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diff --git a/2925-h/2925-h.htm b/2925-h/2925-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c1f946b --- /dev/null +++ b/2925-h/2925-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1171 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + Lecture to Working Men, No. 5 (of 6), The Present Condition of Organic + Nature, THE CONDITIONS OF EXISTENCE AS AFFECTING THE PERPETUATION OF + LIVING BEINGS by Thomas H. Huxley + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Conditions Of Existence As Affecting +The Perpetuation Of Living Beings, by Thomas H. Huxley + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Conditions Of Existence As Affecting The Perpetuation Of Living Beings + Lecture V. (of V.), Lectures To Working Men, at the Museum + of Practical Geology, 1863, On Darwin's work: "Origin of + Species". + +Author: Thomas H. Huxley + +Release Date: January 4, 2009 [EBook #2925] +Last Updated: January 22, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CONDITIONS OF EXISTENCE *** + + + + +Produced by Amy E. Zelmer, and David Widger + + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE CONDITIONS OF EXISTENCE AS <br /> AFFECTING THE PERPETUATION OF LIVING + BEINGS + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h3> + Lecture V. (of VI.), "Lectures To Working Men", at the Museum of Practical + Geology, 1863, On Darwin's work: "Origin of Species". + </h3> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Thomas H. Huxley + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <p> + IN the last Lecture I endeavoured to prove to you that, while, as a + general rule, organic beings tend to reproduce their kind, there is in + them, also, a constantly recurring tendency to vary—to vary to a + greater or to a less extent. Such a variety, I pointed out to you, might + arise from causes which we do not understand; we therefore called it + spontaneous; and it might come into existence as a definite and marked + thing, without any gradations between itself and the form which preceded + it. I further pointed out, that such a variety having once arisen, might + be perpetuated to some extent, and indeed to a very marked extent, without + any direct interference, or without any exercise of that process which we + called selection. And then I stated further, that by such selection, when + exercised artificially—if you took care to breed only from those + forms which presented the same peculiarities of any variety which had + arisen in this manner—the variation might be perpetuated, as far as + we can see, indefinitely. + </p> + <p> + The next question, and it is an important one for us, is this: Is there + any limit to the amount of variation from the primitive stock which can be + produced by this process of selective breeding? In considering this + question, it will be useful to class the characteristics, in respect of + which organic beings vary, under two heads: we may consider structural + characteristics, and we may consider physiological characteristics. + </p> + <p> + In the first place, as regards structural characteristics, I endeavoured + to show you, by the skeletons which I had upon the table, and by reference + to a great many well-ascertained facts, that the different breeds of + Pigeons, the Carriers, Pouters, and Tumblers, might vary in any of their + internal and important structural characters to a very great degree; not + only might there be changes in the proportions of the skull, and the + characters of the feet and beaks, and so on; but that there might be an + absolute difference in the number of the vertebrae of the back, as in the + sacral vertebrae of the Pouter; and so great is the extent of the + variation in these and similar characters that I pointed out to you, by + reference to the skeletons and the diagrams, that these extreme varieties + may absolutely differ more from one another in their structural characters + than do what naturalists call distinct SPECIES of pigeons; that is to say, + that they differ so much in structure that there is a greater difference + between the Pouter and the Tumbler than there is between such wild and + distinct forms as the Rock Pigeon or the Ring Pigeon, or the Ring Pigeon + and the Stock Dove; and indeed the differences are of greater value than + this, for the structural differences between these domesticated pigeons + are such as would be admitted by a naturalist, supposing he knew nothing + at all about their origin, to entitle them to constitute even distinct + genera. + </p> + <p> + As I have used this term SPECIES, and shall probably use it a good deal, I + had better perhaps devote a word or two to explaining what I mean by it. + </p> + <p> + Animals and plants are divided into groups, which become gradually + smaller, beginning with a KINGDOM, which is divided into SUB-KINGDOMS; + then come the smaller divisions called PROVINCES; and so on from a + PROVINCE to a CLASS from a CLASS to an ORDER, from ORDERS to FAMILIES, and + from these to GENERA, until we come at length to the smallest groups of + animals which can be defined one from the other by constant characters, + which are not sexual; and these are what naturalists call SPECIES in + practice, whatever they may do in theory. + </p> + <p> + If, in a state of nature, you find any two groups of living beings, which + are separated one from the other by some constantly-recurring + characteristic, I don't care how slight and trivial, so long as it is + defined and constant, and does not depend on sexual peculiarities, then + all naturalists agree in calling them two species; that is what is meant + by the use of the word species—that is to say, it is, for the + practical naturalist, a mere question of structural differences. <a + href="#linknote-1" name="linknoteref-1" id="linknoteref-1"><small>1</small></a> + </p> + <p> + We have seen now—to repeat this point once more, and it is very + essential that we should rightly understand it—we have seen that + breeds, known to have been derived from a common stock by selection, may + be as different in their structure from the original stock as species may + be distinct from each other. + </p> + <p> + But is the like true of the physiological characteristics of animals? Do + the physiological differences of varieties amount in degree to those + observed between forms which naturalists call distinct species? This is a + most important point for us to consider. + </p> + <p> + As regards the great majority of physiological characteristics, there is + no doubt that they are capable of being developed, increased, and modified + by selection. + </p> + <p> + There is no doubt that breeds may be made as different as species in many + physiological characters. I have already pointed out to you very briefly + the different habits of the breeds of Pigeons, all of which depend upon + their physiological peculiarities,—as the peculiar habit of + tumbling, in the Tumbler—the peculiarities of flight, in the + "homing" birds,—the strange habit of spreading out the tail, and + walking in a peculiar fashion, in the Fantail,—and, lastly, the + habit of blowing out the gullet, so characteristic of the Pouter. These + are all due to physiological modifications, and in all these respects + these birds differ as much from each other as any two ordinary species do. + </p> + <p> + So with Dogs in their habits and instincts. It is a physiological + peculiarity which leads the Greyhound to chase its prey by sight,—that + enables the Beagle to track it by the scent,—that impels the Terrier + to its rat-hunting propensity,—and that leads the Retriever to its + habit of retrieving. These habits and instincts are all the results of + physiological differences and peculiarities, which have been developed + from a common stock, at least there is every reason to believe so. But it + is a most singular circumstance, that while you may run through almost the + whole series of physiological processes, without finding a check to your + argument, you come at last to a point where you do find a check, and that + is in the reproductive processes. For there is a most singular + circumstance in respect to natural species—at least about some of + them—and it would be sufficient for the purposes of this argument if + it were true of only one of them, but there is, in fact, a great number of + such cases—and that is, that, similar as they may appear to be to + mere races or breeds, they present a marked peculiarity in the + reproductive process. If you breed from the male and female of the same + race, you of course have offspring of the like kind, and if you make the + offspring breed together, you obtain the same result, and if you breed + from these again, you will still have the same kind of offspring; there is + no check. But if you take members of two distinct species, however similar + they may be to each other and make them breed together, you will find a + check, with some modifications and exceptions, however, which I shall + speak of presently. If you cross two such species with each other, then,—although + you may get offspring in the case of the first cross, yet, if you attempt + to breed from the products of that crossing, which are what are called + HYBRIDS—that is, if you couple a male and a female hybrid—then + the result is that in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred you will get no + offspring at all; there will be no result whatsoever. + </p> + <p> + The reason of this is quite obvious in some cases; the male hybrids, + although possessing all the external appearances and characteristics of + perfect animals, are physiologically imperfect and deficient in the + structural parts of the reproductive elements necessary to generation. It + is said to be invariably the case with the male mule, the cross between + the Ass and the Mare; and hence it is, that, although crossing the Horse + with the Ass is easy enough, and is constantly done, as far as I am aware, + if you take two mules, a male and a female, and endeavour to breed from + them, you get no offspring whatever; no generation will take place. This + is what is called the sterility of the hybrids between two distinct + species. + </p> + <p> + You see that this is a very extraordinary circumstance; one does not see + why it should be. The common teleological explanation is, that it is to + prevent the impurity of the blood resulting from the crossing of one + species with another, but you see it does not in reality do anything of + the kind. There is nothing in this fact that hybrids cannot breed with + each other, to establish such a theory; there is nothing to prevent the + Horse breeding with the Ass, or the Ass with the Horse. So that this + explanation breaks down, as a great many explanations of this kind do, + that are only founded on mere assumptions. + </p> + <p> + Thus you see that there is a great difference between "mongrels," which + are crosses between distinct races, and "hybrids," which are crosses + between distinct species. The mongrels are, so far as we know, fertile + with one another. But between species, in many cases, you cannot succeed + in obtaining even the first cross: at any rate it is quite certain that + the hybrids are often absolutely infertile one with another. + </p> + <p> + Here is a feature, then, great or small as it may be, which distinguishes + natural species of animals. Can we find any approximation to this in the + different races known to be produced by selective breeding from a common + stock? Up to the present time the answer to that question is absolutely a + negative one. As far as we know at present, there is nothing approximating + to this check. In crossing the breeds between the Fantail and the Pouter, + the Carrier and the Tumbler, or any other variety or race you may name—so + far as we know at present—there is no difficulty in breeding + together the mongrels. Take the Carrier and the Fantail, for instance, and + let them represent the Horse and the Ass in the case of distinct species; + then you have, as the result of their breeding, the Carrier-Fantail + mongrel,—we will say the male and female mongrel,—and, as far + as we know, these two when crossed would not be less fertile than the + original cross, or than Carrier with Carrier. Here, you see, is a + physiological contrast between the races produced by selective + modification and natural species. I shall inquire into the value of this + fact, and of some modifying circumstances by and by; for the present I + merely put it broadly before you. + </p> + <p> + But while considering this question of the limitations of species, a word + must be said about what is called RECURRENCE—the tendency of races + which have been developed by selective breeding from varieties to return + to their primitive type. This is supposed by many to put an absolute limit + to the extent of selective and all other variations. People say, "It is + all very well to talk about producing these different races, but you know + very well that if you turned all these birds wild, these Pouters, and + Carriers, and so on, they would all return to their primitive stock." This + is very commonly assumed to be a fact, and it is an argument that is + commonly brought forward as conclusive; but if you will take the trouble + to inquire into it rather closely, I think you will find that it is not + worth very much. The first question of course is, Do they thus return to + the primitive stock? And commonly as the thing is assumed and accepted, it + is extremely difficult to get anything like good evidence of it. It is + constantly said, for example, that if domesticated Horses are turned wild, + as they have been in some parts of Asia Minor and South America, that they + return at once to the primitive stock from which they were bred. But the + first answer that you make to this assumption is, to ask who knows what + the primitive stock was; and the second answer is, that in that case the + wild Horses of Asia Minor ought to be exactly like the wild Horses of + South America. If they are both like the same thing, they ought manifestly + to be like each other! The best authorities, however, tell you that it is + quite different. The wild Horse of Asia is said to be of a dun colour, + with a largish head, and a great many other peculiarities; while the best + authorities on the wild Horses of South America tell you that there is no + similarity between their wild Horses and those of Asia Minor; the cut of + their heads is very different, and they are commonly chestnut or + bay-coloured. It is quite clear, therefore, that as by these facts there + ought to have been two primitive stocks, they go for nothing in support of + the assumption that races recur to one primitive stock, and so far as this + evidence is concerned, it falls to the ground. + </p> + <p> + Suppose for a moment that it were so, and that domesticated races, when + turned wild, did return to some common condition, I cannot see that this + would prove much more than that similar conditions are likely to produce + similar results; and that when you take back domesticated animals into + what we call natural conditions, you do exactly the same thing as if you + carefully undid all the work you had gone through, for the purpose of + bringing the animal from its wild to its domesticated state. I do not see + anything very wonderful in the fact, if it took all that trouble to get it + from a wild state, that it should go back into its original state as soon + as you removed the conditions which produced the variation to the + domesticated form. There is an important fact, however, forcibly brought + forward by Mr. Darwin, which has been noticed in connection with the + breeding of domesticated pigeons; and it is, that however different these + breeds of pigeons may be from each other, and we have already noticed the + great differences in these breeds, that if, among any of those variations, + you chance to have a blue pigeon turn up, it will be sure to have the + black bars across the wings, which are characteristic of the original wild + stock, the Rock Pigeon. + </p> + <p> + Now, this is certainly a very remarkable circumstance; but I do not see + myself how it tells very strongly either one way or the other. I think, in + fact, that this argument in favour of recurrence to the primitive type + might prove a great deal too much for those who so constantly bring it + forward. For example, Mr. Darwin has very forcibly urged, that nothing is + commoner than if you examine a dun horse—and I had an opportunity of + verifying this illustration lately, while in the islands of the West + Highlands, where there are a great many dun horses—to find that + horse exhibit a long black stripe down his back, very often stripes on his + shoulder, and very often stripes on his legs. I, myself, saw a pony of + this description a short time ago, in a baker's cart, near Rothesay, in + Bute: it had the long stripe down the back, and stripes on the shoulders + and legs, just like those of the Ass, the Quagga, and the Zebra. Now, if + we interpret the theory of recurrence as applied to this case, might it + not be said that here was a case of a variation exhibiting the characters + and conditions of an animal occupying something like an intermediate + position between the Horse, the Ass, the Quagga, and the Zebra, and from + which these had been developed? In the same way with regard even to Man. + Every anatomist will tell you that there is nothing commoner, in + dissecting the human body, than to meet with what are called muscular + variations—that is, if you dissect two bodies very carefully, you + will probably find that the modes of attachment and insertion of the + muscles are not exactly the same in both, there being great peculiarities + in the mode in which the muscles are arranged; and it is very singular, + that in some dissections of the human body you will come upon arrangements + of the muscles very similar indeed to the same parts in the Apes. Is the + conclusion in that case to be, that this is like the black bars in the + case of the Pigeon, and that it indicates a recurrence to the primitive + type from which the animals have been probably developed? Truly, I think + that the opponents of modification and variation had better leave the + argument of recurrence alone, or it may prove altogether too strong for + them. + </p> + <p> + To sum up,—the evidence as far as we have gone is against the + argument as to any limit to divergences, so far as structure is concerned; + and in favour of a physiological limitation. By selective breeding we can + produce structural divergences as great as those of species, but we cannot + produce equal physiological divergences. For the present I leave the + question there. + </p> + <p> + Now, the next problem that lies before us—and it is an extremely + important one—is this: Does this selective breeding occur in nature? + Because, if there is no proof of it, all that I have been telling you goes + for nothing in accounting for the origin of species. Are natural causes + competent to play the part of selection in perpetuating varieties? Here we + labour under very great difficulties. In the last lecture I had occasion + to point out to you the extreme difficulty of obtaining evidence even of + the first origin of those varieties which we know to have occurred in + domesticated animals. I told you, that almost always the origin of these + varieties is overlooked, so that I could only produce two of three cases, + as that of Gratio Kelleia and of the Ancon sheep. People forget, or do not + take notice of them until they come to have a prominence; and if that is + true of artificial cases, under our own eyes, and in animals in our own + care, how much more difficult it must be to have at first hand good + evidence of the origin of varieties in nature! Indeed, I do not know that + it is possible by direct evidence to prove the origin of a variety in + nature, or to prove selective breeding; but I will tell you what we can + prove—and this comes to the same thing—that varieties exist in + nature within the limits of species, and, what is more, that when a + variety has come into existence in nature, there are natural causes and + conditions, which are amply competent to play the part of a selective + breeder; and although that is not quite the evidence that one would like + to have—though it is not direct testimony—yet it is exceeding + good and exceedingly powerful evidence in its way. + </p> + <p> + As to the first point, of varieties existing among natural species, I + might appeal to the universal experience of every naturalist, and of any + person who has ever turned any attention at all to the characteristics of + plants and animals in a state of nature; but I may as well take a few + definite cases, and I will begin with Man himself. + </p> + <p> + I am one of those who believe that, at present, there is no evidence + whatever for saying, that mankind sprang originally from any more than a + single pair; I must say, that I cannot see any good ground whatever, or + even any tenable sort of evidence, for believing that there is more than + one species of Man. Nevertheless, as you know, just as there are numbers + of varieties in animals, so there are remarkable varieties of men. I speak + not merely of those broad and distinct variations which you see at a + glance. Everybody, of course, knows the difference between a Negro and a + white man, and can tell a Chinaman from an Englishman. They each have + peculiar characteristics of colour and physiognomy; but you must recollect + that the characters of these races go very far deeper—they extend to + the bony structure, and to the characters of that most important of all + organs to us—the brain; so that, among men belonging to different + races, or even within the same race, one man shall have a brain a third, + or half, or even seventy per cent. bigger than another; and if you take + the whole range of human brains, you will find a variation in some cases + of a hundred per cent. Apart from these variations in the size of the + brain, the characters of the skull vary. Thus if I draw the figures of a + Mongul and of a Negro head on the blackboard, in the case of the last the + breadth would be about seven-tenths, and in the other it would be + nine-tenths of the total length. So that you see there is abundant + evidence of variation among men in their natural condition. And if you + turn to other animals there is just the same thing. The fox, for example, + which has a very large geographical distribution all over Europe, and + parts of Asia, and on the American Continent, varies greatly. There are + mostly large foxes in the North, and smaller ones in the South. In Germany + alone, the foresters reckon some eight different sorts. + </p> + <p> + Of the tiger, no one supposes that there is more than one species; they + extend from the hottest parts of Bengal, into the dry, cold, bitter + steppes of Siberia, into a latitude of 50 degrees,—so that they may + even prey upon the reindeer. These tigers have exceedingly different + characteristics, but still they all keep their general features, so that + there is no doubt as to their being tigers. The Siberian tiger has a thick + fur, a small mane, and a longitudinal stripe down the back, while the + tigers of Java and Sumatra differ in many important respects from the + tigers of Northern Asia. So lions vary; so birds vary; and so, if you go + further back and lower down in creation, you find that fishes vary. In + different streams, in the same country even, you will find the trout to be + quite different to each other and easily recognisable by those who fish in + the particular streams. There is the same differences in leeches; leech + collectors can easily point out to you the differences and the + peculiarities which you yourself would probably pass by; so with + fresh-water mussels; so, in fact, with every animal you can mention. + </p> + <p> + In plants there is the same kind of variation. Take such a case even as + the common bramble. The botanists are all at war about it; some of them + wanting to make out that there are many species of it, and others + maintaining that they are but many varieties of one species; and they + cannot settle to this day which is a species and which is a variety! + </p> + <p> + So that there can be no doubt whatsoever that any plant and any animal may + vary in nature; that varieties may arise in the way I have described,—as + spontaneous varieties,—and that those varieties may be perpetuated + in the same way that I have shown you spontaneous varieties are + perpetuated; I say, therefore, that there can be no doubt as to the origin + and perpetuation of varieties in nature. + </p> + <p> + But the question now is:—Does selection take place in nature? is + there anything like the operation of man in exercising selective breeding, + taking place in nature? You will observe that, at present, I say nothing + about species; I wish to confine myself to the consideration of the + production of those natural races which everybody admits to exist. The + question is, whether in nature there are causes competent to produce + races, just in the same way as man is able to produce by selection, such + races of animals as we have already noticed. + </p> + <p> + When a variety has arisen, the CONDITIONS OF EXISTENCE are such as to + exercise an influence which is exactly comparable to that of artificial + selection. By Conditions of Existence I mean two things,—there are + conditions which are furnished by the physical, the inorganic world, and + there are conditions of existence which are furnished by the organic + world. There is, in the first place, CLIMATE; under that head I include + only temperature and the varied amount of moisture of particular places. + In the next place there is what is technically called STATION, which means—given + the climate, the particular kind of place in which an animal or a plant + lives or grows; for example, the station of a fish is in the water, of a + fresh-water fish in fresh water; the station of a marine fish is in the + sea, and a marine animal may have a station higher or deeper. So again + with land animals: the differences in their stations are those of + different soils and neighbourhoods; some being best adapted to a + calcareous, and others to an arenaceous soil. The third condition of + existence is FOOD, by which I mean food in the broadest sense, the supply + of the materials necessary to the existence of an organic being; in the + case of a plant the inorganic matters, such as carbonic acid, water, + ammonia, and the earthy salts or salines; in the case of the animal the + inorganic and organic matters, which we have seen they require; then these + are all, at least the two first, what we may call the inorganic or + physical conditions of existence. Food takes a mid-place, and then come + the organic conditions; by which I mean the conditions which depend upon + the state of the rest of the organic creation, upon the number and kind of + living beings, with which an animal is surrounded. You may class these + under two heads: there are organic beings, which operate as 'opponents', + and there are organic beings which operate as 'helpers' to any given + organic creature. The opponents may be of two kinds: there are the + 'indirect opponents', which are what we may call 'rivals'; and there are + the 'direct opponents', those which strive to destroy the creature; and + these we call 'enemies'. By rivals I mean, of course, in the case of + plants, those which require for their support the same kind of soil and + station, and, among animals, those which require the same kind of station, + or food, or climate; those are the indirect opponents; the direct + opponents are, of course, those which prey upon an animal or vegetable. + The 'helpers' may also be regarded as direct and indirect: in the case of + a carnivorous animal, for example, a particular herbaceous plant may in + multiplying be an indirect helper, by enabling the herbivora on which the + carnivore preys to get more food, and thus to nourish the carnivore more + abundantly; the direct helper may be best illustrated by reference to some + parasitic creature, such as the tape-worm. The tape-worm exists in the + human intestines, so that the fewer there are of men the fewer there will + be of tape-worms, other things being alike. It is a humiliating + reflection, perhaps, that we may be classed as direct helpers to the + tape-worm, but the fact is so: we can all see that if there were no men + there would be no tape-worms. + </p> + <p> + It is extremely difficult to estimate, in a proper way, the importance and + the working of the Conditions of Existence. I do not think there were any + of us who had the remotest notion of properly estimating them until the + publication of Mr. Darwin's work, which has placed them before us with + remarkable clearness; and I must endeavour, as far as I can in my own + fashion, to give you some notion of how they work. We shall find it + easiest to take a simple case, and one as free as possible from every kind + of complication. + </p> + <p> + I will suppose, therefore, that all the habitable part of this globe—the + dry land, amounting to about 51,000,000 square miles,—I will suppose + that the whole of that dry land has the same climate, and that it is + composed of the same kind of rock or soil, so that there will be the same + station everywhere; we thus get rid of the peculiar influence of different + climates and stations. I will then imagine that there shall be but one + organic being in the world, and that shall be a plant. In this we start + fair. Its food is to be carbonic acid, water and ammonia, and the saline + matters in the soil, which are, by the supposition, everywhere alike. We + take one single plant, with no opponents, no helpers, and no rivals; it is + to be a "fair field, and no favour". Now, I will ask you to imagine + further that it shall be a plant which shall produce every year fifty + seeds, which is a very moderate number for a plant to produce; and that, + by the action of the winds and currents, these seeds shall be equally and + gradually distributed over the whole surface of the land. I want you now + to trace out what will occur, and you will observe that I am not talking + fallaciously any more than a mathematician does when he expounds his + problem. If you show that the conditions of your problem are such as may + actually occur in nature and do not transgress any of the known laws of + nature in working out your proposition, then you are as safe in the + conclusion you arrive at as is the mathematician in arriving at the + solution of his problem. In science, the only way of getting rid of the + complications with which a subject of this kind is environed, is to work + in this deductive method. What will be the result, then? I will suppose + that every plant requires one square foot of ground to live upon; and the + result will be that, in the course of nine years, the plant will have + occupied every single available spot in the whole globe! I have chalked + upon the blackboard the figures by which I arrive at the result:— + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="calc (45K)" src="images/calc.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + You will see from this that, at the end of the first year the single plant + will have produced fifty more of its kind; by the end of the second year + these will have increased to 2,500; and so on, in succeeding years, you + get beyond even trillions; and I am not at all sure that I could tell you + what the proper arithmetical denomination of the total number really is; + but, at any rate, you will understand the meaning of all those noughts. + Then you see that, at the bottom, I have taken the 51,000,000 of square + miles, constituting the surface of the dry land; and as the number of + square feet are placed under and subtracted from the number of seeds that + would be produced in the ninth year, you can see at once that there would + be an immense number more of plants than there would be square feet of + ground for their accommodation. This is certainly quite enough to prove my + point; that between the eighth and ninth year after being planted the + single plant would have stocked the whole available surface of the earth. + </p> + <p> + This is a thing which is hardly conceivable—it seems hardly + imaginable—yet it is so. It is indeed simply the law of Malthus + exemplified. Mr. Malthus was a clergyman, who worked out this subject most + minutely and truthfully some years ago; he showed quite clearly,—and + although he was much abused for his conclusions at the time, they have + never yet been disproved and never will be—he showed that in + consequence of the increase in the number of organic beings in a + geometrical ratio, while the means of existence cannot be made to increase + in the same ratio, that there must come a time when the number of organic + beings will be in excess of the power of production of nutriment, and that + thus some check must arise to the further increase of those organic + beings. At the end of the ninth year we have seen that each plant would + not be able to get its full square foot of ground, and at the end of + another year it would have to share that space with fifty others the + produce of the seeds which it would give off. + </p> + <p> + What, then, takes place? Every plant grows up, flourishes, occupies its + square foot of ground, and gives off its fifty seeds; but notice this, + that out of this number only one can come to anything; there is thus, as + it were, forty-nine chances to one against its growing up; it depends upon + the most fortuitous circumstances whether any one of these fifty seeds + shall grow up and flourish, or whether it shall die and perish. This is + what Mr. Darwin has drawn attention to, and called the "STRUGGLE FOR + EXISTENCE"; and I have taken this simple case of a plant because some + people imagine that the phrase seems to imply a sort of fight. + </p> + <p> + I have taken this plant and shown you that this is the result of the ratio + of the increase, the necessary result of the arrival of a time coming for + every species when exactly as many members must be destroyed as are born; + that is the inevitable ultimate result of the rate of production. Now, + what is the result of all this? I have said that there are forty-nine + struggling against every one; and it amounts to this, that the smallest + possible start given to any one seed may give it an advantage which will + enable it to get ahead of all the others; anything that will enable any + one of these seeds to germinate six hours before any of the others will, + other things being alike, enable it to choke them out altogether. I have + shown you that there is no particular in which plants will not vary from + each other; it is quite possible that one of our imaginary plants may vary + in such a character as the thickness of the integument of its seeds; it + might happen that one of the plants might produce seeds having a thinner + integument, and that would enable the seeds of that plant to germinate a + little quicker than those of any of the others, and those seeds would most + inevitably extinguish the forty-nine times as many that were struggling + with them. + </p> + <p> + I have put it in this way, but you see the practical result of the process + is the same as if some person had nurtured the one and destroyed the other + seeds. It does not matter how the variation is produced, so long as it is + once allowed to occur. The variation in the plant once fairly started + tends to become hereditary and reproduce itself; the seeds would spread + themselves in the same way and take part in the struggle with the + forty-nine hundred, or forty-nine thousand, with which they might be + exposed. Thus, by degrees, this variety, with some slight organic change + or modification, must spread itself over the whole surface of the + habitable globe, and extirpate or replace the other kinds. That is what is + meant by NATURAL SELECTION; that is the kind of argument by which it is + perfectly demonstrable that the conditions of existence may play exactly + the same part for natural varieties as man does for domesticated + varieties. No one doubts at all that particular circumstances may be more + favourable for one plant and less so for another, and the moment you admit + that, you admit the selective power of nature. Now, although I have been + putting a hypothetical case, you must not suppose that I have been + reasoning hypothetically. There are plenty of direct experiments which + bear out what we may call the theory of natural selection; there is + extremely good authority for the statement that if you take the seed of + mixed varieties of wheat and sow it, collecting the seed next year and + sowing it again, at length you will find that out of all your varieties + only two or three have lived, or perhaps even only one. There were one or + two varieties which were best fitted to get on, and they have killed out + the other kinds in just the same way and with just the same certainty as + if you had taken the trouble to remove them. As I have already said, the + operation of nature is exactly the same as the artificial operation of + man. + </p> + <p> + But if this be true of that simple case, which I put before you, where + there is nothing but the rivalry of one member of a species with others, + what must be the operation of selective conditions, when you recollect as + a matter of fact, that for every species of animal or plant there are + fifty or a hundred species which might all, more or less, be comprehended + in the same climate, food, and station;—that every plant has + multitudinous animals which prey upon it, and which are its direct + opponents; and that these have other animals preying upon them,—that + every plant has its indirect helpers in the birds that scatter abroad its + seed, and the animals that manure it with their dung;—I say, when + these things are considered, it seems impossible that any variation which + may arise in a species in nature should not tend in some way or other + either to be a little better or worse than the previous stock; if it is a + little better it will have an advantage over and tend to extirpate the + latter in this crush and struggle; and if it is a little worse it will + itself be extirpated. + </p> + <p> + I know nothing that more appropriately expresses this, than the phrase, + "the struggle for existence"; because it brings before your minds, in a + vivid sort of way, some of the simplest possible circumstances connected + with it. When a struggle is intense there must be some who are sure to be + trodden down, crushed, and overpowered by others; and there will be some + who just manage to get through only by the help of the slightest accident. + I recollect reading an account of the famous retreat of the French troops, + under Napoleon, from Moscow. Worn out, tired, and dejected, they at length + came to a great river over which there was but one bridge for the passage + of the vast army. Disorganised and demoralised as that army was, the + struggle must certainly have been a terrible one—every one heeding + only himself, and crushing through the ranks and treading down his + fellows. The writer of the narrative, who was himself one of those who + were fortunate enough to succeed in getting over, and not among the + thousands who were left behind or forced into the river, ascribed his + escape to the fact that he saw striding onward through the mass a great + strong fellow,—one of the French Cuirassiers, who had on a large + blue cloak—and he had enough presence of mind to catch and retain a + hold of this strong man's cloak. He says, "I caught hold of his cloak, and + although he swore at me and cut at and struck me by turns, and at last, + when he found he could not shake me off, fell to entreating me to leave go + or I should prevent him from escaping, besides not assisting myself, I + still kept tight hold of him, and would not quit my grasp until he had at + last dragged me through." Here you see was a case of selective saving—if + we may so term it—depending for its success on the strength of the + cloth of the Cuirassier's cloak. It is the same in nature; every species + has its bridge of Beresina; it has to fight its way through and struggle + with other species; and when well nigh overpowered, it may be that the + smallest chance, something in its colour, perhaps—the minutest + circumstance—will turn the scale one way or the other. + </p> + <p> + Suppose that by a variation of the black race it had produced the white + man at any time—you know that the Negroes are said to believe this + to have been the case, and to imagine that Cain was the first white man, + and that we are his descendants—suppose that this had ever happened, + and that the first residence of this human being was on the West Coast of + Africa. There is no great structural difference between the white man and + the Negro, and yet there is something so singularly different in the + constitution of the two, that the malarias of that country, which do not + hurt the black at all, cut off and destroy the white. Then you see there + would have been a selective operation performed; if the white man had + risen in that way, he would have been selected out and removed by means of + the malaria. Now there really is a very curious case of selection of this + sort among pigs, and it is a case of selection of colour too. In the woods + of Florida there are a great many pigs, and it is a very curious thing + that they are all black, every one of them. Professor Wyman was there some + years ago, and on noticing no pigs but these black ones, he asked some of + the people how it was that they had no white pigs, and the reply was that + in the woods of Florida there was a root which they called the Paint Root, + and that if the white pigs were to eat any of it, it had the effect of + making their hoofs crack, and they died, but if the black pigs eat any of + it, it did not hurt them at all. Here was a very simple case of natural + selection. A skilful breeder could not more carefully develope the black + breed of pigs, and weed out all the white pigs, than the Paint Root does. + </p> + <p> + To show you how remarkably indirect may be such natural selective agencies + as I have referred to, I will conclude by noticing a case mentioned by Mr. + Darwin, and which is certainly one of the most curious of its kind. It is + that of the Humble Bee. It has been noticed that there are a great many + more humble bees in the neighbourhood of towns, than out in the open + country; and the explanation of the matter is this: the humble bees build + nests, in which they store their honey and deposit the larvae and eggs. + The field mice are amazingly fond of the honey and larvae; therefore, + wherever there are plenty of field mice, as in the country, the humble + bees are kept down; but in the neighbourhood of towns, the number of cats + which prowl about the fields eat up the field mice, and of course the more + mice they eat up the less there are to prey upon the larvae of the bees—the + cats are therefore the INDIRECT HELPERS of the bees! <a href="#linknote-2" + name="linknoteref-2" id="linknoteref-2"><small>2</small></a> Coming back a + step farther we may say that the old maids are also indirect friends of + the humble bees, and indirect enemies of the field mice, as they keep the + cats which eat up the latter! This is an illustration somewhat beneath the + dignity of the subject, perhaps, but it occurs to me in passing, and with + it I will conclude this lecture. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1" id="linknote-1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-1">return</a>)<br /> [ I lay stress here on the + 'practical' signification of "Species." Whether a physiological test + between species exist or not, it is hardly ever applicable by the + practical naturalist.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2" id="linknote-2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-2">return</a>)<br /> [ The humble bees, on the + other hand, are direct helpers of some plants, such as the heartsease and + red clover, which are fertilized by the visits of the bees; and they are + indirect helpers of the numerous insects which are more or less completely + supported by the heartsease and red clover.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Conditions Of Existence As +Affecting The Perpetuation Of Living Beings, by Thomas H. 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