p>The first step in making matches is to select some white-pine plank of +good quality and cut it into blocks of the proper size. These are fed +into a machine which sends sharp dies through them and thus cuts the +match splints. Over the splint cutter a carrier chain is continuously +moving, and into holes + +<!-- Page 3 --> + +<span class="nopagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> + +<!-- Page 4 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> + +in this chain the ends of the match splints +are forced at the rate of ten or twelve thousand a minute.</p> + +<p>The splints remain in the chain for about an hour, and during this +hour all sorts of things happen to them. First, they are dipped into +hot paraffin wax, because this will light even more easily than wood. +As soon as the wax is dry, the industrious chain carries them over a +dipping-roll covered with a layer consisting partly of glue and rosin. +Currents of air now play upon the splint, and in about ten minutes the +glue and rosin on one end of it have hardened into a hard bulb. It is +not a match yet by any means, for scratching it would not make it +light. The phosphorus which is to make it into a match is on another +dipping-roll. This is sesqui-sulphide of phosphorus. The common yellow +phosphorus is poisonous, and workmen in match factories where it was +used were in danger of suffering from a terrible disease of the jaw +bone. At length it was discovered that sesqui-sulphide of phosphorus +would make just as good matches and was harmless. Our largest match +company held the patent giving them the exclusive right to certain +processes by which the sesqui-sulphide was made; and this patent they +generously gave up to the people of the United States.</p> + +<p>After the splints have been dipped into the preparation of phosphorus, +they are carried about on the chain vertically, horizontally, on the +outside of some wheels and the inside of others, and through currents +of air. Then they are turned over to a chain divided + +<!-- Page 5 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +into sections +which carries them to a packing-machine. This machine packs them into +boxes, a certain number in each box, and they are slid down to girls +who make the boxes into packages. These are put into wooden containers +and are ready for sale.</p> + +<p>As in most manufactures, these processes must be carried on with great +care and exactness. The wood must be carefully selected and of +straight grain, the dipping-rolls must be kept covered with a fresh +supply of composition, and its depth must be always uniform. Even the +currents of air in which the splints are dried must be just warm +enough to dry them and just moist enough not to dry them too rapidly.</p> + +<p>The old sulphur matches made in "card and block" can no longer be +bought in this country; the safety match has taken their place. One +kind of safety match has the phosphorus on the box and the other +igniting substances on the match, so that the match will not light +unless it is scratched on the box; but this kind has never been a +favorite in the United States. The second kind, the one generally +used, may be struck anywhere, but these matches are safe because even +stepping upon one will not light it; it must be scratched.</p> + +<p>A match is a little thing, but nothing else can do its work.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<div> +<!-- Page 6 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +<a name="ABOUT_INDIA_RUBBER" id="ABOUT_INDIA_RUBBER"></a> +</div> + +<h2>II +<br /><br /> +ABOUT INDIA RUBBER</h2> + +<p>When you pick a dandelion or a milkweed, a white sticky "milk" oozes +out; and this looks just like the juice of the various sorts of trees, +shrubs, and vines from which India rubber is made. The "rubber plant" +which has been such a favorite in houses is one of these; in India it +becomes a large tree which has the peculiar habit of dropping down +from its branches "bush-ropes," as they are called. These take root +and become stout trunks. There is literally a "rubber belt" around the +world, for nearly all rubber comes from the countries lying between +the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. More than half of +all that is brought to market is produced in the valley of the Amazon +River; and some of this "Para rubber," as it is called, from the +seaport whence it is shipped, is the best in the world.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 340px;"> + +<img src="images/p06_tapping_rubber.jpg" width="340" height="525" alt="TAPPING RUBBER TREES IN SUMATRA" /> + +<div class="caption"> +<span style="float: left; font-size: 70%;">Courtesy General Rubber Co.</span> +<br /> +<br /> +TAPPING RUBBER TREES IN SUMATRA<br /> +<br /> +The plantation on which this photograph was taken has 45,000 acres of +planted rubber trees, and employs 14,000 coolies. +</div> + +</div> + +<p>The juice or latex flows best about sunrise, and so the natives who +collect it have to be early risers. They make little cuts in the bark +of the tree, stick on with a bit of clay a tiny cup underneath each +cut, and move on through the forest to the next tree. Sometimes they +make narrow V-shaped cuts in the bark, one above another, but all +coming into a perpendicular channel leading to the foot of the + +<!-- Page 7 --> + +<span class="nopagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> + +<!-- Page 8 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> + +tree. Later in the day the collectors empty the cups into great jugs and +carry them to the camp.</p> + +<p>When the rubber juice reaches the camp, it is poured into a great +bowl. The men build a fire of sticks, and always add a great many palm +nuts, which are oily and make a good deal of smoke. Over the fire they +place an earthen jar shaped like a cone, but without top or bottom. +Now work begins. It is fortunate that it can be done in the open air, +and that the man can sit on the windward side, for the smoke rises +through the smaller hole thick and black and suffocating. The man +takes a stick shaped like a paddle, dips it into the bowl, and holds +it in the smoke and heat, turning it rapidly over and over till the +water is nearly dried out of the rubber and it is no longer milky, but +dark-colored. Then he dips this paddle in again and again. It grows +heavier at each dipping, but he keeps on till he has five or six +pounds of rubber. With a wet knife he cuts this off, making what are +called "biscuits." After many years of this sort of work, some one +found that by resting one end of a pole in a crotched stick and +holding the other in his hand, a man could make a much larger biscuit.</p> + +<p>For a long time people thought that rubber trees could not be +cultivated. One difficulty in taking them away from their original +home to plant is that the seeds are so rich in oil as to become rancid +unusually soon. At length, however, a consignment of them was packed +in openwork baskets between layers of dried wild banana leaves and +slung up on deck + +<!-- Page 9 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +in openwork crates so as to have plenty of air. By +this means seven thousand healthy little plants were soon growing in +England, and from there were carried to Ceylon and the East.</p> + +<p>On the rubber plantations collecting juice from trees standing near +together and in open ground is an altogether different matter from +cutting a narrow path and forcing one's way through a South American +or African jungle. The bark of the trees is cut in herringbone +fashion. The collector simply slices a thin piece off the bark and at +once milk begins to ooze out.</p> + +<p>On the great plantations of the East the rubber is collected chiefly +by Chinese and Indians. They are carefully taught just how to tap the +trees. They begin four or five feet from the ground, and work down, +cutting the thinnest possible slice at each visit. When they have +almost reached the ground, they begin on the opposite side of the +trunk; and by the time they have reached the ground on that side the +bark on the first side has renewed itself. The latex is strained and +mixed with some acid, usually acetic, in order to coagulate or thicken +it. It is then run between rollers, hung in a drying house, and +generally in a smokehouse.</p> + +<p>The rubber arrives at the factory in bales or cases. First of all it +must be thoroughly washed in order to get rid of sand or bits of +leaves and wood. A machine called a "washer" does this work. It forces +the rubber between grooved rolls which break it up; and as this is +done under a spray of water, the + +<!-- Page 10 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +rubber is much cleaner when it comes +out. Another machine makes it still cleaner and forms it into long +sheets about two feet wide.</p> + +<p>Having thoroughly wet the rubber, the next step is to dry it +thoroughly. The old way was to hang it up for several weeks. The new +way is to cut it into strips, lay it upon steel trays, and place it in +a vacuum dryer. This is kept hot, and whatever moisture is in the +rubber is either evaporated or sucked out by a vacuum pump. It now +passes through another machine much like the washer, and is formed +into sheets. The square threads from which elastic webbing is made may +be cut from these sheets, though sometimes the sheet is wound on an +iron drum, vulcanized by being put into hot water, lightly varnished +with shellac to stiffen it, then wound on a wooden cylinder, and cut +into square threads. Boiling these in caustic soda removes the +shellac. To make round threads, softened rubber is forced through a +die. Rubber bands are made by cementing a sheet of rubber into a tube +and then cutting them off at whatever width may be desired. Toy +balloons are made of such rubber. Two pieces are stamped out and +joined by a particularly noisy machine, and then the balloon is blown +out by compressed air.</p> + +<p>Early in the nineteenth century it was known that rubber would keep +out water, but it was sticky and unmanageable. After a while a Scotch +chemist named McIntosh succeeded in dissolving rubber in naphtha and +spreading it between two thicknesses of + +<!-- Page 11 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +cloth. That is why his name +is given to raincoats made in this way. Overshoes, too, were made of +pure rubber poured over clay lasts which were broken after the rubber +had dried. These overshoes were waterproof,—there was no denying +that; but they were heavy and clumsy and shapeless. When they were +taken off, they did not stand up, but promptly fell over. In hot +weather they became so sticky that they had to be kept in the cellar; +and in winter they became stiff and inelastic, but they never wore +out. How to get rid of the undesirable qualities and not lose the +desirable ones was the question. It was found out that if sulphur was +mixed with rubber, the disagreeable stickiness would vanish; but the +rubbers continued to melt and to freeze by turns until an American +named Charles Goodyear discovered that if rubber mixed with sulphur +was exposed to about 300° F. of heat for a number of hours, the rubber +would remain elastic, but would not be sticky and would no longer be +affected by heat or cold. This is why you often see the name Goodyear +on the bottom of rubbers.</p> + +<p>Rubber overshoes were improved at once. As they now are made, the +rubber is mixed with sulphur, whiting, litharge, and several other +substances. An honest firm will add only those materials that will be +of service in making the rubber more easy to mould or will improve it +in some way. Unfortunately, substances are often added, not for this +purpose, but to increase the weight and apparent value of the +articles. That is why some rubber overshoes, + +<!-- Page 12 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +for instance, wear out so much faster than others.</p> + +<p>To make an overshoe, the rubber is run through rollers and formed into +thick sheets for soles and thinner sheets for uppers. Another machine +coats with gum the cloth used for lining and stays. Rubber and +rubber-lined cloth go to the cutting-room, where all the different +parts of the shoes are cut out. They are then put together and +varnished. While still on the last, they are dipped into a tank of +varnish and vulcanized—a very simple matter now that Goodyear has +shown us how, for they are merely left in large, thoroughly heated +ovens for eight or ten hours. The rubber shoe or boot is now elastic, +strong, waterproof, ready for any temperature, and so firmly cemented +together with rubber cement that it is practically all in one piece.</p> + +<p>During the last few years there have been frequent calls from various +charities for old rubber overshoes, pieces of rubber hose, etc. These +are of considerable value in rubber manufacturing. They are run +through a machine which tears them to shreds, then through a sort of +fanning-mill which blows away the bits of lining. Tiny pieces of iron +may be present from nails or rivets; but these are easily removed by +magnets. This "reclaimed" rubber is powdered and mixed with the new, +and for some purposes the mixture answers very well. Imitation rubber +has been made by heating oil of linseed, hemp, maize, etc., with +sulphur; but no substitute for rubber is a success for all uses.</p> + +<div> +<!-- Page 13 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> + +<div class="center" style="font-size: 80%; padding-bottom: 1em;"> +<a href="images/p13_rubberfactory_big.jpg">Click here to see a larger version of this photo.</a> +</div> + +<img src="images/p13_rubberfactory.jpg" width="400" height="465" alt="HOW RUBBER GOES THROUGH THE FACTORY" /> + +<div class="caption"> +<span style="float: left; font-size: 70%;">Courtesy U. S. Tire Co.</span> +<br /> +<br /> +HOW RUBBER GOES THROUGH THE FACTORY<br /> +<br /> +Splitting Para biscuits, mixing the rubber, rolling the rubber fabric +on cylinders, and building tires on the tire machines. +</div> + +</div> + +<div> +<!-- Page 14 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>There are many little conveniences made of rubber which we should +greatly miss, such as the little tips put into pencil ends for erasing +pencil marks. These are made by filling a mould with rubber. Rubber +corks are made in much the same manner. Tips for the legs of chairs +are made in a two-piece mould larger at the bottom than at the top, +and with a plunger that nearly fits the small end. Often on chair tips +and in the cup-shaped eraser that goes over the ends of some pencils +you can see the "fin," as the glassworkers call it, where the two +pieces of the mould did not exactly fit. Rubber cannot be melted and +cast in moulds like iron, but it can be gently heated and softened, +and then pressed into a mould. Rubber stamps are made in this way. The +making of rubber heels and soles is now a large industry; hose for +watering and for vacuum and Westinghouse brakes is made in increasing +quantities. The making of rubber tires for automobiles and carriages +is an important industry. The enormous and increasing use of +electricity requires much use of rubber as an insulator. Rubber gloves +will protect an electrical workman from shock and a surgeon from +infection. Rubber beds and cushions filled with air are a great +comfort in illness. Rubber has great and important uses; but we should +perhaps miss quite as much the little comforts and conveniences which +it has made possible.</p> + +<p>Rubber and gutta-percha are not the same substance by any means. Both +of them are made of the milky juice of trees, but of entirely +different trees. + +<!-- Page 15 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +The gutta-percha milk is collected in an absurdly +wasteful manner, namely, by cutting down the trees and scraping up the +juice. When this juice reaches the market, it is in large reddish +lumps which look like cork and smell like cheese. It has to be +cleaned, passed through a machine that tears it into bits, then +between rollers before it is ready to be manufactured. It is not +elastic like rubber; it may be stretched; but it will not snap back +again as rubber does. It is a remarkably good nonconductor of +electricity, and therefore it has been generally used to protect ocean +cables, though recently rubber has been taking its place. It makes +particularly excellent casts, for when it is warm it is not sticky, +but softens so perfectly that it will show the tiniest indentation of +a mould. It is the best kind of splint for a broken bone. If a boy +breaks his arm, a surgeon can put a piece of gutta-percha into hot +water, set the bone, bind on the softened gutta-percha for a splint, +and in a few minutes it will be moulded to the exact shape of the arm, +but so stiff as to keep the bone in place. Another good service which +gutta-percha renders to the physician results from its willingness to +dissolve in chloroform. If the skin is torn off, leaving a raw +surface, this dissolved gutta-percha can be poured over it, and soon +it is protected by an artificial skin which keeps the air from the raw +flesh and gives the real skin an opportunity to grow again.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<div> +<!-- Page 16 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +<a name="KID_GLOVES" id="KID_GLOVES"></a> +</div> + +<h2>III +<br /><br /> +"KID" GLOVES</h2> + +<p>There is an old proverb which says, "For a good glove, Spain must +dress the leather, France must cut it, and England must sew it." Many +pairs of most excellent gloves have never seen any one of these +countries, but the moral of the proverb remains, namely, that it takes +considerable work and care to make a really good glove.</p> + +<p>The first gloves made in the United States were of thick buckskin, for +there was much heavy work to be done in the forest and on the land. +The skin was tanned in Indian fashion, by rubbing into the flesh side +the brains of the deer—though how the Indians ever thought of using +them is a mystery. Later, the white folk tried to tan with pigs' +brains; but however valuable the brains of a pig may be to himself, +they do not contain the properties of soda ash which made those of the +deer useful for this purpose.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> + +<img src="images/p16_stretching_gloves.jpg" width="500" height="360" alt="Stretching Gloves" /> + +<img src="images/p16_die_cutting.jpg" width="500" height="375" alt="Die Cutting Gloves" /> + +<span class="caption">CUTTING HIDES INTO GLOVES<br /> +<br /> +The hides are kept in racks, and before cutting are stretched by hand. +Then the steel die cuts out the shape of the glove. Notice the +curiously shaped cut for the thumb.</span> + +</div> + +<p>Years ago, when a man set out to manufacture gloves, usually only a +few dozen pairs, he cut out a pattern from a shingle or a piece of +pasteboard, laid it upon a skin, marked around it, and cut it out with +shears. Pencils were not common, but the glovemaker was fully equal to +making his own. He melted some lead, ran it into a crack in the +kitchen floor—and cracks were plentiful—and then used + +<!-- Page 17 --> + +<span class="nopagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> + +<!-- Page 18 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> + +this "plummet," as it was called, for a marker. After cutting the large +piece for the front and back of the glove, he cut out from the scraps +remaining the "fourchettes," or <i>forks</i>; that is, the narrow strips +that make the sides of the fingers. Smaller scraps were put in to welt +the seams; and all this went off in great bundles to farmhouses to be +sewed by the farmers' wives and daughters for the earning of +pin-money. If the gloves were to be the most genteel members of the +buckskin race, there was added to the bundle a skein of silk, with +which a slender vine was to be worked on the back of the hand. The +sewing was done with a needle three-sided at the point, and a stout +waxed thread was used. A needle of this sort went in more easily than +a round one, but even then it was rather wearisome to push it through +three thicknesses of stout buckskin. Moreover, if the sewer happened +to take hold of the needle too near the point, the sharp edges were +likely to make little cuts in her fingers.</p> + +<p>After a while sewing machines were invented, and factories were built, +and now in a single county of the State of New York many thousand +people are at work making various kinds of leather coverings for their +own hands and those of other folk. Better methods of tanning have been +discovered, and many sorts of leather are now used, especially for the +heavier gloves. Deer are not so common as they used to be, and a +"buckskin" glove is quite likely to have been made of the hide of a +cow or a horse. + +<!-- Page 19 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +"Kid" generally comes from the body of a sheep +instead of that of a young goat. Our best real kidskin comes from a +certain part of France, where the climate seems to be just suited to +the young kids, there is plenty of the food that they like, and, what +is fully as important, they receive the best of care. It is said that +to produce the very finest kidskin, the kids are fed on nothing but +milk, are treated with the utmost gentleness, and are kept in coops or +pens carefully made so that there shall be nothing to scratch their +tender skins.</p> + +<p>Glovemakers are always on the lookout for new kinds of material, and +when, not many years ago, there came from Arabia with a shipment of +Mocha coffee two bales of an unknown sort of skin, they were eager to +try it. It tanned well and made a glove that has been a favorite from +the first. The skin was found to come from a sheep living in Arabia, +Abyssinia, and near the headwaters of the river Nile. It was named +Mocha from the coffee with which it came, and Mocha it has been ever +since. The Suède glove has a surface much like that of the Mocha. Its +name came from "Swede," because the Swedes were the first to use the +skin with the outside in.</p> + +<p>Most of our thinner "kid" gloves are made of lambskin; but dressing +the skins is now done so skillfully in this country that "homemade" +gloves are in many respects fully as good as the imported; indeed, +some judges declare that in shape and stitching certain grades are +better. When sheepskins and lambskins + +<!-- Page 20 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +come to market from a distance, +they are salted. They have to be soaked in water, all bits of flesh +scraped off, and the hair removed, generally by the use of lime. After +another washing, they are put into alum and salt for a few minutes; +and after washing this off, they are dried, stretched, and then are +ready for the softening. Nothing has been found that will soften the +skins so perfectly as a mixture of flour, salt, and the yolk of +eggs—"custard," as the workmen call it. The custard and the skins are +tumbled together into a great iron drum which revolves till the +custard has been absorbed and the skins are soft and yielding. Now +they are stretched one way and another, and wet so thoroughly that +they lose all the alum and salt that may be left and also much of the +custard.</p> + +<p>Now comes dyeing. The skin is laid upon a table, smooth side up, and +brushed over several times with the coloring matter; very lightly, +however, for if the coloring goes through the leather, the hands of +the customers may be stained and they will buy no more gloves of that +make. The skins are now moistened and rolled and left for several +weeks to season. When they are unrolled, the whole skin is soft and +pliable. It is thick, however, and no one who is not an expert can +thin it properly. The process is called "mooning" because the knife +used is shaped like a crescent moon. It is flat, its center is cut +out, and the outer edge is sharpened. Over the inner curve is a +handle. The skin is hung on a pole, and the expert workman draws the +mooning knife down + +<!-- Page 21 --> + +<span class="nopagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> + +<!-- Page 22 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> + +it until any bit of dried flesh remaining has +been removed, and the skin is of the same thickness, or, rather, +thinness throughout.</p> + +<p>All this slow, careful work is needed to prepare the skin for cutting +out the glove; and now it goes to the cutter. There is no longer any +cutting out of gloves with shears and pasteboard patterns, but there +is a quick way and a slow way nevertheless. The man who cuts in the +quick way, the "block-cutter," as he is called, spreads out the skin +on a big block made by bolting together planks of wood with the grain +running up and down. He places a die in the shape of the glove upon +the leather, gives one blow with a heavy maul, and the glove is cut +out. This answers very well for the cheaper and coarser gloves, but to +cut fine gloves is quite a different matter. This needs skill, and it +is said that no man can do good "table-cutting" who has not had at +least three years' experience; and even then he may not be able to do +really first-class work. He dampens the skin, stretches it first one +way and then the other, and examines it closely for flaws or scratches +or weak places. He must put on his die in such a way as to get two +pairs of ordinary gloves or one pair of "elbow gloves" out of the skin +if possible, and yet he must avoid the poor places if there are any. +No glove manufacturer can afford to employ an unskilled or careless +cutter, for he will waste much more than his wages amount to. There +used to be one die for the right hand and another for the left, and it +was some time before it occurred to + +<!-- Page 23 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +any one that the same die would cut both gloves if only the skin was turned over.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 525px;"> + +<img src="images/p23_closing_gloves.jpg" width="525" height="380" alt="CLOSING THE GLOVE" /> + +<span class="caption">CLOSING THE GLOVE<br /> +<br /> +When sewing time comes, the glove goes from hand to hand down the +workroom, each stitcher doing a certain seam or seams.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 525px;"> + +<img src="images/p23_shaping_gloves.jpg" width="525" height="355" alt="WHERE THE GLOVE GETS ITS SHAPE" /> + +<span class="caption">WHERE THE GLOVE GETS ITS SHAPE<br /> +<br /> +After inspection the glove goes to a row of men who fit it on a +steam-heated brass hand, giving it its final shape and finish.</span> +</div> + +<p>Now comes the sewing. Count the pieces in a glove, and this will give +some idea of the work needed to sew them together. Notice that the +fourchettes are sewed together on the wrong side, the other seams on +the right side, and that the tiny bits of facing and lining are hemmed +down by hand. Notice that two of the fingers have only one fourchette, +while the others have two fourchettes each. Notice how neatly the ends +of the fingers are finished, with never an end of thread left on the +right side. The embroidery must be in exactly the right place, and it +must be fastened firmly at both ends. This embroidery is not a +meaningless fashion, for the lines make the hand look much more +slender and of a better shape. Sewing in the thumbs needs special care +and skill. There must be no puckering, and the seam must not be so +tightly drawn as to leave a red line on the hand when the glove is +taken off. No one person does all the sewing on a glove; it must pass +through a number of hands, each doing a little. Even after all the +care that is given it, a glove is a shapeless thing when it comes from +the sewing machines. It is now carried to a room where stands a long +table with a rather startling row of brass hands of different sizes +stretching up from it. These are heated, the gloves are drawn upon +them, and in a moment they have shape and finish, and are ready to be +inspected and sold.</p> + +<p>The glove is so closely associated with the hand and + +<!-- Page 24 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +with the person +to whom the hand belongs that in olden times it was looked upon as +representing him. When, for instance, a fair could not be opened +without the presence of some noble, it was enough if he sent his glove +to represent him. To throw down one's glove before a man was to +challenge him to a combat. At the coronation of Queen Elizabeth, as of +many other sovereigns of England, the "Queen's champion," a knight in +full armor, rode into the great hall and threw down his glove, crying, +"If there be any manner of man that will say and maintain that our +sovereign Lady, Queen Elizabeth, is not the rightful and undoubted +inheritrix to the imperial crown of this realm of England, I say he +lieth like a false traitor, and therefore I cast him my gage."</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<div> +<!-- Page 25 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +<a name="HOW_RAGS_AND_TREES_BECOME_PAPER" id="HOW_RAGS_AND_TREES_BECOME_PAPER"></a> +</div> + +<h2>IV +<br /><br /> +HOW RAGS AND TREES BECOME PAPER</h2> + +<p>It was a great day for the children on the farm when the tin peddler +came around. He had a high red wagon, fairly bristling with brooms, +mop-handles, washtubs, water-pails, and brushes. When he opened his +mysterious drawers and caverns, the sunshine flashed upon tin pans, +dippers, dustpans, and basins. Put away rather more choicely were +wooden-handled knives, two-tined forks, and dishes of glass and china; +and sometimes little tin cups painted red or blue and charmingly +gilded, or cooky-cutters in the shape of dogs and horses. All these +rare and delightful articles he was willing to exchange for rags. Is +it any wonder that the thrifty housewife saved her rags with the +utmost care, keeping one bag for white clippings and one for colored?</p> + +<p>These peddlers were the great dependence of the paper mills, for the +finest paper is made from linen and cotton rags. When the rags reach +the factory, they are carefully sorted. All day long the sorters sit +before tables whose tops are covered with coarse wire screens, and +from masses of rags they pick out buttons, hooks and eyes, pins, bits +of rubber, and anything else that cannot possibly be made into paper. +At the same time they sort the rags carefully into different grades, +and with a knife shaped like a small sickle fastened upright to the +table they cut + +<!-- Page 26 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +them into small pieces. Some of the dust falls through +the screen; but to remove the rest of it, the cut-up rags are tossed +about in a wire drum. Sometimes they are so dusty that when they come +out of the drum they weigh only nine tenths as much as when they go +in. The dust is out of them, but not the dirt. To remove that, they +are now put into great boilers full of steam; and here they cook and +turn over, and turn over and cook for hours. Lime and sometimes soda +are put with them to cleanse them and remove the coloring material; +but when they are poured out, they look anything but clean, for they +are of a particularly dirty brown; and the water that is drained away +from them looks even more uninteresting. Of course the next step is to +wash this dirty brown mass; and for at least four hours it is scrubbed +in a machine which beats it and rolls it and chops it and tumbles it +about until the wonder is that anything is left of it. All this while, +the water has been flowing through it, coming in clean and going out +dirty; and at length the mass becomes so light a gray that making +white paper of it does not seem quite hopeless. It is now bleached +with chloride of lime, and washed till it is of a creamy white color +and free from the lime, and then beaten again. If you fold a piece of +cheap paper and tear it at the fold, it will tear easily; but if you +do the same thing with paper made of linen and cotton, you will find +it decidedly tough. Moreover, if you look closely at the torn edge of +the latter, you will see the fibers clearly. It is because of + +<!-- Page 27 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +the beating that the fibers are so matted together and thus make the paper +tough. While the pulp is in the beater, the manufacturer puts in the +coloring matter, if he wishes it to be tinted blue or rose or lavender +or any other color. No one would guess that this white or creamy or +azure liquid had ever been the dirty rags that came into the mill and +were sorted on the wire tables. Besides the coloring, a "filler" is +usually added at this time, such as kaolin, the fine clay of which +china is made. This fills the pores and gives a smoother surface to +the finished paper—a good thing if too much is not put in. A little +sizing is also added, made of rosin. Save for this sizing, ink would +sink into even the finished paper as it does into blotting paper. +After this, more water is added to the pulp and it is run into tanks.</p> + +<p>Now the preparation is completed, and the pulp is pumped to large and +complicated machines which undertake to make it into paper. It first +flows through screens which are shaken all the while as if they were +trembling. This shaking lets the liquid and the finer fibers through, +but holds back the little lumps, if any remain after all the beating +and straining and cutting that it has had. The pulp flows upon an +endless wire screen. Rubber straps at the sides keep it in, but the +extra water drops through the meshes. The pulp is flowing onward, and +so the tiny fibers would naturally straighten out and flow with it, +like sticks in a river; but the wire screen is kept shaking sideways, +and this helps the + +<!-- Page 28 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +fibers to interlace, and the paper becomes nearly +as strong one way as the other.</p> + +<p>If you hold a sheet of paper up to the light, it will show plainly +what is next done to it. Sometimes you can see that it is marked by +light parallel lines running across it close together, and crossed by +other and stouter lines an inch or two apart. Sometimes the name of +the paper or that of the manufacturer is marked in the same way by +letters lighter than the rest of the sheet. Sometimes the paper is +plain with no markings whatever. This difference is made by what is +called the "dandy," a cylinder covered with wire. For the first, or +"laid" paper, the small wires run the length of the cylinder and the +stouter ones around it. Wherever the wires are, the paper is a little +thinner. In some papers this thinness can be seen and felt. For the +second kind of paper the design, or "watermark," is formed by wires a +little thicker than the rest of the covering. For the third, or "wove" +paper, the dandy is covered with plain woven wire like that of the +wire cloth; so there are no markings at all. This work can be easily +done because at this point the paper is so moist.</p> + +<p>The paper is now not in sheets, but in a long web like a web of cloth. +It passes between felt-covered rollers to press out all the water +possible, then over steam-heated cylinders to be dried, finally going +between cold iron rollers to be made smooth, and is wound on a reel, +trimmed and cut into sheets of whatever size is desired. The finest +note papers are + +<!-- Page 29 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +not finished in this way, but are partly dried, +passed through a vat of thin glue, any excess being squeezed off by +rollers, then cut into sheets, and hung up to dry thoroughly at their +leisure.</p> + +<p>Paper made of properly prepared linen and cotton is by far the best, +but there are so many new uses for paper that there are not rags +enough in the world to make nearly what is needed. There are scores of +newspapers and magazines where there used to be one; and as for paper +bags and cartons and boxes, there is no limit to their number and +variety. A single manufacturer of pens and pencils calls for four +thousand different sorts and sizes of boxes. School-children's use of +paper instead of slates, the fashion of wrapping Christmas gifts in +white tissue, and the invention of the low-priced cameras have +increased enormously the amount of paper called for. In the attempt to +supply the demand all sorts of materials have been used, such as hemp, +old rope, peat, the stems of flax, straw, the Spanish and African +esparto grass, and especially wood; but much more paper is made of +wood than of all the rest together. Poplar, gum, and chestnut trees, +and especially those trees which bear cones, such as the spruce, fir, +balsam, and pine are used. There are two methods of manufacturing wood +pulp; the mechanical, by grinding up the wood, and the chemical, by +treating it chemically. By the mechanical method the wood is pressed +against a large grindstone which revolves at a high speed. As fast as +the wood is ground off, it is washed away by a + +<!-- Page 30 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +current of water, and +strained through a shaking sieve and a revolving screen which drives +out part of the water by centrifugal force. In a great vat of pulp a +drum covered with wire cloth revolves, and on it a thin sheet of pulp +settles. Felting, pressed against this sheet, carries it onward +through rolls. The sheets are pressed between coarse sacking. Such +paper is very poor stuff. In its manufacture the fiber of the wood is +so ground up that it has little strength. It is used for cardboard, +cartons, and packing-papers. Unfortunately, it is also used for +newspapers; and while it is a good thing for some of them to drop to +pieces, it is a great loss not to have the others permanent. When we +wish to know what people thought about any event fifty years ago, we +can look back to the papers of that time; but when people fifty years +from now wish to learn what we thought, many of the newspapers will +have fallen to pieces long before that time.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> + +<img src="images/p30_rag_vat.jpg" width="500" height="360" alt="Rag Vat" /> + +<img src="images/p30_big_room.jpg" width="500" height="355" alt="The Big Room" /> + +<div class="caption"> + +<span style="float: left; font-size: 70%;">Courtesy S. D. Warren Co.</span> +<br /> +<br /> +WHERE RAGS BECOME PAPER<br /> +<br /> +The vat where the rags cook and turn over, and the big room where the +web of finished paper is passed through rollers and cut into a neat +pile of trimmed sheets. +</div> + +</div> + +<p>There is, however, a method called the "sulphite process," used +principally in treating the coniferous woods, by which a much better +paper can be made. In all plants there is a substance called +"cellulose." This is what gives strength to their stems. The wood is +chipped and put into digesters large enough to hold twenty tons, and +is steam-cooked together with bisulphite of magnesium or calcium for +seven or eight hours. Another method used for cooking such woods as +poplar and gum, is to boil the wood in caustic soda, which destroys +everything except the cellulose. Wood paper of one kind or another + +<!-- Page 31 --> + +<span class="nopagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> + +<!-- Page 32 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> + +is used for all daily papers and for most books. Whether the best wood +paper will last as long as the best rag paper, time only can tell.</p> + +<p>The Government of the United States tests paper in several ways before +buying it. First, a single sheet is weighed; then a ream is put on the +scales to see if it weighs four hundred and eighty times as much. This +shows whether the paper runs evenly in weight. Many sheets are folded +together and measured to see if the thickness is regular. To test its +strength, a sheet is clamped over a hole one square inch in area, and +liquid is pressed against it from below to see how much it will stand +before bursting. Strips of the paper are pulled in a machine to test +its breaking strength. A sheet is folded over and over again to see +whether holes will appear at the corners of the folds. It is examined +under the microscope to see of what kind of fibers it is made and how +much loading has been used in its manufacture. To test blotting paper, +strips are also put into water to see how high the water will rise on +them.</p> + +<p>Besides writing and wrapping papers and the various kinds of board, +there are many sorts which are used for special purposes. India paper, +for instance, is light, smooth, and strong, so opaque that printing +will not show through it, and so lasting that if it is crumpled, it +can be ironed out and be as good as new. This is used for books that +are expected to have hard wear but must be of light weight. There are +tissue papers, crêpe papers for napkins, + +<!-- Page 33 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +and tarred paper to make +roofs and even boats water-tight. If tar is brushed on, it may make +bubbles which will break afterwards and let water in; but if tar is +made a part of the paper itself, it lasts. Paper can easily be waxed +or paraffined, and will then keep out air and moisture for some time. +Better still, it can be treated with oil and will then make a raincoat +that will stand a year's wear, or even, if put on a bamboo frame, make +a very good house, as the Japanese found out long ago. Paper coated +with powdered gum and tin is used for packing tea and coffee. Transfer +or carbon papers so much used in making several copies of an article +on the typewriter are made by coating paper with starch, flour, gum, +and coloring matter. Paper can be used for shoes and hats, ties, +collars, and even for "rubbers." It has been successfully used for +sails for light vessels, and is excellent made into light garments for +hospital use because it is so cheap that it can be burned after +wearing. Wood pulp can be run through fine tubes into water and made +so pliable that it can be twisted into cord or spun and woven into +"silk." Not only water but also fire can be kept out by paper if it is +treated with the proper substances. An object can be covered with a +paste of wood pulp, silica, and hemp; and when this is dry, a coat of +water-glass will afford considerable protection. There has been some +degree of success in making transparent paper films for moving +pictures; and if these are coated with water-glass, they will not +burn. Paper can be so treated that + +<!-- Page 34 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +it will either conduct electricity +or become a nonconductor, as may be desired. In Germany, a "sandwich +paper" has been made by pressing together four layers—felt, pulp, +cotton, pulp—which is cheap and strong and useful for many purposes.</p> + +<p>When we come to papier maché, there is no end to the kinds of articles +that are made of it. The papier maché, or <i>paper pulped</i>, is made by +kneading old newspapers or wrapping papers with warm water into a +pulp. Clay and coloring are added and something of the nature of glue; +and it is then put into a mould. Sometimes to make it stronger for +large mouldings, bits of canvas or even wire are also used. The best +papier maché is made of pure wood cellulose. The beautiful boxes and +trays covered with lacquer which the Japanese and Chinese make are +formed of this; but it has many much humbler uses than these. Paper +screws are employed in ornamental wood work, and if a hole is begun +for such a screw, it will twist its way into soft wood as well as +steel would do. Barrels of paper reinforced with wire are common. Gear +wheels and belt pulleys are made of papier maché, and even the wheels +of railroad coaches; at least the body of the wheels is made of it, +although the tire, hub, and axle are of cast-steel. Circular saws of +pulp are in use which cut thin slices of veneer so smoothly that they +can be used without planing. Papier maché is used for water pipes, the +bodies of carriages, hencoops, and garages. Indeed, it is quite possible + +<!-- Page 35 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +to build a house, shingle it, decorate it with elaborate +mouldings and cornices, finish it with panels, wainscoting, imitation +tiling, and furnish it with light, comfortable furniture covered with +imitation leather, silk, or cloth, and spread on its floors soft, +thick carpets or rugs woven in beautiful designs—and all made of wood +pulp. Even the window panes could be made of pulp; and if they were +not perfectly transparent, they would at least let in a soft, +agreeable light, and they would not break. Pails, washtubs, bathtubs, +and even dishes of paper can be easily found. There are not only the +paper cups provided on railroad trains and the cheap picnic plates and +saucers, but some that are really pretty. Ice cream is sometimes +served in paper dishes and eaten with paper spoons. Milk bottles are +successfully made of paper, with a long strip of some transparent +material running up and down the side to show how much—or how +little—cream is within. Napkins and tablecloths made of paper thread +woven into "cloth" are cheaper than linen and can be washed as easily. +Paper towels and dishcloths are already common; but when paper shall +fully come to its own, it is quite possible that there will be little +washing of dishes. They can be as pretty as any one could wish, but so +cheap that after each meal they can be dropped into the fire. Indeed, +there are few things in a house, except a stove, that cannot be made +of some form of paper,—and perhaps that too will be some day.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<div> +<!-- Page 36 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +<a name="HOW_BOOKS_ARE_MADE" id="HOW_BOOKS_ARE_MADE"></a> +</div> + +<h2>V +<br /><br /> +HOW BOOKS ARE MADE</h2> + +<p>The first step in making ready to print a manuscript is to find out +how many words there are in it, what kind of type to use, how much +"leading" or space between the lines there shall be, and what shall be +the size of the page. In deciding these questions, considerable +thinking has to be done. If the manuscript is a short story by a +popular author, it may be printed with wide margins and wide leading +in order to make a book of fair size. If it is a lengthy manuscript +which will be likely to sell at a moderate but not a high price, it is +best to use only as much leading as is necessary to make the line +stand out clearly, and to print with a margin not so wide as to +increase the expense of the book. The printer prints a sample of the +page decided upon, any desired changes are made, and then the making +of the book begins.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> + +<img src="images/p36_monotype.jpg" width="500" height="355" alt="Monotype" /> + +<img src="images/p36_casting_room.jpg" width="500" height="375" alt="Casting Room" /> + +<div class="caption"> + +<span style="float: left; font-size: 70%;">Courtesy The Riverside Press.</span> +<br /> +<br /> +WHERE THIS BOOK WAS SET UP<br /> +<br /> +The monotype girl wrote these words on her keyboard, where they made +tiny holes in a roll of paper. The roll went to the casting-room where +it guided a machine to make the type much as a perforated music-roll +guides a piano to play a tune. +</div> + +</div> + +<p>The type is kept in a case at which the compositor stands. This case +is divided into shallow compartments, each compartment containing a +great many e's or m's as the case may be. The "upper case" contains +capitals; the "lower case," small letters. Those letters which are +used most often are put where the compositor can reach them most +readily. He stands before his case with a "composing + +<!-- Page 37 --> + +<span class="nopagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> + +<!-- Page 38 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> + +stick" in his +hand. This "stick" is a little iron frame with a slide at the side, so +that the line can be made of any length desired. The workman soon +learns where each letter is, and even an apprentice can set the type +in his stick reasonably rapidly. On one side of every piece of type +there is a groove, so that he can tell by touch whether it is right +side up or not. He must look out especially to make his right-hand +margins regular. You will notice in books that the lines are all of +the same length, although they do not contain the same number of +letters. The compositor brings this about by arranging his words and +spaces skillfully. The spaces must be as nearly as possible of the +same length, and yet the line must be properly filled. If a line is +too full, he can sometimes place the last syllable on the following +line; if it is not full enough, he can borrow a syllable, and he can +at least divide his space so evenly that the line will not look as if +it were broken in two.</p> + +<p>Not many years ago all type was set in this manner; but several +machines have now been invented which will do this work. In one of the +best of them the operator sits before a keyboard much like that of a +typewriter. When he presses key <i>a</i>, for instance, a mould or matrix +of the letter <i>a</i> is set free from a tube of <i>a</i>'s, and slides down to +its place in the stick. At the end of the line, the matrices forming +it are carried in front of a slot where melted type metal from a +reservoir meets them. Thus a cast is made of the matrices, and from +this cast the printing + +<!-- Page 39 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +is done. This machine is called a linotype +because it casts a whole line of type at a time.</p> + +<p>Most book work is done on the monotype machine. When a manuscript goes +to the press to be set up in this way, the copy is given to the +keyboard operator who sets it up on a machine which looks much like a +typewriter. Instead of writing letters, however, the machine punches +tiny holes in a strip of paper which is wound on a roll. When the roll +is full it goes to the casting room where it is put on another machine +containing hot type metal and bronze matrices from which the letters +of the words are to be cast. The holes in the paper guide the machine +to make the type much as a perforated music roll guides a piano to +play a tune. The reason why the machine is called a monotype is that +the letters are made one at a time, and <i>monos</i> is the Greek word for +<i>one</i>.</p> + +<p>By the linotype and monotype machines type can be set in a "galley," a +narrow tray about two feet long, with ledges on three sides. When a +convenient number of these galleys have been filled, long slips are +printed from them called "galley proofs." These have wide margins, but +the print is of the width that the page of the book will be. They are +read by the proof-readers, and all such mistakes as the slipping in of +a wrong letter, or a broken type, the repetition of a word, or the +omission of space between words are corrected. Then the proof goes to +the author, who makes any changes in his part of the work which seem +to him desirable; and it is also + +<!-- Page 40 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +read by some member of the editorial +department. If there are many changes to be made, another proof is +usually taken and sent to the author.</p> + +<p>The reason for this extreme carefulness is that it costs much less to +make changes in the galley proof than in the "page proof." This latter +is made by dividing the galley into pages, leaving space for the +beginnings of chapters and for pictures, if any are to appear on the +printed pages, and setting up the numbers of the pages and their +running titles. Page proof also goes to proof-readers and to the +author. Corrections on page proof are more expensive than on galley +proof because adding or striking out even a few words may make it +necessary to change the arrangement on every page to the end of the +chapter.</p> + +<p>Years ago all books were printed directly from the type; and some are +still printed so. After printing, the letters were returned to their +compartments. If a second edition was called for, the type had to be +set again. Now, however, books are generally printed not from type, +but from a copper model of the type. To make this, an impression of +the page of type is made in wax and covered with graphite, which will +conduct electricity. These moulds are hung in a bath of copper +sulphate, where there are also large plates of copper. A current of +electricity is passed through it, and wherever the graphite is, a +shell of copper is deposited, which is exactly like the face of the +type. This shell is very thin, but it is made strong by adding a heavy +back of + +<!-- Page 41 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +melted metal. From these plates the books are printed. A +correction made in the plate is more expensive than it would have been +if made in the galley or in the page, because sawing out a word or a +line is slow, delicate work; and even if one of the same length is +substituted, the types spelling it have to be set up, a small new +plate cast, and soldered in.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 525px;"> + +<img src="images/p41_feeding_presses.jpg" width="525" height="365" alt="WHERE THIS BOOK WAS PRINTED" /> + +<div class="caption"> + +<span style="float: left; font-size: 70%;">Courtesy The Riverside Press.</span> +<br /> +<br /> +WHERE THIS BOOK WAS PRINTED<br /> +<br /> +The girls are feeding big sheets of paper into the presses, thirty-two +pages being printed at one time. The paper is fed into many modern +presses by means of a machine attached to the press. The pressmen see +that the printing is done properly. +</div> + +</div> + +<p>Printing one page at a time would be altogether too slow; therefore +the plates are arranged in such a way that sixteen, thirty-two, or +sometimes sixty-four pages can be printed on one side of the paper, +and the same number on the other side. Every page + +<!-- Page 42 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +must come in its +proper place when the sheet is folded for binding. Try to arrange a +sheet of even sixteen pages, eight on each side, so that when it is +folded every page will be in the right place with its printing right +side up, and you will find that it is not very easy until you have had +considerable experience. If the sheet is folded into four leaves, the +book is called a "quarto," or "4to"; if into eight, it is an "octavo," +or "8vo"; if into twelve, a "duodecimo," or "12mo." Books are +sometimes advertised in these terms; but they are not definite, +because the sheets of the different varieties of paper vary in size. +Of late years, publishers have often given the length and width of +their books in inches.</p> + +<p>After the sheets come from the press, they are folded to page size. +Sometimes this is done by hand, but more often by a folding machine +through which the sheet of paper travels, meeting blunt knives which +crease it and fold it. If you look at the top of a book you will see +that the leaves are put together in groups or "signatures." These +signatures usually contain eight, sixteen, or thirty-two pages. If the +paper is very thick, not more than eight leaves will be in a +signature; if of ordinary thickness, sixteen are generally used. The +signatures are piled up in order, and a "gatherer" collects one from +each pile for every book.</p> + +<p>The book is now gathered and "smashed," or pressed enough to make it +solid and firm for binding. Next the signatures are sewed and the book +is trimmed so the edges will be even. If the edges are + +<!-- Page 43 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +to be gilded, +the book is put in a gilding press and a skillful workman covers the +edges with a sizing made of the white of eggs. Gold leaf is then laid +upon them and they are burnished with tools headed with agate and +bloodstone or instruments of various sorts until they are bright. +Sometimes the edges are "marbled," and this is an interesting process +to watch. On the surface of a vat of thin sizing the marbler drops a +little of many colors of paint. Then he draws a comb lightly across +the surface, making all sorts of odd figures, no two alike. The book +is held tight and the edges are allowed to touch the sizing. All these +odd figures are now transferred to the edges of the leaves and will +stand a vast amount of hard use before they will wear off.</p> + +<p>Thus far the book is flat at the edges of the leaves and at the back. +Books are sometimes bound in this way, but the backs are usually +rounded into an outward curve, and the fronts into an inward curve. +This is done by a machine. At each end of the outward curve a deep +groove is pressed to receive the cover. To make the covers of a +cloth-bound book, two pieces of pasteboard of the right size are cut +and laid upon a piece of cloth coated with glue. The edges of the +cloth are turned over and pressed down, as you can often see if the +paper lining of the cover is not too heavy. The cover needs now only +its decorations to be complete. A die is made for these, and the +lettering and ornamentation are stamped on in colors. If more than one +color is used, + +<!-- Page 44 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +a separate die has to be made for each. If this work +is to be done in gold, the design is stamped on lightly and sizing +made of white of eggs is brushed on wherever the gold is to come. Gold +leaf is laid upon this sizing, and the cover is stamped again. The +same die is used, but this time it is hot enough to make the gold and +egg stick firmly to the cover. To put the cover on, a piece of muslin +called a "super" is glued to the back of the book with its ends +projecting over the sides, and a strip of cartridge paper is glued +over the super. Then the book is pasted into the cover. It is now kept +under heavy pressure for a number of hours until it is thoroughly dry +and ready to be sent away for sale.</p> + +<p>So it is that a well-made cloth-bound book is manufactured. +Leather-bound books are more expensive, not only because their +materials cost more, but also because the greater part of the work of +binding and decorating has to be done by hand. If a book is to be +illustrated, this must also be attended to, the number and style of +the pictures decided upon, and the artist engaged before the book is +put in press, in order that there may be no delay in completing it.</p> + +<p>Many publishers do not print at all, but have their work done at some +printing establishment. Where all the making of a book, however, from +manuscript to cover, is in the hands of one firm, there is a certain +fellow-feeling among the different departments, and a wholesome pride +in making each one of "our books" as excellent as possible in every + +<!-- Page 45 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +detail. As one of the women workers in such an establishment said to +me, "I often think that we become almost as interested in a book as +the author is."</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<div> +<!-- Page 46 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +<a name="FROM_GOOSE_QUILLS_TO_FOUNTAIN_PENS_AND_LEAD_PENCILS" id="FROM_GOOSE_QUILLS_TO_FOUNTAIN_PENS_AND_LEAD_PENCILS"></a> +</div> + +<h2>VI +<br /><br /> +FROM GOOSE QUILLS TO FOUNTAIN PENS AND LEAD PENCILS</h2> + +<p>Whenever there was a convenient goosepond on the way to school, the +children of less than one hundred years ago used to stop there to hunt +for goose quills. They carried these to the teacher, and with his +penknife—which took its name from the work it did—he cut them into +the shape of pens. The points soon wore out, and "Teacher, will you +please mend my pen?" was a frequent request.</p> + +<p>When people began to make pens of steel, they made them as nearly like +quill pens as possible, with pen and holder all in one. These were +called "barrel pens." They were stiff, hard, and expensive, especially +as the whole thing was useless as soon as the pen was worn out, but +they were highly esteemed because they lasted longer than quills and +did not have to be mended. After a while separate pens were +manufactured that could be slipped into a holder; and one improvement +after another followed until little by little the cheap, convenient +writing tool that we have to-day was produced.</p> + +<p>A pen is a small thing, but each one is worked upon by twenty to +twenty-four persons before it is allowed to be sold. The material is +the best steel. It comes in sheets five feet long and nineteen inches +wide, and about one fortieth of an inch thick, that is, + +<!-- Page 47 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +three times +as thick as the finished pen. The first machine cuts the sheet +crosswise into strips from two to three inches wide, varying according +to the size of the pen to be made. These strips are put into iron +boxes and kept at a red heat for a number of hours to anneal or soften +them. Then they pass between heavy rollers, a process which not only +helps to toughen them, but also stretches the steel so that it is now +fifty inches long instead of nineteen.</p> + +<p>At least six or seven people have handled the material already, and +even now there is nothing that looks like pens; but the next machine +cuts them out, by dies, of course. The points interlap; and the +cutting leaves odd-shaped openwork strips of steel for the scrap-heap. +This part of the work is very quick, for the machine will cut +thousands of pens in an hour. Now is when the little hole above the +slit is punched and the side slits cut. To make the steel soft and +pliable, it must be annealed again, kept red hot for several hours, +and then cooled. Thus far it has looked like a tiny fence paling, but +at length it begins to resemble a pen, for it is now stamped with +whatever letters or designs may be desired, usually the name of the +maker and the name and number of the variety of pen, and it is pressed +between a pair of dies to form it into a curve. The last annealing +left the metal soft so that all this could be done, but too soft to +work well as a pen; and it has to be heated red hot again, and then +dropped into cold oil to harden it. Centrifugal force, + +<!-- Page 48 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +which helps in +so many manufactures, drives the oil away, and the pens are dried in +sawdust. They are now sufficiently hard, but too brittle. They must be +tempered. To do this, they are placed in an iron cylinder over a fire, +and the cylinder revolved till the pen is as elastic as a spring.</p> + +<p>The pen is of the correct shape, is tough and elastic; and now it is +put into "tumbling barrels" which revolve till it is bright and ready +for the finishing touches. If you look closely at the outside of a +steel pen just above the nib, you will see that across it run tiny +lines. They have a use, for they hold the ink back so that it will not +roll down in drops, and they help to make the point more springy and +easier to write with.</p> + +<p>The pen must be slit up from the point. This is done by a machine, and +a most accurate one, for the cut must go exactly through the center of +the point and not reach beyond the little hole that was punched. Only +one thing is lacking now to make the pen a useful member of society, +ready to do its work in the world; and that is to grind off the points +and round them in order to keep them from sticking into the paper.</p> + +<p>After so much careful work, it does seem as if not one pen out of a +thousand could be faulty; but every one has to be carefully examined +to make sure that the cutting, piercing, marking, forming, tempering, +grinding, and slitting, are just what they should be. These pens carry +the maker's name, and a few poor ones getting into the market might +spoil the sale of thousands + +<!-- Page 49 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +of boxes; therefore the examiner sits +before a desk covered with black glass and looks at every pen. The +faulty ones are heated so that they cannot be used, and they go to the +scrap-heap.</p> + +<p>Now the pens are ready so far as usefulness goes, but people have +preferences in color. Some prefer bronze, some gray, and some black; +so off the pens go to the tempering-room, their last trip, and there +are heated in a revolving cylinder till the right color appears; then +they are chilled and lacquered, put into boxes, labeled, packed, and +sold for such low prices that the good folk of a century ago, who paid +from twenty-five to fifty cents for a pen, would have opened their +eyes in amazement. When the typewriter was invented, some people said, +"That will be the death of the steel pen"; but as a matter of fact, it +has greatly increased its sale. The typewriter makes writing so easy +and so quick that many more letters are written than formerly. All +these letters have to be answered, and few people compared with the +whole number own typewriters, and therefore the pen still holds its +place.</p> + +<p>The lacquer on a steel pen protects it until it has been used for a +while. After that, it will rust, if it is not wiped, and it will wear +out whether it is wiped or not. All that the gold pen asks is not to +be bent or broken, and it will last almost forever. It has the +flexibility of the quill, but does not have to be "mended." Gold pens +are made in much the same way as are steel pens; but just at the point +a tiny shelf + +<!-- Page 50 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +is squeezed. Upon this shelf a bit of the alloy of two +exceedingly hard metals, iridium and osmium, is secured by melting the +gold around it; and it is this bit which stands all the wear of +rubbing on the paper. When gold pens were first made, tiny bits of +diamonds or rubies were soldered on for points; but they were +expensive, and they had a disagreeable fashion of falling off.</p> + +<p>A century ago, writers would have thought it the height of luxury to +have a gold pen; but now they are not satisfied unless they can be +saved the trouble of dipping it into an inkstand, and they look upon +the fountain pen as their special friend. The fountain pen carries its +supplies with it. The pen itself is like any other gold pen, but the +barrel is full of ink. A little tube carries the ink to the point, and +the slight bending back of the pen as one writes lets it run out upon +the paper. At the end of the slit, at the back of the pen, is a hole +to let air into the barrel as the ink runs out. A perfect fountain pen +ought to be prepared to write—without shaking—whenever the cap is +taken off, and not to refuse to work so long as a drop of ink remains +in the barrel. It should never drop ink at the point and, whether the +point is up or down, it should never leak there or anywhere else.</p> + +<p>The stylographic pen is quite a different article. There is no pen to +it; the writing is done with the end of a needle which projects +through a hole at the point. The barrel and point are full of ink; but +even if the pen is held point down, it will not leak because the + +<!-- Page 51 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +needle fills up the hole. When you press the point on paper to write, +the needle falls back just enough to let out what ink is needed. The +flow stops the instant the pen ceases to touch the paper. The special +advantage of the stylographic is that the mere weight of the pen is +sufficient pressure, and therefore many hours of writing do not tire +the muscles of the hand. The advantage of the fountain pen is that it +has the familiar action of the gold pen, and that it will adapt itself +to any style of handwriting.</p> + +<p>A pen of almost any kind is a valuable article, but for +rough-and-ready use we should find it hard to get on without its +humble friend, the lead pencil. A lead pencil, by the way, has not a +particle of lead in it. The "lead" is all graphite, or plumbago. Years +ago sticks of lead were used for marking, and made a pale-gray line. +When graphite was introduced, its mark was so black that people called +it black lead, and the name has stuck. No one who has ever tried to +use a pencil of real lead could fail to appreciate graphite, and when +a graphite mine was discovered in England, it was guarded by armed men +as watchfully as if it had been a mine of diamonds. That mine was +exhausted long ago, but many others have been found. The best graphite +in the world comes from Ceylon and Mexico.</p> + +<p>When graphite was first used for pencils, it was cut into slabs and +these slabs into small strips. The broken and powdered graphite was +not used until it was discovered that it could be mixed with clay and so + +<!-- Page 52 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +made into sticks. In a lead pencil there are only three substances, +graphite, clay, and wood, but a really good one must be manufactured +with as much care as if it were made up of twenty. First of all, the +graphite is ground and ground and ground, until, if you take a pinch +of it between your thumb and finger, you can hardly feel that anything +is there. It is now sifted through fine silk and mixed with water and +finely powdered clay, and becomes a wet, inky mass. This clay comes +from Austria and Bohemia and is particularly smooth and fine. The +amount put in is carefully weighed. If you have a hard pencil, it was +made by using considerable clay; if your pencil is soft, by using very +little; and if it is very soft and black, it is possible that a little +lampblack was added.</p> + +<p>This inky mass is ground together between millstones for several +weeks. Then it goes between rollers, and at length is squeezed through +a die and comes out in soft, doughy black strings. These are the +"leads" of the pencils. They have been thoroughly wet, and now they +must be made thoroughly dry. They are laid on boards, then taken off, +cut into pieces the length of a pencil, and put into ovens and baked +for hours in a heat twenty times as great as that of a hot summer day. +They certainly ought to be well dried and ready for the wood. The red +cedar of Florida, Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama is the best wood for +pencils because it is soft and has a fine, straight grain. It is cut +into slabs about as long as one pencil, as wide as six, and a little +thicker + +<!-- Page 53 --> + +<span class="nopagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> + +<!-- Page 54 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> + +than half a pencil. Every piece must be examined to make +sure that it is perfect, and it must be thoroughly seasoned and +kiln-dried to free it from oil. Then it goes through a +grooving-machine which cuts out a groove half as deep as the lead. The +lead is laid into one piece, another is glued on top of it; and there +is a pencil ready for work.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 325px;"> + +<img src="images/p53_lead_pencil.jpg" width="325" height="525" alt="HOW THE LEAD GETS INTO A PENCIL" /> + +<div class="caption"> + +<span style="float: left; font-size: 70%;">Courtesy Joseph Dixon Crucible Co.</span> +<br /> +<br /> +HOW THE LEAD GETS INTO A PENCIL<br /> +<br /> +(1) The cedar slab. (2) Planed and grooved. (3) The leads in place. +(4) Covered with the other half of the slab. (5) The round pencils cut +out. (6) The pencil separated and smoothed. (7) The pencil varnished +and stamped. +</div> + +</div> + +<p>Such a pencil would be useful, but to sell well it must also be +pretty; and therefore it goes through machinery which makes it round +or oval or six-sided, as the case may be, rubs it smooth, and +varnishes it, and then, with gold leaf or silver leaf or aluminum or +ink, stamps upon it the name of the maker, and also a number or letter +to show how hard the lead is.</p> + +<p>The pencil is now ready for sale, but many people like to have an +eraser in the end, and this requires still more work. These erasers +are round or flat or six-sided or wedge-shaped. They are let into the +pencil itself, or into a nickel tip, or drawn over the end like a cap, +so that any one's special whim may be gratified. Indeed, however hard +to please any one may be, he ought to be able to find a pencil to suit +his taste, for a single factory in the United States makes more than +six hundred kinds of pencils, and makes so many of them that if they +were laid end to end they would reach three times across the +continent.</p> + +<p>There are many exceedingly cheap pencils, but they are expensive in +the end, because they are poorly made. The wood will often split in +sharpening, + +<!-- Page 55 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +and the lead is of poor materials so badly mixed that it +may write blacker in one place than another, and is almost sure to +break. Good pencils bearing the name of a reliable firm are cheapest.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<div> +<!-- Page 56 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +<a name="THE_DISHES_ON_OUR_TABLES" id="THE_DISHES_ON_OUR_TABLES"></a> +</div> + +<h2>VII +<br /><br /> +THE DISHES ON OUR TABLES</h2> + +<p>If any one should give you a lump of clay and ask you to make a bowl, +how should you set about it? The first thing would be, of course, to +put it on a table so you could work on it with both hands. You would +make a depression at the top and push out the sides and smooth them as +best you could. It would result in a rough, uneven sort of bowl, and +before it was done, you would have made one discovery, namely, that if +the table only turned around in front of you, you could see all sides +of the bowl from the same position, and it would be easier to make it +regular. This is just what the potter's wheel does. It is really two +horizontal wheels. The upper one is a disk a foot or two in diameter. +This is connected by a shaft with the lower one, which is much larger. +When the potter was at work at a wheel of this sort, he stood on one +foot and turned the lower wheel with the other, thus setting the upper +wheel in motion. This was called a "kick-wheel." As wheels are made +now, the potter sits at his work and turns the wheel by means of a +treadle.</p> + +<p>Almost any kind of clay will make a dish, but no one kind will make it +so well that the addition of some other kind would not improve it. +Whatever clays are chosen, they must be prepared with great care + +<!-- Page 57 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +to make sure that not one grain in them is coarser than any other. +Sometimes one will slip through, and you can see on the finished dish +what a bad-looking place it makes. Even for the coarsest earthenware, +such as flower-pots, the moist clay is forced down a cylinder and +through a wire sieve; and for stoneware and porcelain it has to go +through several processes. When flint and feldspar are used, they are +ground fine at the quarry. On reaching the factory, they are mixed +with the proper quantities of other clays—but in just what +proportions is one of the secrets of the trade. Then they go into +"plungers" or "blungers," great round tanks with arms extending from a +shaft in the center. The shaft revolves and the arms beat the clay +till all the sand and pebbles have settled on the bottom, and the fine +clay grains are floating in the water above them. These pass into +canvas bags. The water is forced out through the canvas, and on every +bag there is left a thin sheet of moist clay. If this is to be used +for the finest work, it is ground and pounded and washed still more, +until it is a wonder that any of it survives; then it is sifted +through a screen so fine that its meshes are only one one hundred and +fiftieth of an inch across. Now it becomes "slip," and after a little +more beating and tumbling about, it is ready to go to the man at the +wheel.</p> + +<p>This man is called the "thrower," because he lifts the lump of clay +above his head and throws it down heavily upon the center of the wheel. +The things that happen to that lump of clay when he touches it and + +<!-- Page 58 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +the wheel revolves seem like the work of magic. He presses his +thumbs into it from above and draws the walls up between his thumbs +and fingers. He clasps his hands around it, and it grows tall and +slender. He lays his finger on the top of the little column of clay, +and it flattens in a moment. He points his finger at it, barely +touching it, and a little groove appears, running around the whole +mass. He seems to be wasting considerable time in playing with it, but +all the while he is making sure that the clay is perfectly uniform and +that there are no bubbles of air in it. He holds a piece of leather +against the outside surface and a wet sponge against the inside, to +make them perfectly smooth; and in a moment he has made a bowl. He +holds his bent finger against the top of the bowl, and it becomes a +vase. With another touch of his magical finger the top of the vase +rolls over into a lip. If he makes a cup or a mug, he models a handle +in clay and fastens it in place with slip. When it is done, he draws a +wire deftly between the article and the table, and puts it on a board +to dry.</p> + +<p>When you watch a potter at work, it all looks so simple and easy that +you feel sure you could do it; but see how skillfully he uses his +hands, how strong they are, and yet how lithe and delicate in their +movements. See into what odd positions he sometimes stretches them; +and yet these are plainly the only positions in which they could do +their work. See how every finger does just what he wishes it to do. +Notice all these things, and you will not be so certain + +<!-- Page 59 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +that making pottery is the easiest thing in the world.</p> + +<p>No two pieces of hand work are exactly the same; and skillful as the +potter is, his pieces are not precisely alike. Many of them therefore +are passed over to the turner for finishing. He uses an ordinary +lathe, and with this he thins any place that may be a little too +thick, rounds the edge, and smooths it. The article is partly dried +when he takes it, and so its walls can be cut thinner. When it leaves +his lathe, all signs of hand work have vanished, but the dish is +exactly like the others of the set, and this is what the greater +number of people want. In some potteries there is hardly a throwing +wheel in use, and articles are formed in plaster of Paris moulds. +There are two ways of using these moulds. By one method, the mould is +put upon a "jigger," a power machine which keeps it revolving, and +clay is pressed against its walls from within. Above the mould is a +piece of iron cut in the shape of the inside curve of the bowl or +whatever is being made. This skims off all the extra clay from the +inside of the walls. Plates and saucers are made on a jigger. The +mould used for this work is a model of the top of the plate. The +workman makes a sort of pancake of clay and throws it upon the mould. +A second mould, shaped like half of the bottom of the plate, is +brought down close and revolves, cutting off all the extra clay and +shaping the bottom of the plate.</p> + +<p>When the very finest ware is to be made, the mould is used in quite +another fashion. If a pitcher, for + +<!-- Page 60 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +instance, is to be cast, the mould +is made in two sections and tied tightly together. Then the slip is +poured into it and left for a while. The plaster of Paris absorbs the +water and a layer of clay is formed all about the walls. When this is +thick enough, the liquid is poured out, and after the pitcher has +dried awhile, the mould is carefully opened and the pitcher is very +gently taken out. The handle is made in a little mould of its own and +fastened on with slip. "Eggshell" porcelain is made in this way. The +clay shell becomes smaller as it dries, so there is no trouble about +removing it from the mould—if one knows how. If a large article is to +be cast, the mould is made in sections. Of course this fine ware must +all be made by hand, especially as machines do not work well with the +finest clays; but cheap dishes are all made by machinery.</p> + +<p>After any clay article is thrown, or moulded, or cast, it is passed +through a little doorway and set upon a shelf in a great revolving +cage. The air in this cage is kept at about 85° F.; but this heat is +nothing to what is to follow; and after the articles are thoroughly +dry, they are placed in boxes of coarse fire-clay, which are called +"saggers," piled up in a kiln, the doors are closed, and the fires are +lighted. For a day and night, sometimes for two days and two nights, +the fires burn. The heat goes up to 2000° or 2500° F. Every few hours +test pieces, which were put in for this purpose, are taken out. When +they are found to be sufficiently baked, the fire-holes are bricked up +and the furnace is left for two + +<!-- Page 61 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +days longer to cool. The ware is then called "biscuit."</p> + +<p>Biscuit is dull and porous. It is soon to be glazed, but first +whatever underglaze decorating is desired may be done. Sometimes the +decorations are painted by hand, and sometimes they are printed on +thin paper, laid upon the ware, and rubbed softly till they stick +fast. After a while the paper is pulled off, but the colors remain. +Gold must be applied over the glaze, and the article fired a second +time.</p> + +<p>After this decorating, the ware is generally passed to a man who +stands before a tub of glaze, and dips in each article, though +sometimes he stands before the pieces of ware and sprays them with an +air brush. Many different kinds of glaze are used, made of ground +flint, feldspar, white clay, and other substances. Common sea salt +works exceedingly well, not in liquid form, but thrown directly into +the fire. The chief thing to look out for in making a glaze is to see +that the materials in it are so nearly like those in the ware that +they will not contract unevenly and make little cracks. This glaze is +dried in a hot room, then looked over by "trimmers," who scrape it off +from such parts as the feet of cups and plates, so that they will not +stick to the saggers in firing. Besides this, little props of burned +clay are used to hold the dishes up and keep them from touching one +another. These props have fanciful names, such as "spurs," "stilts," +"cockspurs," etc. Often you can see on the bottom of a plate the marks +made by these supports.</p> + +<div> +<!-- Page 62 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 525px;"> + +<img src="images/p62_pottery.jpg" width="525" height="410" alt="IN THE POTTERY" /> + +<span class="caption">IN THE POTTERY<br /> +<br /> +Pieces of coarse pottery being delivered to the kiln for firing.</span> + +</div> + +<p>The articles now are sent to a kiln to be fired. When they come out +there is another chance for decorating, for colors may be put on, and +another firing will make them look like underglaze painting If the +decorator wishes the ware to have the appearance of being ornamented +with masses of gold, he can trace his design in yellow paste, fire it, +cover it with gold, and fire it again. To make the "gilt-band china" +so beloved by the good housewives of the last century, the decorator +puts the plate upon a horizontal wheel, holds his brush full of gold +against it, and turns the wheel slowly. Sometimes the outlines of a +design are printed and the coloring put in by + +<!-- Page 63 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +hand. When broad bands +of color are desired to be put around a plate or other article, the +decorator sometimes brushes on an adhesive oil where the color is to +go, and paints the rest of the plate with some water-color and sugar; +then when the oil is partly dry, he dusts on the color in the form of +powder. A plunge into water will wash away the water-color and leave +the oil with the powder sticking to it. Shaded groundwork is made with +an atomizer. Indeed, there are almost as many methods of decorating +wares of clay as there are persons who work at it. The results are +what might be expected from the prices; some articles are so cheap and +gaudy that any one will soon tire of them. Others are really artistic +and will be a "joy forever"—until they break.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<div> +<!-- Page 64 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +<a name="HOW_THE_WHEELS_OF_A_WATCH_GO_AROUND" id="HOW_THE_WHEELS_OF_A_WATCH_GO_AROUND"></a> +</div> + +<h2>VIII +<br /><br /> +HOW THE WHEELS OF A WATCH GO AROUND</h2> + +<p>If an electric automobile could be charged in fifteen seconds and then +would run for forty hours without recharging, it would be looked upon +as a great wonder; but to wind a watch in fifteen seconds and have it +run for forty hours is so common that we forget what a wonder it is. +When you wind your watch, you put some of the strength of your own +right hand into it, and that is what makes it go. Every turn of the +key or the stem winds up tighter and tighter a spring from one to two +feet long, but so slender that it would take thousands to weigh a +pound. This is the main spring. It is coiled up in a cup-shaped piece +of metal called a "barrel"; and so your own energy is literally +barreled up in your watch. The outer end of this spring is held fast +by a hook on the inside of the barrel; the inner end is hooked to the +hub of a wheel which is called the "main wheel," and around this hub +the spring is coiled.</p> + +<p>This spring has three things to do. It must send the "short hand," or +hour hand, around the dial or face of the watch, once in twelve hours; +it must send the "long hand," or minute hand, around once an hour; and +it must also send the little "second hand" around its own tiny circle +once a minute. To + +<!-- Page 65 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +do this work requires four wheels. The first or +main wheel is connected with the winding arrangements, and sets in +motion the second, or center wheel, so called because it is usually in +the center of the watch. This center wheel revolves once an hour and +turns the minute hand. By a skillful arrangement of cogs it also moves +the hour hand around the dial once in twelve hours. The center wheel +moves the third wheel. The chief business of the third wheel is to +make the fourth turn in the same direction as the center wheel. The +fourth wheel revolves once a minute, and with it turns the tiny second +hand.</p> + +<p>Suppose that a watch has been made with only the main spring, the four +wheels, and the three hands, what would happen when it was wound? You +can tell very easily by winding up a mechanical mouse or a train of +cars or any other toy that goes by a spring. It will go fast at first, +then more and more slowly, then it will stop. This sort of motion +might do for a mouse, but it would not answer for a watch. A watch +must move with steadiness and regularity. To bring this about, there +is a fifth wheel. Its fifteen teeth are shaped like hooks, and it has +seven accompaniments, the balance wheel, the hair spring, and five +others. This wheel, together with its accompaniments, is able to stop +the motion of the watch five times a second and start it again so +quickly that we do not realize its having been stopped at all. A tiny +arm holds the wheel firmly, and then lets it escape. Therefore, the +fifth wheel and its accompaniments are + +<!-- Page 66 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +called the "escapement." This catching and letting go is what makes the ticking.</p> + +<p>A watch made in this way would run very well until a hot day or a cold +day came; then there would be trouble. Heat makes metals expand and +makes springs less elastic. Therefore in a hot day the watch would go +more slowly and so lose time; while in a cold day it would go too fast +and would gain time. This fault is corrected by the balance, a wheel +whose rim is not one circle, but two half-circles, and so cunningly +made that the hotter this rim grows, the smaller its diameter becomes. +In the rim of the wheel are tiny holes into which screws may be +screwed. By adding screws or taking some away, or changing the +position of some of them, the movement of the watch can be made to go +faster or slower.</p> + +<p>All this would be difficult enough to manage if a watch was as large +as a cart wheel, with wheels a foot in diameter; but it does seem a +marvel how so many kinds of wheels and screws and springs, one hundred +and fifty in all, can be put into a case sometimes not more than an +inch in diameter, and can find room to work; and it is quite as much +of a marvel how they can be manufactured and handled.</p> + +<p>Remembering how accurate every piece must be, it is no wonder that in +Switzerland, where all this work used to be done by hand, a boy had to +go to a "watch school" for fourteen years before he was considered +able to make a really fine watch. He began at the beginning and was +taught to make, first, wooden handles for his tools, then the tools +themselves, + +<!-- Page 67 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +such as files, screw drivers, etc. His next work was to +make wooden watchcases as large as dinner-plates. After this, he was +given the frame to which the various wheels of a watch are fastened +and was taught how and where to drill the holes for wheels and screws. +After lessons in making the finer tools to be used, he was allowed to +make a watch frame. All this took several years, for he had to do the +same work over and over until his teachers were satisfied with it. +Then he was promoted to the second room. Here he learned to adjust the +stem-winding parts, to do fine cutting and filing, and to make watches +that would strike the hour and even the minute. Room three was called +the "train room," because the wheels of a watch are spoken of as "the +train." The model watch in this room was as large as a saucer. The +young man had to study every detail of this, and also to learn the use +of a delicate little machine doing such fine work that it could cut +twenty-four hundred tiny cogs on one of the little wheels of a watch. +In the fourth room he learned to make the escapement wheel and some +other parts; and he had to make them, not merely passably, but +excellently. In the fifth and last room, he must do the careful, +patient work that makes a watch go perfectly. There are special little +curves that must be given to the hair spring; and the screws on the +balance wheel must be carefully adjusted. If the watch ran faster when +it was lying down than when it was hanging up, he learned that certain +ones of the bearings were too coarse and must be made + +<!-- Page 68 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +finer. In short, he must be able to make a watch that, whether hanging +up or lying down, and whether the weather was hot or cold, would not vary +from correct time more than two and a half seconds a day at the most. +Then, and not till then, was the student regarded as a first-class +watchmaker.</p> + +<p>The graduate of such a school knew how to make a whole watch, but he +usually limited his work to some one part. Every part of a watch was +made expressly for that watch, but sometimes a hundred different +persons worked on it. The very best of the Swiss watches were +exceedingly good; the poorest were very bad, and much worse to own +than a poor American watch because it costs more to repair a Swiss +watch than an American watch.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 335px;"> + +<img src="images/p68_watches.jpg" width="335" height="525" alt="WHERE WATCHES ARE MADE" /> + +<div class="caption"> + +<span style="float: left; font-size: 70%;">Courtesy Waltham Watch Co.</span> +<br /> +<br /> +WHERE WATCHES ARE MADE<br /> +<br /> +Once a single man made a whole watch by hand. Now one watch may be the +product of a hundred hands, each man doing his particular part. +</div> + +</div> + +<p>Even though in America the parts of watches are made by machinery, an +apprentice has to undergo just as careful and just as extended +training here as in Switzerland. A poor watch is worse than none at +all, and careless work would not be tolerated in any watch factory. Of +late even Switzerland has been importing American machinery in order +to compete with the United States. These machines do such careful, +minute, intricate work that, as you stand and watch them, you feel as +if they must know what they are about. One of them takes the +frame,—that is, the plates to which the wheels are fastened,—makes +it of the proper thinness, cuts the necessary holes in it, and passes +it over to the next machine, which is reaching out for it. The feeder +gives + +<!-- Page 69 --> + +<span class="nopagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> + +<!-- Page 70 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> + +the first machine another plate; and so the work goes on down +a whole line of machines. At length the plate is taken in hand by a +machine, or rather a group of machines, which can do almost anything. +Before they let it go, they actually perform one hundred and forty-two +different operations, each bringing it nearer completion. These +machines are automatic, but nevertheless they must be constantly +watched by expert machinists to keep them in order and make sure of +their turning out perfect work.</p> + +<p>While one line of machines has been perfecting the plate, others have +been at work on screws and wheels and springs. As many of these as are +needed for one watch are put into a little division of a tray and +carried to another room for its jewels and the rest of its outfit. The +jewels, which are pieces of rubies, sapphires, garnets, or even +diamonds, are very valuable to a watch. When you know that the little +wheels are in constant motion, and that the balance wheel, for +instance, vibrates eighteen thousand times an hour, it is plain that a +vast amount of wear comes upon the spot where the pivots of these +wheels rest. No metal can be made smooth enough to prevent friction, +and there is no metal hard enough to prevent wear. The "jewels" are +smoother and harder. They are sawed into slabs so thin that fifty of +them piled up would measure only an inch. These are stuck to blocks to +be polished, cut into disks flat on one side but with a little +depression on the other to receive oil, bored through the center, and +placed wherever the wear is greatest—provided + +<!-- Page 71 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +the purchaser is +willing to pay for them. A "full-jeweled" watch contains twenty-three +jewels; that is, in twenty-three of the places where the most severe +wear comes, or where friction might prevent the watch from going with +perfect smoothness, there will be practically no wear and no friction. +A low-priced watch contains only seven jewels, but if you want a watch +to last, it pays to buy one that is full-jeweled.</p> + +<p>And now these plates and wheels and screws are to be put together, or +"assembled," as this work is called. This is a simple matter just as +soon as one has learned where the different parts belong, for they are +made by machinery and are sure to fit. After the assembling comes the +adjusting of the balance wheel and the hair spring. There is nothing +simple about this work, for the tiny screws with the large heads must +be put into the rim of the balance wheel with the utmost care, or else +all the other work will be useless, and the watch will not be a +perfect time keeper; that is, one that neither loses nor gains more +than thirty seconds a month.</p> + +<p>It is said that the earliest watches made in Europe cost fifteen +hundred dollars and took a year to make. There has always been a +demand for a cheap pocket timepiece, and of late this demand has been +satisfied by the manufacture of the "dollar watch." Properly speaking, +this is not a watch at all, but a small spring clock. It has no +jewels, and its parts are stamped out of sheets of brass or steel by +machinery. The hair springs are made in coils of eight and then +broken + +<!-- Page 72 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +apart; and the main springs are made by the mile. Twenty holes +are drilled at a time, and the factory in which "dollar watches" were +first manufactured is now able to turn out fifteen thousand a day.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<div> +<!-- Page 73 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> +<a name="THE_MAKING_OF_SHOES" id="THE_MAKING_OF_SHOES"></a> +</div> + +<h2>IX +<br /><br /> +THE MAKING OF SHOES</h2> + +<p>Did you ever stop to think how many different qualities you expect in +a shoe? You want the sole to be hard and firm so as to protect your +feet in rough walking; and also soft and yielding so as to feel +springy and not board-like. You want the upper leather to keep the +cold air from coming in; and also porous enough to let the +perspiration out. Your feet are not exactly like those of any one +else; and yet you expect to find at any shoe store a comfortable shoe +ready-made. You expect that shoe to come close to your foot, and yet +allow you to move it with perfect freedom. You expect all these good +qualities, and what is more remarkable, it does not seem difficult for +most people to get them. There is an old saying, "To him who wears +shoes, the whole earth is covered with leather"; and although many +different materials have been tried in shoemaking, leather is the only +one that has proved satisfactory, for the sole of the shoe at least. +Of late, however, rubber and rubber combinations and felts and felt +combinations have been used.</p> + +<p>Most hides of which soles are made come from the large beef +packing-houses or from South America. Goatskins come from Africa and +India. The greater part of a hide is made up of a sort of gelatine. +This easily + +<!-- Page 74 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +spoils, and therefore it has to be "tanned"; that is, +soaked in tannin and water. When a man set out to build a tannery, he +used to go into the woods where he could be sure of enough oak trees +to supply him for many years with the bark from which tannin is made; +but it has been found that the bark of several other kinds of trees, +such as larch, chestnut, spruce, pine, and hemlock, will tan as well +as that of oak. Tannin is now prepared in the forest and brought to +the tanners, who put their tanneries where they please, usually near +some large city. The hides are first soaked in water, and every +particle of flesh is scraped away. They are laid in heaps for a while, +then hung in a warm room till the hair loosens and can be easily +removed, then soaked in tannic extract and water. The tannin unites +with the gelatine; and thus the hide becomes leather. This process +requires several months. Hides are also tanned by the use of +chemicals, in what is called "chrome" tanning. This process requires +only a few hours, but it is expensive.</p> + +<p>In earlier times the shoemaker used to go from house to house with his +lapstone, waxed end, awl, and other tools. The farmer provided the +leather, which he had tanned from the hides of his own cattle. Now, +however, manufacturers can buy the soles of one merchant, the heels of +another, the box toe and stiffenings of another, and so on. In the +United States there are many factories which do nothing but cut soles, +or rather stamp them out with dies, a hundred or more in a minute. +These soles and also the less + +<!-- Page 75 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +heavy inner soles go through machines +that make all parts of them of a uniform thickness. The traveling +shoemaker always hammered his sole leather to make it wear better; but +now a moment between very heavy rollers answers the same purpose. +Another machine splits the inner sole for perhaps a quarter of an inch +all the way around, and thus makes a little lip to which to sew the +welt. A number of layers or "lifts" of leather are cemented together +for the heel, and are put under heavy pressure.</p> + +<p>The upper parts of a shoe, the "uppers," as they are called, are the +vamp or front of the shoe, the top, the tip, and (in a laced shoe) the +tongue. Nearly all the upper leather that shows when a shoe is on is +made from the hides of cattle, calves, goats, and sheep; but besides +the parts that show there are stiffeners for the box toe and the +counters to support the quarters over the heel; there are linings, and +many other necessary "findings," forty-four parts in all in an +ordinary shoe. Much experimenting and more thinking have gone into +every one of these forty-four parts; and much remembering that shoes +have harder wear than anything else in one's wardrobe. The cotton +linings, for instance, must be woven in a special way in order to make +them last and not "rub up" when they are wet with water or +perspiration. They are bleached with the utmost care not to weaken +them, and they are singed between red-hot copper plates to remove all +the nap.</p> + +<div> +<!-- Page 76 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>Then, too, a good deal of metal is used in making a shoe, not only the +ornamental buckles on dress shoes and the heavy, useful buckles on +storm boots, but various pieces that help to make the shoe strong and +enduring. There are nails, shanks to strengthen the arch of the shoe, +metal shanks to the buttons, and eyelets. Not many years ago, eyelets +soon wore brassy, and then the shoe looked old and cheap. They are now +enameled, or the top of them is made of celluloid in a color to match +the shoe. The tags on lacings and the hooks for holding lacings are +also enameled. A "box-toe gum" is used to support the box-toe +stiffening. Cement covers the stitches; and many sorts of blacking are +used in finishing the work. It is by no means a simple operation to +make a pair of shoes.</p> + +<p>At a busy shoe factory it is always "tag day," for when an order is +received, the first step in filling it is to make out a tag or form +stating how the shoe is to be made up and when it is to be finished. +These records are preserved, and if a customer writes, "Send me 100 +pairs of shoes like those ordered October 10, 1910," the manufacturer +has only to read the record in order to know exactly what is wanted.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 335px;"> + +<img src="images/p76_shoe_pulling.jpg" width="335" height="525" alt="THE GOODYEAR PULLING-OVER MACHINE" /> + +<div class="caption"> + +<span style="float: left; font-size: 70%;">Courtesy United Shoe Mchy. Co.</span> +<br /> +<br /> +THE GOODYEAR PULLING-OVER MACHINE<br /> +<br /> +This machine cost $1,500,000 and five years of experiment to perfect. +It shapes the forepart of the upper of a shoe over a wooden last. +</div> + +</div> + +<p>Next, the leather is selected, first grade or second grade, according +to the price to be paid. The patterns for the uppers are now brought +into play—and, by the way, it is no small matter to prepare the +hundreds of patterns needed for a new line of shoes in all the +different widths and sizes. In some factories + +<!-- Page 77 --> + +<span class="nopagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> + +<!-- Page 78 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> + +the cutting is done by +machinery; in others the "upper cutter" lays the leather on a block +and cuts around the pattern with a small but very sharp knife. It +needs skill and judgment to be a cutter; for a careless workman can +easily waste the skins badly by not laying the patterns on to the best +advantage. While this work is going on, the linings, trimmings, soles, +and other parts are also being prepared, and all these many pieces now +meet in the "stitching-room." At the first glance, it does not seem as +if the right ones could ever come together, even though they are +marked, and sometimes it does happen that a 4a vamp, for instance, is +put with 5a quarters, and nobody knows the difference until the +experienced eye of the foreman notices that something is wrong with +the shoe. The uppers of the shoe are now stitched up, and after a +careful inspection, they are sent on to the "lasting-room." The "last" +of the earlier times was roughly whittled out, and it was the same for +both feet; but the last of to-day is almost a work of art, so +carefully is it made and polished. The shoe manufacturers jokingly +declare that lasts must be changed three times a day in order to keep +up with the fashions. Feet do not change in form, save when they have +been distorted by badly shaped shoes; but in spite of this, people +insist upon having their shoes long and narrow, or short and wide, +with high heels or with low heels, with broad toes or with pointed +toes, as the whim of the moment may be. It really is a big problem for +the shoe manufacturers to suit people's + +<!-- Page 79 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +fancies and yet give them +some degree of comfort.</p> + +<p>While the uppers are being stitched, the soles and inner soles and +counters have been made ready and brought to the lasting-room. The toe +stiffeners and also the counters are now cemented into their places. +The inner sole is tacked to the last, and the uppers are put in place +and held there by a tack at the heel. This is done by machines; but +their working is simple compared with that of the machine which now +takes charge of the half-made shoe. This machine puts out sturdy +little pincers which seize the edge of the uppers, pull it smoothly +and evenly into place, and drive a tack far enough in to keep it from +slipping. Now comes the welting. A welt is a narrow strip of leather +which is sewed to the lower edge of the upper all the way around the +shoe except at the heel. This brings the upper, the lip of the inner +sole, and the welt together. The inside of the shoe is now smooth and +even, but around the outside of the sole is the ridge made by the welt +and the sewing, and within the ridge a depression that must be filled +up. Tarred paper or cork in a sort of cement are used for this. The +shank is fastened into its place and the welt made smooth and even. +The outer sole is coated with rubber cement, put into position under +heavy pressure to shape it exactly like the sole of the last, and then +sewed to the welt. If it was not for the welt, the outer sole would +have to be sewed directly to the inner sole. The nailing and pegging +of the old-fashioned shoemaker + +<!-- Page 80 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +are also reproduced by the modern machine.</p> + +<p>The shoe is still open at the heel; but now the heel parts of both +sole and uppers are fastened together; the edges have been nicely +trimmed, and next the heels are nailed to the shoe by another machine +which does the work at a blow, leaving the nails standing out a little +below the lowest lift. Another lift is forced upon these; and that is +why the heel of a new shoe shows no signs of nails. The heel is +trimmed, and then come the final sandpapering and blackening. The +bottom of a new shoe has a peculiar soft, velvety appearance and +feeling; and this is produced by rubbing it with fine emery paper +fastened upon a little rubber pad. A stamping-machine marks the sole +with the name of the manufacturer. Last of all, the shoe is put upon a +treeing machine, where an iron foot stretches it into precisely the +shape of the wooden last on which it was made.</p> + +<p>This is the method by which large numbers of shoes are made, but there +are many details which differ. Laced shoes must have tongues as well +as eyelets, while buttoned shoes must have buttons and buttonholes. +"Turned" shoes have no inner sole, but uppers and outer sole are sewed +together wrong side out and then turned. In shoemaking, as in all +other business, if a manufacturer is to succeed, he must see that +there is no waste. He has of course no use for a careless cutter, who +would perhaps waste large pieces of leather; but even the tiniest +scraps + +<!-- Page 81 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +are of value for some purpose. They can be treated with +chemicals, softened by boiling, and pressed into boards or other +articles or made into floor coverings. At any rate, they must be used +for something. No business is small enough or large enough to endure +waste.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<div> +<!-- Page 82 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +<a name="IN_THE_COTTON_MILL" id="IN_THE_COTTON_MILL"></a> +</div> + +<h2>X +<br /><br /> +IN THE COTTON MILL</h2> + +<p>If you ravel a bit of cotton cloth, you will find that it is made up +of tiny threads, some going up and down, and others going from right +to left. These threads are remarkably strong for their size. Look at +one under a magnifying glass, in a brilliant light, and you will see +that the little fibers of which it is made shine almost like glass. +Examine it more closely, and you will see that it is twisted. Break +it, and you will find that it does not break off sharp, but rather +pulls apart, leaving many fibers standing out from both ends.</p> + +<p>Cotton comes to the factory tightly pressed in bales, and the work of +the manufacturer is to make it into these little threads. The bales +are big, weighing four or five hundred pounds apiece. They are +generally somewhat ragged, for they are done up in coarse, heavy jute. +The first glance at an opened cotton bale is a little discouraging, +for it is not perfectly clean by any means. Bits of leaves and stems +are mixed in with the cotton, and even some of the smaller seeds which +have slipped through the gin. There is dust, and plenty of it, that +the coarse burlap has not kept out. The first thing to do is to loosen +the cotton and make it clean. Great armfuls are thrown into a machine +called a "bale-breaker." Rollers with spikes, blunt so as not to +injure the fiber, + +<!-- Page 83 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +catch it up and tear the lumps to pieces, and +"beaters" toss it into a light, foamy mass. Something else happens to +the cotton while it is in the machine, for a current of air is passing +through it all the while, and this blows out the dust and bits of +rubbish. This current is controlled like the draft of a stove, and it +is allowed to be just strong enough to draw the cotton away from the +beater when it has become light and open, leaving the harder masses +for more beating. When it comes out of the opener, it is in sheets or +"laps" three or four feet wide and only half an inch thick. They are +white and fleecy and almost cloudlike; and so thin that any sand or +broken leaves still remaining will drop out of their own weight.</p> + +<p>In this work the manufacturer has been aiming, not only at cleaning +the cotton and making it fluffy, but also at mixing it. There are many +sorts of cotton, some of longer or finer or more curly or stronger +fiber than others, some white and some tinged with color; but the +cloth woven of cotton must be uniform; therefore all these kinds must +be thoroughly mixed. Even the tossing and turning and beating that it +has already received is not enough, and it has to go into a +"scutcher," three or four laps at a time, one on top of another, to +have still more beating and dusting. When it comes out, it is in a +long roll or sheet, so even that any yard of it will weigh very nearly +the same as any other yard. The fibers, however, are lying "every +which way," and before they can be drawn out into thread, they must be +made to lie + +<!-- Page 84 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +parallel. This is brought about in part by carding. When +people used to spin and weave in their own houses, they used "hand +cards." These were somewhat like brushes for the hair, but instead of +bristles they had wires shaped much as if wire hairpins had been bent +twice and put through leather in such a way as to form hooks on one +side of it. This leather was then nailed to a wooden back and a handle +added. The carder took one card in each hand, and with the hooks +pointing opposite ways brushed the cotton between them, thus making +the fibers lie parallel. This is just what is done in a mill, only by +machinery, of course. Instead of the little hand cards, there are +great cylinders covered with what is called "card clothing"; that is, +canvas bristling with the bent wires, six or seven hundred to the +square inch. This takes the place of one card. The place of the other +is filled by what are called "flats," or narrow bars of iron covered +with card clothing. The cylinders move rapidly, the flats slowly, and +the cotton passes between them. It comes out in a dainty white film +not so very much heavier than a spider's web, and so beautifully white +and shining that it does not seem as if the big, oily, noisy machines +could ever have produced it. In a moment, however, it is gone +somewhere into the depths of the machine. We have seen the last of the +fleecy sheet, for the machinery narrows it and rounds it, and when it +comes into sight again, it looks like a soft round cord about an inch +thick, and is coiled up in cans nearly a yard high. This cord is +called "sliver."</p> + +<div> +<!-- Page 85 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> + +<img src="images/p85_cotton_sliver.jpg" width="500" height="365" alt="Cotton Sliver" /> + +<img src="images/p85_cotton_roving.jpg" width="500" height="385" alt="Cotton Roving" /> + +<span class="caption">IN A COTTON MILL<br /> +<br /> +The "sliver" coming through the machine, and the "roving" being +twisted and wound on bobbins.</span> + +</div> + +<div> +<!-- Page 86 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>The sliver is not uniform; even now its fibers are not entirely +parallel, and it is as weak as wet tissue paper. It now pays a visit +to the "drawing-frame." Four or six slivers are put together and run +through this frame. They go between four pairs of rollers, the first +pair moving slowly, the others more rapidly. The slow pair hold the +slivers back, while the fast one pull them on. The result is that when +the sliver comes out from the rollers, its fibers are much straighter. +This process is repeated several times; and at last when the final +sliver comes out, although it looks almost the same as when it came +from the carding-machine, its fibers are parallel. It is much more +uniform, but it is very fragile, and still has to be handled with +great care. It is not nearly strong enough to be twisted into thread; +and before this can be done, it must pass through three other +machines. The first, or "slubber," gives it a very slight twist, just +enough to suggest what is coming later, and of course in doing this +makes it smaller. The cotton changes its name at every operation, and +now it is called "roving." It has taken one long step forward, for now +it is not coiled up in cans, but is wound on "bobbins," or great +spools. The second machine, the "intermediate speeder," twists it a +very little more and winds it on fresh bobbins. It also puts two +rovings together, so that if one happens to be thin in one place, +there is a chance for it to be strengthened by a thicker place in the +other. The third machine, the "fine speeder," simply makes a finer +roving.</p> + +<div> +<!-- Page 87 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>All this work must be done merely to prepare the raw cotton to be +twisted into the tiny threads that you see by raveling a piece of +cotton cloth. Now comes the actual twisting. If you fasten one end of +a very soft string and twist the other and wind it on a spool, you +will get a spool of finer, stronger, and harder-twisted string than +you had at first. This is exactly what the "ring-spinner" does. +Imagine a bobbin full of roving standing on a frame. Down below it are +some rolls between which the thread from the bobbin passes to a second +bobbin which is fast on a spindle. Around this spindle is the +"spinning-ring," a ring which is made to whirl around by an endless +belt. This whirling twists the thread, and another part of the machine +winds it upon the second bobbin. Hundreds of these ring-spinners and +bobbins are on a single "spinning-frame" and accomplish a great deal +in a very short time. The threads that are to be used for the "weft" +or "filling" go directly into the shuttles of the weavers after being +spun; but those which are to be used for "warp" are wound first on +spools, then on beams to go into the loom.</p> + +<p>Little children weave together strips of paper, straws, and +splints,—"over one, under one,"—and the weaving of plain cotton +cloth is in principle nothing more than this. The first thing to do in +weaving is to stretch out the warp evenly. This warp is simply many +hundreds of tiny threads as long as the cloth is to be, sometimes +forty or fifty yards. They must be stretched out side by side and close + +<!-- Page 88 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +together. To make them regular, they are passed between the +teeth of a sort of upright comb; then they are wound upon the loom +beam, a horizontal beam at the back of the loom. Here they are as +close together as they will be in the cloth. With a magnifying glass +it is easy to count the threads of the warp in an inch of cloth. Some +kinds of cloth have a hundred or even more to the inch. In order to +make cloth, the weaver must manage in some way to lower every other +one of these little threads and run his shuttle over them, as the +children do the strips of paper in their paper weaving. Then he must +lower the other set and run the shuttle over <i>them</i>. "Drawing in" +makes this possible. After the threads leave the beam, they are drawn +through the "harnesses." These are hanging frames, one in front of the +other, filled with stiff, perpendicular threads or wires drawn tight, +and with an eye in each thread. Through these eyes the threads of the +warp are drawn, the odd ones through one, and the even through the +other. Then, keeping the threads in the same order, they pass through +the teeth of a "reed,"—that is, a hanging frame shaped like a great +comb as long as the loom is wide; and last, they are fastened to the +"front beam," which runs in front of the weaver's seat and on which +the cloth is to be rolled when it has been woven. Each harness is +connected with a treadle. The weaver puts his foot on the treadle of +the odd threads and presses them down. Then he sends his shuttle, +containing a bobbin full of thread, sliding across over the odd +threads and + +<!-- Page 89 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +under the even. He puts his foot on the treadle of the +even threads and sends the shuttle back over the even and under the +odd. At each trip of the shuttle, the heavy reed is drawn back toward +the weaver to push the last thread of the woof or filling firmly into +place.</p> + +<p>This is the way cloth is woven in the hand looms which used to be in +every household. The power loom used in factories is, even in its +simplest form, a complicated machine; but its principle is exactly the +same. If colors are to be used, great care is needed in arranging warp +and woof. If you ravel a piece of checked gingham, you will see that +half the warp is white and half colored; and that in putting in the +woof or filling, a certain number of the threads are white and an +equal number are colored. If you look closely at the weaving of a +tablecloth, you will see that the satin-like figures are woven by +bringing the filling thread not "over one and under one," but often +over two or three and under one. In drilling or any other twilled +goods, several harnesses have to be used because the warp thread is +not lowered directly in line with the one preceding, but diagonally. +Such work as this used to require a vast amount of skill and patience; +but the famous Jacquard machine will do it with ease, and will do more +complicated weaving than any one ever dreamed of before its invention, +for it will weave not only regular figures extending across the cloth, +but can be made to introduce clusters of flowers, a figure, or a face +wherever it is desired. By the aid of this, every + +<!-- Page 90 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +little warp thread +or cluster of threads can be lifted by its own hooked wire without +interfering with any other thread. Cards of paper or thin metal are +made for each pattern, leaving a hole wherever the hook is to slip +through and lift up a thread. After the cards are once made, the work +is as easy as plain weaving; but there must be a separate card for +every thread of filling in the pattern, and sometimes a single design +has required as many as thirty thousand pattern cards.</p> + +<p>The machines in a cotton mill are the result of experimenting, lasting +through many years. They do not seem quite so "human" as those which +help to carry on some parts of other manufactures; but they are +wonderfully ingenious. For instance, the sliver is so light that it +seems to have hardly any weight, but it balances a tiny support. If +the sliver breaks, the support falls, and this stops the machine. +Again, if one of the threads of the warp breaks when it is being wound +on the beam, a slender bent wire that has been hung on it falls. It +drops between two rollers and stops them. Then the workman knows that +something is wrong, and a glance will show where attention is needed. +Success in a cotton mill demands constant attention to details. A mill +manager who has been very successful has given to those of less +experience some wise directions about running a mill. For one thing, +he reminds them that building is expensive and that floor space +counts. If by rearranging looms space can be made for more spindles, +it is well worth while to rearrange. He tells + +<!-- Page 91 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +them to study their +machines and see whether they are working so slowly that they cannot +do as much as possible, or so fast as to strain the work. He bids them +to keep their gearings clean, to be clear and definite in their +orders, and to read the trade papers; but above everything else to +look out for the little things, a little leak in the mill dam, a +little too much tightness in a belt, or the idleness of just one +spindle. Herein lies, he says, one of the great differences between a +successful and an unsuccessful superintendent.</p> + +<p>Weaving as practiced in factories is a complicated business; but +whether it is done with a simple hand loom in a cottage or with a big +power loom in a great factory, there are always three movements. One +separates the warp threads; one drives the shuttle between them; and +one swings the reed against the filling thread just put in.</p> + +<hr class="major" /> + +<div> +<!-- Page 92 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +<a name="SILKWORMS_AND_THEIR_WORK" id="SILKWORMS_AND_THEIR_WORK"></a> +</div> + +<h2>XI +<br /><br /> +SILKWORMS AND THEIR WORK</h2> + +<p>About silk there is something particularly agreeable. There are few +people who do not like the sheen of a soft silk, the sparkle of light +on a "taffeta," and the richness of the silk that "can stand alone." +Its delicate rustle is charming, and the "feel" of it is a delight. It +has not the chill of linen, the deadness of cotton, or the +"scratchiness" of woolen. It pleases the eye, the ear, and the touch.</p> + +<p>The caterpillars of a few butterflies and of many moths are spinners +of fibers similar to silk. Among these last is the beautiful +pale-green lunar moth. Spiders spin a lustrous fiber, and it is said +that a lover of spiders succeeded, by a good deal of petting and +attention, in getting considerable material from a company of them. +Silkworms, however, are the only providers of real silk for the world. +Once in a while glowing accounts are published of the ease with which +they can be raised and the amount of money which can be made from them +with very small capital. This business, however, like all other kinds +of business, requires close attention and skill if it is to be a +success. An expert has said that it needs more time to build a spool +of silk than a locomotive.</p> + +<p>The way to begin to raise silkworms is first of all to provide +something for them to eat. They are very + +<!-- Page 93 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +particular about their bill +of fare. The leaf of the osage orange will answer, but they like much +better the leaf of the white mulberry. Then send to a reliable dealer +for a quarter of an ounce of silkworm eggs. That sounds like a small +order, but it will bring you nine or ten thousand eggs, ready to +become sturdy little silkworms if all goes well with them. Put them on +a table with a top of wire netting covered with brown paper, and keep +them comfortably warm. In a week or two, there will appear some little +worms about an eighth of an inch long and covered with black hairs. +These tiny worms have to become three inches or more in length, and +they are expected to accomplish the feat in about a month. If a boy +four feet tall should grow at the silkworm's rate for one month, he +would become forty-eight feet tall. It is no wonder that the worms +have to make a business of eating, or that the keeper has to make a +business of providing them with food. They eat most of the time, and +they make a queer little crackling sound while they are about it. They +have from four to eight meals a day of mulberry leaves. The worms from +a quarter of an ounce of eggs begin with one pound a day, and work up +to between forty and fifty. Silkworms like plenty of fresh air, and if +they are to thrive, their table must be kept clean. A good way to +manage this is to put over them paper full of holes large enough for +them to climb through. Lay the leaves upon the paper; the worms will +come up through the holes to eat, and the litter on their table can be +cleared away. As + +<!-- Page 94 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +the worms grow larger, the holes must be made +larger. It is no wonder that their skins soon become too tight for +them. They actually lose their appetite for a day or two, and they +slip away to some quiet corner under the leaves, and plainly wish +there were no other worms to bother them. Soon the skin comes off, and +they make up for lost time so energetically that they have to drop +their tight skins three times more before they are fully grown. Wet +mulberry leaves must not be given them, or they will become sick and +die, and there will be an end of the silkworm business from that +quarter-ounce of eggs. They must have plenty of room on their table as +well as in their skins. At first a tray or table two feet long and a +little more than one foot wide will be large enough; but when they are +full-grown, they will need about eighty square feet of table or +shelves. At spinning time, even this will not be enough.</p> + +<p>After the worms have shed their skins four times and then eaten as +much as they possibly can for eight or ten days, they begin to feel as +if they had had enough. They now eat very little and really become +smaller. They are restless and wander about. Now and then they throw +out threads of silk as fine as a spider's web. They know exactly what +they want; each little worm wants to make a cocoon, and all they ask +of you is to give them the right sort of place to make it in. When +they live out of doors in freedom, they fasten their cocoons to twigs; +and if you wish to give them what they like best, get plenty of dry +twigs and weave them together in arches standing + +<!-- Page 95 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +over the shelves. +Pretty soon you will see one worm after another climb up the twigs and +select a place for its cocoon. Before long it throws out threads from +its spinneret, a tiny opening near the mouth, and makes a kind of net +to support the cocoon which it is about to weave.</p> + +<p>The silkworm may have seemed greedy, but he did not eat one leaf too +much for the task that lies before him. There is nothing lazy about +him; and now he works with all his might, making his cocoon. He begins +at the outside and shapes it like a particularly plump peanut of a +clear, pale yellow. The silk is stiffened with a sort of gum as it +comes out of the spinneret. The busy little worm works away, laying +its threads in place in the form of a figure eight. For some time the +cocoon is so thin that one can watch him. It is calculated that his +tiny head makes sixty-nine movements every minute.</p> + +<p>The covering grows thicker and the room for the silkworm grows +smaller. After about seventy-two hours, put your ear to the cocoon, +and if all is quiet within, it is completed and the worm is shut up +within it. Strange things happen to him while he sleeps in the quiet +of his silken bed, for he becomes a dry brown chrysalis without head +or feet. Then other things even more marvelous come to pass, for in +about three weeks the little creature pushes the threads apart at one +end of the cocoon and comes out, not a silkworm at all, but a moth +with head and wings and legs and eyes. This moth lays hundreds of +eggs, and in less than three weeks it dies.</p> + +<div> +<!-- Page 96 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>This is what the silkworm will do if it is left alone; but it is the +business of the silk-raiser to see that it is not left alone. About +eight days after the cocoon is begun, it is steamed or baked to kill +the chrysalis so that it cannot make its way out and so spoil the +silk. The quarter of an ounce of eggs will make about thirty pounds of +cocoons. Now is the time to be specially watchful, for there is +nothing in which rats and mice so delight as a plump, sweet chrysalis; +and they care nothing whatever for the three or four thousand yards of +silk that is wound about each one.</p> + +<p>To take this silk off is a delicate piece of work. A single fiber is +not much larger than the thread of a cobweb, and before the silk can +be used, several threads must be united in one. First, the cocoon is +soaked in warm water to loosen the gum that the worm used to stick its +threads together. Ends of silk from half a dozen or more cocoons are +brought together, run through a little hole in a guide, and wound on a +reel as one thread. This needs skill and practice, for the reeled silk +must be kept of the same size. The cocoon thread is so slender that, +of course, it breaks very easily; and when this happens, another +thread must be pieced on. Then, too, the inner silk of the cocoon is +finer than the outer; so unless care is taken to add threads, the +reeled silk will be irregular. The water must also be kept just warm +enough to soften the gum, but not too hot.</p> + +<p>The silk is taken off the reel, and the skeins are packed up in bales +as if it were of no more value than + +<!-- Page 97 --> + +<span class="nopagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> + +<!-- Page 98 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> + +cotton. Indeed, it does not look +nearly so pretty and attractive as a lap of pure white cotton, for it +is stiff and gummy and has hardly any luster. Now it is sent to the +manufacturer. It is soaked in hot soapy water for several hours, and +it is drawn between plates so close together that, while they allow +the silk to go through, they will not permit the least bit of +roughness or dirt to pass. If the thread breaks, a tiny "faller," such +as are used in cotton mills, falls down and stops the machine. The +silk must now be twisted, subjected to two or three processes to +increase its luster, and dyed,—and if you would like to feel as if +you were paying a visit to a rainbow, go into a mill and watch the +looms with their smooth, brilliant silks of all the colors that can be +imagined. After the silk is woven, it is polished on lustering +machines, singed to destroy all bits of free fibers or lint, freed of +all threads that may project, and scoured if it is of a light color; +then sold.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;"> + +<div class="center" style="font-size: 80%; padding-bottom: 1em;"> +<a href="images/p98_spun_silk_big.jpg">Click here to see a larger version of this photo.</a> +</div> + +<img src="images/p98_spun_silk.jpg" width="440" height="525" alt="HOW SPUN SILK IS MADE" /> + +<div class="caption" > +<span style="float: left;">Courtesy Cheney Bros.</span> +<br /> +<br /> +HOW SPUN SILK IS MADE<br /> +<br /> +Every manufacturer saves everything he can, and even the waste silk +which cannot be wound on reels is turned into a salable product +</div> + +</div> + +<p>The moth whose cocoon provides most of our silk is called the "bombyx +mori." There are others, however, and from some of these tussah silk, +Yamamai, and Shantung pongee are woven. These wild moths produce a +stronger thread, but it is much less smooth than that of the bombyx.</p> + +<p>There is also a great amount of "wood silk," or artificial silk, on +the market. To make this, wood pulp is dissolved in ether and squirted +through fine jets into water. It is soon hard enough to be twisted +into threads and woven. It makes an imitation of silk, bright and +lustrous, but not wearing so well as the + +<!-- Page 99 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +silk of the silkworm. +Nevertheless, for many purposes it is used as a substitute for silk, +and many braids and passementeries are made of it. Then, too, there +are the "mercerized" goods, which often closely resemble real silk, +although there is not a thread of silk in them. It was discovered many +years ago that if a piece of cotton cloth was boiled in caustic soda, +it would become soft and thick and better able to receive delicate +dyes. Unfortunately, it also shrank badly. At length it occurred to +some one that the cloth might be kept from shrinking by being +stretched out during the boiling in soda. He was delighted to find +that this process made it more brilliant than many silks.</p> + +<p>The threads that fasten the cocoon to the bush and those in the heart +of the cocoon are often used, together with the fiber from any cocoons +through which the worms have made their way out. This is real silk, of +course, but it is made of short fibers which cannot be wound. It is +carded and spun and made into fabric called "spun silk," which is used +extensively for the heavier classes of goods. Then, too, silks are +often "weighted"; that is, just before they are dyed, salts of iron or +tin are added. One pound of silk will absorb two or three pounds of +these chemicals, and will apparently be a heavy silk, while it is +really thin and poor. Moreover, this metallic weighting rubs against +the silk fiber and mysterious holes soon begin to appear. A wise "dry +cleaner" will have nothing to do with such silks, lest he should be +held responsible for these holes. It + +<!-- Page 100 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +is this weighting which produces +the peculiar rustle of taffeta; and if women would be satisfied with a +taffeta that was soft and thin, the manufacturers would gladly leave +out the salts of iron, and the silks would wear much better. Cotton is +seldom mixed with the silk warp thread; but it is used as "filling" in +a large class of goods with silk warp. The custom has arisen of +advertising such goods as "silk," which of course is not a fair +description of them. Advertisements sometimes give notice of amazing +sales of "Shantung pongee," which has been made in American looms and +is a very different article from the imported "wild silk" pongee.</p> + +<p>With so many shams in the market, how is a woman to know what she is +buying and whether it will wear? There are a few simple tests that are +helpful. Ravel a piece of silk and examine the warp and woof. If they +are of nearly the same size, the silk is not so likely to split. See +how strong the thread is. Burn a thread. If it burns with a little +flame, it is cotton. If it curls up and smells like burning wool, it +is probably silk. Another test by fire is to burn a piece of the +goods. If it is silk, it will curl up; if it is heavily weighted, it +will keep its shape. If you boil a sample in caustic potash, all the +silk in it will dissolve, but the cotton will remain. If the whole +sample disappears, you may be sure that it was all silk. Soft, finely +woven silks are safest because they will not hold so much weighting. +Crêpe de chine is made of a hard twisted thread and therefore wears +well. Taffeta can carry a large amount of weighting, + +<!-- Page 101 --> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +and is always +doubtful; it may wear well, and it may not. There is always a reason +for a bargain sale of silks. The store may wish to clear out a +collection of remnants or to get rid of a line of goods which are no +longer to be carried; but aside from this, there is usually some +defect in the goods themselves or else they have failed to please the +fashionable whim of the moment. Silk is always silk, and if you want +it, you must pay for it.</p> + +<div class="tnote"> + +<h3>Transcriber's Note</h3> + +<p>Some illustrations have been moved from their original locations +to paragraph breaks, so as to be nearer to their corresponding text, +or for ease of document navigation.</p> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Makers of Many Things, by Eva March Tappan + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAKERS OF MANY THINGS *** + +***** This file should be named 28569-h.htm or 28569-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/8/5/6/28569/ + +Produced by C. 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