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diff --git a/29197-8.txt b/29197-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ecd746c --- /dev/null +++ b/29197-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4568 @@ +Project Gutenberg's A Short History of Spain, by Mary Platt Parmele + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Short History of Spain + +Author: Mary Platt Parmele + +Release Date: June 21, 2009 [EBook #29197] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SHORT HISTORY OF SPAIN *** + + + + +Produced by Alison Hadwin and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +[Transcriber's Note: Original spellings have been retained, including +those that are inconsistent within the document. An error in the Table +of Contents has been corrected from page 154 to page 156.] + + + + + A SHORT HISTORY OF + SPAIN + + BY + + MARY PLATT PARMELE + + ILLUSTRATED + + NEW YORK + CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS + 1906 + + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1898, BY + MARY PLATT PARMELE + + + COPYRIGHT, 1898, 1906, BY + CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS + +[Illustration: From the portrait by Titian. + Charles V.] + + + + +PREFACE. + + +In presenting this book to the public the author can only reiterate +what she has already said in works of a similar kind: that she has +tried to exclude the mass of confusing details which often make the +reading of history a dreary task; and to keep closely to those facts +which are vital to the unfolding of the narrative. This is done under +a strong conviction that the essential facts in history are those +which reveal and explain the development of a nation, rather than +the incidents, more or less entertaining, which have attended such +development. And also under another conviction: that a little, +thoroughly comprehended, is better than much imperfectly remembered +and understood. + +M.P.P + +NEW YORK. _June 15, 1898._ + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + CHAPTER I. + Ancient Iberia--The Basques--The Keltberians--The + Phenicians--Cadiz Founded, 1 + + CHAPTER II. + Struggle between Phenicians and Assyrians--Founding + of Carthage--Decline of Phenicia--Rise + of Roman Power--First Punic War, 9 + + CHAPTER III. + Hamilcar--Hannibal--Siege and Fall of Saguntum--Rome + Invades Spain--Scipio's Policy--Cadiz, + (Gades) Surrendered to the Romans--By What + Steps IBERIA Became SPAIN--Fall of Carthaginian + Power--How Spain Became a Roman + Province, 15 + + CHAPTER IV. + Sertorius--Story of the White Hind--Rome Fights + Her Own Battles on Spanish Soil--Battle of + Munda--Cæsar Declared Dictator--The Ides of + March--Octavius Augustus--Spain Latinized--Four + Hundred Years of Peace, 24 + + CHAPTER V. + Northern Races in the History of Civilization--Roman + Empire Expiring--Ataulfus--Attila and + the Huns--Theodoric--Evaric Completes Conquest + of Spanish Peninsula--Europe Teutonized--Difference + between Anglo-Saxon and + Latin Races, 30 + + CHAPTER VI. + Ulfilas--Arianism--The Spanish Language--Brunhilde--Leovigild--His + Son's Apostasy--Arianism + Ceases to be the Established Religion of Spain, 39 + + CHAPTER VII. + Toledo--Church of Santa Maria--Wamba, 45 + + CHAPTER VIII. + Decline of Visigoths--Roderick--Count Julian's + Treachery--Mahommedanism--Tarif--Prophecy + Found in the Enchanted Tower--Tarik--Roderick's + Defeat and Death--Moslem Empire Established in Spain, 50 + + CHAPTER IX. + Musa's Dream of European Conquest--Charles Martel--Characteristics + of Mahommedan Rule--Mission of the Saracen in Europe--The Germ + of a Christian Kingdom in the North of Spain, 58 + + CHAPTER X. + Pelayo and the Cave of Covadonga--Alfonso I.--Berbers + and Arabs at War on African Coast--War + Extends to Spain--The Omeyyad Khalifs + Superseded by the Abbasides--Abd-er-Rahman--Omeyyad + Dynasty Established at Cordova--Ineffectual + Attempt of the Abbasides to + Overthrow Abd-er-Rahman--Character of This Conqueror, 64 + + CHAPTER XI. + Charlemagne--Battle of Roncesvalles, 69 + + CHAPTER XII. + Conditions after Death of Abd-er-Rahman--Abd-er-Rahman + II.--Arab Refinements--Eulogius + and the Christian Martyrs--Abd-er-Rahman + III.--A Khalifate at Cordova--The Great + Mosque--The City of "The Fairest"--Death + of Abd-er-Rahman III., 72 + + CHAPTER XIII. + Rough Cradle of a Spanish Nationality in the + Asturias--Alfonso III. and His Hidalgos and + Dons--Guerrilla Warfare with Moors--Jealousies + and Strife between Christian Kingdoms--Civil + War--Almanzor--Ruin of Christian State + Seemed Imminent--Death of Almanzor--Berber + Revolt--Anarchy in Moorish State--A Khalif + Begging a Crust of Bread--Berbers Destroy Cordova--Library + Burned--City of "The Fairest" + a Ruin--Asturias--Leon and Castile United--Alfonso + VI.--The Cid--Triumph of Christians--Moors + Ask Aid of the Almoravides--Christians + Driven Back--Death of the Cid--A Dynasty of + the Almoravides--The Alhomades--The Great + Mahdi--Moorish People Become Subject to + Emperor of Morocco--His Designs upon + Europe--The Pope Proclaims a Crusade--Alhomades + Driven Out of Spain by Christians--Moorish + Kingdom Reduced to Province of Granada, 78 + + CHAPTER XIV. + European Conditions in Thirteenth Century--Visigoth + Kings Recover Their Land--Its + Changed Conditions--Effect of Arab Civilization + upon Spanish Nation--Fernando III.--Spain + Draws into Closer Companionship with + European States--Alfonso X.--Spain Becoming + Picturesque--The Bull-Fight--Beautiful Granada--The + Alhambra, 87 + + CHAPTER XV. + Perpetual Civil War between Spanish States--Castile + and Aragon Absorb the Others and in Conflict + for Supremacy--Pedro the Cruel--The + "Black Prince" His Champion against Aragon--John + of Gaunt--His Claim upon the Throne of + Castile--His Final Compromise--Political Conditions + Contrasted with Those of Other States, 94 + + CHAPTER XVI. + Death of Juan II.--Enrique IV.--Isabella--Her Marriage + with Ferdinand of Aragon--Isabella + Crowned Queen of Castile--Ferdinand, King of + Aragon--The Two Crowns United--Characteristics + of the Two Sovereigns--The Inquisition + Created--Jews Driven out of the Kingdom--Abdul-Hassan's + Defiance--Zahara--Family + Troubles at the Alhambra--Ayesha and Boabdil--Alhama + Captured by Ferdinand--Boabdil + Supplants His Father--Massacre of the Abencerrages--Granada + Besieged--Its Capitulation--Moorish + Rule Ended in Spain, 100 + + CHAPTER XVII. + Columbus and Isabella--Isabella's Private Griefs--Her + Death--Charles, King under a Regency--Charles + Elected Emperor of Germany--Spain + during His Reign--Cruelties in the East and + in the West--Vain Struggle with Protestantism--Abdication + and Death of Charles, 108 + + CHAPTER XVIII. + Philip II.--Union of Spain and Portugal--The Duke + of Alva in the Netherlands--War with England--Spanish + Armada Destroyed--Death of + Philip II.--Spain's Decline--Glory of the Name + "Castilian," 117 + + CHAPTER XIX. + Philip III.--Rebellion of the Moriscos--Last of the + Moors Conveyed to African Coast--Don Quixote--Philip + IV.--Louis XIV. Marries Spanish Infanta--A + Diminishing Kingdom--Carlos II.--First + Collision between Anglo-Saxon and + Spaniard in America--Close of Hapsburg Dynasty + in Spain, 125 + + CHAPTER XX. + New European Conditions--Louis XIV.--War + of the "Spanish Succession"--Marlborough + Checks Louis at Blenheim--Archduke Abandons + Sovereignty in Spain--Peace of Utrecht--Further + Dismemberment of Spain--Gibraltar + Passes to England--Bourbon Dynasty--Commences + with Philip V.--Ferdinand VI.--Carlos + III.--Expulsion of the Jesuits, 131 + + CHAPTER XXI. + A Dismantled Kingdom--Spanish-American Colonies--England + and France at War over American + Boundaries--Spain the Ally of France--Loss + of Some of Her West India Islands, and + Capture of Havana and Manila by British--Florida + Given in Exchange for Return of Conquered + Territory--Growing Irritation against + England--France Aids American Colonies in + War with England--Spain's Satisfaction at + Their Success--Its Effect in Peru--Revolution + in France--Rapid Rise of Napoleon--Carlos IV. + Removed and Joseph Bonaparte King--Spain + Joins Napoleon in War against England--Trafalgar--Arthur + Wellesley--Joseph Flees from His Kingdom, 137 + + CHAPTER XXII. + Liberal Sentiment Developing--Constitution of + 1812--Ferdinand VI. and Reactionary Measures--Revolt + of all the Spanish-American + Colonies--The Holy Alliance--The Monroe + Doctrine--Revolution in Spain--Spain under + the Protectorate of the Holy Alliance--Ferdinand + Reinstated--Two Political Parties--Six + Spanish-American Colonies Freed, 144 + + CHAPTER XXIII. + The Salic Law and the Princess Isabella--The + Carlists--Regency of Christine--Isabella II.--Her + Expulsion from Spain--Amadeo--An Era + of Republicanism--Castelar--Alfonso XII. Recalled--His + Brief Reign and Death--Alfonso XIII., 150 + + CHAPTER XXIV. + Birth of an Insurgent Party in Cuba--Ten Years' + War--Impossible Reforms Promised--Revolution + Started by José Marti, 1895--Attitude of + the American Government--General Weyler's + Methods--Effect upon Sentiment in America--Destruction + of the Battle-Ship _Maine_--Verdict + of Court of Inquiry--War Declared between + Spain and America--Victories of Manila and in + Cuba--Terms of Peace--Marriage of Alfonso + XIII. and the Princess Ena, 154 + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS. + + + Charles V. _Frontispiece_ + + FACING PAGE + + Columbus at the Court of Ferdinand and Isabella 108 + + The Surrender of Breda 118 + + Philip IV. of Spain 126 + + Heroic Combat in the Pulpit of the Church of + St. Augustine, Saragossa, 1809 144 + + The Duke de la Torre sworn in as Regent before + the Cortes of 1869 152 + + + + +A SHORT HISTORY OF SPAIN. + + +CHAPTER I. + + +No name is more fraught with picturesque and romantic interest than +that of the "Spanish Peninsula." + +After finishing this rare bit of handiwork nature seems to have thrown +up a great ragged wall, stretching from sea to sea, to protect it; and +the Pyrenees have stood for ages a frowning barrier, descending toward +France on the northern side from gradually decreasing heights--but on +the Spanish side in wild disorder, plunging down through steep chasms, +ravines, and precipices--with sharp cliffs towering thousands of feet +skyward, which better than standing armies protect the sunny plains +below. + +But the "Spanish Peninsula," at the time we are about to consider, +was neither "Spanish" nor was it a "peninsula." At the dawn of history +this sunny corner of Europe was known as _Iberia_, and its people as +_Iberians_. + +Time has effaced all positive knowledge of this aboriginal race; but +they are believed to have come from the south, and to have been allied +to the Libyans, who inhabited the northern coast of Africa. In fact, +_Iberi_ in the Libyan tongue meant _freeman_; and _Berber_, apparently +derived from that word, was the term by which all of these western +peoples were known to the Ancient Egyptians. + +But it is suspected that the Iberians found it an easy matter to flow +into the land south of the Pyrenees, and that they needed no boats for +the transit. There has always existed a tradition of the joining +of the two continents, and now it is believed by geologists that +an isthmus once really stretched across to the African coast at +the narrowest point of the Straits, at a time when the waters of a +Mediterranean gulf, and the waters flowing over the sands of Sahara, +together found their outlet in the Indian Ocean. + +There is also a tradition that the adventurous Phenicians, who are +known to have been in Iberia as early as 1300 B.C., cut a canal +through the narrow strip of land, and then built a bridge across +the canal. But a bridge was a frail link by which to hold the mighty +continents together. The Atlantic, glad of such an entrance to the +great gulf beyond, must have rushed impetuously through, gradually +widening the opening, and (may have) thus permanently severed Europe +and Africa; drained the Sahara dry; transformed the Mediterranean gulf +into a Mediterranean Sea; and created a "Spanish Peninsula." + +How long this fair Peninsula was the undisturbed home of the Iberians +no one knows. Behind the rocky ramparts of the Pyrenees they may have +remained for centuries unconscious of the Aryan torrent which was +flooding Western Europe as far as the British Isles. Nothing has been +discovered by which we may reconstruct this prehistoric people and +(perhaps) civilization. But their physical characteristics we are +enabled to guess; for just as we find in Cornwall, England, lingering +traces of the ancient Britons, so in the mountain fastnesses of +northern Spain linger the _Basques_, who are by many supposed to be +the last survivors of that mysterious primitive race. + +The language of the Basques bears no resemblance to any of the +Indo-European, nor indeed to any known tongue. It is so difficult, so +intricate in construction, that only those who learn it in infancy can +ever master it. It is said that, in Basque, "you spell Solomon, and +pronounce it Nebuchadnezzar." Its antiquity is so great that one +legend calls it the "language of the angels," and another says that +_Tubal_ brought it to Spain before the lingual disaster at Babel! And +still another relates that the devil once tried to learn it, but that, +after studying it for seven years and learning only three words, he +gave it up in despair. + +A language which, without literature, can so resist change, can so +persist unmodified by another tongue spoken all around and about it, +must have great antiquity; and there is every reason to believe +that the Basque is a survival of the tongue spoken by the primitive +Iberians, before the Kelts began to flow over and around the +Pyrennees; and also that the physical characteristics of this people +are the same as those of their ancient progenitors; small-framed, +dark, with a faint suggestion of the Semitic in their swarthy faces. + +We cannot say when it occurred, but at last the powerful, warlike +Kelts had surmounted the barrier and were mingled with this non-Aryan +people, and the resulting race thus formed was known to antiquity as +the _Keltiberians_. + +It is probable that the rugged Kelt easily absorbed the race of more +delicate type, and made it, in religion and customs, not unlike the +Keltic Aryan in Gaul. But the physical characteristics of the other +and primitive race are indelibly stamped upon the Spanish people; and +it is probably to the Iberian strain in the blood that may be traced +the small, dark type of men which largely prevails in Spain, and to +some extent also in central and southern France. + +But the Keltiberians were Keltic in their religion. There are now in +Spain the usual monuments found wherever Druid worship prevailed. Huge +blocks of stone, especially in Cantabria and Lusitania (Portugal), +standing alone or in circles, tell the story of Druidical rites, and +of the worship of the ocean, the wind, and the thunder, and of the +placating of the powers of nature by human sacrifices. + +The mingling of the Kelts and the Iberians in varying proportions in +different parts of Spain, and in some places (as among the Basques) +their mingling not at all, produced that diversity of traits which +distinguished the _Asturians_ in the mountain gorges from their +neighbors the _Cantabrians_, and both these from the _Catalonians_ in +the northeast and the _Gallicians_ on the northwest coast, and from +the _Lusitanians_, where now is Portugal; and still more distinguished +the _Basques_, in the rocky ravines of the Pyrenees, from each and +all of the others. And yet these unlike members of one family were +collectively known as Keltiberians. + +While this race--hardy, temperate, brave, and superstitious--was +leading its primitive life upon the Iberian peninsula, while they +were shooting arrows at the sky to threaten the thunder, drawing their +swords against the rising tide, and prizing iron more dearly than +their abundant gold and silver, because they could hammer it into +hooks, and swords, and spears--there had long existed in the East a +group of wonderful civilizations: the Egyptian, hoary with age and +steeped in wisdom and in wickedness; the _Chaldeans_, who, with +"looks commercing with the skies," were the fathers of astronomy; +the _Assyrians_ and _Babylonians_, with their wonderful cities of +_Nineveh_ and _Babylon_, and the Phenicians, with their no less famous +cities of _Sidon_ and _Tyre_. Sidon, which was the more ancient of +these two, is said to have been founded by Sidon, the son of Canaan, +who was the great-grandson of Noah. + +Of all these nations it was the Phenicians who were the most +adventurous. They were a Semitic people, Syrian in blood, and their +home was a narrow strip of coast on the east of the Mediterranean, +where a group of free cities was joined into a confederacy held +together by a strong national spirit. + +Of these cities Sidon was once the head, but in time Tyre eclipsed it +in splendor, and writers, sacred and profane, have sung her glories. + +These Phenicians had a genius for commerce and trade. They scented a +bargain from afar, and knew how to exchange "their broidered work, and +fine linen, and coral, and agate" (I Kings xxvii. 16), their glassware +and their wonderful cloths dyed in Tyrian scarlet and purple, for the +spices and jewels of the East, and for the gold and silver and the +ivory and the ebony of the south and west. + +Their ships were coursing the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf and +bringing back treasures from India and searching every inlet in the +Mediterranean, and finally, either through the canal they are said +to have cut, or the straits it had made, they sailed as far as the +British Isles and brought back tin. + +But the gold and silver of the Iberian Peninsula were more alluring +than the spices of India or the tin of Britain. So upon the Spanish +coast they made permanent settlements and built cities. As early as +1100 B.C. they had founded beyond the "Pillars of Hercules," the City +of _Gades_ (Cadiz), a walled and fortified town, and had taught +the Keltiberians how to open and work their gold and silver mines +systematically; and in exchange they brought an old civilization, +with new luxuries, new ideas and customs into the lives of the simple +people. + +But they bestowed something far beyond this--something more enriching +than silver and gold,--an alphabet,--and it is to the Phenicians that +we are indebted for the alphabet now in use throughout the civilized +world. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +Such an extension of power, and the acquisition of sources of wealth +so boundless, excited the envy of other nations. + +The Greeks are said to have been in the Iberian peninsula long before +the fall of Troy, where they came with a fleet from Zante, in the +Ionian Sea, and in memory of that place, called the city they founded +Zacynthus, which name in time became _Saguntum_. Now they sent more +expeditions and founded more cities on the Spanish coast; and the +Babylonians, and the Assyrians, and, at a later time, the Persians and +the Greeks, all took up arms against these insatiate traders. + +Phenician supremacy was not easily maintained with so many jealous +rivals in the field, and it was rudely shaken in 850 B.C., when + + "The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold, + And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold." + +and the Phenician power was partially broken at its source in the +East. + +It is with thrilling interest that we read Isaiah's prophecy of the +destruction of Tyre, which was written at this very time. For the +Phenicians were the _Canaanites_ of Bible history, and "Hiram King of +Tyre" was their king; and his "navy," which, together with Solomon's +"came once in three years from _Tarshish_," was their navy; and +_Tarshish_ was none other than _Tartessus_, their own province, just +beyond Gibraltar on the Spanish coast. Nor is it at all improbable +that Spanish gold was used to adorn the temple which the great Solomon +was building. (I Kings ix., x.) Shakspere, who says all things +better than anyone else, makes Othello find in the fatal handkerchief +"confirmation strong as proofs from holy writ." Where can be found +"confirmation" stronger than these "proofs from holy writ"? And where +a more magnificent picture of the luxury, the sumptuous Oriental +splendor of this nation at that period, than in Ezekiel, chapters +xxvii., xxviii.? What an eloquent apostrophe to Tyre--"thou that art +situate at the entry of the sea, a merchant of the people, for _many +isles_."--"With thy wisdom and with thine understanding thou hast +gotten thee riches," and, "by thy great wisdom and by thy _traffick_ +hast thou increased, and thine heart is lifted up." And then follows +the terrible arraignment--"because of the iniquity of thy _traffick_." +And then the final prediction of ruin--"I will bring thee to ashes +upon the earth"; "thou shalt be a terror, and _never_ shalt thou be +any more." Where in any literature can we find such lurid splendor +of description, and such a powerful appeal to the imagination of the +reader! And where could the student of history find a more graphic and +accurate picture of a vanished civilization! + +In 850 B.C., the same year in which the Assyrians partly subjugated +the Phenicians in the East, the city of Carthage was founded upon the +north coast of Africa, and there commenced a movement, with that city +as its center, which drew together all their scattered possessions +into a Punic confederacy. This was composed of the islands of +Sardinia, Corsica, part of Sicily, the Balearic Isles, and the cities +and colonies upon the Spanish Peninsula and African coast. As the +power of this confederacy expands, the name Phenician passes away and +that of _Carthaginian_ takes its place in history. + +Carthage became a mighty city, and controlled with a strong hand +the scattered empire which had been planted by the Syrian tradesmen. +Carthaginian merchants and miners were in Tartessus, and were planting +cities and colonies throughout the peninsula, and a torrent of +Carthaginian life was thus pouring into Spain for many hundred years, +and the blood of the two races must have freely mingled. + +There are memorials of this time now existing, not only in Phenician +coins, medals, and ruins, but in the names of the cities. _Barcelona_, +named after the powerful family of Barca in Carthage, to which +Hannibal belonged. _Carthagena_, a memorial of Carthage, which +meant "the city"; and even _Cordova_ is traced to its primitive +form,--Kartah-duba,--meaning "an important city." While _Isabella_, +the name most famous in Spanish annals, has a still greater antiquity; +and was none other than Jezebel--after the beautiful daughter of the +King of Sidon (the "_Zidoneans_"), who married Ahab, and lured him to +his downfall. And we are told that this wicked siren whose dreadful +fate Elijah foretold, was cousin to Dido, she who Virgil tells us +"wept in silence" for the faithless Æneas. With what a strange thrill +do we find these threads of association between history sacred and +profane, and both mingled with the modern history of Spain. + +But Phenicia, for the "iniquity of her traffick," was doomed. The +roots of this old Asiatic tree had been slowly and surely perishing, +while her branches in the West were expanding. In the year 332 B.C. +the siege and destruction of Tyre, predicted five hundred years before +by Isaiah, was accomplished by Alexander the Great, and the words +of the prophet found their complete fulfillment--that the people of +Tarshish should find no city, no port, no welcome, when they came back +to Syria! + +But on the northern coast of the Mediterranean there was another power +which was waxing, while the Carthaginian was waning. The occupation of +the young Roman Republic was not trade, but conquest. A bitter enmity +existed between the two nations. Rome was determined to break this +grasping old Asiatic confederacy and to drive it out of Europe. The +Spanish Peninsula she knew little about, but the rich islands near her +own coast--they must be hers. + +When, after the first Punic war (264-241 B.C.), the Carthaginians saw +Sardinia and Sicily torn from them, Hamilcar, their great general, +determined upon a plan of vengeance which should make of Italy a Punic +province. His people were strong upon the sea, but for this war of +invasion they must have an army, too. So he conceived the idea of +making Spain the basis of his military operations, and recruiting an +immense army from the Iberian Peninsula. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +The Carthaginian occupation of Spain had not extended much beyond the +coast, and had been rather in the nature of a commercial alliance with +a few cities. Now Hamilcar determined, by placating, and by bribes, +and if necessary by force, to take possession of the Peninsula for +his own purposes, and to make of the people a Punic nation under the +complete dominion of Carthage. So his first task was to win, or to +subdue, the Keltiberians. He built the city of New Carthage (now +Carthagena), he showed the people how to develop their immense +resources, and by promises of increased prosperity won the confidence +and sympathy of the nation, and soon had a population of millions from +which to recruit its army. + +When his son Hannibal was nine years old, at his father's bidding he +placed his hand upon the altar and swore eternal enmity to Rome. The +fidelity of the boy to his oath made a great deal of history. He took +up the task when his father laid it down, inaugurated the second Punic +war (218-201 B.C.); and for forty years carried on one of the most +desperate struggles the world has ever seen; the hoary East in +struggle with the young West. + +Saguntum was that ancient city in Valencia which was said to have +been founded by the Greeks long before Homer sang of Troy, or, indeed, +before Helen brought ruin upon that city. At all events its antiquity +was greater even than that of the Phenician cities in Spain, and +after being long forgotten by the Greeks it had drifted under +Roman protection. It was the only spot in Spain which acknowledged +allegiance to Rome; and for that reason was marked for destruction as +an act of defiance. + +The Saguntines sent an embassy to Rome. These men made a pitiful and +passionate appeal in the Senate Chamber: "Romans, allies, friends! +help! help! Hannibal is at the gates of our city. Hannibal, the sworn +enemy of Rome. Hannibal the terrible. Hannibal who fears not the gods, +neither keeps faith with men. ["Punic faith" was a byword.] O Romans, +fathers, friends! help while there is yet time." + +But they found they had a "protector" who did not protect. The +senators sent an embassy to treat with Hannibal, but no soldiers. So, +with desperate courage, the Saguntines defended their beleaguered city +for weeks, hurling javelins, thrusting their lances, and beating +down the besiegers from the walls. They had no repeating rifles nor +dynamite guns, but they had the terrible _falaric_, a shaft of fir +with an iron head a yard long, at the point of which was a mass of +burning tow, which had been dipped in pitch. When a breach was made +in the walls, the inflowing army would be met by a rain of this deadly +falaric, which was hurled with telling power and precision. Then, in +the short interval of rest this gave them, men, women, and children +swiftly repaired the broken walls before the next assault. + +But at last the resourceful Hannibal abandoned his battering rams, and +with pickaxes undermined the wall, which fell with a crash. When asked +to surrender, the chief men of the city kindled a great fire in the +market-place, into which they then threw all the silver and gold in +the treasury, their own gold and silver and garments and furniture, +and then cast themselves headlong into the flames. This was their +answer. + +Saguntum, which for more than a thousand years had looked from its +elevation out upon the sea, was no more, and its destruction was +one of the thrilling tragedies of ancient history. On its site there +exists to-day a town called _Mur Viedro_ (old walls), and these old +walls are the last vestige of ancient Saguntum. + +In order to understand the indifference of Rome to the Spanish +Peninsula at this time, it must be remembered that Spain was then +the uttermost verge of the known world, beyond which was only a dread +waste of waters and of mystery. To the people of Tyre and of Greece, +the twin "Pillars of Hercules" had marked the limit beyond which there +was nothing; and those two columns, Gibraltar and Ceuta, with the +legend _ne plus ultra_ entwined about them, still survive, as a +symbol, in the arms of Spain and upon the Spanish coins; and what is +still more interesting to Americans, in the familiar mark ($) which +represents a dollar. (The English name for the Spanish _peso_ is +_pillar-dollar_.) + +Now Rome was aroused from its apathy. It sent an army into Spain, led +by Scipio the Elder, known as Scipio Africanus. When he fell, his son, +only twenty-four years old, stood up in the Roman Forum and offered to +fill the undesired post; and, in 210 B.C., Scipio "the Younger"--and +the greater--took the command--as Livy eloquently says--"between the +tombs of his father and his uncle", who had both perished in Spain +within a month. + +The chief feature of Scipio's policy was, while he was defeating +Hannibal in battles, to be undermining him with his native allies; and +to make that people realize to what hard taskmasters they had bound +themselves; and by his own manliness and courtesy and justice to win +them to his side. + +He marched his army swiftly and unexpectedly upon New Carthage, the +capital and center of the whole Carthaginian movement, sent his fleet +to blockade the city, and planned his moves with such precision that +the fleet for the blockade and the army for the siege arrived before +the city on the same day. + +Taken entirely by surprise. New Carthage was captured without a siege. +Not one of the inhabitants was spared, and spoil of fabulous amounts +fell to the victors. + +It seems like a fairy tale--or like the story of Mexico and Peru +1800 years later--to read of 276 golden bowls which were brought to +Scipio's tent, countless vessels of silver, and 18 tons of coined and +wrought silver. + +But the richest part of the prize was the 750 Spanish hostages--high +in rank of course--whom the various tribes had given in pledge of +their fidelity to Carthage. Now Scipio held these pledges, and they +were a menace and a promise. They were Roman slaves, but he could by +kindness, and by holding out the hope of emancipation, placate and +further bind to him the native people. + +By an exercise of tact and clemency Scipio gained such an ascendancy +over the inhabitants, and so moved were they by this unexpected +generosity and kindness, that many would gladly have made him their +king. + +But he seems to have been the "noblest Roman of them all," and when +saluted as king on one occasion he said: "Never call me king. Other +nations may revere that name, but no Roman can endure it. My soldiers +have given me a more honorable title--that of general." + +Such nobility, such a display of Roman virtue, was a revelation to +these barbarians; and they felt the grandeur of the words, though they +could not quite understand them. They were won to the cause of Rome, +and formed loyal alliances with Scipio which they never broke. + +In the year 206 B.C. Gades (Cadiz), the last stronghold, was +surrendered to the Romans, and the entire Spanish Peninsula had been +wrenched from the Carthaginians. + +_Iberia_ was changed to _Hispania_, and fifteen years later the whole +of the Peninsula was organized into a Roman province, thenceforth +known in history, not as _Iberia_, nor yet _Hispania_; but _Spain_, +and its people as _Spaniards_. + +At the end of the third Punic war (149-146 B.C.), the ruin of the +Carthaginians was complete. Hannibal had died a fugitive and a +suicide. His nation had not a single ship upon the seas, nor a foot +of territory upon the earth, and the great city of Carthage was plowed +and sowed with salt. Rome had been used by Fate to fulfill her stern +decree--"_Delenda est Carthago_." + +It was really only a limited portion of the Peninsula; a fringe +of provinces upon the south and east coast, which had been under +Carthaginian and now acknowledged Roman dominion. Beyond these the +Keltiberian tribes in the center formed a sort of confederation, and +consented to certain alliances with the Romans; while beyond them, +intrenched in their own impregnable mountain fastnesses, were brave, +warlike, independent tribes, which had never known anything but +freedom, whose names even, Rome had not yet heard. The stern virtue +and nobility of Scipio proved a delusive promise. Rome had not an easy +task, and other and brutal methods were to be employed in subduing +stubborn tribes and making of the whole a Latin nation. In one of +the defiles of the Pyrenees there may now be seen the ruins of +fortifications built by Cato the Elder, not long after Scipio, which +show how early those free people in the north were made to feel the +iron heel of the master and to learn their lesson of submission. + +The century which followed Scipio's conquest was one of dire +experience for Spain. A Roman army was trampling out every vestige of +freedom in provinces which had known nothing else; and more than that, +Roman diplomacy was making of their new possession a fighting ground +for the civil war which was then raging at Rome; and partisans of +Marius and of Sylla were using and slaughtering the native tribes in +their own desperate struggle. Roman rule was arrogant and oppressive, +Roman governors cruel, arbitrary, and rapacious, and the boasted +"Roman virtue" seemed to have been left in Rome, when treaties were +made only to be violated at pleasure. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + +As nature delights in adorning the crevices of crumbling ruins with +mosses and graceful lichens, so literature has busied itself with +these historic ruins; and Cervantes has made the siege of Numantia +(134 B.C.)--more terrible even than that of Saguntum--the subject of a +poem, in which he depicts the horrors of the famine. + +Lira, the heroine, answers her ardent lover Mirando in high-flown +Spanish phrase, which, when summed up in plain English prose, means +that she cannot listen to his wooing, because she is so hungry--which, +in view of the fact that she has not tasted food for weeks, seems to +us not surprising! + +Sertorius, whose story is told by Plutarch, affords another +picturesque subject for Corneille in one of his most famous tragedies. +This Roman was an adherent of Marius in the long struggle with Sylla, +and while upholding his cause in Spain he won to his side the people +of Lusitania (Portugal), who made him their ruler, and helped him to +fight the great army of the opposing Roman faction, part of which was +led by Pompey. + +Mithridates, in Asia Minor, was also in conflict with Sylla, and sent +an embassy to Sertorius which led to a league between the two for +mutual aid, and for the defense of the cause of Marius. But senators +of his own party became jealous of the great elevation of Sertorius, +and conspired to assassinate him at a feast to which he was invited. +So ended (72 B.C.) one of the most picturesque characters and +interesting episodes in the difficult march of barbarous Spain toward +enlightenment and civilization. + +Sertorius seems to have been a great administrator as well as fighter, +and must also be counted one of the civilizers of Spain. He founded a +school at Osca,--now Huesca,--where he had Roman and Greek masters for +the Spanish youth. And it is interesting to learn that there is +to-day at that city a university which bears the title "University of +Sertorius." + +But it is not the valor nor the sagacity of Sertorius which made him +the favorite of poets; but the story of the White Hind, which he made +to serve him so ingeniously in establishing his authority with the +Lusitanians. + +A milk-white fawn, on account of its rarity, was given him by +a peasant. He tamed her, and she became his constant companion, +unaffrighted even in the tumult of battle. He saw that the people +began to invest the little animal with supernatural qualities; so, +finally, he confided to them that she was sent to him by the Goddess +Diana, who spoke to him through her, and revealed important secrets. + +Such is the story which Corneille and writers in other lands have +found so fascinating, and which an English author has made the subject +of his poem "The White Hind of Sertorius." + +Another Roman civil war, more pregnant of great results, was to be +fought out in Spain. Julius Cæsar's conspiracy against the Roman +Republic, and his desperate fight with Pompey for the dictatorship, +long drenched Spanish soil with blood, and had its final culmination +(after Pompey's tragic death in Egypt) in Cæsar's victory over +Pompey's sons at Munda, in Spain, 45 B.C. + +With this event, the military triumphs and the intrigues of Cæsar +had accomplished his purpose. He was declared _Imperator_, perpetual +Dictator of Rome, and religious sacrifices were decreed to him as if +he were a god. Unconscious of the chasm which was yawning at his feet +he haughtily accepted the honors and adulation of men who were at that +very moment conspiring for his death. On the fatal "Ides of March" +(44 B.C.) he was stricken in the Senate Chamber by the hands of his +friends, and the great Cæsar lay dead at the feet of Pompey's statue. + +The world had reached a supreme crisis in its existence. Two +events--the most momentous it has ever known--were at hand: the birth +of a Roman Empire, which was to perish in a few centuries, after a +life of amazing splendor; and the birth of a spiritual kingdom, which +would never die! + +Cæsar's nephew, Octavius Augustus, by gradual approaches reached +the goal toward which no doubt his greater uncle was moving. After +defeating Brutus and Cassius at Philippi (42 B.C.) and then after +destroying his only competitor, Antony, at Actium (31 B.C.) he assumed +the imperial purple under the name of Augustus. The title sounded +harmless, but its wearer had founded the "Roman Empire." + +At last there was peace. Spain was pacified, and only here and there +did she struggle in the grasp of the Romans. Augustus, to make sure of +the permanence of this pacification, himself went to the Peninsula. +He built cities in the plains, where he compelled the stubborn +mountaineers to reside, and established military colonies in the +places they had occupied. + +Saragossa was one of these cities in the plains, and its name was +"Cæsar Augusta," and many others have wandered quite as far from their +original names, which may, however, still be traced. + +It is said that "the annals of the happy are brief." Let us hope +that poor Spain, so long harried by fate, was happy in the next four +hundred years, for her story can be briefly told. She seemed to have +settled into a state of eternal peace. It was a period not of external +events, but of a process--an internal process of assimilation. Spain, +in every department of its life, was becoming Latinized. + +A people of rare intellectual activity had been united to the life +of Rome at the moment of her greatest intellectual elevation. Was +it strange that no Roman province ever produced so long a list of +historians, poets, philosophers, as did Southern Spain after the +Augustan conquest? When we read the list of great Roman authors who +were born in Spain--the three Senecas, one of whom, the author and +wit, opened his veins at the command of Nero (65 A.D.), and another, +the Gallio of the book of Acts; also Lucan, Martial, and Quintilian, +when we read these names native to Spain, it seems as if the source +of inspiration had removed from the banks of the Tiber to the banks of +the Guadalquivir. + +Nowhere can the student of Roman antiquities find a richer field +than in Spain. And not only that, there is to-day in the manners and +customs, and in the habits of the peasantry, a pervading atmosphere of +the classic land which adopted them, which all that has occurred since +has been powerless to efface, while the language of Spain is Latin +to its core. Nor is this strange when we reflect that they were under +this powerful influence for a period as long as from Christopher +Columbus to the Spanish-American War! + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + +In the history of nations there is one fact which again and again with +startling uniformity repeats itself. The rough, strong races from the +north menace, and at last rudely dominate more highly civilized +but less hardy races at the South, to the ultimate benefit of both, +although with much present discomfort to the conquered race! + +In Greece it was first the rude Hellenes who overran the Pelasgians. +And again, long after that, there was another descent of fierce +northern barbarians,--the Dorians from Epirus,--who, when they took +possession of the Peloponnesus and became the _Spartans_, infused that +vigorous strain without which the history of Greece might have been a +very tame affair. In the British Isles it was the Picts and Scots, who +would have done the same thing with England, perhaps, if the Angles +and Saxons had not come to the rescue, while Spain had her own Picts +and Scots in the mountain tribes of the Pyrenees. But in the fifth +century there was the most stupendous illustration of this tendency, +when all of Southern Europe was at last inundated by that northern +deluge, and the effete Roman Empire was effaced. + +The process had been a gradual one; had commenced, in fact, two +centuries before the overthrow of the Roman Republic. But not +until the fourth century, after the wicked old empire had espoused +Christianity, did it become obvious that its foundations were +undermined by this flood of barbarians. In 410 A.D., when the +West-Goths, under Alaric, entered and sacked Rome, her power was +broken. The roots no longer nourished the distant extremities in +Britain and Gaul, and it was only a question of time when these, too, +should succumb to the inflowing tide. + +The Ostro-Goths--or East-Goths--in Northern Italy, and the +Visigoths--or West-Goths--in Gaul, were setting up kingdoms of their +own, under a Roman protectorate. The long period of peace in Spain was +broken. The Pyrenees, with their warlike tribes, defended her for a +time; but the Suevi and the Vandals--the latter a companion tribe of +the Goths--had found an easier entrance by the sea on the east. They +flowed down toward the south, and from thence across to the northern +coast of Africa, which they colonized, leaving a memorial in Spain, +in the lovely province of Andalusia, which was named after +them--_Vandalusia_. But before the sacking of Rome a wave of the +Gothic invasion had overflowed the Pyrenees, and Northern Spain had +become a part of the Gothic kingdom in Gaul, with the city of Toulouse +as its head. + +A century of contact with Roman civilization had wrought great changes +in this conquering race. They were untamed in strength, but realized +the value of the civilities of life, and of intellectual superiority; +and even strove to acquire some of the arts and accomplishments of the +race they were invading. They were not yet acknowledged entire masters +of Gaul and northern Spain. On condition of military service they had +undisputed possession of their territory, with their own king, +laws, and customs, but were nominally subjects of the Roman Emperor, +Honorius. + +Their attitude toward the Romans at this period cannot better be told +than in the words of Ataulf himself (or Ataulfus, or Adolphus), whose +interesting story will be briefly related. He says: + +"It was my first wish to destroy the Roman name and erect in its place +a Gothic Empire, taking to myself the place and the powers of Cæsar +Augustus. But when experience taught me that the untamable barbarism +of the Goths would not suffer them to live under the sway of law, and +that the abolition of the institutions on which the state rested would +involve the ruin of the state itself, I chose instead the glory +of renewing and maintaining by Gothic strength the fame of Rome; +preferring to go down to posterity as the restorer of that Roman power +which it was beyond my power to replace." + +These are not the words of a barbarian; although by the corrupt and +courtly nobles in Rome he was considered one; but no doubt he towered +far above the barbarous host whom he helped to lead into Rome in the +year 410 A.D. + +Ataulf was the brother-in-law of Alaric, and succeeded that great +leader in authority after his death (410 A.D.). + +At the time of the sacking of Rome this Gothic prince fell in love +with Placidia, the sister of the Emperor Honorius; and after the +fashion of his people, carried her away as his captive; not an +unwilling one, we suspect, for we learn of her great devotion to her +brave, strong wooer, with blond hair and blue eyes. Ataulf took his +fair prize to the city of Narbonne in southern France, and made +her his Queen. But when Constantius, a disappointed Roman lover of +Placidia's, instigated Honorius to send an army against him and his +Goths, he withdrew into Spain, and established his court with its rude +splendor in the ancient city of Barcelona. + +He seems to have had not an easy task between the desire to please his +haughty Roman bride and, at the same time, to repel the charge of his +people that he was becoming effeminate and Romanized; and, finally, so +jealous did they become of her influence that Ataulf was assassinated +in the presence of his wife, all his children butchered, and the proud +Placidia compelled to walk barefoot through the streets of Barcelona. + +Constantius, the faithful Roman lover, came with an army and carried +back to Rome the royal widow, who married him and became the mother of +Valentinian III., who succeeded his uncle Honorius as Emperor of Rome +in 425 A.D., under the regency of Placidia during his infancy. + +This romance, lying at the very root of a Gothic dynasty in Spain, +marks the earliest beginnings of a line of Visigoth kings. Ataulf's +successor removed his court to Toulouse in France, and Spain for many +years remained only an outlying province of the Gothic kingdom; her +turbulent northern tribes refusing to accept or to mingle with the +strange intruders. When driven by the Romans from their mountain +fastnesses the Basques, many of them, were at that time dispersed +through southern and central France; which accounts for the presence +of that race in France, before alluded to. + +In the second half of the fifth century Attila, "the Scourge of God," +swept down upon Europe with his Huns,--mysterious, terrible, as a fire +out of heaven, and more like an army of demons than men,--destroying +city after city, and driving the people before them, until they came +to Orléans. There they met the combined Roman and Gothic armies. +Theodoric, the Visigoth king, was killed on the battlefield. But to +him, and to the Roman general Ætius, belongs the glory of the defeat +of the Huns (451 A.D.). + +It was Evaric, the son of this Theodoric, who finally completed the +conquest of the Spanish Peninsula, and with him really commences the +line of Visigoth kings in Spain, and the conversion of that country +into a Gothic empire,[A] entirely independent of Rome. + +The German _Franks_, under Clovis, established their kingdom in +Gaul 481 A.D. The _Angles_ and _Saxons_ in 446 A.D. did the same in +Britain. The _Ostrogoths_ had their own kingdom in northern Italy and +southern Gaul (Burgundy). So, with the _Visigoths_ ruling in Spain, +the "northern deluge" had in the fifth century practically submerged +the whole of Europe, and above its dark waters showed only the somber +wreck of a Roman empire. + +From this fusing of Roman and Teutonic races there were to arise two +types of civilization, utterly different in kind, the _Anglo-Saxon_ +and the _Latin_. In one the prevailing element, after the fusing was +complete, was to be the Teutonic; in the other, the Roman. Herein lies +the difference between these two great divisions of the human family, +and this is the germinal fact in the war raging to-day between Spain +and the United States. It is a difference created not by the mastery +of arms, but by the more efficient mastery of ideas. + +When the Angles and Saxons conquered Britain, after a Roman occupation +of over three hundred years, they swept it clean of Roman laws, +literature, and civilization. Untamed pagan barbarians though they +were, they had fine instincts and simple ideals of society and +government, and they cast out the corrupt old empire, root and branch. + +The Visigoths in Spain, more enlightened than they, already +Christianized, and, perhaps, even superior in intelligence, were +content in the words of Ataulf--"to renew and maintain by Gothic +strength the fame of Rome." So they built upon the ruins of decaying +institutions of a corrupt civilization, a kingdom which flourished +with the enormous vitality drawn from the conquering race, which race +was in turn conquered by Roman ideals. + +So, in the conflict now existing between Spain and the United States, +we see the Spaniard, the child of the Romans; valorous, picturesque, +cruel, versed in strategic arts, and with a savor of archaic +wickedness which belongs to a corrupt old age. In the American we see +the child of the simple Angles and Saxons, no less brave, but just, +and with an enthusiasm and confiding integrity which seems to endow +him with an imperishable youth. + +[Footnote A: The famous Gothic code established by him still linger in +much of Spanish jurisprudence.] + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + +The story of Ulfilas, who Christianized the pagan Goths in the last +half of the fourth century, is really the first chapter not alone +in the history of Gothic civilization but in that of the German and +English literatures; which, with their vast riches, had their origin +in the strange achievement of Ulfilas. He had, while a boy, been +captured by some Goths off the coast of Asia Minor, and was called by +them "_Wulf-ilas_" (little wolf). In his desire to translate the Bible +to his captors Wulf-ilas reduced the Gothic language to writing. He +had first to create an alphabet; taking twenty-two Roman letters, and +inventing two more: the letter _w_, and still another for _th_. So +while, after Constantine, the Christian religion was being adopted by +the Roman Empire, and while its simple dogmas were being discussed and +refined into a complicated and intricate system by men versed in +Greek philosophy, and then formulated by minds trained in logic and +rhetoric, the same religion was being spelled out in simple fashion +by the Goths in central Europe from the book translated for them by +Ulfilas. + +All they found was that Jesus Christ was the beloved son of God and +the Saviour of the world; that he was the long-promised Messiah, and +to believe in him and to follow his teachings was salvation. They knew +nothing of the Trinity nor of any theologic subtleties, and this was +the simple faith which the Goths carried with them into the lands they +conquered. + +The Romans, who had spent three centuries in burning Christians and +trying to obliterate the religion of Christ, were now its jealous +guardians. They considered this "Arianism," as it was called, +a blasphemous heresy, so shocking that they refused to call it +Christianity at all. The history of the first century of the Gothic +kingdom in Spain was therefore mainly that of the deadly strife +between Arianism and Catholicism, or orthodoxy. The Goths could not +discuss, for they were utterly unable to understand even the terms +under discussion; but they could fight and lay down their lives for +the faith which had done so much for them; and this they did freely +and fiercely. + +So the simple Gothic people were bewildered by finding themselves +in the presence of a Christianity incomprehensible to them; a +complicated, highly organized social order, equally incomprehensible; +and a science and a literature of which they knew nothing. They might +struggle for a while against this tide of superiority, but one by one +they entered the fascinating portals of learning and of art, accepted +the dogmas of learned prelates, and a few generations were sufficient +to make them meek disciples of the older civilization. + +The Spanish language fairly illustrates the result from this +incongruous mingling of Roman and Gothic. It is said to be a language +of Latin roots with a Teutonic grammar. + +The Goths laid rough hands on the speech they consented to use, and +the smooth, sonorous Latin was strangely broken and mixed with Gothic +words and idioms; yet it became one of the most copious, flexible, +and picturesque of languages, with a literature marvelously rich and +beautiful. + +In precisely the same way was the classic old ruin of a Roman state +re-enforced with a rough Gothic framework, and after centuries have +hidden the joints and the scars with mosses and verdure, we have a +picturesque and beautiful Spain! + +But barbarous kings were fighting other things besides heresy. There +were rebellions to put down; there were remnants of Sueves and of +Roman power to drive out, and there were always the fierce mountain +tribes who never mingled with any conquerors, nor had ever surrendered +to anything but the Catholic faith. + +There were intermarriages between the three Gothic kingdoms, in +Burgundy, Gaul, and Spain, and the history of some of these royal +families shows what wild passions still raged among the Goths, and +what atrocities were strangely mingled with ambitious projects and +religion. + +Athanagild, one of the Visigoth kings, gave his daughter Brunhilde in +marriage to the King of the Franks in Gaul. The story of this terrible +Queen, stained with every crime, and accused of the death of no less +than ten kings, comes to a fitting end when, we are told, that in +her wicked old age she was tied to the tail of an unbroken horse and +dragged over the stones of Paris (600 A.D.). + +At this time Leovigild (570-587), the Visigoth King, was ruling Spain +with a strong hand. He had assumed more splendor than any of his +predecessors. He had erected a magnificent throne in his palace at +Toledo, and his head, wearing the royal diadem, was placed on Spanish +coins, which may still be seen. A daughter of the terrible Brunhilde, +the Princess Ingunda, came over from France to become the wife of +Ermingild, the son of the great King Leovigild, and heir to his +throne. + +All went smoothly until it was discovered that this fair Princess was +a Catholic, and was artfully plotting to win her husband over to her +faith from the faith of his fathers--Arianism. + +Although Catholicism had made great inroads among their people, never +before had it invaded the royal household. And when his son declared +his intention to desert their ancient creed there commenced a terrible +conflict between father and son, which finally led to Ermingild's open +rebellion, and at last to his being beheaded by his father's order. +But this crime against nature was in vain. Arianism had reached the +limit of its life in Spain. Upon the death of Leovigild, his second +son, Recared (587-601), succeeded to the throne, and one of his first +acts was to abjure the old faith of the Gothic people, and Catholicism +became the established religion of Spain. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + +Toledo, the capital of the Visigoth Kings, is the city about which +cluster the richest memories of Spain in her heroic age. When +Leovigild removed his capital there from Seville in the sixth century, +it was already an ancient Jewish city, about which tradition had long +busied itself. To-day, as it sits on the summit of a barren hill, one +looks in vain for traces of its ancient Gothic splendor. But the spot +where now stands a beautiful cathedral is hallowed by a wonderful +legend, which Murillo made the subject of one of his great paintings. +It is said that the Apostle St. James founded on that very spot the +Church of _Santa Maria_; and that the Virgin, in recognition of +the dedication to her, descended from heaven to present its Bishop, +Ildofonso, with a marvelous chasuble. In proof of this miracle, +doubting visitors are still shown the marks of Mary's footprint upon a +stair in the chapel! However this may be, it is on this very spot that +King Recared formally abjured Arianism; and preserved in a cloister of +the cathedral may still be seen the "Consecration Stone" which reads: +that the Church of Santa Maria,--built probably on the foundation of +the older church,--was consecrated under "King Recared the Catholic, +587 A.D." It also tells of the councils of the Spanish Church held +there--at one of which councils was the famous canon which decreed +that all future Kings must swear they would show no mercy to "that +accursed people"--meaning the Jews. It was these very Jews who had +brought commercial success and created the enormous wealth of the +city, from which it was now the duty of the pious Visigoth Kings to +harry and hunt them as if they were frightened deer. + +The Visigoth monarchy, although in many cases hereditary, was in fact +elective. And the student of Spanish history will not find an orderly +royal succession as in England and France. Disputes regarding the +succession were not infrequent, and sometimes there will occur an +interval with apparently no king at all, followed by another period +when there are two--one ruling in the north and another in the south. +"The King is dead--long live the King!" might do for France, but not +for Spain. + +During one of these periods of uncertainty, in the latter half of the +seventh century, it is said that Leo, a holy man (afterward Pope), +was told in a dream that the man who must wear the crown was then +a laborer, living in the west, and that his name was Wamba. They +traveled in search of this man almost to the borders of Portugal, and +there they found the future candidate for the throne plowing in the +field. The messengers, bowing before the plowman, informed him that he +had been selected as King of Spain. + +Wamba laughed, and said, "Yes, I shall be King of Spain when my pole +puts forth leaves." + +Instantly the bare pole began to bud, and in a few moments was covered +with verdure! + +In vain did Wamba protest. What could a poor man do in the face of +such a miracle, and with a Spanish Duke pressing a poniard against his +breast, and telling him to choose on the instant between a throne and +a tomb! + +The unhappy Wamba suffered himself to be borne in triumph to Toledo, +and there to be crowned. And a very wise and excellent King did +he make. He seemed fully equal to the difficult demands of his +new position. A rebellion, fomented by an ambitious Duke Paul, +who gathered about his standard all the banished Jews, was a very +formidable affair. But Wamba put it down with a firm hand, and then, +when it was over, treated the conspirators and rebels with marvelous +clemency. When his reign was concluded he left a record of wisdom and +sagacity rare in those days, in any land. + +His taking off the stage was as remarkable as his coming on. He fell +into a trance (October 14, 680), and after long insensibility it was +concluded that the King was dying. According to a custom of the period +Wamba's head was shaved, and he was clothed in the habit of a monk. +The meaning of this was that if he died, he would, as was fitting, +pass into the Divine presence in penitential garb. But if, +peradventure, the patient survived, he was pledged to spend the rest +of his life in that holy vocation, renouncing every worldly advantage. + +So when, after a few hours, Wamba, in perfect health, opened his eyes, +he found that instead of a King he was transformed into a Monk! + +Whether this was a cunning device of this philosophic King to lay +down the burdens which wearied him, and spend the rest of his days +in tranquility; or whether it was the work of the Royal Prince, who +joyfully assumed the diadem which he had so unwillingly worn, nobody +knows. But Wamba passed the remainder of his days in a monastery near +Burgos, and the ambitious Ervigius reigned as his successor. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + +The Visigoth kingdom, which had stood for three centuries, had passed +its meridian. It had created a magnificent background for historic +Spain, and a heritage which would be the pride and glory of the +proudest nation in Europe. The Goths had come as only rude intruders +into that country; but to be descended from the Visigoth Kings was +hereafter to be the proudest boast of the Spaniard. And the man who +could make good such claim to distinction was a _Hidalgo_; or in its +original form, _hijo-de-algo_--son of somebody. + +But many generations of peace had impaired the rugged strength and +softened the sinews of the nation. It was the beginning of the end +when, at the close of the seventh century, there were two rival +claimants to the throne; and while the vicious and cruel Witiza +reigned at Toledo, Roderick, the son of Theodofred, also reigned in +Andalusia. There had been a long struggle, during which it is said +that Theodofred's eyes had been put out by his victorious rival, and +his son Roderick had obtained assistance from the Greek Emperor at +Byzantium in asserting his own claims. He succeeded in driving Witiza +out of the country; and in 709,--"the last of the Goths,"--was crowned +at Toledo, King of all Spain. + +But the struggle was not over; and it was about to lead to a result +which is one of the most momentous in the history, not alone of +Spain,--nor yet of Europe,--but of _Christendom_. Witiza was dead, but +his two sons, with a formidable following, were still trying to work +the ruin of Roderick. A certain Count Julian, who, on account of +his daughter Florinda, had his own wrongs to avenge, accepted the +leadership of these rebels. The power of the Visigoths had extended +across the narrow strait (cut by the Phenicians) over to the opposite +shore, where Morocco seems to be reaching out in vain endeavor to +touch the land from which she was long ago severed; and there, at +Tangiers, this arch-traitor laid his plans and matured the scheme of +revenge and treachery which had such tremendous results for Europe. +With an appearance of perfect loyalty he parted from Roderick, who +unsuspectingly asked him to bring him some hawks from Africa when he +returned. Bowing, he said: "Sire, I will bring you such hawks as never +were seen in Spain before." + +For one hundred years an unprecedented wave of conquest had been +moving from Asia toward the west. Mahommedanism, which was destined to +become the scourge of Christendom, had subjected Syria, Mesopotamia, +Egypt, and northern Africa, until it reached Ceuta--the companion +Pillar to Gibraltar on the African coast. + +At this point the Goths had stood, as a protecting wall beyond which +the Asiatic deluge could not flow. + +Count Julian was the trusted military commander of the Gothic +garrisons in Morocco, as _Musa_, the oft-defeated Saracen leader, +knew to his cost. As this Musa was one day looking with covetous eyes +across at the Spanish Peninsula, he was suddenly surprised by a visit +from Count Julian; and still more astonished when that commander +offered to surrender to him the Gothic strongholds _Tangier_, +_Arsilla_, and _Ceuta_ in return for the assistance of the Saracen +army in the cause of Witiza's sons against Roderick. + +Amazed at such colossal treason, Musa referred Count Julian to his +master the Khalif, at Damascus, who at once accepted his infamous +proposition. In Spanish legend and history this man is always +designated as _The Traitor_, as if standing alone and on a pinnacle +among the men who have betrayed their countries. + +Musa, half doubting, sent a preliminary force of about five hundred +Moors under a chief named _Tarif_, to the opposite coast; and the +Moors found, as was promised, that they might range at their own will +and pleasure in that earthly paradise of Andalusia. The name of this +Mussulman chief, Tarif, was given to the spot first touched by the +feet of the Mahommedan, which was called _Tarifa_; and as Tarifa was +afterward the place where customs were collected, the word _tariff_ is +an imperishable memorial of that event. In like manner Gibraltar was +named _Gebel-al-Tarik_, (Mountain of Tarik) after the leader bearing +that name, who was sent later by Musa with a larger force; which name +has been gradually changed to its present form--Gibraltar. + +Poor King Roderick, while still fighting to maintain his own right to +the crown he wore, learned with dismay that his country was invaded by +a horde of people from the African coast. Theodemir wrote to him: "So +strange is their appearance that we might take them for inhabitants of +the sky. Send me all the troops you can collect, without delay." The +hawks promised by Count Julian had arrived! + +The hour of doom had sounded for the last King of the Visigoths, and +for his kingdom. There is a legend that a mysterious tower existed +near Toledo, which was built by Hercules, soon after Adam, with the +command that no king or lord of Spain should ever seek to know what it +contained; instead of that it was the duty of each King to put a new +lock upon its mysterious portal. + +It is said that Roderick, perhaps in his extremity, resolved to +disobey the command, and to discover the secret hidden in the +Enchanted Tower. In a jeweled shrine in the very heart of the +structure he came at last to a coffer of silver, "right subtly +wrought," and far inside of that he reached the final mystery,--only +this,--a white cloth folded between two pieces of copper. With +trembling eagerness Roderick opened and found painted thereon men with +turbans, carrying banners, with swords strung around their necks, +and bows behind them, slung at the saddle-bow. Over these figures was +written: "When this cloth shall be opened, men appareled like these +shall conquer Spain, and be the lords thereof." + +Such is the picturesque legend. Men with "turbans and banners and +swords slung about their necks," were assuredly now in Andalusia, led +by Tarik, who had literally burned his ships behind him, and then told +his followers to choose between victory or death. + +The two armies faced each other at a spot near Cadiz. It is said that +Roderick, the degenerate successor of Alaric, went into battle in a +robe of white silk embroidered with gold, sitting on a car of ivory, +drawn by white mules. Tarik's men, who were fighting for victory or +Paradise, overwhelmed the Goths; Roderick, in his flight, was drowned +in the Guadalquivir, and his diadem of pearls and his embroidered robe +were sent to Damascus as trophies. + +Count Julian urged that the victory be immediately followed up by Musa +before there was time for the Spaniards to rally. One after another +the cities of Toledo, Cordova, and Granada capitulated, the persecuted +Jews flocking to the new standard and aiding in the conquest of their +oppressors. + +As well might one have held back the Atlantic from rushing through +that canal upon the isthmus, as to have stayed the inflowing of the +Saracens through the breach made by "the Traitor," Count Julian! +In less than two years Spain was a conquered province, rendering +allegiance to the Khalif at Damascus, and the _Moor_,--as the +followers of the Prophet in Morocco were called,--reigned in Toledo. + +It was in the year 412 that Ataulfus, with his haughty bride Placidia, +had established his Court at Barcelona, and Romanized Spain became +Gothic Spain. In 711--just three centuries later--the Visigoth kingdom +had disappeared as utterly beneath the Saracen flood as had its +ill-fated King Roderick under the waters of the Guadalquivir; and +fastened upon Christian Europe was a Mahommedan empire; an empire +which all the combined powers of that continent have never since been +able entirely to dislodge. From that ill-omened day in 709, when Tarif +set foot on the Spanish coast, to this June of 1898, the Mahommedan +has been in Europe; and remains to-day, a scourge and a blight in the +territory upon which his cruel grasp still lingers. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + +Tarik and his twelve thousand Berbers,[A] or Moors, had at one stroke +won the Spanish Peninsula. The banner of the Prophet waved over every +one of the ancient and famous cities in Andalusia, and the turbaned +army had marched through the stubborn north as far as the Spanish +border. As Musa, intoxicated with success, stood at last upon the +Pyrenees, he saw before him a vision of a subjugated Europe. The +banner of the Prophet should wave from the Pyrenees to the Baltic! A +mosque should stand where St. Peter's now stands in Rome! So, step +by step, the Moslems pressed up into Gaul, and in 732 their army had +reached Tours. + +It was a moment of supreme peril for Christendom. But, happily, +the Franks had what the Goths had not--a great leader. Charles +Martel,--then _Maire du Palais_, and virtually King of France, instead +of the feeble Lothair,--led his Franks into what was to be one of the +most decisive of the world's battles; a battle which would determine +whether Europe should be Christian or Mahommedan. + +The tide of infidel invasion had reached its limits. The strong right +arm of Charles dealt such ponderous blows that the Moslems broke in +confusion, and this savior of Christendom was thenceforth known as +Charles Martel: "Karl of the Hammer." + +After this crushing disaster at Tours the Moors realized that they +were not invincible. Their vaulting ambition did not again try to +overleap the Pyrenees; and they addressed themselves to settling +affairs in their new territory. + +It has been wisely said that if the Mahommedan state had been confined +within the borders of Arabia, it would speedily have collapsed. Islam +became a world-wide religion when it clothed itself with armor, and +became a church militant. It was _conquest_ which saved the faith of +the Prophet. In its home in Asia the Empire of Mahommed was composed +of hostile tribes and clans, and as it moved westward it gathered up +Syrians, Egyptians, and the Berbers on the African coast, who, when +Morocco was reached, were known as Moors. This strange, heterogeneous +mass of humanity, all nourished from Arabia, was held together by two +things: the _Koran_ and the _sword_. + +When conquest was exchanged for peaceful possession, all the +internecine jealousies, the tribal feuds, and old hatreds burst forth, +and the first fifty years of Moorish rule in Spain was a period of +internal strife and disorder--Arabs and Moors were jealously trying to +undermine each other; while the Arabs themselves were torn by factions +representing rival clans in Damascus. + +But a singular clemency was shown toward the conquered Spaniards. +They were permitted to retain their own law and judges, and their own +governors administered the affairs of the districts and collected the +taxes. The rule of the conquering race bore upon the people actually +less heavily than had the old Gothic rule. Jews and Christians alike +were free to worship whom or what they pleased; but, at the same time, +great benefits were bestowed upon those who would accept the religion +of the Prophet. The slave class, which was very large and had suffered +terrible cruelties under its old masters, was treated with especial +mildness and humanity. There was a simple road to freedom opened to +every man. He had only to say, "There is one God, and Mahommed is his +Prophet," and on the instant he became a freeman! + +Such gentle proselytizing as this speedily won converts, not alone +among slaves but from all classes. The pacification of Spain by the +Romans had required centuries; while only a few years sufficed to make +of the vanquished in the southern provinces, a contented and almost +happy people; not only reconciled, but even glad of the change of +masters. Never was Andalusia so mildly, justly, and wisely governed as +by her Arab conquerors. + +The most delicate of all problems is that of dealing with a conquered +race in its own land. That this should have been so wisely and so +skillfully handled would be incomprehensible if this had been really, +what it is always called, a Moorish conquest. But to be accurate, it +was a Moorish invasion and a Saracen conquest! + +The fierce Berber Moor contributed the brute force, which was wielded +by Saracen intelligence. + +The Saracens were the leaven which penetrated the whole sodden mass +of Mahommedanism. With a civilization which had been ripening for +centuries under Oriental skies,--rich in wisdom, learning, culture, +science, and in art,--they had come into Europe, infidels though they +were, to build up and not to destroy. + +The Roman conquest of Spain had civilized a barbarous race. The Gothic +conquest of Romanized Spain had converted an effete civilization into +a strong semi-barbarism. Now again the Saracen had come from the East +to convert a semi-barbarism into a civilization richer than any Spain +had yet known, and, more than that, to hold up a torch of learning +and enlightenment which should illumine Europe in the days of darkness +which were at hand. Although this difference between Arab and Moor +primarily existed, they became fused, and we shall speak of them only +as Moors. But we should not lose sight of the fact that the superior +intelligence which made the Moorish kingdom magnificent was from the +land of the Prophet. + +The Saracen dealt gently with the conquered Spaniard, not because his +heart was tender and kind, but because he was crafty and wise, and +knew when not to use force, in order to accomplish his ends. For +the same reason he refrained from trying to break the spirit of the +independent northern provinces, where the descendants of the old +Visigoths--the Hidalgos ("sons-of-somebody")--proudly intrenched +themselves in an attitude of defiance, making in time a clearly +defined Christian north and Moslem south, with a mountain range (the +Sierra Guadarrama) and a river (the Ebro) as the natural boundary +line of the two territories. The Moor was a child of the sun. If the +stubborn Goth chose to sulk, up among the chilly heights and on the +bleak plains of the north, he might do so, and it was little matter +if one Alfonso called himself "King of the Asturians," in that +mountain-defended and sea-girt province. The fertile plains of +Andalusia, and the banks of the Tagus and Guadalquivir, were all of +Spain the Moor wanted for the wonderful kingdom which was to be the +marvel of the Middle Ages. + +[Footnote A: The old Phenician name for the North African tribes, +derived from the word Iberi.] + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + +But, at the early period we are considering, the "Christian kingdom" +was composed of a handful of men and women who had fled from the +Moslems to the mountains of the Asturias. Its one stronghold was the +cave of Covadonga, where Pelagius, or Pelayo, had gathered thirty men +and ten women. Here, in the dark recesses of this cave,--which was +approached through a long and narrow mountain pass, and entered by +a ladder of ninety steps,--was the germ of the future kingdoms of +Castile and Aragon, and also of the downfall of the Moor. An Arab +historian said later: "Would to God the Moslems had extinguished +that spark which was destined to consume the dominion of Islam in the +north" and, he might have added, "_in Spain._" + +When Alfonso of Cantabria married the daughter of Pelayo in 751, the +cave of Covadonga no longer held the insurgent band. He roused all the +northern provinces against the Moors and gathered an army which drove +them step by step further south, until he had pushed the Christian +frontier as far as the great Sierra, so that the one-time Visigoth +capital of Toledo marked the line of the Moslem border fortresses. +Too scanty in numbers and too poor in purse to occupy the territory, +Alfonso and his army then retreated to their mountains, there to enjoy +the empty satisfaction of their conquest. + +But the Moors in Andalusia had too many troubles of their own at that +time to give much heed to Alfonso I. and his rebellious band hiding +in the mountains. The Berbers and the Arabs on the African coast +were jealous and antagonistic; the one was devout, credulous, and +emotional; the other cool, crafty, and diplomatic. Suddenly the +long-slumbering hatred burst into open revolt, and the Khalif sent +thirty thousand Syrians to put down a formidable revolution in his +African dominions. + +In full sympathy with their kinsmen across the sea, the Moors in Spain +began to realize that while that land had been won by twelve thousand +Berbers, led by one Berber general, that the lion's share of the +spoils had gone to the Arabs, who were carrying things with a high +hand! There were signs of a general uprising, in concert with the +revolution in Africa; and it looked as if the new territory was to be +given up to anarchy; when suddenly all was changed. + +The Khalif, who was the head of all the Mahommedan empire, was +supposed to be the supreme ruler in spiritual and temporal affairs. +But as his empire extended to such vast dimensions, he was obliged to +delegate much of his temporal authority to others; so gradually it had +become somewhat like that of the Pope. He was the supreme spiritual +head, and only nominally supreme in affairs of state. + +The family of _Omeyyad_ had given fourteen Khalifs to the Mahommedan +empire from 661 to 750; at which time the then reigning Omeyyad +was deposed, and the second dynasty of Khalifs commenced, called +_Abbaside_, after Abbas, an uncle of the Prophet. + +Abd-er-Rahman was a Prince belonging to the deposed family of +the Omeyyads. He was the only one of his family who escaped the +exterminating fury of the Abbasides. There was no future for him +in the east, so the thoughts of the ambitious youth turned to the +west--to the newly won territory of Spain. + +The coming of this last survivor of the Omeyyads to Andalusia is one +of the romances of history, and was not unlike the coming of another +young Pretender to Scotland, one thousand years later. It aroused the +same wild enthusiasm, and as if by magic an army gathered about him, +to meet the army of the Governor, Yusuf, which would resist him. +Victory declared itself for the Prince, and he entered Cordova +in triumph. Before the year had expired the dynasty of the +Omeyyads--which was to stand for three centuries--was finally +established, and its first king--Abd-er-Rahman--reigned at Cordova. + +His hereditary enemies the Abbasides followed him to Spain, and found +supporters among the disaffected. But it was in vain. The Abbaside +army of invasion was utterly annihilated; and the qualities slumbering +in this son of the Khalifs may be judged when we relate that the heads +of the Abbaside leaders were put into a bag with descriptive labels +attached to their ears, and sent to the reigning Khalif as a present. + +This little incident does not seem to have injured him in the +estimation of Mansur, the new Khalif, who said of him: "Wonderful +is this man! Such daring, wisdom, prudence! To throw himself into a +distant land; to profit by the jealousies of the people; to turn their +arms against one another instead of against himself; to win homage and +obedience through such difficulties; and to rule supreme--lord of all! +Of a truth there is not such another man!" Abd-er-Rahman (the Sultan, +as he was called) merited this praise. He knew when to be cruel and +when to show mercy; and how to hold scheming Arab chiefs, fierce, +jealous Berbers, and vanquished Christians, and could placate or +crucify as the conditions required. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + + +Charlemagne was at this time building up his colossal empire. His +Christian soul was mightily stirred by seeing an infidel kingdom set +up in Andalusia; and when, in 777, the Saracen governor and two other +Arab chiefs appealed to him for aid against the Omeyyad usurper, +Abd-er-Rahman, he eagerly responded. His grandfather Charles Martel +had driven these infidels back over the Pyrenees; now he would drive +them out of Spain, and reclaim that land for Christianity! + +His army never reached farther than Saragossa. He was recalled to +France by a revolt of the recently conquered Saxons, and the "Battle +of Roncesvalles" is the historic monument of the ill-starred attempt. +The battle in itself was insignificant. No action of such small +importance has ever been invested with such a glamour of romance, +nor the theme of so much legend and poetry. It has been called the +Thermopylæ of the Pyrenees, because of the personal valor displayed, +and the tragic death of the two great Paladins (as the twelve Peers of +Charlemagne were called) Roland and Olivier. The _Chanson de Roland_ +was one of the famous ballads in the early literature of Europe, and +Roland and Olivier were to French and Spanish minstrelsy what the +knights of King Arthur were to the English. + +The simple story about which so much has been written and sung is +this: As the retreating army of Charlemagne was crossing the Pyrenees, +the rear of the army under Roland and Olivier was ambuscaded in the +narrow pass of Roncesvalles by the Basques and exterminated to a man. + +These Basques were the unconquerable mountain tribe of which we heard +so much in the early history of Spain. They had been on guard for +centuries, keeping the Franks back from the Pyrenees. They may have +been acting under Saracenic influence when they exterminated the +rear-guard of Charlemagne's army. But it was done, not because they +loved the Saracen, but because they had a hereditary hatred for the +Franks. + +Mediæval Europe never tired of hearing of the Great Charles' lament +over his Roland: "O thou right arm of my kingdom,--defender of the +Christians,--scourge of the Saracens! How can I behold thee dead, and +not die myself! Thou art exalted to the heavenly kingdom,--and I am +left alone, a poor miserable King!" + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + +The tide which had flowed over southern Spain was a singular mixture +of religious fervor, of brutish humanity, and refinements of wisdom +and wickedness. No stranger and more composite elements were ever +thrown together. Permanence and peace were impossible. Nothing but +force could hold together elements so incongruous and antagonistic. As +soon as the hand of Abd-er-Rahman I. was removed disintegration began. +Clashing races, clans, and political parties had in a few years made +such havoc that it seemed as if the Omeyyad dynasty was crumbling. + +It might have been an Arab who said "he cared not who made the laws +of his country, so he could write its songs." Learning, literature, +refinements of luxury and of art had taken possession of the land, +which seemed given up to the muses. When in 822 Abd-er-Rahman II. +reigned, he did not trouble himself about the laws of his crumbling +empire. The one man in whom he delighted was _Ziryab_. What Petronius +was to Nero,[A] and Beau Brummel to George IV., that was Ziryab to +the Sultan Abd-er-Rahman II., the elegant arbiter in matters of taste. +From the dishes which should be eaten to the clothes which should +be worn, he was the supreme judge; while at the same time he knew by +heart and could "like an angel sing" one thousand songs to his adoring +Sultan. + +Even the Gothic Christians were seduced by these alluring refinements. +They felt contempt for their old Latin speech and for their +literature, with the tiresome asceticism it eternally preached. The +Christian ideal had grown to be one of penance and mortification of +the flesh, and to a few ardent souls these sensuous delights were an +open highway to death eternal. _Eulogius_ became the leader of this +band of zealots. In lamenting the decadence of his people, he wrote, +"hardly one in a thousand can write a decent Latin letter, and yet +they indite excellent Arabic verse!" Filled with despairing ardor this +man aroused a few kindred spirits to join him in a desperate attempt +to awaken the benumbed conscience of the Christians. They could not +get the Moslems to persecute them, but they might attain martyrdom by +cursing the Prophet; then the infidels, however reluctant, would be +compelled to behead them. This they did, and one by one perished, +to no purpose. The Gothic Christians were not conscience-stricken as +Eulogius supposed they would be, and there was no general uprising for +the Christian faith. + +In 912 the threatened ruin of the dynasty was arrested by the coming +of another Abd-er-Rahman, third Sultan of that name. Rebellion was put +down, and fifty years of wise and just administration gave solidity to +the kingdom, which also then became a _Khalifate_. + +The Abbaside Khalifs, after the deposition of the Omeyyads, had +removed the Khalifate from Damascus to Baghdad. But the empire +had extended too far west to revolve about that distant pivot. +Abd-er-Rahman--perhaps remembering the old feud between his family +and the Abbasides--determined to assume the spiritual headship of +the western part of the empire. And thereafter, the Mahommedan +empire--like the Roman--had two heads, an Eastern Khalif at Baghdad, +and a Western Khalif at Cordova. + +While thus extending his own power the Khalif was extinguishing every +spark of rebellion in the south and driving the rebellious Christians +back in the north, and at the same time he was clothing Cordova with a +splendor which amazed and dazzled even the Eastern Princes who came +to pay court to the great Khalif. His emissaries were everywhere +collecting books for his library and treasure for his palaces. Cordova +became the abode of learning, and the nursery for science, philosophy, +and art, transplanted from Asia. The imagination and the pen of +an arab poet could not have overdrawn this wonderful city on the +Guadalquivir,--with its palaces, its gardens, and fountains,--its +50,000 houses of the aristocracy,--its 700 mosques,--and 900 public +baths,--all adorned with color and carvings and tracery beautiful as a +dream of Paradise. One hears with amazement of the great mosque, +with its 19 arcades, its pavings of silver and rich mosaics, its 1293 +clustered columns, inlaid with gold and lapis-lazuli, the clusters +reaching up to the slender arches which supported the roof; the whole +of this marvelous scene lighted by countless brazen lamps made from +Christian bells, while hundreds of attendants swung censers, filling +the air with perfume. + +After the ravages of a thousand years travelers stand amazed to-day +before the forest of columns which open out in endless vistas in the +splendid ruin, calling up visions of the vanished glories of Cordova +and the Great Khalif. + +There is not time to tell of the city this Spanish Khalif built for +his favorite wife, "The Fairest," and which he called "Hill of the +Bride," upon which for fifteen years ten thousand men worked daily; +nor of the four thousand columns which adorned its palaces, presents +from emperors and potentates in Constantinople, Rome, and far-off +Eastern states; nor of the ivory and ebony doors, studded with jewels, +through which shone the sun, the light then falling on the lake of +quick-silver, which sent back blinding, quivering flashes into dazzled +eyes. And we are told of the thirteen thousand male servants who +ministered in this palace of delight. All this, too, at a time when +our Saxon ancestors were living in dwellings without chimneys, and +casting the bones from the table at which they feasted into the foul +straw which covered their floors; when a Gothic night had settled upon +Europe, and blotted out civilization so completely that only in a part +of Italy, and around Constantinople, did there remain a vestige of +refinement! + +It is said that when the embassy from Constantinople came bearing a +letter to the Khalif, the courtier whose duty it was to read it was so +awed by all this splendor that he fainted! + +And yet the owner and creator of this fabulous luxury,--Sultan and +Khalif of a dominion the greatest of his time, and with "The Fairest" +for his adored wife,--when he came to die, left a paper upon which he +had written that he could only recall fourteen days in which he had +been happy. + +[Footnote A: See "Quo Vadis?"] + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + +In the north there was developing another and very different power. +The descendants of the Visigoth Kings, making common cause with the +rough mountaineers, had shared all their hardships and rigors in the +mountains of the Asturias. Inured to privation and suffering, entirely +unacquainted with luxury or even with the comforts of living, they had +grown strong, and in a century after Alfonso I. had emerged from their +mountain shelter and removed their court and capital from Oviedo to +Leon, where Alfonso III. held sway over a group of barren kingdoms, +poor, proud, but with _Hidalgos_ and _Dons_, who were keeping alive +the sacred fires of patriotism and of religion. This was the rough +cradle of a Spanish nationality. + +They had their own jealousies and fierce conflicts, but all united in +a common hatred of the Moor. Though they did not yet dream of driving +him out of their land, their brave leaders, Ramiro I. and Ordoño I. +had been for years steadily defying and tormenting him with the kind +of warfare to which they gave its name--_guerrilla_--meaning "little +wars." + +While the Great Khalif was consolidating his Moorish kingdom and +driving the Christians back into their mountains, the power of that +people was being weakened by internal strifes existing between the +three adjacent kingdoms--Leon, Castile, and Navarre. The headship +of Leon was for years disputed by her ambitious neighbor Castile (so +called because of the numerous fortified castles with which it was +studded), under the leadership of one Fernando, Count of Castile. + +There had been the usual lapse into anarchy and weakness after the +Great Khalif's death. Andalusia always needed a master, and this she +found in _Almanzor_, who was Prime Minister to one of the Khalif's +feeble descendants. It was a sad day for the struggling kingdom in the +north when this all-subduing man took the reins in his own hands, and +left his young master to amuse himself in collecting rare manuscripts +and making Cordova more beautiful. + +This Almanzor, the mightiest of the soldiers of the Crescent since +Tarik and Musa, proclaimed a war of faith against the Christians, who +were obliged to forget their local dissensions and to try with their +combined strength to save their kingdom from extermination. These were +the darkest days to which they had yet been subjected. But for the +death of Almanzor the ruin of the Christian state would have been +complete. A monkish historian thus records this welcome event: "In +1002 died Almanzor, and was buried in hell." + +The death of Almanzor was the turning point in the fortunes of the two +kingdoms--that of the Moors and of the Christians. + +The magnificence and the glory of the kingdom faded like the mist +before the morning sun. Never again would Cordova be called the "Bride +of Andalusia." Eight years after the death of Almanzor anarchy and +ruin reigned in that city. The gentle, studious youth who was Khalif, +was dragged with his only child to a dismal vault attached to the +great mosque; and here, in darkness and cold and damp, sat the +grandson of the first Great Khalif, his child clinging to his breast +and begging in vain for food, his wretched father pathetically +pleading with his jailers for just a crust of bread, and a candle to +relieve the awful darkness. + +The brutal Berbers now had their turn. The priceless library, with its +six hundred thousand volumes, was in ashes. They were in the "City of +the Fairest." Palace after palace was ransacked, and in a few days +all that remained of its exquisite treasures of art was a heap of +blackened stones (1010). The Christians drew their broken state closer +together, and gathered themselves for a more aggressive warfare than +any yet undertaken. The time when the Moors were in the throes of +civil war was favorable. The three kingdoms of Asturias, Leon, and +Castile were in 1073 united into one "kingdom of Castile," under +Alfonso VI., who had already made great inroads upon the Moslem +territory and laid many cities under tribute. With this event, the +name _Castilian_ comes into Spanish history, and from thenceforth that +name represents all that is proudest, bravest, and most characteristic +of the part of the race which traces a direct lineage from the ancient +Visigoth Kings. + +Alfonso had not misjudged his opportunity. He had traversed Spain +with his army, and bathed in the ocean in sight of the "Pillars of +Hercules." His great general Rodrigo Diaz, known as "My Cid, the +Challenger," had cut another path all the way to Valencia, where he +reigned as a sort of uncrowned king; and he will forever reign +as crowned king in the realm of romance and poetry; the perfect +embodiment of the knightly idea--the "Challenger," who, in defense +of the faith, would stand before great armies and defy them to single +combat! Whether "My Cid" ever did such mighty deeds as are ascribed to +him, no one knows. But he stands for the highest ideal of his time. +He was the "King Arthur" of Spanish history; and so valiantly did +he serve the Christian cause that the Moors were driven to a most +disastrous step. With the Cid in Valencia, with Alfonso VI. marching +a victorious army through the Moslem territory, and with Toledo, the +city of the ancient Visigoth Kings, repossessed, it looked as if, +after almost four hundred years, the Christians were about to recover +their land. + +The Moors, thoroughly frightened, realizing how helpless they had +grown, resolved upon a desperate measure. + +There was, on the opposite African coast, a sect of Berber fanatics, +fierce and devout, known as "saints," but which the Moors called +_Almoravides_. Fighting for the faith was their occupation. What more +fitting than to use them as a means of driving the infidel Christians +out of Moslem territory! + +They came, like a cloud of locusts, and settled upon the land. Yusuf, +their general, led his men against Alfonso's Castilians October 23, +1086. Near Badajos the attack was made simultaneously in front and +rear, crushing them utterly; Alfonso barely escaping with five hundred +men. This was only the first of many other crushing defeats; the most +disheartening of which was the one in 1099, when the Cid, fighting in +alliance with Pedro, King of Aragon, was defeated near Gardia, on the +seacoast. Then the great warrior's heart broke, and he died; and we +are told he was clothed cap-à-pie in shining armor and placed upright +on his good steed Bavieca, his trusty sword in his hand--and so he +passed to his burial; his banner borne and guarded by five hundred +knights. And we are also told the Moors wonderingly watched his +departure with his knights, not suspecting that he was dead. + +The object of the Moors in inviting the odious Almoravides had been +accomplished; the Christians had been driven out of Andalusia back +into their own territory; but their African auxiliaries were too well +pleased with their new abode to think of leaving it. One by one the +Moorish Princes were subdued by the men whose aid they had invoked, +until a dynasty of the Almoravides was fastened upon Spain. To the +refined Spanish Arabs contact with these savages from the desert was +a terrible scourge, and so far as they were able they withdrew into +communities by themselves, leaving these African locusts to devour +their substance and dim their glory. + +But luxury was not favorable to the invaders. In another generation +their martial spirit was gone and they had become only ignorant, +sodden voluptuaries; and when the Christians once more renewed their +attacks, they failed to repel them as Yusuf had done thirty years +before. + +There was another fanatical sect, beyond the Atlas range in Africa, +which had long been looking for a coming Messiah, whom they called the +_Mahdi_. They were known as the _Alhomades_. A son of a lamp-lighter +in the Mosque of Cordova one day presented himself before the +Alhomades, and announced that he was the great _Mahdi_, who was +divinely appointed to lead them, and to bring happiness to all the +earth. + +The path this _Mahdi_ desired to lead them was first to Morocco, there +to subdue the Almoravides in their own land, and thence to Spain. In +a short time this entire plan was realized. The Mahdi's successor was +Emperor of Morocco, and by the year 1150 included in his dominion was +all of Mahommedan Spain! The Spanish Arabs, when they were fighting +Alfonso VI. and the "Cid," did not anticipate this disgraceful +downfall from people of their own faith. They abhorred these +Mahommedan savages, and drew together still closer for a century more +in and about their chosen refuge of Granada. + +In the early part of the thirteenth century the Emperor of Morocco +made such enormous preparations for the occupation of Spain that a +larger design upon Europe became manifest. Once more Christendom was +alarmed; not since Charles Martel had the danger appeared so great. +The Pope proclaimed a Crusade, this time not into Palestine, but +Spain. + +An army of volunteers from the kingdom of Portugal and from southern +France re-enforced the great armies of the Kings of Castile, Aragon, +and Navarre. The Crusaders, as they called themselves, assembled +at Toledo July 12, 1212, under the command of Alfonso IX., King of +Castile. The power of the Alhomades was broken, and they were driven +out of Spain. The once great Mahommedan Empire in that country was +reduced to the single province of Granada, where the Moors intrenched +themselves in their last stronghold. For nearly three centuries the +Crescent was yet to wave over the kingdom of Granada; but it was to +shine in only the pale light of a waning crescent, until its final +extinction in the full light of a Christian day. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + + +A great change had been wrought in Europe. The Crusades had opened a +channel through which flowed from the East reviving streams of ancient +knowledge and culture over the arid waste of mediævalism. France and +England had awakened from their long mental torpor, Paris was become +the center of an intellectual revival. In England, Roger Bacon, in his +"Opus Majus," was systematizing all existing knowledge and laying a +foundation for a more advanced science and philosophy for the people, +who had only recently extorted from their wicked King John the great +charter of their liberties. + +It was just at this period, when the door had suddenly opened ushering +Europe into a new life, that the Christian cause in Spain triumphed; +and, excepting in the little kingdom of Granada, the Cross waved from +the Pyrenees to the sea. After more than four centuries of steadfast +devotion to that object, the descendants of the Visigoth Kings had +come once more into their inheritance. + +They found it enriched, and clothed with a beauty of which their +ancestors could never have dreamed. These Spaniards had learned their +lesson of valor in the north, and they had learned it well. Now in the +land of the Moor, dwelling in the palaces they had built, and gazing +upon masterpieces of Arabic art and architecture which they had +left, they were to learn the subtle charm of form and color, and the +fascination which music and poetry and beauty and knowledge may +lend to life. As they drank from these Moorish fountains the rugged +warriors found them very sweet; and they discovered that there were +other pleasures in life beside fighting the Moors and nursing memories +of the Cid and their vanished heroes. + +The territory of Fernando III., King of Castile (1230-52), extended +now from the Bay of Biscay to the Guadalquivir. The ancient city of +Seville was chosen as his capital. It was a far cry from the "Cave +of Covadonga" to the Moorish palace of the "Alcazar," where dwelt +the pious descendant of Pelayo! The first act of Fernando III. was +to convert the Mosque at Seville into a cathedral, which still stands +with its Moorish bell-tower, the beautiful "Giralda." There may also +be seen to-day over one of its portals a stuffed crocodile, which was +sent alive to King Ferdinand by the Sultan of Egypt. And within the +cathedral, in a silver urn with glass sides, the traveler may also +gaze to-day upon the remains of this "Saint Ferdinand" clothed in +royal robes, and with a crown upon his head. + +Spain had begun to lift up her head among the other nations of Europe. +To defeat the Crescent was the highest ideal of that chivalric age. +Spain, longer than any other nation, had fought the Mahommedan. It +had been her sole occupation for four centuries, and now she had +vanquished him, and driven him into the mountains of one of her +smallest provinces, there to hide from the Spaniards as they had once +hidden from the Moors in the North. This was a passport to the +honor and respect of other Christian nations. She was Spain "the +Catholic"--the loved and favorite child of the Church--and great +monarchs in England, France, and Germany bestowed their sons and +daughters upon her kings and princes. Poor though she was in purse, +and somewhat rude yet in manners, she held up her head high in +proud consciousness of her aristocratic lineage, and her unmatched +championship of Christianity. + +We realize how close had become the tie binding her to other nations +when we learn that King Fernando III. was the grandson of Queen +Eleanor of England (daughter of Henry II.), and that Louis IX. of +France, that other royal saint, was his own cousin; and also that his +wife Beatrix, whom he brought with him to Seville, was daughter of +Frederick II., Emperor of Germany. + +The deep hold which Arabic life and thought had taken upon their +conquerors was shown when Alfonso X., son of Ferdinand, came to the +throne. So in love was he with learning and science that he let his +kingdom fall into utter confusion while he busied himself with a set +of astronomical tables upon which his heart was set and in holding up +to ridicule the Ptolemaic theory. If he had given less thought to +the stars, and more to the humble question as to who was to be his +successor, it would have saved much strife and suffering to those who +came after him. + +While the Moslems were building up their kingdom and making of their +capital city a second and even more beautiful Cordova, there was a +partial truce with the Moors in Granada. Moors and Christians were +enemies still; the hereditary hatreds were only lulled into temporary +repose. But Christian knights who were handsome and gallant might +love and woo Moorish maidens who were beautiful; and, as a writer +has intimated, love became the business and war the pastime of the +Spaniard in Andalusia. Spain was unconsciously inbibing the soft, +sensuous charm of the civilization she was exterminating; and the +peculiar rhythm of Spanish music, and the subtle picturesqueness +which makes the Spanish people unique among the other Latin nations +of Europe, came, not from her Gothic, nor her Roman, nor her Phenician +ancestry, but from the plains of Arabia; and the guitar and the dance +and the castanet, and the charm and the coquetry of her women, are +echoes from that far-off land of poetry and romance. Not so the +bull-fight! Would you trace to its source that pleasant pastime, you +must not go to the East; the Oriental was cruel to man, but not to +beast. He would have abhorred such a form of amusement, for the origin +of which we must look to the barbarous Kelt; or perhaps, as is more +probable, to the mysterious Iberians, since among the Latin peoples +of Europe bull-fighting is found in Spain alone. Well was it for Spain +that her rough, untutored ancestors were kept hiding in the mountains +for centuries, while that brilliant Oriental race planted their +Peninsula thick with the germs of high thinking and beautiful living. + +As the spider, after his glistening habitation has been destroyed by +some ruthless footstep, goes patiently to work to rebuild it, so the +Moor in Granada, with his imperishable instinct for beauty, was making +of his little kingdom the most beautiful spot in Europe. The city of +Granada was lovelier than Cordova; its Alhambra more enchanting than +had been the palaces in the "City of the Fairest." This citadel, +which is fortress and palace in one, still stands like the Acropolis, +looking out upon the plain from its lofty elevation. Volumes have been +written about its labyrinthine halls and corridors and courts, and the +amazing richness of decoration, which still survives--an inexhaustible +mine for artists and a shrine for lovers of the beautiful. But Granada +cultivated other things besides the art of beauty. Nowhere in Europe +was there in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries such advanced +thinking, and a knowledge so akin to our own to-day, as within the +borders of that Moorish kingdom. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + + +There were other reasons beside the growing peacefulness of the +Spaniards why Granada was left to develop in comparative security for +two centuries. It was impossible that adjacent ambitious kingdoms, +such as Navarre, Castile, Aragon, Leon, and Portugal, with indefinite +and disputed boundaries, and, on account of intermarriages between the +kingdoms, with indefinite and disputed successions, should ever be at +peace. In the perpetual strife and warfare which prevailed on +account of royal European alliances, the fate of foreign princes and +princesses were often involved, and hence European states stood ready +to take a hand. + +Castile and Aragon had gradually absorbed the smaller states, +excepting Portugal on the one side and Navarre on the other. The +history of Spain at this time is a history of the struggles of these +two states for supremacy. The most eventful as well as the most lurid +period of this prolonged civil war was while Pedro the Cruel was +king of Castile, 1350-69. This Spanish Nero, when sixteen years old, +commenced his reign by the murder of his mother. A catalogue of his +crimes is impossible. Enough to say that assassination was his remedy, +and means of escape, from every entanglement in which his treacheries +involved him. It was the unhappy fate of Blanche de Bourbon, sister of +Charles V., King of France, to marry this King of Castile, and when +he refused to live with her and had her removed from his palace the +Alcazar to a fortress, and finally poisoned her, the French King +determined to avenge the insult to his royal house. He allied himself +with the King of Aragon to destroy Pedro, with whom the King of Aragon +was of course at war. + +Edward, the "Black Prince," was then brilliantly invading France and +extending the kingdom of his father Edward III. He was the kinsman of +Pedro, and when appealed to by his cousin for aid in protecting +his kingdom from the King of Aragon and his French allies, Edward +gallantly consented to help him; and in the spring of 1367, for +the second time, a splendid army advanced through the Pass at +Roncesvalles, and a great battle, worthy of a better cause, was fought +and won. + +So this most atrocious king--perhaps excepting Richard III. of +England, whom he resembled--had for his champion the victor of Cressy +and Poictiers. He was restored to his throne, which had been usurped +by his brother Enrique (or Henry), but in a personal encounter with +Enrique soon after (which was artfully brought about by the famous +Breton knight, Bertrand du Guesclin), he met a deserved fate (1369). + +Constanza, the daughter of Pedro the Cruel, had been married to John +of Gaunt (Duke of Lancester), brother of the Black Prince and son of +Edward III. As Constanza was the great-grandmother of Isabella I. of +Spain, so in the veins of that revered Queen there flowed the blood of +the Plantagenets, as well as that of Pedro the Cruel! + +Because of the number of doubtful pretenders always existing in +Spain, disputes about the royal succession also always existed. Such +a dispute now led to a long war with Portugal, where King Fernando had +really the most valid hereditary claim to the throne made vacant by +Pedro's death. If his right had been acknowledged, Portugal and Spain +would now be united; Isabella would have remained only a poor and +devout princess, and would never have had the power to win a continent +for the world. So impossible is it to remove one of the links forged +by fate, that we dare not regret even so monstrous a reign as that of +Pedro the Cruel! + +Enrique's right to the vacant throne of his brother had two +disputants. Besides the King of Portugal, John of Gaunt, who had +married the lady Constanza,--by virtue of her rights as daughter of +Pedro,--claimed the crown of Castile. This Plantagenet was actually +proclaimed King of Castile and Leon (1386). For twenty-five years +he vainly strove to come into his kingdom as sovereign; but finally +compromised by giving his young daughter Catherine to the boy "Prince +of Asturias," the heir to the throne. He was obliged to content +himself by thus securing to his child the long-coveted prize. And it +was this Catherine, who at fourteen was betrothed to a boy of nine, +who was the grandmother of Isabella, Queen of Castile. + +When such was the private history of those highest in the land we can +only imagine what must have been that of the rest. Feudalism, which +was a part of Spain's Gothic inheritance, had always made that +country one of its strongholds, and chivalry had nowhere else found +so congenial a soil. There was no great artisan class, as in France, +creating a powerful "bourgeoisie"; no "guilds," or simple "burghers," +as in Germany, stubbornly standing for their rights; no "boroughs" +and "town meetings," where the people were sternly guarding their +liberties, as in England. + +The history of other nations is that of the struggles of the common +people against the tyranny of kings and rulers. If there were any +"common people" in Spain, they were so effaced that history makes no +mention of them. We hear only of kings and great barons and +glorious knights; and their wonderful deeds and their valor and +prowess--excepting in the wars with the Moors--were always over +boundary-lines and successions, or personal quarrels more or less +disgraceful, with never a single high purpose or a principle involved. +It was all a gay, ambitious pageant, adorned by a mantle of chivalry, +and made sacred by the banner of the Cross. In the history of no other +European country do we see a great state develop under despotism so +unredeemed by wholesome ideals, and so unmitigated and unrestrained by +gentle human impulses. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + + +Juan II., the son of the young Catherine and the boy prince of the +Asturias, died in 1454, and his son Enrique (or Henry) IV. was King of +Castile. When, after some years, Henry was without children, and +with health very infirm, his young sister Isabella unexpectedly found +herself the acknowledged heir to the throne of Castile. She suddenly +became a very important young person. The old King of Portugal was a +suitor for her hand, and a brother of the King of England, and also a +brother of the King of France, were striving for the same honor. But +Isabella had very decided views of her own. Her hero was the young +Ferdinand of Aragon, and heir to that throne. She resisted all her +brother's efforts to coerce her, and finally took the matter into her +own hands by sending an envoy to her handsome young lover to come +to her at Valladolid, with a letter telling him they had better be +married at once. + +Accompanied by a few knights disguised as merchants, Ferdinand, +pretending to be their servant, during the entire journey waited on +them at table and took care of their mules. He entered Valladolid, +where he was received by the Archbishop of Toledo, who was in the +conspiracy, and was by him conveyed to Isabella's apartments. We are +told that when he entered someone exclaimed: _Ese-es, Ese-es_ (that +is he); and the escutcheon of the descendants of that knight has ever +since borne a double _S.S._, which sounds like this exclamation. + +The marriage was arranged to take place in four days. An embarrassment +then occurred of which no one had before thought. Neither of them had +any money. But someone was found who would lend them enough for +the wedding expenses, and so on the 19th of October, 1469, the +most important marriage ever yet consummated in Spain took place--a +marriage which would forever set at rest the rivalries between Castile +and Aragon, and bring honors undreamed of to a united Spain. + +Isabella was fair, intelligent, accomplished, and lovely. She was +eighteen and her boy husband was a year younger. Of course her royal +brother stormed and raged. But, of course, it did no good. In five +years from that time (1474) he died, and Isabella, royally attired, +and seated on a white palfrey, proceeded to the throne prepared +for her, and was there proclaimed "Queen of Castile." At the end +of another five years, Ferdinand came into his inheritance. His +old father, Juan II., King of Aragon and Navarre, died in 1479, +and Castile, Aragon, and Navarre--all of Spain except Portugal and +Granada--had come under the double crown of Ferdinand and Isabella. + +The war with Portugal still existed, and their reign began in the +midst of confusion and trouble, but it was brilliant from the outset. +Ferdinand had great abilities and an ambition which matched his +abilities. Isabella, no less ambitious than he, was more far-reaching +in her plans, and always saw more clearly than Ferdinand what was +for the true glory of Spain. With infinite tact she softened his +asperities, and disarmed his jealousy, and ruled her "dear lord," by +making him believe he ruled her. + +A joint sovereignty, with a man so grasping of power and so jealous of +his own rights, required self-control and tact in no ordinary measure. +It was agreed at last that in all public acts Ferdinand's name should +precede hers; and although her sanction was necessary, his indignation +at this was abated by her promise of submission to his will. The court +of the new sovereigns was established at Seville, and they took up +their abode in that palace so filled with associations both Moorish +and Castilian--the Alcazar. From the very first Isabella's powerful +mind grappled every public question, and she gave herself heart and +soul to what she believed was her divine mission--the building up of +a great Catholic state. Isabella's devout soul was sorely troubled by +the prevalence of Judaism in her kingdom. She took counsel with her +confessor, and also with the Pope, and by their advice a religious +tribunal was established at Seville in 1483, the object of which was +to inquire of heretics whether they were willing to renounce their +faith and accept Christianity. The head of this tribunal, which was +soon followed by others in all the large cites, was a Dominican +friar called _Torquemada_. He was known as the "Inquisitor General." +Inaccessible to pity, mild in manners, humble in demeanor, yet swayed +only by a sense of duty, this strange being was so cruel that he seems +like an incarnation of the evil principle. At the tribunal in Seville +alone it is said that in thirty-six years four thousand victims were +consigned to the flames, besides the thousands more who endured living +deaths by torture, mutilation, and nameless sufferings. + +Humanity shudders at the recital! And yet this monstrous tribunal was +the creation of one of the wisest and gentlest of women, who believed +no rigors could be too great to save people from eternal death! And, +in her misguided zeal, she emptied her kingdom of a people who had +helped to create its prosperity, and drove the most valuable part of +her population into France, Italy, and England, there to disseminate +the seeds of a higher culture and intelligence which they had imbibed +from contact with the Moors, who had treated them with such uniform +tolerance and gentleness. + +The kingdom of Granada was now at the height of its splendor. Its +capital city was larger and richer than any city in Spain. Its army +was the best equipped of any in Europe. The Moorish king, a man of +fiery temper, thought the time had come when he might defy his enemy +by refusing to pay an annual tribute to which his father had ten years +before consented. When Ferdinand's messenger, in 1476, came to demand +the accustomed tribute, he said, "Go tell your master the kings +who pay tribute in Granada are all dead. Our mints coin nothing but +sword-blades now." + +The cool and crafty Ferdinand prepared his own answer to this +challenge. The infatuated King Abdul-Hassan followed up his insult by +capturing the Christian fortress of Zahara. His temper was not at the +best at this time on account of a war raging in his own household. His +wife Ayesha was fiercely jealous of a Christian captive whom he had +also made his wife. She had become his favorite Sultana, and was +conspiring to have her own son supplant Boabdil, the son of Ayesha, +the heir to the throne. In his championship of Zoraya and her son, +Abdul-Hassan imprisoned Ayesha and Boabdil, whom he threatened to +disinherit. We are shown to-day the window in the Alhambra from which +Ayesha lowered Boabdil in a basket, telling him to come back with an +army and assert his rights. Suddenly, while absorbed by this smaller +war, news came that Alhama, their most impregnable fortress, only six +leagues from the city of Granada, had been captured by Ferdinand's +army. It was the key to Granada. Despair was in every soul. The air +was filled with wailing and lamentation. "Woe, woe is me, Alhama!" +"Ay de mi, Alhama!" Indignant with their old king, who had brought +destruction upon them, when Boabdil came with his army of followers, +they flocked about him--"El Rey Chico!" (the boy king) as they called +him. Abdul Hassan was forced to fly, and Boabdil reigned over the +expiring kingdom. It was a brief and troubled reign. + +In the famous "Court of the Lions" in the Alhambra, visitors are +shown to-day the blood-stains left by the celebrated massacre of the +"Abencerrages." The Abencerrages had supported the claim of Ayesha's +rival, Zoraya; and it is said that Boabdil invited the Princes of this +clan, some thirty in number, to a friendly conference in the Alhambra, +and there had them treacherously beheaded at the fountain. + +But whether this blood-stain upon his memory is as doubtful as those +upon the stones at the fountain, seems an open question. + +[Illustration: From the painting by V. Brozik. + Columbus at the Court of Ferdinand and Isabella.] + +So stubborn was the defense, it appeared sometimes as if the reduction +of Granada would have to be abandoned. Isabella's courage and faith +were sorely tried. But the brave Queen infused her own courage into +the flagging spirits of her husband, and kept alive the enthusiasm of +the people; and at last,--on the 2d of January, 1402,--the proud +city capitulated. Boabdil surrendered the keys of the Alhambra to +Ferdinand--the silver cross which had preceded the King throughout the +war gleamed from a high tower; and from the loftiest pinnacle of the +Alhambra waved the banners of Castile and Aragon. + +The conflict which had lasted for 781 years was over. The death of +Roderick and the fall of the Goths was avenged, and Christendom, still +weeping for the loss of Constantinople, was consoled and took heart +again. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + + +The reduction of Granada had required eleven years, and had drained +the kingdom of all its resources. It is not strange that Isabella +should have had no time to listen seriously to a threadbare enthusiast +asking for money and ships for a strange adventure! To have grown old +and haggard in pressing an unsuccessful project is not a passport +to the confidence of Princes. But the gracious Queen had promised +to listen to him when the war with the Moors was concluded. So now +Columbus sought her out at Granada; and it is a strange scene which +the imagination pictures--a shabby old man pleading with a Queen in +the halls of the Alhambra for permission to lift the veil from an +unsuspected Hemisphere; artfully dwelling upon the glory of planting +the Cross in the dominions of the Great Khan! The cool, unimaginative +Ferdinand listened contemptuously; but Isabella, for once opposing the +will of her "dear lord," arose and said, "The enterprise is mine. I +undertake it for Castile." And on the 3d of August, 1492, the little +fleet of caravels sailed from the mouth of the same river whence had +once sailed the "ships of Tarshish," laden with treasure for King +Solomon and "Hiram, King of Tyre." A union with Portugal--the land +of the Lusitanians and of Sertorius--was all that was now required to +make of the Spanish Peninsula one kingdom. This Isabella planned to +accomplish by the marriage of her oldest daughter, Isabella, with the +King of Portugal. Her son John, heir to the Spanish throne, had died +suddenly just after his marriage with the daughter of Maximilian, +Emperor of Germany. + +This terrible blow was swiftly followed by another, the death of her +daughter Isabella, and also that of the infant which was expected to +unite the kingdoms of Portugal and Spain. The succession of Castile +and Aragon now passed to Joanna, her second daughter, who had married +Philip, Archduke of Austria and son of Maximilian, an unfortunate +child who seemed on the verge of madness. + +Isabella's youngest daughter, Catherine, became the wife of Henry +VIII. of England. Happily the mother did not live to witness this +child's unhappiness; but her heart-breaking losses and domestic griefs +were greater than she could bear. The unbalanced condition of Joanna, +upon whom rested all her hopes, was undermining her health. The +results of the expedition of Columbus had exceeded the wildest dreams +of romance. Gold was pouring in from the West enough to pay for the +war with the Moors many times over, and for all wars to come. Spain, +from being the poorest, had suddenly become the richest country in +Europe; richest in wealth, in territory, and in the imperishable glory +of its discovery. But Isabella,--who had been the instrument in this +transformation,--who had built up a firm united kingdom and swept it +clean of heretics, Jews, and Moors,--was still a sad and disappointed +woman, thwarted in her dearest hopes; and on the 26th of November, +1504, she died leaving the fruits of her triumphs to a grandson six +years old. + +This infant Charles was proclaimed King of Castile under the regency +of his ambitious father, the Archduke of Austria, and his insane +mother. The death of the Archduke and the incapacity of Joanna in a +few years gave to Ferdinand the control of the two kingdoms for which +he had contended and schemed, until his own death in 1516, when +the crowns of Castile and Aragon passed to his grandson, who was +proclaimed Charles I., King of Spain. + +A plain, sedate youth of sixteen was called from his home in Flanders +to assume the crowns of Castile and Aragon. Silent, reserved, and +speaking the Spanish language very imperfectly, the impression +produced by the young King was very unpromising. No one suspected the +designs which were maturing under that mask; nor that this boy was +planning to grasp all the threads of diplomacy in Europe, and to be +the master of kings. + +In 1517 Maximilian died, leaving a vacant throne in Germany to be +contended for by the ambitious Francis I. of France and Maximilian's +grandson, Charles. + +It was a question of supremacy in Europe. So the successful aspirant +must win to himself Leo X., Henry VIII. and his great minister Wolsey, +and after that the Electors of Germany. It required consummate skill. +Francis I. was an able player. The astute Wolsey made the moves for +his master Henry VIII., keeping a watchful eye on Charles, "that young +man who looks so modest, and soars so high"; while Leo X., unconscious +of the coming Reformation, was craftily aiding this side or that as +benefit to the Church seemed to be promised. + +But that "modest young man" played the strongest game. Charles was, by +the unanimous vote of the Electors, raised to the imperial throne; +and the grandson of Isabella, as Charles I. of Spain and Charles V. of +Germany, possessed more power than had been exercised by any one man +since the reign of Augustus. The territory over which he had dominion +in the New World was practically without limit. Mexico surrendered to +Cortez (1521) and Peru to Pizarro (1532); Ponce de Leon was in Florida +and de Soto on the banks of the Mississippi; while wealth, fabulous in +amount, was pouring into Spain, and from thence into Flanders. + +The history of Charles belongs, in fact, more to Europe than to Spain. +No slightest tenderness seems to have existed in his cold heart for +the land of Isabella, which he seemed to regard simply as a treasury +from which to draw money for the objects to which he was really +devoted. So, in fact, Spain was governed by an absolute despot who was +Emperor of Germany, where he resided, and she visibly declined from +the strength and prosperity which had been created by the wise and +personal administration of Ferdinand and Isabella. + +The Cortes, where the deputies had never been allowed the privilege +of debate, had been at its best a very imperfect expression of popular +sentiment; and now was reduced to a mere empty form. Abuses which had +been corrected under the vigilant personal administration of two able +and patriotic sovereigns returned in aggravated form. Misrule and +disorder prevailed, while their King was absorbed in the larger field +of European politics and diplomacy. + +The light in which Spain shines in this, which is always accounted +her most glorious period, was that of Discovery and Conquest and the +enormous wealth coming therefrom; all of which was bestowed by that +shabby adventurer and suppliant at the Alhambra, in whom Isabella +alone believed, and who, after enriching Spain beyond its wildest +expectations, was permitted to die in poverty and neglect at +Valladolid in 1506! History has written its verdict: imperishable +renown to Columbus, Balboa, Magellan, and the navigators who dared +such perils and won so much; and eternal infamy to the men who planted +a bloodstained Cross in those distant lands. The history of the West +Indies, of Mexico, and Peru is unmatched for cruelty in the annals of +the world; and Isabella's is the only voice that was ever raised in +defense of the gentle, helpless race which was found in those lands. + +The Reformation, which had commenced in Germany with the reign of +Charles V., had assumed enormous proportions. Charles, who was a bigot +with "heart as hard as hammered iron," was using with unsparing hand +the Inquisition, that engine of cruelty created by his grandmother. +And while his captains, the "conquistadors," were burning and +torturing in the West, he was burning and torturing in the East. +His entire reign was occupied in a struggle with his ambitious rival +Francis I., and another and vain struggle with the followers of +Luther. + +He had married Isabel, the daughter of the King of Portugal. Philip, +his son and heir, was born in 1527. The desire of his heart was to +secure for this son the succession to the imperial throne of Germany. +To this the electors would not consent. He was defeated in the two +objects dearest to his heart: the power to bequeath this imperial +possession to Philip, and the destruction of Protestantism. So this +most powerful sovereign since the day of Charlemagne felt himself +ill-used by Fate. Weary and sick at heart, in the year 1556 he +abdicated in favor of Philip. The Netherlands was his own to bestow +upon his son, as that was an inheritance from his father, the +Archduke of Austria. So the fate of Philip does not seem to us so very +heart-breaking, as, upon the abdication of his father, he was King +of Spain, of Naples, and of Sicily; Duke of Milan; Lord of the +Netherlands and of the Indies, and of a vast portion of the American +continent stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific! + +Such was the inheritance left to his son by the disappointed man +who carried his sorrows to the monastery at St. Yuste, where the +austerities and severities he practiced finally cost him his life +(1558). But let no one suppose that these penances were on account of +cruelties practiced upon his Protestant subjects! From his cloister +he wrote to the inquisitors adjuring them to show no mercy; to deliver +all to the flames, even if they should recant; and the only regret of +the dying penitent was that he had not executed Luther! + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + + +Philip established his capital at Madrid, and commenced the Palace +of the Escurial, nineteen miles distant, which stands to-day as +his monument. His coronation was celebrated by an _auto-da-fé_ at +Valladolid, which it is said "he attended with much devotion." One of +the victims, an officer of distinction, while awaiting his turn said +to him: "Sire, how can you witness such tortures?" "Were my own son in +your place I should witness it," was the reply; which was a key to the +character of the man. + +[Illustration: From the painting by Velasquez. + The Surrender of Breda.] + +He asserted his claim through his mother, the Princess Isabel of +Portugal, to the throne of that country, and after a stubborn contest +with the Lusitanians, the long-desired union of Spain and Portugal was +accomplished. This event was celebrated by Cervantes in a poem which +extravagantly lauds his sovereign. Henry VIII. had been succeeded in +England by Mary, daughter of his unhappy Queen, Catherine of Aragon, +who, it will be remembered, was the daughter of Ferdinand and +Isabella. Mary had inherited the intense religious fervor and perhaps +the cruel instincts of her mother's family, and she quickly set about +restoring Protestant England to the Catholic faith. Philip saw in a +union with Mary and a joint sovereignty over England, such as he hoped +would follow, an immense opportunity for Spain. The marriage took +place with great splendor, and in the desire to please her handsome +husband, of whom she was very fond, she commenced the work which has +given her the title, "Bloody Mary." In vain were human torches lighted +to lure Philip from Spain, where he lingered. She did not win his +love, nor did Philip reign conjointly with his royal consort in +England. Mary died in 1558, and her Protestant sister Elizabeth, +daughter of Anne Boleyn, was Queen of England. + +Philip had made up his mind that Protestantism should be exterminated +in his kingdom of the Netherlands. He could not go there himself, so +he looked about for a suitable instrument for his purpose. The Duke of +Alva was the man chosen. He was appointed Viceroy, with full authority +to carry out the pious design. Heresy must cease to exist in the +Netherlands. The arrival of Alva, clothed with such despotic powers, +and the atrocities committed by him, caused the greatest indignation +in the Netherlands. The Prince of Orange, aided by the Counts Egmont +and Horn, organized a party to resist him, and a revolution was +commenced which lasted for forty years, affording one of the blackest +chapters in the history of Europe. The name of Alva stands at the head +of the list of men who have wrought desolation and suffering in the +name of religion. The other European states protested, and Elizabeth, +in hot indignation, gave aid to the persecuted states. + +Philip had contracted a marriage, after Mary's death, with the +daughter of that terrible woman Catherine de Medici, widow of Henry +II. of France, and there is much reason to believe that it was this +Duke of Alva who planned the Massacre of St. Bartholomew. There were +sinister conferences between Catherine, Philip, and Alva, and little +doubt exists that the hideous tragedy which occurred in Paris on the +night of August 24, 1572, was arranged in Madrid, and had its first +inception in the cruel breast of Alva. + +There had not been much love existing before between Philip and +Elizabeth, who it is said had refused the hand of her Spanish +brother-in-law. But after her interference in the Netherlands, and +when her ships were intercepting and waylaying Spanish ships returning +with treasure from the West, and when at last the one was the accepted +champion of the Protestant, and the other of the Catholic cause, they +became avowed enemies. Philip resolved to prepare a mighty armament +for the invasion of England. + +In 1587 Elizabeth sent Sir Francis Drake to reconnoiter and find out +what Philip was doing. He appeared with twenty-five vessels before +Cadiz. Having learned all he wanted, and burned a fleet of merchant +vessels, he returned to his Queen. + +In May, 1588, a fleet of one hundred and thirty ships, some "the +largest that ever plowed the deep," sailed from Lisbon for the English +coast. We may form some idea to-day of what must have been the feeling +in England when this Armada, unparalleled in size, appeared in the +English Channel! If Sir Francis Drake's ships were fewer and smaller, +he could match the Spaniards in audacity. He sent eight fireships +right in among the close-lying vessels. Then, in the confusion which +followed, while they were obstructed and entangled with their own +fleet, he swiftly attacked them with such vigor that ten ships were +sunk or disabled, and the entire fleet was demoralized. Then a storm +overtook the fleeing vessels, and the winds and the waves completed +the victory. As in the Spanish report of the disaster thirty-five is +the number of ships acknowledged to be lost, we may imagine how great +was the destruction. So ended Philip's invasion of England, and the +great Spanish "Armada." + +Philip II. died, 1598, in the Palace of the Escurial which he had +built, and with that event ends the story of Spain's greatness. The +period of one hundred and twenty-five years, including the reigns of +Ferdinand and Isabella, of Charles V., and of Philip II., is, in a +way, one of unmatched splendor. Spain had not like England by slow +degrees expanded into great proportions, but through strange and +perfectly fortuitous circumstances, she had, from a proud obscurity, +suddenly leaped into a position of commanding power and magnificence. +Fortune threw into her lap the greatest prize she ever had to bestow, +and at the same time gave her two sovereigns of exceptional qualities +and abilities. The story of this double reign is the romance, the +fairy tale of history. Then came the magnificent reign of Charles V. +with more gifts from fortune--the imperial crown, if not a substantial +benefit to Spain, still bringing dignity and éclat. But under this +glittering surface there had commenced even then a decline. Under +Philip II. she was still magnificent, Europe was bowing down to her, +but the decline was growing more manifest; and with the accession of +his puny son, Philip III., there was little left but a brilliant past, +which a proud and retrospective nation was going to feed upon for over +three centuries. But it takes some time for such dazzling effulgence +to disappear. The glamour of the Spanish name was going to last a +long time and picturesquely veil her decay. The memory of such an +ascendancy in Europe nourished the intense national pride of her +people. The name Castilian took on a new significance. + +Nor can we wonder at their pride in the name "Castilian." Its glory +was not the capricious gift of fortune, but won by a devotion, a +constancy, and a fidelity of purpose which are unique in the history +of the world. For seven hundred years the race for which that name +stands had kept alive the national spirit, while their land was +occupied by an alien civilization. These were centuries of privation +and suffering and hardship; but never wavering in their purpose, and +by brave deeds which have filled volumes, they reclaimed their land +and drove out the Moors. + +This is what gives to the name "Castilian," its proud significance. +But when degenerate Hidalgos and Grandees, debauched by wealth +and luxury, gloried in the name; when by rapacity and cruelty they +destroyed the lands their valor had won; and when the Inquisition +became their pastime and the rack and the wheel their toys--then +the name Castilian began to take on a sinister meaning. Spain's most +glorious period was not when she was converting the Indies and Mexico +and Peru into a hell, not when Charles V. was playing his great game +of diplomacy in Europe, but in that pre-Columbian era when a brave and +rugged people were keeping alive their national life in the mountains +of the Asturias. Well may Spain do honor to that time by calling the +heir to her throne the "Prince of the Asturias!" + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + + +The history of the century after the death of Philip II. is one of +rapid decline; with no longer a powerful master-mind to hold the state +together. Every year saw the court at Madrid more splendid, and the +people,--that insignificant factor,--more wretched, and sinking deeper +and deeper into poverty. In fact, in spite of the fabulous wealth +which fortune had poured upon her, Spain was becoming poor. But +nowhere in Europe was royalty invested with such dignity and splendor +of ceremonial, and the ambitious Marie de Medici, widow of Henry IV., +was glad to form alliances for her children with those of Philip +III. The "Prince of the Asturias," who was soon to become Philip +IV., married her daughter, Isabella de Bourbon, and the Infanta, his +sister, was at the same time married to the young Louis XIII., King of +France. + +[Illustration: Philip IV. of Spain. + From the portrait by Velasquez.] + +The remnant of the Moors who still lingered in the land were called +_Moriscos_; and under a very thin surface of submission to Christian +Spain, they nursed bitter memories and even hopes that some miracle +would some day restore them to what was really the land of their +fathers. A very severe edict, promulgated by Philip II., compelling +conformity in all respects with Christian living, and--as if that +were not a part of Christian living--forbidding _ablutions_, led to a +serious revolt. And this again led to the forcible expulsion of every +Morisco in Spain. + +In 1609, by order of Philip III., the last of the Moors were conveyed +in galleys to the African coast whence they had come just nine hundred +years before. + +In a narrative so drenched with tears, it is pleasant to hear of +light-hearted laughter. We are told that when the young King Philip +III. saw from his window a man striking his forehead and laughing +immoderately he said: "That man is either mad, or he is reading +'Don Quixote'"--which latter was the case. But the story written +by Cervantes did more than entertain. Chivalry had lingered in the +congenial soil of Spain long after it had disappeared in every other +part of Europe; but when in the person of Don Quixote it was made to +appear so utterly ridiculous, it was heard of no more. + +Philip III., who died in 1621, was succeeded by his son Philip IV. +As in the reign of his father worthless favorites ruled, while +a profligate king squandered the money of the people in lavish +entertainments and luxuries. Much has been written about the visit of +Charles, Prince of Wales (afterward Charles I.), accompanied by the +Duke of Buckingham, at his court; whither the young Prince had come +disguised, to see the Infanta, Philip's sister, whom he thought of +making his queen. Probably she did not please him, or perhaps the +alliance with Protestant England was not acceptable to the pious +Catholic family of Philip. At all events, Henrietta, sister of +Louis XIII. of France, was his final choice; and shared his terrible +misfortunes a few years later. + +A revolt of the Catalonians on the French frontier led to a difficulty +with France, which was finally adjusted by the celebrated "treaty of +the Pyrenees." In this treaty was included the marriage of the young +King Louis XIV. and Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV., the King +of Spain. The European Powers would only consent to this union upon +condition that Louis should solemnly renounce all claim to the Spanish +crown for himself and his heirs; which promise had later a somewhat +eventful history. + +Seven of the United Provinces had achieved their independence during +the reign of the third Philip, who had also driven out of his kingdom +six hundred thousand Moriscos; by far the most skilled and industrious +portion of the community. And now, at the close of the reign of Philip +IV., the kingdom was further diminished by the loss of Portugal; +which, in 1664, the Lusitanians recovered, and proclaimed the Duke +of Braganza King. When we add to this the loss of much of the +Netherlands, and of the island of Jamaica, and concessions here and +there to France and to Italy, it will be obvious that a process of +contraction had soon followed that of Spain's phenomenal expansion! + +During the reign of Carlos II., who succeeded his father (1665), Spain +was still further diminished by the cession to Louis XIV., in 1678, of +more provinces in the Low Countries and also of the region now known +as Alsace and Lorraine; which, it will be remembered, have in our own +time passed from the keeping of France to that of victorious Germany. + +In the year 1655 the island of Jamaica was captured by an expedition +sent out by Cromwell. It was between the years 1670 and 1686 that the +Spaniard and the Anglo-Saxon had their first collision in America. +St. Augustine had been founded in 1565, and the old Spanish colony was +much disturbed in 1663, when Charles II. of England planted an English +colony in their near neighborhood (the Carolinas). During the war +between Spain and England at the time above mentioned, feeling ran +high between Florida and the Carolinas, and houses were burned and +blood was shed. Spain had felt no concern about the little English +colony planted on the bleak New England coast in 1620. Death by +exposure and starvation promised speedily to remove that. But the +settlement on the Carolinas was more serious, and at the same time +the French were planting a colony of their own at the mouth of the +Mississippi. The "lords of America" began to feel anxious about their +control of the Gulf of Mexico. The cloud was a very small one, but it +was not to be the last which would dim their skies in the West. + +The one thing which gives historic importance to the reign of Carlos +II. is that it marks the close--the ignominious close--of the great +Hapsburg dynasty in Spain. And if the death of Carlos, in 1700, was a +melancholy event, it is because with it the scepter so magnificently +wielded by Ferdinand and Isabella passed to the keeping of the House +of Bourbon, whose Spanish descendants have, excepting for two brief +intervals, ruled Spain ever since. + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + + +The last century had wrought great changes in European conditions. +"The Holy Roman Empire," after a thirty-years' war with Protestantism, +was shattered, and the Emperor of Germany was no longer the head of +Europe. Protestant England had sternly executed Charles I., and then +in the person of James II. had swept the last of the Catholic House +of Stuart out of her kingdom. France, on the foundation laid by +Richelieu, had developed into a powerful despotism, which her King, +Louis XIV., was making magnificent at home and feared abroad. + +For Spain it had been a century of steady decline, with loss of +territory, power, and prestige. No longer great in herself, she was +regarded by her ambitious neighbor, Louis XIV., as only a make-weight +in the supremacy in Europe upon which he was determined. He had been +ravaging the enfeebled German Empire, and now a friendly fate opened +a peaceful door through which he might make Spain contribute to his +greatness. + +Carlos II. died (1700) without an heir. There was a vacant throne in +Spain to which--on account of Louis' marriage, years before, with the +Spanish Princess Maria Theresa--his grandson Philip had now the +most valid claim. The other claimant, Archduke Karl, son of Leopold, +Emperor of Germany, in addition to having a less direct hereditary +descent, was unacceptable to the Spanish people, who had no desire to +be ruled again by an occupant of the Imperial throne of Germany. + +So, as Louis wished it, and the Spanish people also wished it, there +was only one obstacle to his design; that was a promise made at the +time of his marriage that he would never claim that throne for himself +or his heirs. But when the Pope, after "prayerful deliberation," +absolved him from that promise the way was clear. This grandson, just +seventeen years old, was proclaimed Philip V., King of Spain, and +Louis in the fullness of his heart exclaimed, "The Pyrenees have +ceased to exist!" + +Perhaps it would have been better for the King if he had not made that +dramatic exclamation. A man who could remove mountains to make a path +for his ambitions might also drain seas! England took warning. She had +been quietly bearing his insults for a long time, and not till he had +impertinently threatened to place upon her throne the Pretender, the +exiled son of James II., had she joined the coalition against the +French King. But now she sent more armies, and a great captain +to re-enforce Prince Eugene, who was fighting this battle for the +Archduke Karl and for Europe. + +But Louis had reached the summit. He was to go no higher than he had +climbed when he uttered that vain boast. Philip V. was acknowledged +King in 1702, and in 1704 _Blenheim_ had been fought and won by +Marlborough, and the decline of the _Grand Monarque_ had commenced. + +The war against him by a combined Europe now became the war of the +"Spanish Succession." England and Holland united with Emperor Leopold +to curb his limitless ambition. The purpose of the war of the "Spanish +Succession" was, ostensibly, to place the Austrian Archduke upon the +throne of Spain; its real purpose was to check the alarming ascendancy +of Louis XIV. in Europe. + +It lasted for years, the poor young King and Queen being driven +from one city to another, while the Austrian Archduke was at Madrid +striving to reign over a people who would not recognize him. + +Spain was being made the sport of three nations in pursuance of their +own ambitious ends. Her land was being ravaged by foreign armies, +recruited from three of her own disaffected provinces; while a young +King with whom she was well satisfied was peremptorily ordered to +make way for one Austria, England, and Holland preferred. It was +a humiliating proof of the decline in national spirit, and the old +Castilian pride must have sorely degenerated for such things to be +possible. + +Finally, after Louis XIV. had once more given solemn oath that the +crowns of France and Spain should never be united, the "Peace of +Utrecht" was signed (1713). But the provisions of the treaty were +momentous for Spain. She was at one stroke of the pen stripped of half +her possessions in Europe. Philip V. was acknowledged King of Spain +and the Indies. But Sicily, with its regal title, was ceded to the +Duke of Savoy; Milan, Naples, Sardinia, and the Netherlands went to +Karl, now Emperor Charles VI. of Germany; while Minorca and Gibraltar +passed to the keeping of England. + +No one felt unmixed satisfaction, except perhaps England. The Archduke +had failed to get his throne, and to wear the double crown like +Charles V. Louis had carried his point. He had succeeded in keeping +the kingdom for his grandson. But that kingdom was dismembered, and +had shrunk to insignificant proportions in Europe, while England, most +fortunate of all, had carried off the key to the Mediterranean. That +little rocky promontory of Gibraltar was potentially of more value +than all the rest! + +Such was the beginning of the dynasty of the Bourbon in Spain. Philip +was succeeded, upon his death in 1746, by his son Ferdinand VI., who +also died, in 1759, and was succeeded by his brother, Philip's second +son, who was known as Carlos III. When we try to praise these princes +of the wretched Bourbon line, it is by mention of the evil they have +refrained from doing rather than the good they have done. So Carlos +III. is said to have done less harm to Spain than his predecessors. He +established libraries and academies of science and of arts, and +ruled like a kind-hearted gentleman, without the vices of his recent +predecessors. His severity toward the Jesuits and their forcible +expulsion from Spain, in 1767, are said to have been caused by +personal resentment on account of some slanderous rumors regarding his +birth, which were traced to them. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + + +But the fate of Spain was not now in the hands of her Kings. Were they +good or evil she was destined henceforth to drift in the currents of +_circumstance_, that sternest of masters, to whom her Kings as well +as her people would be obliged helplessly to bow. All that she now +possessed outside the borders of her own kingdom was the West Indies, +her colonies in America, North and South, and the Philippines, +that archipelago of a thousand isles in the southern Pacific, where +Magellan was slain by the savage inhabitants after he had discovered +it (1520). + +Mexico and Peru had proved to be inexhaustible sources of wealth, and +when the gold and silver diminished, the Viceroys in these and the +other colonies could compel the people to wring rich products out of +the soil, enough to supply Spain's necessities. The inhabitants of +these colonies, composed of the aboriginal races with an admixture of +Spanish, had been treated as slaves and drudges for so many centuries +that they never dreamed of resistance, nor questioned the justice of a +fate which condemned them always to toil for Spain. + +In the North the feeble colony planted in 1620 had expanded into +thirteen vigorous English colonies. France, too, had been colonizing +in America, and had drawn her frontier line from the mouth of the +Mississippi to Canada. In 1755 a collision occurred between England +and France over their American boundaries. By the year 1759, France +had lost Quebec and every one of her strongholds, and she formed an +alliance with Spain in a last effort to save her vanishing possessions +in America. + +Spain's punishment for this interference was swift. England promptly +dispatched ships to Havana and to the Philippines; and when we read of +the Anglo-Saxon capturing Havana and the adjacent islands on one side +of the globe, and the City of Manila and fourteen of the Philippines +on the other, in the midsummer of 1762, it has a slightly familiar +sound. And when the old record further says, the "conquest in the West +Indies cost many precious lives, more of whom were destroyed by the +climate than by the enemy," and still again, "the capture of Manila +was conducted with marvelous celerity and judgment," we begin to +wonder whether we are reading the dispatches of the Associated Press +in 1898, or history! + +In the treaty which followed these victories, upon condition of +England's returning Havana, and all the conquered territory excepting +a portion of the West India Islands, Spain ceded to her the peninsula +of Florida; while France, who was obliged to give to England all her +territory east of the Mississippi, gave to Spain in return for her +services the city of New Orleans, and all her territory west of the +great river. This territory was retroceded to France by Spain in the +year 1800, by the "Treaty of Madrid," and in 1803 was purchased by +America from Napoleon, under the title of "Louisiana." + +There was a growing irritation in the Spanish heart against England. +She was crowding Spain out of North America, had insinuated herself +into the West India Islands, and she was mistress of Gibraltar. So +it was with no little satisfaction that they saw her involved in a +serious quarrel with her American colonies, at a time when a stubborn +and incompetent Hanoverian King was doing his best to destroy her. +The hour seemed auspicious for recovering Gibraltar, and also to drive +England out of the West Indies. The alliance with France had become a +permanent one, and was known as a _family compact_ between the Bourbon +cousins Louis XV. and Carlos III. France had at this time rather +distracting conditions at home; but she was thirsting for revenge at +the loss of her rich American possessions, and besides, a sentimental +interest in the brave people who had proclaimed their independence +from the mother country, and were fighting to maintain it, began to +manifest itself. It was fanned, no doubt, by a desire for England's +humiliation; but it assumed a form too chivalric and too generous for +Americans ever to discredit by unfriendly analysis of motive. Spain +cared little for the cause of the colonies; but she was quite willing +to help them by worrying and diverting the energies of England. So +she invested Gibraltar. A garrison of only a handful of men astonished +Europe by the bravery of its defense. Gibraltar was not taken by +the Bourbon allies, neither were the English driven out of the West +Indies. But it was a satisfaction to Spain to see her humbled by her +victorious colonies! + +So Carlos III. had indirectly assisted in the establishment of a +republic on the confines of his Mexican Empire; apparently unconscious +of the contagion in the word _independence_. But he quickly learned +this to his sorrow. The story of the revolted and freed colonies sped +on the wings of the wind. And in Peru a brave descendant of the Incas +arose as a Deliverer. He led sixty thousand men into a vain fight for +liberty. Of course the effort failed, but a spirit had been awakened +which might be smothered, but never extinguished. + +Carlos III. died in 1788 and was succeeded by his son Carlos IV. + +During the miserable reign of this miserable King, France caught the +infection from the free institutions in America. The Republic she had +helped to create was fatal to monarchy in her own land. A revolution +accompanied by unparalleled horrors swept away the whole tyrannous +system of centuries and left the country a trembling wreck--but free. +The dream of a republic was brief. Napoleon gathered the imperfectly +organized government into his own hands, then by successive and rapid +steps arose to Imperial power. France was an Empire, and adoringly +submitted to the man who swiftly made her great and feared in Europe. +She had another Charlemagne, who was bringing to his feet Kings and +Princes, and annexing half of Europe to his empire! + +Spain, all unconscious of his designs, and perhaps thinking this +invincible man might help her to get back Gibraltar and to drive the +English out of the West Indies, joined him in 1804 in a war against +Great Britain; and the following year the combined fleets of France +and Spain were annihilated by Lord Nelson off Cape Trafalgar. Family +dissensions in the Spanish royal household at this time were opportune +for Napoleon's designs. Carlos and his son Ferdinand were engaged +in an unseemly quarrel. Carlos appealed to Napoleon regarding the +treasonable conduct and threats of his son. Nothing could have better +suited the purposes of the Emperor. The fox had been invited to +be umpire! French troops poured into Spain. Carlos, under protest, +resigned in favor of his son, who was proclaimed Ferdinand VII. +(1807). The young King was then invited to meet the Emperor for +consultation at Bayonne. He found himself a prisoner in France, and to +Joseph Bonaparte, brother of the Emperor, was transferred the Crown of +Spain. + +The nation seemed paralyzed by the swiftness and the audacity of these +overturnings. But soon popular indignation found expression. Juntas +were formed. The one at Seville, calling itself the Supreme Junta, +proclaimed an alliance with Great Britain; its purpose being the +expulsion of the French from their kingdom. + +Spain was in a state of chaos. Joseph was not without Spanish +adherents, and there was no leader, no legitimate head to give +constitutional stamp to the acts of the protesting people, who without +the usual formalities convoked the Cortes. But while they were groping +after reforms, and while Lord Wellington was driving back the French, +Napoleon had met his reverse at Moscow, and a "War of Liberation" had +commenced in Germany. + +The grasp upon the Spanish throne relaxed. The captive King had +permission to return, and the reign of Joseph was ended by his +ignominious flight from the kingdom, with one gold-piece in his pocket +(1814). + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + + +The decade between 1804 and 1814 had been very barren in external +benefits to Spain, with her King held in "honorable captivity" in +France, and the obscure Joseph abjectly striving to please not his +subjects, but his august brother Napoleon. But in this time of chaos, +when there was no Bourbon King, no long-established despotism to +stifle popular sentiment, the unsuspected fact developed that Spain +had caught the infection of freedom. + +[Illustration: From the painting by C. Alvarez Dumont. + Heroic Combat in the Pulpit of the Church of St. + Augustine, Saragossa, 1809.] + +When, as we have seen, the Cortes assumed all the functions of a +government, that body (in 1812) drew up a new Constitution for Spain. +So completely did this remodel the whole administration, that the most +despotic monarchy in Europe was transformed into the one most severely +limited. + +Great was the surprise of Ferdinand VII. when, in 1814, he came to the +throne of his ejected father Carlos IV., to find himself called upon +to reign under a Constitution which made Spain almost as free as a +republic. He promulgated a decree declaring the Cortes illegal and +rescinding all its acts, the Constitution of 1812 included. Then when +he had re-established the Inquisition, which had been abolished by the +Cortes, when he had publicly burned the impertinent Constitution, +and quenched conspiracies here and there, he settled himself for a +comfortable reign after the good old arbitrary fashion. + +The Napoleonic empire having been effaced by a combined Europe, +Ferdinand's Bourbon cousins were in the same way restoring the +excellent methods of their fathers in France. + +But there was a spirit in the air which was not favorable to the peace +of Kings. On the American coast there stood "Liberty Enlightening the +World!" A growing, prosperous republic was a shining example of what +might be done by a brave resistance to oppression and a determined +spirit of independence. + +The pestilential leaven of freedom had been at work while monarchies +slept in security. Ferdinand discovered that not only was there a +seditious sentiment in his own kingdom, but every one of his American +colonies was in open rebellion, and some were even daring to set up +free governments in imitation of the United States. + +Not only was Ferdinand's sovereignty threatened, but the very +principle of monarchy itself was endangered. + +Russia, Austria, and Prussia formed themselves into a league for the +preservation of what they were pleased to call "The Divine Right of +Kings." It was the attack upon this sacred principle, which was the +germ of all this mischievous talk about freedom. They called their +league "The Holy Alliance," and what they proposed to do was to _stamp +out free institutions in the germ_. + +In pursuance of this purpose, in 1819 there appeared at Cadiz a large +fleet, assembled for the subjugation of Spanish America. + +But there was an Anglo-Saxon America, which had a preponderating +influence in that land now; and there was also an Anglo-Saxon race in +Europe which had its own views about the "Divine Right of Kings," and +also concerning the mission of the "Holy Alliance." + +The right of three European Powers to restore to Spain her revolted +colonies in America was denied by President Monroe; not upon the +ground of Spain's inhumanity, and the inherent right of the colonies +to an independence which they might achieve. Such was the nature +of England's protest, through her Minister Canning. But President +Monroe's contention rested on a much broader ground. In a message +delivered in 1823 he uttered these words: "European Powers must +not extend their political systems to any portion of the American +continent." The meaning of this was that _America has been won for +freedom_; and no European Power will be permitted to establish a +monarchy, nor to coerce in any way, nor to suppress inclinations +toward freedom, in any part of the Western Hemisphere. This is the +"Monroe Doctrine"; a doctrine which, although so startling in 1832, +had in 1896 become so firmly imbedded in the minds of the people, that +Congress decided it to be a vital principle of American policy. + +But there was another and more serious obstacle in the way of the +proposed plan for subjugating the Spanish-American colonies. The army +assembled by the Holy Alliance at Cadiz was an offense to the people +who had seen their Constitution burned and their hopes of a freer +government destroyed. Officers and troops refused to embark, and +joined a concourse of disaffected people at Cadiz. A smothered popular +sentiment burst forth into a series of insurrections throughout Spain, +and the astonished Ferdinand was compelled, in 1820, to acknowledge +the Constitution of 1812. This was not upholding the principle of the +"Divine Right of Kings"! So, under the direction of the Holy Alliance, +a French army of one hundred thousand men moved into Spain, took +possession of her capital, and for two years administered her affairs +under a regency, and then reinstated Ferdinand, leaving a French army +of occupation. + +In this contest two distinct political parties had developed--the +Liberal party and the party of Absolutism. As Ferdinand VII. became +the choice of the Liberals, and his brother Don Carlos of the party +of Absolutism, we must infer either that it was a Liberalism of a very +mild type, or that Ferdinand's views had been modified since the +"Holy Alliance" took his kingdom into its own keeping. But his brother +Carlos was the adored of the Absolutists, and a plot was made to +compel Ferdinand to abdicate in his favor. This was the first of the +Carlist plots, which, with little intermission, and always in the +interest of despotism and bigotry, have menaced the safety and +well-being of Spain ever since. From the year 1825 to 1898 there has +been always a Don Carlos to trouble the political waters in that land. + +So the mission of the "Holy Alliance" had failed. Instead of +rehabilitating the sacred principle of the "Divine Right of Kings," +they saw a powerful liberal party established in a kingdom which was +the very stronghold of despotism. And instead of stamping out free +institutions, six Spanish-American colonies had been recognized as +free and independent states (1826). Spain had for three centuries +ruled the richest and the fairest land on the earth. She had shown +herself utterly undeserving of the opportunity, and unfit for the +responsibilities imposed by a great colonial empire. She had sown +the wind and now she reaped the whirlwind. She did not own a foot of +territory on the continent she had discovered! + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. + + +In 1833 King Ferdinand VII. died, leaving one child, the Princess +Isabella, who was three years old. Here was the opportunity for the +adherents of Don Carlos. + +The "Salic law" had been one of the Gothic traditions of ancient +Spain, and had with few exceptions been in force until 1789; when +Carlos IV. issued a "Pragmatic Sanction," establishing the succession +through the female as well as the male line; and on April 6, 1830, +King Ferdinand confirmed this decree; so, when Isabella was born, +October 10, 1830, she was heiress to the throne, _unless_ her +ambitious uncle, Don Carlos, could set aside the decree abrogating the +old Salic law, and reign as Carlos IV. + +In the three years before his brother's death he had laid his plans +for the coming crisis. Isabella was proclaimed Queen under the regency +of her depraved mother Christina. The extreme of the Catholic party, +and of the reactionary or absolutist party, flocked about the Carlist +standard; while the party of the infant Queen was the rallying point +for the liberal and progressive sentiment in the kingdom; and her +cause had the support of the new reform government of Louis Philippe +in France, and of lovers of freedom elsewhere. + +The party of the Queen triumphed. But the Carlists survived; and, like +the Bourbons in France, have ever since in times of political peril +been a serious element to be reckoned with. + +During the infancy of the Queen, Spain was the prey of unceasing +party dissensions; Don Carlos again and again trying to overthrow +her government, and again and again being driven a fugitive over the +Pyrenees; while the Queen Regent, who was secretly married to her +Chamberlain, the son of a tobacconist in Madrid, was bringing disgrace +and odium upon the Liberal party which she was supposed to lead. + +In 1843 the Cortes declared that the Queen had attained her majority. +Her disgraced mother was driven out of the country and Isabella II. +ascended her throne. Isabella had a younger sister, Maria Louisa, and +in 1846 the double marriage of these two children was celebrated with +great splendor at Madrid. The Queen was married to her cousin Don +Francisco d'Assisi, and her sister to the Duke de Montpensier, fifth +son of Louis Philippe. + +[Illustration: From the painting by J. Siguenza y Chavarrieta. + The Duke de la Torre sworn in as Regent before the + Cortes of 1869.] + +If, upon the birth of Liberalism in Spain, that kingdom could have +been governed by a wise and competent sovereign, the concluding +chapters of this narrative might have been very different. No time +could have been less favorable for a radical change in policy than the +period during which Isabella II. was Queen of Spain. Personally she +was all that a woman and a Queen should not be. With apparently not an +exalted desire or ambition for her country, this depraved daughter +of a depraved mother pursued her downward course until 1868, when the +nation would bear no more. A revolution broke out. Isabella, with her +three children, fled to France and there was once more a vacant throne +in Spain. + +The hopes of the Carlists ran high. But the Cortes came to an +unexpected decision. They would have no Spanish Bourbon, be he Carlist +or Liberal. The reigning dynasty in Italy was at this moment the +adored of the Liberals in Europe. So they offered the Crown to Amadeo, +second son of Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy. Three years were quite +sufficient for this experiment. The young Amadeo was as glad to take +off his crown and to leave his kingdom, as the people were to have him +do so. He abdicated in 1873. + +The Liberal party had been regretting their loss of opportunity in +1870. France had passed through many political phases in the last few +years, and the present French Republic had just come into existence. +Again Spain caught the contagion from her neighbor, and Spanish +Liberalism became _Spanish Republicanism_. + +When Castelar, that patriotic and sagacious statesman, friend of +Garibaldi, of Mazzini, and of Kossuth, led this movement, many +hopefully believed the political millennium was at hand, when Spain +was about to join the brotherhood of Republics! But something more +than a great leader is needed to create a Republic. The magic of +Castelar's eloquence, the purity of his character, and the force of +his convictions were powerless to hold in stable union the conflicting +elements with which he had to deal. The Carlists were scheming, and +the Cortes was driven to an immediate decision. + +The fugitive Queen Isabella had with her in exile a young son Alfonso, +seventeen years of age. Alfonso was invited to return upon the sole +condition that his mother should be excluded from his kingdom. An +insurrection which was being fomented by Don Carlos II. led to this +action of the Cortes, which was perhaps the wisest possible under the +circumstances. The young Prince of the legitimate Bourbon line was +proclaimed King Alfonso XII. in 1874. + +A romantic marriage with his cousin Mercedes, daughter of the Duke de +Montpensier, to whom he was deeply attached, speedily took place. Only +five months later Mercedes died and was laid in the gloomy Escurial. +A marriage was then arranged with Christina, an Austrian Archduchess, +who was brought to Madrid, and there was another marriage celebrated +with much splendor. The infant daughter, who was born a few years +later, was named Mercedes; a loving tribute to the adored young Queen +he had lost, which did credit as much to Christina as to Alfonso. + +The hard school of exile had, no doubt, been an advantage to Alfonso; +and at the outset of his reign he won the confidence of the Liberals +by saying "he wished them to understand he was the first Republican in +Europe; and when they were tired of him they had only to tell him so, +and he would leave as quickly as Amadeo had done." There was not time +to test the sincerity of these assurances. Alfonso XII. died in 1885, +and joined Mercedes and his long line of predecessors in the Escurial. +Five months later his son was born, and the throne which had been +filled by the little Mercedes passed to the boy who was proclaimed +Alfonso XIII. of Spain, under the Regency of his mother Queen +Christina. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. + + +At the beginning of the nineteenth century the foreign dominions of +Spain, although reduced, were still a vast and imperial possession. +The colonial territory over which Alfonso XIII. was to have +sovereignty at the close of that century, consisted of the +Philippines, the richest of the East Indies; Cuba, the richest of the +West Indies; Porto Rico, and a few outlying groups of islands of no +great value. + +Nowhere had the Constitution of 1812 awakened more hope than in Cuba; +and from the setting aside of that instrument by Ferdinand VI. dates +the existence of an insurgent party in that beautiful but most unhappy +island. Ages of spoliation and cruelty and wrong had done their work. +The iron of oppression had entered into the soul of the Cuban. There +was a deep exasperation which refused to be calmed. From thenceforth +annexation to the United States, or else a "_Cuba Libre_," was the +determined, and even desperate aim. + +After a ten-years' war, 1868-78, the people yielded to what proved a +delusive promise of home-rule. How could Spain bestow upon her colony +what she did not possess herself? When in 1881 she tried to pacify +Cuba by permitting that island to send six Senators to sit in the +Spanish Cortes, it was a phantom of a phantom. There was no outlet +for the national will in Spain itself. Her Cortes was _not_ a national +assembly, and its members were _not_ the choice of the people. How +much less must they be so then in Cuba, where they were only men +of straw selected by the home government, for the purpose of +defeating--not expressing--the popular will? The emptiness of this +gift was soon discovered. Then came a shorter conflict, which was only +a prelude to the last. + +A handful of ragged revolutionists, ignorant of the arts of war, +commenced the final struggle for liberty on February 24, 1895, under +the leadership of José Marti. At the end of two years a poorly armed +band of guerrilla soldiers had waged a successful contest against +235,000 well-equipped troops, supported by a militia and a navy, and +maintained by supplies from Spain; had adopted a Constitution, and +were asking for recognition as a free Republic. The Spanish commander +Martinez Campos was superseded by General Weyler (1895), and a new +and severer method was inaugurated in dealing with the stubborn +revolutionists, but with no better success than before. In August, +1897, an insurrection broke out anew in the Philippines, and Spain was +in despair. + +America calmly resisted all appeals for annexation or for intervention +in Cuba. Sympathy for Cuban patriots was strong in the hearts of the +people, but the American Government steadfastly maintained an attitude +of strict neutrality and impartiality, and with unexampled patience +saw a commerce amounting annually to one hundred millions of +dollars wiped out of existence, her citizens reduced to want by the +destruction of their property,--some of them lying in Spanish dungeons +subjected to barbarities which were worthy of the Turkish Janizaries; +our fleets used as a coastguard and a police, in the protection of +Spanish interests, and more intolerable than all else, our hearts +wrung by cries of anguish at our very doors! + +But when General Weyler inaugurated a system for the deliberate +starvation of thirty thousand "Reconcentrados," an innocent peasantry +driven from their homes and herded in cities, there to perish, the +limit of patience was reached. It was this touch of human pity--this +last and intolerable strain upon our sympathies--which turned the +scale. + +While a profound feeling of indignation was prevailing on account of +these revolting crimes against humanity, the battleship _Maine_ was, +by request of Consul General Lee at that place, dispatched to the +harbor of Havana to guard American citizens and interests. The sullen +reception of the _Maine_ was followed on February 15, 1898, by a +tragedy which shocked the world. Whether the destruction of that ship +and the death of 266 brave men was from internal or external causes +was a very critical question. It was submitted to a court of inquiry +which, after long deliberation, rendered the decision that the cause +was--_external_. + +It looked dark for lovers of peace! President McKinley exhausted all +the resources of diplomacy before he abandoned hope of a peaceful +adjustment which would at the same time compel justice to the Cuban +people. But on April 25, 1898, it was declared that war existed +between Spain and America. + +Less than a week after this declaration, in the early morning of +May 1, a victory over the Spanish fleet at Manila was achieved by +Commodore Dewey, which made him virtual master of the Philippines; +and just two months later, July 1 and 2 were made memorable by two +engagements in the West Indies, resulting, the one in the defeat of +the Spanish land forces at San Juan, and the other in the complete +annihilation of Admiral Cervera's fleet in the Bay of Santiago de +Cuba--misfortunes so overwhelming that overtures for peace were +quickly received at Washington from Madrid; and the Spanish-American +War was over. + +The colonial empire of Spain was at an end. The kingdom over which +Alfonso XIII. was soon to reign had at a stroke lost the Spanish +Indies in the West, and the Philippines in the far East. To America +was confided the destiny of these widely separated possessions, Porto +Rico being permanently ceded to the United States; while, according to +the avowed purpose at the outset of the war, Cuba and the islands in +the Pacific, as soon as fitted for self-government, were to be given +into their own keeping; a promise which in the case of Cuba has +already been redeemed, all possible haste being made to prepare the +Philippines for a similar responsibility and destiny. + +The quickness with which cordial relations have been re-established +between Spain and the United States is most gratifying; and too much +praise cannot be bestowed upon that proud, high-spirited people, who +have accepted the results of the war in a spirit so admirable. In the +loss of her American colonies, Spain has been paying a debt contracted +in the days of her dazzling splendor--the time of the great Charles +and of Philip II.,--a kind of indebtedness which in the case of +nations is never forgiven, but must be paid to the uttermost farthing. +If history teaches anything, it is that the nations which have been +cruel and unjust sooner or later must "drink the cup of the Lord's +fury," just as surely as did the Assyrians of old. Another thing +which is quite as obvious is that the nations of the earth to-day must +accept the ideals of the advancing tide of modern civilization, or +perish! A people whose national festival is a bull-fight, has still +something to learn. Much of mediævalism still lingers in the methods +and ideals of Spain. In the time of her opulence and splendor these +methods and ideals were hers. So she believes in them and clings to +them still. She has been the victim of a vicious political system, to +which an intensely proud, patriotic, and brave people have believed +they must be loyal. + +In no other land--as we have seen--is the national spirit so strong. +Certainly nowhere else has it ever been subjected to such strain and +survived. And this intense loyalty, this overwhelming pride of race, +this magnificent valor, have all been summoned to uphold a poor, +perishing, vicious political system. + +But the _Zeitgeist_ is contagious. And at no time has its influence +in this conservative kingdom been so apparent as since the +Spanish-American War; soon after this was over, Alfonso ascended the +throne of his fathers. The important question of his marriage after +long consideration was decided by himself, when he selected an English +Princess, niece of Edward VII., for his future Queen. The Princess +Ena is the daughter of Princess Beatrice,--youngest child of Queen +Victoria,--and Prince Henry of Battenberg, who was killed some years +ago during one of the Kaffir wars in South Africa. A royal marriage +uniting Protestant England and Catholic Spain would at one time +have cost a throne and perhaps a head; and the cordiality, and even +enthusiasm, with which this union has been greeted in England shows +what seas of prejudice have been sailed through and what continents +of sectarian differences have been left behind; proving that the +_Zeitgeist_ has been busy in England as well as in Spain. + +The royal marriage of these two children--(the King having just passed +his twentieth birthday)--attended by the traditional formalities, and +a revival of almost mediæval splendor, took place at Madrid, June 1, +1906. The many romantic features attending the courtship of the +boy King and his English girl-bride invested the occasion with a +picturesque interest for the whole world. And yet--impossible as it +would have seemed--there existed some one degenerate enough to convert +it into a ghastly tragedy. While returning to the royal palace over +flower-strewn streets, after the conclusion of the marriage ceremony, +a bomb concealed in a bouquet was thrown from an upper window, hitting +the royal coach at which it was directly aimed. The young King and +Queen escaped as if by a miracle from the wreck; and the destruction +intended for them bore death and mutilation to scores of innocent +people in no wise connected with the Government; and Madrid, at the +moment of her supreme rejoicing, was converted into a blood-stained, +mourning city. + +Never did anarchistic methods seem so utterly divorced from +intelligence as in this last attempt at regicide. If it had succeeded, +an infant-nephew would have been King of Spain, with a long regency, +perhaps, of some well-seasoned Castilian of the old school! + +There was an incident in connection with this marriage which deeply +touches the American heart. The special envoy, bearing a letter of +congratulation to the King from President Roosevelt, was received +with a warmth and consideration far exceeding what was required by +diplomatic usage, and the stars and stripes helping to adorn Madrid +for the great festival gave assurance that Spain and the United States +are really friends again. + + + + + LIST OF VISIGOTH KINGS. + + A.D. + Ataulfus, 411-415 + Wallia, 415-420 + Theodored, 420-451 + Thorismund, 451-452 + Theodoric I. (Defeated Attila), 452-466 + Evaric (Completed Gothic Conquest in Spain), 466-483 + Alaric, 483-506 + Gesaleic, 506-511 + Theodoric II., 511-522 + Amalaric, 522-531 + Theudis, 531-548 + Theudisel, 548-549 + Agilan, 549-554 + Athanagild I., 554-567 + Liuva I., 567-570 + Leovigild, 570-587 + Recared I., 587-601 + Liuva II., 601-603 + Witteric, 603-610 + Gundemar, 610-612 + Sisebert, 612-621 + Recared II. (3 months). + Swintila, 621-631 + Sisenand, 631-636 + Chintila, 636-640 + Tulga, 640-642 + Chindaswind, 642-649 + Receswind, 649-672 + Wamba, 672-680 + Ervigius, 680-687 + Egica (son of Wamba), 687-701 + Witiza, 701-709 + Roderick, 700-711 + Theodomir, } Kings without a kingdom { 711-743 + Athanagild II.,} { 743-755 + + + + KINGS OF THE ASTURIAS AND LEON. + + A.D. + Pelayo (of Royal Gothic birth), 718 + Favila (son of above), 737 + Alfonso I. (son-in-law of Pelayo), 739 + Fruela I. (son of Alfonso), 757 + Aurelio, 768 + Mauregato, 774 + Bermudo I., 788 + Alfonso II., 791 + Ramiro I., 842 + Ordoño I., 850 + Alfonso III., 866 + Garcia, 910 + Ordoño II., 914 + Fruela II., 923 + Alfonso IV., 925 + Ramiro II., 930 + Ordoño III., 950 + Sancho I., 955 + Ramiro III., 967 + Bermudo II., 982 + Alfonso V., 999 + Bermudo III., 1027 + Fernando I. (also King of Castile), 1037 + Alfonso VI., 1065 + Urraca, 1109 + Alfonso VII. (also King of Castile), 1126 + Fernando II., 1157 + Alfonso IX. (Aided Conquest of Moors), 1188 + Fernando III., 1230 + + + LEON AND CASTILE UNITED. + + Alfonso X. (_el sabio_), 1252 + Sancho IV., 1284 + Fernando IV., 1295 + Alfonso XI., 1312 + Pedro I. (_el cruel_), 1350 + Enrique II., 1369 + Juan I., 1379 + Enrique IV., 1454 + Isabel I. (married to Fernando II. + of Aragon), 1474 + + + CASTILE AND ARAGON UNITED. + + Carlos I. (Charles I. Elected + Charles V. of Germany, 1519), 1516 + Philip II., 1556 + Philip III., 1593 + Philip IV., 1621 + Carlos II., 1665 + + + HOUSE OF BOURBON. + + Philip V., 1700 + Fernando VI., 1746 + Carlos III., 1759 + Carlos IV., 1788 + Ferdinand VII., 1799 + Joseph Bonaparte, 1806 + Ferdinand VII. (reinstated), 1814 + Isabella II. (dethroned, 1868), 1843 + Alfonso XII., 1874 + Alfonso XIII., 1885 + + + + +INDEX + + + Abbasides, 66, 67 + + Abd-el-Rahman I, 66, 67, 68, 69, 72 + + Abd-el-Rahman II, 72, 73, 74 + + Abd-el-Rahman III, 74 + + Abdul Hassan, 105, 106 + + Acropolis, 92 + + Actium, 27 + + Æneas, 12 + + Ætius, 36 + + Ahab, 12 + + Alaric, 31 + + Alcázar, 89 + + Alexander, 13 + + Alfonso I, 63, 64, 65, 78 + + Alfonso III, 78 + + Alfonso VI, 81, 82 + + Alfonso IX, 86 + + Alfonso X, 90 + + Alfonso XII, 154, 155, 156, 160 + + Alfonso XIII, 144, 148, 150, 155, 162 + + Alhambra, 92, 106, 107 + + Alhama, 106 + + Almanzor, 79, 80, 86 + + Almoravides, 83, 84 + + Alsace, 129 + + Andalusian, 32, 61, 67, 79, 80 + + Antony, 27 + + Arabia, 91 + + Aragon, 64 + + Arianism, 40, 46 + + Armada, 121 + + Arthur, 70, 82 + + Assyrian, 7 + + Asturias, 6, 63, 64, 78, 81, 125 + + Ataulf, 32 + + Austria, Archduke of, 110 + + Ayasha, 105 + + + Babel, 4 + + Babylonian, 7 + + Bacon, Roger, 87 + + Badajos, 83 + + Baghdad, 74, 75 + + Balboa, 114 + + Balearic, 11 + + Barcelona, 12 + + Basques, 36, 70 + + Battenberg, 162 + + Beatrice, 162 + + Berber, 2, 58, 65, 81, 83 + + Bertrand du Guesclin, 96 + + Black Prince, 95 + + Blanche de Bourbon, 95 + + Blenheim, 133 + + Boabdil, 105, 106, 107 + + Bourbon, 130 + + Braganza, Duke de, 128 + + Brummel, 73 + + Brunhilde, 42 + + Brutus, 27 + + + Cadiz, 8, 21, 55, 120 + + Cæsar, 26, 27 + + Canaan, 7 + + Canada, 138, 139 + + Canning, 147 + + Cantabrian, 56, 64, 127 + + Carlists, 149 + + Carlos II, 128, 130, 131, 132 + + Carlos III, 135, 136, 141 + + Carlos IV, 142 + + Carolinas, 129 + + Carthage, 10, 12 + + Carthagena, 15 + + Castelar, 153 + + Castile, 64, 79, 81, 94, 100, 101, 109 + + Castilian, 81, 123 + + Catalonian, 6 + + Catherine, 109, 118 + + Catherine de' Medici, 119 + + Cato, the Elder, 22 + + Cervantes, 24, 126 + + Cervera, 160 + + Ceuta, 18 + + Chaldean Civilization, 6 + + Chanson de Roland, 70 + + Charlemagne, 69, 70, 142 + + Charles Martel, 58, 69, 86 + + Charles I, 131 + + Charles II, 129 + + Charles V, 95, 110, 112, 122, 123 + + Chivalry, 126 + + Christina, 150 + + Christina, Hapsburg, 154 + + Cid, 82, 83, 85, 88 + + Clovis, 36 + + Columbus, 29, 109, 114 + + Constantinople, 107 + + Constantius, 34 + + Constanza, 96 + + Constitution, 144, 145, 148, 149 + + Corneille, 24, 26 + + Cortes, 112, 113, 144, 145, 147 + + Cortez, 112 + + Count Julian, 52-56 + + Court of the Lions, 106 + + Covadonga, 64, 88 + + Crusade, 86, 87 + + + Damascus, 60, 74 + + Delenda est Carthago, 21 + + De Soto, 112 + + Dictator, 27 + + Dido, 12 + + Don Quixote, 126 + + Don Carlos, 159 + + Drake, Sir Francis, 120 + + + Edward III, 96 + + Egmont, 119 + + Egyptian Civilization, 6 + + Eleanor, Queen, 90 + + Elizabeth, 120 + + Ena, Princess, 162 + + Enrique III, 96, 97 + + Enrique IV, 97 + + Errigius, 73, 74 + + Escurial, 117, 121, 154, 155 + + Eugene, Prince, 133 + + Eulogius, 73, 74 + + Evaric, 36 + + Ezekiel, 10 + + + Ferdinand I, 100, 101, 105, 107, 111, 130 + + Ferdinand VI, 135 + + Ferdinand VII, 142 + + Fernando I, 79 + + Flanders, 112 + + Florida, 121, 129 + + Francis I, 111, 114 + + Francis d'Assisi, 152 + + Frederick II, 90 + + + Gallicians, 6 + + Garibaldi, 153 + + George IV, 73 + + Gibraltar, 18, 135, 139, 141, 142 + + Granada, 85, 86, 92, 100, 101, 104 + + Guadalquivir, 73 + + + Hamilcar, 14, 15 + + Hannibal, 12 + + Hapsburg, 130 + + Havana, 138 + + Henrietta, 127 + + Henry II, 119 + + Henry VIII, 109, 111, 117 + + Hidalgo, 50, 63, 78, 123 + + Hiram, 10, 109 + + Hispania, 21 + + Holy Alliance, 146, 147, 148, 149 + + Honorius, 34 + + Horn, 119 + + Huesca, 25 + + Huns, 36 + + + Iberia, 2, 6 + + Ides of March, 27 + + Ionian, 9 + + Isabella I, 12, 96, 100, 102, 108, 109, 110, 130 + + Isabella II, 150, 151, 152 + + Isabella de Bourbon, 125 + + Isabel of Portugal, 114 + + Isaiah, 13 + + Islam, 59, 64 + + + Jamaica, 128, 129 + + James II, 131, 132 + + Janizaries, 158 + + Jesuits, 136 + + Jezebel, 12 + + Joanna, 109, 110 + + John of Gaunt, 96, 97 + + José Marti, 157 + + Joseph Bonaparte, 143 + + Juan II, 100, 102 + + Juntas, 143 + + + Karl, Archduke of Austria, 132, 133 + + Kelts, 4 + + Keltiberians, 5, 15, 22 + + Khalif, 65, 66, 75-77 + + Koran, 60 + + Kossuth, 151 + + + Lee, 159 + + Leo X, 111 + + Leon, 79, 81, 94 + + Leopold, 132 + + Leovigild, 43 + + Lira, 24 + + Lorraine, 129 + + Louis IX, 90 + + Louis XIII, 125 + + Louis XIV, 127, 128, 131, 132, 133, 134 + + Louis XV, 140 + + Louisiana, 139 + + Lucan, 29 + + Luther, 114, 116 + + + Madrid, Treaty of, 139 + + Magellan, 114 + + Mahdi, 85 + + Maine, 159 + + Manila, 138, 160 + + Maria Theresa, 127, 132 + + Marie de' Medici, 125 + + Marius, 23, 24 + + Marlborough, 133 + + Martian, 29 + + Martinez Campos, 158 + + Mary Tudor, 117, 118 + + Maximilian, 109, 111 + + Mazzini, 153 + + Mercedes, 154 + + Mexico, 20, 112, 137 + + Milan, 135 + + Minorca, 135 + + Mississippi, 138 + + Mithridates, 25 + + Monroe, 147 + + Moor, 56 + + Moriscos, 126, 128 + + Moscow, 143 + + Montpensier, Duke de, 152, 154 + + Munda, 26 + + Murillo, 52 + + Mur-Viedo, 16 + + Musa, 52 + + + Naples, 135 + + Napoleon, 139, 142 + + Navarre, 79, 94 + + Nelson, 142 + + Ne plus ultra, 18 + + Nero, 29, 73 + + Netherlands, 115, 119, 120, 128, 135 + + New Orleans, 139 + + Nineveh, 7 + + Noah, 7 + + Numantia, 24 + + + Octavius Augustus, 23 + + Olivier, 70 + + Omeyads, 66, 67, 72, 74 + + Opus Majus, 87 + + Ordoño I, 79 + + Osca, 25 + + Ostrogoths, 36 + + + Paladins, 70 + + Pedro, 83, 95 + + Pelagius, 64 + + Pelasgians, 30, 88 + + Peru, 20, 112, 137 + + Petronius, 73 + + Phenicia, 91 + + Philip II, 161 + + Philip III, 125, 126, 127 + + Philip IV, 127, 128 + + Philip V, 33, 134, 133 + + Philippi, 27 + + Philippines, 137, 138, 156, 158, 160 + + Pillars of Hercules, 18, 82 + + Pizzarro, 112 + + Placidia, 33 + + Plutarch, 24 + + Pompey, 25, 26 + + Ponce de Leon, 112 + + Portugal, 94, 102, 109 + + Pragmatic Sanction, 151 + + Pretender, 132 + + Protestantism, 115, 118, 119 + + Punic, 11, 14, 16 + + + Quebec, 138 + + Quintilian, 29 + + + Ramiro I, 79 + + Recared, 46 + + Reconcentrados, 159 + + Reformation, 114 + + Richelieu, 131 + + Roderick, 51, 54, 56, 107 + + Roland, 70, 71 + + Rome, 13 + + Roncesvalles, 13 + + + Saguntum, 9, 16 + + Sahara, 2 + + Salic Law, 150 + + Saracen, 61, 62, 63 + + Santiago de Cuba, 160 + + Sardinia, 11, 14, 135 + + Scipio, 19, 22 + + Seneca, 29 + + Seville, 88, 89 + + Sidon, 7, 12 + + Spanish Succession, War of, 33 + + Spartans, 30 + + St. Augustine, 129 + + St. Bartholomew, 119 + + Stuart, House of, 131 + + Suevi, 31 + + Sylla, 23, 24 + + Syrian, 7 + + + Tarif, 53 + + Tarshish, 10, 13 + + Toledo, 45, 65 + + Torquemada, 103 + + Trafalgar, 142 + + Troy, 9 + + Tubal, 4 + + Tyre, 7, 13 + + + Ulfilas, 39 + + Utrecht, Peace of, 134 + + + Valladolid, 100, 101, 104, 117 + + Vandals, 30 + + Visigoths, 36 + + + Wamba, 47 + + Wellington, 143 + + Weyler, 158 + + White Hind, 26 + + Witiza, 50, 51 + + + Yusuf, 67 + + + Zante, 9 + + Zarynthus, 9 + + Zeitgeist, 162, 163 + + Ziryab, 73 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