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diff --git a/2921-h/2921-h.htm b/2921-h/2921-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a2de5eb --- /dev/null +++ b/2921-h/2921-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1205 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + Lecture to Working Men, No. 1 (of 6), The Present Condition of Organic + Nature, by Thomas H. Huxley + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Present Condition of Organic Nature, by +Thomas H. Huxley + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Present Condition of Organic Nature + Lecture I. (of VI.), Lectures To Working Men, at the Museum + of Practical Geology, 1863, On Darwin's work: "Origin of + Species". + +Author: Thomas H. Huxley + +Release Date: January 4, 2009 [EBook #2921] +Last Updated: January 22, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CONDITION OF ORGANIC NATURE *** + + + + +Produced by Amy E. Zelmer, and David Widger + + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE PRESENT CONDITION <br /> OF ORGANIC NATURE + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h3> + Lecture I. (of VI.), "Lectures To Working Men", at the Museum of Practical + Geology, 1863, On Darwin's work: "Origin of Species". + </h3> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Thomas H. Huxley + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + Contents + </h3> + <table summary="" style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: auto"> + <tr> + <td> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> EDITOR'S NOTE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> NOTICE TO THE FIRST EDITION. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> THE PRESENT CONDITION OF ORGANIC NATURE. + </a> + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + List of Illustrations + </h3> + <table summary="" style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: auto"> + <tr> + <td> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0001"> Figure 1. (section Through a Horse.) + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0002"> Figure 2. (section Through a Cell.) + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0003"> Figure 3. (diagram Showing Material + <br />Relationship of The Vegetable, Animal <br />and Inorganic + Worlds.) </a> + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + EDITOR'S NOTE + </h2> + <p> + Of the great thinkers of the nineteenth century, Thomas Henry Huxley, son + of an Ealing schoolmaster, was undoubtedly the most noteworthy. His + researches in biology, his contributions to scientific controversy, his + pungent criticisms of conventional beliefs and thoughts have probably had + greater influence than the work of any other English scientist. And yet he + was a "self-made" intellectualist. In spite of the fact that his father + was a schoolmaster he passed through no regular course of education. "I + had," he said, "two years of a pandemonium of a school (between eight and + ten) and after that neither help nor sympathy in any intellectual + direction till I reached manhood." When he was twelve a craving for + reading found satisfaction in Hutton's "Geology," and when fifteen in + Hamilton's "Logic." + </p> + <p> + At seventeen Huxley entered as a student at Charing Cross Hospital, and + three years later he was M.B. and the possessor of the gold medal for + anatomy and physiology. An appointment as surgeon in the navy proved to be + the entry to Huxley's great scientific career, for he was gazetted to the + "Rattlesnake", commissioned for surveying work in Torres Straits. He was + attracted by the teeming surface life of tropical seas and his study of it + was the commencement of that revolution in scientific knowledge ultimately + brought about by his researches. + </p> + <p> + Thomas Henry Huxley was born at Ealing on May 4, 1825, and died at + Eastbourne June 29, 1895. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> LECTURES AND ESSAYS BY T.H. HUXLEY ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE + CAUSES OF THE PHENOMENA OF ORGANIC NATURE <a name="link2H_4_0002" + id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + NOTICE TO THE FIRST EDITION. + </h2> + <p> + The Publisher of these interesting Lectures, having made an arrangement + for their publication with Mr. J. A. Mays, the Reporter, begs to append + the following note from Professor Huxley:— + </p> + <p> + "Mr. J. Aldous Mays, who is taking shorthand notes of my 'Lectures to + Working Men,' has asked me to allow him, on his own account, to print + those Notes for the use of my audience. I willingly accede to this + request, on the understanding that a notice is prefixed to the effect that + I have no leisure to revise the Lectures, or to make alterations in them, + beyond the correction of any important error in a matter of fact." + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + THE PRESENT CONDITION OF ORGANIC NATURE. + </h2> + <p> + When it was my duty to consider what subject I would select for the six + lectures [*To Working Men, at the Museum of Practical Geology, 1863.] + which I shall now have the pleasure of delivering to you, it occurred to + me that I could not do better than endeavour to put before you in a true + light, or in what I might perhaps with more modesty call, that which I + conceive myself to be the true light, the position of a book which has + been more praised and more abused, perhaps, than any book which has + appeared for some years;—I mean Mr. Darwin's work on the "Origin of + Species". That work, I doubt not, many of you have read; for I know the + inquiring spirit which is rife among you. At any rate, all of you will + have heard of it,—some by one kind of report and some by another + kind of report; the attention of all and the curiosity of all have been + probably more or less excited on the subject of that work. All I can do, + and all I shall attempt to do, is to put before you that kind of judgment + which has been formed by a man, who, of course, is liable to judge + erroneously; but, at any rate, of one whose business and profession it is + to form judgments upon questions of this nature. + </p> + <p> + And here, as it will always happen when dealing with an extensive subject, + the greater part of my course—if, indeed, so small a number of + lectures can be properly called a course—must be devoted to + preliminary matters, or rather to a statement of those facts and of those + principles which the work itself dwells upon, and brings more or less + directly before us. I have no right to suppose that all or any of you are + naturalists; and even if you were, the misconceptions and + misunderstandings prevalent even among naturalists on these matters would + make it desirable that I should take the course I now propose to take,—that + I should start from the beginning,—that I should endeavour to point + out what is the existing state of the organic world,—that I should + point out its past condition,—that I should state what is the + precise nature of the undertaking which Mr. Darwin has taken in hand; that + I should endeavour to show you what are the only methods by which that + undertaking can be brought to an issue, and to point out to you how far + the author of the work in question has satisfied those conditions, how far + he has not satisfied them, how far they are satisfiable by man, and how + far they are not satisfiable by man. + </p> + <p> + To-night, in taking up the first part of this question, I shall endeavour + to put before you a sort of broad notion of our knowledge of the condition + of the living world. There are many ways of doing this. I might deal with + it pictorially and graphically. Following the example of Humboldt in his + "Aspects of Nature", I might endeavour to point out the infinite variety + of organic life in every mode of its existence, with reference to the + variations of climate and the like; and such an attempt would be fraught + with interest to us all; but considering the subject before us, such a + course would not be that best calculated to assist us. In an argument of + this kind we must go further and dig deeper into the matter; we must + endeavour to look into the foundations of living Nature, if I may so say, + and discover the principles involved in some of her most secret + operations. I propose, therefore, in the first place, to take some + ordinary animal with which you are all familiar, and, by easily + comprehensible and obvious examples drawn from it, to show what are the + kind of problems which living beings in general lay before us; and I shall + then show you that the same problems are laid open to us by all kinds of + living beings. But first, let me say in what sense I have used the words + "organic nature." In speaking of the causes which lead to our present + knowledge of organic nature, I have used it almost as an equivalent of the + word "living," and for this reason,—that in almost all living beings + you can distinguish several distinct portions set apart to do particular + things and work in a particular way. These are termed "organs," and the + whole together is called "organic." And as it is universally + characteristic of them, this term "organic" has been very conveniently + employed to denote the whole of living nature,—the whole of the + plant world, and the whole of the animal world. + </p> + <p> + Few animals can be more familiar to you than that whose skeleton is shown + on our diagram. You need not bother yourselves with this "Equus caballus" + written under it; that is only the Latin name of it, and does not make it + any better. It simply means the common Horse. Suppose we wish to + understand all about the Horse. Our first object must be to study the + structure of the animal. The whole of his body is inclosed within a hide, + a skin covered with hair; and if that hide or skin be taken off, we find a + great mass of flesh, or what is technically called muscle, being the + substance which by its power of contraction enables the animal to move. + These muscles move the hard parts one upon the other, and so give that + strength and power of motion which renders the Horse so useful to us in + the performance of those services in which we employ him. + </p> + <p> + And then, on separating and removing the whole of this skin and flesh, you + have a great series of bones, hard structures, bound together with + ligaments, and forming the skeleton which is represented here. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0001" id="linkimage-0001"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img src="images/fig01.jpg" alt="Figure 1. (section Through a Horse.) " + width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0002" id="linkimage-0002"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img src="images/fig02.jpg" alt="Figure 2. (section Through a Cell.) " + width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + In that skeleton there are a number of parts to be recognized. The long + series of bones, beginning from the skull and ending in the tail, is + called the spine, and those in front are the ribs; and then there are two + pairs of limbs, one before and one behind; and there are what we all know + as the fore-legs and the hind-legs. If we pursue our researches into the + interior of this animal, we find within the framework of the skeleton a + great cavity, or rather, I should say, two great cavities,—one + cavity beginning in the skull and running through the neck-bones, along + the spine, and ending in the tail, containing the brain and the spinal + marrow, which are extremely important organs. The second great cavity, + commencing with the mouth, contains the gullet, the stomach, the long + intestine, and all the rest of those internal apparatus which are + essential for digestion; and then in the same great cavity, there are + lodged the heart and all the great vessels going from it; and, besides + that, the organs of respiration—the lungs: and then the kidneys, and + the organs of reproduction, and so on. Let us now endeavour to reduce this + notion of a horse that we now have, to some such kind of simple expression + as can be at once, and without difficulty, retained in the mind, apart + from all minor details. If I make a transverse section, that is, if I were + to saw a dead horse across, I should find that, if I left out the details, + and supposing I took my section through the anterior region, and through + the fore-limbs, I should have here this kind of section of the body (Fig. + 1). Here would be the upper part of the animal—that great mass of + bones that we spoke of as the spine (a, Fig. 1). Here I should have the + alimentary canal (b, Fig. 1). Here I should have the heart (c, Fig. 1); + and then you see, there would be a kind of double tube, the whole being + inclosed within the hide; the spinal marrow would be placed in the upper + tube (a, Fig. 1), and in the lower tube (d d, Fig. 1), there would be the + alimentary canal (b), and the heart (c); and here I shall have the legs + proceeding from each side. For simplicity's sake, I represent them merely + as stumps (e e, Fig. 1). Now that is a horse—as mathematicians would + say—reduced to its most simple expression. Carry that in your minds, + if you please, as a simplified idea of the structure of the Horse. The + considerations which I have now put before you belong to what we + technically call the 'Anatomy' of the Horse. Now, suppose we go to work + upon these several parts,—flesh and hair, and skin and bone, and lay + open these various organs with our scalpels, and examine them by means of + our magnifying-glasses, and see what we can make of them. We shall find + that the flesh is made up of bundles of strong fibres. The brain and + nerves, too, we shall find, are made up of fibres, and these queer-looking + things that are called ganglionic corpuscles. If we take a slice of the + bone and examine it, we shall find that it is very like this diagram of a + section of the bone of an ostrich, though differing, of course, in some + details; and if we take any part whatsoever of the tissue, and examine it, + we shall find it all has a minute structure, visible only under the + microscope. All these parts constitute microscopic anatomy or 'Histology.' + These parts are constantly being changed; every part is constantly + growing, decaying, and being replaced during the life of the animal. The + tissue is constantly replaced by new material; and if you go back to the + young state of the tissue in the case of muscle, or in the case of skin, + or any of the organs I have mentioned, you will find that they all come + under the same condition. Every one of these microscopic filaments and + fibres (I now speak merely of the general character of the whole process)—every + one of these parts—could be traced down to some modification of a + tissue which can be readily divided into little particles of fleshy + matter, of that substance which is composed of the chemical elements, + carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, having such a shape as this (Fig. + 2). These particles, into which all primitive tissues break up, are called + cells. If I were to make a section of a piece of the skin of my hand, I + should find that it was made up of these cells. If I examine the fibres + which form the various organs of all living animals, I should find that + all of them, at one time or other, had been formed out of a substance + consisting of similar elements; so that you see, just as we reduced the + whole body in the gross to that sort of simple expression given in Fig. 1, + so we may reduce the whole of the microscopic structural elements to a + form of even greater simplicity; just as the plan of the whole body may be + so represented in a sense (Fig. 1), so the primary structure of every + tissue may be represented by a mass of cells (Fig. 2). + </p> + <p> + Having thus, in this sort of general way, sketched to you what I may call, + perhaps, the architecture of the body of the Horse (what we term + technically its Morphology), I must now turn to another aspect. A horse is + not a mere dead structure: it is an active, living, working machine. + Hitherto we have, as it were, been looking at a steam-engine with the + fires out, and nothing in the boiler; but the body of the living animal is + a beautifully-formed active machine, and every part has its different work + to do in the working of that machine, which is what we call its life. The + Horse, if you see him after his day's work is done, is cropping the grass + in the fields, as it may be, or munching the oats in his stable. What is + he doing? His jaws are working as a mill—and a very complex mill too—grinding + the corn, or crushing the grass to a pulp. As soon as that operation has + taken place, the food is passed down to the stomach, and there it is mixed + with the chemical fluid called the gastric juice, a substance which has + the peculiar property of making soluble and dissolving out the nutritious + matter in the grass, and leaving behind those parts which are not + nutritious; so that you have, first, the mill, then a sort of chemical + digester; and then the food, thus partially dissolved, is carried back by + the muscular contractions of the intestines into the hinder parts of the + body, while the soluble portions are taken up into the blood. The blood is + contained in a vast system of pipes, spreading through the whole body, + connected with a force pump,—the heart,—which, by its position + and by the contractions of its valves, keeps the blood constantly + circulating in one direction, never allowing it to rest; and then, by + means of this circulation of the blood, laden as it is with the products + of digestion, the skin, the flesh, the hair, and every other part of the + body, draws from it that which it wants, and every one of these organs + derives those materials which are necessary to enable it to do its work. + </p> + <p> + The action of each of these organs, the performance of each of these + various duties, involve in their operation a continual absorption of the + matters necessary for their support, from the blood, and a constant + formation of waste products, which are returned to the blood, and conveyed + by it to the lungs and the kidneys, which are organs that have allotted to + them the office of extracting, separating, and getting rid of these waste + products; and thus the general nourishment, labour, and repair of the + whole machine is kept up with order and regularity. But not only is it a + machine which feeds and appropriates to its own support the nourishment + necessary to its existence—it is an engine for locomotive purposes. + The Horse desires to go from one place to another; and to enable it to do + this, it has those strong contractile bundles of muscles attached to the + bones of its limbs, which are put in motion by means of a sort of + telegraphic apparatus formed by the brain and the great spinal cord + running through the spine or backbone; and to this spinal cord are + attached a number of fibres termed nerves, which proceed to all parts of + the structure. By means of these the eyes, nose, tongue, and skin—all + the organs of perception—transmit impressions or sensations to the + brain, which acts as a sort of great central telegraph-office, receiving + impressions and sending messages to all parts of the body, and putting in + motion the muscles necessary to accomplish any movement that may be + desired. So that you have here an extremely complex and + beautifully-proportioned machine, with all its parts working harmoniously + together towards one common object—the preservation of the life of + the animal. + </p> + <p> + Now, note this: the Horse makes up its waste by feeding, and its food is + grass or oats, or perhaps other vegetable products; therefore, in the long + run, the source of all this complex machinery lies in the vegetable + kingdom. But where does the grass, or the oat, or any other plant, obtain + this nourishing food-producing material? At first it is a little seed, + which soon begins to draw into itself from the earth and the surrounding + air matters which in themselves contain no vital properties whatever; it + absorbs into its own substance water, an inorganic body; it draws into its + substance carbonic acid, an inorganic matter; and ammonia, another + inorganic matter, found in the air; and then, by some wonderful chemical + process, the details of which chemists do not yet understand, though they + are near foreshadowing them, it combines them into one substance, which is + known to us as 'Protein,' a complex compound of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, + and nitrogen, which alone possesses the property of manifesting vitality + and of permanently supporting animal life. So that, you see, the waste + products of the animal economy, the effete materials which are continually + being thrown off by all living beings, in the form of organic matters, are + constantly replaced by supplies of the necessary repairing and rebuilding + materials drawn from the plants, which in their turn manufacture them, so + to speak, by a mysterious combination of those same inorganic materials. + </p> + <p> + Let us trace out the history of the Horse in another direction. After a + certain time, as the result of sickness or disease, the effect of + accident, or the consequence of old age, sooner or later, the animal dies. + The multitudinous operations of this beautiful mechanism flag in their + performance, the Horse loses its vigour, and after passing through the + curious series of changes comprised in its formation and preservation, it + finally decays, and ends its life by going back into that inorganic world + from which all but an inappreciable fraction of its substance was derived. + Its bones become mere carbonate and phosphate of lime; the matter of its + flesh, and of its other parts, becomes, in the long run, converted into + carbonic acid, into water, and into ammonia. You will now, perhaps, + understand the curious relation of the animal with the plant, of the + organic with the inorganic world, which is shown in this diagram (Fig. 3). + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0003" id="linkimage-0003"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img src="images/fig03.jpg" + alt="Figure 3. (diagram Showing Material Relationship of The Vegetable, Animal and Inorganic Worlds.) " + width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + The plant gathers these inorganic materials together and makes them up + into its own substance. The animal eats the plant and appropriates the + nutritious portions to its own sustenance, rejects and gets rid of the + useless matters; and, finally, the animal itself dies, and its whole body + is decomposed and returned into the inorganic world. There is thus a + constant circulation from one to the other, a continual formation of + organic life from inorganic matters, and as constant a return of the + matter of living bodies to the inorganic world; so that the materials of + which our bodies are composed are largely, in all probability, the + substances which constituted the matter of long extinct creations, but + which have in the interval constituted a part of the inorganic world. + </p> + <p> + Thus we come to the conclusion, strange at first sight, that the MATTER + constituting the living world is identical with that which forms the + inorganic world. And not less true is it that, remarkable as are the + powers or, in other words, as are the FORCES which are exerted by living + beings, yet all these forces are either identical with those which exist + in the inorganic world, or they are convertible into them; I mean in just + the same sense as the researches of physical philosophers have shown that + heat is convertible into electricity, that electricity is convertible into + magnetism, magnetism into mechanical force or chemical force, and any one + of them with the other, each being measurable in terms of the other,—even + so, I say, that great law is applicable to the living world. Consider why + is the skeleton of this horse capable of supporting the masses of flesh + and the various organs forming the living body, unless it is because of + the action of the same forces of cohesion which combines together the + particles of matter composing this piece of chalk? What is there in the + muscular contractile power of the animal but the force which is + expressible, and which is in a certain sense convertible, into the force + of gravity which it overcomes? Or, if you go to more hidden processes, in + what does the process of digestion differ from those processes which are + carried on in the laboratory of the chemist? Even if we take the most + recondite and most complex operations of animal life—those of the + nervous system, these of late years have been shown to be—I do not + say identical in any sense with the electrical processes—but this + has been shown, that they are in some way or other associated with them; + that is to say, that every amount of nervous action is accompanied by a + certain amount of electrical disturbance in the particles of the nerves in + which that nervous action is carried on. In this way the nervous action is + related to electricity in the same way that heat is related to + electricity; and the same sort of argument which demonstrates the two + latter to be related to one another shows that the nervous forces are + correlated to electricity; for the experiments of M. Dubois Reymond and + others have shown that whenever a nerve is in a state of excitement, + sending a message to the muscles or conveying an impression to the brain, + there is a disturbance of the electrical condition of that nerve which + does not exist at other times; and there are a number of other facts and + phenomena of that sort; so that we come to the broad conclusion that not + only as to living matter itself, but as to the forces that matter exerts, + there is a close relationship between the organic and the inorganic world—the + difference between them arising from the diverse combination and + disposition of identical forces, and not from any primary diversity, so + far as we can see. + </p> + <p> + I said just now that the Horse eventually died and became converted into + the same inorganic substances from whence all but an inappreciable + fraction of its substance demonstrably originated, so that the actual + wanderings of matter are as remarkable as the transmigrations of the soul + fabled by Indian tradition. But before death has occurred, in the one sex + or the other, and in fact in both, certain products or parts of the + organism have been set free, certain parts of the organisms of the two + sexes have come into contact with one another, and from that conjunction, + from that union which then takes place, there results the formation of a + new being. At stated times the mare, from a particular part of the + interior of her body, called the ovary, gets rid of a minute particle of + matter comparable in all essential respects with that which we called a + cell a little while since, which cell contains a kind of nucleus in its + centre, surrounded by a clear space and by a viscid mass of protein + substance (Fig. 2); and though it is different in appearance from the eggs + which we are mostly acquainted with, it is really an egg. After a time + this minute particle of matter, which may only be a small fraction of a + grain in weight, undergoes a series of changes,—wonderful, complex + changes. Finally, upon its surface there is fashioned a little elevation, + which afterwards becomes divided and marked by a groove. The lateral + boundaries of the groove extend upwards and downwards, and at length give + rise to a double tube. In the upper smaller tube the spinal marrow and + brain are fashioned; in the lower, the alimentary canal and heart; and at + length two pairs of buds shoot out at the sides of the body, which are the + rudiments of the limbs. In fact a true drawing of a section of the embryo + in this state would in all essential respects resemble that diagram of a + horse reduced to its simplest expression, which I first placed before you + (Fig. 1). + </p> + <p> + Slowly and gradually these changes take place. The whole of the body, at + first, can be broken up into "cells," which become in one place + metamorphosed into muscle,—in another place into gristle and bone,—in + another place into fibrous tissue,—and in another into hair; every + part becoming gradually and slowly fashioned, as if there were an + artificer at work in each of these complex structures that we have + mentioned. This embryo, as it is called, then passes into other + conditions. I should tell you that there is a time when the embryos of + neither dog, nor horse, nor porpoise, nor monkey, nor man, can be + distinguished by any essential feature one from the other; there is a time + when they each and all of them resemble this one of the Dog. But as + development advances, all the parts acquire their speciality, till at + length you have the embryo converted into the form of the parent from + which it started. So that you see, this living animal, this horse, begins + its existence as a minute particle of nitrogenous matter, which, being + supplied with nutriment (derived, as I have shown, from the inorganic + world), grows up according to the special type and construction of its + parents, works and undergoes a constant waste, and that waste is made good + by nutriment derived from the inorganic world; the waste given off in this + way being directly added to the inorganic world; and eventually the animal + itself dies, and, by the process of decomposition, its whole body is + returned to those conditions of inorganic matter in which its substance + originated. + </p> + <p> + This, then, is that which is true of every living form, from the lowest + plant to the highest animal—to man himself. You might define the + life of every one in exactly the same terms as those which I have now + used; the difference between the highest and the lowest being simply in + the complexity of the developmental changes, the variety of the structural + forms, the diversity of the physiological functions which are exerted by + each. + </p> + <p> + If I were to take an oak tree as a specimen of the plant world, I should + find that it originated in an acorn, which, too, commenced in a cell; the + acorn is placed in the ground, and it very speedily begins to absorb the + inorganic matters I have named, adds enormously to its bulk, and we can + see it, year after year, extending itself upward and downward, attracting + and appropriating to itself inorganic materials, which it vivifies, and + eventually, as it ripens, gives off its own proper acorns, which again run + the same course. But I need not multiply examples,—from the highest + to the lowest the essential features of life are the same, as I have + described in each of these cases. + </p> + <p> + So much, then, for these particular features of the organic world, which + you can understand and comprehend, so long as you confine yourself to one + sort of living being, and study that only. + </p> + <p> + But, as you know, horses are not the only living creatures in the world; + and again, horses, like all other animals, have certain limits—are + confined to a certain area on the surface of the earth on which we live,—and, + as that is the simpler matter, I may take that first. In its wild state, + and before the discovery of America, when the natural state of things was + interfered with by the Spaniards, the Horse was only to be found in parts + of the earth which are known to geographers as the Old World; that is to + say, you might meet with horses in Europe, Asia, or Africa; but there were + none in Australia, and there were none whatsoever in the whole continent + of America, from Labrador down to Cape Horn. This is an empirical fact, + and it is what is called, stated in the way I have given it you, the + 'Geographical Distribution' of the Horse. + </p> + <p> + Why horses should be found in Europe, Asia, and Africa, and not in + America, is not obvious; the explanation that the conditions of life in + America are unfavourable to their existence, and that, therefore, they had + not been created there, evidently does not apply; for when the invading + Spaniards, or our own yeomen farmers, conveyed horses to these countries + for their own use, they were found to thrive well and multiply very + rapidly; and many are even now running wild in those countries, and in a + perfectly natural condition. Now, suppose we were to do for every animal + what we have here done for the Horse,—that is, to mark off and + distinguish the particular district or region to which each belonged; and + supposing we tabulated all these results, that would be called the + Geographical Distribution of animals, while a corresponding study of + plants would yield as a result the Geographical Distribution of plants. + </p> + <p> + I pass on from that now, as I merely wished to explain to you what I meant + by the use of the term 'Geographical Distribution.' As I said, there is + another aspect, and a much more important one, and that is, the relations + of the various animals to one another. The Horse is a very well-defined + matter-of-fact sort of animal, and we are all pretty familiar with its + structure. I dare say it may have struck you, that it resembles very much + no other member of the animal kingdom, except perhaps the Zebra or the + Ass. But let me ask you to look along these diagrams. Here is the skeleton + of the Horse, and here the skeleton of the Dog. You will notice that we + have in the Horse a skull, a backbone and ribs, shoulder-blades and + haunch-bones. In the fore-limb, one upper arm-bone, two fore arm-bones, + wrist-bones (wrongly called knee), and middle hand-bones, ending in the + three bones of a finger, the last of which is sheathed in the horny hoof + of the fore-foot: in the hind-limb, one thigh-bone, two leg-bones, + anklebones, and middle foot-bones, ending in the three bones of a toe, the + last of which is encased in the hoof of the hind-foot. Now turn to the + Dog's skeleton. We find identically the same bones, but more of them, + there being more toes in each foot, and hence more toe-bones. + </p> + <p> + Well, that is a very curious thing! The fact is that the Dog and the Horse—when + one gets a look at them without the outward impediments of the skin—are + found to be made in very much the same sort of fashion. And if I were to + make a transverse section of the Dog, I should find the same organs that I + have already shown you as forming parts of the Horse. Well, here is + another skeleton—that of a kind of Lemur—you see he has just + the same bones; and if I were to make a transverse section of it, it would + be just the same again. In your mind's eye turn him round, so as to put + his backbone in a position inclined obliquely upwards and forwards, just + as in the next three diagrams, which represent the skeletons of an Orang, + a Chimpanzee, a Gorilla, and you find you have no trouble in identifying + the bones throughout; and lastly turn to the end of the series, the + diagram representing a man's skeleton, and still you find no great + structural feature essentially altered. There are the same bones in the + same relations. From the Horse we pass on and on, with gradual steps, + until we arrive at last at the highest known forms. On the other hand, + take the other line of diagrams, and pass from the Horse downwards in the + scale to this fish; and still, though the modifications are vastly + greater, the essential framework of the organization remains unchanged. + Here, for instance, is a Porpoise: here is its strong backbone, with the + cavity running through it, which contains the spinal cord; here are the + ribs, here the shoulder blade; here is the little short upper-arm bone, + here are the two forearm bones, the wrist-bone, and the finger-bones. + </p> + <p> + Strange, is it not, that the Porpoise should have in this queer-looking + affair—its flapper (as it is called), the same fundamental elements + as the fore-leg of the Horse or the Dog, or the Ape or Man; and here you + will notice a very curious thing,—the hinder limbs are absent. Now, + let us make another jump. Let us go to the Codfish: here you see is the + forearm, in this large pectoral fin—carrying your mind's eye onward + from the flapper of the Porpoise. And here you have the hinder limbs + restored in the shape of these ventral fins. If I were to make a + transverse section of this, I should find just the same organs that we + have before noticed. So that, you see, there comes out this strange + conclusion as the result of our investigations, that the Horse, when + examined and compared with other animals, is found by no means to stand + alone in nature; but that there are an enormous number of other creatures + which have backbones, ribs, and legs, and other parts arranged in the same + general manner, and in all their formation exhibiting the same broad + peculiarities. + </p> + <p> + I am sure that you cannot have followed me even in this extremely + elementary exposition of the structural relations of animals, without + seeing what I have been driving at all through, which is, to show you + that, step by step, naturalists have come to the idea of a unity of plan, + or conformity of construction, among animals which appeared at first sight + to be extremely dissimilar. + </p> + <p> + And here you have evidence of such a unity of plan among all the animals + which have backbones, and which we technically call "Vertebrata". But + there are multitudes of other animals, such as crabs, lobsters, spiders, + and so on, which we term "Annulosa". In these I could not point out to you + the parts that correspond with those of the Horse,—the backbone, for + instance,—as they are constructed upon a very different principle, + which is also common to all of them; that is to say, the Lobster, the + Spider, and the Centipede, have a common plan running through their whole + arrangement, in just the same way that the Horse, the Dog, and the + Porpoise assimilate to each other. + </p> + <p> + Yet other creatures—whelks, cuttlefishes, oysters, snails, and all + their tribe ("Mollusca")—resemble one another in the same way, but + differ from both "Vertebrata" and "Annulosa"; and the like is true of the + animals called "Coelenterata" (Polypes) and "Protozoa" (animalcules and + sponges). + </p> + <p> + Now, by pursuing this sort of comparison, naturalists have arrived at the + conviction that there are,—some think five, and some seven,—but + certainly not more than the latter number—and perhaps it is simpler + to assume five—distinct plans or constructions in the whole of the + animal world; and that the hundreds of thousands of species of creatures + on the surface of the earth, are all reducible to those five, or, at most, + seven, plans of organization. + </p> + <p> + But can we go no further than that? When one has got so far, one is + tempted to go on a step and inquire whether we cannot go back yet further + and bring down the whole to modifications of one primordial unit. The + anatomist cannot do this; but if he call to his aid the study of + development, he can do it. For we shall find that, distinct as those plans + are, whether it be a porpoise or man, or lobster, or any of those other + kinds I have mentioned, every one begins its existence with one and the + same primitive form,—that of the egg, consisting, as we have seen, + of a nitrogenous substance, having a small particle or nucleus in the + centre of it. Furthermore, the earlier changes of each are substantially + the same. And it is in this that lies that true "unity of organization" of + the animal kingdom which has been guessed at and fancied for many years; + but which it has been left to the present time to be demonstrated by the + careful study of development. But is it possible to go another step + further still, and to show that in the same way the whole of the organic + world is reducible to one primitive condition of form? Is there among the + plants the same primitive form of organization, and is that identical with + that of the animal kingdom? The reply to that question, too, is not + uncertain or doubtful. It is now proved that every plant begins its + existence under the same form; that is to say, in that of a cell—a + particle of nitrogenous matter having substantially the same conditions. + So that if you trace back the oak to its first germ, or a man, or a horse, + or lobster, or oyster, or any other animal you choose to name, you shall + find each and all of these commencing their existence in forms essentially + similar to each other: and, furthermore, that the first processes of + growth, and many of the subsequent modifications, are essentially the same + in principle in almost all. + </p> + <p> + In conclusion, let me, in a few words, recapitulate the positions which I + have laid down. And you must understand that I have not been talking mere + theory; I have been speaking of matters which are as plainly demonstrable + as the commonest propositions of Euclid—of facts that must form the + basis of all speculations and beliefs in Biological science. We have + gradually traced down all organic forms, or, in other words, we have + analyzed the present condition of animated nature, until we found that + each species took its origin in a form similar to that under which all the + others commence their existence. We have found the whole of the vast array + of living forms, with which we are surrounded, constantly growing, + increasing, decaying and disappearing; the animal constantly attracting, + modifying, and applying to its sustenance the matter of the vegetable + kingdom, which derived its support from the absorption and conversion of + inorganic matter. And so constant and universal is this absorption, waste, + and reproduction, that it may be said with perfect certainty that there is + left in no one of our bodies at the present moment a millionth part of the + matter of which they were originally formed! We have seen, again, that not + only is the living matter derived from the inorganic world, but that the + forces of that matter are all of them correlative with and convertible + into those of inorganic nature. + </p> + <p> + This, for our present purposes, is the best view of the present condition + of organic nature which I can lay before you: it gives you the great + outlines of a vast picture, which you must fill up by your own study. + </p> + <p> + In the next lecture I shall endeavour in the same way to go back into the + past, and to sketch in the same broad manner the history of life in epochs + preceding our own. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Present Condition of Organic Nature, by +Thomas H. 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