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diff --git a/2923.txt b/2923.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a039606 --- /dev/null +++ b/2923.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1133 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Method By Which The Causes Of The +Present And Past Conditions Of Organic Nature Are To Be Discovered.--The Origination Of Living Beings, by Thomas H. Huxley + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Method By Which The Causes Of The Present And Past Conditions Of Organic Nature Are To Be Discovered.--The Origination Of Living Beings + Lecture III. (of VI.), Lectures To Working Men, at the + Museum of Practical Geology, 1863, On Darwin's work: "Origin + of Species". + +Author: Thomas H. Huxley + +Posting Date: January 4, 2009 [EBook #2923] +Release Date: November, 2001 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAUSES DISCOVERED *** + + + + +Produced by Amy E. Zelmer + + + + + +THE METHOD BY WHICH THE CAUSES OF THE PRESENT AND PAST CONDITIONS OF +ORGANIC NATURE ARE TO BE DISCOVERED.--THE ORIGINATION OF LIVING BEINGS + +Lecture III. (of VI.), Lectures To Working Men, at the Museum of +Practical Geology, 1863, On Darwin's work: "Origin of Species". + + +By Thomas H. Huxley + + + +In the two preceding lectures I have endeavoured to indicate to you the +extent of the subject-matter of the inquiry upon which we are engaged; +and now, having thus acquired some conception of the Past and Present +phenomena of Organic Nature, I must now turn to that which constitutes +the great problem which we have set before ourselves;--I mean, the +question of what knowledge we have of the causes of these phenomena of +organic nature, and how such knowledge is obtainable. + +Here, on the threshold of the inquiry, an objection meets us. There are +in the world a number of extremely worthy, well-meaning persons, whose +judgments and opinions are entitled to the utmost respect on account of +their sincerity, who are of opinion that Vital Phenomena, and especially +all questions relating to the origin of vital phenomena, are questions +quite apart from the ordinary run of inquiry, and are, by their very +nature, placed out of our reach. They say that all these phenomena +originated miraculously, or in some way totally different from the +ordinary course of nature, and that therefore they conceive it to be +futile, not to say presumptuous, to attempt to inquire into them. + +To such sincere and earnest persons, I would only say, that a question +of this kind is not to be shelved upon theoretical or speculative +grounds. You may remember the story of the Sophist who demonstrated to +Diogenes in the most complete and satisfactory manner that he could not +walk; that, in fact, all motion was an impossibility; and that Diogenes +refuted him by simply getting up and walking round his tub. So, in the +same way, the man of science replies to objections of this kind, by +simply getting up and walking onward, and showing what science has done +and is doing--by pointing to that immense mass of facts which have been +ascertained and systematized under the forms of the great doctrines of +Morphology, of Development, of Distribution, and the like. He sees an +enormous mass of facts and laws relating to organic beings, which +stand on the same good sound foundation as every other natural law; and +therefore, with this mass of facts and laws before us, therefore, +seeing that, as far as organic matters have hitherto been accessible and +studied, they have shown themselves capable of yielding to scientific +investigation, we may accept this as proof that order and law reign +there as well as in the rest of nature; and the man of science says +nothing to objectors of this sort, but supposes that we can and shall +walk to a knowledge of the origin of organic nature, in the same way +that we have walked to a knowledge of the laws and principles of the +inorganic world. + +But there are objectors who say the same from ignorance and ill-will. To +such I would reply that the objection comes ill from them, and that the +real presumption, I may almost say the real blasphemy, in this matter, +is in the attempt to limit that inquiry into the causes of phenomena +which is the source of all human blessings, and from which has sprung +all human prosperity and progress; for, after all, we can accomplish +comparatively little; the limited range of our own faculties bounds us +on every side,--the field of our powers of observation is small enough, +and he who endeavours to narrow the sphere of our inquiries is only +pursuing a course that is likely to produce the greatest harm to his +fellow-men. + +But now, assuming, as we all do, I hope, that these phenomena are +properly accessible to inquiry, and setting out upon our search into the +causes of the phenomena of organic nature, or, at any rate, setting out +to discover how much we at present know upon these abstruse matters, the +question arises as to what is to be our course of proceeding, and what +method we must lay down for our guidance. I reply to that question, +that our method must be exactly the same as that which is pursued in any +other scientific inquiry, the method of scientific investigation being +the same for all orders of facts and phenomena whatsoever. + +I must dwell a little on this point, for I wish you to leave this room +with a very clear conviction that scientific investigation is not, as +many people seem to suppose, some kind of modern black art. I say that +you might easily gather this impression from the manner in which +many persons speak of scientific inquiry, or talk about inductive and +deductive philosophy, or the principles of the "Baconian philosophy." +I do protest that, of the vast number of cants in this world, there are +none, to my mind, so contemptible as the pseudoscientific cant which is +talked about the "Baconian philosophy." + +To hear people talk about the great Chancellor--and a very great man he +certainly was,--you would think that it was he who had invented science, +and that there was no such thing as sound reasoning before the time of +Queen Elizabeth. Of course you say, that cannot possibly be true; you +perceive, on a moment's reflection, that such an idea is absurdly wrong, +and yet, so firmly rooted is this sort of impression,--I cannot call it +an idea, or conception,--the thing is too absurd to be entertained,--but +so completely does it exist at the bottom of most men's minds, that this +has been a matter of observation with me for many years past. There +are many men who, though knowing absolutely nothing of the subject with +which they may be dealing, wish, nevertheless, to damage the author of +some view with which they think fit to disagree. What they do, then, +is not to go and learn something about the subject, which one would +naturally think the best way of fairly dealing with it; but they abuse +the originator of the view they question, in a general manner, and wind +up by saying that, "After all, you know, the principles and method +of this author are totally opposed to the canons of the Baconian +philosophy." Then everybody applauds, as a matter of course, and agrees +that it must be so. But if you were to stop them all in the middle of +their applause, you would probably find that neither the speaker nor his +applauders could tell you how or in what way it was so; neither the +one nor the other having the slightest idea of what they mean when they +speak of the "Baconian philosophy." + +You will understand, I hope, that I have not the slightest desire to +join in the outcry against either the morals, the intellect, or the +great genius of Lord Chancellor Bacon. He was undoubtedly a very great +man, let people say what they will of him; but notwithstanding all that +he did for philosophy, it would be entirely wrong to suppose that the +methods of modern scientific inquiry originated with him, or with his +age; they originated with the first man, whoever he was; and indeed +existed long before him, for many of the essential processes of +reasoning are exerted by the higher order of brutes as completely and +effectively as by ourselves. We see in many of the brute creation the +exercise of one, at least, of the same powers of reasoning as that which +we ourselves employ. + +The method of scientific investigation is nothing but the expression of +the necessary mode of working of the human mind. It is simply the mode +at which all phenomena are reasoned about, rendered precise and +exact. There is no more difference, but there is just the same kind of +difference, between the mental operations of a man of science and those +of an ordinary person, as there is between the operations and methods of +a baker or of a butcher weighing out his goods in common scales, and the +operations of a chemist in performing a difficult and complex analysis +by means of his balance and finely-graduated weights. It is not that +the action of the scales in the one case, and the balance in the other, +differ in the principles of their construction or manner of working; but +the beam of one is set on an infinitely finer axis than the other, and +of course turns by the addition of a much smaller weight. + +You will understand this better, perhaps, if I give you some familiar +example. You have all heard it repeated, I dare say, that men of science +work by means of Induction and Deduction, and that by the help of these +operations, they, in a sort of sense, wring from Nature certain other +things, which are called Natural Laws, and Causes, and that out of +these, by some cunning skill of their own, they build up Hypotheses and +Theories. And it is imagined by many, that the operations of the common +mind can be by no means compared with these processes, and that they +have to be acquired by a sort of special apprenticeship to the craft. +To hear all these large words, you would think that the mind of a man of +science must be constituted differently from that of his fellow men; but +if you will not be frightened by terms, you will discover that you are +quite wrong, and that all these terrible apparatus are being used by +yourselves every day and every hour of your lives. + +There is a well-known incident in one of Moliere's plays, where the +author makes the hero express unbounded delight on being told that he +had been talking prose during the whole of his life. In the same way, I +trust, that you will take comfort, and be delighted with yourselves, on +the discovery that you have been acting on the principles of inductive +and deductive philosophy during the same period. Probably there is not +one here who has not in the course of the day had occasion to set in +motion a complex train of reasoning, of the very same kind, though +differing of course in degree, as that which a scientific man goes +through in tracing the causes of natural phenomena. + +A very trivial circumstance will serve to exemplify this. Suppose you +go into a fruiterer's shop, wanting an apple,--you take up one, and, on +biting it, you find it is sour; you look at it, and see that it is hard +and green. You take up another one, and that too is hard, green, and +sour. The shopman offers you a third; but, before biting it, you examine +it, and find that it is hard and green, and you immediately say that you +will not have it, as it must be sour, like those that you have already +tried. + +Nothing can be more simple than that, you think; but if you will take +the trouble to analyze and trace out into its logical elements what +has been done by the mind, you will be greatly surprised. In the first +place, you have performed the operation of Induction. You found that, +in two experiences, hardness and greenness in apples go together with +sourness. It was so in the first case, and it was confirmed by the +second. True, it is a very small basis, but still it is enough to make +an induction from; you generalize the facts, and you expect to find +sourness in apples where you get hardness and greenness. You found upon +that a general law, that all hard and green apples are sour; and that, +so far as it goes, is a perfect induction. Well, having got your natural +law in this way, when you are offered another apple which you find is +hard and green, you say, "All hard and green apples are sour; this +apple is hard and green, therefore this apple is sour." That train of +reasoning is what logicians call a syllogism, and has all its various +parts and terms,--its major premiss, its minor premiss, and its +conclusion. And, by the help of further reasoning, which, if drawn out, +would have to be exhibited in two or three other syllogisms, you arrive +at your final determination, "I will not have that apple." So that, you +see, you have, in the first place, established a law by Induction, and +upon that you have founded a Deduction, and reasoned out the special +conclusion of the particular case. Well now, suppose, having got your +law, that at some time afterwards, you are discussing the qualities +of apples with a friend: you will say to him, "It is a very curious +thing,--but I find that all hard and green apples are sour!" Your friend +says to you, "But how do you know that?" You at once reply, "Oh, because +I have tried it over and over again, and have always found them to be +so." Well, if we were talking science instead of common sense, we should +call that an Experimental Verification. And, if still opposed, you go +further, and say, "I have heard from the people in Somersetshire and +Devonshire, where a large number of apples are grown, that they have +observed the same thing. It is also found to be the case in Normandy, +and in North America. In short, I find it to be the universal experience +of mankind wherever attention has been directed to the subject." +Whereupon, your friend, unless he is a very unreasonable man, agrees +with you, and is convinced that you are quite right in the conclusion +you have drawn. He believes, although perhaps he does not know he +believes it, that the more extensive Verifications are,--that the more +frequently experiments have been made, and results of the same kind +arrived at,--that the more varied the conditions under which the same +results have been attained, the more certain is the ultimate conclusion, +and he disputes the question no further. He sees that the experiment has +been tried under all sorts of conditions, as to time, place, and people, +with the same result; and he says with you, therefore, that the law you +have laid down must be a good one, and he must believe it. + +In science we do the same thing;--the philosopher exercises precisely +the same faculties, though in a much more delicate manner. In scientific +inquiry it becomes a matter of duty to expose a supposed law to every +possible kind of verification, and to take care, moreover, that this is +done intentionally, and not left to a mere accident, as in the case of +the apples. And in science, as in common life, our confidence in a law +is in exact proportion to the absence of variation in the result of our +experimental verifications. For instance, if you let go your grasp of +an article you may have in your hand, it will immediately fall to +the ground. That is a very common verification of one of the best +established laws of nature--that of gravitation. The method by which men +of science establish the existence of that law is exactly the same as +that by which we have established the trivial proposition about +the sourness of hard and green apples. But we believe it in such an +extensive, thorough, and unhesitating manner because the universal +experience of mankind verifies it, and we can verify it ourselves at any +time; and that is the strongest possible foundation on which any natural +law can rest. + +So much by way of proof that the method of establishing laws in science +is exactly the same as that pursued in common life. Let us now turn +to another matter (though really it is but another phase of the same +question), and that is, the method by which, from the relations of +certain phenomena, we prove that some stand in the position of causes +towards the others. + +I want to put the case clearly before you, and I will therefore show you +what I mean by another familiar example. I will suppose that one of you, +on coming down in the morning to the parlour of your house, finds that a +tea-pot and some spoons which had been left in the room on the previous +evening are gone,--the window is open, and you observe the mark of a +dirty hand on the window-frame, and perhaps, in addition to that, you +notice the impress of a hob-nailed shoe on the gravel outside. All these +phenomena have struck your attention instantly, and before two minutes +have passed you say, "Oh, somebody has broken open the window, entered +the room, and run off with the spoons and the tea-pot!" That speech is +out of your mouth in a moment. And you will probably add, "I know there +has; I am quite sure of it!" You mean to say exactly what you know; but +in reality what you have said has been the expression of what is, in all +essential particulars, an Hypothesis. You do not 'know' it at all; it is +nothing but an hypothesis rapidly framed in your own mind! And it is an +hypothesis founded on a long train of inductions and deductions. + +What are those inductions and deductions, and how have you got at this +hypothesis? You have observed, in the first place, that the window +is open; but by a train of reasoning involving many Inductions and +Deductions, you have probably arrived long before at the General +Law--and a very good one it is--that windows do not open of themselves; +and you therefore conclude that something has opened the window. A +second general law that you have arrived at in the same way is, that +tea-pots and spoons do not go out of a window spontaneously, and you are +satisfied that, as they are not now where you left them, they have been +removed. In the third place, you look at the marks on the window-sill, +and the shoemarks outside, and you say that in all previous experience +the former kind of mark has never been produced by anything else but +the hand of a human being; and the same experience shows that no other +animal but man at present wears shoes with hob-nails on them such as +would produce the marks in the gravel. I do not know, even if we could +discover any of those "missing links" that are talked about, that they +would help us to any other conclusion! At any rate the law which states +our present experience is strong enough for my present purpose.--You +next reach the conclusion, that as these kinds of marks have not been +left by any other animals than men, or are liable to be formed in any +other way than by a man's hand and shoe, the marks in question have been +formed by a man in that way. You have, further, a general law, founded +on observation and experience, and that, too, is, I am sorry to say, a +very universal and unimpeachable one,--that some men are thieves; +and you assume at once from all these premisses--and that is what +constitutes your hypothesis--that the man who made the marks outside and +on the window-sill, opened the window, got into the room, and stole your +tea-pot and spoons. You have now arrived at a 'Vera Causa';--you have +assumed a Cause which it is plain is competent to produce all the +phenomena you have observed. You can explain all these phenomena only by +the hypothesis of a thief. But that is a hypothetical conclusion, of the +justice of which you have no absolute proof at all; it is only rendered +highly probable by a series of inductive and deductive reasonings. + +I suppose your first action, assuming that you are a man of ordinary +common sense, and that you have established this hypothesis to your own +satisfaction, will very likely be to go off for the police, and set +them on the track of the burglar, with the view to the recovery of your +property. But just as you are starting with this object, some person +comes in, and on learning what you are about, says, "My good friend, +you are going on a great deal too fast. How do you know that the man who +really made the marks took the spoons? It might have been a monkey that +took them, and the man may have merely looked in afterwards." You would +probably reply, "Well, that is all very well, but you see it is contrary +to all experience of the way tea-pots and spoons are abstracted; so +that, at any rate, your hypothesis is less probable than mine." While +you are talking the thing over in this way, another friend arrives, one +of that good kind of people that I was talking of a little while ago. +And he might say, "Oh, my dear sir, you are certainly going on a great +deal too fast. You are most presumptuous. You admit that all these +occurrences took place when you were fast asleep, at a time when you +could not possibly have known anything about what was taking place. How +do you know that the laws of Nature are not suspended during the night? +It may be that there has been some kind of supernatural interference in +this case." In point of fact, he declares that your hypothesis is one +of which you cannot at all demonstrate the truth, and that you are by no +means sure that the laws of Nature are the same when you are asleep as +when you are awake. + +Well, now, you cannot at the moment answer that kind of reasoning. You +feel that your worthy friend has you somewhat at a disadvantage. You +will feel perfectly convinced in your own mind, however, that you are +quite right, and you say to him, "My good friend, I can only be guided +by the natural probabilities of the case, and if you will be kind enough +to stand aside and permit me to pass, I will go and fetch the police." +Well, we will suppose that your journey is successful, and that by good +luck you meet with a policeman; that eventually the burglar is found +with your property on his person, and the marks correspond to his hand +and to his boots. Probably any jury would consider those facts a very +good experimental verification of your hypothesis, touching the cause +of the abnormal phenomena observed in your parlour, and would act +accordingly. + +Now, in this suppositious case, I have taken phenomena of a very common +kind, in order that you might see what are the different steps in an +ordinary process of reasoning, if you will only take the trouble to +analyse it carefully. All the operations I have described, you will +see, are involved in the mind of any man of sense in leading him to +a conclusion as to the course he should take in order to make good a +robbery and punish the offender. I say that you are led, in that case, +to your conclusion by exactly the same train of reasoning as that which +a man of science pursues when he is endeavouring to discover the origin +and laws of the most occult phenomena. The process is, and always must +be, the same; and precisely the same mode of reasoning was employed by +Newton and Laplace in their endeavours to discover and define the causes +of the movements of the heavenly bodies, as you, with your own common +sense, would employ to detect a burglar. The only difference is, that +the nature of the inquiry being more abstruse, every step has to be most +carefully watched, so that there may not be a single crack or flaw in +your hypothesis. A flaw or crack in many of the hypotheses of daily life +may be of little or no moment as affecting the general correctness of +the conclusions at which we may arrive; but, in a scientific inquiry, +a fallacy, great or small, is always of importance, and is sure to be +constantly productive of mischievous, if not fatal results. + +Do not allow yourselves to be misled by the common notion that an +hypothesis is untrustworthy simply because it is an hypothesis. It is +often urged, in respect to some scientific conclusion, that, after +all, it is only an hypothesis. But what more have we to guide us in +nine-tenths of the most important affairs of daily life than hypotheses, +and often very ill-based ones? So that in science, where the evidence of +an hypothesis is subjected to the most rigid examination, we may rightly +pursue the same course. You may have hypotheses and hypotheses. A man +may say, if he likes, that the moon is made of green cheese: that is an +hypothesis. But another man, who has devoted a great deal of time and +attention to the subject, and availed himself of the most powerful +telescopes and the results of the observations of others, declares that +in his opinion it is probably composed of materials very similar to +those of which our own earth is made up: and that is also only an +hypothesis. But I need not tell you that there is an enormous difference +in the value of the two hypotheses. That one which is based on sound +scientific knowledge is sure to have a corresponding value; and that +which is a mere hasty random guess is likely to have but little value. +Every great step in our progress in discovering causes has been made +in exactly the same way as that which I have detailed to you. A person +observing the occurrence of certain facts and phenomena asks, naturally +enough, what process, what kind of operation known to occur in nature +applied to the particular case, will unravel and explain the mystery? +Hence you have the scientific hypothesis; and its value will be +proportionate to the care and completeness with which its basis had been +tested and verified. It is in these matters as in the commonest affairs +of practical life: the guess of the fool will be folly, while the guess +of the wise man will contain wisdom. In all cases, you see that the +value of the result depends on the patience and faithfulness with +which the investigator applies to his hypothesis every possible kind of +verification. + +I dare say I may have to return to this point by-and-by; but having +dealt thus far with our logical methods, I must now turn to something +which, perhaps, you may consider more interesting, or, at any rate, +more tangible. But in reality there are but few things that can be more +important for you to understand than the mental processes and the means +by which we obtain scientific conclusions and theories. [1] Having +granted that the inquiry is a proper one, and having determined on +the nature of the methods we are to pursue and which only can lead to +success, I must now turn to the consideration of our knowledge of the +nature of the processes which have resulted in the present condition of +organic nature. + +Here, let me say at once, lest some of you misunderstand me, that I have +extremely little to report. The question of how the present condition of +organic nature came about, resolves itself into two questions. The first +is: How has organic or living matter commenced its existence? And the +second is: How has it been perpetuated? On the second question I shall +have more to say hereafter. But on the first one, what I now have to say +will be for the most part of a negative character. + +If you consider what kind of evidence we can have upon this matter, it +will resolve itself into two kinds. We may have historical evidence and +we may have experimental evidence. It is, for example, conceivable, that +inasmuch as the hardened mud which forms a considerable portion of the +thickness of the earth's crust contains faithful records of the past +forms of life, and inasmuch as these differ more and more as we go +further down,--it is possible and conceivable that we might come to +some particular bed or stratum which should contain the remains of those +creatures with which organic life began upon the earth. And if we did +so, and if such forms of organic life were preservable, we should have +what I would call historical evidence of the mode in which organic life +began upon this planet. Many persons will tell you, and indeed you will +find it stated in many works on geology, that this has been done, and +that we really possess such a record; there are some who imagine that +the earliest forms of life of which we have as yet discovered any +record, are in truth the forms in which animal life began upon the +globe. The grounds on which they base that supposition are these:--That +if you go through the enormous thickness of the earth's crust and get +down to the older rocks, the higher vertebrate animals--the quadrupeds, +birds, and fishes--cease to be found; beneath them you find only the +invertebrate animals; and in the deepest and lowest rocks those remains +become scantier and scantier, not in any very gradual progression, +however, until, at length, in what are supposed to be the oldest rocks, +the animal remains which are found are almost always confined to four +forms--'Oldhamia', whose precise nature is not known, whether plant or +animal; 'Lingula', a kind of mollusc; 'Trilobites', a crustacean animal, +having the same essential plan of construction, though differing in +many details from a lobster or crab; and Hymenocaris, which is also a +crustacean. So that you have all the 'Fauna' reduced, at this period, +to four forms: one a kind of animal or plant that we know nothing about, +and three undoubted animals--two crustaceans and one mollusc. + +I think, considering the organization of these mollusca and crustacea, +and looking at their very complex nature, that it does indeed require a +very strong imagination to conceive that these were the first created of +all living things. And you must take into consideration the fact that +we have not the slightest proof that these which we call the oldest beds +are really so: I repeat, we have not the slightest proof of it. When you +find in some places that in an enormous thickness of rocks there are but +very scanty traces of life, or absolutely none at all; and that in other +parts of the world rocks of the very same formation are crowded with the +records of living forms, I think it is impossible to place any reliance +on the supposition, or to feel oneself justified in supposing that these +are the forms in which life first commenced. I have not time here +to enter upon the technical grounds upon which I am led to this +conclusion,--that could hardly be done properly in half a dozen lectures +on that part alone;--I must content myself with saying that I do not at +all believe that these are the oldest forms of life. + +I turn to the experimental side to see what evidence we have there. +To enable us to say that we know anything about the experimental +origination of organization and life, the investigator ought to be able +to take inorganic matters, such as carbonic acid, ammonia, water, and +salines, in any sort of inorganic combination, and be able to build them +up into Protein matter, and that that Protein matter ought to begin to +live in an organic form. That, nobody has done as yet, and I suspect it +will be a long while before anybody does do it. But the thing is by no +means so impossible as it looks; for the researches of modern chemistry +have shown us--I won't say the road towards it, but, if I may so say, +they have shown the finger-post pointing to the road that may lead to +it. + +It is not many years ago--and you must recollect that Organic Chemistry +is a young science, not above a couple of generations old,--you must not +expect too much of it; it is not many years ago since it was said to be +perfectly impossible to fabricate any organic compound; that is to say, +any non-mineral compound which is to be found in an organized being. It +remained so for a very long period; but it is now a considerable number +of years since a distinguished foreign chemist contrived to fabricate +Urea, a substance of a very complex character, which forms one of the +waste products of animal structures. And of late years a number of other +compounds, such as Butyric Acid, and others, have been added to the +list. I need not tell you that chemistry is an enormous distance from +the goal I indicate; all I wish to point out to you is, that it is by no +means safe to say that that goal may not be reached one day. It may be +that it is impossible for us to produce the conditions requisite to the +origination of life; but we must speak modestly about the matter, and +recollect that Science has put her foot upon the bottom round of the +ladder. Truly he would be a bold man who would venture to predict where +she will be fifty years hence. + +There is another inquiry which bears indirectly upon this question, +and upon which I must say a few words. You are all of you aware of the +phenomena of what is called spontaneous generation. Our forefathers, +down to the seventeenth century, or thereabouts, all imagined, in +perfectly good faith, that certain vegetable and animal forms gave +birth, in the process of their decomposition, to insect life. Thus, +if you put a piece of meat in the sun, and allowed it to putrefy, they +conceived that the grubs which soon began to appear were the result +of the action of a power of spontaneous generation which the meat +contained. And they could give you receipts for making various animal +and vegetable preparations which would produce particular kinds of +animals. A very distinguished Italian naturalist, named Redi, took up +the question, at a time when everybody believed in it; among others our +own great Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of the blood. You +will constantly find his name quoted, however, as an opponent of the +doctrine of spontaneous generation; but the fact is, and you will see it +if you will take the trouble to look into his works, Harvey believed +it as profoundly as any man of his time; but he happened to enunciate a +very curious proposition--that every living thing came from an 'egg'; he +did not mean to use the word in the sense in which we now employ it, he +only meant to say that every living thing originated in a little rounded +particle of organized substance; and it is from this circumstance, +probably, that the notion of Harvey having opposed the doctrine +originated. Then came Redi, and he proceeded to upset the doctrine in a +very simple manner. He merely covered the piece of meat with some very +fine gauze, and then he exposed it to the same conditions. The result +of this was that no grubs or insects were produced; he proved that the +grubs originated from the insects who came and deposited their eggs in +the meat, and that they were hatched by the heat of the sun. By +this kind of inquiry he thoroughly upset the doctrine of spontaneous +generation, for his time at least. + +Then came the discovery and application of the microscope to scientific +inquiries, which showed to naturalists that besides the organisms which +they already knew as living beings and plants, there were an immense +number of minute things which could be obtained apparently almost at +will from decaying vegetable and animal forms. Thus, if you took some +ordinary black pepper or some hay, and steeped it in water, you would +find in the course of a few days that the water had become impregnated +with an immense number of animalcules swimming about in all directions. +From facts of this kind naturalists were led to revive the theory +of spontaneous generation. They were headed here by an English +naturalist,--Needham,--and afterwards in France by the learned Buffon. +They said that these things were absolutely begotten in the water of +the decaying substances out of which the infusion was made. It did not +matter whether you took animal or vegetable matter, you had only to +steep it in water and expose it, and you would soon have plenty of +animalcules. They made an hypothesis about this which was a very fair +one. They said, this matter of the animal world, or of the higher +plants, appears to be dead, but in reality it has a sort of dim life +about it, which, if it is placed under fair conditions, will cause it +to break up into the forms of these little animalcules, and they will go +through their lives in the same way as the animal or plant of which they +once formed a part. + +The question now became very hotly debated. Spallanzani, an Italian +naturalist, took up opposite views to those of Needham and Buffon, and +by means of certain experiments he showed that it was quite possible to +stop the process by boiling the water, and closing the vessel in which +it was contained. "Oh!" said his opponents; "but what do you know you +may be doing when you heat the air over the water in this way? You may +be destroying some property of the air requisite for the spontaneous +generation of the animalcules." + +However, Spallanzani's views were supposed to be upon the right side, +and those of the others fell into discredit; although the fact was +that Spallanzani had not made good his views. Well, then, the subject +continued to be revived from time to time, and experiments were made by +several persons; but these experiments were not altogether satisfactory. +It was found that if you put an infusion in which animalcules would +appear if it were exposed to the air into a vessel and boiled it, and +then sealed up the mouth of the vessel, so that no air, save such as +had been heated to 212 degrees, could reach its contents, that then no +animalcules would be found; but if you took the same vessel and exposed +the infusion to the air, then you would get animalcules. Furthermore, it +was found that if you connected the mouth of the vessel with a red-hot +tube in such a way that the air would have to pass through the tube +before reaching the infusion, that then you would get no animalcules. +Yet another thing was noticed: if you took two flasks containing the +same kind of infusion, and left one entirely exposed to the air, and +in the mouth of the other placed a ball of cotton wool, so that the air +would have to filter itself through it before reaching the infusion, +that then, although you might have plenty of animalcules in the first +flask, you would certainly obtain none from the second. + +These experiments, you see, all tended towards one conclusion--that the +infusoria were developed from little minute spores or eggs which +were constantly floating in the atmosphere, which lose their power of +germination if subjected to heat. But one observer now made another +experiment which seemed to go entirely the other way, and puzzled +him altogether. He took some of this boiled infusion that I have been +speaking of, and by the use of a mercurial bath--a kind of trough used +in laboratories--he deftly inverted a vessel containing the infusion +into the mercury, so that the latter reached a little beyond the level +of the mouth of the 'inverted' vessel. You see that he thus had a +quantity of the infusion shut off from any possible communication with +the outer air by being inverted upon a bed of mercury. + +He then prepared some pure oxygen and nitrogen gases, and passed them +by means of a tube going from the outside of the vessel, up through the +mercury into the infusion; so that he thus had it exposed to a perfectly +pure atmosphere of the same constituents as the external air. Of course, +he expected he would get no infusorial animalcules at all in that +infusion; but, to his great dismay and discomfiture, he found he almost +always did get them. + +Furthermore, it has been found that experiments made in the manner +described above answer well with most infusions; but that if you fill +the vessel with boiled milk, and then stop the neck with cotton-wool, +you 'will' have infusoria. So that you see there were two experiments +that brought you to one kind of conclusion, and three to another; which +was a most unsatisfactory state of things to arrive at in a scientific +inquiry. + +Some few years after this, the question began to be very hotly discussed +in France. There was M. Pouchet, a professor at Rouen, a very learned +man, but certainly not a very rigid experimentalist. He published a +number of experiments of his own, some of which were very ingenious, to +show that if you went to work in a proper way, there was a truth in +the doctrine of spontaneous generation. Well, it was one of the most +fortunate things in the world that M. Pouchet took up this question, +because it induced a distinguished French chemist, M. Pasteur, to take +up the question on the other side; and he has certainly worked it out +in the most perfect manner. I am glad to say, too, that he has published +his researches in time to enable me to give you an account of them. He +verified all the experiments which I have just mentioned to you--and +then finding those extraordinary anomalies, as in the case of the +mercury bath and the milk, he set himself to work to discover their +nature. In the case of milk he found it to be a question of temperature. +Milk in a fresh state is slightly alkaline; and it is a very curious +circumstance, but this very slight degree of alkalinity seems to have +the effect of preserving the organisms which fall into it from the +air from being destroyed at a temperature of 212 degrees, which is the +boiling point. But if you raise the temperature 10 degrees when you boil +it, the milk behaves like everything else; and if the air with which +it comes in contact, after being boiled at this temperature, is passed +through a red-hot tube, you will not get a trace of organisms. + +He then turned his attention to the mercury bath, and found on +examination that the surface of the mercury was almost always covered +with a very fine dust. He found that even the mercury itself was +positively full of organic matters; that from being constantly exposed +to the air, it had collected an immense number of these infusorial +organisms from the air. Well, under these circumstances he felt that the +case was quite clear, and that the mercury was not what it had appeared +to M. Schwann to be,--a bar to the admission of these organisms; but +that, in reality, it acted as a reservoir from which the infusion was +immediately supplied with the large quantity that had so puzzled him. + +But not content with explaining the experiments of others, M. Pasteur +went to work to satisfy himself completely. He said to himself: "If +my view is right, and if, in point of fact, all these appearances of +spontaneous generation are altogether due to the falling of minute germs +suspended in the atmosphere,--why, I ought not only to be able to show +the germs, but I ought to be able to catch and sow them, and produce +the resulting organisms." He, accordingly, constructed a very ingenious +apparatus to enable him to accomplish this trapping of this "germ dust" +in the air. He fixed in the window of his room a glass tube, in the +centre of which he had placed a ball of gun-cotton, which, as you all +know, is ordinary cotton-wool, which, from having been steeped in strong +acid, is converted into a substance of great explosive power. It is also +soluble in alcohol and ether. One end of the glass tube was, of course, +open to the external air; and at the other end of it he placed an +aspirator, a contrivance for causing a current of the external air to +pass through the tube. He kept this apparatus going for four-and-twenty +hours, and then removed the 'dusted' gun-cotton, and dissolved it in +alcohol and ether. He then allowed this to stand for a few hours, and +the result was, that a very fine dust was gradually deposited at +the bottom of it. That dust, on being transferred to the stage of a +microscope, was found to contain an enormous number of starch grains. +You know that the materials of our food and the greater portion of +plants are composed of starch, and we are constantly making use of it in +a variety of ways, so that there is always a quantity of it suspended +in the air. It is these starch grains which form many of those bright +specks that we see dancing in a ray of light sometimes. But besides +these, M. Pasteur found also an immense number of other organic +substances such as spores of fungi, which had been floating about in the +air and had got caged in this way. + +He went farther, and said to himself, "If these really are the things +that give rise to the appearance of spontaneous generation, I ought to +be able to take a ball of this 'dusted' gun-cotton and put it into one +of my vessels, containing that boiled infusion which has been kept away +from the air, and in which no infusoria are at present developed, and +then, if I am right, the introduction of this gun-cotton will give rise +to organisms." + +Accordingly, he took one of these vessels of infusion, which had been +kept eighteen months, without the least appearance of life, and by a +most ingenious contrivance, he managed to break it open and introduce +such a ball of gun-cotton, without allowing the infusion or the cotton +ball to come into contact with any air but that which had been subjected +to a red heat, and in twenty-four hours he had the satisfaction of +finding all the indications of what had been hitherto called spontaneous +generation. He had succeeded in catching the germs and developing +organisms in the way he had anticipated. + +It now struck him that the truth of his conclusions might be +demonstrated without all the apparatus he had employed. To do this, he +took some decaying animal or vegetable substance, such as urine, which +is an extremely decomposable substance, or the juice of yeast, or +perhaps some other artificial preparation, and filled a vessel having a +long tubular neck with it. He then boiled the liquid and bent that +long neck into an S shape or zig-zag, leaving it open at the end. The +infusion then gave no trace of any appearance of spontaneous generation, +however long it might be left, as all the germs in the air were +deposited in the beginning of the bent neck. He then cut the tube close +to the vessel, and allowed the ordinary air to have free and direct +access; and the result of that was the appearance of organisms in it, as +soon as the infusion had been allowed to stand long enough to allow +of the growth of those it received from the air, which was about +forty-eight hours. The result of M. Pasteur's experiments proved, +therefore, in the most conclusive manner, that all the appearances of +spontaneous generation arose from nothing more than the deposition of +the germs of organisms which were constantly floating in the air. + +To this conclusion, however, the objection was made, that if that were +the cause, then the air would contain such an enormous number of these +germs, that it would be a continual fog. But M. Pasteur replied that +they are not there in anything like the number we might suppose, and +that an exaggerated view has been held on that subject; he showed that +the chances of animal or vegetable life appearing in infusions, depend +entirely on the conditions under which they are exposed. If they are +exposed to the ordinary atmosphere around us, why, of course, you may +have organisms appearing early. But, on the other hand, if they are +exposed to air from a great height, or from some very quiet cellar, you +will often not find a single trace of life. + +So that M. Pasteur arrived at last at the clear and definite result, +that all these appearances are like the case of the worms in the piece +of meat, which was refuted by Redi, simply germs carried by the air and +deposited in the liquids in which they afterwards appear. For my own +part, I conceive that, with the particulars of M. Pasteur's experiments +before us, we cannot fail to arrive at his conclusions; and that the +doctrine of spontaneous generation has received a final 'coup de grace'. + +You, of course, understand that all this in no way interferes with the +'possibility' of the fabrication of organic matters by the direct method +to which I have referred, remote as that possibility may be. + + +[Footnote 1: Those who wish to study fully the doctrines of which I have +endeavoured to give some rough and ready illustrations, must read Mr. +John Stuart Mill's 'System of Logic'.] + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Method By Which The Causes Of The +Present And Past Conditions Of Organic Nature Are To Be Discovered.--The Origination Of Living Beings, by Thomas H. 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