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diff --git a/29265.txt b/29265.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2e985a3 --- /dev/null +++ b/29265.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18341 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Story of the Great War, Volume III (of VIII), by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Story of the Great War, Volume III (of VIII) + History of the European War from Official Sources + +Author: Various + +Editor: Francis J. Reynolds + Allen L. Churchill + Francis T. Miller + +Release Date: June 28, 2009 [EBook #29265] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF THE GREAT WAR *** + + +Produced by Christine P. Travers, Charlene Taylor and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) + + + + + + + +[Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected. +Hyphenation and accentuation have been standardised, all +other inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling +has been maintained. + +Page 239, "The concentration one for operations" has been changed to +"The concentration zone for operations".] + + + + + +THE STORY OF THE GREAT WAR + + History of the European War from Official Sources + + Complete Historical Records of Events to Date, + Illustrated with Drawings, Maps, and Photographs + + Prefaced by + + What the War Means to America + Major General Leonard Wood, U.S.A. + + Naval Lessons of the War + Rear Admiral Austin M. Knight, U.S.N. + + The World's War + Frederick Palmer + + Theatres of the War's Campaigns + Frank H. Simonds + + The War Correspondent + Arthur Ruhl + + Edited by + + Francis J. Reynolds + Former Reference Librarian of Congress + + Allen L. Churchill + Associate Editor, The New International Encyclopedia + + Francis Trevelyan Miller + Editor in Chieft, Photographic History of the Civil War + + P. F. Collier & Son Company + New York + + +[Illustration: _A great war Zeppelin on a bomb-dropping expedition is +sailing over an enemy city. High above it are the city's defending +aircraft--a biplane and a monoplane--ready to attack the raider with +their machine guns_] + + +THE STORY OF THE GREAT WAR + + NEUVE CHAPELLE . BATTLE + OF YPRES . PRZEMYSL + MAZURIAN LAKES . ITALY + ENTERS WAR . GORIZIA + THE DARDANELLES + + +VOLUME III + +P . F . Collier & Son . New York + + Copyright 1916 + By P. F. Collier & Son + + + + +CONTENTS + + +PART I.--RUSSIAN AND TURKISH CAMPAIGN + +CHAPTER Page + + I. Campaign in the Caucasus 9 + II. Turkish Advance Against Egypt 15 + III. Failure of "Holy War" Propaganda 21 + IV. Results of First Six Months of Turkish Campaign 25 + V. The Dardanelles--Strategy of the Campaign 27 + VI. Fortifications and Strength--First Movements 34 + + +PART II.--JAPAN AND THE FAR EAST + + VII. Why Japan Joined the Allies 40 + VIII. Military and Naval Situation in the Far East 46 + IX. Beginning of Hostilities--Attacks On Tsing-Tau Forts 52 + X. Capture of Tsing-Tau 60 + + +PART III.--THE WAR IN AFRICA + + XI. Campaign in Togoland and the Cameroons 62 + XII. German Southwest Africa--Rebellion in Union of South + Africa 68 + + +PART IV.--THE WESTERN FRONT + + XIII. Preparations for an Offensive 79 + XIV. Battle of Neuve Chapelle Begins 83 + XV. Operations Following Neuve Chapelle 92 + XVI. Beginning of Second Battle of Ypres 99 + XVII. The Struggle Renewed 106 + XVIII. Other Actions on the Western Front 115 + XIX. Campaign in Artois Region 121 + XX. British Forward Movement--Battle of Festubert 128 + XXI. Sir John French Attempts a Surprise 134 + XXII. Attacks at La Bassee 140 + XXIII. Operations Around Hooge 146 + XXIV. Franco-German Operations Along the Front 151 + XXV. Campaign in Argonne and Around Arras 158 + XXVI. Belgo-German Operations 166 + + +PART V.--NAVAL OPERATIONS + + XXVII. The War Zone 170 + XXVIII. Attack on the Dardanelles 174 + XXIX. German Raiders and Submarines 179 + XXX. Italian Participation--Operations in Many Waters 186 + XXXI. Story of the Emden 193 + XXXII. Summary of the First Year of Naval Warfare 206 + XXXIII. Fights of the Submarines 209 + XXXIV. Sinking of the Lusitania 222 + + +PART VI.--THE EASTERN FRONT--AUSTRO-RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN + + XXXV. The Carpathian Campaign--Review of the Situation 235 + XXXVI. Battle of the Passes 241 + XXXVII. Battle of Koziowa--Operations in the Bukowina 244 + XXXVIII. Fall of Przemysl 249 + XXXIX. New Russian Offensive--Austro-German Counteroffensive 258 + XL. Campaign in Galicia and Bukowina--Battle of the Dunajec 264 + XLI. Russian Retreat 276 + XLII. Austro-German Reconquest of Western Galicia 281 + XLIII. Campaign in Eastern Galicia and the Bukowina 289 + XLIV. Russian Change of Front--Retreat to the San 293 + XLV. Battle of the San 297 + XLVI. Recapture of Przemysl 301 + XLVII. Capture of Lemberg 306 + + +PART VII.--RUSSO-GERMAN CAMPAIGN + + XLVIII. Winter Battles of the Mazurian Lakes 313 + XLIX. The Russians Out of Germany 317 + L. Tightening of the Net--Report of the Booty 319 + LI. Battles of Przasnysz--Before Mlawa 324 + LII. Fighting Before the Niemen and Bobr--Bombardment of + Ossowetz 329 + LIII. Russian Raid on Memel 334 + LIV. German Invasion of Courland--Capture of Libau 337 + V. Russian Offensive from Kovno--Forest Battles in May + and June 342 + LVI. Campaign in Southern Poland--Movement upon Warsaw 345 + LVII. Battle of Krasnik--Capture of Przasnysz 348 + LVIII. Grand Offensive on the Warsaw Salient 356 + LIX. Beginning of the End 361 + LX. Warsaw Falls 366 + + +PART VIII.--THE BALKANS + + LXI. Diplomacy in the Balkans 369 + + +PART IX.--ITALY ENTERS THE WAR + + LXII. Spirit of the Italian People--Crisis of the Government 379 + LXIII. The Decision Made--Italian Strategy 382 + LXIV. Strength of Italian Army and Navy 388 + LXV. First Engagements 392 + LXVI. Fighting in the Mountains 402 + LXVII. Attacks in Gorizia 408 + LXVIII. Fighting in the Alps--Italian Successes 416 + LXIX. More Mountain Fighting--Results of First Campaign 419 + + +PART X.--THE DARDANELLES AND TURKEY + + LXX. Beginning of Operations 423 + LXXI. Preparations for Landing--Composition OF Forces 429 + LXXII. Plans of Sir Ian Hamilton--First Landing Made 437 + LXXIII. The British in Danger--Bitter Fighting 446 + LXXIV. Further Efforts at Landing--Failure to Take Krithia 454 + LXXV. Krithia Again Attacked--Heroic Work of "Anzacs" 459 + LXXVI. Russo-Turkish Operations 469 + + +PART XI.--THE WAR IN AFRICA + + LXXVII. The Cameroons 481 + LXXVIII. British Conquest of Southwest Africa 484 + LXXIX. Other African Operations 493 + + +PART XII.--WAR IN ARABIA, MESOPOTAMIA, AND EGYPT + + LXXX. Mesopotamia and Arabia 497 + LXXXI. Syria and Egypt 503 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + + Zeppelin Attacked by Aeroplanes _Frontispiece_ + + Opposite Page + Belgians Re-forming for a Fresh Attack 78 + + Prayer in a French Church Used for a Hospital 158 + + Great Liner Lusitania 222 + + Grand Duke Nicholas 270 + + Triumphal Entry of Austrians into Przemysl 302 + + Prince Leopold of Bavaria in Warsaw 366 + + Cloud of Poisonous Gas Released by Italian Troops 414 + + Stores at Suvla Bay, Gallipoli 462 + + + + +LIST OF MAPS + + Page + Strategic Railway System in Eastern Germany Which Made + Quick Concentration Possible (_Colored Map_) _Front Insert_ + + Gallipoli 29 + + Kiao-Chau (Tsing-Tau) 43 + + German Possessions in Africa 65 + + Western Battle Line, January 1, 1915 81 + + Neuve Chapelle, Battle at 88 + + Ypres, Gas Battle of 113 + + Fighting in Alsace-Hartmannsweilerkopf 119 + + Artois, Battles in 126 + + German Submarine War Zone 172 + + Emden Landing Party, Cruise of 195 + + Carpathian Passes and Russian Battle Line 237 + + Przemysl, Detail Maps of the Forts of 248 + + Galician Campaign from Tarnow to Przemysl 279 + + Galician Campaign from Przemysl TO Bessarabia 291 + + Riga, German Advance on 338 + + Warsaw, German Attempts to Reach, in 1914 358 + + Warsaw, Advance and Capture of 367 + + Coasts of Italy and Austria, Showing the Naval Raid in + May, 1915 395 + + Austria, Italian Attack on 410 + + Dardanelles, Pictorial Map of, Showing Where the Allies + Landed 439 + + German Southwest Africa, Conquest of 491 + + Mesopotamia--The British Operations from the Persian Gulf 499 + + Suez Canal, Turkish Attack on 506 + + + + +PART I--RUSSIAN AND TURKISH CAMPAIGN + + + +CHAPTER I + +CAMPAIGN IN THE CAUCASUS + + +Disquieting as was the British offensive in Mesopotamia, the Turkish +General Staff were not to be drawn by it from considerations of larger +strategy. Acting in agreement with the German and Austrian General +Staffs, plans were rapidly pushed for an aggressive offensive in the +Caucasus, that old-time battling ground of the Russians and the Turks. +Germany was being hotly pressed in France by the armies of Belgium, +France, and England, and feared an offensive on the part of the +Russian army. + +Across the great isthmus separating the Caspian and Black Seas run the +Caucasus Mountains. Parallel to this range of towering mountains, the +highest in Europe, runs the frontier line of Russia and Turkey and +Russia and Persia, winding in and out among the Trans-Caucasian +Mountains. About two hundred miles from the Russo-Turkish frontier +stands Tiflis, the rich and ancient capital of Georgia, and one of the +prime objectives of any Turkish offensive. One of the few railroads of +this wild country runs from Tiflis through the Russian fortress of +Kars, forty-five miles from the Turkish frontier, to Sarikamish, +thirty miles nearer. On the Turkish side the fortress of Erzerum +stands opposed to Kars, but suffering in comparison by the lack of +railroad communication with the interior of Turkey. + +Despite all these discouraging circumstances, however, the Turkish +General Staff, dominated by the indefatigable and ambitious Enver +Pasha, was not to be deterred. A brilliant and daring plan of +campaign, aiming at the annihilation or capture of the entire Russian +Caucasian army, the seizure of Kars and Tiflis, and the control of the +immensely valuable and important Caspian oil fields, was prepared. The +unwelcome task of carrying this plan to completion and success was +intrusted to Hassan Izzet Pasha, under the general guidance of Enver +Pasha and his staff of German advisers. + +The heroic efforts of the Turkish troops, their grim but hopeless +battle against equally brave troops, appalling weather conditions, and +insuperable obstacles, their failure and defeat when on the very verge +of complete success, make an intensely interesting story. + +Stationed at Erzerum, Turkey had the Ninth, Tenth, and Eleventh Corps. +In addition, the Thirty-seventh Arab division had been brought up from +Bagdad to strengthen the Eleventh Corps. At Trebizond two divisions of +the First Corps had been brought from Constantinople by sea. These +forces totaled about 140,000 troops. At and about Kars, General +Woronzov, the Russian commander, had between 100,000 and 110,000 +troops at his disposal from first to last. But although weaker in +numbers he had the inestimable advantage of operating with a line of +railroad at his back, whereas the Turkish commander had to depend +entirely upon road transit, 500 miles from the nearest railroad. + +The conditions absolutely necessary for the success of the Turkish +plan were the holding of the Russian force beyond Sarikamish, and the +accurate timing of the flanking attacks, otherwise the Russian +commander would be able to deal with each force separately and defeat +and perhaps destroy them. + +The campaign opened on November 20, 1914. The Russians, advancing +across the frontier from Sarikamish, took Koprikeui, within thirty +miles of Erzerum. There, for some time, they remained while the +Turkish command prepared for their great coup. + +About the middle of December, 1914, the Eleventh Corps of the Turkish +army moved out of Erzerum, engaged the Russians at Koprikeui, defeated +them after a short, sharp struggle, and drove them in disorder a dozen +miles to Khorasan. While the Eleventh Corps was thus engaged the +Ninth and Tenth Corps, marching forty miles to the north in terrible +weather, succeeded in crossing the high mountains that guard the +Russian frontier. On Christmas Day they looked down on the town of +Sarikamish and the vital railway that stretched away to the eastward. +At the same time the two divisions of the First Corps, stationed at +Trebizond, making a wider sweep, had, by forced marches through a +blinding blizzard that threatened to make necessary the abandonment of +the artillery, reached the vicinity of Ardahan. + +The Tenth Corps had reached and was threatening the railway east of +Sarikamish on the road to Kars. Its defeat was absolutely necessary to +the safety of the Russian army. It was therefore the object of General +Woronzov's first attack. During four days every available man and gun +he could bring up on the railway were thrown against the rapidly +dwindling ranks of the Tenth Corps. The Turks fought bravely, but +weight of numbers and superiority of communications told in the end, +and the Ottoman forces were driven into the mountains to the north. + +The defeat and retreat of the Tenth Corps exposed the left flank of +the Ninth, commanded by Iskan Pasha. General Woronzov took full +advantage of the situation. Iskan and his 40,000 troops were soon +fighting a desperate battle against an enveloping movement that +threatened to encompass them. + +Of the 40,000 troops of the Ninth Corps, a bare 6,000 struggled out of +the mountains to the vicinity of Sarikamish, where they were rallied +by Iskan Pasha. For six days and nights this heroic band made a +determined attempt to capture the town held by a comparatively weak +Russian garrison. Finally, when, surrounded by overwhelming Russian +forces, it became apparent that no Turkish relief could reach him, +Iskan Pasha and the remnant of his once proud corps surrendered. + +Sarikamish was defended against Iskan's 6,000 by a mere handful of +soldiers. Time and time again urged by their German officers, the +Turks hurled themselves against the thin Russian line. It bent but did +not break, as step by step, fighting fiercely all the way, it +retreated before weight of numbers. And when relief did come to the +defenders, and Iskan and his force were compelled to surrender, the +brave little Russian band was completely exhausted. + +In their pursuit of the remnants of the Tenth Corps the Russians met +with some of the difficulties that had been the undoing of the Turks. +Furthermore, although the Ninth Corps had been hemmed in so that no +relief could reach it, the Turkish command had by no means lost the +power of effective counteraction. The Eleventh Corps at Khorasan +carried on an energetic campaign against the Russian front, gained a +local and tactically important success, and drove the enemy back as +far as Kara-Urgan, less than twenty miles from Sarikamish. Indeed, so +serious became the threat to the Russian forces that General Woronzov, +much against his wishes, was compelled to call off the pursuit of the +Tenth Corps and strengthen the Sarikamish front with the troops that +had been operating farther to the east. + +In the second week of January, 1915, between these forces and the +Eleventh Corps of the Turkish army a fierce battle, lasting several +days, opened. The struggle was of the utmost intensity, at times +developing into a hand-to-hand combat between whole regiments. On +January 14 the Fifty-second Turkish Regiment was put to the bayonet by +the Russians. At Genikoi a regiment of Cossacks charged, during an +engagement with a portion of the Thirty-second Turkish Division, and +killed and wounded more than 300. + +It must be remembered in judging the terrible nature of the struggle +that the armies were fighting in difficult country. The battle of +Kara-Urgan, furthermore, was waged in a continual snowstorm. Thousands +of dead and wounded were buried in the rapidly falling snow and no +effort was made to recover them. By the end of this week, January 16, +1915, owing largely to their superior railway communications and the +possibility of reenforcements, the Russians had not only checked the +Turkish offensive, but had decisively defeated the Eleventh Corps. +Pressing their advantage the Russians pursued the beaten Turks toward +Erzerum, but the heavy snows prevented them gaining the full fruits of +their victory. + +If the Eleventh Corps had not won a victory it had, however, +accomplished its object in that it had relieved the pressure on the +Tenth and enabled it to make good its escape to the north, where it +proceeded to effect a junction with the First Corps. The experience of +this First Corps had not been a happy one. We left it on Christmas +Day, 1914, overlooking Ardahan. A week later it entered the city and +prepared to carry out its role in the general offensive by advancing +upon the Russian right flank at Kars. It met serious opposition, +however, when it attempted to move out of Ardahan, was itself +compelled to retreat, and finally sought safety beyond the ridges to +the west. There, in the valley of the Choruk, it joined up with the +Tenth Corps. Together they continued their retreat upon Trebizond. +Subsequently they tried a new offensive in the Choruk valley which was +undecisive, however, and at the end of January, 1914, the situation +had developed into a deadlock. + +The Turkish troops in their operation in the Caucasus appeared to have +suffered from the difficulty of keeping open their sea communications +with Constantinople. Lacking railways they relied too much upon +supplies arriving at Trebizond. The Russian fleet in the Black Sea was +active, however, and upset the Turkish calculations. In the first week +of January, 1915, at Sinope a Russian cruiser discovered the Turkish +cruiser _Medjidieh_ convoying a transport. After a short engagement +the _Medjidieh_ was put to flight, and the transport sunk. + +On January 6, 1915, the Russian Black Sea fleet ran into the _Breslau_ +and the _Hamidieh_ and damaged them both in a running fight. A week +later Russian torpedo boats sank several Turkish supply boats near +Sinope. + +While this fighting was taking place in the north, farther to the +south toward the Persian frontier the Russians were attempting a +turning movement against the Turkish right flank. At the same time +that the Russian force in the north crossed the Turkish frontier the +Russian column entered Turkey fifty miles farther southeast. On +November 8, 1914, this force entered the Turkish town of Kara Kilissa. +A week later, making its way southwest for a distance of twenty miles, +it engaged, near the village of Dutukht, a Turkish force composed +largely of Arab troops of the Thirteenth Corps. At the outset the +Russians met with a measure of success, but on November 22, 1914, the +Turks, having been reenforced by troops from Bagdad, began a fierce +offensive. After indecisive fighting in the Alashgird valley the +Turks, about the middle of December, 1914, almost caught the Russians +in a bold enveloping movement north of Dutukht. In order to escape the +Russians were compelled to retreat hurriedly and thus ended their +offensive operation in this section. + +Still farther to the south, in Persia, the Turks and Russians also +battled. Not only because of political conditions, but because of the +nature of the country, it was easier for Russia and Turkey to attack +each other through Persia than directly across other frontiers, just +as it was easier for Germany and France to reach each other across +Belgium. At the outbreak of war both Turkey and Russia, recognizing +these circumstances, were occupants of Persian territory. Early in +November two Russian columns marched across the northwest corner of +Persia and into Turkey by the Kotur and Khanesur passes, evidently +with the important city of Van, on the lake of that name, as an +objective. At a point near Dilman, and again at Serai, they drove the +Turkish troops back toward Van, but were checked by reenforcements. + +Meanwhile the Turks had a more considerable success to the south. +Apparently taking the Russian higher command completely by surprise, +Turkish troops advanced almost unopposed to Tabriz, the most important +of the cities of northern Persia. Alarmed by this, Russia sent a +strong force which, on January 30, 1915, succeeded in recapturing the +city. + +Thus, up to the end of January, 1915, nothing decisive had been +accomplished on the Caucasian front by either Turkey or Russia. The +Battle of Sarikamish, resulting in a Turkish loss estimated by the +Russian authorities at 50,000, while decisive enough locally, seems to +have had no appreciable effect upon the situation as a whole. For +reasons resting very largely in the difficulty of finding the troops +necessary, as well as in the conditions of the country and the +weather, the Russians had been unable to follow up their success. +Indeed, the offensive appears to have continued in the hands of the +Turks. + +It is probably the case that Russia was unwilling to detach any +considerable number of troops from her Polish and Galician front, +where important events were brewing. Her General Staff rightly +regarded the Caucasian front as of secondary importance--and like +Austria on her Italian frontier, determined to fight a defensive +campaign. + +However that may be, conditions after the first few months of +campaigning settled down into a stalemate. Engagements on a relatively +small scale were reported from time to time, but the balance of +advantage remained fairly even. Both countries had fronts where +victories would bring larger returns and more immediate effect upon +the ultimate outcome of the war. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +TURKISH ADVANCE AGAINST EGYPT + + +To the Turk no operation of the war appeared more important than did +the campaign against Egypt. That in the early days of the struggle in +1914 he contented himself with what amounted to little more than a +demonstration designed to hold as many British troops in Egypt as +possible was due primarily to considerations of larger strategy. +Undoubtedly, by his incursion into the Sinai Peninsula and his +half-hearted attempt with a hopelessly small force to cross the Suez +Canal, he learned many lessons invaluable in any future and more +ambitious campaign. Considered as a diversion the early advance upon +the Suez was a success: as a serious military operation, resting on +its own legs, it was a fiasco. + +No operation the Turks might have conducted could have been so +unwelcome to the British as was that against Egypt. For weeks in +advance it was discussed by English writers and, while they all, +naturally, agreed that it was foredoomed to failure, there was an +undercurrent of apprehension in official circles. It was realized that +many untried problems and theories would be put to a severe test by +such a campaign, if undertaken in a serious way by a large and +well-equipped force. Of a purely Turkish force, commanded and +organized by Turkish officers, there was no fear, but such wonderful +organizers had the Germans proved themselves to be that the +combination of Teuton brains and Turkish fighting qualities and +endurance was regarded as formidable. + +It was realized in England also that any measure of success that might +come to an invading force would have two very serious results. It +would not only threaten, and perhaps sever, the shortest route to the +east and so seriously embarrass the trade, military and naval +efficiency of the Allies, but it would have a grave and perhaps +decisive effect upon Mohammedan malcontents in Egypt and India. + +The exact truth of the conditions in India and Egypt will possibly +never be known, so rigorous were the operations of the censorship set +up by the British War Office. One thing is certain, however: in both +countries political conditions were serious before the war and they +could not, by any stretch of optimism, be conceived as improving with +the coming of a great struggle aimed at the only remaining independent +Mohammedan power. + +For many months previous to August, 1914, the Indian office in London +had been apprehensive of rebellion in India. In Egypt the circumstance +that at the beginning of the war the British authorities announced +that they would make no use of the native Egyptian army speaks for +itself. It was believed in Constantinople and in Berlin that both +Egypt and India were ripe for a terrible revolt against the rule of +the British Raj: the uprisings of millions of fanatical natives that +would forever sweep British control from these two key places to the +trade of the world and would institute a Turkish suzerainty, backed +and controlled by Berlin. This was thought all the more likely as +thousands of the British regular troops had been withdrawn from India +and Egypt for service in France, being replaced by raw levies from +England and the Colonies. + +These, then, were the major considerations that prompted the early +offensive against Egypt. It was based upon sound political and +military strategy. Just how near it came to complete success, just how +much additional worry and effort it added to the burden of Great +Britain and France, only a complete revelation of the progress of +events in all fields will tell. + +In the attack upon the canal the Turks operated primarily from their +base at Damascus. As preparations progressed the troops that were to +take part in the actual advance were concentrated between Jerusalem +and Akabah. Under command of Djemel Pasha, Turkish Minister of Marine, +there were gathered some 50,000 troops consisting mostly of first line +troops of the best quality, reenforced by about 10,000 more or less +irregular Arab Bedouins. + +During November and early December, 1914, the force was moved forward +by slow and methodical stages, until by December 15 it was awaiting +orders to advance, encamped on the confines of the great desert that +separated it from its objective. + +Here it is well that the reader should have a good idea of the +difficulties of the task the Turkish higher command had imposed upon +Djemel Pasha and his troops. + +The two chief difficulties to be met by the invaders of the Sinai were +lack of transport facilities and lack of water. Three routes were +possible for the Turkish army, all artificial obstacles being for the +moment ignored; two by land, across the Sinai desert, and the third by +sea, across the Mediterranean. The latter, however, must be ruled out +because the seas were controlled by the Anglo-French fleet. For the +same reason, the northern land route had many disadvantages, because +it could be commanded for a part of its length by warships. However, +it is instructive to examine it in detail. + +The whole region crossed by the sea road is desert of the most +difficult and forbidding character. By this road all the great +invasions--the Roman, Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek, and French--have been +made. The road enters the desert at El Arish and from there to El +Kantara on the Suez Canal, the probable point of attack of an army +moving by this route, is 100 miles. Over this whole distance there are +only three places, once an army has left El Arish, where water can be +had. The first is a matter of a day's march, at El Maza, thirty mile +away; the second is at Bir-El-Abd, another day's march; and the third +at Katieh, within striking distance of the canal. Without the +construction of a special railway the transport of a force large +enough to efficiently control the canal by this route seems to be out +of the question. + +The southern route, known as the Hadj, or Pilgrim's Road, running from +Akaba to Suez, besides being longer is even worse off in the matter of +water. This was the traditional path of pilgrims traveling from Egypt +to Mecca, and still is much in use for that purpose. + +Something like 150 miles separate Akaba and Suez, yet only two +watering places are to be found in the whole distance. The first is +three days' march from the former place, at a point called Nakhl, +where modern cisterns had been built and an adequate supply of water +for a large force probably was obtainable. The next watering place is +another three days' march, at Ayun Mousa, or Well of Moses, within a +short distance of the canal. + +But tremendous as were the problems facing a considerable body of men +in attempting to cross the Sinai desert and arrive at the Suez Canal +in condition to fight a strong, fresh and fully prepared foe, they +were not to be compared to the difficulties that would face such an +army when the canal had been reached. We have seen how great an +obstacle a wide river, such as the Vistula, proved to be to an army +when attempting to cross in the face of a prepared enemy. In the case +of the Suez Canal, although there were no strong currents, a force +attempting to cross it had to contend with two added difficulties: The +Suez Canal could not, in the circumstances be turned, as was the +Vistula by the Germans. Furthermore its defensive value was +immeasurably increased by the circumstance that it could and did carry +warships of the largest type which not only had the value of +fortresses mounting the heaviest of guns, but were mobile as well. +And finally, because of the nature of the shores of the canal, it was +possible for an attacking force to cross it at but few points. + +The question of crossing the canal or dominating it in any sense was +for the Turks largely a question of bringing to bear a superior force +of artillery--a task that had only to be stated to reveal its +difficulties. No force with smaller or fewer guns would hope to cross +the Suez in the face of the concentration of artillery and naval +gunfire that the British could bring to bear at any threatened point. + +The defenders on the western side of the canal had the additional +advantage of railway communication running along the entire canal from +Suez to Port Said, and connecting with interior bases. + +There were five points from which, once having conquered the desert +and reached the canal, the invaders could advantageously launch an +attack or attacks upon the canal defenses. The first is just south of +El Kantara, where the old sea road crosses the Suez. Just south of +Ismailia a group of heights on the east bank provides a second +opportunity. The third is found at the point called the Plateau of +Hyena. The fourth is just north of the Bitter Lake, and the fifth is +to the south of the same body of water. + +Late in December, 1914, Djemel Pasha began active preparations for an +advance upon the canal. This campaign the Turks later called a +reconnaissance in force and as, of their total strength of 50,000 men, +only 12,000 at the outside and possibly less were used, the limited +term seems justified. Although the southern route was used by the main +force, a small force eluded the watchfulness of the Anglo-French naval +patrol operating along the shore commanding the first day's march of +the northern, or sea road, and ultimately struck at El Kantara. +Furthermore, sometime before one of these two forces--the larger, or +southern--reached the vicinity of the canal, it split and conducted an +independent attack at Suez. + +There had been much speculation among military writers all over the +world as to the possibility or probability of the construction by the +Turks of a light railway running a part of the distance across the +Sinai Desert and linking up with the line to Mecca. It was realized +that such a railway would be an enormous help to Djemel Pasha and his +army, especially in the transport of supplies, ammunitions, and +artillery. Indeed, it was held that only by the construction of such a +railway, extending almost to the canal, could the absolutely essential +artillery be brought into action. There was serious doubt of the +ability of the Turks to build such a line. The strength of the German +"stiffening" in the army based upon Damascus was believed to be +slight. Djemel Pasha is said to have seriously opposed any great +number of Teuton officers, especially in the higher commands. Thus the +assistance the Turks could expect from the Germans in the organization +and construction of such a railway would be small. Whether or not the +scheme was feasible at that time it is impossible to say. At any rate +the Turks, for reasons best known to themselves, did not put it to a +test. + +The British force in Egypt was well supplied with aeroplanes and kept +the Turkish army under constant observation. With the exception of the +use of the first section of the road, covering a couple of days of +time, there was probably no element of surprise in the Turkish attack +upon the canal. Realizing the limited possibilities of attack from the +east shore, the British, taking their lesson from experience in +France, had constructed an elaborate system of trenches to the east of +the canal at the five points where attacks would possess some +likelihood of successful conclusion. + +It was the end of January, 1915, before the Turkish army, marching in +easy stages across the desert reached the vicinity of the canal. Their +German mentors had constructed for them elaborate carriages with the +wheels of enormous width to carry the artillery and the heavy supplies +across the soft sands. Also, in preparation of a crossing of the +canal, the Turks brought a supply of ready-assembled pontoon bridges, +running on wheels and similar to those used by the German army in +Europe, except that they were much lighter. + +In the transport of all this material the Turks were dependent upon +camels, suited as are no other animals for work in the desert. In +thousands, they had been collected at Hadj, the cooperation of the +Arab Bedouins being specially valuable in this work. The consideration +of these events in the campaign which begins in February, 1915, will +be found in Volume III of this work. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +FAILURE OF "HOLY WAR" PROPAGANDA + + +One of the most interesting of the various phases of the war, so far +as the participation of Turkey was concerned, was the religious +development. Countless pages of learned speculation had been written +for years before the struggle in an attempt to forecast the outcome of +exactly the conditions that had arisen. It must be said at once that +in the first six months of the war reality failed to live up to +prophecy. The cataclysm that was expected by many to involve the +revolt of millions and a vast change in the political color of much of +the earth's surface did not appear. Any change that took place +operated so quietly and on so comparatively small a scale that it was +lost to view beside the greater interest of the struggle on the battle +fields of France and Poland. + +It is desirable, however, that the situation be examined. Abbas II, +Khedive of Egypt, had early in the war openly shown his lack of +sympathy with the British in Egypt. By his actions he left no doubt +regarding his attitude. He not only vehemently expressed his adherence +to Constantinople but left Cairo, and journeyed to Turkey, safe from +British official pressure or persuasion. Whereupon the British +Government called upon him to return, threatened him with deposition, +and finally took that extreme step, setting up another in his place on +December 18, 1914. + +Furthermore, the day before, Great Britain declared Egypt a British +protectorate independent of Constantinople. In this action Great +Britain relied not upon any legal right to take such action, but +merely upon the right of actual possession. Since Great Britain had +taken over the government of Egypt in 1883, she had acknowledged the +sultan's rights of suzerainty and had countenanced the payment to that +ruler of certain considerable yearly sums from the Egyptian exchequer. + +Indeed, Great Britain was in Egypt merely by virtue of an +international understanding and on a definite agreement to release her +control of the country when certain conditions of political and +financial stability had been restored. The other nations had, +willingly, or unwillingly, become resigned to her possession of this +strategically important land. Great Britain a decade before the war, +at the beginning of that rapprochement with France which led up to the +Entente and which had so many fateful consequences for the whole +world, sought to legalize her position in Egypt--at least so far as +the other great north African power was concerned. A bargain was +struck with France by which the English occupation of Egypt for an +indefinite period was recognized in exchange for a free hand in +Morocco. Great Britain could now urge that the coming of war, and +especially the entry of Turkey into the struggle, placed her +administration in Egypt in a position impossible to maintain. In +theory she was, so long as she acknowledged the suzerainty of the +sultan, in the country merely on that ruler's sufferance. She admitted +his ultimate authority and especially the loyalty and duty of the +Egyptian army and khedive to him. Strictly she could make no move to +prevent an armed occupation of the country by the sultan's troops nor +could she call upon the khedive and his cabinet to repudiate +Constantinople's sway. To put an end to this condition of affairs was +the most legitimate reason for England's action. + +Although the native Egyptian is in religion allied to the Turk, his +religious fervor was not great enough to induce him to rise against +British control. Among the better educated of the Egyptians and +especially among those who had traveled, there was a strong +"Nationalist" movement. At times, even in the period of peace, this +movement had threatened to make matters extremely unpleasant for the +British rulers. For some years before the war, German and Turkish +agents had been working among these ardent Egyptian patriots, +encouraging and advising them, and when war with Turkey came England +was seriously alarmed. Using the country as a central base for her +Turkish, Persian, and Balkan operations, Great Britain imported +thousands upon thousands of troops into Egypt. Just how many hundreds +of thousands of armed men passed in and out of the country from first +to last only the records of the British war office would show, but it +can be said that England never had a force of less than 90,000 trained +men in Egypt at any one time. + +Any chance of effective action that the Egyptian nationalists might +have had was neutralized by the indifference and lack of interest in +the vast body of their countrymen. There were more than 10,000,000 +Mohammedans in Egypt, but only a small minority of them, under the +most promising of circumstances, could have been counted upon to pay +the least heed to the call of Constantinople. The Egyptian fellah is +anything but a fighter. Lazy, unlearned, unambitious, he is content to +accept his daily lot, perhaps conscious that the British rule has +brought a certain amount of comparative prosperity even to him. + +On the other hand, there were in Egypt something like 600,000 nomads, +a very large proportion of whom could be depended upon to follow the +lead of Constantinople. The males of these wild tribespeople were +remarkable fighters, subject to no control, hating the English sway, +and so independent of roads and transport that they could keep busy an +even larger force of less mobile troops. Their chief weakness was +their lack of cohesion and the impossibility of any concerted action +on their part. + +This, then, was the native situation in Egypt. In other parts of the +world, where Great Britain maintained sway over large numbers of +Mohammedans, the situation was equally complicated. With the issue of +a call for a Holy War by the Sheik-ul-Islam, the religious ruler of +the Mohammedan world, many well-informed observers looked for a large +measure of trouble in India. So many were the elements of +dissatisfaction, and even open revolt, in India that it was believed +the Sheik-ul-Islam's call would be the match applied to the powder +magazine. + +The attitude of the various Indian potentates was uncertain. Some of +them were known to be only outwardly loyal to the British authority. +The now famous incident at the visit of King George to India, some +years before the war, when one of the richest and most important of +the native princes refused to bend the knee, was indicative of very +widespread dissatisfaction. Innumerable cases of individual and even +concerted violence against British rule immediately preceded the war, +and several of these were openly encouraged by native princes. + +So far as definite action was concerned, the opening of the war with +Turkey and the months that immediately followed falsified all these +predictions of disaster to British rule in India. Many of the native +princes were effusive in their professions of loyalty to the British +Empire, and several offered personal service at the front or financial +contributions to the huge cost of the struggle. + +Notable, and perhaps decisive, was the open adherence to Britain of +the Agar Khan, the immensely powerful ruler of millions of Indian +Mohammedans. The Agar Khan had spent many of the years previous to the +war in England in daily association with English high society and +official circles. At the outbreak of the war with Turkey, in October, +1914, at the request of the British Government, he visited Egypt, and +it was largely upon his advice that the former khedive was deposed and +the new one elevated to the post. Indeed, at one time there were +strong rumors, afterward energetically denied by the British +Government, that the Agar Khan had advised a Mohammedan repudiation of +the authority of the caliph and the elevation of another to his place +under a British guarantee. In support of this plan it was pointed out +that Great Britain, judged by the number of adherents under her rule, +was the world's greatest Mohammedan power. It was intolerable to many +English people, especially to those of strong imperialistic +tendencies, that the real control, even in theory, of so large and +important a section of the people of the British Empire should be in +Constantinople, safe from the "influence" and "persuasion" of the +British Government. By these people it was held that the sultan's +lineal claim was weak, and that an even better claim to the headship +of the Moslems could be established for any one of several other men +who might have been named. However, the plan was never achieved. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +RESULTS OF FIRST SIX MONTHS OF TURKISH CAMPAIGN + + +What was the situation as a whole, so far as Turkey and her military +actions against the Allies were concerned, as to the outcome of these +various operations in three fields--the Caucasus, Mesopotamia, and +Egypt--during the first six months of the war? The military narrative +is recorded in the chapter following. It will be seen that all of them +were inconclusive. Indeed, from what we knew of the circumstances +surrounding them, all we are justified in saying is that none of them +was serious in the sense that they were not intended to have any +decisive effect, directly, upon the progress of the war. Of them all +it might be urged by a military authority that they were subsidiary +operations, dangerous and wasteful in that they withdrew valuable men, +munitions, brains, and energy from the decisive fronts. Their only +justification is that they imposed similar action on the part of both +armies, and so, in just that degree, scattered their forces. For the +Turk it can be urged that at least two of the campaigns were forced +upon him by his German mentors, while the third was imposed upon him +by a British offensive. Furthermore, the Turk was entirely cut off +from his Austro-German allies, and there was no possibility of his +bringing his weight to bear in one of the main fields. From that point +of view it is possible to justify the Turkish offensives as sound +strategy. + +Aside from a desire to protect the oil supply in Persia, it is hardly +as easy to justify the British offensive in Mesopotamia. As events +subsequently demonstrated, it was possible for the Turks to throw an +overwhelming number of troops into Bagdad and to the south, and, +furthermore, they were fighting under vastly more advantageous +conditions than were the invaders. Only on the assumption that the +Turks were hopelessly demoralized and disorganized, and that as +fighting men they would belie all their past history, was it possible +to visualize success for the British operations in Mesopotamia. + +Turkey had definitely come to grips with England and with Russia. She +had in none of these fields measured swords with France, although she +was equally at war with that country. The exact apportionment of the +actual work to be done by the individual powers of the Entente seems +to have led to considerable disagreement, and resulted at times in +serious delay. Such arrangements depend, of course, upon each +country's idea of its spheres of influence. Obviously, no country, if +it can help it, is going to waste its men or its efforts in a field in +which it has only a minor political or commercial interest. So far as +France was concerned, the Caucasus, Egypt--aside from the possibility +of the closing of the canal--and Mesopotamia were not of enough +importance to justify her in participating in the struggle with the +Turks even were it physically possible. All these remarks, of course, +are subject to modifications imposed by considerations of the larger +strategy of the Entente Powers; but for many months of the war the +agreement of the Entente Powers in the matter of general strategy was +conspicuous by its absence. + +With her neighbors in the Balkans Turkey had maintained remarkably +good relations considering the bitterness engendered, not only by +centuries of strife, but by the recent events of the two Balkan wars. +Bulgaria, smarting under the loss of territory through the attack upon +her by Serbia, Greece, and Rumania in the Second Balkan War, was +openly conducting friendly negotiations with Turkey for the +acquisition of valuable territory--a compact that could mean only one +thing. Greece, frightened by the menace of the German power, had +resisted up to the moment all the blandishments of the Entente Powers, +who urged her to active participation in the struggle. Rumania, +largely isolated from the Entente Powers, menaced on the north by +Austro-German forces, on the south by a revengeful Bulgaria, borrowed +heavily from Britain, the universal money bag, but straddled the +fence. + +Thus Turkey, which in different circumstances might have been in a +precarious military situation, felt reasonably secure, despite her +isolation. In the early part of the war, however, events moved rapidly +and not exactly to her liking. For they threatened to sweep the whole +Balkans into the whirl of war, and no man could tell exactly how the +various petty states, under the stress of sympathy, military and naval +considerations and dynastic control, would align themselves. With +these events came, too, the first participation of France in the war +against Turkey in the campaign in the Dardanelles, now to be +described. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE DARDANELLES--STRATEGY OF THE CAMPAIGN + + +The beginning of the bombardments in the Dardanelles opens a +remarkable chapter in military and naval warfare. The desperate +campaign to batter down the fortifications which lead to +Constantinople and the disastrous attempt to conquer the most strongly +barricaded city in the world, probably excited more world-wide +interest or put to the test more theories of warfare than did the +Dardanelles campaign undertaken by Great Britain with the assistance +of France. It was fiercely attacked by military critics almost from +the start. It was, however, a boldly conceived operation, calculated +to have a most important effect upon the war as a whole--certainly +upon the war in the southeast corner of Europe. + +The Dardanelles campaign was largely conceived and controlled by the +Rt. Hon. Winston Spencer Churchill, the remarkable and able British +Secretary of the Admiralty. He has been widely condemned for his share +of the operation, but revelations that have been made would appear to +clear him of a great measure of the blame. + +What were the considerations that weighed with the British admiralty +in deciding to undertake one of the most difficult operations in the +whole world? Primarily it seems to have had the idea of relieving the +pressure on Russia. The Turkish offensive in the Caucasus had come to +grief about the end of December but a resumption was momentarily +expected and feared. Hindenburg's victory at Tannenberg in East +Prussia had been a terrible blow to Russia and she had no troops to +spare for defense in the Caucasus. + +Furthermore, Constantinople, besides being one of the objectives of +the war, was Russia's only warm sea gate into Europe. It must have +been apparent to the Russian military authorities that the existing +supplies of munition and guns of the czar's army would not suffice to +withstand a hard German-Austrian drive. In other words the condition +that resulted in the defeat of the Russian army in Galicia and Poland +in the summer of 1915 were foreseen. Russia called upon England and +France to force the Dardanelles. One can find it easy to condemn the +operation but few can be found who will deny that it was a glorious +failure. One that added luster to the glory of the British army, navy, +and many unmatched pages to the story of their bravery. And no less +credit and glory did it bring to the Turkish armies. + +In addition to the question of war supplies there were other reasons +for opening the Dardanelles as soon as possible. Russia's ability to +finance a war of the magnitude of the one there being fought, +especially where large foreign purchases were made, depended very +largely upon the maintenance of foreign commerce. Russia was buying +from all the neutral world as well as from her Entente partners. +England, for instance, was not only making for her millions of +dollars' worth of war supplies, but she was, for the moment, financing +many of Russia's purchases abroad. + +[Illustration: Gallipoli.] + +In return for all this it was important that Russia should export as +freely as possible. Now one of her most valuable commodities and one +in high demand not only in England, but in other countries, was wheat. +Millions upon millions of bushels of Russian wheat were stored in her +great Black Sea ports waiting to be shipped through Constantinople +when the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles were commanded by Entente guns +and ships. Greece, under the leadership of Premier Venizelos was +hesitating on the brink of a plunge into the struggle as an ally of +the Entente and not only agreed to the use of Greek islands but +actually considered a proposal to send a Greek force of not less than +20,000 and possibly as many as 40,000 over to the Dardanelles. +Bulgaria was in that state where a striking victory in the Turkish +peninsula would have swept her off her feet. Italy was at loggerheads +with Austria, her ally, and about to break. + +Then from the English point of view there was the possible effect upon +the Mohammedan throughout the British Empire. Possibly not for many +years, if ever, will the world know the truth of the conditions in +India during the war. One thing is certain. In one way and another +there was much disaffection, much open rebellion and much fear of an +even wider spread of revolt. The need for the maintenance and even +strengthening of British prestige must have been constantly before the +British ruler and no other campaign could possibly serve this end so +efficaciously as a successful assault upon Constantinople and the +temporal power of the sultan. It would clinch probably for generations +to come Britain's claim to be the great Mohammedan power of the world +and would destroy the one condition that for years before and at that +time especially had contained the seeds of rebellion against the +British yoke. + +In beginning the campaign which Great Britain and France carried on in +the Dardanelles there reappeared a very old problem of war--the +question of Warships versus Forts or land fortifications. It appears +to have been the consensus of opinion among all except the more +extreme exponents of battleships that land fortifications would +possess an undoubted advantage in a contest against purely naval +forces. + +This it seems had been the opinion of the American naval authorities +in the Spanish-American War, when the American commander, Admiral +Sampson, was expressly warned not to risk his ships against the shore +defenses of Santiago Harbor. It also appears to have been the opinion +of many British admirals who have placed their views on record. +Indeed, there was in existence the views of several competent naval +authorities as to the possibilities of a purely naval attack upon this +very system of defenses. + +It was not by any means the first time that an attempt had been made +to force the Dardanelles. Many such attempts had proved this narrow +neck of water running between high banks to be one of the great +natural defensive spots of the world. The realization of that obvious +and oft-proved fact had made Constantinople through the ages one of +the most fought for and schemed for cities of the whole world. + +It is necessary to study these attempts in order to understand clearly +the difficulties which faced the British and French Allies in 1914. Of +the previous attacks that had been made to force a way through the +Dardanelles and so up to the city of Constantinople, that of the +famous Admiral Hornby in 1877 was one of the most interesting as well +as one of the most instructive. Ordered by the British Government to +take his fleet past the forts that lined the approaching banks, he +proceeded to carry out his orders, but wrote a warning in which he +pointed out that, while it might be possible for his fleet to make its +way into the Sea of Marmora, once there it would be helpless if the +land defenses were controlled by the enemy. Out of coal, ammunition, +and food, the ships would be at the mercy of the Turks. "Although the +forts might not prevent a strong fleet passing through the +Dardanelles, they certainly," wrote Admiral Hornby, "could sink armed +and unarmed transports and supply ships." In view of these +considerations, Hornby urged the British Government to provide a land +force of sufficient strength to carry and hold the land defenses. His +superiors, however, did not agree with him, for they told him to go +ahead with a purely naval operation. His ideas were never put to a +real test because the Turks offered no resistance to his passage of +the straits. + +The situation in the Great War of 1914 presented Constantinople as the +same perplexing military problem. If we go back another three-quarters +of a century to 1807, the experience of Admiral Duckworth throws some +light on the subject, although conditions had changed radically. +Duckworth, with his sailing ships, ran past the forts in the +Dardanelles and anchored in front of Constantinople. It was hoped that +a threat of bombardment would bring the Turks to their knees, but the +latter refused to be intimidated. In the end, the British admiral ran +out of food and water and was compelled to leave without +accomplishing anything. + +The student of the War of 1914 also must consider that during the war +between Italy and Turkey, the Italian General Staff is known to have +worked out an elaborate plan for an attack upon the Dardanelles. +However, at the critical moment, the European powers interfered and +forced upon Italy an agreement that the war should not be extended to +the mainland of Europe. In the Balkan War, the Bulgarians threatened +the lines of Bulair, the narrow neck which connects the Gallipoli +peninsula to the mainland, but never launched the attack. + +When in 1914 the British and French determined to press a purely naval +attack upon the Dardanelles, they appear to have been influenced by +two major considerations. At the time there was not ready a sufficient +number of troops to make a land campaign successful and, at the last +moment, King Constantine of Greece repudiated a personal agreement +made by Venizelos, the Greek Premier, with the Allies by which Greece +was to provide at least 20,000 troops to assist the France-British +fleet. Even after the fall of Venizelos it was still determined to +push the naval attack because of the second consideration. In the +opinion of the British admiralty the full power of modern naval guns +of 11-and 12-inch had never been tested and in their opinion they +would suffice to reduce the Dardanelles defenses in a comparatively +short time. Furthermore, the British authorities appear to have relied +largely upon the new 15-inch guns of the _Queen Elizabeth_ and her +sister vessels, then nearing completion in British yards. So +tremendous was the power of these new guns and so great their range +that it was believed the _Queen Elizabeth_ and her sister ships could +stand miles out of range of the heaviest of the Dardanelles guns and +quickly smash them to an unrecognizable mass of ruins. + +It was evident that the British naval command held these views even in +spite of the experience of British warships off the coast of Belgium +earlier in the war. For a while in 1914 British monitors and +battleships bombarded almost at will the German troops posted along +the coast running from the Dutch frontier line almost to Nieuport. +Finally, however, the Germans brought up heavy army and naval guns +and, mounting them in concealed spots among the sand dunes, soon drove +off the British naval force. + +But Turkish guns were not German guns, Turkish gunners were not German +gunners, and above all, the munition supply of the Turkish army was +not fed by factories able to turn out a quarter of a million shells a +day. Some such considerations as these appear to have convinced the +British higher command that there was a difference in the two tasks. + +The command of the Dardanelles forts at the entrance to Constantinople +and the Black Sea is similar, except that it is perhaps more sure as +to the command of the entrance to the Baltic by Copenhagen, the +Mediterranean by Gibraltar, and, in a lesser degree, of the North Sea +by Dover. + +The narrow passage of water called the Dardanelles separates the +peninsula of Gallipoli and the Asiatic shore of Turkey. It connects +the AEgean Sea and the Sea of Marmora, which in turn, through the +Bosphorus, connects with the Black Sea. Curiously enough this +tremendously important waterway, the only warm sea outlet of Russia, +had been closed against that country by the action of the very powers +now fighting desperately to smash it open. The Black Sea was a Turkish +lake in the seventeenth century but in the century following the +growth of Russia in that part of Europe made the question of the +control of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles one of supreme importance +to her. Thus we find, in the so-called "will" of Peter the Great, +among other injunctions he lays upon his successors, an admonition +never to rest until Constantinople had been wrested from the Turk. But +whether this "will" is authentic or not, Russian policy has steadily +kept that object in view. + +The Crimean War was an attempt by France and England to stem the +almost resistless tide of Russian expanse toward the southwest. +Russian control of Constantinople was regarded as the chief danger +that threatened the western powers and, in 1856, by the Treaty of +Paris, not only was the strength of the Russian Black Sea fleet +expressly limited, but the Dardanelles were closed against the +passage of Russia's warships into the Mediterranean. France and +England revived what they called "an ancient rule of the Ottoman +Empire, in virtue of which it has at all times been prohibited for +ships of war of foreign powers to enter the Straits of the Dardanelles +and of the Bosphorus." + +Turkey was of no mind to leave the enforcement of this "ancient rule" +to the powers. She began the construction of more elaborate +fortifications commanding both the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles. +German advice, especially after the Franco-Prussian War, was asked and +obtained and Krupp sent some of his gigantic pieces for the defense of +the narrow waters. This German cooperation with the Turks in the +strengthening of those positions through all the years that have +intervened is significant. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +FORTIFICATIONS AND STRENGTH--FIRST MOVEMENTS + + +Let us inspect the fortifications in the Dardanelles at the beginning +of the war in 1914. The Dardanelles, from end to end, have a length of +forty-seven miles. From the town of Gallipoli to the AEgean, however, +the full distance of the narrow section of the waterway, is a matter +of thirty-three miles. At one point the passage is less than 1,400 +yards wide and at no point is it more than 7,000. Although there is a +good depth in much of the channel, shallows are to be met with in most +unexpected places. To make navigation even more difficult, there is a +swift and powerful surface current running through the Narrows, on +some occasions at a speed of eight knots an hour. In addition there is +not only a strong undercurrent, but, as well, many cross currents. At +certain seasons of the year the wind and weather make navigation of +large vessels almost impossible. + +Both sides of the Dardanelles offered natural positions of enormous +advantage to a defending force. On the Gallipoli side were a tangled +mass of rocks and hills, almost devoid of vegetation except for stubby +yellow bushes. In a few of the little valleys, stray clusters of olive +trees relieved the monotony of the view. Heights rose upon heights and +along the shores of the peninsula nearly perpendicular cliffs made +landings almost out of the question. + +This whole peninsula was a difficult country to traverse even in times +of peace. No large maps existed of its intricate paths, there were few +roads, and those that did exist were so commanded by heights and +concealed positions for guns and infantry that the progress of an +attacking force would inevitably be most difficult and costly. + +Water was almost nonexistent. Most of the available supply was so +protected that an attacking force would in no case be able to use it +until its task of conquest was complete. As such a force advanced +inland, these difficulties as well as those of the country would +constantly and rapidly increase. From Cape Hellas, at the tip of the +peninsula where a sandy beach made a landing possible, if difficult, +the ground rapidly rose to a height of 140 feet. Hill country then led +to ridges standing 600 feet, while a mile and a half beyond stood 600 +feet in the air the commanding peak of Achi Baba, destined to play so +large and so tragic a part in the struggle for the peninsula of +Gallipoli. At the narrowest part of the Narrows, the real key position +to the straits, stood the Kilid Bahr plateau, 700 feet, while to the +northwest, almost 300 feet higher, stood the precipitous eminence of +Sari Bair, a dense mass of trackless ravines and thickets. + +Where the peninsula of Gallipoli joined the mainland is, comparatively +speaking, a narrow neck of land. Even this, however, presented +tremendous potential difficulties to any force. A hill almost 500 feet +in height rose in the center and marshes on either side prevented a +turning movement. Furthermore, the difficulties of landing a force in +the face of an enemy strongly intrenched on the heights were not +lessened by the circumstance that the cliffs rose to a height of 300 +feet, almost straight from the water's edge. In short nature seems to +have designed the country in every way as a protection against an +armed force seeking to force its way either in or out of the Black +Sea. To just what extent these natural advantages had been utilized by +the Turks it is impossible to say. It is not likely, however, that +they, or their German mentors, had been idle, in view of the +importance the Allies were known to attach to the straits. + +In September, 1914, and probably for some time before, the Turks were +known to be busy strengthening the forts. Subsequent events led to the +conclusion that they, or their German advisers, were alive to the +lessons of the early days of the war in France and Belgium and had +made elaborate arrangements for the placing of heavy guns in concealed +positions. In addition they perfected the mobility of even the +heaviest of pieces, so that it became impossible for observation from +the Franco-British ships or from aeroplanes to locate them with any +certitude. + +The Turks also seem to have secured a plentiful supply of sea mines, +with which the waters approaching the Dardanelles and the actual +passage of the straits were strewn along the shores. Toward the +Narrows were constructed shore batteries for the launching of +torpedoes, as well as for the launching of floating mines. The strong +current of the straits could be depended upon to carry these latter +engines of destruction among the allied ships of war should they +venture within the narrow, confined waters of the Dardanelles. + +This was the condition of affairs, then, on November 3, 1914, when a +joint Anglo-French squadron sailed in close to the tip of the +Gallipoli peninsula and opened a bombardment of the outer defenses of +the Dardanelles. For this and subsequent naval operations against the +Turkish position, England was able to detach from her main theatre of +naval activity--the North Sea--a considerable number of old, but still +extremely powerful, battleships and battle cruisers. These boats, with +the exception of the _Queen Elizabeth_, which later appeared on the +scene, were all built previous to the introduction of the dreadnought +and were to a considerable extent made obsolete by that vessel. At any +rate they could not engage the more modern ships of the German navy +and could not be attached to the grand fleet of England because of +their lack of high speed and the heaviest of guns. For these reasons, +although their loss in any engagement against the Turkish defenses +would not be relished by the British authorities, still such a +disaster would not be decisive in any war. As Winston Churchill +subsequently pointed out, many of them would have, in the ordinary +course of events, but a few more years of life in the British navy, so +rapidly were modern battleships deteriorating under the rapid advance +of naval science. + +At the entrance to the straits the Turks had erected two major +positions and several minor ones. On the Asiatic shore stood the Kum +Kale Fort, known as the "New Castle of Asia." There the main battery +consisted of four 10.2-inch guns. A short distance down the coast +stood Yeni Shehr, where a main battery of two 9.2-inch guns and a +short battery of smaller pieces had been erected. On the European +side, opposite Kum Kale, stood Sedd-el-Bahr, with six 10-inch and two +5.9-inch guns. At Cape Hellas, the extreme point of the Gallipoli +Peninsula, was the Erteghrul Battery, mounting two 9.2-inch guns and +some minor pieces. + +Each of the attacking warships fired about a score of shells at these +forts and an attempt was made to determine just how much damage had +been done. None of the forts were silenced, however, and it was +finally decided by the commander of the Anglo-French naval force, Vice +Admiral Carden, that conditions were not propitious for pushing home +the attack and the vessels retired out to sea, where they maintained a +tight blockade of the Dardanelles. Then there followed a long period +of naval inactivity, at least so far as the larger vessels were +concerned. + +About a month later, however, on December 13, 1914, the commander of a +British submarine accomplished a feat in the Sea of Marmora that not +only aroused his countrymen to enthusiasm but as well won for him the +coveted Victoria Cross, the first instance of the winning of that +decoration by a naval officer since the beginning of the war. + +Lieutenant Holbrook was in command of the _B-11_, a 316-ton submarine +launched as far back as 1906. It was in no sense to be compared to the +giant underwater crafts that were being launched and used at the +outbreak of the war, some of them measuring 800 feet. The _B-11_ +carried only sixteen men in all--two officers and fourteen men. + +Early in the morning of December 13, 1914, she started through the +straits. Evidently her commander had knowledge of the disposition of +the Turkish mine field, for Lieutenant Holbrook successfully navigated +his ship through it, dived under five rows of mines, any one of which +would have blown his frail craft into a thousand pieces, and came up +under the side of the Turkish battleship _Messudiyeh_. The +_Messudiyeh_, in any other navy, would have been retired long before, +but Turkey had none too many ships and probably had been saving her to +fight against the equally ancient vessels of some other minor power. +Launched as far back as 1874, she had been reconstructed and rearmed +in 1901. She was lying in the Sea of Marmora, guarding the very mine +field under which Holbrook had dived his craft. + +Holbrook observed the _Messudiyeh_ through the periscope of the +_B-11_, maneuvered for position, dived, came up again and launched his +torpedo. It struck home and the ancient sides of the _Messudiyeh_ +gaped wide. Slowly she sank while Holbrook dived to safety. For nine +and a half hours the latter felt his way out of the straits and when +he returned to the fleet his little vessel and its daring crew +received an enthusiastic demonstration from the soldiers of the larger +warships. Besides the Victoria Cross, received by Holbrook himself, +his second in command, Lieutenant Sydney T. Winn, received the +Distinguished Service Order, and each of the fourteen members of the +crew received the Distinguished Service Medal. + +On the next day, December 14, 1914, the British submarine _B-9_ +attempted to repeat the feat, but the Turks were prepared. When she +came to the surface mines were exploded all around her, and she had +all she could do to make good her escape. + +On January 15, 1915, not content that the British should have all the +danger, or the glory, the French submarine, _Saphir_, entered the +straits. Near Nagara Point she struck the bottom in one of those +shallow spots that abound in the Dardanelles, was compelled to come +to the surface in a disabled condition and was quickly shot to pieces +by the Turkish shore batteries. + +The movement against the forts in the Dardanelles was now begun. This +campaign, which was begun with so much confidence of ultimate success, +was destined to become one of the greatest repulses that the Allies +had encountered thus far during the war. + + + + +PART II--JAPAN AND THE FAR EAST + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +WHY JAPAN JOINED THE ALLIES + + +The battle lines of the Great War on land and sea were now beginning +to encircle the earth. While the gigantic armies on the battle grounds +of Europe were engaged in the greatest test of "the survival of the +fittest" that the world had ever witnessed, while the sharp encounters +on the seas were carrying the war around the globe, the outbreaks in +the Far East were bringing the Orient and the Occident--the two +competitive systems of civilization--into a strange alignment. The +Moslem world was dividing against itself as had the Christian world. +The followers of Buddha and the Brahmins were in direct conflict. + +It is important, therefore, to consider in this chapter the +development of events in the Far East, which have been only outlined +in the preceding narratives. Of all the powers that joined the +coalition against Germany in August, 1914, none could state a clearer +cause of action than Japan. From the first outbreak of hostilities +there was never any question of whether the "England of the East" +would enter the war, and on which side she would be aligned. Japan +decided promptly and, having decided, acted with characteristic +energy. + +For a _casus belli_ the Japanese statesmen had only to hold up to the +eyes of the world the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, which had been signed +on August 12, 1905. The object of this agreement was the maintenance +of the general peace in eastern Asia and India, the preservation of +the common interests of all powers in China, by insuring the +independence and integrity of the Chinese Empire and the principle of +equal opportunities for the commerce and industry of all nations in +China, the maintenance of the territorial rights of the high +contracting parties in the regions of eastern Asia and of India, and +the defense of their special interests in the said regions. If these +rights and interests were jeopardized, Japan and Great Britain agreed +to discuss fully and frankly what measures should be pursued for +defense, and to act in common in case of unprovoked attack or +aggressive action wherever arising on the part of any other power or +powers. + +Thus, in those critical days of August, 1914, one of the first acts of +the British Government, when war was declared on Germany, and the +empire was reaching out for every possible means of defense and +aggression, was to ask Japan for assistance under the terms of this +alliance. And Japan did not hesitate--she threw herself vigorously +into the Great War. The Japanese Emperor in his declaration of war +against Germany did not suggest that Japan acted in response to her +ally's direct request for assistance, but the Japanese Foreign +Minister, Baron Kato, in his speech explaining the situation to the +Diet, laid emphasis upon the treaty as the most important factor in +the situation. + +"German warships and armed vessels," said the foreign minister, "are +prowling around the seas of eastern Asia, menacing our commerce and +that of our ally, while Kiao-chau was carrying out operations +apparently for the purpose of constituting a base for warlike +operations in eastern Asia. Grave anxiety was thus felt for the +maintenance of peace in the Far East. + +"As all are aware," he continued, "the agreement and alliance between +Japan and Great Britain has for its object the consolidation and +maintenance of general peace in eastern Asia, and the maintenance of +the independence and integrity of China, as well as the principle of +equal opportunities for commerce and industry for all nations in that +country, and the maintenance and defense respectively of territorial +rights and special interests of contracting parties in eastern Asia. +Therefore, inasmuch as we are asked by our ally for assistance at a +time when commerce in eastern Asia, which Japan and Great Britain +regard alike as one of their special interests, is subjected to a +constant menace, Japan, who regards that alliance as a guiding +principle of her foreign policy, could not but comply to the respect +to do her part." + +The Japanese statesman offered this explanation to his people: +"Germany's possession of a base for powerful activities in one corner +of the Far East was not only a serious obstacle to the maintenance of +a permanent peace, but also threatened the immediate interests of the +Japanese Empire. The Japanese Government, therefore, resolved to +comply with the British request, and, if necessary, to open +hostilities against Germany." + +Baron Kato's speech was delivered after Japan had declared war. The +Western world, when it found time to turn its attention from the +absorbing drama already being enacted in Belgium to the minor crisis +in the Far East, was not left long in doubt regarding the intentions +of Great Britain's ally. War was declared on August 24, 1914, nine +days after Japan had dispatched to Germany an ultimatum, which Germany +scornfully ignored. + +The text of the ultimatum was as follows: "We consider it highly +important and necessary in the present situation to take measures to +remove the causes of all disturbance of peace in the Far East, and to +safeguard general interests as contemplated in the agreement of +alliance between Japan and Great Britain. + +"In order to secure firm and enduring peace in eastern Asia, the +establishment of which is the aim of the agreement, the Japanese +Government sincerely believes it to be its duty to give advice to the +German Government to carry out the following two propositions: + +"(1) To withdraw immediately from Japanese and Chinese waters the +German warships and armed vessels of all kinds, and to disarm those +which cannot be withdrawn. + +"(2) To deliver on a date not later than September 15 to the Japanese +authorities, without condition or compensation, the entire leased +territory of Kiao-chau, with a view to the eventual restoration of the +same to China. + +"The Japanese Government announces at the same time that in the event +of its not receiving by noon on August 23, 1914, an answer from the +German Government signifying unconditional acceptance of the above +advice offered by the Japanese Government, Japan will be compelled +to take such action as it may deem necessary to meet the situation." + +[Illustration: Kiao-Chau (Tsing-Tau).] + +The intervention of Japan in the war, welcome as it was to Great +Britain, created special problems for that empire. The British in +China, and the people of Australia, New Zealand, and western North +America had long been uneasy regarding the commercial and political +policy of Japan. On the Pacific Coast of the United States and Canada +a strong anti-Japanese sentiment had developed. British statesmen were +apprehensive lest the entry of Japan into the war might be used to +alienate American sympathy from the Allies and diminish the zeal of +the Canadian and Australasian colonies for the war. + +To meet this situation, the British Government issued a formal +statement which said: "It is understood that the action of Japan shall +not extend to the Pacific Ocean beyond the China Sea, except in so far +as it may be necessary to protect Japanese shipping lines in the +Pacific, nor beyond Asiatic waters westward of the China Seas, nor to +any foreign territory except territory in German occupation on the +continent of eastern Asia." This declaration went far toward allaying +uneasiness, especially in the United States. + +The Japanese people accepted the situation calmly. There were few +noisy demonstrations. Germans living in Japan were not molested, +notwithstanding the action of Germany, which immediately after the +ultimatum was issued arrested every Japanese subject in Germany and +seized funds of the Japanese Government deposited in the Deutsche Bank +of Berlin. In Tokyo the chief of police told the people that although +the two Governments had entered into hostilities, the people +individually were not to cultivate hostility. The German Ambassador +remained at the Japanese capital until August 30, 1914. A number of +Germans who decided to stay in Japan were allowed to continue their +regular occupations. + +When no answer came from Germany up to the time of the expiration of +Japan's ultimatum, the imperial rescript declaring the existence of a +state of war was issued next day. + +The emperor said: "We hereby declare war against Germany and we +command our army and navy to carry on hostilities against that empire +with all their strength, and we also command all our competent +authorities to make every effort in pursuance of their respective +duties to attain the national aim within the limit of the law of +nations. + +"Since the outbreak of the present war in Europe, the calamitous +effect of which we view with grave concern, we, on our part, have +entertained hopes of preserving the peace of the Far East by the +maintenance of strict neutrality, but the action of Germany has at +length compelled Great Britain, our ally, to open hostilities against +that country, and Germany is at Kiao-chau, its leased territory in +China, busy with warlike preparations, while her armed vessels, +cruising the seas of eastern Asia, are threatening our commerce and +that of our ally. The peace of the Far East is thus in jeopardy. + +"Accordingly, our Government and that of his Britannic Majesty, after +a full and frank communication with each other, agreed to take such +measures as may be necessary for the protection of the general +interests contemplated in the agreement of alliance, and we on our +part, being desirous to attain that object by peaceful means, +commanded our Government to offer, with sincerity, an advice to the +Imperial German Government. By the last day appointed for the purpose, +however, our Government failed to receive an answer accepting their +advice. + +"It is with profound regret that we, in spite of our ardent devotion +to the cause of peace, are thus compelled to declare war, especially +at this early period of our reign, and while we are still in mourning +for our lamented mother. + +"It is our earnest wish that, by the loyalty and valor of our faithful +subjects, peace may soon be restored and the glory of the empire +enhanced." + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +MILITARY AND NAVAL SITUATION IN THE FAR EAST + + +We now pass to the first fighting ground in the Far East. Unlike the +campaigns in the west, the war in eastern Asia developed along lines +which any observer, possessing the least knowledge of history and +international politics and military strategy, could foresee. From both +military and commercial standpoints none of Germany's possessions in +the Far East could compare in importance with the little tip of the +Shantung Peninsula leased for a term of ninety-nine years from China +in 1898. This concession, about fifteen miles long and ten miles +across, was designated Kiao-chau. In the sixteen years since their +tenure began, the Germans had laid out at Tsing-tau, situated at the +extreme southern end of the peninsula, a city which was rapidly +growing to foremost importance among the ports of the Chinese coast. A +large part of the native population was induced to migrate, hills were +leveled, roads constructed, trees planted, and waterworks and sewers +laid out along the most up-to-date lines. + +The Great War found Tsing-tau a modern city, almost European in +appearance, with a magnificent harbor, where natural advantages had +been enhanced by the construction of immense piers and breakwaters. +One line of railway connected the port with Chi-nan, capital of +Shantung Province, and Germany held concessions for the construction +of two new lines. The census of 1913 showed a total population of +58,000, of which Germans, exclusive of the garrison, numbered 2,500. +Non-German Europeans, Americans, and Japanese numbered but 630. The +European quarter was distinctly Teutonic. + +The attack on Tsing-tau was a foregone conclusion. As a naval base and +a seat of menace to the commerce of hostile nations, Tsing-tau +occupied an unexcelled situation, almost equidistant from Nagasaki and +Shanghai, in virtually the same latitude as Tokyo, San Francisco, and +Gibraltar. Its defenses were second in strength only to those of Port +Arthur and Hongkong. + +Kiao-chau was under the administration of the German admiralty. The +German fleet seized it in 1897 ostensibly to secure reparation for the +murder of two German missionaries in Shantung. The ninety-nine-year +lease subsequently arranged gave Germany the right to fortify the new +concession, and the thoroughness with which this privilege was +exercised was proved by the stout resistance the garrison was able to +make against far superior forces of besiegers. The whole concession +occupied 117 square miles. + +Although Kiao-chau was the kaiser's only continental colony in Asia +the outbreak of the war found Germany in possession of several islands +and groups of islands in the Pacific. These included German New +Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, the Caroline, Pelew Marrana, Solomon +and Marshall Islands and a portion of the Samoan group. But the +strongly fortified port on the Shantung Peninsula was the naval base +for the protection of all these ocean possessions; and the Japanese +statesmen rightly concluded that with Tsing-tau in their grasp the +reduction of the other German colonies would be only a formal task of +seizure. Therefore the 27th of August, 1914, four days after the +declaration of war, saw a Japanese fleet blockading Tsing-tau and +Japanese transports carrying troops for landing expeditions in +cooperation with the warships. + +Germany began the concentration of all available forces inside the +Tsing-tau fortifications on August 8, 1914. But she was able to gather +there when the siege began only 5,000 men, a handful compared with the +great force Japan could muster for the reduction of the fortress. The +garrison of peace times was augmented by reservists, who came from +treaty ports along the Chinese coast, from Japan, Siberia, and from +every part of the Far East near enough to enable German veterans to +reach the city before communication was cut off. + +The crew of the Austrian cruiser _Kaiserin Elizabeth_, more than 300 +men, who had left Tsing-tau by railroad before Austria decided to join +her ally in the Far East as well as in Europe, hurried back in small +groups and in civilian clothes to escape detection. Squads of the +Landsturm, the last reserve, middle-aged men who had left their +families and their business in all parts of China joined the ranks and +went to drilling in preparation for the hard fighting expected as soon +as the invading fleet passed the outer defenses of the harbor. +Altogether the defenders mustered three artillery and infantry +regiments and four troops of cavalry. They had three aeroplanes and a +few machine guns and in the harbor were four small gunboats in +addition to the _Kaiserin Elizabeth_. + +Tsing-tau's principal points of defense were Mount Moltke, Mount +Bismarck and Mount Iltis. The rugged slopes of these positions +commanded the plain. Beyond the plain the important outer line of +defense was along the Litsum River, which flows into Kiao-chau Bay and +then through the mountains to the sea, a line about eight miles long +and about ten miles distant from the city. Preparations to oppose a +landing of hostile troops were made at points along the coast of the +leased territory for a distance of twenty miles. At the entrance of +the bay shore batteries and mines made a bombardment by the Japanese +fleet impracticable, except with the support of land forces. + +The first line of defense comprised five forts connected by trenches +and barbed wire entanglements. The shore defenses consisted of five +forts, called respectively: "The Kaiser's," armed with two large guns +mounted upon unsheltered platforms and two cannon of medium caliber +sheltered; "August Point," a square closed fort with unsheltered gun +platforms, and two guns of large medium caliber; "Taisichen," +unsheltered with four large cannon; "Kaiser Northeast," unsheltered +four cannon; "Yunuisan Point," two cannon of medium caliber. The main +line of defense was for both land and sea work; "Fort Moltke" at the +base of the German left wing had a shelter trench and guns of medium +caliber; "Fort Bismarck" had three heavy gun platforms in addition to +a platform for rapid fire guns of large caliber. From this the guns +could be turned in any direction. "Fort Iltis" mounted four heavy guns +of large and medium caliber besides mitrailleuse of large size. Two +heavy guns were mounted in the summit of Mount Iltis. + +In command of the German forces was the Governor General of Kiao-chau, +Admiral Meyer-Waldeck, a naval officer of experience and reputation. +The defenses of both land and sea were under his control. + +This entrance of Japan into the war introduced a factor fraught with +unknown possibilities. Unlike the other enemies of the Teutonic +alliance, Japan had nothing to fear for her home territory or her +possessions. Secure from attack, she was able to devote all her +energies to the task of driving the Germans out of the Far East. By +this accomplishment she not only fulfilled the terms of her alliance +with Great Britain, but strengthened her own supremacy in that quarter +of the globe. + +Tsing-tau, since its occupation by the Germans, had been like a mailed +fist brandished in her face. Since Japan's victory over Russia no +other European power had occupied a position on the Asiatic coast that +offered a threat comparable to this German stronghold. Also, it was +only human that the Japanese remembered how Germany compelled them to +abandon many of their fruits of victory in their last war with China. + +The unknown factor of her participation was just how far Japan would +go in aiding her new allies. The military and naval potentialities of +the Island Kingdom when the war started were greater than ever before. +She was twice as strong as when she went to war with Russia. Her navy +was sufficiently formidable to resist, in home waters at least, that +of any other power except England. Her army, twice proved during +recent years against the soldiers of Russia and China, was steadily +increasing its size and equipment. Her predominant position in the Far +East was absolutely assured. + +The Japanese army, based to a certain extent upon the German model, +numbered at the outbreak of the war somewhat over 250,000 men of all +ranks. This was its peace strength. Military service was obligatory +upon all able-bodied males between the ages of seventeen and forty. +This law made available each year 550,000 men, but in practice during +times of peace the annual conscription amounted to only 120,000 men +taken by ballot from among the number eligible. The total effective +military strength of the Empire was estimated at a million and a half +trained soldiers. + +The army was divided into nineteen divisions, four independent cavalry +brigades, three independent field artillery brigades, six regiments of +heavy field artillery and a communication brigade. Each divisional +unit consisted of two infantry brigades of six battalions each, a +cavalry regiment (three squadrons of 120 men each), a field artillery +regiment (six batteries of six guns), and a battalion of army service +corps. A battalion of mountain guns was attached to certain divisions. +Thus the army on a peace footing consisted of seventy-six infantry +regiments (228 battalions), twenty-seven regiments of cavalry. 150 +field batteries, nine mountain batteries, nineteen battalions of +garrison artillery and nineteen battalions of engineers. When the +reserves were summoned to the colors the Japanese system provided for +an indefinite increase in the number of battalions for each regiment. + +The Japanese navy had weathered a storm which at one time threatened +to interfere seriously with its steady growth, and the year 1914 found +it at a formidable climax of strength and efficiency. The war with +Russia had left the nation on the verge of bankruptcy and the annual +budgets from 1907 to 1910 contained no appropriations for naval +increases. The lull in naval construction, however, was of short +duration. The wisest statesmen realized, from the time when Japan +first emerged from her Oriental seclusion and eagerly set out to learn +the lessons of western civilization, that their country's insular +situation made a strong navy the first requisite of national +independence. It was the warships of the western world that forced the +Japanese to open their door to the foreigner. Fifteen years after the +Japanese had seen the foreign men-of-war riding dominant in their +harbors, their antiquated collection of war junks had been replaced by +an up-to-date navy, manned and officered by sea fighters trained upon +the best western models. In 1910 the Japanese began to compare their +naval equipment with that of Germany, and from that time their +shipbuilding program was designed to make them secure against the +chance of German aggression, ever present since the leasing of +Kiao-chau. + +At the outbreak of the Great War the Japanese navy had nearly doubled +its strength since the close of the war with Russia. It included two +battleships of the dreadnought class, the _Kawachi_ and the _Settsu_, +both over 21,000 tons, with a speed of twenty knots, two dreadnought +battle cruisers of 27,500 tons each and a speed of twenty-seven knots, +the _Kongo_ and the _Hiyei_; two semi-dreadnought battleships, the +_Aki_ and _Satsuma_, between 19,000 and 20,000 tons each and a speed +of twenty and eighteen and a quarter knots, respectively; four +first-class battle cruisers with speeds ranging from twenty to +twenty-three knots and averaging 14,000 tons; six battleships of +slightly heavier displacement and slightly less speed; six first-class +coast defense ships, averaging 13,000 tons and seventeen and a half +knots; nine first-class cruisers ranging from 7,300 to 9,800 tons and +twenty to twenty-one knots; thirteen second-class cruisers, some of +which had a speed of twenty-six knots; seven second-class coast +defense ships; nine gunboats, two first-class destroyers capable of +thirty-five knots an hour; two second-class destroyers with a speed of +thirty-three knots; and forty-six other destroyers of varying speeds; +thirty-one torpedo boats and thirteen submarines, besides auxiliary +craft, hospital ships, dispatch boats, etc. + +Although the Japanese air fleet gave a good account of itself during +the operations before Tsing-tau it developed no surprises, and +accomplished no exploits to confirm rumors prevailing before the war +that in Japan naval aviation had reached a special and advanced stage. +The Japanese Flying Corps conducted itself upon lines made familiar by +the British, German and French aviators in Europe. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +BEGINNING OF HOSTILITIES--ATTACKS ON TSING-TAU FORTS + + +Having reviewed the military and naval situation in the Far East at +the outbreak of war, we come now to the beginning of actual +belligerent operations. + +Japan's declaration of war against Germany was dated August 23, 1914. +The morning of the preceding day witnessed the departure from Japanese +war ports of the greatest fleet of warships and transports the Empire +had sent to sea since the Russian War. It comprised the Second +Squadron, embracing battleships, cruisers, destroyers and +hydro-aeroplanes, a dozen in all. The transports carried land forces +numbering 22,980 officers and men and 142 guns to be put ashore as +soon as the landing forces had ground for their advantageous location. + +The Japanese troops included the Eighteenth Division, under Lieutenant +General Mitsuomi Kamio, who was Commander in Chief of the expedition; +the Twenty-third Brigade of Infantry (Major General B. Horiuchi); the +Twenty-fourth Brigade of Infantry, commanded by Major General Hanzo +Yamanashi, Chief of Staff, and other divisional troops. The +Twenty-ninth Brigade of Infantry (Major General G. Joholi). Siege +Artillery Corps (Major General Y. Watanebe), the Miyama Heavy +Artillery Regiment, the Yokosuka Heavy Artillery Regiment, the +Shimonosoki Heavy Artillery Battalion, and the Tadanoumi Heavy +Artillery Battalion. Detachments of Engineers and Army Service Corps +from the Sixth and Twelfth Divisions. Two Railway Battalions. Railway +Guard Troops, the Eighth Infantry Regiment. Detachment of the Flying +Corps. Marine Artillery Detachment. Being intended for siege work this +army carried no cavalry, horse artillery or light field artillery. + +In command of the fleet was Vice Admiral Hikonojo Kamimura, whose +reputation as one of Japan's war idols was established when his +squadron had defeated three Russian warships, the _Rurik_, _Gromoboi_ +and _Rossia_, off the east coast of Korea. Later his squadron had +taken a commanding part in the great battle in the Japan Sea, which +put an end to Russia's naval power in the East. Admiral Kamimura was +sixty-five years old, and had spent the greater part of his life in +naval service. After the final Russian defeat he was rewarded with the +title of Baron and invested with the Grand Cordon of the Rising Sun +and the first-class of the Golden Kite. + +On September 23, 1914, the Japanese were joined by a British force of +1,369 men under command of Lieutenant Colonel Nathaniel Walter +Barnardiston, commander of the British forces in North China, +including Wei-hai-wei. Although the British did not arrive until a +month after the forces sailed from Japan, the distance that separated +Laoshan Bay, where the former made their landing on the original +leased territory and thus avoided the breach of neutrality against +China committed by the Japanese, was so much shorter and the landing +place presented so much less difficulty than the Japanese encountered +in their preliminary advance, that the British really arrived on the +scene of actual operations just as the Japanese were finishing their +first engagements in force, on September 28, 1914. + +Colonel Barnardiston's command consisted of 910 noncommissioned +officers and men of the Second Battalion South Wales Borderers, and +450 noncommissioned officers and men of the Thirty-sixth Sikhs, +besides nine staff officers. + +The bombardment of the Tsing-tau forts began on August 26, 1914, and +on September 1, 1914, the Japanese bluejackets seized several small +islands in Kiao-chau Bay, which the Germans were unable to defend +except by long range fire from their shore batteries, and by mines +with which the harbor had been thickly sown. Mine sweeping therefore +occupied the first activities of the fleet. This operation was +signalized by one of the many acts of patriotism and bravery that +characterized the siege on both sides. One hundred Japanese women who +made their living by diving for pearls in these waters offered to +enter the water and release the mines from their moorings so that they +would be carried away by the tides. Their courageous offer was +declined, not because the Japanese admiral believed it could not be +carried out, but because the Japanese law expressly prohibited the +employment of women in warlike operations. When one of the small boats +that acted as mine sweepers was blown up during the dragging that +followed the women renewed their offer, but again it was declined. + +The first landing on the Shantung Peninsula was made September 2, +1914. Ten thousand troops were put ashore; but it was not until +September 25, 1914, that the invaders made their first capture of a +German outpost, Weihsien. The check on the Japanese advance, however, +was due less to the defenders of Tsing-tau than to the torrential +rains, which swelled the streams and for a time effectively barred +further movements. The Japanese artillery was compelled to return to +Lung-chow, their original base on the mainland. + +The Japanese leaders proceeded with deliberation and caution. They had +the enemy penned up with no hope of reenforcement, and nothing was to +be gained by haste or the unnecessary waste of men and equipment. On +September 19, 1914, to facilitate the movement of their troops behind +the beleaguered city, they seized the railway connecting Tsing-tau +with the Chinese province of Shantung, and China, prompted by Berlin, +protested against the act as a violation of neutrality. This was the +second Chinese protest, the first having been sent to Tokyo after the +Japanese made their first landing on Chinese territory at Lung-chow. +To the former objection Japan had no answer except to set forth that +the landing was a military necessity and made with no intention of +permanent occupancy. To the second protest, however, she replied +without hesitation that possession of the railway line was justified +since it was owned by Germans. The wide area covered by the Japanese +investment campaign is shown by the fact that by September 13, 1914, +they had established guards at the railway station of Kiao-chau--a +town having the same name as the whole German concession--twenty-two +miles distant from Tsing-tau. + +While the Japanese infantry and engineers waited for the floods the +naval airmen were not idle. The first damage inside the city was +inflicted by two seaplanes which dropped bombs upon the railway +station and barracks. Although one of the planes was hit several times +by the German guns, both made a safe return. This raid was the +forerunner of a systematic air campaign, designed as much to strike +terror and discouragement into the hearts of the garrison and the +civil population as to gain any military end by the actual destruction +of defense works. Bombs were dropped also upon ships in the harbor. +Occasionally the Japanese flyers scattered circulars calling upon the +defenders to surrender and pointing out the uselessness of further +resistance. + +The first serious losses on either side were naval. On August 28, +1914, two days after the first bombardment a typhoon swept the +Japanese fleet, causing havoc among the little destroyers and sending +one to the bottom. Five days later another destroyer ran aground in +Kiao-chau Bay. A German merchant ship in the harbor was set afire by +the Japanese aerial bombs and destroyed. The greatest naval losses +suffered during the whole engagement were the destruction of the +Austrian cruiser _Kaiserin Elizabeth_ and of the Japanese cruiser +_Takachiho_. The _Kaiserin Elizabeth_ was sunk by the naval +bombardment; but the loss of the _Takachiho_ was due to the German +torpedo boat _S-90_. + +It was September 26, 1914, before the floods subsided sufficiently to +permit the Japanese to resume their advance. On that day they drove +the Germans from the high ground between the rivers Pai-sha and +Li-tsun, and next day they pushed forward to a point seven miles +northeast of Tsing-tau, between the Li-tsun and the Chang-tsun. The +following morning found them established within five miles of the +fortress. Their casualties were reported as three killed and twelve +wounded. + +These two days saw the heaviest fighting thus far during the siege. +While the land forces were pushing up to the main German forts the +fleet carried on a general bombardment, having by this time moved in +close enough to make gun fire effective and having learned the range. +The Japanese warships were assisted by the British battleship +_Triumph_, which had joined them a short time before with the British +destroyer _Usk_. These British boats remained throughout the +investment, the _Triumph_ was a favorite mark for the German gunners, +but escaped with comparatively slight damage. + +By September 30, 1914, the Germans were driven in from their outer +fortifications and Tsing-tau itself was completely surrounded. On that +day the defenders made a desperate attempt to regain some of their +lost positions, but they were repulsed, and the Japanese settled back +for a few days to await the bringing up of their heavy siege guns. + +It is said that the failure of this assault, in which the Germans +apparently concentrated all their resources, convinced General Kamio +that the capture of the city would not prove the long, arduous task +that had been expected, and he abandoned forthwith his plans for a +long, slow siege and made preparations to take the place by assault. +At the same time the Japanese commander showed no disposition to +sacrifice his men unnecessarily, and while waiting for their big guns +the Japanese worked like beavers with pick and shovel protecting their +positions and digging saps and zigzag trenches up to the very face of +the German defenses. They labored under a storm of shells but so +little exposed that losses under the bombardment were small compared +with the casualties of the actual assault operations. + +For eight days the Germans poured projectiles into the enemy's works; +but for the most part their shooting was a waste of ammunition. Just +why the defenders of Tsing-tau were so prodigal of ammunition at this +time never has been satisfactorily explained. Military correspondents +estimated that during one period of twenty-four hours the forts on the +three hills containing the main defensive positions fired more than +2,000 shells without inflicting any loss whatever. + +But by October 8, 1914, the German fire slackened perceptibly. They +had found that they were wasting their resources and that several +positions were almost out of ammunition. The warfare of that period is +described in a letter written by an officer with the British +expeditionary force: + +"That night," he said, "we were working in trenches along a river bed +at the bottom of the slope, where the others had been wounded, and +_sans doute_ most darnation close to the enemy. A beginning had been +made on this trench the night before, so there was a little cover. The +two redoubts were about 800 yards on our right and left respectively, +the enemy's trenches about 350 yards to our front. + +"Well, for the first hour after getting down we were left severely +alone. Then they started throwing star rockets and sort of Roman +candle things which lit up the place like day, and at the same time +they peppered us with Maxims, pompoms, and rifle fire from all three +places. We had some men hit further back in the communication trench, +but funnily enough none in the forward line.... We were entertained by +a certain amount of shell fire during the rest of the night. Next +night we were due to leave for the forward trenches at dusk to carry +on, having had our usual entertainment in the afternoon from the +Germans, when suddenly they began throwing shrapnel at our trench. For +about half an hour it was all over us, and I'm blest if I know why +nobody was hit. It was the overhead cover, I fancy, that saved us this +time. We came out like a lot of rabbits when it was over and proceeded +to get down below. + +"The Japanese artillery was supporting us that night, as we were +working on the enemy's side of the river, within 200 yards of their +advance trenches. Never have I felt a more comforting sensation then +when watching those Japanese shells bursting just over our heads, a +little in advance, the shrapnel from them going slap into the Germans +every time. I must say it was a magnificent sight when the Japanese +guns were going, the German rockets, etc., and their machine guns and +rifles joining in when they could get their heads up. One had to shout +to make oneself heard, and those who saw it from the top of Heinrich +Hill in rear said it was very fine." + +During the early days of the siege life in the beleaguered city went +on about as usual. A large part of the civil population had withdrawn +while there was yet time, but enough shops remained open to supply the +needs of those who remained. Cafes continued business and meals were +served without interruption at the German Club throughout the siege, +although toward the end the number of those who gathered at the +club's tables dwindled to a few administrative officers and civilians. + +In a proclamation the day before the expiration of the Japanese +ultimatum, Governor Meyer-Waldeck had expressed the spirit of the +little garrison in the following words: + +"Never shall we surrender the smallest bit of ground over which the +war flag is flying. From this place, which we with love and success +have endeavored during the last seventeen years to shape into a little +Germany across the seas, we shall not retreat. If the enemy wants +Tsing-tau, he must come and take it." + +Few, if any, military men in Tsing-tau doubted the outcome of the +siege; but every resource was prepared for a desperate resistance. The +city did not lack food; and after the surrender it was found that +enough still remained to provision the garrison for more than three +months longer. The supply of running water ceased about the middle of +October. News from the outside world came in until November 5, and +invariably it told of German successes. + +"I remember one evening," said the Tsing-tau correspondent of the +Associated Press, and the only foreign press representative in the +city during the siege, "the roar of laughter that went up in the +German Club when the news was read that England had asked Portugal for +assistance. For two or three days it looked, according to the news, +that the British Empire was going to pieces. We heard of revolutions +in India, riots in Alexandria, mutiny and martial law in South Africa +and even disaffection in Sarawak and North Borneo." + +When it became clear that the end was drawing near preparations were +made that as few war munitions as possible should fall into the hands +of the enemy. The warships in the harbor that had escaped the +bombardment were blown up. When the big guns in the forts had fired +their last shots the gunners under orders destroyed them. In many +cases this was done because without ammunition the guns were useless. + +October 31, 1914, the anniversary of the emperor's birthday, was +selected by the Japanese and English for their final bombardment. From +142 guns now occupying commanding positions came a deluge of shells +that continued for seven days. The gunners by this time had the exact +ranges and wasted no ammunition. The staffs of the two expeditionary +forces gathered on Prince Heinrich Hill to watch the final act of the +passing of German rule in the Far East. The warships ranged in the +harbor joined in, and after an hour or two it became evident that the +German defenses would be swept away by mere weight of metal. Under +cover of this terrific gunfire the Allies' troops drove their saps and +trenches up the very edge of the defense works, where they waited +orders to take the place by storm. + +The Germans replied bravely. A great cloud of smoke and dust arose +over the doomed city visible far out at sea. In the city the +noncombatants took refuge in their cellars and helped care for the +wounded. Almost every German position, except the bomb-proof casements +where the guns stood, was hammered to pieces. The electric power +station was destroyed, so that during the last few nights the city was +in darkness. + +The last handbills dropped into Tsing-tau by the Japanese aviators +contained the following appeal: "To the honored officers and men in +the fortress: It is against the will of God, as well as the principles +of humanity, to destroy and render useless arms, ships of war, and +merchantmen, and other works and constructions, not in obedience to +the necessity of war, but merely out of spite, lest they fall into the +hands of the enemy. Trusting, as we do, that, as you hold dear the +honor of civilization, you will not be betrayed into such base +conduct, we beg you, however, to announce to us your own view as +mentioned above. + + (Signed) "The Besieging Army." + +It is needless to say that the enemy's plea was not heeded. By +November 6, 1914, only spasmodic fire from widely scattered positions +answered the Allies' bombardment. That night the Japanese and English +charged across open ground and took the middle fort in the first line +of defense with surprising ease, capturing 200 prisoners. The charge +was led by General Yoshimi Yamada at the head of companies of infantry +and engineers. At one point they surprised a squad of Germans in +charge of a searchlight. To have fired upon them would have betrayed +the advance to the defenders of the adjacent fort; so, the story says, +the Germans were quietly and quickly dispatched by the engineers with +picks and shovels. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +CAPTURE OF TSING-TAU + + +Tsing-Tau fell early on the morning of the next day, November 7, 1914. +Encouraged by the unexpected successes of the night, the Japanese +commander gave the order for a final grand assault. Nobody was more +surprised than the Japanese themselves. They had expected a last-ditch +resistance and feared they would have to sacrifice a thousand men +before gaining these positions commanding the city. But the Germans, +their ammunition almost gone, stunned by the continuous rain of shells +and broken by long fighting, had decided that further resistance was +useless. + +The Japanese infantry occupied the central positions on the main line +of defense soon after midnight. Just before dawn they captured the +north battery on Shaotan Hill, then the east battery of Tahtungehin +and the Chungchiawa fort on the west. The heaviest loss suffered by +any of the Japanese detachments in the final assault fell upon a +company that was caught by machine-gun fire in an attack upon Redoubt +No. 2. Out of 250 men only 87 escaped. The total Japanese casualties +in the final assault were 450 killed and wounded. The British +casualties were slight. + +Daylight found the Japanese and British in possession of every +position commanding the city and nearly 20,000 men were awaiting the +signal to charge the last line of defenses when a white flag appeared +on the Tsing-tau military observatory. Within the next hour flags of +surrender were flying from all the other German forts. So unexpected +was the sudden collapse of the defense that at six o'clock, when the +Governor sent Major von Kayser, his adjutant, with a white flag to +make terms, the signal of surrender was not observed and the +Japanese, far from suspecting the German officer's purpose, opened +fire, killing Von Kayser's trumpeter and shooting his horse under him. + +The formal capitulation of Tsing-tau came at 7.50 o'clock on the +evening of November 7, 1914, when both sides signed the Japanese +terms. The Germans surrendered unconditionally, but were accorded the +honors of war. On November 10, 1914, at 10 a. m., Governor +Meyer-Waldeck formally transferred possession to General Kamio, and +German's last foothold in Asia passed from her possession. + +News of the fall of Tsing-tau, although not unexpected, caused great +rejoicing throughout Japan and among her allies, and profoundly +stirred the German world. + +The German attitude was expressed by an editorial in the Berlin +"Lokalanzeiger," which said: "Never shall we forget the bold deed of +the yellow robbers, or of England that set them on to do it. We know +that we cannot yet settle with Japan for years to come. Perhaps she +will rejoice over her cowardly robbery. Here our mills can grind but +slowly. Even if the years pass, however, we shall certainly not often +speak of it, but as certainly always think of it." + +The Japanese and British forces made formal entry into the captured +city on November 16, 1914. The Germans had done all in their power to +destroy supplies, nevertheless the spoils of victory included 100 +machine guns, 2,500 rifles, 30 field guns, a small amount of +ammunition, about $6,000 in cash, 15,000 tons of coal, 40 motor cars, +and a large quantity of provisions. Prisoners taken numbered 4,043, +including the governor general and 201 German officers and 3,841 +noncommissioned officers and men. + +The casualties on both sides, considering the length of the siege and +the intensity of the gunfire in both directions, were remarkably +small. The Japanese had 236 killed and 1,282 wounded, the British had +12 killed and 63 wounded, including two officers. The Germans +estimated their losses in killed and wounded at about 1,000 men. To +the Allies' losses must be added 10 killed and 56 wounded, all +Japanese, by the explosion of German land mines several days after the +surrender. + + + + +PART III--THE WAR IN AFRICA + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +CAMPAIGN IN TOGOLAND AND THE CAMEROONS + + +The first shots of the Great War had hardly detonated across Europe +when their echoes were heard in Africa. The war fever began to hover +over Germany's colonial possessions in Africa--Togoland, the +Cameroons, German Southwest Africa, and, greatest of all, German East +Africa. Each of these colonies became in turn the scene of armed +invasions and fierce conflicts, as important to the small forces +involved as the great campaigns on the continent across the seas. + +When Great Britain declared war on Germany on August 4, 1914, and the +news flashed across the world to the official representatives of the +warring nations in Africa, the British acting governor of the Gold +Coast and the French governor of Dahomey planned a concerted campaign +by land in cooperation with the warships to be found in African +waters. + +The first blow was struck on August 8, 1914, in Togoland, a country +about the size of Ireland, lying between French Dahomey and the +British Gold Coast. It is populated by a million Hausas and about 400 +whites. At the beginning of the war the military force of Togoland +could not have exceeded 250 whites and 3,000 natives. Hemmed in on +three sides by French and British territory, with a coast line easily +approached by warships, the colony was not in a position to offer much +resistance if attacked. + +On August 8, 1914, a British cruiser appeared before Lome, the capital +of Togoland, and the town was surrendered without a shot being fired. +But before the British force landed, the little German army of about +60 Europeans and 400 natives fell back to Atakpame, 100 miles in the +interior. + +While this was happening at Lome an expeditionary force composed of +the Gold Coast Regiment, with British officers and commanded by +Captain F. C. Bryant, R. A., crossed the frontier in motor cars on +August 8, or 9, 1914, and a French force entered Togoland from the +other side. A few days later the Allies had possession of all the +southern part of Togoland, and advanced together toward Atakpame to +capture an important German wireless station at Kamina in the same +region. + +The only real fighting in this campaign took place on August 25, 1914, +when Captain Bryant and his forces had crossed the Monu River. The +Allies drove the enemy from his intrenchments, seized the wireless +station, and occupied Atakpame. Their losses were two officers and 21 +men killed and about 50 wounded. + +On August 26, 1914, the Germans surrendered unconditionally, and the +Allies came into possession of three Maxim guns, 1,000 rifles and +320,000 rounds of ammunition. It was stated at the time that the +Germans offered such a feeble resistance because many natives, on whom +they had counted, refused to take up arms against the British. + +Togoland having fallen to the Allies, it was arranged between the +officials of Great Britain and France that the colony should be +jointly governed, each to control that part of Togoland nearest her +possessions. In a few months' time normal trade was resumed in the +Allies' colony, and since private property had been respected during +the invasion, there was nothing left to show that the country had +recently been the scene of small but decisive conflicts, far-reaching +in their effects. + +The action in the African war drama now shifts to the Cameroons +(German Kamerun Colony), which Germany took possession of in 1884. It +has a seacoast of about 200 miles on the Bight of Biafra. To the +northeast and south are the British Protectorate of Nigeria and French +Equatorial Africa. The country is largely mountainous and is 290,000 +square miles in extent. Before the war there were less than 2,000 +whites among a population of 2,500,000 negroes, principally of the +Bantu race. + +The Cameroons, though surrounded by territory of the Allies, was a +more difficult country to conquer than Togoland, owing to its natural +advantages and the difficulties of communication over great distances. +The first moves of the Allies met with disaster. It was in the African +rainy season and misadventures multiplied as the invading troops +marched through a wild and badly mapped country. It was decided +between the Allies that two French columns should move from French +Congo, while British columns entered at different points on the +frontier of Nigeria. + +On August 8, 1914, a detachment of mounted infantry of the West +African Frontier Force left Kano and, marching 400 miles in seventeen +days through West Africa, got in touch with the Germans at Tepe, a +frontier station just inside the Cameroons. In the fierce engagement +that followed the Germans were repulsed, losing five officers and +suffering other casualties. + +On August 29, 1914, the river station of Garua was attacked, and here +one of the most disastrous battles of the campaign was fought. On +August 31, 1914, Lieutenant Colonel Maclear, commanding the Royal +Dublin Fusiliers and native troops, left their intrenchments 400 yards +from the German forts and advanced to attack. The German gunners +having perfect range, poured a murderous fire from machine guns on the +British forces. The native troops wavered and fled, leaving British +officers in the trenches, and these in turn were soon forced to fly to +escape complete annihilation. Lieutenant Colonel Maclear was killed, +and of the 31 other officers only 10 escaped, while 40 per cent of the +native troops were lost. The remainder of the British force retreated +into Nigeria in such an exhausted condition that had the Germans +followed up their victory not a man would have escaped. + +[Illustration: German Possessions in Africa.] + +The second British expedition which entered the Cameroons from a more +westerly point along the Nigerian frontier occupied, after slight +resistance, the German station of Nsanakong a few miles from the +border, where a week later the Germans attacked in force at two +o'clock in the morning. The British resisted stubbornly, but, having +exhausted their ammunition, the garrison tried to cut their way out +with the bayonet. The British lost three officers, while large numbers +of native soldiers were killed or made prisoners. The remainder, +escaping to the bush, after many hardships found their way back to +Nigeria. Another British expedition from Calabar, near the coast, +occupied Archibong, August 29, 1914, while about the same time a +German force took possession of the Nigerian station of Okuri. + +The British had failed by land; they were more successful on the sea, +as will be seen in the chapter on Naval Operations. On September 4, +1914, an attempt was made by the Germans to wreck the British gunboat +_Dwarf_, which with the cruiser _Cumberland_ was watching German ships +in the Cameroon estuary. The German merchantman _Nachtigal_ tried +later to ram the same gunboat and wrecked herself with a loss of 36 +men. Further attempts to destroy the _Dwarf_ also failed. + +The British now taking the offensive cleared the channel for three +miles, where the Germans had sown mines and sunk 10 or 12 steamboats +to obstruct the waterway to Duala, the capital of the Cameroons. +H.M.S. _Challenger_ and five troopships joined the _Dwarf_ and +_Cumberland_ on September 26, 1914, and, moving on Duala, bombarded +the town. + +On September 27, 1914, the Germans offered to surrender Duala +unconditionally, and on September 28, 1914, Brigadier General C. M. +Dobell came ashore and took it over. About the same time a battalion +landing at Bonaberi, across the river from Duala, capitulated after +some desultory fighting. The wireless station at Duala was found to +have been wrecked, but the British took several hundred prisoners, +captured 8 merchantmen with valuable cargoes and the German gunboat +_Soden_, which was at once put into commission in the British navy. +While the British were successful around Duala, a French force by sea +from Libreville, French Congo, escorted by their warship _Surpris_, +attacked _Ukoko_ on Corisco Bay, south of the Cameroons, during which +the armed vessels _Khios_ and _Itolo_ were sunk. + +The Allies had captured the chief port and controlled the coast, but +the most difficult work lay before them in the mountainous and almost +roadless region still to be conquered. The retreating Germans +occupied a defensive position on a river at Japona, where on October +8, 1914, a French column came up with them, forced a bridge, and +compelled them to continue their retreat. + +On October 8, 1914, Colonel E. H. Gorges, commanding a British naval +and military force and four field guns, sailed up the Wuri in launches +and found the enemy intrenched near Jabassi. The British made a +spirited attack, but were driven back by the accurate fire of the +enemy. After a flank attack failed, the order was given to retreat, +and the British returned to Duala. + +The Allies reenforced, and with two 6-inch guns resumed the attack on +October 14, 1914, when the German batteries were soon silenced. After +a brisk engagement the infantry occupied Jabassi, taking ten European +prisoners. Minor successes won by the Allies at this time were the +defeat of the Germans at Susa, and the occupation of the region around +Mora, near Lake Chad by a Nigerian Regiment which had entered the +colony from the northeast. + +Two columns of Anglo-French troops under Brigadier General Dobell, +with Colonel Mayer commanding the French colonial infantry, followed +the retreating Germans to Edea on the Sanaga River, some fifty miles +from Duala. Part of the road led through a thick forest where snipers +were concealed, who harassed the expedition at every step and were +dislodged with great difficulty. + +On October 26, 1914, Edea was taken without resistance, and the enemy +retired to Yaunde, a station far in the interior. Mujuka, a station +about fifty miles from Duala, was occupied by the British a few weeks +later. + +Early in November, 1914, General Dobell planned an attack on the +German capital of Buea, and its seaport Victoria. The latter place was +bombarded by the French cruiser _Bruix_ and the yacht _Ivy_; marines +were landed, and after a short and spirited fight it was taken, while +the enemy, who had concentrated on the hills leading to Buea, were +scattered by the Allies' forces advancing from different directions. + +The Germans made a determined effort to regain Edea, but were forced +to retire with a loss of 20 Europeans and 54 natives. Meanwhile, in +the hinterland, the French General, Aymerich, with a force of men and +a steamer loaned by the authorities of the Belgian Congo drove the +enemy from the Congo-Ubanghi region, which had been given to Germany +in 1911. After two days of strenuous fighting the German posts of +Numen and Nola were taken, and some officers, guns, and ammunition. + +The greatest campaign in December, 1914, was the capture of the entire +northern railway line, with rolling stock, locomotives, two +aeroplanes, and about sixty white men. Mendawi, Bare, and Nkongsamba +were other posts taken at this period. + +At the close of the year the Cameroons were not conquered, but the +Germans had been driven into the interior, could not secure supplies, +and it was only a question of time when they must surrender or be +annihilated. The allied forces were constantly harrying their enemy. + +The Allies' next movement was an advance in three columns against +Yaunde, where they fought two little battles January 27-28, 1915, and +seized the post of Bersona. Near the coast some important operations +were successful. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +GERMAN SOUTHWEST AFRICA--REBELLION IN UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA + + +German Southwest Africa, to which we will now turn, was in a different +situation at the outbreak of the war from that of the German colonies +of the east and west. Over the frontier was a self-governing dominion, +the Union of South Africa, with an independent parliament made up of a +strange mixture of different parties. The irreconcilables in the Dutch +population who had dreamed of a greater Afrikander Republic, would +they not take this opportunity to side with Germany who promised to +further their ambitions? Great Britain expected some trouble from this +element in the Union, and prepared for the worst, while Germany was +equally active, and there was much intriguing to persuade the Dutch +to cast in their lot with them. In other parts of Africa, Germany had +to fight her battles unaided, but here in the enemy's camp there was +every hope of gaining powerful assistance. Until the situation in the +Union became clear, it was Germany's part to defend her colony in +Southwest Africa, hoping by a brave display of arms to win over the +Dutch, who were bitter against England. + +German Southwest Africa enjoys many natural advantages. Her capital is +far in the interior. Between her railway on the south, which almost +reaches the Cape frontier, and her border spreads out the desert of +Kalahari and the arid, waterless plains of northwest Cape Colony. The +branch railways are separated by about 200 miles from German +territory, and on the northern line Kimberley was a little less than +400 miles distant. British forces entering the colony by land must +encounter many difficulties, especially in the desert region, which +the Germans left undefended because they believed it could not be +crossed by troops. + +Before the war, according to the official returns, the colony had a +force of 3,500 men, mainly whites; but with reserves and volunteers +from among the population of German blood it has been variously +estimated that an army of from 6,000 to 10,000 men could be gathered +together. The Germans were believed to be strong in artillery, and +were known to have sixty-six batteries of Maxims. There was also a +camel corps 500 strong. + +After the declaration of war in August, 1914, Dr. Seitz, the German +Governor, began to carry out his plan of defense. In the second week +of August, 1914, the Germans abandoned Swakopmund and Luederitz Bay, +their principal stations on the coast, and after destroying the jetty +and tugs in harbor, retired with their military stores to Windhoek, +the inland capital. In the last weeks in August they made short dashes +into British territory, intrenching themselves in some places, and +occasionally engaged in a skirmish with farmers on the frontier. + +Thus, when the Union Parliament met September 8, 1914, it was informed +by General Botha, the Premier, that Germany had begun hostilities +against the British colonies. On the following day, as a challenge to +the pro-German party, he moved a resolution to convey to King George +an address, assuring him of the loyal support of the Union. Upon this +General Hertzog moved an amendment to the effect that attacking German +territory in South Africa was against the interests of the Union and +the empire. But the victory was with General Botha's Government when +the questions were voted on. Only 12 of the 104 votes cast were in +favor of Hertzog's amendment. + +It was evident that many burghers living in districts on the borders +of German Southwest Africa shared Hertzog's opinion, and were opposed +to taking offensive measures against the German colony as long as the +Union was left in peace. From the time that Hertzog had been dropped +from Botha's cabinet he had posed as a martyr. His adherents believed +that he had been "sacrificed to please the English," and that Botha +was merely a tool in the hands of the British Government. + +The spirit of rebellion in the Union did not show itself openly for +some time, but the leaders--Beyers, De Wet, Maritz, and Kemp--were +busy conspiring and stirring up disaffection among the burghers who +had never become reconciled to the Union. + +De Wet, because of his world-wide fame during the Boer War, has been +given undue prominence for the part he played in the rebellion. He was +not the head and front of the movement, though his name was one to +conjure with among the disaffected Boers, and he proved to be a +valuable recruiting agent. His operations during the rebellion, as +will be subsequently shown, were generally ineffective in the field, +and terminated ingloriously, before he could work any great harm. + +General Beyers, the most dangerous foe the Union had in the rebellion, +was a direct contrast to the rude and unlettered De Wet. He was young +and brave, and had shown himself one of the ablest soldiers the +British had to fight against during the Boer War. He looked the +dashing officer that he was--tall, straight, black bearded, and with +his pleasant manners and easy speech he was just the man to inspire +enthusiasm in others. + +Colonel Maritz and Colonel Kemp, the other chief leaders in the +rebellion, had never been as prominent in South African affairs as +Beyers and De Wet. Maritz had shown ability as a leader in the Boer +War, had held various military positions since, and at the beginning +of the European War was in command of the South African border between +the Union and German Southwest Africa, to which he had been appointed +by Beyers, who was commandant general of the citizen forces. General +Smuts, the Minister of Defense, may have suspected some sinister +motives in this appointment, for Maritz had many friends in the German +colony, but for the present he had to keep his suspicions to himself +and await some overt act of offense. + +Colonel Kemp, the remaining chief leader, had never done anything to +give him special prominence. He had proved himself an efficient +soldier during the Boer War, and appears to have been in command of a +training camp in the western Transvaal when the rebellion was started. + +Under these four leaders, acting independently, or in conjunction with +them, were subleaders, an indefinite number, members of the +Government, and men connected with the church and army, whose part in +the rebellion was to stir up the people. + +An interesting character among the somewhat nebulous subleaders in the +rebellion was Van Rensburg, sometimes called "Prophet" Lichtenberg, +from the place where he lived. During the Boer War he had predicted a +remarkable victory for the Boers, which had resulted in the capture of +Lord Methuen, and ever since the burghers of the Union had held him in +reverential awe. When the war with Germany broke out he made various +prophecies. He discovered that the events foretold in the Book of +Revelation would now take place. Germany, he said, had been divinely +ordained to conquer the world and purify it. Any attempt to resist +this divine ordinance would be punished by the righteous anger of an +offended deity. Nor was the "prophet" forgetful of local politics, for +he had another "vision" in which he predicted that Generals Delarey, +Beyers, and De Wet were divinely appointed leaders, who would restore +the old republic. These "prophecies" were spread broadcast throughout +the Union, were eagerly believed by the superstitious burghers, and +served to hearten up the disaffected who had some grudge against the +Government. + +A great meeting of the burghers was summoned to meet August 15, 1914, +at Treurfontein. This date had been fixed because Van Rensburg in a +"vision" had seen "a dark cloud, with blood flowing from it, inscribed +with number 15, and General Delarey, the uncrowned king of western +Transvaal, returning home without his hat, followed by a carriage full +of flowers." Eight hundred burghers attended the meeting, but Delarey, +who spoke, had been warned by General Botha, and therefore spoke +calmly, urging the burghers to remain cool and await events. Such was +Delarey's influence over the assembly, who had come expecting to make +a fiery speech, that a resolution expressing confidence in the +Government was passed. + +On September 15, 1914, General Christian Beyers resigned his position +of commandant general of the defense force in a letter which was +practically a declaration of war against the British Empire. It +developed that for some weeks he had been organizing rebellion. He was +secretly arranging a scheme of operations in which the German forces +were to take part, while making plans for the Union Government. He +hoped to win over General Delarey, leader of the Boers in the western +Transvaal, but this officer was accidentally killed by the police near +Johannesburg. The patrol out looking for the notorious Jackson gang of +bandits, then in the neighborhood, had orders to examine any motor car +and fire at once, if when summoned to stop their challenge was +ignored. The car bearing Generals Beyers and Delarey had been twice +challenged while passing through the town. The third time a policeman +fired at the wheel to disable the car, and the bullet ricocheted and +killed Delarey. + +A thousand armed Boers at this time were encamped at Potchefstroom in +Delarey's district. Colonel Kemp, who had sent in his resignation to +the Union Government, and was working here for Delarey, had won over +their officers, and on parade urged the men to refuse to volunteer for +German Southwest Africa. He also collected in his tent such ammunition +as he could lay his hands upon. + +The death of General Delarey disconcerted General Beyers, and his +fellow conspirators, and Colonel Kemp withdrew his resignation from +the Union army. Over the grave of Delarey General Beyers, in the +presence of General Botha, declared that he had no intention of +advising or causing a rebellion, yet the following day, with General +De Wet and others, he was urging the Boers who had come to the funeral +of their dead leader to revolt against active service should the +commandos be called out under the Defense Act. + +Botha knew the men who were stirring up rebellion and acted quickly. +He called for volunteers, announcing that he would lead in person the +Union forces against the Germans, and the immediate response he +received was gratifying. The conspirators remained quiet for some +weeks, but General Beyers and De Wet were secretly at work against the +Government of the Union. + +On September 26, 1914, Colonel Grant and a small force of African +Rifles and Transvaal Horse Artillery operating at Sandfontein near the +German border were trapped by two German battalions while on their way +to a water hole. From the heights the German guns swept the circular +basin below where the Union force was gathered. The advantage was all +in favor of the Germans. High explosive shells from ten guns wrought +havoc among the South African soldiers, but not until their ammunition +ran out and every man of their gun crews was either killed or wounded +would the little band of Boers and Britons surrender. It developed +later that Lieutenant Colonel S. G. Maritz, a Boer leader commanding +Union forces in the Northwest territory, had turned traitor and +arranged the disaster. It was through General Beyers that he had been +appointed to an important command on the German border. + +Maritz who was now ordered by General Smuts, Minister of Defense, to +report to headquarters and give up his command, sent a defiant reply +October 8, 1914. He stated that in addition to his own troops he had +German guns and men, and had signed an agreement with the Governor of +Southwest Africa ceding Walfish Bay (a British possession) and certain +portions of Union territory in return for a guarantee of the +independence of the South African Republic. All his officers and men +who were unwilling to join with him had been sent as prisoners into +German territory. + +General Botha replied to the rebel by proclaiming martial law +throughout the Union. General Brits, with the imperial Light Horse, +was sent to capture Maritz, and in an engagement October 15, 1914, at +Ratedraai, near Upington, took seventy rebel prisoners. + +On October 22, 1914, Maritz with 1,000 rebels and seventy German +gunners, attacked at dawn the post of Keimos, where there were only +150 loyalists. The little garrison held out until reenforcements +arrived and the battle then turned against Maritz, who offered to +surrender for a free pardon. This being refused, the fight went on, +and Maritz eventually fled wounded into German territory. Two days +later a party of rebels with German gunners were defeated at Kakamas. + +General Hertzog, who had represented the pro-German party in the Union +Parliament, gathered a commando and broke out in revolt on October 21, +1914. He issued a manifesto complaining of English oppression, and +announced that he would tolerate it no longer. Three members of the +Union Parliament and a member of the Defense Council, Mr. +Wessel-Wessels, came out in arms. In the western Transvaal and the +northern Free State the rebel leaders had about 10,000 men in separate +groups. Their plan was to join their commandos with a force under +Maritz from German Southwest Africa. + +The situation from a military point of view seemed to be serious for +the Union, but Generals Botha and Smuts were active and resourceful +and in a few weeks had 40,000 men in the field. The loyal Boers were +in a difficult position, for now they were asked to fight against +their own kith and kin for the British Empire. In battle the Dutch +generals showed that they were anxious to spare their own kinsmen, and +ordered their men to withhold firing to the last moment, hoping that +the rebels would surrender. The rebels were not allowed time to join +their forces, for General Botha gave them no rest night or day. + +On October 27, 1914, General Beyers and his commando operating near +Rustenburg were driven in headlong flight all day long by General +Botha and a force of loyalists. Two days later General Beyers was a +fugitive. His scattered commandos were defeated by Colonel Alberts at +Lichtenburg and again at Zuitpansdrift on November 5, 1914. Meanwhile, +Colonel Kemp, who had been acting with General Beyers, now separated +from his chief, and with a large force started for German Southwest +Africa, pursued by Colonel Alberts. Beyers, trying to get in touch +with De Wet, entered the Orange Free State, closely followed by a +large loyalist force under Colonel Lemmer. + +On November 7, 1914, Beyers's commando was attacked by Lemmer near the +Vet River and though Beyers led in person, he was defeated, and, 364 +of his men being captured and about 20 killed or wounded, the fugitive +remnant returned to Hoopstad. De Wet, whom General Beyers had been +prevented from joining by the activity of the loyalist forces, had +gathered together in the northern districts of the Orange Free State a +poorly organized body of soldiers, but sufficient in numbers to cause +the South African Government some anxiety. Negotiations between the +Free State leaders and De Wet postponed for a time any military action +by the Government, but the old guerrilla captain was not to be +pacified. There had been a rivalry between him and Botha in the Boer +war, and he seemed anxious to measure strength now with a soldier whom +he considered his inferior. + +De Wet's name was a power in the land, especially among the "poor +whites" and the squatter class, who without much intelligence or +education had not prospered under new conditions in the Union. They +were without hope for the future and felt that they were being crowded +out by the more active spirits in the country. They saw in the +rebellion a chance to improve their economic position. There was +little to lose and much might be won. A new Afrikander Republic would +bring back the old days for which they had never ceased to long for. +It was from this class of malcontents that De Wet drew the bulk of his +men. The rest were religious fanatics, disgruntled politicians, +wastrels and adventurers. + +We have said previously that De Wet's recruits were poorly organized. +It was a weakness of this brilliant guerrilla fighter that he could +not maintain discipline when handling a large body of men, and the +sort of troops he was working with in the rebellion called for the +sternest kind of authority to make them effective soldiers. He only +enjoyed a month of freedom and covered considerable territory, but he +accomplished very little from a military point of view. He could not +follow the same tactics that he had employed in the Boer war with +equal success now. At home on the back of a horse, it was impossible +for him to slip through the enemy's lines as of old when there were +motor cars to pursue. He began his campaign with an action at Winburg +where he defeated a small loyalist commando under Cronje, and where +one of his sons was killed. + +A battle of considerable importance was fought on November 12, 1914, +at Marquard to the east of Winburg. General Botha and his Transvaal +commando by a forced night march had reached Winburg the day before +and getting in touch with De Wet's forces encircled them on the east +and northeast. Colonel Brandt at the same time led his commando from +Winburg within easy reach of De Wet, while General Lukin and Colonel +Brits moving forward from the west completed the hemming in of the +enemy. General Botha's commando attacked De Wet's forces and defeated +them with great loss. If General Lukin and Colonel Brits had not been +delayed in taking up their positions all the rebels would have been +captured. The victory was especially of far-reaching importance +because it discouraged De Wet's hopes and strengthened the loyalist +cause. All of De Wet's stores of food and ammunition were taken, and a +hundred carts, wagons and motor cars, while the prisoners numbered +about 250. + +De Wet, with a Boer commando in pursuit, now fled up the Vet River, +then turning south at Boshof, divided his decreasing force into two +divisions. Leading one of these he turned again north, reaching the +Vaal River with only 25 men remaining of the 2,000 he had fought with +at Marquard. + +Beaten back by a loyal outpost he succeeded in crossing the Vaal on +November 21, 1914, closely pursued by Commandant Dutoit and a motor +car contingent from Witwatersrand. De Wet's followers had gradually +deserted, and he had only four men with him when he succeeded in +joining a small commando of fugitives gathered at Schweizer Renek. The +heavy rainstorms at this time favored him as he started with this +force to follow Colonel Kemp and join Maritz in German Southwest +Africa, for the motor cars in pursuit could make small progress over +the heavy roads. Crossing Bechuanaland on November 25, 1914, De Wet +was pursued by another loyalist force under Colonel Brits who in two +days captured half of the fugitives. + +On December 1, 1914, at a farm at Waterburg, about a hundred miles +from Mafeking, De Wet and his party of 52 men surrendered to Colonel +Jordaan without firing a shot, and the one-time Commander in Chief of +the Orange Free State forces was imprisoned at Johannesburg to await +his trial for high treason. + +In the Orange Free State, General Beyers and about seventy men harried +by loyal commandos divided his party, and leading one group made a +dash for the Vaal River pursued by Captain Uys and Cornet Deneker with +a small force. Trapped at daybreak on December 9, 1914, near the Vaal, +Beyers and a few men tried to swim the river to the Transvaal under a +fierce fire. Beyers was seen to fall from his horse, and was heard to +cry for help, but was drowned before anyone could come to the rescue. + +General Botha's operations in the northern district of the Orange Free +State were made difficult because of the heavy fogs, but early in +December, 1914, the rebels were in sore straits, 500 being captured +while 200 surrendered to Commandant Kloppers a loyalist, who had been +taken a prisoner and was afterwards released. + +General Maritz, Colonel Kemp, and the "Prophet" Litchtenburg had fled +west, and after some fighting at Kurumun, and two minor successes, +surprising two posts at Langklip and Onydas which they were forced to +abandon on the arrival of reenforcements, they retired toward the +German frontier where they were penned in by the Union forces. + +On January 24, 1915, the rebels made their last sally, attacking +Colonel Van der Venter at Upington. The rebel force, about 1,200 +strong and led by Maritz and Kemp, was easily repulsed. On February 3, +1915, Maritz, having fled to German territory, Colonel Kemp and his +commando of 43 officers and 486 men including the "Prophet" +Lichtenburg surrendered. + +[Illustration: These Belgian soldiers are weary and covered with mud +from the trenches, but they are rallying for a fresh resistance to +German attacks.] + + + + +PART IV--THE WESTERN FRONT + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +PREPARATIONS FOR AN OFFENSIVE + + +During the greater part of the winter of 1914-15, the fighting along +the western front had been almost constant, but had resulted in little +that either side could justly assert to be a success. The rigors +inevitable in such a mode of warfare had become almost beyond human +endurance, and commanders on both sides looked forward to a more +active campaign. + +An immense amount of ammunition had been stored by the French in and +around Perthes in anticipation of a forward movement; and, by the +second week of February, a quarter of a million men of the French army +had been assembled near that place. They were opposite a section of +the German trenches which was about twelve miles long, extending from +Ville-sur-Tourbe in the Argonne to the village of Souain. Early in the +year this section had been held by only two divisions of Rhinelanders. +These two divisions had suffered severely from the heavy gun fire +which the French had directed against them by means of the successful +work of the French aviators. The French infantry also had done +effective work in the short rush which they had been making, gaining +on an average about twelve yards a day. Following the concentration of +French troops, the German commanders brought up reenforcements to the +number of 80,000. Some of these were taken from La Bassee, and others +from a contingent which had been intended for a northern offensive +movement. + +Because of the chalk formation of the soil in this section of the +front, the excessive moisture of this season of the year drained +rapidly, leaving exposed an undulating section on which were small +forests of fir trees. The nature of the ground made it an easy matter +to move troops even in winter. General Joffre took advantage of this +fact, and assembled a quarter of a million men against the German +lines in Champagne. This caused the German commanders to mass troops +just in front of Perthes. The concentration continued until there were +220,000 German soldiers packed there in close formation. The French +attacked, and quickly a rain of more than a hundred thousand shells +fell upon the Germans. + +The Germans sought to reply by bringing up twenty-two batteries of +heavy guns and sixty-four field batteries; but the French gunners kept +command of the field. In the twenty days' battle--from February 16 to +March 7, 1915--the French won scarcely a mile of ground; but they +found and buried 10,000 German dead. The French staff estimated that +60,000 German soldiers had been put out of action. The German staff +admitted they had lost more men in this action than in the campaign in +East Prussia against the Russians, where fourteen German army corps +were engaged. The French lost less than 10,000 men. + +In the last week of February, 1915, it had been learned by General +Joffre that General von Falkenhayn of the German forces had withdrawn +from Neuve Chapelle, and the section north of La Bassee six batteries +of field artillery, six battalions of the Prussian Guard, and two +heavy batteries of the Prussian Guard. These had been withdrawn for +the purpose of checking the supposed French advance at Perthes, as +already narrated. Hence it was known that the English, in command of +Sir Douglas Haig, at Neuve Chapelle, were opposed by a thin line of +German troops who were making a demonstration of force for the purpose +of concealing the weakness of their line. + +[Illustration: The Western Battle Line, January 1, 1915.] + +The British officers in the region of Neuve Chapelle received complete +instructions on March 8, 1915, in regard to an offensive which they +were to start on the 10th. These instructions were supplemental to a +communication which had been sent on February 19 by the British +commander in chief to Sir Douglas Haig, the commander of the First +Army. Neuve Chapelle was to be the immediate objective of the +prospective engagement. This place is about four miles north of La +Bassee at the junction of main roads, one leading southward to La +Bassee, and another from Bethune on the west to Armentieres on the +northeast. It is about eleven miles west of Lille. These roads formed +an irregular diamond-shaped figure with the village at the apex of the +eastern sides, along which the German troops were stationed. The +British held the western sides of this figure. + +The land in this part of France is marshy and crossed by dykes; but, +to the eastward, the ground rises slowly to a ridge, on the western +border of which are two spurs. Aubers is at the apex of one; and +Illies at the apex of the other. Both of these villages were held by +the Germans. The ridge extends northeast, beyond the junction of the +spurs, from Fournes to within two miles southwest of Lille. Along the +ridge is the road to Lille, Roubaix, and Tourcoing, all of which are +among the chief manufacturing towns of France. The occupation of the +ridge was a necessary step to the taking of Lille; and Neuve Chapelle +was at the gateway to the ridge. If the Allies could take Lille they +would then be in a position to move against their enemy between that +point and the sea. + +The River Des Layes runs behind Neuve Chapelle to the southeast; and, +behind the river, a half mile from the straggling village, is a wood +known as the Bois du Biez. Almost at right angles to the river, on the +west, the main road from Estaires to La Bassee skirts Neuve Chapelle. +There is a triangle of roads north of the village where there were a +few large houses with walls, gardens, and orchards. At this point the +Germans had fortified themselves to flank the approaches to the +village from that section. These trenches were only about a hundred +yards from those of the British. The Germans had machine guns at a +bridge over the river; and they had another post established a little +farther up at the Pietre mill. Farther down the stream, where the road +into the village joins the main road to La Bassee, the Germans had +fortified a group of ruined buildings which was known as Port Arthur. +From there was a great network of trenches which extended +northwestward to the Pietre mill. There were also German troops in +the Bois du Biez, and in the ruined houses along the border of the +wood. + +The German trenches were in excellent positions, but were occupied by +only a comparatively few soldiers; it was the German plan to keep +large bodies of troops in reserve, so that they might be sent to any +sector where the need seemed most likely. They have asserted they had +only four battalions in the front line here; but that statement is +denied by the British. + +The British plan of attack embraced a heavy bombardment to demoralize +their enemy and prevent reenforcement. This was to be followed by an +infantry attack. It was expected that the Germans would be surprised +to such an extent it would be impossible for them to make much +resistance. Units of the First Army were to make the main attack, +supported by the Second Army. The support included a division of +cavalry. Among the large force of heavy artillery for the opening +bombardment were a number of French guns manned by French +artillerymen. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +BATTLE OF NEUVE CHAPELLE BEGINS + + +Three hundred and fifty guns at short range began a most terrific +bombardment March 10, 1915, at 7.30 a. m. It is said that the +discharges of the artillery was so frequent that it seemed as if some +gigantic machine gun was in action. Shortly after this bombardment +started, the German trenches were covered by a great cloud of smoke +and dust and a pall of green lyddite fumes. The first line of German +trenches, against which the fire was directed, became great shapeless +furrows and craters filled with the dead and dying. + +This was the condition all along the line except on the extreme +northern end where the artillery fire was less effective, owing, it +was said, to a lack of proper preparation by the British staff. This +terrific artillery fire was continued for thirty-five minutes; and +then the range was changed from the first line of German trenches to +the village of Neuve Chapelle itself. Thereupon the British infantry +advanced and made prisoners of the few Germans left alive in the first +line. The men found unwounded were so dazed by the onslaught which the +guns had made upon their position that they offered no resistance. The +bombardment had swept away the wire entanglements; and the British had +only the greasy mud with which to contend, when they made their dash +forward. + +Where the wire entanglements had been swept away, the Second +Lincolnshire and the Berkshire regiments were the first to reach the +German trenches. These regiments then turned to the right and left, +and thus permitted the Royal Irish Rifles and the Rifle Brigade to go +on toward the village. + +In order to understand the infantry attack in detail it is necessary +to know the manner in which the British troops were distributed before +they made their dash at the ruined trenches of the Germans. Two +brigades of the Eighth Division, the Twenty-fifth to the right and the +Twenty-third to the left, were due west of Neuve Chapelle. On a front +a mile and a half long to the south of them was the Meerut Division, +supported by the Lahore Division. The Garhwal Brigade was on the left +and the Dehra Dun Brigade was on its right. In the first attack the +Twenty-third dashed to the northeast corner of the village, the +Twenty-fifth against the village itself; and the Garhwal Brigade +charged on the southwest corner. + +The trenches opposite the Twenty-fifth were taken with practically no +fighting. The Germans who had manned them were either killed or too +dazed to offer resistance. As has already been told, the Second Royal +Berkshires and the Second Lincolns took the first line of trenches in +front of them, and opened the middle of their line to permit the +Second Rifle Brigade and the First Irish Rifles to dash on to the +village. The British artillery range was lengthened, thereby +preventing the German supports from interference with the well-defined +plan of the British. Into the wrecked streets of Neuve Chapelle swung +two battalions of the Twenty-fifth Brigade. The few of their enemy who +offered resistance were soon overpowered--being captured or slain. + +These men of the Twenty-fifth Brigade found terrible scenes of +destruction. The village had been knocked literally into a rubbish +heap. Even the dead in the village churchyard had been plowed from +their graves by the terrific bombardment. + +The Garhwal Brigade captured the first line of trenches on the right, +and the Third Gurkhas, on the southern outskirts of the village, met +the Rifle Brigade. Then it dashed on to the Bois du Biez, passing +another rubbish heap which once had been the hamlet known as Port +Arthur. + +The attack on the left, however, resulted less successfully for the +British forces. As indicated above, the preparation for the +bombardment at this part of the line had been inadequate for the +purpose which the general in command had sought to achieve. Thus on +the northeast corner of Neuve Chapelle the German trenches and the +wire entanglements in front of them had been damaged but little. The +British forces on this part of the line included the Second Devons, +the Second West Yorks, the Second Scottish Rifles, and the Second +Middlesex, known as the Twenty-third Brigade. The Scottish Rifles +charged against intact wire entanglements which halted them in the +range of a murderous rifle and machine-gun fire. With daring bravery +the Scots sought to tear down the wire with their hands; but were +forced to fall back and lie in the fire-swept zone until one company +forced its way through an opening and destroyed the barrier. The +regiment, as a result of this mishap to the plans of the commanding +general, lost its commander, Colonel Bliss, and fourteen other +officers. + +The Middlesex, on the right, met with the same obstruction and lost +many of its men and officers while waiting for the British artillery +to smash a way through for them. This the artillery did when word had +been carried back telling of the plight of the infantry. + +The Twenty-fifth Brigade, to the south, had the good fortune to turn +the flank of the Germans north of Neuve Chapelle. Then the entire +Twenty-third Brigade forced its way to the orchard northeast of the +village, where it met the Twenty-fourth Brigade, which included the +First Worcesters, Second East Lancashires, First Sherwood Foresters, +and the Second Northamptons. The Twenty-fourth Brigade had fought its +way through from the Neuve Chapelle-Armentieres road. As soon as this +had been accomplished by the British, their artillery proceeded to +send such a rain of shrapnel fire between the village and the Germans +that a counterattack was quite impossible. This gave the victors an +opportunity to intrench themselves practically at their leisure. The +plans of the British commander had embraced a forward movement when +the troops had reached this point, but they had not included a means +of keeping communication with the various units intact. The telegraph +and telephone wires had been cut by the shot and shell of both sides; +and there was no opportunity to repair them until it was too late to +take advantage of the demoralization of the Germans. Moreover, the +delay of the Twenty-third Brigade had so disarranged the plans of the +British that it is doubtful if they would not have failed in part even +if the means of communication had not been destroyed. Nevertheless, +Sir John French wrote: "I am of the opinion that this delay would not +have occurred had the clearly expressed orders of the general officer +commanding the First Army been more carefully observed." + +There was also an additional delay in bringing up the reserves of the +Fourth Corps. Thus it was not until 3.30 p. m. that three brigades of +the Seventh Division, the Twentieth, Twenty-first, and Twenty-second +Brigades were in their places on the left of the Twenty-fourth +Brigade. Then the left moved southward toward Aubers. At the same time +the Indian Corps, composed of the Garhwal Brigade and the Dehra Dun +Brigade, forced its way through the Bois du Biez toward the ridge. +Strong opposition was met with to such an extent, however, that the +Thirty-ninth Garhwals and the Second Leicesters suffered severe losses +on reaching a German position which had practically escaped the heavy +artillery fire. A German outpost at the bridge held the Dehra Dun +Brigade, which was supported by the Jullundur Brigade of the Lahore +Division, in its attack farther to the south on the line of the River +Des Layes. The First Brigade of the First Corps was rushed forward by +Sir Douglas Haig; but it was dark before these troops arrived. Another +fortified bridge, farther to the left, checked the Twenty-fifth +Brigade; and machine-gun fire stopped the Twenty-fourth Brigade, this +fire being from the German troops at the crossroads northwest of +Pietre village. The Seventh Division was held by the line of the Des +Layes, and the defense of the Pietre mill. + +By evening the British had gone forward as far as their artillery fire +had been effective; and it was found necessary for them to stop to +strengthen the new line which they had established. They had won Neuve +Chapelle. They had advanced a mile. They had straightened their line, +but they could go no farther. + +On the following day, March 11, 1915, the British artillery was +directed against the Bois du Biez and the trenches in the neighborhood +of Pietre. The Germans, however, had recovered from the surprise of +the great bombardment, and they made several counterattacks. Little +progress was made on that day by either side. On that night, March 11, +the Bavarian and Saxon reserves arrived from Tourcoing, and on the +morning of March 12 the counterattack extended along the British +front. Because of the heavy mist, and the lack of proper +communications, it was impossible for the British artillery to do much +damage. The defense of the bridges across the Des Layes kept the +British forces from the ridges and the capture of Aubers. The best +that the British seemed to be able to do was to prevent the German +counterattack from being successful. + +An attempt to use the British cavalry was unsuccessful on March 12. +The Second Cavalry Division, in command of General Hubert Gough, with +a brigade of the North Midland Division, was ordered to support the +infantry offensive, it being believed that the cavalry might penetrate +the German lines. When the Fifth Cavalry Brigade, under command of Sir +Philip Chetwode, arrived in the Rue Bacquerot at 4 p. m., Sir Henry +Rawlinson reported the German positions intact, and the cavalry +retired to Estaires. + +[Illustration: The Battle at Neuve Chapelle.] + +The attack of the Seventh Division against the Pietre Fort continued +all the day of March 12, as did the attempt to take the Des Layes +bridges from the Germans, who were valiantly defending their second +line of trenches in the Bois du Biez. Probably the fiercest fighting +of that day fell to the lot of the Twentieth Brigade, composed of the +First Grenadiers, the Second Scots Guards, the Second Border Regiment, +and the Second Gordons, with the Sixth Gordons, a Territorial +battalion. This brigade fought valiantly around Pietre Mill. Position +after position was taken by them, but their efforts could not remain +effective without the aid of artillery, which was lacking. The Second +Rifle Brigade carried a section of the German trenches farther south +that afternoon, but an enfilading fire drove the British back to their +former position. + +It was evident by the night of March 12 that the British could not +gain command of the ridge and that the Germans could not retake Neuve +Chapelle. Hence Sir John French ordered Sir Douglas Haig to hold and +consolidate the ground which had been taken by the Fourth and Indian +Corps, and suspend further offensive operations for the present. In +his report General French set forth that the three days' fighting had +cost the British 190 officers and 2,337 other ranks killed; 359 +officers and 8,174 other ranks wounded, and 23 officers and 1,728 +other ranks missing. He claimed German losses of over 12,000. + +The British soldiers who had been engaged in the fighting about Neuve +Chapelle spent all of March 13, 1915, in digging trenches in the wet +meadows that border the Des Layes. On the following day the two corps +that had fought so valiantly were sent back to the reserve. + +The German commanders, in the meantime, had been preparing for a +vigorous counterattack. They planned to make their greatest effort +fifteen miles north of Neuve Chapelle, at the village of St. Eloi, and +trained a large section of their artillery against a part of the +British front, which was held by the Twenty-seventh Division. The +preparation of the Germans was well concealed on March 14 by the heavy +mist that covered the low country. The bombardment started at 5 p. m., +the beginning of which was immediately followed by the explosion of +two mines which were under a hillock that was a part of the British +front at the southeast of St. Eloi. The artillery attack was followed +by such an avalanche of German infantry that the British were driven +from their trenches. This German success was followed up by the +enfilading of the British lines to the right and left, with the result +that that entire section of the British front was forced back. + +That night a counterattack was prepared. It was made at 2 a. m., on +March 15, by the Eighty-second Brigade, which had the Eightieth +Brigade as its support. The Eighty-second Brigade drove the Germans +from the village and the trenches on the east. The Eightieth Brigade +finished the task of regaining all of the ground that had been lost +except the crater caused by the explosion of the mines. Among the +regiments that made a most enviable record for themselves in this +action were Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry, the Fourth +Rifle Brigade, the First Leinsters, the Second Cornwalls, and the +Second Royal Irish Fusiliers. The "Princess Pat's," as the Canadian +troops were known in the home land, were the first colonial soldiers +to take part in a battle of such magnitude in this war. Their valor +and their ability as fighting men were causes of great pride to the +British. + +Before leaving the Neuve Chapelle engagement and what immediately +followed it, it is well to give a brief survey of the actions along +the line that supported it. To prevent the Germans from taking troops +from various points and massing them against the main British attack, +the British soldiers all along that part of the front found plenty of +work to do in their immediate vicinity. Thus, on March 10, 1915, the +First Corps attacked the Germans from Givenchy, but there had been but +little artillery fire on the part of the British there, and the wire +entanglements stopped them from more than keeping the German troops in +the position which they had held. The Second Corps, on March 12, was +to have advanced at 10 a. m. southwest of Wytschaete. The fog that +prevailed on that day, however, prevented a movement until 4 p. m. +Then the First Wiltshires and the Third Worcesters of the Seventh +Brigade began a movement which had to be abandoned when the weather +thickened and night fell. + +The attack on L'Epinette, a hamlet southeast of Armentieres, was much +more successful on the same day. The Seventeenth Brigade of the Fourth +Division of the Third Corps advanced at noon, with the Eighteenth +Brigade as its support. It advanced 300 yards on a front a half mile +in length, carrying the village, which it retained in spite of all the +counterattacks. + +The work of the artillery was not confined to the main attack, for it +was very effective in shelling the Quesnoy railway station east of +Armentieres, where German reenforcements were boarding a train for the +front. The British artillery fire was effective as far as Aubers, +where it demolished a tall church spire. + +The work of the aviators, from March 10 to 12 inclusive, deserves +special mention. Owing to the adverse weather conditions, it was +necessary for them to fly as low as from 100 to 150 feet above the +object of their attack in order to be sure of their aim. Nevertheless +they destroyed one of the piers of the bridge over the Lys at Menin. +This bridge carried the railroad over the river. They also wrecked the +railway stations at Douai, Don, and Courtrai. The daring of the +British aviators even took them over Lille, where they dropped bombs +on one of the German headquarters. + +To summarize the fighting about Neuve Chapelle, it may be said that +the British had advanced something more than a mile on a three-mile +front, replacing the sag which had existed in their line by a sag in +that of the Germans. The British had not won the ridges which were the +key to Lille, but they had advanced their trenches close to those +ridges. The entire moral effect was a gain for the British; but even +that and the gain in advancing the front had been obtained at a too +great sacrifice of the life of their men. The words of the Germans in +characterizing the tremendous bombardment of the British were: "That +is not war; it is murder." + +The belief in the supposed superiority of the German artillery was so +shaken in the minds of the General Staff as a result of the fighting +on the Neuve Chapelle front that they shortly after issued an order to +try a series of experiments on animals with asphyxiating gases. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +OPERATIONS FOLLOWING NEUVE CHAPELLE + + +There was very little activity on the western front after the fighting +at Neuve Chapelle and St. Eloi until the beginning of a renewal of the +campaign between La Bassee and the sea. The importance of success in +this region was appreciated by both sides. The Germans north of the +Lys planned to cross the Comines-Ypres, Yperlee, and Yser Canals, +capture Ypres, take all of the ridge of the Mont-des-Cats, and then +continue west and take Dunkirk, Calais, and Boulogne. The Allies in +their plan included an advance south of the Lys on two sides of Lille, +the taking of the Aubers Ridge, and the turning from the north the +German salient at La Bassee. This much of the Allies' plan was to be +executed by the British. The work of the French was to drive the +Germans from the vicinity of Lens and threaten La Bassee from the +south and west. The reasons for making these plans are obvious. The +German salient was a source of much danger to the joining of the +British and French armies, and the possibility of the Germans forcing +their way through to Boulogne meant a possibility of a cutting off of +the entire British army and the French and Belgian forces between +Ypres and the sea near Nieuport. However, if La Bassee was isolated +and the Aubers Ridge taken by the British, the chances that the +Germans could retain Lille were materially lessened; and if the +British got Lille they might start to drive their enemy from Belgium. + +During the lull in the fighting on land, to which reference has been +made, there was much activity in the air. Reconnaissances and raids +were of almost daily occurrence. A Zeppelin dropped twenty bombs on +Calais, slaying seven workmen at the railroad station on March 18, +1915. Three days later another, or possibly the same Zeppelin, flew +over the town, but this time it was driven away before it could do any +harm. "Taubes" bombarded the railroad junction of St. Omer and made a +similar attack on Estaires on March 23. Four days after another attack +was made on Estaires, and on the same day, March 27, the German airmen +did some damage to Sailly, Calais, and Dunkirk. The next day a "Taube" +made an attack on Calais, Estaires, and Hazebrouck. A Zeppelin closed +the month's warfare in the air for the Germans by making a dash over +Bailleul. + +Aviators of the Allies, too, were busy. One of their aerial squadrons +proceeded along the coast on March 16 and attacked the military posts +at Ostend and Knocke. These aviators had as one of their main +objective points the German coast batteries at the latter place. But +the squadron was seen from a German observation balloon at Zeebrugge, +and a flock of "Taubes" made a dash for their enemy's craft. The +Germans were not as skillful airmen, however, and they found it +necessary to retire. Five British aviators made an attack on the +German submarine base at Hoboken, southwest of Antwerp, and destroyed +a submarine and wrecked two others. This raid was made without injury +to the aviators, the only accident being the necessity of one of the +aircraft to descend, which it did, only to find it had landed on Dutch +territory and must be interned. The excellence of the Allies' flying +was not confined to the English. Belgian and French airmen, as well as +British, flew almost constantly over Ostend, Zeebrugge, Roulers, +Aubers, and such other places as German soldiers and their supplies +were in evidence. The Belgian airmen dropped bombs on the aviation +field at Ghistelles on March 27, and on the following day a Zeppelin +hangar was destroyed at Berchem-Sainte-Agathe, near Brussels. On March +30, 1915, ten British and some French aviators flew along the coast +from Nieuport to Zeebrugge and dropped bombs on magazines and +submarine bases. The last day of the month saw the destruction of the +German captive balloon at Zeebrugge and the death of its two +observers. The Belgian aviators on the same day threw bombs on the +aviation field at Handzaeme and the railroad junction at Cortemarck, +and, south of Dixmude, the famous birdman, Garros, fought a successful +duel in the air with a German aviator. + +An aviator of the Allies flew over the aerodrome at Lille on April 1, +1915, and dropped a football. The Germans hastened to cover. When the +ball bounced prodigiously as a result of being dropped from such a +height, the Teutons thought it was some new kind of death dealer, and +remained in their places of safety. In fact, they remained there quite +a few minutes after the football had ceased to bounce. When they +finally emerged most cautiously and approached the object of their +terror, they read this inscription on it: "April Fool--Gott strafe +England." + +Though the antiaircraft guns, or "Archibalds," as the soldiers called +them, were not especially effective except in keeping the flyers at +such a height that it was not easy for them to make effective +observations, a "Taube" was brought down at Pervyse, and near Ypres +another was damaged on April 8. But on April 12 a German flyer +inflicted some loss on the Allies' lines and escaped without being +even hit. On the following day, presumably emboldened by that success, +German aeroplanes threw flares and smoke balls over the British +trenches east of Ypres, with the result that the soldiers of King +George were subjected to a severe bombardment. All things considered, +however, the Allies had ground for their belief that they more than +held their own in the air. + +Afloat the Allies continued to maintain the supremacy which had been +theirs. The French and British battleships held the left of the +Allies' line. Their great guns proved their effectiveness on the +Germans who were advancing from Ostend on Nieuport. They repeatedly +bombarded the position of the kaiser's men at Westende, east of +Nieuport. The Germans had trained one of their mammoth pieces of +artillery against that town presumably because it held the sluices and +locks which regulated the overflowing of the Yser territory. If the +means of flooding the land could not be seized, the next best thing +to do was to wreck them. + +The Belgians, in the meantime, assumed the offensive, their left being +protected by the Allied fleet and the French forces in the +neighborhood of Nieuport. These troops captured one of the smaller +forts east of Lombartzyde on March 11, 1915. There was also fighting +at Schoorbakke, north of the Yser loop, where the German trenches were +shelled by French artillery. This was on the eastern border of the +inundated section. After destroying the German front in the graveyard +at Dixmude, the French artillerists battered a German convoy on its +way between Dixmude and Essen on March 17, 1915. By March 23 the east +bank of the Yser held a Belgian division. In fact, from Dixmude to the +sea the Allied troops were advancing. + +The Germans, however, advanced south of Dixmude. On April 1, 1915, +they shelled the farms and villages west of the Yser and the Yperlee +Canals, and took the Driegrachten farm. Thereupon the Germans crossed +the canal with three machine guns. Their plan was to proceed along the +border of the inundated district to Furnes. But the French balked the +plan by shelling the farm, and the Belgians finished the work by +driving the Germans back to Mercken on April 6, 1915. + +In the meantime, from March 15 to April 17, 1915, the bombardment of +Ypres was continued, destroying most of the remaining buildings there. +Engagements of importance had not as yet started on the British front. +The British had a supply of shrapnel, and the British and French +cannon, as well as the rifle-and machine-gun fire, held the Germans in +check until they had time to perfect their plans for a vigorous +offensive. Nevertheless the British needed a much larger supply of +ammunition before they could start on a determined campaign, which was +so much desired by the troops. One of the German headquarters, +however, was shelled effectively by the British on April 1, 1915, and +on the following day mortars in the trenches did considerable damage +in the Wood of Ploegsteert. A mine blew up a hundred yards of the +trenches that were opposite Quinchy, a village to the south of +Givenchy, on April 3, 1915. To offset this the Germans bombarded the +British line at that point. They also shelled Fleurbaix, which is +three miles southwest of Armentieres, on April 5, 1915. The British on +the same day wrecked a new trench mortar south of there. On April 6, +1915, the German artillery began to be more active both north and +south of the Lys, and the British retaliated by shelling the railway +triangle that was near Quinchy. German soldiers were slain and others +wounded when a mine was exploded at Le Touquet, on the north bank of +the Lys. One of the kaiser's ammunition depots was blown up near +Quinchy on April 9, 1915, and his men were driven from their trenches +in front of Givenchy by mortar fire. + +The comparative quiet along the front was broken by the fight for the +possession of Hill 60, which became famous because of the rival claims +as to victory. The mound, for it was little more, getting its name on +account of its height--sixty meters--was of importance only because it +screened the German artillery which was shelling Ypres from the bridge +to the west of Zandvoord. British trenches had been driven close to +this hill by the Bedfords, whose sappers tunneled under the mound and +there prepared three mines. At the same time the Germans were +tunneling to plant mines under the Bedfords' trench. In this +underground race the Bedfords won on the night of April 17, 1915, when +they blew three big craters in the hill, killing almost to a man all +of the 150 Germans who were on the little rise of ground. The Bedfords +then dashed forward to the three craters they had opened up and took a +quarter of a mile of the German trenches. + +The Germans were apparently unprepared for the attack which followed +the explosion of the British mines, with the result that the British +had to overcome little resistance, and had ample opportunity to +prepare a defense from the bombardment that followed. The next +morning, April 18, 1915, the German infantry in close formation +advanced on the hill. This infantry was composed of Saxons, who +continued on for a bayonet charge in spite of the downpour of lead +that the British rained upon them. But the Bedfords had been +reenforced by the West Kents and about thirty motor machine guns. The +machine guns raked the charging Saxons in front, and shrapnel tore +their flank. Only their dead and dying remained on the hill; but the +German commanders continued to send their men against the British +there, who were subjected to a murderous cross-fire, the hill forming +a salient. As a result of their persistence the German troops managed +to get a foothold on the southern part of the hill by 6 p. m. In the +meantime a battalion of Highlanders and the Duke of Wellington's +regiment had been sent to reenforce the Bedfords and the West Kents. +The Highlanders made a desperate charge, using bayonets and hand +grenades on the Germans who had gained the southern edge of the hill. +The Germans were driven back. + +The Duke of Wuerttemberg, the German commander, presumably believing +his troops had not only held what they had taken, but had advanced, +announced that another German victory had been gained in the capture +of Hill 60. Sir John French also sent out a message, but in his report +he set forth that Hill 60 was held by the British. Because there had +been similar conflict in official reports all too frequently, it +seemed as if a tacit agreement was made among the neutrals to +determine who was telling the truth. This resulted in making what was +a comparatively unimportant engagement one of the most celebrated +battles of the war. As soon as Duke Albrecht of Wuerttemberg discovered +his mistake he did what he could to make good his statement by +attempting to take Hill 60 without regard to sacrificing his men. Sir +John French was just as determined to hold the hill. So he moved large +numbers of troops toward the shattered mound, the British artillery +was reenforced, and the hastily constructed sandbag breastworks were +improved with all possible speed. + +The Germans then attacked with gas bombs. Projectiles filled with gas +were hurled upon the British from three sides. The East Surrey +Regiment, which defended the hill in the latter part of the battle for +it, suffered severely. Faces and arms became shiny and gray-black. +Membranes in the throats thickened, and lungs seemed to be eaten by +the chlorine poison. Yet the men fought on until exhausted, and then +fell to suffer through a death struggle which continued from +twenty-four hours to three days of suffocating agony. + +The German artillery kept up its almost incessant pounding of the +British. In short lulls of the big gun's work the German infantry +hurled itself against the trenches on the hill, using hand grenades +and bombs. The fight continued until the morning of May 5, 1915, when +the wind blew at about four miles an hour from the German trenches. +Then a greenish-yellow fog of poisonous gas was released, and soon +encompassed the hill. The East Surreys, who were holding the hill, +were driven back by the gas, but as soon as the gas passed they +charged the Germans who had followed the gas and had taken possession +of the hill. Notwithstanding the machine-gun fire which the Germans +poured upon them, many of the trenches were retaken by the Surrey +soldiers in their first frenzied rush to regain what they had lost +because of the gas. The battle ended when there was no hill left. The +bombardment and the mines had leveled the mound by distributing it +over the surrounding territory. The British, however, were accorded +the victory, as they had trenches near where the hill was and made +them a part of the base of the salient about Ypres. + +That town has been likened to the hub of a wheel whose spokes are the +roads which lead eastward. It is true that one important road went +over the canal at Steenstraate, but practically all of the highways of +consequence went through Ypres. Thus the spokes of the wheel, whose +rim was the outline of the salient, were the roads to Menin, +Gheluvelt, Zonnebeke, Poelcapelle, Langemarck, and Pilkem. And the +railroad to Roulers was also a spoke. Hence all of the supplies for +the troops on the salient must pass through Ypres, which made it most +desirable for the Germans to take the town. It will be remembered that +they had won a place for their artillery early in November, 1914, +which gave them an opportunity to bombard Ypres through the winter. On +February 1, 1915, a portion of the French troops which had held the +salient were withdrawn and their places taken by General Bulfin's +Twenty-eighth Division. Thus, by April 20, 1915, that part of the +Allies' front was held as follows: From the canal to east of +Langemarck was the Forty-fifth Division of the French army, consisting +of colonial infantry. On the French right, to the northeast of +Zonnebeke, was the Canadian division, under the command of General +Alderson, consisting of the Third Brigade, under General Turner, on +the left, and the Second Brigade, under General Currie, on the right. +The Twenty-eighth Division extended from the Canadian right to the +southeast corner of the Polygon Wood. This division comprised the +Eighty-third, Eighty-fourth, and Eighty-fifth Brigades in order from +right to left. The next section of the salient was held by Princess +Patricia's Regiment of the Twenty-seventh Division, which division, +under the command of General Snow, guarded the front to the east of +Veldhoek along the ridge to within a short distance of Hill 60, where +the Fifth Division, under the command of General Morland, held the +line. The greater part of the German troops opposite the salient were +from Wuerttemberg and Saxony. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +BEGINNING OF SECOND BATTLE OF YPRES + + +What is called the second battle of Ypres began with a bombardment of +the little city on April 20, 1915. The rain of shells continued on +through April 22, 1915, on the evening of which the British artillery +observers reported a strange green vapor moving over the French +trenches. The wind was blowing steadily from the northeast. Soon the +French troops were staggering back from the front, blinded and choking +from the deadly German gas. Many of their comrades had been unable to +leave the spot where they were overtaken by the fumes. Those who fled +in terror rushed madly across the canal, choking the road to +Vlamertinghe. A part of the Zouaves and Turcos ran south toward the +Langemarck road, finally reaching the reserve battalions of the +Canadians. Ere long the Canadians caught the deadly odor also. + +But the work of the gas did a much more valuable thing for the German +troops than causing the agonizing death of many hundreds and sending +thousands in headlong flight. It made a four-mile-wide opening in the +front of the Allies. And the Germans were quick to take advantage of +that opening. They followed the gas, and were aided in their advance +by artillery fire. The French were forced back on the canal from +Steenstraate to Boesinghe. The Canadians had not suffered so much from +the gas as the French soldiers, but their flank was too exposed for +them to do much effective work against the onrushing Teutons. The +attempt to rally the Turcos failed. The Third Brigade could not +withstand the attack of four divisions, and was forced inward from a +point south of Poelcappelle until its left rested on the wood east of +St. Julien. There was a gap beyond it, and the Germans were forcing +their way around its flank. Because the entire First Brigade of +Canadians had been held in reserve it could not be brought up in time +to save the situation. Two of the battalions, the Sixteenth and Tenth, +were in the gap by midnight. They charged and recovered the northern +edge, and the guns of the Second London Division, which had been +supporting the French in the wood east of St. Julien. But the British +could not hold all they retook, and were forced to abandon the guns +because the artillery horses were miles away. So parts of the guns +were made useless before the Germans had them again. + +Then another counterattack was made by the First and Fourth Ontarios +of General Mercer's First Brigade. The Fourth Ontario captured the +German shelter trenches and held them for two days, when they were +relieved. The Third Canadian Brigade held its position in spite of +being opposed by many times their numbers and almost overcome by the +gas fumes. The Forty-eighth Highlanders, who had had to withstand the +gas, rallied after their retreat and regained their former place in +the front. The Royal Highlanders kept their original position. Yet +there was every indication of a rout. The roads were clogged by the +night supply trains going forward and the rush of men trying to escape +from the deadly gas. The staff officers found it impossible to +straighten out the tangle, and the various regiments had to act almost +as independent bodies. It was not until early the following morning, +April 23, 1915, that the first reenforcements of British soldiers +appeared to fill the breach. These men, for the most part, were from +the Twenty-eighth Division, and had been east of Zonnebeke to the +southeast corner of Polygon Wood. So great was the pressure at the +section where the break had been made in the line that troops were +taken from wherever available, so that the units in the gap varied +from day to day. For the men had to be returned to their original +positions, such as remained available, as soon as possible. This +composite body of troops has been called Geddes's Detachment. + +The Germans had captured Lizerne and Het Sase, and Steenstraate was +threatened by them. They bombarded with heavy artillery, located on +the Passchendaele ridge, the front held by the Canadians, the +Twenty-eighth Division, and Geddes's Detachment, on April 23, 1915. +The severest fighting was on that part of the front held by the Third +Brigade of Canadians. Many men had been killed or wounded in this +brigade, and those who survived were ill from the effects of the gas. +Furthermore, no food could be taken to them for twenty-four hours. +Moreover, they were subjected to a fire from three sides, with the +result that they were forced to a new position on a line running +through St. Julien. Finally the Germans forced their way around to the +left of the Third Brigade, establishing their machine guns behind it. + +A terrific artillery attack was started by the Germans on the morning +of April 24, 1915, and this was followed by a second rush of gas from +their trenches. It rose in a cloud seven feet high and was making its +attack on the British in two minutes after it started. It was thickest +near the ground, being pumped from cylinders. And it worked with the +same deadly effect. The Third Brigade, receiving its second attack of +this sort before it had recovered from the first, retreated to the +southwest of St. Julien, but soon after regained most of their lost +position. The Second Brigade had to bend its left south. Colonel +Lipsett's Eighth Battalion, however, held fast on the Grafenstafel +ridge, remaining in their position two days in spite of the gas of +which they got a plentiful supply. + +By noon of April 24, 1915, the Germans made an attack on the village +of St. Julien and that part of the allied front to the east of the +village. Thereupon the Third Brigade retreated about 700 yards to a +new front south of the village and north of the hamlet of Fortuin. But +what remained of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Battalions was forced +by circumstances to remain in the St. Julien line until late that +night. Colonel Lipsett's Eighth Battalion at Grafenstafel, in spite of +its left being unsupported, held its position which was of great +importance to the British front. For, had that part of the front been +lost, the Germans in an hour could have worked their way back of the +Twenty-eighth Division and the entire eastern sector. + +In the meantime the French on the western section of the front made a +counterattack from the canal with partial success; but were unable to +drive the German troops from the sector entirely. The Teutons took +Steenstraate; but their victory there was marred by the fact that the +Belgian artillery smashed the bridge behind them. By this time the +British reenforcements began to arrive in fairly large numbers. The +Thirteenth Brigade of the Fifth Division was placed to the west of +Geddes's Detachment, between the Pilkem road and the canal. +Territorials who had arrived from England only three days before, the +Durham and York Brigades of the Northumbrian Division, supported the +Thirteenth Brigade. The Tenth Brigade of the Fourth Division were +rushed to support the Third Brigade of Canadians who were south of St. +Julien. Other British troops were sent to relieve the tense situation +at Grafenstafel. + +An attempt to retake St. Julien was made early on Sunday morning, +April 25, 1915, by General Hull's Tenth Brigade and two battalions of +the Durham and York Brigade. The British worked their way to the few +Canadians who had continued on the former front when the main British +force had been driven back. There they were checked by the German +machine gun fire. The British lost many men here and the efforts to +save the day resulted in such a mixture of fighting units that there +were fifteen battalions under General Hull, as well as the Canadian +artillery. + +At Grafenstafel the Eighth Battalion of the Durham Brigade were +bombarded with asphyxiating shells before the German infantry attack. +The fighting on this section of the front was fierce throughout the +afternoon, but finally the British were forced to retire. At +Broodseinde, the extreme eastern point of the allied front, the +Germans made a desperate attempt to take the salient, using +asphyxiating and other bombs again and again on the men of the +Twenty-eighth Division of the British. King George's men, however, +repelled the attacks with severe loss to the Teutons, taking many +prisoners. + +The French on the left, beyond the Yperlee Canal, prevented the +advance of the German troops; and, farther to the left, the Belgians +checked three attacks in which asphyxiating gas was used, south of +Dixmude. Thus it may be seen that the Germans had met with no success +worth while, when Sunday, April 25, 1915, closed, so far as the ends +of the salient were concerned; but in the center the British situation +was so critical that the Second Canadian Brigade, reduced to less than +1,000 men, was once more called into action on the following day. On +the same day, April 26, 1915, the Lahore Division of the Indian army +was marched north of Ypres. The point of the salient was pushed in on +that day at Broodseinde, but the German success there was short-lived. +The brigade holding Grafenstafel was attacked fiercely by the Germans. +The Durham Light Infantry was forced from Fortuin behind the Haanabeek +River. The Teutons made several attacks from the St. Julien district +against the section between the Yperlee Canal and the southern part of +the village. By this time Geddes's Detachment was almost exhausted, +they, with the Canadians, having withstood the heaviest fighting at +the beginning of the battle; and most likely saved the Allies a most +disastrous defeat. The detachment could stand no more, and the various +units of which it was composed were returned to their respective +commands. + +But the salient was growing smaller as a result of the repeated +hammering of the Germans; and that exposed the allied troops to a more +deadly fire from three sides. It was evident that the Allies must make +a counterattack. General Riddell's Brigade was sent to Fortuin and +with the Lahore Division on its left was told to retake St. Julien and +the woods to the west of the village. Beyond the Yperlee Canal, on the +left, the French made an assault on Lizerne, supported by the Belgian +artillery; while the French colonial soldiers poured on Pilkem from +the sector about Boesinghe. On the right the allied troops were lined +up as follows: the Connaught Rangers, Fifty-seventh Wilde's Rifles, +the Ferozepore Brigade, the 129th Baluchis, the Jullundur Brigade, and +General Riddell's battalions. The Sirhind Brigade was held in reserve. + +The German artillerymen apparently knew the distances and topography +of the entire region and poured a leaden hail upon the allied troops. +The Indians and the British in their immediate neighborhood charged in +short rushes, losing many men in the attempt to reach the German +trenches. Before the Germans were in any danger of a hand-to-hand +struggle, they sent one of their gas clouds from their trenches and +the attack was abandoned, the British and Indians getting back to +their trenches as best they could. In this action the British gave +great praise to their comrades from India. Riddell's Brigade was +stopped in its attack on St. Julien by wire entanglements; and, though +the outlaying sections of St. Julien were captured, the brigade was +unable to hold them; and the Germans continued to hold the woods west +of the village. Nevertheless the British front had been pushed forward +from 600 to 700 yards in some places. + +By that night, the night of April 26, 1915, the allied front extended +from the north of Zonnebeke to the eastern boundary of the +Grafenstafel ridge; thence southwest along the southern side of the +Haanabeek to a point a half mile east of St. Julien; thence, bending +around that village, it ran to Vamhuele--called the "shell trap"--farm +on the Ypres-Poelcappelle road. Next it proceeded to Boesinghe and +crossed the Yperlee Canal, passing northward of Lizerne after which +were the French and the Belgians. + +The work of the allied aviators on April 26, 1915, deserves more than +passing consideration in the record of that day's fighting. They +dropped bombs on the stations of Courtrai, Roubaix, Thielt, and +Staden. They discovered near Langemarck an armored train with the +result that it was shelled and thus forced to return. And they forced +a German aviator to the ground at Roulers. + +The Lahore Division with the French on their left attacked the Germans +on April 27, 1915, but they met with little success because of the gas +which the Teutons sent into the ranks of the attacking party. But the +German troops had lost so heavily that they did not seem to be +inclined to follow up their apparent advantage. Incidentally the +Allies needed a rest as well. Hence there was little fighting the next +two days. On April 30, 1915, however, General Putz attacked the +Germans with so much force that they were hurled back an appreciable +distance near Pilkem. Seven machine guns and 200 prisoners were taken, +and the 214th, 215th, and 216th German regiments lost more than 1,000 +men. On the same day the London Rifle Brigade, further east, drove +back a German forward movement from St. Julien. + +West of the Yperlee Canal, however, it soon became known to the +commanders of the allied forces that the Germans were in such a strong +position that it would be impossible to dislodge their enemy until +much greater preparations had been made. In the meantime the +communications of the Allies were in danger. Hence Sir John French on +May 1, 1915, ordered Sir Herbert Plumer to retreat. The wisdom of this +order, the execution of which contracted the southern portion of the +salient, was seen when the Germans again attempted to force their way +through the allied front by the use of gas. The attempt this time was +made between Zonnebeke, on the Ypres-Roulers railroad, and Boesinghe +on the Yperlee Canal on Sunday, May 2, 1915. Though the British had +been supplied with respirators of a sort, these means of defense were +not as effective as they should have been nor as adequate as what was +provided later. The Germans, however, suffered large losses in this +attack because, as soon as the wall of gas began to approach the +British trenches, the men there fired into it, well knowing from past +experience that the Germans were following the gas. In this manner +many of the Teutons were slain. The Allies adopted other tactics which +were quite as effective. On seeing the gas approaching, the soldiers +in some parts of the line proceeded to execute a flank movement, +thereby getting away from the gas and subjecting the Germans to a +deadly fire from a direction least expected. + +Between Fortuin and Zonnebeke and south of St. Julien the allied line +broke, but the supports with two cavalry regiments were rushed from +Potijze, a mile and a half from Ypres on the Zonnebeke Road, and +regained the lost ground. By night the Germans decided to discontinue +their attempt to advance and left their dead and wounded on the field. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +THE STRUGGLE RENEWED + + +The Germans had only stopped the struggle for a breathing spell. On +the following morning, Monday, May 3, they made an attempt to force +the allied position back again. This attempt was made on the British +left, west of the Bois des Cuisenirs, between Pilkem and St. Julien. +The Germans cut their wire entanglements and, leaving their trenches +and lying down in front of those protecting places, they were ready to +advance; but, before they could start forward, the artillery of their +enemy did such effective work that the Teutons returned to their +trenches, and gave up an attack at that point. But they made an +assault against the northern side of the salient which had by this +time become very narrow. A German bomb wrecked a section of the +British trenches, and the defenders of that part of the line had to go +back of a wood that was a little to the northwest of Grafenstafel, +where they were able to stop the German onrush. + +The Belgians were bombarded with asphyxiating gas bombs beyond the +French lines south of Dixmude. The Germans charged the Belgian +trenches only to be cut down by machine-gun fire. That night, the +night of May 3, 1915, an attack was made on the British front; but it +was stopped by the artillery. + +Sir Herbert Plumer in the meantime had been executing the order he had +received from Sir John French, and shortened his lines so they were +three miles less in length than before starting the movement. The new +line extended from the French position west of the Ypres-Langemarck +Road and proceeded through "shell-trap" farm to the Haanebeek and the +eastern part of the Frezenberg ridge where it turned south, covering +Bellewaarde Lake and Hooge and bent around Hill 60. This resulted in +leaving to the Germans the Veldhoek, Bosche, and Polygon Woods, and +Fortuin and Zonnebeke. This new front protected all of the roads to +Ypres, and, at the same time, it was not necessary to employ as many +soldiers to hold this line. Moreover the defenders of it could not be +fired upon from three sides as long as they held it. In some places +the British and German trenches had been no more than ten yards apart, +but the difficulty of evacuating the British position was completed in +safety on the night of May 3, 1915. The work included the taking with +them 780 wounded. Sharpshooters were left in the trenches, however, +and they maintained such an appearance of activity and alertness that +the Germans kept on shelling the trenches all of the following day. + +The attempt of General Putz to force the Germans back across the +Yperlee Canal on May 4, 1915, was stopped by a combination of machine +guns, asphyxiating gas and fog. Then the French spent the next ten +days in tunneling to Steenstraate. Their tunnels toward their +objective point were through that territory between Boesinghe and +Lizerne. On May 5, 1915 the Germans made a careful advance on the +British front under the cover of fog and a heavy bombardment, to find +only that the British position had been changed. But they intrenched +opposite the new alignment, and brought up their big guns. Then they +used poisonous gas again with the result that the British retreated +and the Teutons followed, in spite of the many men who fell because of +the accurate work of the British artillery. The greater part of this +action took place around Hill 60, and some of the British trenches to +the north of the hill were captured by the Germans. They then +penetrated toward Zillebeke to the supporting line. Up to midnight the +Germans seemed to be victorious; then, however, the British drove them +from the hill only to be driven away in turn by the use of +asphyxiating gas. On the following day the Teutons held Hill 60 and +some of the trenches north of it. + +Asphyxiating gas also had been used in an attempt to break the British +front on the left, on both the north and south sides of the +Ypres-Roulers railroad. Though this attack failed, the Teutons were +ready to make as near superhuman efforts as possible because they knew +that the French were getting ready for a decisive action in the Arras +territory, which would have the aid of a British attack south of the +Lys. Hence it was to the advantage of the Germans to force Sir John +French and General Foch to retain most of the British and French +soldiers north of the Lys. On May 8, 1915, they turned their artillery +on that part of the British front that was near Frezenberg. It +destroyed the trenches and killed or wounded hundreds of the +defenders. After three hours of this, the Germans commenced an attack +on that part of the British front between the Ypres-Menin and the +Ypres-Poelcappelle highways, the greatest pressure being brought to +bear along both sides of the Ypres-Roulers railroad. + +The British fought bravely, but it was impossible for them to hold out +against the avalanche of lead. First the right of a brigade went to +pieces and then its center and the left of another brigade south of it +were forced back. Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry held +fast. The Second Essex Regiment also made some little success for +their side by annihilating a small detachment of Germans; but that was +more than offset by the breaking of the center of another brigade, +after which the First Suffolks were surrounded and put out of the +fight. Finally the Germans pushed their way on to Frezenberg. Sir +Herbert Plumer realized by the middle of the afternoon that a +counterattack was necessary. He had held two battalions in reserve +along the Ypres-Menin Road. He also had five battalions with him and +reenforcements in the form of a brigade of infantry had arrived at +Vlamertinghe Chateau, back of Ypres. He sent the First Royal +Warwickshires, the Second Royal Dublin Fusiliers, the Second Surreys, +the Third Middlesex, and the First York and Lancaster Regiments into +the break in the line with the result that Frezenberg was retaken. +This victory was short-lived, however; for the German machine-gun fire +was too fierce for the men to withstand. The British retired to a new +front which ran north and south through Verlorenhoek. The Twelfth +London Regiment, on the left, though it lost many men, managed to get +to the original line of trenches. Next the British were menaced from +the north and east. Great bodies of Teutons rushed from the woods +south of the Menin highway, when others rushed down the Poelcappelle +Road and took Wieltje, which is only about two miles from Ypres. + +The fighting continued all night, but shortly after midnight the +British charged with the bayonet and retook Wieltje as well as most of +that section to the north of it which they had lost. Early on May 9, +1915, the fighting was continued, and, in the afternoon, the Germans +charged from the woods in a vain attempt to take Ypres after a severe +bombardment of the British trenches. An attacking party of five +hundred was slain north of the town. On the eastern side of the +salient there were five distinct attacks. An attempt to capture the +Chateau Hooge was made early in the evening, only to result in heaping +the ground with German dead. The day closed with 150 yards of British +trenches in the hands of the Germans; but they had been taken at a +fearful cost to the kaiser's men. + +The Germans began the next day, May 10, 1915, by shelling the British +north and south of the Ypres-Menin road. They followed the cannonade +with a cloud of asphyxiating gas. They then started for the opposing +trenches. Many of them, the British allege, wore British uniforms. The +British had by now been equipped with proper respirators and could +withstand a gas attack with comparative ease. When the Germans were in +close range they received a rifle and machine-gun fire that mowed them +down almost instantly. Those who had not been shot fell to the ground +to escape the leaden hail. But escape was not for them. Shrapnel was +poured upon them, and nearly all of the attacking troops perished. + +Another gas attack was made between the Ypres-Menin road and the +Ypres-Comines canal. There two batteries of gas cylinders sent forth +their deadly fumes for more than a half hour. The cloud that resulted +became so dense that it was impossible for the British in the opposite +trenches to see anything; so they were withdrawn temporarily; but the +troops to the left and right kept the Germans from following up this +advantage and the trenches were saved to the British. When the gas had +passed away the men returned to their former position. North of the +Menin road, however, the Germans were successful in driving the Fourth +Rifle Brigade and the Third King's Royal Rifles to a new position, the +trenches which the British occupied having been battered by shell fire +to such an extent that some of the occupants were buried alive. Hence +the British here retreated to a new line of trenches west of the +Bellewaarde Wood where the trees had been shelled until they were part +of a hopeless entanglement rather than a forest. + +The next day, May 11, 1915, was started by the Germans hurling +hundreds of incendiary shells into the already ruined town of Ypres. +They also fired almost countless high-explosive shells into the +British trenches. The British big guns replied with considerable +effect. One of the German cannon was rendered useless by the fire of +the Thirty-first Heavy Battery, and several howitzers were damaged by +the North Midland Heavy Battery. The German cannonade was especially +effective near the Ypres-St. Julien road. The Teutons, however, did +not confine their work to the artillery, for they made three assaults +on the British trenches south of the Menin road. This part of the line +was held by Scottish regiments, who, though they were forced out of +their trenches, regained them with the aid of other Scots who were +supporting them. + +By now it was apparent to the British commanding officers that they +must still further lessen the projection of their salient. So on May +12, 1915, the Twenty-eighth Division was sent to the reserve. It had +experienced continuous fighting since April 22, 1915, and had +suffered severe losses. It had only one lieutenant colonel. Captains +were in command of most of its battalions. The First and Third Cavalry +Divisions took its place. They were under the command of General De +Lisle. From left to right the new line was held as follows: The men of +the Twelfth Brigade, the Eleventh Brigade, and a battalion of the +Tenth Brigade of the Fourth Division guarded the new front to a point +northeast of Verlorenhoek. Next came the First Cavalry which held the +line to the Roulers railroad. From the railroad to Bellewaarde Lake +the Third Division held the line. From the lake to Hill 60 the +Twenty-seventh Division had its position. The British admitted that +this new position was not strong, because it lacked natural +advantages, and the trenches were more or less of hasty construction. + +The Germans started a heavy bombardment of the cavalry on May 13, +1915, when the rain was pouring in torrents and a north wind was +adding to the discomforts of the British. The fiercest part of this +attack was on the Third Division. Some idea of the fierceness of the +bombardment can be gained when it is known that in a comparatively +short space of time more than eight hundred shells were hurled on a +part of the British line which was not more than a mile in length. In +places the British were buried alive. In spite of the destructive +fire, the North Somerset Yeomanry, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel +Glyn, charged the Germans who were advancing on their trenches under +cover of the bombardment. The charge was effective, and the Teutons +were driven headlong toward their own trenches. But the German +artillery had the range of the Seventh Brigade on the right, and +poured upon it such a fire that it retreated several hundred yards, +leaving the right of the Sixth Brigade exposed. As soon as possible +the British made an attempt to remedy the defect in their line, and +found it necessary to make a counterattack. In this counterattack very +satisfactory results were obtained by the use of the Duke of +Westminster's armored motor cars. The British regained the lost +ground, but they found it impossible to retain it, for the Teuton's +heavy artillery had the range of the position so accurately that no +man could live there. The result of the day's fighting was a farther +pushing back of the line of the British so that it bent backward from +Verlorenhoek and Bellewaarde Lake. In addition to being forced back, +the British suffered a large loss of men, especially officers. + +The infantry on the left had been fiercely attacked on this same day; +but it managed to keep from being driven from its position. One of the +defenders of this part of the line was a territorial battalion, the +London Rifle Brigade. There were only 278 men in the battalion at the +beginning of the day, it having suffered severe losses previously. By +night ninety-one more had been lost. Four survivors, under command of +Sergeant Douglas Belcher, and two hussars whom the sergeant had added +to his squad, held that part of the line in the face of repeated +attacks. These plucky men not only made the Germans think the front +was strongly defended there by using quick-firing methods, but they +undoubtedly saved the right of the Fourth Division. Another especially +gallant piece of work on the part of the British was done by the +Second Essex, the reserve battalion of the Twelfth Brigade. With a +bayonet charge they drove the Germans from Shelltrap Farm, which was +between the Langemarck and Poelcappelle highways, and, though it was +held by first one side and then the other, the British had it at the +close of the day in spite of the bombardment it received. + +[Illustration: Gas Battle of Ypres.] + +The French met with better success on the British left. Under the +command of General Putz they made an attack on Het Sase and +Steenstraate. The sharpshooters of the Zouaves and Algerians took a +trench in front of the latter place and entered the village. They +fought on to the canal by the end of that day, which was May 15, 1915. +More than six hundred Teuton dead were counted after that engagement. +At the same time the Zouaves captured Het Sase with great ease, +because the artillery had rendered its defenders useless for more +fighting. The Germans, however, were not inclined to give up the town +so easily. They bombarded Het Sase that night, using asphyxiating +shells. Nothing daunted, the Zouaves put on their respirators and +drove off with hand grenades and rifle fire the Germans who followed +in the wake of the poisonous shells. On the following day it was +said that the only Germans left alive on the left side of the +Yperlee Canal were either wounded or prisoners. The French had +destroyed three German regiments, taken three redoubts, and captured +four fortified lines and three villages. In this connection it may not +be amiss to note that the French reported that, on May 15, 1915, the +German Marine Fusiliers who were attempting to hold the Yperlee Canal +concluded it was the better part of valor to surrender. Before the +Germans could relinquish their places they were shot down by their +comrades in the rear. + +Fighting along the line of the salient continued with more or less +vigor for nearly ten days, but, until May 24, 1915, there were no +engagements that had much out of the ordinary. On that date, however, +the entire front from Bellewaarde Lake to Shelltrap, a line three +miles in length, was bombarded with asphyxiating shells. This was +followed by a gas cloud that was sent against the same extent of +trenches. The wind sent the cloud in a southwesterly direction, so +that the deadly fumes got in their work along nearly five miles of the +front. It is asserted that the cloud was 40 feet in height, and that +the Germans continued to renew the supply of gas for four and a half +hours. It had little effect wherever the British used their +respirators, for they managed to stay in their positions without undue +inconvenience. Those who suffered the most from the gas cloud were the +infantry of the Fourth Division on the left. The cloud which had +followed the asphyxiating shells was in turn followed by a severe +bombardment from three sides--the east, northeast, and north. The +principal attacks were made in the neighborhood of Shelltrap, the +British front along the Roulers railroad, and along the Menin road in +the vicinity of Bellewaarde Lake. In those places the British were +pushed back at least temporarily; but counterattacks were delivered +before nightfall, and the greater part of the lost ground regained. +Thus, to the disappointment of the Germans, their extra effort, with +all the means of warfare at their disposal, had resulted only in +reducing the salient at an enormous cost in lives on both sides, but +the gain had been for the most part temporary. + +Before leaving the consideration of the second battle of Ypres it may +be well to estimate what has been gained and lost by both sides. In +the attempt to wear down their opponents one side had inflicted as +much of a blow as the other, to all intents and purposes, for there +had been an almost prodigal waste of human life and ammunition. The +distinct advantage that Germany had gained was in pushing back and +almost flattening out the prow of the British salient, and they had +demonstrated the superiority of their artillery. Britain, on the other +hand, had lost no strategical advantage by the change of her line. The +knowledge that Germany had a superior artillery acted as a stimulant +in making the British provide a better equipment of big guns. But the +British had demonstrated the great superiority of their infantry over +that of Germany. In fact there was comfort to be derived by the +friends of each side as a result of the second battle of Ypres. The +fighting had to stop, as far as being a general engagement was +concerned. There were other parts of the front in western Europe which +were becoming by far too active for either the Germans or the British +to neglect them. Hence it is necessary to leave Ypres and the brave +men who fell there, and consider what was being done elsewhere. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +OTHER ACTIONS ON THE WESTERN FRONT + + +During the time in which the foregoing actions had been taking place, +there was activity on the part of the Allies and the Germans in other +sections of the great western front. It is true that not much was +accomplished in Alsace in either April or May; for the fighting in the +plains had been for the most part what may be termed trench warfare. +The most important engagement had been the effort to take and hold +Hartmannsweilerkopf, the spur of the Molkenrain massif, which controls +the union of the Thur and the Ill. The top of this rise of ground, it +will be remembered, had been won by the Germans on January 21, 1915; +but the heights west of it and their slopes were in the possession of +the French, who desired to add the spur to their possessions. For this +purpose the French artillery bombarded it on March 25, 1915, and +continued their work on the following day, March 26, 1915, when the +Chasseurs stormed the height, and, after fighting for six hours, +gained the top and captured 400 prisoners. But the Germans had no +intention of giving their opponents such a hold on the control of the +valley of the Ill, so there were many counterattacks. + +While the Germans were attempting to retake the summit, the French +were making desperate efforts to drive the Teutons from the eastern +slopes. The Germans were temporarily successful, but their success was +short-lived, for the French retook the top on April 28, 1915. During +the next month, May, both sides made claims of success; but what each +actually possessed was as follows: The French had the top and all of +the western portion; the Germans possessed the summit ridge, and the +east and northeast portions. But, until the French held the entire +mountain, they could make little use of it in controlling the Ill +Valley. + +The fighting in the other part of the Vosges had to do principally +with the valley of the Fecht. The stream runs from Schlucht and +Bramont east, and proceeds past Muenster and Metzeral. On its right +bank is the railroad from Colmar to Metzeral. The heights in the upper +part of the valley were held by the Chasseurs Alpins; and they desired +to take both towns. Throughout the month of April the French were +fairly successful on both banks of the river. The spur above Metzeral +to the northwest was taken by them. The ridge between the two valleys +was captured by the French on April 17, 1915. The fighting here was +continued throughout May, 1915. + +The next scene of activity was north, where there was a wooded plateau +between the Moselle and the Meuse. Here the Germans had a salient +which was long and quite narrow. The point of this salient was at St. +Mihiel, the other side of the Meuse. This point was well protected by +the artillery at Camp des Romains, which controlled the section for +ten miles in any direction. To the north of the salient there was a +railroad from Etain to Metz. There was another line twenty miles to +the south. This ran from Metz to Thiaucourt by the Rupt de Mad. The +village of Vigneulles was about in the center of the narrow part of +the salient, and on the road to St. Mihiel. There was a better road to +the south through Apremont. A strategic railroad had been built from +Thiaucourt by Vigneulles to St. Mihiel, down the Gap of Spada, which +is an opening between the hills of the Meuse Valley. The plateau of +Les Eparges is north of Vigneulles. The plateau is approximately 1,000 +feet above the sea level, and forms the eastern border of the heights +of the Meuse. There was high land on the southern side of the salient, +along which ran the main road from Commercy to Pont-a-Mousson. Within +the salient the land was rough and, to a considerable extent, covered +with wood. + +The French did not plan to make an attack on the salient at its apex. +The artillery at Camp des Romains would be too effective. The French +plan was to press in the sides of the salient and finally control the +St. Mihiel communications. The southeastern side of the salient, at +the beginning of April, 1915, extended from St. Mihiel to Camp des +Romains, thence to Bois d'Ailly, Apremont, Boudonville, Regnieville, +and finally to the Moselle, three miles north of Pont-a-Mousson. The +northwestern side was marked by an imaginary line drawn from Etain in +the north past Fresnes, over the Les Eparges Heights, and thence by +Lamorville and Spada to St. Mihiel. The place of most importance, from +a military point of view, was the Les Eparges plateau, which +controlled the greater part of the northern section of the salient. +The taking of this plateau would naturally be the first step in +capturing Vigneulles. But the Germans had converted Les Eparges into +what had the appearance of being an impregnable fort, when they took +it on September 21, 1914. Their trenches lined the slopes, and +everything had been made secure for a possible siege. The French in +February and March, 1915, however, had taken the village of Les +Eparges and a portion of the steep side on the northwest. But of +necessity they made progress slowly, because they were in such an +exposed position whenever they sought the top. They had planned an +assault for April 5, 1915, and, in a heavy rain, with the slope a +great mass of deep mud, the French gained some territory. This they +were unable to hold when the Germans made a counterattack on the +following morning, April 6, 1915. That night the soldiers of the +republic forced their way up with the bayonet, taking 1,500 yards of +trenches, by the morning of April 7, 1915. Thereupon the Germans +brought up reenforcements, which were rendered useless by the French +artillery, which prevented them from going forward to the battle line. +The German artillery used the same tactics, with the result that the +French reenforcements were kept out of the fight. After the cannons +had completed their work, both sides were apparently willing to rest +for the remainder of the day. But on the morning of April 8, 1915, two +regiments of infantry and a battalion of Chasseurs forced their way to +the top, which they took after an hour's hard fighting. That pushed +the Germans back to the eastern slope. Then the battle was fought on +during the remainder of the day, which found the French, at its close, +in possession of all except a little triangle in the eastern section. + +[Illustration: The Fighting in Alsace--Hartmannsweilerkopf.] + +Some idea of the conditions confronting those who attempted the ascent +may be gained when it is learned that fourteen hours were required by +the hardy French troops to go up to relieve their comrades who gained +the top. This relief was not sent until the following day, April 9, +1915. On that day the Germans in the little triangle were driven off +or slain. One of the sudden and dense fogs of the region appeared +later and made a cover for a German counterattack. The French were at +a disadvantage, but they quickly rallied, and, the fog suddenly +lifting, they employed a bayonet charge with such good effect that the +Germans were driven off with large losses. The importance of this +achievement to the Allies is not likely to be overestimated. The +height of Les Eparges dominated the Woevre district, and its capture +by the French was one of the most heroic feats of the war. The Germans +placed as high a value on the height for military purposes as the +French. They had spent the winter in adding to what nature had made +nearly perfect--the impregnability of the entire sector. They +intrusted its defense, when an attack seemed likely, only to +first-line troops, the Tenth Division of the Fifth Corps from Posen +holding it when the French made their successful attack. To gain the +height it was necessary for the French to climb the slimy sides, which +were swept by machine-gun fire. The Germans knew the exact range of +every square foot of the slopes. There was no place that offered even +a slight shelter for the attacking force. The weather was at its +worst. Yet, in spite of the many difficulties which seemed +insurmountable, the French soldiers had won the most decisive +engagement in this part of the campaign. + +It is true the Teutons occupied the lesser spur of Combres; but that +gave them little or no advantage, for no attack could be made from it +without subjecting the attacking party to a leaden hail from St. Remy +and Les Eparges. But the German salient still remained, and the French +continued their pressure on it. They pushed forward in the north to +Etain, and took the hills on the right bank of the Orne, which +hampered their enemy in his use of the Etain-Conflans railroad. They +closed in on the reentrant of the salient to the north--Gussainville; +and they used the same tactics in regard to Lamorville, because it +dominated the Gap of Spada; and to the north of it they exerted a +pressure on the Bois de la Selouse. The engagements on the south of +the salient were fought desperately. The part of the top which falls +away to the Rupt de Mad was held by the French. That section is +covered with a low wood, which develops into presentable forests in +the region toward the Moselle Valley to the east. The Teutons had +taken every advantage of the ground in constructing their +fortifications, and the French found a hard task before them. They +proceeded against their opponents in the Bois d'Ailly, the Forest of +Apremont, the Bois de Mont-Mare, the village of Regnieville, and the +Bois le Pretre. Though each success was not large, the entire effort +was effective in pushing in the southern side of the salient. This +brought the soldiers of the republic to within about four miles of +Thiaucourt, which, with the control of Les Eparges, threatened St. +Mihiel. + +The French heavy artillery shelled the southern front of the trenches +at Metz on May 1, 1915. The great desire to take Alsace and Lorraine, +however, was set aside early in the month. The plight of Russia at +this time made it imperative for the Allies to make a great movement +on the western front to prevent as much as possible the pressure on +the czar's line. Hence the campaign which seemed to be planned by the +French was abandoned for a larger opportunity. This was the advance of +the Tenth Army in the Artois over the plain of the Scheldt in the +direction of Douai and Valenciennes, thereby threatening the +communications of the entire Teuton line from Soissons to Lille. Hence +the French started a vigorous movement against Lens, while the British +sought to take Lille. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +CAMPAIGN IN ARTOIS REGION + + +To understand properly the campaign in the Artois, it is necessary to +have at least a fair knowledge of the geography and the topography of +the territory between La Bassee and Arras. + +The valley of the Scarpe is held in on the south by low hills, and on +the north by a low plateau, which descends in long ridges to the +valley of the Lys and the plains about Lens. The greatest altitude in +this section is the ridge known as Notre-Dame de Lorette, running east +and west, and containing numerous ravines. To the south of it, in a +little valley, is the town of Albain St. Nazaire. Carency is opposite +on the next ridge. Next is the Bois de Berthonval in the middle of a +wide depression. Beyond, the land ascends to Mont St. Eloi. The valley +of the Lys is to the north of the Lorette ridge. To the east the land +descends to the long, narrow valley in which is the highway between +Arras and Bethune. La Targette and Souchez are along the way. Again +the land rolls upward to the hills of Vimy with the Lens-Arras highway +beyond them. + +The Teutons held a salient in this region at the beginning of May, +1915. The line which bounded this salient ran east of Loos over the +Bethune-Lens road, east of Aix-Noulette, and appeared on the Lorette +plateau considerably to the west of its tallest spur, where was +situated the Chapel of Our Lady; running out to the prow of the +salient, it took in Albain; and then proceeded to Carency; bending +closely, it ran east of the Bois de Berthonval, taking in La Targette +and the Arras-Bethune highway. That part of the German line was called +by the French the "White Works," on account of the chalk with which +the breastworks were constructed. To the southeast of it was a section +known as the Labyrinth. Ecurie was inside the line which finally ran +back east of Arras. The salient was constructed for the guarding of +Lens, which was considered the entrance to the upper valley of the +Scheldt and the lowlands in the direction of Douai and Valenciennes. +Of more importance than Lens itself was the railroad back of this +front, the capture of which would naturally be a source of great +danger to the Germans. + +The French had won some ground in the region of the Lorette plateau +early in 1915. The Tenth Army in the Artois received enough additional +men to give it seven corps. More than 1,100 pieces of artillery, of +varying caliber, were taken to this region by the French. The entire +preparation for the campaign was under the personal direction of +General Foch. In the meantime the Germans, becoming aware that their +enemy was becoming more and more active, proceeded to strengthen the +front by the addition of three divisions which were known as +"divisions of assault." The men composing these additions were from +Bavaria, Saxony, and Baden. Even this reenforcement left the Teutons +outnumbered, and with less artillery than their opponents; but they +held a position which was considered more impregnable than any other +on either front. The Germans here had a chain of forts linked together +by an elaborate series of trenches, these latter so arranged that the +taking of one of the series placed its captors within the zone of fire +of several others. Moreover there was an elaborate series of +underground works, including mines and wolf pits, the latter being +covered over with a thin layer of turf and thickly studded with +stakes whose points awaited the charging French. + +General Foch was ready on Sunday morning, May 9, 1915, and his +artillery began one of the heaviest bombardments in history. The 1,100 +French cannon hurled 300,000 shells on the German fortifications that +day. The reverberations were deafening and terrifying. They startled +the British engaged at the Aubers Ridge. The deluge of projectiles +crashed their way through the supposedly impregnable work of +engineering that the Germans had erected, and buried their mangled +defenders in chaotic ruins. The preliminary work of the artillery was +continued for three hours, accompanied by the plaudits of the French +infantrymen. Then the infantry were sent to take the wrecks of what +had been the pride of the German engineers. They took what was still +in existence at La Targette, and the important crossroads there. They +waged a fierce fight in and around the village of Neuville St. Vaast, +which was stoutly defended by German machine guns. Here there was +house-to-house fighting. The French center, farther north, charged +over the remnants of the White Works, and went on beyond the +Arras-Bethune road. This section of the advance took more than two and +a half miles of trenches in an hour and a half. On the left the French +were unable to maintain such speed, because of the many ravines. They +took the outlying sections of Carency, and worked their way eastward, +cutting the road to Souchez. At the end of the first day the French +had to their credit three lines of German trenches on a five-mile +front, 3,000 prisoners, 10 field guns, and 50 machine guns. + +The bombardment was continued all night by the French gunners, while +the men who had taken the trenches did their best to make such repairs +as were necessary for the protection of the victors. On the morning of +the following day, May 10, 1915, the soldiers of the republic had +forced their way into the center of the German position. North of the +plateau of Notre Dame de Lorette a feint attack was made to hold the +German reserves. When the first French line was about to dash forward +to complete their work of the day before, they suddenly received an +order to remain where they were and seek all cover possible. One of +the French aviators had seen a German counterattack getting under way +near the sugar factory at Souchez. Preparatory to the Teuton advance +the German artillery hurled hundreds of high-explosive shells on the +section where the French would have been had they not received the +order to keep under cover. To be exposed under such conditions would +have meant annihilation. Believing their plans for the counterattack +were working favorably, the Germans advanced, only to be mowed down by +the French guns. Then the French infantry charged and gained another +trench line. So eager were the younger French soldiers that some of +those who charged from the south were not content with taking the +trench which was their objective point, but dashed on into a ravine +that extended in the direction of Ablain. There they killed or made +prisoners of the Germans they found. This dash was extremely hazardous +in the face of a possible German counterattack, which luckily for the +French did not occur as the Teutons retired to Souchez in confusion +and were unable to rally for any counterattack. A summary of the day's +fighting includes the taking of all of the German trenches across the +Bethune-Loos road; the attack on the fortified chapel of Notre Dame de +Lorette, and the gaining of the trenches to the south of it, these +connecting with Ablain and Souchez; the capture of the cemetery of +Neuville St. Vaast; and the defeat of the German reserves who were +rushed in motor cars from Lens and Douai. The trenches and approaches +being too narrow and deep to allow freedom of action in using rifle +and bayonet, the rifle is generally slung on the man's back in +bandolier, and the fighting within the trenches is done with short +weapons, especially with hand grenades, hence the new military +expressions "bombing" and "bombing parties," as the squads are called +that are especially detailed for bomb work during the charges. + +The fighting continued fiercely throughout May 11, 1915. Late in the +day the French took the lower part of the Arabs' Spur. An unsuccessful +counterattack was made that night from the Spur of the White Way. But +the French were harried by the artillery in Angres and the machine +guns in Ablain, and their discomforts were added to by the work of +the bursting shells which opened the graves of soldiers who had been +slain in previous months. + +Carency, surrounded on the east, south and west, and wrecked by the +20,000 shells which had been fired upon it, surrendered on the +afternoon of May 12, 1915. The Germans captured there made a total of +more than 5,000 prisoners taken by the French. Notre Dame de Lorette +with its chapel and fort was also taken this same day, as was Ablain +which was in flames when it was surrendered. Thus all of the highland +to the west of Souchez was held by the French except a few fortins on +eastern ridges. + +[Illustration: The Battles in Artois.] + +A north wind and a heavy rain added to the discomforts of the soldiers +on May 13, 1915. But physical discomforts were not all that made for +more or less unhappiness. The Germans had little reason to be happy; +but the French had the edge taken from their elation, because of their +victory, by the fact that it seemed as if it must be won again before +it would be of use to them. According to the rules of the war game the +German line had been broken and the French had made for themselves a +right of way; but there were many instances in this war where the +rules were not followed; and this was one of the exceptions. It is +true the German line had been smashed, but it had not fallen back. +Instead the remnants of the line had collected themselves in the +series of independent redoubts which had seemingly been prepared for +just such an emergency. They were so situated that it was well-nigh +impossible to destroy them at long range; but it was impossible to +make any forward movement which would not be enfiladed by them. Hence +it became necessary for the French, if they were to be really +victorious, to reduce each separate redoubt. The most prominent of +these were the sugar factory at Souchez, the cemetery at Ablain, the +White Road on a spur of the Lorette, the eastern portion of Neuville +St. Vaast, and the Labyrinth. The last named was so called because it +was an elaborate system of trenches and redoubts in an angle between +two roads. The White Road surrendered on May 21, 1915. Ablain was +taken on May 29, 1915. The Souchez sugar factory fell on May 31, +1915. Neuville St. Vaast was captured on June 8, 1915. The Labyrinth, +however, remained under German control. Part of it was fifty feet +below the surface of the earth, much of the fighting there being +carried on in underground galleries and by means of mines. It finally +was entirely in the hands of the French on June 19, 1915, after being +taken to a considerable extent foot by foot. The last of the fighting +there was in what was known as the Eulenburg Passage, where the entire +161st German Regiment, consisting of 4,000 men, were slain and a +Bavarian regiment suffered a heavy loss in killed and wounded. The +French took 1,000 prisoners; and only 2,000 of their own men were +unable to answer roll call after the fight, of whom many were only +slightly wounded. + +In concluding the account of the battle of the Artois it may be +admitted that the French had won what has been called a brilliant +victory, but it had not been a complete success. They had made an end +of the German salient; and only the last defense of Lens remained. How +much they had reduced the pressure on Russia is problematical; but +there is little doubt they had prevented the Germans from continuing +the offensive on the Ypres front. They estimated the German loss at +60,000; and, by a peculiar coincidence, the Crown Prince of Bavaria, +whose armies they fought, estimated the French loss at the same +figure--60,000. It is known they lost many men in the hand-to-hand +struggles; but their great forward movement was so well protected by +their artillery that the French loss there was comparatively slight. +Some idea can be gained from the fact that one French division killed +2,600 of their enemy and captured 3,000 prisoners with a loss of only +250 slain and 1,250 wounded. But the greatest gain to the French was +probably the fact that the battle of the Artois had proved to the +soldiers of the republic that their artillery was the equal of the +German, which had been the arm in which the Teutons excelled. It also +proved that the Germans could not intrench themselves in any manner +that was impregnable to the French; for they had taken the Labyrinth, +a most complicated series of military engineering feats which were +supposed to be able to withstand any assault. And lastly, and perhaps +of most importance to the French, the belief in the superiority of the +German soldier, as a result of 1870 was shattered in the mind of the +Frenchman. + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +BRITISH FORWARD MOVEMENT--BATTLE OF FESTUBERT + + +To aid the French in the Artois, the British made a forward movement +in the Festubert region in May, 1915. Its purpose was to prevent the +Seventh German Corps from sending troops and artillery to reenforce +Lens. Moreover the British, if they succeeded, would take the Aubers +ridge, which they had tried to gain in the battle of Neuve Chapelle. +If they could capture the Aubers ridge, the way would be opened to +Lille and La Bassee. The action began on Sunday morning, May 9, 1915, +in the region between Bois Grenier and Festubert, and was a part of +the forward movement of the British from Armentieres to La Bassee. +Part of the First Corps and the Indian Corps marched forward on the +right from the Rue du Bois toward the southern part of the Bois du +Biez, where there had been much fighting before. The principal attack +was made by the Eighth Division on Rouges Bancs, not far from +Fromelles and the Aubers ridge, near where the British had been +stopped in the battle of Neuve Chapelle. At approximately the same +time that General Sir Douglas Haig with the British First Army reached +the slightly elevated plateau in front of Lille, General Foch with a +large body of French troops made a desperate attack on the Germans on +their front from La Bassee to Arras. The French and British had joined +their efforts here, not only to relieve the pressure which was being +exerted on Ypres and to take Lille, which dominated a region rich in +coal, but also for the purpose of keeping the Germans so busy on the +western front that none could be sent to the eastern front and +further embarrass Russia. The artillery of both the British and French +attempted to wreck the German trenches before their infantry should be +sent against their foe. In this effort the British, using principally +shrapnel, made little headway; but their ally, using high-explosive +shells, such as they had been hurling at the Germans for weeks at the +rate of a hundred thousand a day, was successful. Soon the Teutons' +front was screened by clouds of yellow, green, black and white smoke. +But this was not to be a one-sided artillery engagement, and the +Germans soon had their artillery in action. They trained it on their +enemies' trenches, believing from the size of the bombardment that an +assault was soon to be made and that the trenches would be filled with +troops. Their surmise was correct, but the Allies had suspected their +opponents would reason thus, so the French and British infantry were +in covered positions. Of course the Germans did not know how well +their opponents were protected, so they sent thousands of shells +against the allied positions. And again the allied artillerists +replied in kind. This time they caught the German reenforcements, with +the result that many of them were slain before they could reach their +own front. In this work the British shrapnel was more effective than +the French high-explosive shells. + +The bombardment was continued vigorously for three-quarters of an +hour. That the allied range finders had been doing accurate work was +evidenced by the appearance of the German trenches when the British +and French fire was turned against the supporting German trenches; but +the Teutons' wire entanglements remained intact. Heretofore the big +guns had been able to sweep such obstructions away. When the infantry +reached the barbed wire, it found the Germans had improved this +particular method of defense by using specially manufactured wire +cable, well barbed, which was from one and one-half to two inches in +diameter. And, to protect their cable entanglements, the Germans had +built parapets in front of the entanglements. Their enemy's charging +infantry coming upon such an obstruction could not cut it, and the +only means of circumventing this new device was for the attacking +force to throw their overcoats on the entanglements and crawl across +the wire in the face of rifle and machine-gun fire. + +For a considerable distance along this part of the front the distance +between the German and British trenches was not more than two hundred +yards. At not a few sections the opposing trenches were near enough to +permit the soldiers to converse with their opponents. The trenches for +the most part were built on the marshland with sandbags, those of the +British being khaki-colored, and the German being black and white. +When the inevitable order to charge was given, the British artillery +shifted its range to the German rear and the Eighth Division dashed +over the black and white sandbags behind which the Germans were +crouching. Beyond them was a ridge, in horseshoe formation, which was +the last barrier that lay between the Allies and the plains that led +to Lille. This ridge trails off in a northeasterly direction at Rouges +Bancs. Near the hamlet there was a small wood which had been taken by +the Pathans and Gurkhas before the cannonade started. Among the +regiments that led the attack of the Eighth Division were the +Kensington Battalion of the London Regiment, the First Gloucesters, +the Second Sussex, and the Northamptons. They were supported by the +Liverpool Territorials, the First North Lancashires, the Second King's +Royal Rifles, and the Sussex Territorials. The Germans had large +bodies of reenforcements held at Lille, but they were unavailing; and +the British took the first line of trenches though it required fifteen +and a half hours to do it. Then they went on until they were on the +slope of the ridge. Beyond that, however, it seemed impossible to +proceed, for the Germans had such an array of machine guns trained on +the approach to their second line of trenches that no human being +could live in the face of their deadly fire. The British needed an +equipment with which to bombard their enemy with high-explosive +shells. Such an equipment they did not possess. + +The German commander played a clever trick on the British when their +First Army Corps and their Indian Division attempted to make progress +in the triangle to the west of La Bassee. He evacuated his first two +lines of trenches while the artillery was doing what it could to +demolish his parapets; but his men were drawn up in the third line of +trenches waiting for the inevitable advance of the British. This third +line of trenches was protected with armor plate and concrete. Moreover +he had planted a large number of machine guns in the brickfield near +La Bassee. The British dashed forward until they were in range of the +machine guns. Then they suffered such severe losses that they were +forced to retreat, even though they had almost taken the inviting +German trenches. The Highlanders and the Bedfords had made a gallant +charge and felt especially humiliated to have to withdraw when victory +was about to perch on their banners. They believed that a lack of +reenforcements was responsible for their nonsuccess. + +The day's fighting ended with the First Army of the British driven +back except in the center. There the Kensington Territorial Battalion +made a remarkable record for itself. In the morning when the British +artillery ceased firing, the Kensington men dashed from their trenches +and captured three lines of the German trenches at the point of the +bayonet. A part of the battalion, in its eagerness to win the day, +went on up the ridge. At the same time one of its companies turned to +the left and another to the right, and with bayonet and bomb drove the +Germans from the trenches for a distance of 200 yards. The Kensingtons +were doing the work that had been set for them to do; but two regular +battalions, one to their left and the other to their right, were not +as able to comply with the orders they had received. The regulars were +stopped by wire entanglements that the artillery had failed to smash, +and, at the same time, they were raked by machine-gun fire. Hence they +were unable to keep up with the Territorials. In fact the regulars +never got up to the Kensington men; but were forced to retire. This +left the Territorials in a most precarious condition. They had gained +such an important point on the German line that a heavy fire was +directed against them. But the British would not give up what they had +taken. Instead of retiring, they sent for reenforcements which were +promised to them. In the meantime the Germans gave up trying to blow +the Kensingtons out of their position and made a counterattack. The +left wing of the plucky Territorial battalion used bombs effectively +to hold their enemy at bay. The right wing at the same time was kept +busy in its attempt to prevent being enveloped. In spite of all the +Germans could do with their artillery and their repeated +counterattacks the West London men maintained their small wedge in the +Teuton front. Finally trench mortars were brought against them. Then +the Kensington battalion, or what was left of it, received the order +to retire. To do that necessitated fighting their way back through the +thickening line of their enemy. Those British Territorials had held +their peculiar position several hours, and had suffered severely in +consequence; but their loss was undoubtedly much larger when retiring +to their former line. They fought the greater part of the afternoon +and well into the evening in endeavoring to get back; and finally a +comparatively few of them succeeded. The last dash to the British +trenches was made over a barren piece of ground which was so flat that +there was no opportunity for concealment. And here the Germans raked +what was left of the battalion with rifle and machine-gun fire. +Ultimately, however, a portion of the brave band returned to the +British trenches. Previous to withdrawing the survivors from the +front, General Sir Henry Rawlinson told them that their gaining the +position which they took and holding it as long as they did had not +only relieved the pressure on Ypres but had aided General Foch's army +to advance between Arras and La Bassee. In conclusion he said: "It was +a feat of arms surpassed by no battalion in this great war." + +The Sussex and Northampton troops made a desperate effort to get into +the German trenches on the morning in which this action started, but +they never got nearer than forty yards, being stopped by the deluge of +shrapnel, rifle, and machine-gun fire to which they were subjected. +When they were ordered to return to the British trenches, those who +remained able to make the attempt found it quite as dangerous as +trying to go forward. That afternoon the Black Watch and the First +Cameronians charged where the Sussex and Northamptons had been +repulsed, but the Scotchmen had but little more success. It is true +some of the men from the land of the heather got into the German +trenches; but they did not survive. The determination of the British +was shown when men, who had been wounded in the first charge and been +unable to return to their own line, joined the Scots in their mad rush +to death. Those men had lain under fire twelve hours before making +their dying assault on the German trenches. It had been expected the +Scotchmen would get into the opposing trenches and bomb and bayonet +the Teutons out. Then reenforcements would be sent from the British +line. But the artillery of King George was unable to check the +devastating work of the kaiser's big guns and give the reenforcements +a clear field through which to go to the aid of the attacking force. +The result was that the Germans continued such a leaden hail between +the lines that it was sending soldiers to certain death to order them +to cross the zone of fire. The remnant of the Scottish regiments was +recalled, and it lost as many men on its return as it had in its +desperate struggle to reach the German trenches. + +Both the Kensingtons and the Scots found groups of German machine +guns, doing most destructive work, that could have been rendered +useless if the British had had a supply of high-explosive shells. +Under the circumstances there was nothing for Sir Douglas Haig to do +but to order his men all along the line to retire. They obeyed the +order sullenly, and many of them were slain in their attempt to get +back to their own trenches. But their comrades felt they had not died +wholly in vain; for the woeful lack of lyddite shells thus became +known in England and the indignation thus aroused resulted in the +appointment of a minister of munitions who organized the manufacture +of the necessary explosives on a scale heretofore unattempted by the +British. A lesson had been learned, but at a fearful cost to life. + +The same lesson was being taught the British public at another section +of the battle front. Its soldiers not only were unable to maintain a +successful artillery fire, but the fact became so impressed on the +German mind that the Teutons in the Ypres and Lille regions felt +assured that their infantry had the British at their mercy. Sir John +French, however, had a clever knowledge of human nature. He began his +efforts to remedy the difficulty by telling the war correspondents his +troubles. They spread the news. Then he secretly collected all of the +available artillery in the Ypres region, together with his limited +supply of shells, and was ready to deal such a blow to the Duke of +Wuerttemberg's army when it marched on Ypres the latter part of May, +1915, that it was necessary for the Germans to get reenforcements +through Belgium. This was a great surprise to the Teutons and cost +them dearly. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +SIR JOHN FRENCH ATTEMPTS A SURPRISE + + +The operation of this plan of Sir John French had an excellent effect +in the Ypres region, but it had the opposite effect on the British who +were trying to take Lille. Moreover it was necessary for the British +to continue to occupy the attention of the left wing of the German +army, under the command of the Crown Prince of Bavaria, in order to +keep him from using his men against General Foch, who was attempting +to push his way between Arras and Lille. Inasmuch as the British +artillery had proved ineffective because of its lack of enough and the +proper kind of ammunition, Sir John French planned another surprise +for the Germans. This time he selected the weapon which the Teutons +seemed most to fear when it was in the hands of the British--the +bayonet. The salient on the German front at Festubert, between La +Bassee and Neuve Chapelle, was chosen for the proposed military feat. +The territory occupied by the Teutons had the appearance, to the +casual observer, of being lowlands on which were wrecked homes, farms, +and trees. The actual conditions of this section of the country were +much more serious for any body of troops which planned to make an +attack. The ground was moist and muddy, in many places being crossed +by treacherous ditches filled with slimy water. Moreover the exact +range of practically every square foot of it was known to the German +artillerymen, whose guns were on the high ground to the west of the +lowlands. The British were in trenches from seventy to three hundred +yards from those of their enemy. If the men there could dash across +the intervening space and get into the German trenches before being +annihilated by the kaiser's cannon, they would use the bayonet with +deadly effect, and, from past experiences, have reasonable hope of +gaining a victory. It was decided to make such an attempt first on +that part of the line between Richebourg on the left and Festubert on +the right. + +The British Seventh Division was sent south to support the attack +which was to have been made on May 12, 1915. On that day it was too +foggy for the aviators to see with any degree of accuracy; so the +movement was delayed. This gave time for the Canadian Division to be +sent south and add their strength to the support. The German trenches, +at this point where the attack was to be made, were occupied by the +Seventh Westphalian Army Corps. This corps had lost many of its men at +Neuve Chapelle; and their places had been taken by youths who had not +reached the development of manhood and whose immaturity and lack of +military training greatly lessened the efficiency of this famous body +of troops. + +Finally, on Saturday night, May 15, 1915, all conditions for the +attack seemed favorable to the British. There was no moon and the sky +was dark, though there was not that inky blackness that occasionally +occurs under similar weather conditions. The Indian Corps stole from +their trenches and began to go forward from Richebourg l'Avoue. But +the Germans were alert, and they illumined the movement with +innumerable flares which made the Indians easy targets for the machine +guns and rifles of the Teutons in that part of the line. So quick was +the work to repel the attack that many of the Indians were slain as +they were climbing out of their own trenches. As a surprise attack at +night, the British were not making much of a success of their plan, +but as a method of gaining ground and keeping their enemy busy on that +particular part of the line the men of their Second Division were +effective. They dashed into the first line of German trenches and +cleared them out with the bayonet and hand grenade. The furor of the +attack took them on into the second line. By dawn the soldiers of the +Second Division had driven a wedge into the German line. + +This wedge was widened and driven in harder by Sir Douglas Haig's old +command--the First Corps. This corps had suffered heavy losses at the +first battle of Ypres; but the men who filled the gaps in the line +were hardy young men who made excellent soldiers from the start. Added +to their enthusiasm was a desire to show their ability as fighters, +with the result that the British right wing was so effective that it, +in a great measure, made up for the failure of the Indian troops. The +center and the right, with bomb and bayonet, drove the Germans from +the trenches; and then together they forced their way into the +Teutons' position 600 yards along a front 800 yards in length. Early +the next morning, before daylight on May 16, 1915, the British Seventh +Division forced its way into the German salient at Festubert. In the +meantime the Germans were making hasty preparations for a +counterattack. Sir John French's plan, however, had proved effective. +It would have required a large supply of high-explosive shells to have +made much of an impression on the excellent defenses which the German +soldiers had constructed on this part of the front. The British had no +such supply of ammunition, and, even if they had had it, it is +doubtful if they would have been able to demolish the formidable wire +entanglements. Yet in this night attack with the bayonet the British +troops had accomplished all they could have done if supplied with +proper ammunition. In the desperate charge which they made no wire +entanglement could stop the British soldiers. They threw their +overcoats or blankets over the barbed wire and then climbed across the +obstruction. The Seventh Division took three lines of trenches in this +manner, until it was 12,000 yards back of the original line of its +enemy. + +There were now two wedges driven into the German front, and the +British desired to join them and make what might be termed a +countersalient, or a salient running into the original salient of the +Germans. But the space between the two horns of the British force was +a network of trenches. The horns might prod and irritate the Teutons, +but they needed artillery again to rid the German breastworks of +machine guns and demolish the obstructions which would cost too many +lives to take in the same manner in which the British success had been +won in its night attack. Nevertheless the British started in to bomb +their way toward Festubert, and they even gained forty yards in this +hazardous undertaking before they were forced to stop. If they had +seemed to be an irresistible force, they had met what had every +appearance of being an immovable body--and there was a limit to human +endurance. + +By May 17, 1915, the British concluded that their most advisable +offensive was to clear the space between their two wedges by cutting +off the Germans who held that part of their line. To do this the +British attempted to cut off the German communication to the north +from La Quinque Rue; but, by that time, the Teutons had received +reenforcements; and they rained such a shower of lead on the attacking +force that the attempt had to be abandoned; but not until many heroic +efforts had been made by the British to succeed in their purpose. + +Many Germans were made prisoners at all stages of the fighting. The +British bayonet seemed to strike them with terror, and the bombs were +more potent in scattering them than were the orders of their +commanders to repel the attacking force. Between Richebourg l'Avoue +and Le Quinque Rue is the farm Cour de l'Avoue. In front of this farm +the remains of a battalion of Saxons attempted to surrender. They had +arrived on the line as reenforcements to the Westphalians, and had +been fighting valiantly until their numbers were so decreased that +they were unable to hold out against their foes longer. Whether their +commanding officer ordered them to surrender or a common impulse +dictated their action, they left their position and advanced toward +the British. Not understanding their action, the attacking force fired +upon the Saxons who were sufficiently numerous to give the impression +that they might be leading a counterattack. Thereupon the Saxons +dropped their guns and the firing from the British side ceased, only +to be taken up on the German side by the Westphalians. This was +followed by an attack on the would-be prisoners by the German +artillery until every soldier in the surrendering party was slain. +This action horrified the British, but the Germans considered it a +means of discipline which would have a salutary effect on any who +might prefer the comforts of a prison camp to dying for the +Fatherland. + +The British Seventh Division at Festubert continued to work south +along the German trenches. Its bayonets and bombs cleared the way +before it. The plan was for them to continue toward Rue d'Ouvert, +Chapelle St. Roch, and Canteleux. In the meantime the Second Division, +on the left of the Seventh Division, was to fight its way to Rue du +Marais and Violaines. The Indian contingent had received orders to +keep in touch with the Third Division. The Fifty-first Division was +sent to Estaires to act as a support to the First Army. By the night +of May 17, 1915, the British held all of the first line of German +trenches from the south of Festubert to Richebourg l'Avoue. For a part +of that distance the second and third lines of trenches had been taken +and held; and still farther forward the British possessed many +important points. Moreover the British soldiers were so inspired with +their success that they desired to press on in spite of the fact that +the nature of the country was such that they were wet through and +covered with mud. It was not all enthusiasm, however. Mingled with the +desire for victory was a desire for revenge. The British on this part +of the line were enraged by the use of gas at Ypres and the sinking of +the _Lusitania_. + +On the night of May 17, 1915, the Fourth Cameron Highlanders, a +Territorial battalion, met with disaster. The men composing this unit +were from Inverness-shire, Skye, and the Outer Islands. Many of them +had been gamekeepers and hence were accustomed to outdoor life and the +handling of guns, all of which aided them in saving the remnant of +their command. They had been ordered to take some cottages, occupied +by German soldiers as a makeshift fortification. The Cameronians on +the way to the attack fell into a ditch which was both deep and wide. +It was necessary for them to swim to get across the ditch in some +places. In the meantime Highlanders were being slain by German shells +and the rifle fire that the men in the cottages rained upon the Scots. +One company was annihilated. Another company lost its way. The rear +end of a German communicating trench was reached by a third company. +Long before midnight this company was almost without ammunition. Two +platoons reenforced it at midnight; but the reenforcements had no +machine guns, which would have given at least temporary relief. Under +the circumstances the only thing for the Territorials to do was to +retreat. The Germans made that quite as perilous a venture as the +advance had been. Only half of those who started for the cottages +returned. Among the slain was the commander, and twelve other officers +were also killed. + +The British, in spite of a cold rain, pushed on 1,200 yards north of +the Festubert-La Quinque Rue road; and took a defense 300 yards to the +southeast of the hamlet. Two farms west of the road and south of +Richebourg l'Avoue, the farm du Bois and the farm of the Cour de +l'Avoue, in front of which latter the surrendering Saxons were slain, +had been held by the Germans with numerous machine guns. The British +took both farms by nightfall and found, on counting their prisoners, +that they then had a total of 608 as well as several machine guns. + +The Second and Seventh Divisions were withdrawn by Sir Douglas Haig on +the following day, Wednesday, May 19, 1915. The Fifty-first Division +and the Canadians took the places of the men who were sadly in need of +relief from active duty. Lieutenant General Alderson received the +command of both divisions together with the artillery of both the +Second and Seventh Divisions. The cold, wet weather hampered +operations and there was comparatively little activity, though +hostilities by no means altogether ceased. Each side needed a little +rest and time to fill in gaps in their respective lines. Hence it was +not until Sunday, May 23, that any fighting on a large scale took +place. On that day the Seventh Prussian Army Corps made a desperate +effort to break through that part of the British line held by the +Canadians near Festubert. The Prussians used their old tactics with +the result that the British shrapnel, rifle, and machine-gun fire +plowed great holes in their ranks. The Teutons in this instance were +without adequate artillery support, for many of their batteries had +been made useless by the British. From then on to May 25, 1915, there +were several small engagements in which the British made gains. Then +Sir John French concluded to end the activity of his men on this part +of the front. In that connection he made the following statement: "I +had now reasons to consider that the battle which was commenced by the +First Army on May 9 and renewed on the 16th, having attained for the +moment the immediate object I had in view, should not be further +actively proceeded with. + +"In the battle of Festubert the enemy was driven from a position which +was strongly intrenched and fortified, and ground was won on a front +of four miles to an average depth of 600 yards." + + + + +CHAPTER XXII + +ATTACKS AT LA BASSEE + + +The British had discovered the futility of attempting to smash through +the German lines without an adequate supply of high-explosive shells +with which to destroy the heavy wire entanglements. Moreover, in +maintaining a curtain of fire between the German lines and potential +reenforcements, it was necessary to increase the artillery arm of the +service. At this time the Germans could fire four shells to one by the +British. Another very essential equipment in which the British were +lacking was machine guns. The German army had developed machine-gun +warfare apparently to its highest power. They not only used it to +increase their volume of fire, but also as a means of saving their +infantry. When, for any reason, it was found expedient to move +infantry, a few machine-gun crews would take the place of the soldiers +with the rifle and maintain a fire which would be almost as effective +in checking the British advance as the infantry had been. The British +had no such number of machine guns. They lacked this necessary part of +their equipment just as they lacked shells, cannon, aircraft, and +other war material which the Germans had developed and accumulated in +large quantities under the supervision of the German General Staff. + +The German munition factories had been making and storing enormous +supplies for an army of several millions of men. On the other hand the +British had believed in the excellence of their comparatively small +army to such an extent that it required all of the fighting from the +time their troops landed on the Continent up to Festubert to convince +them that they must make and maintain a military machine at least +equal, if not superior, to the one her foes possessed. It is true the +British needed more men in the ranks, but what was needed more was +large additions to the supply of machine guns, artillery, and +ammunition. + +For those reasons the British generals avoided clashes with the +Germans after the battle of Festubert, except when it was necessary to +hold as many of the Germans as possible to the British part of the +western front. This plan was maintained throughout the summer of 1915. +In the meantime the Germans were constructing, beyond their trenches, +the most elaborate series of field fortifications in the history of +warfare. The German staff realized that the time was coming when the +British would again take the offensive. When that time arrived the +Germans would thus be prepared to make every foot of ground gained as +costly as possible to their foes. In fact they had reason for +believing that it would be almost impossible for their opponents to +gain ground where it was held by such seemingly impregnable works. + +An attack at La Bassee in the first weeks in June, 1915, started with +the British Second Army making a pretended advance in the Ypres +region. The British in the forest of Ploegsteert drove a mine into the +German lines and blew it up. The explosion followed by a British +charge, which resulted in the taking of a part of the German trenches. +This forest extended northwest of Lille and south of Messines. Under +the ground in this section the sappers had built a city, whose streets +were named for the thoroughfare of London. Thus there was "Regent +Street," "Piccadilly Circus," "Leicester Square," and many others. +There was also a "Kensington Garden," in which grew wild flowers +transplanted from the forest by the soldiers. + +The Germans had been driven out of the forest in the fall of 1914 when +they made their dash to reach Calais; but their trenches were only +about 400 yards beyond the eastern edge. The earth here was especially +adaptable for mines, and both sides made many attempts to work +destruction by tunneling forward. In this activity it was soon found +necessary to have men in advanced positions in the tunnels to listen +to the mining operations of their opponents. As soon as such +operations were discovered, a countertunnel was driven in that +direction and a mine exploded, thereby destroying the enemy's tunnel +and burying his sappers. Sometimes, however, the men in the +countertunnel cut through to the other excavation and engaged in a +hand-to-hand conflict beneath the surface of the earth. Then primitive +methods were used. Though mining had taken place on other sections of +the western front, as at Hill 60, it was in this forest area that it +was probably brought to its highest development. + +The British mine here, as noted above, on June 6, 1915, blew up the +German trenches, and the British charged into the crater and drove the +Germans out with bayonet and bomb. A similar crater was the result of +the mining at La Bassee. Five mines at the end of tunnels constructed +by the Germans did not go far enough toward the British trenches, and +when the explosions occurred the trenches remained intact. + +The sappers, however, had other things to contend with; this was the +case when a tunnel was driven toward the German trenches between Rue +du Bois and Rue d'Ouvert, near the La Bassee Canal. Water was found +below the German intrenchments. The British managed to keep the water +out of the tunnel by using sandbags. Then they planted enough dynamite +to blow up a large part of the German force. The two trench lines were +very close together on this part of the front; and, to prevent +accidents, the British left their trenches near the mine before it was +fired. + +On the night of June 6, 1915, the mine tore open the trenches of both +sides, and buried one of the British magazines which was filled with +hand grenades and killed several British bomb throwers. At about the +same moment another supply of British bombs was exploded when it was +struck by a shell from a German howitzer. This occurred at a place on +the line called Duck's Bill, and resulted in the British being without +an adequate supply of hand grenades. The British troops in this action +were the soldiers of a British division and a Canadian brigade. The +latter included the First Ontario Regiment, the Second and Fourth +Canadian Battalions, the Third Toronto Regiment, and the East +Yorkshires. + +The Ontario regiment was directed against a fortified part of the +German line which was called Stony Mountain. To the south of Stony +Mountain, about 150 yards, was another fortified position called +Dorchester. This also was to be taken by the Ontario men. If they +succeeded in their work the right flank of the British division would +be protected. But it was Stony Mountain that was of most importance to +the British. Its machine guns and its northern defenses menaced the +route which the British must take to make an advance. In order to +prevent the Germans from giving their undivided attention to the +Canadians, the British division on the left made an advance against +the Teutons north of Stony Mountain. The British artillery had been +shelling this part of the German line day and night many days as a +preparation for this advance. Its projectiles crashed into the brick +fields near La Bassee, and in front of the wrecked village of Quinchy. + +The German machine-gun crews were hidden behind the brick stacks which +were square blocks of burned clay upon which the British shells burst +without perceptible effect. The shells that went over the stacks, +however, did much damage. Beyond the brick field to the north were the +ruins of farm buildings which were also hiding places for the Germans +and their machine guns. All the buildings back of the German line had +been turned into fortresses whose underground works were concreted and +connected with their headquarters by telephone. While the British +artillery was attempting to destroy these fortresses it was also +hurling lyddite shells into the trenches. + +The German artillery fire greatly exceeded the British in volume. +Nevertheless the British forces were in the more comfortable +position. They had comparatively little to do except wait until they +were needed, which would be when their artillery had completed the +preparation for the inevitable charge. On the other hand the German +soldier had a nerve-racking part to play. He knew from the preparation +that an attack in force was about to be made; but he did not know when +it would occur nor where. Hence it was necessary for him to be +constantly on the alert. Many of the Germans were under arms at all +hours of the day and night. In fact few of them on that part of their +line got any real rest during the week in which the bombardment +continued. The section between the two lines of trenches was +illuminated at night, and the cannonade kept up so that there was no +opportunity for the Germans to repair the havoc made by the British +shells. + +The suspense was terminated on the evening of June 15, 1915, by an +additional flight of projectiles from the British guns. Every piece of +British ordnance on that part of the line was worked at top speed. The +Germans, knowing that this immediately preceded an infantry charge, +used their artillery to stop it. But the British charge formed in +their trenches, with the Canadians on their right. In addition to the +shrapnel the Germans made breaks in the lines of their foes by the use +of machine guns, but the breaks were quickly filled. On some parts of +the front the British and Canadians were successful and reached the +trenches. In all the captured trenches extended from Rue du Bois to +Rue d'Ouvert. + +In the meantime those Canadians who had been directed against Stony +Mountain and Dorchester were doing heroic work. The First Company of +the Ontario Regiment charged through the debris of the mine explosion, +only to run into the deadly hail sent at them by the machine guns. But +the Canadians were determined to complete their task, and they took +Dorchester and the connecting trench. The fire was too heavy for them +to reach Stony Mountain. A group of bombers made a dash forward, but +were shot down before they could get near enough to use their weapons. + +The second and third companies rushed forward, suffering severely from +the deluge of lead, but some of their men got into the German second +line and then began to bomb their way to right and left. The captured +first trench was utilized by the attacking force. From that vantage +the advance was led by a machine gun which was followed by a group of +bomb throwers. In working forward the machine-gun base became lost +when the man who had it was slain. Thereupon a Canadian "lumberjack" +named Vincent became the base, the machine gun being fired from his +back. But the German bomb throwers drove the attacking force out of +the trench. The Germans kept a rain of lead between the Canadians and +the British line of trenches with the result that it was almost +suicide for a man to attempt to return for bombs. Nevertheless many +braved the ordeal. Only one was successful. He, Private Smith of +Southampton, Ontario, seemed to bear a charmed life, for he made the +trip five times. The Third Canadian Battalion was sent forward to +reenforce the Ontario Regiment which had lost most of its officers, +but such a pressure of German forces were brought to bear on the +Canadians that the reenforcements were unavailing, and the Canadians +were forced to relinquish all they had gained, and return to their own +trenches that night. + +The retreat was a desperate undertaking; the Germans then had the +Canadians in the open and added heavily to the Canadian's death roll. +On the other side of Stony Mountain the British had met with no better +success than the Canadians. Having started their enemies back, the +Germans massed for a counterattack and drove them back a mile, but not +without a terrific struggle. The battle field was lighted by the +peculiar fireworks used for such purposes and bursting of shells. Jets +of flame shot forth from machine guns and rifles. In many places the +intermittent light disclosed deadly hand-to-hand conflicts. Suddenly +the Germans concentrated their fire on a portion of their lost first +line of trenches, and the trenches of their enemies who held them were +no more. Having the British and Canadians defeated, as they believed, +the Germans proceeded to add to their victory by storming the British +and Canadian trenches. They met with resistance, however, that drove +them back. + +At daybreak on June 16, 1915, the artillery on both sides resumed +firing on a large scale. Suddenly, in the afternoon, the British fire +increased preparatory to another charge. This time the British +commander had selected a smaller section for his attack. This was at +Rue d'Ouvert, and the men who had been selected to make the charge +were the Territorials and the Liverpool Irish. They got into the first +line of German trenches which the Teutons shelled to such an extent +that the remnant of the attacking force had to retreat. Then the +Second Gordon Highlanders and other Scotch soldiers made a gallant +charge at the same place, Rue d'Ouvert, on June 18, 1915, but were +forced to retire to their own trenches. + +These attacks on this part of the German front resulted in repulses +for those who made them; but, at the same time, they helped the Allies +win victories elsewhere by keeping the German troops on that part of +the line from going to reenforce those who were being hard pressed by +the French. In this manner the British and Canadians, who fought so +valiantly and with so little apparent success at Stony Mountain and +Rue d'Ouvert, were in a measure responsible for the French victories +at Angres, Souchez, and the Labyrinth. The Crown Prince of Bavaria +could not hold out against both the French and British, but he +believed it was more important for him to check the British, because a +victory for them would threaten Lille to a greater extent. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +OPERATIONS AROUND HOOGE + + +The next action of importance on the British front occurred at the +Chateau of Hooge on the Menin road about three miles east of Ypres. +Here had been the headquarters of Sir John French and Sir Douglas Haig +at the first battle of Ypres. From the Chateau Sir John French had +seen the British line break at Gheluvelt, thereby opening the road for +the Germans to Calais. That opening, however, had been closed by the +Worcesters. After the Germans began to use their deadly gas in the +spring of 1915 they again took possession of Hooge, and used the Menin +road for a forward movement which threatened what was left of Ypres. + +The Duke of Wuerttemberg was in command of that part of the line +opposed to the British, and his forces extended from near Pilkem in +the north to near Hill 60 in the south, in the form of a crescent. He +made use of the asphyxiating gas cloud and gas bombs so frequently on +this part of the front that the British soldiers became expert in +donning their hoodlike masks and in using respirators. Moreover, the +British were constantly on the alert for the appearance of the poison +gas. So that this method of attack was much less effective. Before the +Germans discovered how well the British had prepared themselves +against the gas, they met with disaster twice when using it. On both +occasions they had followed their gas cloud expecting to find their +foes writhing on the ground in choking agony--an easy prey for an +attack. + +But the British had put on their curious-appearing headgear, and were +waiting for the men whom they knew would be following the cloud at a +safe distance. As soon as the Germans were near enough the British +turned loose everything that would hurl a projectile large or small. +By the time the gas cloud had cleared, or, to be more accurate, passed +on to the rear of the British line and spent itself, the only Germans +to be seen were in the piles of dead and wounded in front of the +British most advanced trenches. The first time this occurred did not +teach the Germans its lesson sufficiently well. A second time the +Germans did not follow their gas cloud so closely. The gas-filled +shells, however, the British found more difficult. They did not give +warning of their coming as did the appearance of the comparatively +slow-moving gas cloud. Thus in the first week of May, 1915, Hill 60 +was taken by the Germans in a bombardment of asphyxiating shells. The +bombardment had been immediately followed by a charge of bomb throwers +who made an assault on the hill from three sides at once. That forced +the British to retreat to a trench line at the foot of the hill, and +gave the top of the hill to the Germans who immediately set up a +lookout post for their artillery back of the Zandvoord ridge. + +This part of the British line was under the command of Sir Herbert +Plumer. His troops occupied themselves from the first week in May to +the middle of August, 1915, in fighting in the Hooge district. Most of +this fighting was important only because it kept the Germans busy on +that section of the line, and prevented them from being able to +reenforce the Crown Prince of Bavaria or adding men to the force that +was driving the Russians eastward. + +The men, fresh from the training camps, fought alongside of hardened +veterans and learned much from them. From being what amounted to +auxiliaries in these actions the new troops became hardened to actual +fighting conditions. For this reason the personnel of the British +troops on this part of the line was changed frequently. This was +especially true at Hooge. Princess Patricia's Canadian Regiment +occupied the Chateau and village of Hooge on May 8, 1915. The +"Princess Pats," as they were known at home, turned over their +quarters to the Ninth Lancers who were followed by the Fifteenth +Hussars and the Second Camerons. + +On May 24, 1915, the Germans made a great gas attack. They had placed +along the line from St. Julien to Hooge a great number of gas tanks. +They then started a bombardment with asphyxiating shells. When the +bombardment was well under way the tanks were opened. The ensuing +cloud was five miles long and forty feet high; and it floated over the +British trenches from 3 a. m. to 7 a. m. The cloud was followed by +three columns of infantry, who dashed forward under the protection of +the shells of their artillery. But the Germans made gains in only two +places--at Hooge and to the north of Wieltje. For the most part the +British regained by counterattacks what they lost; but they were +unable to retake the Chateau of Hooge, though the Ninth Lancers and +the Fifteenth Hussars made a heroic attempt to regain it. Thereupon +the Third Dragoons received orders to attempt to retake the Chateau of +Hooge. They went into the second line of the British trenches to the +south of the Menin road on May 29, 1915. The Germans bombarded the +trenches with high-explosive shells while from the German trenches a +torrent of small arms fire poured. In spite of the continued hail of +lead, the Dragoons held to their position though their trenches were +wrecked. + +Early in the morning of May 31, the British charged and drove their +enemy from the ruins of the Chateau and its stables. The Germans +turned all of their artillery on that part of the line against Hooge, +and when the bombardment was finished there was only a heap of ruins +left. The British withdrew from the Chateau, but only for a short +distance. + +The bombardment was renewed on June 1; on that day the German infantry +tried to dislodge the Dragoons, but the attempt was unsuccessful. +Again, on June 2, the artillery was used, the German shells being +hurled a part of the time at the rate of twenty a minute. Under the +cover of this terrific bombardment a part of the German infantry +charged from the Bellewaarde Lake region. They got to the Chateau +before a British battery opened fire on them. Again they entered the +ruins and made a dash out on the opposite side, where they were met by +more machine-gun fire. Three times they tried to escape, but +practically all of them were slain. Other attempts were made by the +Germans that afternoon, but none of them was successful. + +The Dragoons were relieved on June 3, 1915, and their places were +taken by a much larger force. It included the Third Worcesters, the +First Wiltshires, the First Northumberland Fusiliers, the First +Lincolnshires, the Royal Fusiliers, the Royal Scots Fusiliers, and the +Liverpool Scottish, a territorial organization. + +The British artillery was concentrated in the neighborhood of Hooge +and started a bombardment on June 16. After a fairly adequate +preparation by cannonade, the infantry charged the German line for a +thousand yards near the Chateau, and took a part of the second line of +trenches. Again the British bayonet and bomb had won, though in this +attack the greater credit must be given to the bomb. The Germans made +an attempt to retrieve the day by battering the British out of the +trenches they had won. To do this the German artillery used a +plentiful supply of high-explosive shells. They continued the attempt +for twenty-four hours; but all they succeeded in doing was driving the +British back to the first line of German trenches where they waited +for the inevitable attack of the infantry which was repulsed. Finally +the Germans seemed inclined to give up trying to accomplish much on +this part of their front. + +In the first week of July, 1915, the British took two hundred yards of +German trenches, eighty prisoners and three trench mortars. The German +commander now turned once more to Hooge. An additional reason for his +renewed interest in that place was the fact that the British +engineers, on July 20, blew up a mine west of the Chateau, thereby +making a great crater in which the British infantry made themselves +comparatively secure. The crater was one hundred and fifty feet wide +and fifty feet deep. + +The Germans made an unsuccessful attempt to take the crater on July +21, 1915; and tried again on July 24. The Duke of Wuerttemberg found +his men making comparatively little progress. It is true that the +British had not made much more. The gas attacks had gained ground +before the British had learned how to avoid the more severe effects of +the poison. The result of experience brought into existence a new +device. It has been called a flame projector, and has been described +as a portable tank which is filled with a highly inflammable coal-tar +product. The contents of the tank were pumped through a nozzle at the +end of which was a lighting arrangement. The flame could be thrown +approximately forty yards. + +A large supply of these flame projectors arrived in the German +trenches on July 30, 1915. The action began with the usual bombardment +of high-explosive shells. Other shells filled with the burning liquid +were also used. At the height of the bombardment, the British lines +were flame swept. No preparation had been made for such an attack; and +the only thing that the British could do was to get out of the way of +the flame. Thus they lost their trenches in the crater and at the +Chateau and village of Hooge. The method of attack so infuriated the +British that they made a desperate counterattack with the result that +they regained most of what they lost with the exception of about five +hundred yards of trenches. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV + +FRANCO-GERMAN OPERATIONS ALONG THE FRONT + + +We have thus far dealt chiefly with the British operations in the +western front, but it must not be assumed that the French, in the +meantime, were idle. On the contrary, their operations, covering the +far greater territory, were proportionally more important than those +of their allies. + +During the winter months artillery duels along the entire +Franco-German front were kept up without intercession. These were +varied by assaults on exposed points which were in many cases +repeatedly taken and lost by the opposing forces. + +The French staff applied itself with the utmost vigor to the +accumulation of large stacks of munitions and supplies for the +production of active movements when weather conditions should permit. +For the most part, however, the Franco-German operations were +desultory movements occurring in various portions of the long line. +Actions of the first importance began with the attacks in the St. +Mihiel salient in April, 1915. + +On the night of February 6, 1915, Germans exploded three mines at La +Boisselle in front of the houses in the village which the French +occupied, but the attempt of the Germans to advance was checked after +a small amount of ground had been gained. The next day a counterattack +carried out by a French company retook this ground, and inflicted a +loss of 200 men. The French seized a wood north of Mesnil-les-Hurles +on the night of February 7. Here the Germans had strongly established +themselves. + +During the first part of February, 1915, the Germans made a series of +assaults on the Marie Therese works in the Argonne. Their force +comprised about a brigade; but the French repulsed all attacks. Both +sides suffered severe losses. On the night of February 9, there was an +infantry engagement at La Fontenelle in the Ban de Sapt. Two +battalions of Germans took part in the action and gained some ground +which the French regained by counterattacks on the following day. + +Actions in the Vosges continued in spite of heavy snow. The French +carried Hill 937, eight hundred meters northwest of the farm of +Sudelle, in the region north of Hartmannsweilerkopf. + +About February 9, 1915, there was considerable activity on the part of +the German artillery in Champagne, especially before Rheims. The city +being again bombarded. There was also a lively cannonade in the region +of Lens, around Albert, between the Avre and Oise, in the neighborhood +of Soissons, and at Verneuil, northeast of Vailly. In Lorraine the +Germans, after having pushed back the French main guard, succeeded in +occupying the height of the Xon beacon and the hamlet of Norroy. The +Germans were repulsed by a counterattack as far as the slopes north of +the beacon. + +The French on February 18 made some progress in the region of +Boureuilles on Hill No. 263. They also gained a wood south of the Bois +de Cheppy. At the same time French troops took four hundred meters of +trenches north of Malancourt and about as much south of the Bois de +Forges. The Germans made five unsuccessful counterattacks, near +Bolincourt, to retake the trenches which the French had captured. On +the same day, the French recaptured the village of Norroy. In the +Vosges, the French repulsed two infantry attacks north of Wisembach, +in the region of the Col de Bonhomme, and consolidated their +positions, progressing methodically north and south of the farm of +Sudelle. The bombardment of Rheims was continued during these days. On +the heights of the Meuse, at Les Eparges, three German counterattacks +on the trenches which the French had won on February 17 were stopped +by the French artillery fire. + +In the Vosges, between Lusse and Wisembach, in the Bonhomme region, +the Germans, after succeeding in getting a footing on Hill 607, were +dislodged on the morning of February 19, 1915. The French held their +position on the height notwithstanding the violent efforts to dislodge +them. An attack by the Germans on Le Sattel north of the Sudelle farm +was also repulsed. + +In the evening of February 19, 1915, the Germans delivered their +fourth counterattack against the trenches which the French took at Les +Eparges, but the French artillery again beat them back. The Germans +were also unsuccessful in a counterattack on Hill 607, at Sattel, +south of the Fecht. They succeeded in gaining a footing on the eastern +spur of Reichsackerkopf. + +After having repulsed a sixth counterattack by the Germans at Les +Eparges, the French on February 10, 1915, delivered a fresh attack +which enabled them to enlarge and complete the progress they made on +the day before. They took three machine guns, two trench mortars, and +made two hundred prisoners, among whom were several officers. + +They also repulsed a counterattack of the Germans and then took all of +their trenches to the north and east of the wood which had been +captured by the French on the day before. Two other counterattacks +were repulsed, and the French made fresh progress, particularly to the +north of Mesnil, where they captured two machine guns and one hundred +prisoners. The Germans made their seventh unsuccessful counterattack +on Les Eparges on February 21. The French advanced posts fell back on +the main line in Alsace on both banks of the Fecht; but the main line +was strongly held, and the Germans, attacking in serried and deep +formations, suffered heavy losses. + +On the Belgian front the French batteries demolished one of the German +heavy guns near Lombaertzyde on February 22, 1915. On the same day the +French artillery dispersed German troops and convoys between the Lys +and the Aisne. The French made progress on the Souain-Beausejour +front, taking a line of trenches and two woods, and repulsed two +particularly violent counterattacks. Many prisoners were taken by the +French in this action. In the Argonne the French artillery and +infantry had the better of the almost continuous fighting. This was +especially true near Fontaine-aux-Charmes and Marie Therese, as well +as at the Bois Bolante. + +The bombardment of Rheims continued on February 22, lasting for a +first period of six hours, and a second period of five hours. One +thousand five hundred shells were fired into all quarters of the town. +The cathedral was made a special target and suffered severely. The +interior of the vaulted roof, which had resisted up to this time, +fell. Twenty houses were set on fire and twenty of the civilian +population were killed. + +The French captured more trenches in the region of Beausejour and held +their gains of previous fighting, on February 23, 1915. Their +batteries blew up a German ammunition store to the northwest of Verdun +at Drillancourt, in the region of the Bois de Forges, on the same day, +February 23, 1915, and stopped an attempted German attack in Alsace +from the village of Stossweiler. + +There was an action of some importance in the Wood of Malancourt, on +February 26, 1915, when the Germans sprayed the French advanced +trenches with burning liquid. The French troops evacuated them, the +soldiers being severely burned before they could escape. A +counterattack was immediately made. This checked the German advance. +On the same day, in the region of Verdun and on the heights of the +Meuse, the French heavy artillery enveloped with its fire the German +artillery, wrecked some guns, exploded about twenty wagons or depots, +annihilated a detachment, and destroyed an entire encampment. + +In Champagne the French on the night of February 26, 1915, captured five +hundred meters of German trenches to the north of Mesnil-les-Hurles. + +On February 28, 1915, Rheims was again bombarded and still again on +March 2, 1915. About fifty shells fell on the town. In the Argonne, on +March 2, 1915, in the Bagatelle-Marie Therese sector, there was mine +and infantry fighting in an advanced trench which the French +reoccupied after they had been forced to abandon it. At the same time +in the region of Vauquois, the French made some progress and held the +ground captured in spite of the counterattacks of the Germans. The +French also took some prisoners. In the Vosges, at La Chapelotte, they +captured trenches and gained three hundred meters of ground. + +The bombardment of Rheims was continued on March 4, 1915, and lasted +all day, a shell falling about every three minutes. While the +bombardment was in progress the Germans captured an advanced trench +from the French to the north of Arras, near Notre Dame de Lorette; but +in the Argonne the French made fresh progress in the region of +Vauquois. On the following day, March 5, however, the French made +successful counterattacks in the region of Notre Dame de Lorette. The +Germans lost the advanced positions which they had taken from the +French and held them for two days. At Hartmannsweilerkopf, in Alsace, +the French captured a trench, a small fort, and two machine guns. They +also repulsed a counterattack opposite Uffholz, and blew up an +ammunition store at Cernay. On the same night, the French drove back +the German advanced posts which were trying to establish themselves on +the Sillakerkopf, a spur east of Hohneck. + +The French continued to gain ground, on March 7, to the north of Arras +in the region of Notre Dame de Lorette, where their attacks carried +some German trenches. The German losses were considerable. During this +first week in March, 1915, the French carried successively, to the +west of Muenster, the two summits of the Little and the Great +Reichaelerkopf. The Germans made two counterattacks starting from +Muehlbach and Stossweiler; but they were unsuccessful. On the right +bank of the Fecht the French captured Imburg, one kilometer southeast +of Sultzern. This success was completed farther to the north by the +capture of Hill 856 to the south of the Hutes Hutles. Finally, at +Hartmannsweilerkopf the French repelled a counterattack delivered by a +German battalion which suffered heavy losses and left numerous +prisoners in the hands of the French. + +On March 8, 1915, the French gained two hundred meters on the ridge +northeast of Mesnil which they added to the gains of the previous +day. Here the French carried a German redoubt, took a revolver gun and +three machine guns, and made some prisoners. The Germans had armored +shelters supplied with revolver guns and very deep subterranean +chambers. In the Argonne, between Four-de-Paris and Bolante, the +French delivered an attack which made them masters of the first line +of German trenches of more than two hundred meters in length. + +To the north of Rheims in front of the Bois de Luxembourg, the Germans +attempted, on March 14, to carry one of the French advanced trenches, +but were repulsed. On the same day, between Four-de-Paris and Bolante +in the Argonne, the French gained three hundred meters of trenches, +and took some prisoners. Two counterattacks which the Germans made +were unsuccessful. + +In the region of Lombaertzyde on March 15, the French artillery very +effectively bombarded the German works. When the Germans attempted to +recapture the small fort which was taken from them on the night of +March 1 they were repulsed and left fifty dead. The French losses were +small. To the north of Arras, a brilliant attack by the French +infantry enabled them to capture, by a single effort, three lines of +trenches on the spur of Notre Dame de Lorette, and to reach the edge +of the plateau. The French captured one hundred prisoners including +several officers. They also destroyed two machine guns and blew up an +ammunition store. Farther to the south, in the region of +Ecurie-Roclincourt, near the road from Lille, they blew up several +German trenches and prevented their reconstruction. In Champagne the +French made fresh progress. They gained ground in the woods to the +northeast of Souain and to the northwest of Perthes. They also +repulsed two German counterattacks in front of Ridge 196, northeast of +Mesnil, and extended their position in that sector. In the region of +Bagatelle in the Argonne two German counterattacks were repulsed. The +French demolished a blockhouse there, and established themselves on +the site of it. Between Four-de-Paris and Bolante the Germans +attempted two counterattacks which failed. At Vauquois the French +infantry delivered an attack which gave it possession of the western +part of the village. Here they made prisoners. At the Bois-le-Pretre, +northeast of Pont-a-Mousson, the Germans blew up with a mine four of +the French advanced trenches which were completely destroyed. The +Germans gained a footing there, but the French retook the first two +trenches and a half of the third. Between the Bois-le-Pretre and +Pont-a-Mousson, in the Haut de Rupt, the Germans made an attack which +was repulsed. + +In Champagne, before Hill 196, northeast of Mesnil, on March 19, 1915, +the Germans, after violently bombarding the French position, made an +infantry attack which was repulsed with heavy losses. + +In the Woevre, in the Bois Mortmore, on March 20, 1915, the French +artillery destroyed a blockhouse and blew up several ammunition wagons +and stores. At La Boisselle, northeast of Albert, the Germans, after a +violent bombardment, attempted a night attack which was repulsed with +large losses. + +The Germans bombarded the Cathedral of Soissons again on March 21, +1915, firing twenty-seven shells and causing severe damage to the +structure. On the same day Rheims was bombarded, fifty shells falling +there. + +Near Bagatelle the French, on March 22, blew up three mines; and two +companies of their troops stormed a German trench in which they +maintained their position in spite of a strong counterattack. Five +hundred yards from there, the Germans, after exploding two mines, and +bombarding the French trenches, rushed to an attack on a front of +about two hundred and fifty yards. After some very hot hand-to-hand +fighting the assailants were hurled back in spite of the arrival of +their reenforcements. The French artillery caught them under its fire +as they were falling back, and inflicted very heavy losses. + +The French then retreated some fifteen meters at Vauquois on March 23, +1915, when the Germans sprayed one of their trenches with inflammable +liquid. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV + +CAMPAIGN IN ARGONNE AND AROUND ARRAS + + +There were some weak places in the French line from Switzerland to the +North Sea; and one of them was that part in the region between the +Forest of the Argonne and Rheims. General Langle de Cary was in +command of the army which held this section. It requires no military +genius to comprehend that the French center and the right wing from +Belfort to Verdun were not safe until the Germans had been forced back +across the Aisne at every place. The French general had made an effort +to drive the Germans under General von Einem from Champagne +Pouilleuse. The preliminary effort had been to stop the Germans from +using the railroad which ran from near the Nort to Varennes through +the Forest of the Argonne and across the upper Aisne to Bazancourt. + +[Illustration: Prayer in a French church which the exigencies of war +have converted into a Red Cross hospital.] + +After the battle of the Marne, the crown prince's army, severely +handled by the Third French Army under General Sarrail, pushed hastily +toward the north and established itself on a line running +perpendicularly through the Argonne Forest, at about ten or fifteen +kilometers from the road connecting Ste. Menehould with Verdun. Almost +immediately there developed a series of fights that lasted during a +whole year and were really among the bloodiest and most murderous +combats of the war. The German army in the Argonne, commanded by the +crown prince, whose headquarters had long been established at Stenay, +consisted of the finest German troops, including, among others, the +famous Sixteenth Corps from Metz, which, with the Fifteenth Corps from +Strassburg, is considered the cream of the Germanic forces. This corps +was commanded by the former governor of Metz, General von Mudra, an +expert in all branches of warfare relating to fortresses and mines. +Specially reenforced by battalions of sharpshooters and a division of +Wuerttembergers, the Twenty-Seventh, accustomed to forest warfare, this +corps made the most violent efforts from the end of September, +1914, to throw the French troops back to the south and seize the road +to Verdun. The crown prince evidently meant to sever this route and +the adjoining highway, leading from Verdun to Ste. Menehould. The road +then turns to the south and joins at Revigny, the main line of +Bar-le-Duc to Paris via Chalons, forming, in fact, the only possible +line of communication for the fortress of Verdun. The other line, +running from Verdun to St. Mihiel, was rendered useless after the +Germans had fixed themselves at St. Mihiel in September, 1914. + +Up to the first months of 1916 there was only a small local railway +that could be used between Revigny and Ste. Menehould by Triaucourt. +Of the two big lines, one was cut by the Germans, and the other was +exposed to the fire of their heavy artillery. + +The violence of the German attacks in the Argonne prove that so long +ago as September, 1914, they already dreamt of taking Verdun. Their +aim was to force the French troops against Ste. Menehould and invest +the fortress on three sides to bring about its fall. + +These Argonne battles were invested with a particular interest and +originality. They were in progress for a whole year, in a thick forest +of almost impenetrable brushwood, split with numerous deep ravines and +abrupt, slippery precipices. The humidity of the forest is excessive, +the waters pouring down from high promontories. The soldiers who +struggled here practically spent two winters in the water. + +One can hardly imagine the courage and heroism necessary to bear the +terrible hardships of fighting under such conditions. All the German +soldiers made prisoners by the French describe life in the Argonne as +a hideous nightmare. + +From the end of September, 1914, the Germans delivered day and night +attacks, generally lasting ten days. These attacks were made with +forces of three or four battalions up to a division or a division and +a half. In each attack the Germans aimed at a very limited +objective--to capture the first or second line of trenches, to seize +some particular fortified point. That object once attained, the +Germans held on there, consolidated the occupied terrain, fortified +their new positions and prepared for another push forward. It was thus +by a process of nibbling the French trenches bit by bit that the +Germans hoped to attain the Verdun-Ste. Menehould line. + +The tactics employed in these combats were those suited to forest +fighting; sapping operations methodically and minutely carried out to +bring the German trenches as near as possible to the French; laying +small mines to be exploded at a certain hour. Two or three hours +before an attack the French positions were bombarded by trench mortars +and especially heavy mine throwers. + +At the short distances the effect would naturally be to cause +considerable damage; trenches and their parapets were demolished, +shelters, screening reserves, were torn open. At that moment when the +attack is to be launched, the German artillery drops the "fire +curtain" behind the enemy trenches to prevent reenforcements from +arriving. Such are the tactics almost constantly employed by the +Germans. + +Despite their most furious efforts during the winter of 1914 and the +spring and summer of 1915, in at least forty different attacks, the +German gains were very insignificant, and if one considers the line +they held after the battle of the Marne and compares it with their +present position, one may gather some idea of how little progress they +have made. + +It was in June and July, 1915, that the Germans displayed their main +efforts in the Argonne. Their three great attacks were made with +greater forces than ever before (two or three divisions), but the +results were as profitless as their predecessors. The heroism of the +French barred the way. + +At Arras in June, there was almost as much activity as at Ypres. +During the last part of the campaign in the Artois, General d'Urbal +began an advance between Hebuterne and Serre. The former had been held +by the French and the latter by the Germans. The two villages were +each on a small hill and not quite two miles apart. There were two +lines of German trenches in front of the farm of Tout Vent which was +halfway between the villages. + +The trenches were held by the Seventeenth Baden Regiment which was +attacked by the French on June 7, 1915. The French troops consisted of +Bretons, Vendeans, and soldiers from Savoy and Dauphine. The work of +the infantry was preceded by a heavy bombardment to which the German +artillery replied. Then the French charged with a dash that seemed +irresistible. + +On the following day, June 8, 1915, the French gained more ground to +the north in spite of the activity of the German artillery. June 9, +1915, saw desperate fighting in the German communicating trenches, and +on June 10, 1915, several hundred yards of trenches to the south were +taken. The Seventeenth Baden Regiment was only a name and a memory +when the fighting ceased; and two German battalions had fared but +little better. Of the five hundred and eighty prisoners taken ten were +officers. + +General de Castelnau, on the day before the fighting at Hebuterne, +made a break in the German line east of Forest of l'Aigle which is a +continuation of the Forest of Compiegne but is separated from it by +the Aisne. Within the French lines were the farms of Ecaffaut and +Quennevieres. The Germans held Les Loges and Tout Vent. There was a +German salient opposite Quennevieres with a small fort at the peak of +the salient. Defenses had been built also where the northern and +southern sides of the salient rested on the main line of trenches. +There were two lines of trenches on the arc of the salient with three +lines on a portion of the arc. An indented trench held the chord of +the arc. The Germans had placed several guns in a ravine which ran +down toward Tout Vent. Four companies of the Eighty-sixth Regiment had +held the salient. + +On June 5, 1915, the reserve troops were taken from the Tout Vent +ravine for reenforcements. Their places were occupied then by other +German troops. The French artillery bombarded the fort at the peak of +the salient, and all of the trenches and defenses of the Germans in +that neighborhood and the French infantry kept up a rifle and +machine-gun fire which was an aid in preventing the Germans from +repairing the damage done their defenses. The bombardment continued +all day and all night and increased in volume and intensity on the +morning of June 6, 1915. Then it was continued intermittently. A mine +under the fort at the peak of the salient blew up. The Germans who +sought refuge in their dugouts found them unavailing. The shells had +blown the roofs from those places of supposed safety. In many +instances their occupants had been buried in the debris and +suffocated. The French artillery lengthened its range and made a +curtain of fire between the Germans on the front and the German +supports in the rear. Then the French infantry charged. The men had +dispensed with knapsack that they might not be hampered with +unnecessary weight. All had three rations and two hundred and fifty +rounds of ammunition. They were also provided with two hand grenades +and a sack. The last was to be filled with earth. The filled sacks +were sufficient to form breastworks with which any place taken might +be held. With a cheer the French infantry ran across the two hundred +yards between the two lines. The German infantry's nerves had been so +badly shaken by the bombardment that only a scattering fire, badly +directed, greeted the French. It was but the work of minutes to take +the first line of German trenches. The two hundred and fifty survivors +of two German battalions were made prisoners. The German reserves in +the ravine on the Tout Vent farm made a dash to aid their fire line; +but the French artillery shells accounted for them before the reserves +ever reached those whom they would have relieved. Thus in less than an +hour 2,000 Germans were put out of the fight. The French who had been +selected for this work included Bretons, Zouaves, and Chasseurs. + +The Zouaves then made a dash for the ravine on the Tout Vent front. +There they came upon a field work equipped with three guns. This work +was protected by wire entanglements. The German artillerymen retreated +to their dugouts, but the Zouaves captured them and their +fortification. At that stage of the fighting the French aviators saw +German reenforcements on their way to take part in the battle. The +aviators signaled to their troops this information. Two German +battalions were being hurried in motor cars from Roye to the east of +the Oise; but before they reached the scene of the fighting the +Germans managed to mass for a counterattack. It was ill-planned and +executed. French shrapnel and machine guns annihilated those making +the counterattack. In the meantime the French sappers were fortifying +with sacks of earth the ends of the salient, so that by night the +French were in a position to hold what they had gained. The +precautions which the French had made were shown to be extremely +timely, for that night the reenforcements from Roye made eight +desperate attacks. + +The lack of success throughout the night did not prevent the Germans +from making a reckless attack on the French works at both ends of the +salient on the morning of June 7. The Germans made their advance along +the lines of the communicating trenches. They were greeted with a +shower of hand grenades. By nightfall the Germans seemed to have +wearied of the attacks. The total German loss in killed in this +engagement was three thousand. The French had lost only two hundred +and fifty killed and fifteen hundred wounded. They captured a large +amount of equipage and ammunition, besides twenty machine guns. + +The French front south of Pont-a-Mousson, on the Moselle, through the +gap of Nancy to the tops of the Vosges experienced only slight changes +during the spring and summer of 1915. The Germans assumed the +offensive in the region of La Fontenelle, in the Ban-de-Sapt, in April +and June. The French engineers had built a redoubt to the east of La +Fontenelle on Hill 627. The Germans found they could not take it by an +assault; so their sappers went to work to tunnel under it; but they +had to bore through very hard rock and the work was necessarily slow. +The French, learning of the mining operations of their foes, started a +countereffort with the result that there was a succession of fierce +skirmishes under the surface of the earth. Finally the German sappers +were lured into a communicating tunnel which had been mined for the +purpose and they all perished. The greatest activity of the sappers +was between April 6 and April 13, 1915. On the night of the latter +date the officers of the Germans tried to rally their men for further +operations, but their soldiers had had enough and refused to renew +their work. + +The Germans, however, did not give up in their attempts to take Hill +627, which they called Ban-de-Sapt, and in an assault they made upon +it on June 22 they took the hill. Thereupon the general in command of +the Thirtieth Bavarian Division made the following announcement: + +"I have confidence that the height of Ban-de-Sapt will be transformed +with the least possible delay into an impregnable fortification and +that the efforts of the French to retake it will be bloodily +repulsed." + +On the night of July 8 the French began a bombardment which was +followed by an infantry charge which forced its way through five lines +of trenches and gained the redoubt on the top of the hill, in spite of +its corrugated iron and gun-shield defenses to which had been added +logs and tree trunks. At the same time the French made an attack on +the German trenches on the left and surrounded the hill from the +eastward. The Germans on the right flank of the French were kept busy +by another attack. In this battle two battalions of the Fifth Bavarian +Ersatz Brigade were taken from the German ranks either by death or as +prisoners. The French captured eight hundred and eighty-one, of whom +twenty-one were officers, who, for the most part, were men of more +than ordinary education. + +The principal work of the French troops at this time was in the valley +of the Fecht and the neighboring mountains. They planned to go down +through the valley to Muenster and take the railroad to which the +mountain railroads were tributaries. In connection with this campaign +in the mountains the achievement of a company of French Chasseurs +serves to illustrate the heroic and hardy character of these men. They +were surrounded by German troops on June 14, 1915, but refused to +surrender. Instead they built a square camp which they prepared to +hold as long as one of them remained alive. When their ammunition +began to give out, they rolled rocks down on their enemy and hurled +large stones at the advancing foe. At the same time the French +artillery aided them by raining shells on the Germans, though the +artillery was miles from the scene of action. Thus the Chasseurs were +able to hold their position until they were relieved on June 17, +1915. In the meantime the French proceeded down the valley of the +Fecht and up the mountains overlooking the valley. An assault was made +on the top of Braunkopf and an attack was made on Anlass on June 15 +and 16, 1915. The French captured Metzeral on June 19, 1915, the +Germans having set fire to it before being driven out. The soldiers of +the republic then began to bombard Muenster with such success that they +destroyed a German ammunition depot there. The Sondernach ridge was +held by the French about the middle of July, 1915, and they continued +to gain ground so that they were near Muenster by the end of July, +1915. In these actions the French mountaineers were pitting their +skill against the mountaineers from Bavaria. + +By midsummer the lines on both sides of the western front were an +elaborate series of field fortifications. The shallow trenches of the +preceding fall were practically things of the past. And these +fortifications extended from the Vosges to the North Sea. They +naturally varied with the nature of the region in which they were +built. The marshy character of the soil along the Yser and about the +Ypres salient made it impossible to go down very deep. Hence it was +necessary to build up parapets which were easy marks for the +artillery. The Germans had the better places on the higher levels from +Ypres to Armentieres; but the British line opposing them showed +remarkable engineering skill. The advances of the Allies had resulted +in making the first line of trenches somewhat temporary in character +in the sections about Festubert, La Bassee, and the Artois; but in +these regions there were strong fortifications in the rear of both +lines. The condition of the ground from Arras to Compiegne was +excellent for fortification purposes. The Teutons had the better +position in the chalky region along the Aisne, though the chalk +formation did not add to the comfort of the men. In the northern part +of Champagne trench life was more bearable. The forests in the +Argonne, the Woevre, and the Vosges made the trenches the best of all +on the western front. The greater part of these so-called trenches, +the like of which had never before been constructed, could not be +taken without a bombardment by heavy artillery. And, in the rear of +each line there was a series of other fortifications quite as +impregnable. This condition was a gradual growth which had developed +as a result of the increasingly new methods of attack. As new means of +taking life were invented, new means of protection came into +existence, until, for the present, the inventive genius of man seemed +to be at a standstill. But all this activity and preparation at the +front meant a greater activity in the rear of the opposing lines. +Fighting men were a necessity; but, under existing conditions of +warfare, they were useless unless they were kept supplied by an army +of artisans and another army of men to transport munitions to the +soldiers on the firing line. In fact it was being forced on the minds +of the commanding officers that the war could be won in the workshop +and laboratory rather than on the battle field. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI + +BELGO-GERMAN OPERATIONS + + +For the most part the activity of the Belgian army in February, 1915, +consisted of a continuous succession of advanced-post encounters, in +which detachments of from thirty to forty soldiers fought with the +Germans on the narrow strips of land which remained inundated, while +the artillery of the contending forces bombarded the trenches and the +machine-gun forts. The intermittent artillery duel continued through +the forepart of February, 1915, and on February 14, 1915, the Germans +bombarded Nieuport, Bains and the Dune trenches, and continued the +bombardment on February 15, 1915, and again on February 20, 1915. + +Near Dixmude on February 28, 1915, the Belgian artillery demolished +two of the German trenches, and their infantry occupied a farm on the +right bank of the Yser. One of their aviators dropped bombs on the +harbor station at Ostend. + +By the beginning of March, 1915, strips of dry land began to be seen +in the flooded region; and, along these, the Belgians advanced at +Dixmude and the bend of the Yser. They won additional bridgeheads on +the northern bank of the river. By the middle of the month, March, +1915, the Belgians had obtained a strategical point by possessing +Oudstuyvenkerke on the Schoorbakke highway. From there they could +force the Germans back until they were in a position that would +prevent any German action against the Dixmude bridgehead. + +On March 18, 1915, the Belgian army continued its progress on the +Yser, and on March 23, 1915, the artillery destroyed several German +observation points. A division of the Belgian army made some progress +on the right bank of the Yser on March 24, 1915; while another was +taking a German trench on the left bank. The almost continuous +artillery fighting was more active in the Nieuport region on March 26, +1915; and farther south a farm north of St. Georges in advance of the +allied lines was taken and held. + +But the Belgian army was unable to take any decisive action against +the left wing of the German army during the spring and summer of 1915, +both on account of the wetness of the land and the activity of the +German artillery. Yet it harassed the Germans by so much activity that +the Teutons continued to add to their heavy howitzers and large +caliber naval guns. Nevertheless the Belgian strategy gained for its +little army many advantages of tactical importance. It seemed to be a +part of the plan of the Belgian generals to give their new troops, +which were filling up the previously thinned ranks, a training under +heavy bombardments without risking the lives or liberty of many of +their men. They held the old cobbled roads which remained about the +waters, using an almost innumerable number of trenches for that +purpose. + +The Germans sought to obviate this check to their activities by +approaching on rafts on which were machine guns, from which attempts +were made to pour an enfilading fire on the trenches. Thereupon the +Belgian sharpshooters became especially active and exterminated the +machine-gun crews before the Germans could take advantage of the +position they had gained by using the rafts. + +Finally the waters subsided and the mud which remained dried. As soon +as the ground became firm enough to support troops the Belgians became +so active that the Germans desired more men, but their soldiers were +also needed in many other sections of the western front, and for the +time being none could be sent against the Belgians. Hence King +Albert's troops continued to make progress. + +The Germans made an attack between Nieuport and the sea on May 9, +1915, but were repulsed. To the north of Dixmude the Belgians were +violently attacked during the night of May 10, 1915, by three German +battalions. They were repulsed and suffered large losses. + +On the night of May 16, 1915, the Germans threatened with complete +envelopment by the successful attacks of preceding days, evacuated the +positions which they had occupied to the west of the Yser Canal, and +they gained nothing on the eastern bank. The Germans left about two +thousand dead and many rifles when they were forced from the western +bank. On the following night, May 17, 1915, the positions on the +eastern bank were consolidated, and a German counterattack, which was +preceded by a bombardment, was repulsed. The Germans gained a footing +in the trenches to the east of the Yser Canal in an attack made on the +night of May 20, 1915, but they were driven out and lost some of the +ground they had held before making the attack. + +The Germans made a violent attack on the edge of the Belgian front at +Nieuport in order to prevent the Belgians from aiding in the defense +of Ypres, but the Belgians defended Nieuport with one army corps and +made an advance on Dixmude with another corps, with the result that +they assisted the Zouaves in taking the German bridgeheads on the +western bank of the canal above Ypres. These bridgeheads were +protected by forts manned by machine guns, and the approaches were +commanded by heavy artillery fire, but defense was destroyed in the +middle of May, 1915. + +The Germans concentrated their efforts against the Belgians at one +point between Ypres and Dixmude. They bombarded the trenches, using +bombs filled with poisonous gas. When they believed the Belgians had +been overcome by the gas the German infantry charged. The Belgians, +however, had kept their faces close to the ground, thus escaping most +of the fumes from the shells. When the Germans arrived within easy +range they were greeted with machine-gun fire to such an extent that +the companies leading the charge were slain. + +A battalion of Belgian troops on June 14, 1915, gained the east bank +of the Yser south of the Dixmude railroad bridge, and established +themselves there. The Belgians also destroyed a German blockhouse in +the vicinity of the Chateau of Dixmude. The Belgian troops, south of +St. Georges, captured a German trench, all the defenders of which were +killed or made prisoners on June 22, 1915. + +After the canal line was won, and the Belgians were in position to +hold it, they could make little headway eastward. Their advance was +checked by a series of batteries which were concealed in the Forest of +Houthulst. These batteries, containing many guns of large caliber, +continued to shell the Belgian trenches to such an extent that it was +necessary for their inhabitants to keep close to the bomb-proof +chambers with which the trenches were liberally supplied. But the +Belgians kept so many of the German troops occupied that, in this way, +they gave great aid to their allies, and enabled the French and +British to regain much of the territory which was lost in the first +attack which the Germans made with poisonous gas. The remainder of the +summer was occupied with intermittent artillery duels and minor +engagements between the opposing trench lines. In the meantime the +Belgian army was adding to the number of its troops and gathering +munitions for an aggressive movement. + + + + +PART V--NAVAL OPERATIONS + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII + +THE WAR ZONE + + +The war on the seas, with the long-expected battle between the fleets +of the great nations, developed during the second six months of the +war into a strange series of adventures. The fleets of the British and +the Germans stood like huge phantoms--the first enshrouded in mystery +somewhere in the Irish and North Seas; the second held in leash behind +the Kiel Canal, awaiting the opportune moment to make its escape. + +These tense, waiting days were broken by sensational and spectacular +incidents--not so much through the sea fights of great modern warships +as through the adventures of the raiders on the seven seas, the +exploits of the submarines, and the daring attempt of the allied +fleets to batter down the mighty forts in the Dardanelles and bombard +their way toward Constantinople--the coveted stronghold of the Ottoman +Empire. The several phases of these naval operations are described in +special chapters in this volume, therefore We will now confine +ourselves to the general naval developments. + +In the spring of 1915 the threat made by Admiral von Tirpitz that +Germany would carry on war against British and allied shipping by +sinking their vessels with submarines, was made effective. The +submersible craft began to appear on all the coasts of the British +Isles. It infested the Irish Sea to such an extent that shipping +between England and Ireland was seriously menaced. + +A particularly daring raid took place on the night of February 1, +1915, when a number of submarines tried to scuttle ships lying at +Dover. The attack failed, but drew fire from the guns of the fort +here.[1] + + [Footnote 1: See chapter on "Exploits of the Submarines."] + +On the 5th of February, 1915, the German Naval Staff announced that +beginning February 18, 1915, the waters around Great Britain would be +considered a "war zone." This was in retaliation for the blockade +maintained against Germany by the British navy. The proclamation read +as follows: + +"The waters round Great Britain and Ireland, including the whole of +the English Channel, are herewith proclaimed a war region. + +"On and after February 18, 1915, every enemy merchant vessel found in +this war region will be destroyed without its always being possible to +warn the crew or passengers of the dangers threatening. + +"Neutral ships will also incur danger in the war region, where, in +view of the misuse of the neutral flags ordered by the British +Government and incidents inevitable in sea warfare, attacks intended +for hostile ships may affect neutral ships also. + +"The sea passage to the north of the Shetland Islands and the eastern +region of the North Sea in a zone of at least thirty miles along the +Netherlands coast is not menaced by any danger. + +(Signed) Berlin, February 4, 1915, Chief of Naval Staff, + + VON POHL." + +[Illustration: The German Submarine War Zone.] + +The effect of this proclamation, which was in truth nothing more than +official sanction for the work that the submarines had been doing for +some weeks, and which they continued to do, was to bring Germany into +diplomatic controversy with neutral countries, particularly the United +States; such controversy is taken up in a different chapter of this +history. In connection with the naval history of the Great War it +suffices to say that such a proclamation constituted a precedent in +naval history. The submarine had heretofore been an untried form of +war craft. The rule had formerly been that a merchantman stopped by an +enemy's warship was subject to search and seizure, and, if it offered +no resistance, was taken to one of the enemy's ports as a prize. If +it offered resistance it might be summarily sunk. But it was +impossible for submarines to take ships into port on account of the +patrols of allied warships; and the limited quarters of submarines +made it impossible to take aboard them the crews of ships which they +sank. + +Reference made to the use of neutral flags quoted in the German +proclamation had been induced by the fact that certain of the British +merchant ships, after Germany had begun to send them to the bottom +whenever one of its submarines caught up with them had gone through +the waters where the submarines operated flying the flag of the United +States and other neutral powers in order to deceive the commanders of +the submarines. The latter had little time to do more than take a +brief observation of merchantmen which they sank, and one of the first +things they sought was the nationality of the flag that the intended +victims carried; unless they could be sure of the identity of a ship +through familiarity with the lines of her hull, they ran the risk, in +attacking a ship flying a neutral flag, of sinking a vessel belonging +to a neutral power. + +Here was another matter that opened up diplomatic exchanges between +Germany and the United States, and between the United States and +England. It suffices here to give not only the controversy or the +points involved, but the record of events. The first use of the flag +of a neutral country by a ship belonging to one of the belligerents in +the Great War occurred on January 31, 1915, when the Cunard liner +_Orduna_ carried the American flag at her forepeak in journeying from +Liverpool to Queenstown. She again did so on February 1, 1915, when +she left the latter port for New York. And another notable instance +was on February 11, 1915, when the _Lusitania_, another Cunard liner, +arrived at Liverpool flying the American flag in obedience to orders +issued by the British admiralty. It was only the prominence of these +vessels which gave them notoriety in this regard; the same practice +was indulged in by many smaller ships. + +"What will happen after the 18th?" was the one important question +asked during February, 1915, by the public of the neutral as well as +belligerent countries. + +February 18, 1915, arrived and saw Von Pohl's proclamation go into +effect, and from that date onward the toll of ships sunk, both of +neutral and belligerent countries, grew longer daily. + +But before the German submarines could begin the new campaign, those +of the British navy became active, and it was admitted in Berlin on +February 15, 1915, that British submarines had made their way into the +Baltic, through the sound between Sweden and Denmark, where they +attacked the German cruiser _Gazelle_ unsuccessfully. + +Nor was the British navy inactive in other ways, though it had been +greatly discredited by the fact that the German submarines were +playing havoc with British shipping right at England's door. A fleet +of two battleships and several cruisers drew up off Westende and +bombarded the German trenches on the 4th of February, 1915. + +Only one day after the war-zone proclamation went into effect the +Allies brought out their trump card for the spring of 1915. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII + +ATTACK ON THE DARDANELLES + + +By the middle of February, 1915, the Allies completed the arrangement +for the naval attack on the Dardanelles. The military part of the +campaign in these regions is treated in the chapter on the "Campaign +in the Dardanelles"; hence we must confine ourselves at present to the +general naval affairs. The naval operations began with the +concentration in the adjacent waters of a powerful fleet consisting of +both French and British ships. + +The ships engaged were the _Queen Elizabeth_, with her main battery of +15-inch guns, the _Inflexible_, veteran of the fight off the Falkland +Islands, the _Agamemnon_, _Cornwallis_, _Triumph_, and _Vengeance_. In +addition to these British ships there were the French battleships +_Suffren_, _Gaulois_, and _Bouvet_, and a fleet of destroyers. The +senior British officer was Vice Admiral Sackville Carden, and the +French commander was Admiral Guepratte. A new "mother ship" for a +squadron of seaplanes was also part of the naval force; this was the +ship _Ark Royal_. At eight in the morning on February 19, 1915, this +powerful fleet started "The Great Attempt." + +After bombarding the Turkish forts till three in the afternoon without +receiving a single reply from the guns of the forts, the warships +ceased firing and went in closer to the shore, the allied commanders +believing that the forts had not replied because they all had been put +out of action. The fallacy of this belief was discovered when, at the +shortened range, shells began to fall about the ships. None was hit; +when dusk came on they retired. + +Stormy weather prevented further action on the part of the warships +for almost a week, but on February 25, 1915, they resumed their +bombardment. The _Irresistible_ and _Albion_ had by then joined the +other British ships, and the _Charlemagne_ had augmented the French +force. + +At ten o'clock in the morning of February 25, 1915, the _Queen +Elizabeth_, _Gaulois_, _Irresistible_, and _Agamemnon_ began to fire +on the forts Sedd-el-Bahr, Orkanieh, Kum Kale, and Cape Hellas--the +outer forts--at long range, and drew replies from the Turkish guns. It +was out of all compliance with naval tradition for warships to stand +and engage land fortifications, for lessons learned by naval +authorities from the Spanish-American and Russo-Japanese wars had +established precedents which prohibited it. But here the larger +warships were carrying heavier guns than those in the forts. Whereas +the _Queen Elizabeth_ carried 15-inch guns, the largest of the Turkish +guns measured only 10.2 inches. + +At 11.30 o'clock in the morning of February 25, 1915, the _Agamemnon_ +was hit with a shell which had traveled six miles, but it did not +damage her beyond repair. Meanwhile the _Queen Elizabeth_ had silenced +Cape Hellas, firing from a distance far beyond the range of the forts' +guns. And then, just before noon, and after the larger ship had +silenced the main battery at Cape Hellas, the ships _Vengeance_ and +_Cornwallis_ dashed in at shorter range and destroyed the minor +batteries there. The _Suffren_ and _Charlemagne_ also took part in +this phase of the engagement, and later, in the afternoon, the +_Triumph_ and _Albion_ concentrated fire on Sedd-el-Bahr, silencing +its last guns by five o'clock in the evening. + +The larger ships needed the respite during the night of February 25, +1915, while trawlers, which had been brought down from the North Sea +for the purpose, began to sweep the entrance to the forts for mines, +and cleared enough of them out by the morning of the 26th to enable +the _Majestic_--which had by then joined the fleet--and the _Albion_ +and _Vengeance_ to steam in between the flanking shores and fire at +the forts on the Asiatic side. It was known by the allied commanders +that they might expect return fire from Fort Dardanos, but this they +did not fear, for they knew that its heaviest gun measured but 5.9 +inches. But they had a surprise when concealed batteries near by, the +presence of which had not been suspected, suddenly began to fire. +Believing now that the Turks were abandoning the forts at the +entrance, the allied ships covered the landing of parties of marines. + +Long-range firing had by the end of February 26, 1915, enabled the +allied fleets to silence the outer forts and to clear their way to the +straits. They now had to take up the task of destroying the real +defenses of the Dardanelles--the forts at the Narrows, and this was a +harder task, for long-range firing was no longer possible. The guns of +the forts and those of the ships would be meeting on a more equal +basis. + +But this was not to be essayed at once, for more rough weather kept +the fleets from using their guns effectively, their trawlers continued +to sweep the waters for mines near the Narrows. By March 3, 1915, +however, the commanders were ready to resume operations. The _Lord +Nelson_ and the _Ocean_ had by then also arrived on the scene, and in +the subsequent operations were hit a number of times by the Turkish +guns; and the _Canopus_, _Swiftsure_, _Prince George_, and _Sapphire_, +though they did not report being hit, were also known to have been +present. + +The new "eyes" of the fleets located new and concealed batteries +placed in position by the Turks, and at two o'clock in the afternoon +of February 3, 1915, they ascended to direct the fire of the ships' +guns by signal. The bombardment was kept up till darkness fell, but it +was resumed on the next day. + +On March 4, 1915, the _Queen Elizabeth_, so great was the range of her +guns, was able to reach the forts Hamadieh I, Tabia, and Hamadieh II, +firing across the Gallipoli Peninsula. Three times she was hit by +shells from field pieces lying between her and her target, but no +great damage was done to her. While her guns roared out, the +_Suffren_, _Albion_, _Prince George_, _Vengeance_, and _Majestic_ went +inside the straits and had attacked the forts at Soundere, Mount +Dardanos, and Rumili Medjidieh Tabia, and were fired upon by Turkish +guns from the forts and from concealed batteries which struck these +ships, but not a man was killed or a ship put out of action. + +March 7, 1915, the _Agamemnon_ and _Lord Nelson_ attacked the forts at +the Narrows, their bombardment being covered by the four French +battleships. All of the ships were struck, but again none of them was +put out of action. After heavy shelling forts Rumili Medjidieh Tabia +and Hamadieh I were silenced. + +While these operations were going on, another British fleet, +consisting of battleships and cruisers, on March 5, 1915, began an +attack on Smyrna. For two hours, and in fine, clear weather, Fort Yeni +Kale was damaged after being subjected to heavy bombardment, but it +was not silenced when dusk interrupted the attack. + +Little was accomplished for some days afterward. Some of the forts +which had been reported silenced were getting ready to resume firing; +their silence had been due to the fact that the defenders often had to +leave their guns while the gases generated by the firing cleared off, +and they had also thought it wiser to conserve ammunition rather than +fire ineffective shots. Sedd-el-Bahr and Kum Kale were able to resume +firing in a few days, for though the shells of the allied fleets had +damaged the structural parts of these defenses, they had not landed +troops out to occupy them, with the result that the Turks were +enabled to intrench near the ruins and there reset their guns. + +On the morning of March 15, 1915, the small British cruiser _Amethyst_ +made a dash into the Narrows, which when reported led the British and +French public to believe that the defense had been forced, but, as a +matter of fact, this exploit was a bit of stratagem, being only +designed to draw the fire of concealed batteries. + +On March 18, 1915, "The Great Effort" was made to force the defenses +with naval operations, all previous work having been preliminary. The +battleships _Agamemnon_, _Prince George_, _Queen Elizabeth_, _Lord +Nelson_, _Triumph_, and _Inflexible_ steamed right up to the Narrows. +Four of them bombarded Chanak and a battery which lay opposite it, and +the forts at Saghandere, Kephez Point, and Dardanos were kept busy by +the _Triumph_ and the _Prince George_. After the fleet had been at it +for an hour and a half they received the support of the four French +ships which steamed in close and attacked the forts at a shorter +range. When the forts ceased firing the six battleships _Ocean_, +_Swiftsure_, _Majestic_, _Albion_, _Irresistible_, and _Vengeance_ +came in and tried to carry the attack further. While the French +squadron maneuvered to allow freedom of action for this newer British +squadron the Turkish guns resumed fire. Then came the first of a +series of disasters. Three shells struck the _Bouvet_, and she soon +began to keel over. When the underwater part of her hull came into +view it was seen that she had been hit underneath, probably by one of +the mines which the Turks had floated toward the crowded ships. She +sank almost immediately, carrying the greater part of her crew down +with her. Only two hours later another mine did damage to the +_Irresistible_, and she left the line, listing heavily. While she +floated and while she was under heavy fire from Turkish guns a +destroyer took off her crew. She sank just before six o'clock. Not +fifteen minutes later the _Ocean_ became the third victim of a +floating mine, and she also went to the bottom. Destroyers rescued +many of her crew from the water. The guns from the forts were also +able to do damage; the _Gaulois_ had been hit again and again, with +the result that she had a hole in her hull and her upper works were +damaged badly. Fire had broken out on the _Inflexible_, and a number +of her officers and crew had been either killed or wounded. The day +ended with the forts still able to return a lively fire to all +attacks, and "The Great Attempt" on the part of the allied fleets had +failed. + +On the other end of the passage there had also been some naval +operations, when, on March 28, 1915, the Black Sea Fleet of the +Russian navy had bombarded the forts on the Bosphorous. Smyrna was +again attacked on April 6, 1915. The operations of allied submarines +were the next phases of the attack on the Dardanelles to be reported. +The _E-5_ grounded near Kephez Point on April 17, 1915, but before she +could be captured by the Turks picket boats from the allied fleet +rescued her crew and then destroyed her. It was just two months now +since the naval operations had begun at the Dardanelles; it was seen +then that all attempts to take them by naval operations alone must +fail as did the attack of March 18, 1915. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX + +GERMAN RAIDERS AND SUBMARINES + + +The next important event in the naval history of the war occurred in +far-distant waters. On March 10, 1915, there ended the wonderful +career of the German auxiliary cruiser _Prinz Eitel Friedrich_, +Captain Thierichens, which on that date put in at the American port of +Newport News, Va., for repairs, after making the harbor in spite of +the watch kept on it by British cruisers. She brought with her more +than 500 persons, 200 of them being her own crew, and the remainder +being passengers and crews of French, British, Russian, and American +ships that had been her victims in her roving over 30,000 miles of the +Atlantic and Pacific oceans since leaving Tsing-tau seven months +before. + +She had sent eight merchant ships to the bottom, one of them being the +_William P. Frye_, an American vessel carrying wheat, three British +ships, three flying the French flag, and one Russian ship. Their total +tonnage came to 18,245. The fact that she had sunk an American ship on +the high seas opened up still another diplomatic controversy between +Germany and the United States, which cannot be treated here. + +When she left Tsing-tau she took as her crew the men from the German +gunboats _Tiger_ and _Luchs_, and had their four 4.1-inch and some of +their one-pounder guns as her armament. Soon afterward she stopped the +British ship _Schargost_ and expected to refill her coal bunkers from +those of the merchantman, but in this she was disappointed, for those +of the latter were almost empty. Her next victim was a French sailing +vessel, _Jean_, and on board this was found a pleasant surprise for +the German raider, for the vessel was laden with coal. Captain +Thierichens had her towed 1,500 miles, to Easter Island, where the +coal was transferred to the bunkers of the _Eitel Friedrich_, and the +crews of her first three victims were put ashore. These marooned men +were burdens to the white inhabitants of the island, for there was not +too much food for the extra forty-eight mouths. Finally, on February +26, 1915, the Swedish ship _Nordic_ saw them signaling from the island +and took them off, landing them at Panama on the day after the _Prinz +Eitel Friedrich_ entered Newport News. + +By the beginning of December, 1914, the German raider was in the South +Atlantic, and while there heard wireless messages exchanged between +the ships of the British fleet that took part in the battle off the +Falkland Islands. The bark _Isabella Browne_, flying the Russian flag, +was the next ship overtaken by the _Eitel Friedrich_, on January 26, +1915. She was boarded and all of her provisions and stores were +removed to the German ship; after her crew and their personal effects +were taken aboard the German ship she was dynamited and sank. On that +same morning the French ship _Pierre Loti_ was sighted, and while the +_Prinz Eitel Friedrich_ put an end to her, after first taking off her +crew, the captive crew of the _Isabella Browne_ was sent below, but +was allowed to come on deck to watch the sinking of the French ship. +The American ship _William P. Frye_ was sunk soon afterward, and her +crew, also, was made part of the party on board the raider. After +sinking the French bark _Jacobsen_ the _Prinz Eitel Friedrich_ stopped +the _Thalasia_ on February 8, 1915, and let her go on her way, but on +February 18 the British ships _Cindracoe_ and _Mary Ada Scott_ were +sunk. On the 19th the French steamer _Floride_ was overtaken off the +coast of Brazil; all persons aboard her were transferred to the German +ship and most of her provisions were also taken aboard the latter; the +_Floride_, the largest steamer destroyed by the German ship, was set +afire and left to burn. On February 20, 1915, the British ship +_Willerby_ was overtaken and nearly sank the _Prinz Eitel Friedrich_ +before being boarded. As the German ship passed across the stern of +the other at a short distance the British captain, knowing that the +end of his own ship was near, decided to take his captor down with +him. He tried to ram the German ship with the stern of his ship, but +failed in the attempt. + +On the evening of February 20, 1915, the wireless operator of the +_Prinz Eitel Friedrich_ heard British cruisers "talking" with each +other, one of them being the _Berwick_. The German captain now saw +that his long raiding cruise was up, for though he could replenish his +stores and bunkers from captured ships he could not make the many +repairs which his vessel needed. To put them off at a neutral port or +to let them go in one of the ships he captured would mean that his +position would be reported to British ships within a week. He +therefore decided to end his raiding and put in at Newport News. His +vessel was interned in the American port. + +We may now return to the story of the blockade against Germany and the +retaliation she sought. The Allies were now stopping as much shipping +on its way to Germany as they dared without bringing on trouble with +neutral powers. The _Dacia_, formerly a German merchantman, was taken +over, after the outbreak of the war, by an American citizen and sailed +from New Orleans for Rotterdam with a cargo of cotton on February 12, +1915. She was stopped by a French warship and taken to a French port +February 27, 1915, and there held till the matter of the validity of +her transfer of registry could be settled. + +On the other hand the German submarine exploits continued and found +among their victims a British warship, along with the many +merchantmen. On March 11, 1915, the British auxiliary cruiser +_Bayano_, while on patrol duty became the victim of a German torpedo +off the Scotch coast. She went down almost immediately, carrying with +her the greater part of her crew. + +But not always were the submarines immune. Only the day before the +British destroyer _Ariel_ rammed the German submarine _U-12_ and sent +her to the bottom, after rescuing her crew. She was of an older type, +built in 1911, of submarine, and had played an active part in the +raiding in British waters. On February 21, 1915, she had sunk the +Irish coasting steamer _Downshire_ in the Irish Sea, and her +destruction was particularly welcome in British shipping circles. + +Once more an incident in the naval warfare of the Great War was to +involve diplomatic exchanges between the belligerents and the United +States. The African liner _Falaba_, a British ship on her way from +Liverpool to Lisbon, was torpedoed in St. George's Channel on the +afternoon of March 28, 1915. She had as one of her passengers an +American, L. C. Thrasher, who lost his life when the ship sank. + +The naval warfare was proceeding like a game of checkers. When on +March 14, 1915, there came the end of still another of the German +raiding cruisers, the _Dresden_. She was a cruiser built in 1907 and +having a displacement of 3,544 tons. Her speed was good--24.5 +knots--and her armament of ten 4.1-inch guns and eight 5-pounder guns +made her quite a match for enemy warships of her class and superior as +for merchantmen. She was a sister ship to that other famous raider the +_Emden_. In 1909 she had taken her place among the other foreign +warships in the line in the Hudson River, participating in the +Hudson-Fulton Celebration. In the spring of 1914 she was in the +neighborhood of Central America and rescued a number of foreign +refugees who fled from Mexico, and also took Senor Huerta from Puerto +Mexico. + +She was still in that neighborhood when the war broke out, and was +immediately sought after by British and French warships which were +near by. She managed to get away from these pursuers and sank the +British steamers _Hyades_ and _Holmwood_ off the Brazilian coast +during the latter part of August, 1914. She then went south, rounded +the Horn and joined the other ships under command of Admiral Von Spee, +taking part in the battle off Coronel, on November 1, 1914. + +She remained with that squadron and took part in a second battle--that +off the Falkland Islands--on December 8, 1914. When Admiral von Spee +saw that he had little chance of winning the battle he gave orders +that the lighter ships should leave the line and seek safety in +flight. The _Dresden_ was one of the ships which escaped, to the +chagrin of the British Admiral. She then turned "raider." + +Five days later, on December 13, 1914, she had appeared off Punta +Arenas, in the Straits of Magellan, stopped at that port long enough +to take on some provisions and put to sea again, with British and +Japanese warships on her trail. She was too closely hunted to be able +to sink many ships, but during the week of March 12, 1915, she sank +the British steamer _Conway Castle_, off the coast of Chile, and took +coal and provisions from the two German steamers _Alda_ and _Sierra +Cordoba_. + +On March 14, 1915, she was sighted by the British cruisers _Glasgow_, +_Kent_ and _Orama_ near Juan Fernandez Island. What then ensued is in +doubt, owing to conflicting reports made by the senior British officer +and by the captain of the German cruiser. The latter insisted that, +seeing his ship was at the end of her career, he ordered his men to +leave her and then blew her up. The former declared that shots were +exchanged, that she was set afire and was otherwise badly damaged by +the British fire. At any rate, she was destroyed, and all of her men +were saved. It was estimated that the amount of damage she inflicted +on allied trade amounted to $1,250,000. + +Thus at the end of March, 1915, only the _Karlsruhe_ and _Kronprinz +Wilhelm_, of the eleven German warships that were detached from the +main German fleet in the North Sea at the outbreak of the war, and of +the few ships which slipped out of various ports as converted +auxiliary cruisers, were still at large on the high seas. + +Naval activity in the northern waters of Europe did not abate. The +British admiralty on March 25, 1915, had announced that the German +submarine _U-29_, one of the most improved craft of the type in use, +had been sunk. This loss was admitted by the German admiralty on April +7, 1915. It was a serious loss to the German navy, for its commander +was Otto von Weddigen, he who, in the _U-9_, had sent the _Cressy_, +_Aboukir_ and _Hogue_ to the bottom in September, 1914. + +The naval warfare at the Dardanelles proceeded in the same desultory +fashion. A Turkish torpedo boat caught up with the British transport +_Manitou_, and opened fire on her, killing some twenty of the soldiers +on board. + +In answer to calls for help from the _Manitou_ the British cruiser +_Minerva_ and some torpedo boats went to the scene and attacked the +Turkish craft on April 7, 1915, driving it ashore off Chios and +destroyed it as it lay beached. But during April, 1915, it seemed as +though there would be another pitched fight between British and German +warships in the North Sea. On April 23, 1915, the German admiralty +announced that "the German High Sea Fleet has recently cruised +repeatedly in the North Sea, advancing into English waters without +meeting the sea forces of Great Britain." The British admiralty had +undoubtedly been aware of this activity on the part of their enemy, +but for reasons of their own did not choose to send British ships to +meet the German fleet, and the expected battle did not take place. + +France, on April 26, 1915, was to sustain a severe loss to her navy; +she had up to this time not lost as many ships as her ally, England, +or her enemy, Germany, but her navy was so much smaller than either of +them that the sinking of the _Leon Gambetta_ on that date was a matter +of weight. The _Gambetta_ was an armored cruiser, built in 1904, and +carrying four 7.6-inch guns, sixteen 6.4-inch guns and a number of +smaller caliber. She had a speed of twenty-three knots. While doing +patrol duty in the Strait of Otranto she was made the victim of the +Austrian submarine _U-5_, and sank, carrying with her 552 men. + +On April 28, 1915, there occurred another incident which gave rise to +diplomatic exchanges between Germany and the United States. On that +date a German seaplane attacked the American merchantman in broad +daylight in the North Sea, but fortunately for its crew the ship was +not sent to the bottom. The first American ship to be struck by a +torpedo in the war zone established by the German admiralty's +proclamation of February 5, 1915, was the _Gulflight_. This tank +steamer was hit by a torpedo fired by a German submarine off the +Scilly Islands, on the 1st of May, 1915. + +But of more importance, because of the number of American lives lost, +the standing of the matter in international law and the prominence of +the vessel, was the sinking of the Cunard liner _Lusitania_, on May 7, +1915. This is fully described in the chapter on submarines, and in the +diplomatic developments discussed in the chapter on the United States +and the War. The _Lusitania_ had left New York for Liverpool on the +1st of May, 1915. She was one of the fastest ships plying between the +Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Larger than any warship afloat at the +time, she was able to make the trip from Liverpool to New York in a +little under five days. On her last crossing she carried 2,160 +persons, including passengers and crew, many of the former being +Americans, some of them of great prominence. While off Old Head of +Kinsale, on the southeastern end of Ireland, at about half past two, +on the afternoon of May 7, 1915, with a calm sea and no wind, she was +hit by one or more torpedoes from a German submarine without warning. + +Those on board immediately went to the life boats, but it was only +twenty minutes after she had first been hit that she sank, and not +enough of the small craft could be gotten over her side in that time +to rescue all those on board. Out of the 2,160 souls aboard at least +1,398 were lost. Of these 107 were American citizens. Small boats in +the neighborhood of the disaster hurried to the scene and rescued +those whom they could reach in the water and brought them to +Queenstown. The sacks of mail which the liner carried and which went +down with her were the first American mail sacks ever lost at sea as a +result of war. The controversies which this disaster gave rise to +between England, Germany and the United States are given elsewhere. + +Against British warships the submarine warfare was also effective +during the month of May, 1915. On the 1st day of that month the old +British destroyer _Recruit_ was sent to the bottom of the North Sea by +a German submarine, but the two German destroyers which had +accompanied the submarine that did this were pursued immediately by +British destroyers and were sunk. On the same day that the _Lusitania_ +went down a German mine ended the career of the British destroyer +_Maori_. + + + + +CHAPTER XXX + +ITALIAN PARTICIPATION--OPERATIONS IN MANY WATERS + + +The month of May, 1915, saw new characters enter the theatres of naval +warfare. Italy had now entered the war and brought to the naval +strength of the Allies a minor naval unit. + +At the time Italy entered the war she possessed six dreadnoughts, the +_Caio Duilio_ and the _Andrea Doria_, completed in 1915, the _Conte di +Cavour_, _Giulio Cesare_, and _Leonardo da Vinci_, completed in 1914, +and the _Dante Alighieri_, completed in 1912. Each of these +dreadnoughts had a speed of 23 knots. The _Dante Alighieri_ displaced +19,400 tons and had a main battery of twelve 12-inch guns, and a +complement of 987 men. Each of the other five had thirteen 12-inch +guns and a complement of 1,000 men. The displacement of vessels of the +1914 type was 22,340 tons; that of the 1915 type 23,025 tons. There +were many lesser craft flying the Italian flag, but these larger ships +were the most important additions to the naval forces of the Allies in +southern waters. + +The chief operations of the Italian navy were directed against +Austria. On May 28, 1915, the Italian admiralty announced the damage +inflicted on Austrian maritime strength up to that date. On May 24, +1915, the Austrian torpedo boat _S-20_ approached the canal at Porto +Corsini, but drew a very heavy fire from concealed and unsuspected +batteries which forced her to leave immediately. The Austrian torpedo +boat destroyer _Scharfschuetze_, the scout ship _Novara_ and the +destroyer _Ozepel_, all of the Austrian navy, came to the assistance +of the _S-20_ and also received salvos from the Italian land +batteries. But on the same day the Italian destroyer _Turbine_, while +scouting gave chase to an Austrian destroyer and the Austrian cruiser +_Helgoland_. The strength of these Austrian ships was too much for the +_Turbine_ and she put on speed with the intention of escaping from +their fire, but she was severely damaged by Austrian shells, and not +having enough ammunition aboard to give a good account of herself, she +was scuttled by her own crew. + +It is now necessary to take up again the story of the German raiding +ships at large on the high seas. As has been told above, after the +_Prinz Eitel Friedrich_ ended her career by putting in at Newport News +the only German ships of the kind remaining at large were the +_Karlsruhe_ and _Kronprinz Wilhelm_. But on the 1st of April, 1915, +the _Macedonia_, a converted liner which since November, 1914, had +been interned at Las Palmas, Canary Islands, succeeded in slipping out +of the harbor laden with provisions and supplies for use of warships +and made her way to South American waters in spite of the fact that +she had run through lines patrolled by British cruisers. + +The _Kronprinz Wilhelm's_ career as a raider ended on April 11, 1915, +when, like the _Prinz Eitel Friedrich_, she succeeded in getting past +the British cruisers and slipped into Newport News, Virginia. How this +former Hamburg-American liner had slipped out of the harbor of New +York on the night of August 3, 1914, with her bunkers and even her +cabins filled with coal and provisions, with all lights out and with +canvas covering her port holes has already been told. From that date +until she again put in at an American port she captured numerous +merchant ships, taking 960 prisoners and doing damage amounting to +more than $7,000,000. She kept herself provisioned from her captives, +and it was only the poor condition of her plates and boilers that made +her captain give up raiding when he did. Her movements had been +mysterious during all the time she was at large. She was known to have +reprovisioned the cruiser _Dresden_ and to have taken an almost +stationary position in the South Atlantic in order to act as a +"wireless station" for the squadron of Admiral von Spee. But when the +latter was defeated off the Falkland Islands, she resumed operations +as a raider of commerce. When she came into Newport News more than 60 +per cent of her crew were suffering from what was thought to be +beri-beri; she had but twenty-one tons of coal in her bunkers and +almost no ammunition. + +The total damage inflicted on the commerce of the Allies by the +_Emden_, _Karlsruhe_, _Kronprinz Wilhelm_, _Prinz Eitel Friedrich_, +_Koenigsberg_, _Dresden_ and _Leipzig_ amounted, by the end of May, +1915, to $35,000,000. Sixty-seven vessels had been captured and sunk +by them. + +In the Dardanelles the naval operations were resumed, to some extent, +during the month of May, 1915. For a number of weeks after the allied +fleet had made the great attempt to force the Dardanelles on March 19, +1915, their commanders attempted no maneuvers with the larger ships, +but the submarines were given work to do. On April 27, 1915, the +British submarine _E-14_, under command of Lieutenant Commander Boyle, +dived and went under the Turkish mine fields, reaching the waters of +the Sea of Marmora. In spite of the fact that Turkish destroyers knew +of its presence and hourly watched for it in the hope of sinking it, +this submarine was able to operate brilliantly for some days, sinking +two Turkish gunboats and a laden transport. Similar exploits were +performed by Lieutenant Commander Nasmith with the British submarine +_E-11_, which even damaged wharves at the Turkish capital. + +But when the military operations were getting under way during May, +1915, the larger ships of the fleets were again used. The Germans +realizing that these great ships, moving as they did slowly and +deliberately while they fired on the land forts, would be good targets +for torpedoes, sent some of their newest submarines from the bases in +the North Sea, down along the coasts of France and Spain, through the +passage at Gibraltar and to the Dardanelles. Destroyers accompanying +the allied fleets kept diligent watch for attacks from them. The +_Goeben_, one of the German battle cruisers that had escaped British +and French fleets in the Mediterranean during the first weeks of the +war, and which was now a part of the Turkish navy, was brought to the +scene and aided the Turkish forts in their bombardment of the hostile +warships. + +On May 12, 1915, the British battleship _Goliath_, of old design and +displacing some 12,000 tons, was sunk by a torpedo. This ship had been +protecting a part of the French fleet from flank attack inside the +straits, and under the cover of darkness had been approached by a +Turkish destroyer which fired the fatal torpedo. It sank almost +immediately. + +The submarines of the German navy which had made the long journey to +participate in the action near the Dardanelles got in their first work +on May 26, 1915, when a torpedo fired by one of them struck the +British battleship _Triumph_ and sent her to the bottom. Of interest +to naval authorities all over the world was the fact that this ship at +the time she was struck had out torpedo nets which were supposed to be +torpedo-proof; but the German missile tore through them and reached +the hull. A hunt was made for the hostile submarine by the British +destroyers, but she was found by the British battleship _Majestic_; +but before the British ship could fire a shot at the German submarine, +the latter fired a torpedo that caught the battleship near her stern +and sank her immediately. Apprehension was now felt for the more +formidable ships such as the _Queen Elizabeth_ and others of her class +which were in those waters; inasmuch as the operations at the +Dardanelles assumed more and more a military rather than a naval +character, the British admiralty thought it wiser to keep the _Queen +Elizabeth_ in safer waters; she was consequently called back to +England. Only old battleships and cruisers were left to cooperate +with the troops operating on the Gallipoli Peninsula. + +Naval warfare in southern waters was continued against British +warships by the Austrian navy. On June 9, 1915, the Austrian admiralty +announced that a cruiser of the type of the _Liverpool_ had been +struck by a torpedo fired by an Austrian submarine while the former +was off San Giovanni di Medua, near the Albanian coast. Reports of the +incident issued by the Austrian and British naval authorities +differed, the former claiming that the cruiser had sunk, and the +latter that it had remained afloat and had been towed to an Adriatic +port. + +Most unique was an engagement between the Italian submarine _Medusa_ +and a similar craft flying the Austrian flag on June 17, 1915. This +was the first time that two submarines had ever fought with each +other. On that day the two submarines, the presence of each unknown to +the other, lay submerged, not a great distance apart. The _Medusa_, +after some hours, came up, allowing only her periscope to show; seeing +no enemy about, her commander brought the rest of her out of the +water. She had not emerged many moments before the Austrian vessel +also came up for a look around and the commander of the latter espied +the Italian submarine through his periscope. He immediately ordered a +torpedo fired; it found a mark in the hull of the _Medusa_ and she was +sent to the bottom. One of her officers and four of her men were +rescued by the Austrian submarine and made prisoners. + +Italy's navy was not to continue to act as a separate naval unit in +the southern naval theatre of war, for on June 18, 1915, the Minister +of Marine of France announced that the "Anglo-French forces in the +Mediterranean were cooperating with the Italian fleet, whose +participation made possible a more effective patrol of the Adriatic. +Warships of the Allies were engaged in finding and destroying oil +depots from which the enemy's submarines had been replenishing their +supplies." This effective patrol did not, however, prevent an Austrian +submarine from sinking an Italian torpedo boat on June 27, 1915. + +In the Baltic Sea the naval activity had at no time during the first +year of the war been great, but during the month of June, 1915, there +was a minor naval engagement at the mouth of the Gulf of Riga, during +which the Germans lost a transport and the Russians an auxiliary +cruiser. In the other northern waters the Germans lost the submarine +_U-14_, which was sunk on June 9, 1915. The crew were brought to +England as prisoners. Three days later the British admiralty admitted +that two torpedo boats, the _No. 10_ and the _No. 12_ had been lost. +The loss of two such small boats did not worry Britain as much as did +the loss of many merchant ships in the war zone right through the +spring and summer of 1915, and to show that British warships were not +immune from submarine attack, in spite of the fact that many of the +underwater craft of Germany were meeting with disaster, the British +cruiser _Roxburgh_ was struck by a torpedo on June 20, 1915, but was +able to get away under her own steam. The rest of the month saw small +losses to nearly all of the fleets engaged in the war, but none of +these were of importance. + +The twelfth month of the first year of war was not particularly +eventful in so far as naval history was concerned. On July 1, 1915, +the Germans maneuvered in the Baltic Sea with a small fleet which +accompanied transports bearing men who were to try to land on the +northern shores of Russia. The port of Windau was the point at which +the German bombardment was directed, but Russian torpedo boats and +destroyers fought off the invading German fleet--which must have been +small--and succeeded in chasing the German mine-layer _Albatross_, +making it necessary for her captain to beach her on the Swedish island +of Gothland, where the crew was interned on July 2, 1915. On the same +day a German predreadnought battleship, believed to have been the +_Pommern_, was sunk at the mouth of Danzig Bay by a torpedo from a +British submarine. + +In the Adriatic Austria lost a submarine, the _U-11_, through a unique +action. The submersible was sighted on July 1, 1915, by a French +aeroplane. The aviator dropped two bombs which found their mark on the +deck of the submarine and sank her. Austria had, during that month, +made an attempt to capture the Austrian island of Pelagosa, which had +been occupied by the Italians on July 26, 1915. But July 29, 1915, the +fleet of Austrian cruisers and destroyers, which made the attack, was +driven off by unnamed units of the Italian navy. But a loss by the +latter had been incurred on July 7, 1915, when the armored cruiser +_Amalfi_, while scouting in the upper waters of the Adriatic Sea, was +sighted and torpedoed by an Austrian submarine. She sank, but most of +her men were saved. Another Austrian submarine had the same success on +July 17, 1915, when it fired a torpedo at the Italian cruiser +_Giuseppe Garibaldi_, and saw her go down fifteen minutes later. Italy +endeavored to imitate the actions of Germany when, on July 6, 1915, +she proclaimed that the entire Adriatic Sea was a war zone and that +the Strait of Otranto was in a state of blockade. All the ports of +Dalmatia were closed to every kind of commerce. + +Near the coasts of Turkey, toward the end of the first year of war, +there was fought the second duel between submarines. This time the +vanquished vessel was the French submarine _Mariotte_, which, on July +26, 1915, was sunk by a torpedo from a German submarine in the waters +right near the entrance to the Dardanelles. Britain ended the first +year of naval warfare by destroying the German cruiser _Koenigsberg_, +which, since the fall of the year before, had been lying up the Rufiji +River in German East Africa, after having been chased thence by a +British cruiser. It was decided to destroy her in order that she might +not get by the sunken hulls that the British had placed at the mouth +of the river in order to "bottle her up." Consequently, on the morning +of July 4, 1915, after her position had been noted by an aviator, two +British river monitors, _Severn_ and _Mersey_, aided by a cruiser and +minor vessels, began to fire upon the stationary vessel. Their fire +was directed by the aviator who had discovered her, but it was at +first almost ineffective because she lay so well concealed by the +vegetation of the surrounding jungle. She answered their fire and +succeeded in damaging the _Mersey_, but after being bombarded for six +hours she was set on fire. When the British monitors had finished with +her she was a total wreck. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXI + +STORY OF THE "EMDEN" + + +We now return to the exploits of the _Emden_, its mysterious +disappearance and the narrative of its heroes--a great epic of the +sea. + +When in Volume III the story of the sinking of the German cruiser +_Emden_ was related, mention was made of the escape of the landing +party belonging to that ship from Cocos Island. This party consisted +of fifty men, headed by Captain Muecke, and from the time their ship +went down on November 9, 1914, until they reported for duty again at +Damascus, Syria, in May, 1915, they had a series of adventures as +thrilling as those encountered by the heroes in any of the Renaissance +epics. + +Before the _Emden_ met the Australian cruiser _Sydney_, and had been +sunk by the latter, she had picked up three officers from German +steamers which she had met. This proved to be a piece of good fortune, +for extra officers were needed to board and command the prize crews of +captured vessels. The story of the raiding of the _Emden_ has already +been given; but here the story of the landing party is given as told +by Captain Muecke himself on May 10, 1915, at Damascus: + +"On November 9, 1914," he said, "I left the _Emden_ in order to +destroy the wireless plant on Cocos Island. I had fifty men, four +machine guns, about thirty rifles. Just as we were about to destroy +the apparatus it reported, 'Careful; _Emden_ near.' The work of +destruction went smoothly. The wireless operators said: 'Thank God. +It's been like being under arrest day and night lately.' Presently the +_Emden_ signaled us, 'Hurry up.' I packed up, but simultaneously the +_Emden's_ siren wailed. I hurried to the bridge and saw the flag +'Anna' go up. That meant 'Weigh anchor.' We ran like mad to our boat, +but already the _Emden's_ pennant was up, the battle flag was raised, +and they began to fire from the starboard." + +"The enemy," explained Captain Muecke, "was concealed by the island and +therefore not to be seen, but I saw the shells strike the water. To +follow and catch the _Emden_ was out of the question, as she was going +at twenty knots, and I only four with my steam pinnace. Therefore I +turned back to land, raised the flag, declared German laws of war in +force, seized all arms, set up my machine guns on shore in order to +guard against a hostile landing. Then I ran out again in order to +observe the fight. From the splash of the shells it looked as though +the enemy had 15-centimeter guns, bigger, therefore, than the +_Emden's_. He fired rapidly but poorly. It was the Australian cruiser +_Sydney_." + +According to the account of the Englishmen who saw the first part of +the engagement from the shore, the _Emden_ was cut up rapidly. Her +forward smokestack lay across the deck, and was already burning +fiercely aft. Behind the mainmast several shells struck home. + +"We saw the high flame," continued Captain Muecke, "whether circular +fighting or a running fight now followed, I don't know, because I +again had to look to my land defenses. Later, I looked on from the +roof of a house. Now the _Emden_ again stood out to sea about 4,000 to +5,000 yards, still burning. As she again turned toward the enemy, the +forward mast was shot away. On the enemy no outward damage was +apparent, but columns of smoke showed where shots had struck home. +Then the _Emden_ took a northerly course, likewise the enemy, and I +had to stand there helpless, gritting my teeth and thinking; 'Damn it; +the _Emden_ is burning and you aren't aboard!'" + +[Illustration: The Cruise of the "Emden" Landing Party.] + +Captain Muecke, in relating his thrilling adventure, then explained: +"The ships, still fighting, disappeared behind the horizon. I thought +that an unlucky outcome for the _Emden_ was possible, also a landing +by the enemy on the Keeling Island, at least for the purpose of +landing the wounded and taking on provisions. As there were other +ships in the neighborhood, according to the statements of the +Englishmen, I saw myself faced with the certainty of having soon to +surrender because of a lack of ammunition. But for no price did I and +my men want to get into English imprisonment. As I was thinking +about all this, the masts again appeared on the horizon, the _Emden_ +steaming easterly, but very much slower. All at once the enemy, at +high speed, shot by, apparently quite close to the _Emden_. A high +white waterspout showed amidst the black smoke of the enemy. That was +a torpedo. I saw how the two opponents withdrew, the distance growing +greater and greater between them; how they separated, till they +disappeared in the darkness. The fight had lasted ten hours. + +"I had made up my mind to leave the island as quickly as possible. The +_Emden_ was gone; the danger for us growing. In the harbor I had +noticed a three-master, the schooner _Ayesha_. Mr. Ross, the owner of +the ship and of the island, had warned me that the boat was leaky, but +I found it quite a seaworthy tub. Now provisions for eight weeks, and +water for four, were quickly taken on board. The Englishmen very +kindly showed us the best water and gave us clothing and utensils. +They declared this was their thanks for our 'moderation' and +'generosity.' Then they collected the autographs of our men, +photographed them and gave three cheers as our last boat put off. It +was evening, nearly dark, when we sailed away. + +"The _Ayesha_ proved to be a really splendid boat. We had only one +sextant and two chronometers on board, but a chronometer journal was +lacking. Luckily I found an 'Old Indian Ocean Directory' of 1882 on +board; its information went back to the year 1780. + +"I had said: 'We are going to East Africa.' Therefore I sailed at +first westward, then northward. There followed the monsoons, but then +also, long periods of dead calm. Only two neutral ports came seriously +under consideration; Batavia and Padang. At Keeling I had cautiously +asked about Tsing-tau, of which I had naturally thought first, and so +quite by chance I learned that it had fallen. Now I decided for +Padang, because I knew I would be more apt to meet the _Emden_ there, +also because there was a German consul there, because my schooner was +unknown there and because I hoped to find German ships there, and +learn some news. 'It'll take you six to eight days to reach Batavia' a +captain had told me at Keeling. Now we needed eighteen days to reach +Padang, the weather was so rottenly still." + +The suffering of the crew of the _Emden_ on their perilous voyage is +here told in the captain's words: "We had an excellent cook aboard; he +had deserted from the French Foreign Legion. We had to go sparingly +with our water; each man received but three glasses daily. When it +rained, all possible receptacles were placed on deck and the main sail +was spread over the cabin roof to catch the rain. + +"At length as we came in the neighborhood of Padang, on the 26th of +November, 1915, a ship appeared for the first time and looked for our +name. But the name had been painted over, because it was the former +English name. As I thought, 'You're rid of the fellow' the ship came +up again in the evening, and steamed within a hundred yards of us. I +sent all my men below deck, and I promenaded the deck as the solitary +skipper. Through Morse signals the stranger gave her identity. She +proved to be the Hollandish torpedo boat _Lynx_. I asked by signals, +'Why do you follow me?' No answer. The next morning I found myself in +Hollandish waters, so I raised pennant and war flag. Now the _Lynx_ +came at top speed past us. As it passed I had my men line up on deck, +and gave a greeting. The greeting was answered. Then, before the +harbor at Padang, I went aboard the _Lynx_ in my well and carefully +preserved uniform and declared my intentions. The commandant opined +that I could run into the harbor, but whether I might come out again +was doubtful. + +"Three German ships were in the harbor at Padang," continues Captain +Muecke. "The harbor authorities demanded the certification for pennant +and war flag, also papers to prove that I was the commander of this +warship. For that, I answered, I was only responsible to my superior +officer. Now they advised me most insistently to allow ourselves to be +interned peacefully. They said it wasn't at all pleasant in the +neighborhood. We'd fall into the hands of the Japanese or the English. +As a matter of fact, we again had great luck. On the day before a +Japanese warship had been cruising around here. Naturally, I rejected +all the well-meant and kindly advice, and did this in the presence of +my lieutenants. I demanded provisions, water, sails, tackle, and +clothing. They replied we could take on board everything which we had +formerly had on board, but nothing which would mean an increase in our +naval strength. + +"First thing, I wanted to improve our wardrobe, for I had only one +sock, a pair of shoes, and one clean shirt, which had become rather +threadbare. My comrades had even less. But the master of the port +declined to let us have, not only charts, but also clothing and +toothbrushes, on the ground that these would be an increase in +armament. Nobody could come aboard, nobody could leave the ship +without permission. I requested that the consul be allowed to come +aboard. The consul, Herr Schild, as also did the brothers Baeumer, gave +us assistance in the friendliest fashion. From the German steamers +boats could come alongside and talk with us. Finally, we were allowed +to have German papers. They were, to be sure, from August only. From +then until March, 1915, we saw no papers. + +"Hardly had we been towed out of the harbor again after twenty-four +hours, on the evening of the 28th of November, 1914, when a +searchlight flashed before us. I thought, 'Better interned than +prisoner.' I put out all lights and withdrew to the shelter of the +island. But they were Hollanders and didn't do anything to us. Then +for two weeks more we drifted around, lying still for days. The +weather was alternately still, rainy, and blowy. At length a ship, a +freighter, came in sight. It saw us and made a big curve around us. I +made everything hastily 'clear for battle.' Then one of our officers +recognized her for the _Choising_. She showed the German flag. I sent +up light rockets, although it was broad day, and went with all sails +set, that were still setable, toward her. The _Choising_ was a coaster +from Hongkong to Siam. She was at Singapore when the war broke out, +then went to Batavia, was chartered, loaded with coal for the enemy, +and had put into Padang in need, because the coal in the hold had +caught fire. There we had met her. + +"Great was our joy now. I had all my men come on deck and line up for +review. The fellows hadn't a rag on. Thus, in nature's garb, we gave +three cheers for the German flag on the _Choising_. The men of the +Choising told us afterward 'We couldn't make out what that meant, +those stark-naked fellows all cheering.' The sea was too high, and we +had to wait two days before we could board the _Choising_ on December +16, 1914. We took very little with us; the schooner was taken in tow. +In the afternoon we sank the _Ayesha_ and were all very sad. The good +old _Ayesha_ had served us faithfully for six weeks. The log showed +that we had made 1,709 sea miles under sail since leaving Keeling. She +wasn't at all rotten and unseaworthy, as they had told me, but nice +and white and dry inside. I had grown fond of the boat, on which I +could practice my old sailing maneuvers. The only trouble was that the +sails would go to pieces every now and then, because they were so old. + +"But anyway, she went down quite properly. We had bored a hole in her; +she filled slowly and then all of a sudden disappeared. That was the +saddest day of the whole month. We gave her three cheers, and my next +yacht at Kiel will be named _Ayesha_, that is sure. + +"To the captain of the _Choising_ I had said, when I hailed him, 'I do +not know what will happen to the ship. The war situation may make it +necessary for me to strand it.' He did not want to undertake the +responsibility. I proposed that we work together, and I would take the +responsibility. Then we traveled together for three weeks, from Padang +to Hodeida. The _Choising_ was some ninety meters long, and had a +speed of nine miles, though sometimes only four. If she had not +accidentally arrived I had intended to cruise along the west coast of +Sumatra to the region of the northern monsoon. I came about six +degrees north, then over toward Aden to the Arabian coast. In the Red +Sea the northeastern monsoon, which here blows southeast, could bring +us to Djidda. I had heard in Padang that Turkey was still allied with +Germany, so we would be able to get safely through Arabia to Germany. + +"I next waited for information through ships, but the _Choising_ did +not know anything definite, either. By way of the _Luchs_, the +_Koenigsberg_ and _Kormoran_ the reports were uncertain. Besides, +according to newspapers at Aden, the Arabs were said to have fought +with the English; therein there seemed to be offered an opportunity +near at hand to damage the enemy. I therefore sailed with the +_Choising_ in the direction of Aden. Lieutenant Cordts of the +_Choising_ had heard that the Arabian railway already went almost to +Hodeida, near the Perin Strait. The ship's surgeon there, Docounlang, +found confirmation of this in Meyer's Traveling Handbook. This railway +could not have been taken over by the Englishmen, who always dreamt of +it. By doing this they would have further and completely wrought up +the Mohammedans by making more difficult the journey to Mecca. Best of +all, we thought, 'We'll simply step into the express train and whizz +nicely away to the North Sea.' Certainly there would be safe +journeying homeward through Arabia. To be sure, we had maps of the Red +Sea; but it was the shortest way to the foe whether in Aden or in +Germany. + +"On the 7th of January, 1915, between nine and ten o'clock in the +evening, we sneaked through the Strait of Perin. It lay swarming full +of Englishmen. We steered along the African coast, close past an +English cable layer. That was my greatest delight--how the Englishmen +will be vexed when they learn that we passed safely by Perin. On the +next evening we saw on the coast a few lights near the water. We +thought that must be the pier of Hodeida. But when we measured the +distance by night, three thousand meters, I began to think that must +be something else. At dawn I made out two masts and four smokestacks; +that was an enemy ship and, what is more, an armored French cruiser. I +therefore ordered the _Choising_ to put to sea, and to return at +night. + +"The next day and night the same; then we put out four boats--these we +pulled to shore at sunrise under the eyes of the unsuspecting +Frenchmen. The sea reeds were thick. A few Arabs came close to us; +then there ensued a difficult negotiation with the Arabian coast +guards. For we did not even know whether Hodeida was in English or +French hands. We waved to them, laid aside our arms, and made signs to +them. The Arabs, gathering together, began to rub two fingers +together; that means 'We are friends.' We thought it meant 'We are +going to rub against you and are hostile.' I therefore said: +'Boom-boom' and pointed to the warship. At all events, I set up my +machine guns and made preparations for a skirmish. But, thank God, one +of the Arabs understood the word 'Germans'; that was good. + +"Soon a hundred Arabs came and helped us and as we marched into +Hodeida the Turkish soldiers who had been called out against us +saluted us as Allies and friends. To be sure, there was not a trace of +a railway, but we were received very well and they assured us we could +get through by land. Therefore, I gave red-star signals at night, +telling the _Choising_ to sail away, since the enemy was near by. +Inquiries and deliberations concerning a safe journey by land +proceeded. I also heard that in the interior about six days' journey +away, there was healthy highland where our fever invalids could +recuperate. I therefore determined to journey next to Sana. On the +kaiser's birthday we held a great parade in common with the Turkish +troops--all this under the noses of the Frenchmen. On the same day we +marched away from Hodeida to the highland. + +"Two months later we again put to sea. The time spent in the highland +of Sana passed in lengthy inquiries and discussions that finally +resulted in our foregoing the journey by land through Arabia, for +religious reasons. But the time was not altogether lost. The men who +were sick with malaria had, for most part, recuperated in the highland +air. + +"The Turkish Government placed at our disposal two sambuks (sailing +ships), of about twenty-five tons, fifteen meters long and four wide. +But, in fear of English spies, we sailed from Jebaua, ten miles north +of Hodeida. That was on March 14, 1915. At first we sailed at a +considerable distance apart, so that we would not both be captured if +an English gunboat caught us. Therefore, we always had to sail in +coastal water. That is full of coral reefs, however." + +Captain Muecke had charge of the first sambuk. Everything went well for +three days. On the third day the order was given for the sambuks to +keep near together because the pilot of the first one was sailing less +skillfully than the other. Suddenly, in the twilight the men in the +second sambuk felt a shock, then another, and a third. The water +poured into it rapidly. It had run upon the reef of a small island, +where the smaller sambuk had been able to pass on account of its +lighter draft. Soon the stranded boat began to list over, and the +twenty-eight men aboard had to sit on the gunwale. + +"We could scarcely move," narrated Lieutenant Gerdts, who commanded +the stranded boat. "The other boat was nowhere in sight. Now it grew +dark. At this stage I began to build a raft of spars and old pieces of +wood that might keep us afloat. But soon the first boat came into +sight again. The commander turned about and sent over his little +canoe; in this and in our own canoe, in which two men could sit at +each trip, we first transferred the sick. Now the Arabs began to help +us. But just then the tropical helmet of our doctor suddenly appeared +above the water in which he was standing up to his ears. Thereupon the +Arabs withdrew: We were Christians, and they did not know that we were +friends. Now the other sambuk was so near that we could have swum to +it in half an hour, but the seas were too high. At each trip a good +swimmer trailed along, hanging to the painter of the canoe. When it +became altogether dark we could not see the boat any more, for over +there they were prevented by the wind from keeping any light burning. +My men asked: 'In what direction shall we swim?' I answered: 'Swim in +the direction of this or that star; that must be about the direction +of the boat.' Finally a torch flared up over there--one of the torches +that was still left from the _Emden_. But we had suffered considerably +through submersion. One sailor cried out: 'Oh, psha! It's all up with +us now, that's a searchlight.' About ten o'clock we were all safe +aboard, but one of our typhus patients wore himself out completely by +exertion and died a week later. On the next morning we went over again +to the wreck in order to seek the weapons that had fallen into the +water. You see, the Arabs dive so well; they fetched up a considerable +lot--both machine guns, all but ten of the rifles, though these were, +to be sure, all full of water. Later they frequently failed to go off +when they were used in firing. + +"Now we numbered, together with the Arabs, seventy men on the little +boat. Then we anchored before Konfida and met Sami Bey. He had shown +himself useful, even before, in the service of the Turkish Government, +and had done good service as a guide in the last months of the +adventure. He procured for us a larger boat of fifty-four tons. We +sailed from the 20th of March, 1915, to the 24th, unmolested to Lith. +There Sami Bey announced that three English ships were cruising about +in order to intercept us. I therefore advised traveling a bit +overland. I disliked leaving the sea a second time, but it had to be +done." + +Captain Muecke explained that Lith is nothing but desert, and therefore +it was very difficult to get up a caravan at once. They marched away +on March 28, 1915, with only a vague suspicion that the English might +have agents here also. They could travel only at night, and when they +slept or camped around a spring, there was only a tent for the sick +men. Two days' march from Jeddah, the Turkish Government having +received word about the crew, sent sixteen good camels. + +"Suddenly, on the night of April 1, 1915, things became uneasy," said +Captain Muecke. "I was riding at the head of the column. All our +shooting implements were cleared for action, because there was danger +of an attack from Bedouins, whom the English had bribed. When it began +to grow a bit light I thought: 'We're through for to-day'; for we were +tired--had been riding eighteen hours. Suddenly I saw a line flash up +before me, and shots whizzed over our heads. Down from the camels! We +formed a fighting line. You know how quickly it becomes daylight +there. The whole space around the desert hillock was occupied. Now we +had to take up our guns. We rushed at the enemy. They fled, but +returned again, this time from all sides. Several of the gendarmes +that had been given to us as an escort were wounded; the machine-gun +operator fell, killed by a shot through the heart; another was +wounded. Lieutenant Schmidt was mortally wounded. He received a bullet +in the chest and another in the abdomen. + +"Suddenly, they waved white cloths. The sheik, to whom a part of our +camels belonged, went over to them to negotiate, then Sami Bey and +his wife. In the interim we quickly built a sort of wagon barricade, a +circular camp of camel saddles, of rice and coffee sacks, all of which +we filled with sand. We had no shovels, and had to dig with our +bayonets, plates, and hands. The whole barricade had a diameter of +fifty meters. Behind it were dug trenches, which we deepened even +during the skirmish. The camels inside had to lie down, and thus +served very well as cover for the rear of the trenches. Then an inner +wall was constructed, behind which we carried the sick men. In the +very center we buried two jars of water, to guard us against thirst. +In addition we had ten petroleum cans full of water; all told, a +supply for four days. Late in the evening Sami's wife came back from +the futile negotiations, alone. She had unveiled for the first and +only time on this day of the skirmish, had distributed cartridges and +had acted faultlessly. + +"Soon we were able to ascertain the number of the enemy. There were +about 300 men; we numbered fifty, with twenty-nine machine guns. In +the night Lieutenant Schmidt died. We had to dig his grave with our +hands and with our bayonets, and to eliminate every trace above it, in +order to protect the body. Rademacher had been buried immediately +after the skirmish with all honors. + +"The wounded had a hard time of it. We had lost our medicine chest in +the wreck; we had only little packages of bandages for skirmishes; but +no probing instrument, no scissors, were at hand. On the next day our +men came up with thick tongues, feverish, and crying: 'Water, water!' +But each one received only a little cupful three times each day. If +our water supply became exhausted we would have to sally forth from +our camp and fight our way through. At night we always dragged out the +dead camels that had served as cover and had been shot. + +"This continued about three days. On the third day there were new +negotiations. Now the Bedouins demanded arms no longer, but only +money. This time the negotiations took place across the camp wall. +When I declined the Bedouin said, 'Lots of fight.' I said, 'Please go +to it.' + +"We had only a little ammunition left, and very little water. Now it +really looked as if we would soon be dispatched. The mood of the men +was pretty dismal. Suddenly, at about ten o'clock in the morning, +there bobbed up in the north two riders on camels, waving white +cloths. Soon afterward there appeared, coming from the same direction, +far back, a long row of camel troops, about a hundred; they drew +rapidly nearer, rode singing toward us, in a picturesque train. They +were the messengers and the troops of the Emir of Mecca. + +"Sami Bey's wife, it developed, had in the course of the first +negotiations, dispatched an Arab boy to Jeddah. From that place the +governor had telegraphed to the emir. The latter at once sent camel +troops with his two sons and his personal surgeon; the elder, +Abdullah, conducted the negotiations, and the surgeon acted as +interpreter in French. Now things proceeded in one-two-three order, +and the whole Bedouin band speedily disappeared. From what I learned +later I know definitely that they had been corrupted with bribes by +the English. They knew when and where we would pass, and they had made +all preparations. Now our first act was a rush for water; then we +cleared up our camp, but had to harness our camels ourselves, for the +camel drivers had fled at the very beginning of the skirmish. + +"Then, under the safe protection of Turkish troops, we got to Jeddah. +There the authorities and the populace received us very well. From +there we proceeded in nineteen days by sail boat to Elwesh, and under +abundant guard with the Suleiman Pasha, in a five-day caravan +journeyed to El Ula." + +"Have I received the Iron Cross?" was the first question Captain Muecke +asked when he got to that place, and old newspapers which he found +there told him that he had. A few days later the party was on train, +riding toward Germany. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXII + +SUMMARY OF THE FIRST YEAR OF NAVAL WARFARE + + +The first year of the war came to an end in August, 1915, with the +naval situation much the same as it stood at the end of the first six +months. The navy of practically every belligerent was intact; the +Allies enjoyed the freedom of the seas, but the fact that a German +fleet lay intact in the North Sea, and an Austrian fleet lay intact in +the Adriatic Sea, indicated only the naval supremacy of the Allies, +but not that they had won decisive naval victories. + +As there had been no victory there had been no defeat, yet there had +been losses to all concerned. The mine and the submarine had changed +somewhat the methods of naval warfare--the enemies "nibbled" at their +opponents' fleets. Battleships were lost, though the first year of the +Great War had seen no pitched battle between ships of that class. + +During the second six months of the war England lost the five old +battleships _Irresistible_, _Ocean_, _Goliath_, _Triumph_, and +_Majestic_; the destroyers _Recruit_ and _Maori_; and the submarine +_E-15_ and another unidentified; and the auxiliary cruisers _Clan +McNaughton_, _Bayano_, and _Princess Irene_. Her ally France had lost, +during the same period, the old battleship _Bouvet_, the cruiser _Leon +Gambetta_, the destroyer _Dague_, and the submarines _Joule_, +_Mariotte_, and one unidentified. + +The losses on the other side were confined to the German navy, with +the exception of the Turkish cruiser _Medjidieh_. Germany lost the +battleship _Pommern_; the cruisers _Dresden_ and Koenigsberg; the +submarines _U-12_, _U-29_, _U-8_, one of the type of the _U-2_, and +another unidentified; two unidentified torpedo boats; and the +auxiliary cruisers _Prinz Eitel Friedrich_ (interned), _Holger_, +_Kronprinz Wilhelm_ (interned), and _Macedonia_. Also the destroyer +_G-196_, the mine layer _Albatross_, and the auxiliary cruiser +_Meteor_. + +In retaliation for having her flag swept from the seas, Germany's +submarines, during the second six months of the war, had sunk a total +of 153 merchant ships, including those belonging to neutral countries +as well as to her enemies. The total tonnage of these was about +500,000 tons; 1,643 persons died in going down with these ships. + +Not of the least importance were the precedents that were established, +or attempted to be established, by Germany in conducting naval warfare +with her submarine craft. In a note delivered to the United States +Government, the German Government declared that British merchant +vessels were not only armed and instructed to resist or even attack +submarines, but often disguised as to nationality. Under such +circumstances it was assumed to be impossible for a submarine +commander to conform to the established custom of visit and search. +Accordingly, vessels of neutral nations were urgently warned not to +enter the submarine war zone. The war zone which she proclaimed about +Great Britain had no precedent in history, and it immediately brought +to her door a number of controversies with neutrals, particularly the +United States. The sinking of liners carrying passengers claiming +citizenship in neutral countries was another precedent, which had the +same effect with regard to diplomatic exchanges. + +Predictions that had been made long before the war came were found to +be worthless; there were those who had predicted that Germany in the +event of war with England would give immediate battle with her largest +ships; but twelve months went by without an actual battle between +superdreadnoughts. "Der Tag" had not come. There were those who had +predicted that the British navy would force the German ships out of +their protected harbors. "We shall dig the rats out of their holes," +said Mr. Winston Churchill, British Secretary of State for the Navy in +the early months of the war. Mr. Churchill was removed from his +position, and twelve months passed by with the German ships still in +their "holes." + +Certain lessons had been taught naval authorities of all nations +through the actual use of the modern battleship in war. The first +year showed that the largest ships must have very high speed and long +gun range. To some extent the fact that the fighting ships of nearly +all of the belligerent countries were thus equipped changed battle +tactics. + +When the allied fleets had started their bombardment of the Turkish +forts at the Dardanelles they were breaking certain well-defined rules +which had been axiomatic with naval authorities. The greatest of +modern battleships were designed to fight with craft of their like, +but not to take issue with land fortifications. For weeks, while the +fleets succeeded in silencing for a time some of the Turkish forts, it +was thought that this rule no longer held good. But when, after March +19, 1915, the fleets ceased attempting to take the passage without +military cooperation, the worth of the rule was reestablished. The +ease with which the bombarding ships were made victims of hostile +submarines was greatly instrumental in making the rule again an axiom. + +The naval supremacy of the allied powers brought them certain +advantages--advantages which they had without winning a decisive +victory. Germany and Austria were cut off from the Western Hemisphere, +and were troubled, in consequence, by shortage in food for their +civilian populations to a greater or lesser degree. This was perhaps a +negative benefit derived by the Allies from their naval supremacy; the +affirmative benefit was that their own communications with the Western +Hemisphere were maintained, enabling them not only to get food for +their civilian populations, but arms and munitions for their armies; +and even financial arrangements, which, if their emissaries could not +pass back and forth freely could not have been made, depended on their +control of the high seas. + +They were able to keep the Channel clear of submarines long enough to +permit the passage of the troops, which England from time to time +during the first year of the war sent to the Continent, and permitted +the participation of the troops of the British overseas dominions, the +troops from Canada joining those in France, and the troops from New +Zealand and Australia taking their places in the trenches along the +Suez Canal and on the Gallipoli Peninsula. Thus, to a certain extent, +the advantage of continuous railroad communication which was enjoyed +by the Teutonic allies "inside" the arena of military operations was +offset by the naval communication maintained by the Entente Powers +"outside" the arena of military operations. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII + +FIGHTS OF THE SUBMARINES + + +When, on the 5th of February, 1915, the German admiralty proclaimed a +"war zone" around the British Isles and announced that it would fight +the sea power of the Allies with submarines, a new era in naval +warfare had opened. In all previous wars, and in the earlier months of +the Great War, submarines were employed as auxiliaries to the larger +naval units. The Germans were the first to use them as separate units. +The idea of sending a fleet of submarines out on to the high seas was +a new one, and had been impossible in the last war in which they had +been used--that between Russia and Japan. But the improvements which +had been made in their design and equipment since then had made an +actual cruising submarine possible, and made possible the new phase of +naval warfare inaugurated by the German admiralty. + +While Germany was the last great sea power to adopt the submarine as a +weapon, both England and Germany, in the years immediately preceding +the war, had spent the same amounts of money on this sort of +craft--about $18,000,000--but while the Germans had later given as +much attention to them as to any other sort of naval craft, the +British authorities did not figure on employing the submarine as a +separate offensive tactical unit being sufficiently equipped in large +ships carrying large guns. And being weaker in capital ships Germany +was compelled to rely upon underwater warfare in her campaign of +attrition. Not only were the naval authorities of the rest of the +world uninformed about the improvements that German submarines +carried, but they were fooled even as to the actual number which +Germany had built. + +The most modern of the German submarines at the time had a length of +213 feet and a beam of twenty feet, these dimensions giving them +sufficient deck space to mount thereon two rapid-fire guns, one of 3.5 +inches and another of 1.4 inches. Their displacement was 900 tons, and +they could make a speed of 18 knots when traveling "light" (above +water), and 12 knots when traveling submerged. These speeds made it +possible for them to overtake all but the fastest merchantmen, though +not fast enough to run away from destroyers, gunboats, and fast +cruisers. Their range of operation was 2,000 miles, and in the early +months of 1915, it was possible for Germany to send two or three of +them from their base in the North Sea to the Mediterranean. Germany +was at the same time experimenting with a larger type, with a +displacement of 1,200 tons and an operating distance of 5,000 miles. + +The ordinary submarine in service at the beginning of the war could +remain below the surface for twenty-four hours at least. Reserve +amounts of air for breathing were carried in tanks under pressure, and +in the German type there were also chemical improvements for +regenerating air. Contrary to the opinion of laymen, submerging was +accomplished both by letting water into ballast tanks, and also by +properly deflecting a set of rudders; every submarine had two sets of +rudders, one of which worked in vertical planes and pointed the prow +of the ship either to the left or the right; the other pair worked in +horizontal planes and turned the prow either upward or downward. A +pair of fins on the sides of the hull assisted action in both rising +and diving. The action of water against the fins and rudders when the +ship was in motion was exactly the same as that of the air against the +planes of a kite; to submerge one of the craft it was necessary to +have it in motion and to have its horizontal rudders so placed that +the resistance of the water would drive the ship downward; the reverse +operation drove it upward. And here lay a danger, for if the engines +of a diving submarine stopped she was bound to come to the surface. +Her presence, while moving entirely submerged could be detected by a +peculiar swell which traveled on the water above; if submerged only so +much as to leave the tip of her periscope still showing, the latter +left an easily discernible wake. + +The periscope was merely a tube in which there were arranged mirrors +so that anything reflected in the first mirror, the one above the +surface of the water, was again reflected till it showed in a mirror +at the bottom of the tube, within the hull of the vessel, where its +commander could observe it safely. A crew of about twenty-five men was +necessary to operate one of these crafts, and theirs was an unpleasant +duty, first because of the danger that accompanied each submergence of +their vessel; second because of the discomforts aboard. The explosive +engines which drove the craft, whether burning oil or the lighter +refinements such as gasoline, gave off gases that caused headaches and +throbbing across the forehead; and it was almost impossible to heat +the interior of the craft. + +Though merchantmen had gone to the bottom as victims of German +submarines before the proclamation of a "war zone" was issued they +were individual cases; the first instance of a merchant ship being +sunk as a result of the new policy of the German admiralty was the +sinking of the British steamer _Cambark_ on the 20th of February, +1915. This ship was bound for Liverpool, from Huelva, Spain. While off +the north coast of Wales, on the morning of the 20th, the periscope of +a hostile submarine was sighted only 200 yards ahead. The engines of +the steamship were immediately reversed, but she had no time to make +off, for a torpedo caught her amidships and she started to sink +immediately. Her crew managed to get off in small boats, but all of +their personal belongings were lost. + +The small Irish coasting steamer _Downshire_ was made a victim on the +21st of February, 1915, but instead of sending a torpedo into her +hull, the commander of the _U-12_, the submarine which overhauled her, +resorted to boarding. After trying to elude the submarine by steering +a zigzag course, the _Downshire_ was finally overtaken. The crew was +ordered to take to the small boats, while nineteen men of the +submarine, which had come above water, watched the operations from +the deck. A crew from the submarine took one of the small boats of the +steamship and rowed toward her. They placed a bomb in a vital spot and +set it off, sinking the merchantman. In this way the submarine's +commander had saved a torpedo. A conversation which took place between +the captains of the two craft revealed the methods by which the +submarine commanders were able, not only to steal up on their intended +victims, but to elude being sighted by the patrolling British +warships. Some fishing smacks had been in the vicinity while the +_Downshire_ was sunk, and the British captain asked the German captain +why they had not been attacked. The latter hinted that his plans +worked best if the fishing boats were unmolested. When asked whether +he had hidden behind one these little boats he changed the subject, +but it was learned later that the commanders of the submarines made a +practice of coming to the surface right near fishing boats and bade +them act as screens while they lay in wait for victims. By keeping the +small boats covered with a deck gun or by putting a boarding crew +aboard, it was possible for the commanders of the submarines to keep +their periscopes or the hulls of their vessels behind the sails of the +fishing boats, unobservable to lookouts on larger ships. + +By the 23d of February, 1915, the success of German submarines had +been so marked that the insurance rates on merchantmen went up. +Lloyd's underwriters announced that the rate on transatlantic passage +had gone up nearly one per cent. And on the same day it was announced +that the British Government would thereafter regulate steamship +traffic in the Irish Sea. Certain areas of the Irish Sea were closed +to all kinds of traffic; lines of passage were defined and had to be +followed by all merchantmen, and vessels of all descriptions were +ordered to keep away from certain parts of the coast from sunset to +sunrise. + +The comparatively small size of the submarines made it possible for +the German admiralty to load them on to trains in sections and +transport them where needed, and in this manner some were sent from +the German ports on the North Sea to Zeebrugge, there assembled and +launched. Others were sent to the Adriatic, arriving at Pola on the +25th of February, 1915. These were intended for use in the +Mediterranean as well as in the Adriatic Sea. + +Neutral ships, in order to escape attack by German submarines had to +resort to unusual methods of self-identification. The use of flags +belonging to neutral countries by the merchantmen of belligerent +powers made the usual identification by colors almost impossible, the +German admiralty claiming that the commanders of submarines were +unable to wait long enough, after stopping a vessel, to ascertain +whether she had a right to fly one flag or another. Consequently the +ships belonging to Dutch and American lines had their names painted +with large lettering along their sides. At night, streamers of +electric lights were hung over the sides to illuminate these +letterings; and on the decks of many of the neutral ships their names +and nationalities were painted in large letters so that they might be +identified by aircraft. Owing to such precautions the Dutch steamship +_Prinzes Juliana_ escaped being sunk by a torpedo on the 3d of March, +1915. A submarine ran a parallel course to that followed by the Dutch +ship, but after examining the lettering on her sides the commander of +the German craft saw that she was not legitimate game and turned off. + +Not always did the German submarines themselves succeed in escaping +unharmed in their raiding of allied merchantmen. Rewards were offered +in Great Britain for the sinking of German submersibles by the +commanders of British merchantmen. Instructions were issued in the +British shipping periodicals, showing how a submarine might be sunk by +being rammed. It was officially announced on the 5th of March, 1915, +by the British admiralty, that the _U-8_ had been rammed and sunk by a +British warship. The crew of twenty-nine was rescued and brought to +Dover. For the British this was a stroke of good fortune, for while +the _U-8_ was of an earlier type it was a dangerous craft, having a +total displacement of 300 tons, a radius of operation of 1,200 miles, +a speed of 13 knots when traveling "light" and a speed of 8 knots when +submerged. On the same day the French minister of marine announced +that a French warship had come upon a German submarine of the type of +the _U-2_ in the North Sea and that after firing at the hull of the +vessel and hitting it three times it was seen to sink and did not +reappear. + +During the last week of February and the first week of March, 1915, +bad weather on the waters surrounding the British Isles hampered the +operations of German submarines to an extent which led the British +public to believe that the submarine warfare on merchantmen had been +abandoned, but they were disillusioned when on the 9th of March, 1915, +three British ships were sunk by the underwater craft. The steamship +_Tangistan_ was torpedoed off Scarborough, the _Blackwood_ off +Hastings and the _Princess Victoria_ near Liverpool. Part of this was +believed to be the work of the _U-16_. + +In the three days beginning March 10, 1915, eight ships were made +victims of German submarines in the waters about the British Isles. +Most novel was the experience of a crowd gathered on the shore of one +of the Scilly Islands on March 12, 1915, when two of these eight +ships, the _Indian City_ and the _Headlands_, were torpedoed. At about +eight in the morning the islanders on St. Mary's Island saw a German +submarine overtake the former and sink her. The German vessel then +remained in the adjacent waters to watch for the approach of another +victim, while two patrol boats near by put out and opened fire on her. +The crowd saw the enemies exchange shots at a distance of ten miles +off shore. But neither side put in any effective shots, and the combat +ended when the submarine dived and retired. + +The steamship _Headlands_ was then sighted by the commander of the +submarine and he immediately started to pursue her. The steamship +steered a zigzag course, but the submarine got in a position to launch +a torpedo, and at about half past ten in the morning the crowd on the +shore saw steam escaping from her in large quantities. Some time after +they saw a large volume of black smoke and debris fly upward and they +knew that another torpedo had found its mark. She then settled, her +crew and the men from the _Indian City_ reaching St. Mary's in small +boats. + +To keep British harbors free from the German submarines the British +admiralty had to set their engineers to work to devise some method of +trapping the underwater craft automatically, for there seemed to be no +sort of patrol which they could not elude. Steel traps, not unlike the +gill nets used by fishermen, were finally hit upon as the best thing +to use against the submarines, and by March 13, 1915, a number of +these were installed at entrances to some of the British harbors. They +were made of malleable iron frames, ten feet square, used in sets of +threes, so arranged that they might hold a submarine by the sides and +have the third of the set buckle against its bottom. They were +suspended by buoys about thirty feet below the surface of the water. +When a submarine entered one of these it was held fast, for the frame +which came up from the bottom caught the propeller and made it +impossible for the submarine to work itself loose. The disadvantage to +the submarine was that, while traveling under water, it traveled +"blind"; the periscopes in use were good only for observation when the +top of them were above water; when submerged the commander of a +submarine had to steer by chart. By the end of March, 1915, a dozen +submarines had been caught in nets of this kind. + +By the 18th of March, 1915, three more British ships had been made the +victims of German torpedoes. The _Atlanta_ was sunk off the west coast +of Ireland only a day before the _Fingal_ was sunk off Northumberland. +And the _Leeuwarden_ was sunk by being hit from the deck guns of a +German submarine off the coast of Holland. There was no loss of life +except during the sinking of the _Fingal_, some of whose men were +drowned when she dragged a lifeboat full of men down with her. + +By way of variety the Germans attempted to sink a British ship in the +"war zone" with bombs dropped from an airship, the news of which was +brought to England by the crew and captain of the _Blonde_ when they +reached shore on March 18, 1915. This ship had been German originally, +but being in a British port when the war started was taken over and +run by a British crew. Two or three mornings before the men landed +they had noticed a Taube aeroplane circling over their ship at about +500 feet altitude. It then swept downward and took a close look at the +vessel. Two bombs which fell into the water near the ship, were +dropped by the German aviator. The captain of the _Blonde_ ordered +that the rudder of his ship be fastened so that she might drive in a +circle and her engines were set at full speed, with the intention of +making a more difficult target for the airship's bombs. The whistle of +the ship was set going and continued to blow in the hope of attracting +help from other ships. More bombs were near the vessel, but none of +them found its mark. After one more attempt, when only 300 feet above +the ship's deck, the aviator let go with his last supply, but again +being unsuccessful he veered off to the north and allowed the _Blonde_ +to escape. + +The naval attack on the Dardanelles is told in another chapter, but +the work of the Allies' submarines there included the use of French +submarines, which is not narrated elsewhere. On the 19th of March, +1915, Rear Admiral Guepratte of the French navy reported that one of +his submarines had attempted, without success, to run through the +Dardanelles. The object of the attempt was to sink the Turkish battle +cruiser _Sultan Selim_, formerly the _Goeben_. The submarine submerged +and got as far as Nagara. But she had to travel "blind" and her +captain, being unfamiliar with those waters, struck some rocks near +the shore and immediately brought her to the surface. She became a +target for the land guns of the Turks at once and was sunk, only a few +of her men, who were taken prisoners, escaping death. + +On the 19th of March, 1915, the British admiralty reported that the +three British ships, _Hyndford_, _Bluejacket_, and _Glenartney_ had +been torpedoed in the "war zone" without warning, with the loss of +only one man. Beachy Head in the British Channel had been the scene of +most of the operations of German submarines against British ships, and +consequently, when on the 21st of March, 1915, the collier _Cairntorr_ +was torpedoed in that region, no unusual comment was made by the +admiralty. Heretofore the scene of the latest attack had been thought +worthy of mention on account of the unusual and unexpected places that +submarines chose for action. + +A new phase of the submarines' activities was opened on March 21, +1915, when two Dutch ships _Batavier V_ and _Zaanstroom_ were held up +and captured. The _U-28_ had for some days been hiding near the Maas +Lightship, and had been taking shots with torpedoes at every ship +which came within range. The _Batavier V_ had left the Hook of Holland +on March 18, 1915. At about five o'clock that morning she came near +the Maas Lightship on her way to England, whence she was carrying +provisions and a register of fifty-seven persons, including passengers +and crew; among the former there were a number of women and children. +Suddenly a submarine appeared off her port bow, and her captain was +ordered to stop his ship. This he did readily, for he had been thus +stopped before, only to be allowed to proceed. But this time the +commander of the submarine, the _U-28_, shouted to him through a +megaphone: "I am going to confiscate your ship and take it to +Zeebrugge." + +While the two commanders were arguing over the illegality of this, the +_Zaanstroom_ was sighted, and was immediately overtaken by the +submarine. An officer and a sailor from the submarine had been placed +on the _Batavier V_, and this prevented her escaping while the pursuit +of the _Zaanstroom_ was on. A similar detail was now placed on the +latter, and her captain was ordered to follow the _U-28_ which +returned to the _Batavier V_. "Follow me to Zeebrugge" was the order +which the commander of the submarine gave the two ships, and their +captains obeyed. They arrived at Zeebrugge at noon, and were +immediately unloaded. Those of the passengers and crews who were +citizens of neutral countries were sent to Ghent and there released, +while all those aboard, such as Belgians and Frenchmen, were detained. + +When possible, the commanders of the German submarines saved their +costly torpedoes and used shell fire instead to sink their victims. +This was done in the case of the steamship _Vosges_, which was sunk on +March 28, 1915. For two hours, while the engines of the steamship were +run at full speed in an attempt to get away from the submarine, she +was under fire from two deck guns on board the submersible. Though the +latter made off at the approach of another vessel, her shells did +enough damage to cause the _Vosges_ to sink a few hours later. + +Up to the middle of March, 1915, all the ships which had become +victims of German submarines had been of the slower coasting variety. +There had been numerous unconfirmed reports that the faster +transatlantic ships had been chased, but no credence had been given to +them. On the 27th of March, 1915, however, when the _Arabic_ arrived +at Liverpool it was reported by those on board that she had given a +submarine a lively chase and had gotten away safely. At about nine +o'clock the evening before the submarine was sighted off Holyhead. She +was only 200 yards ahead, and while her commander jockeyed for a +position from which he could successfully launch a torpedo, the +commander of the _Arabic_ gave the order "Full speed ahead." His +passengers lined the rail of the ship to watch the maneuvers. Soon the +steamship had up a speed of 18 knots, which was a bit too fast for the +submarine, and she fell to the rearward. Her chance for launching a +torpedo was gone, but she brought her deck guns into action, firing +two shots which went wild. The _Arabic_ proceeded to port unmolested. + +At times even the cost of shell fire was figured by the commanders of +German submarines, and pistol and rifles were used instead. This was +done in the case of the _Delmira_ on the 26th of March, 1915. This +steamship was sunk off Boulogne. Ten minutes were given by the crew of +the submarine to the crew of the steamship for them to get off. The +submarine had come up off the bow of the _Delmira_, and men standing +on the deck of the former had fired shots toward the bridge of the +latter to make her captain bring her to a stop. The latter ordered his +engines started again at full speed, with the intention of ramming the +enemy, but his Chinese stokers refused to obey the order, and his ship +did not move. The crew of the steamship got into their small boats, +and for an hour and a half these were towed by the submarine so that +their row to shore would not be so long. Though torpedoed, the +_Delmira_ did not sink, and was last seen in a burning condition off +the French coast near Cape de la Hogue. + +The sinking of the steamship _Falaba_, which is mentioned, though not +narrated in full, in another chapter, was the last act of German +submarines during the month of March, 1915. This ship on the 29th of +March, 1915, was overtaken by a German submarine in St. George's +Channel. She was engaged in the African trade, voyaging between the +African ports and Liverpool. On her last journey she carried a crew of +90 men and some 160 passengers, many of the latter being women and +children. The commander of the submarine brought his craft to the +surface off the bow of the _Falaba_, and gave the captain of the +steamship five minutes in which to put his crew and passengers into +lifeboats. A torpedo was sent against her hull and found the engine +room, causing a tremendous explosion. One hundred and eleven persons +lost their lives because they had not been able to get off in time, or +because they were too near the liner when she went down. This was the +most important merchantman which had been sent to the bottom by a +submarine since the proclamation of February 15, 1915. + +The next two victims of this sort of warfare were the steamships +_Flaminian_ and the _Crown of Castile_, one of which was sunk by the +_U-28_, and the other by an unidentified submarine on April 1, 1915. +They went down off the west coast of England with no loss of life, +though the _Crown of Castile_ was torpedoed before her crew could get +off. The _Flaminian_ had tried to get away, but had to stop under fire +from deck guns on the submarine. The shells did not hit her in vital +spots, however, and it was necessary to send a torpedo into her hull +to sink her. + +The ease with which submarines had been able to bob up in unexpected +places and to sink British merchantmen, in spite of the patrols +maintained by British warships, caused the captains of merchant +vessels to petition the British Government to be allowed to arm their +vessels on April 1, 1915. This was not granted, because their being +armed would have made the steamship legitimate prey for the +submarines, nor was any attention paid to the demand made by the +British press that the crews and officers of captured German +submarines be treated, not as prisoners of war, but as pirates. +Reprisals on the part of the Germans was feared. + +Beachy Head on the 1st of April, 1915, was again the scene of two +successful attacks on merchantmen by submarines. On that day the +French steamship _Emma_, after being torpedoed, went to the bottom +with all of the nineteen men in her crew. The same submarine sank the +British steamer _Seven Seas_, causing the deaths of eleven of her men. + +In order to indicate the amount of harm which the submarine warfare +caused British shipping, the admiralty on April 1, 1915, announced +that though five merchantmen had been sent to the bottom and one had +been only partially damaged by submarines during the week ending March +31, 1915, some 1,559 vessels entered and sailed from British ports +during the same period. + +Efforts were made to damage the base, from which many of the German +submarines had been putting out at Zeebrugge, with aircraft. On the +1st of April, 1915, the British Government's press bureau announced +that bombs had been dropped, with unknown success, on two German +submarines lying there, and that on the same day a British airman had +flown over Hoboken and had seen submarines in building there. + +The steamship _Lockwood_, while off Start Point in Devonshire, was hit +abaft the engine room by a German torpedo on the morning of April 2, +1915, and though she went down almost immediately, her crew was able +to get off in small boats and were picked up by fishing trawlers. + +The _U-28_, which had done such effective work for the Germans during +the month of March, 1915, was relieved of duty near the British Isles +during the first week of April by the _U-31_, which sank the Russian +bark _Hermes_ and the British steamship _Olivine_ off the coast of +Wales on April 5, 1915. + +The British admiralty decided in April, 1915, to use some other means +besides the employment of torpedo boats and destroyers to keep watch +for German submarines, and innocent-looking fishing trawlers were used +for the purpose. While these could give no fight against a submarine, +it was intended that they would carefully make for land to report +after sighting one of the hostile craft. The Germans, discovering this +strategy, then began to sink trawlers when they found them. On the +morning of April 5, 1915, one of these small craft was sighted and +chased by the _U-20_. After a pursuit of an hour or more the German +ship was near enough for members of her crew to fire on the trawler +with rifles. Her crew got into the small boat and were picked up +later by a steamer. The trawler was sent to the bottom. + +The _U-20_ still kept up her raiding. On the 5th of April, 1915, she +overtook the steamer _Northland_, a 2,000-ton ship, and torpedoed her +off Beachy Head. The crew of the steamer were able to escape, although +their ship went down only ten minutes after the submarine caught up +with it. + +The use of nets to catch submarines was vindicated, when on the 6th of +April, 1915, one of these vessels became entangled in a steel net near +Dover and was held fast. The loss of the _U-29_, which was commanded +by the famous Otto von Weddigen, who commanded the _U-9_ when she sank +the _Hogue_, _Cressy_, and _Aboukir_ in September, 1914, was confirmed +by a report issued by the German admiralty on April 7, 1915, after +rumors of her loss had circulated throughout England and France for a +number of weeks. + +In order to encourage resistance on the part of crews of British +vessels attacked by German submarines, the British Government rewarded +the crew of the steamship _Vosges_. It was announced on April 9, 1915, +that the captain had been given a commission as a lieutenant in the +Royal Naval Reserve and the Distinguished Service Cross; the remaining +officers were given gold watches, and the crew were given $15 per man. + +Rumors had reached the outside world that the German submarines were +using hidden spots to store fuel and provisions so that they might go +about their raiding without having to return to German ports for +reprovisioning. Neutral nations, such as the Netherlands and Norway, +found it necessary, to maintain their neutrality, to keep watch for +such action. On the 9th of April, 1915, Norwegian airmen reported to +their Government that such a cache had been discovered by them behind +the cliffs in Bergen Bay. Submarines found there were ordered to +intern or to leave immediately, and chose to do the latter. + +Certain acts of the commanders of German submarines seemed to make it +evident that their intention was to sink ships of every description, +no matter where found, in order to make the "war zone" a reality, and +to make it shunned by neutral as well as belligerent ships. Thus the +Dutch steamship _Katwyk_, which lay at anchor seven miles west of the +North Hinder Lightship off the Dutch coast, was sunk. This lightship +was maintained by the Netherlands Government and stood at the mouth of +the River Scheldt, forty-five miles northwest of Flushing. The +_Katwyk_ was stationary there on the night of April 14, 1915, when the +crew felt a great shock and saw that their ship was rapidly taking +water. They managed to reach the lightship in their lifeboats just as +their vessel sank. The same submarine sank the British steamer +_Ptarmigan_ only a few hours later. + +Among victims flying the flags of neutral nations the next ship was of +American register. This was the tank steamship _Gulflight_, which was +torpedoed off the Scilly Islands on the 29th of May, 1915. The hole +made in her hull was not large enough to cause her to sink, and she +was able to get to port. But during the excitement of the attack her +captain died of heart failure and two of her crew jumped into the sea +and were drowned. Three days later the French steamship _Europe_ and +the British ship _Fulgent_ were sent to the bottom, probably by the +same submarine. + +The month of May, 1915, had opened with greater activity on the part +of German submarines than had been shown for many weeks previous. +Between the 1st and the 3d of that month seven ships were torpedoed, +four of them being British, one Swedish, and two Norwegian. By the 5th +of May, 1915, ten British trawlers had been sunk; some of these were +armed for attack on either German submarines or torpedo boats. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV + +SINKING OF THE "LUSITANIA" + + +On the 7th of May, 1915, came the most sensational act committed by +German submarines since the war had started--the sinking of the Cunard +liner _Lusitania_. The vessel which did this was one of the _U-39_ +class. In her last hours above water the giant liner was nearing +Queenstown on a sunny day in a calm sea. When about five miles off +shore, near Old Head of Kinsale, on the southeastern coast of Ireland, +a few minutes after two o'clock, while many of the passengers were at +lunch and a few of them on deck, there came a violent shock. + +[Illustration: The Great liner, "Lusitania," which was torpedoed by a +German submarine, not far from Old Kinsale Head, Ireland, May 7, +1915.] + +Five or six persons who had been on deck had noticed, a few moments +before, the wake of something that was moving rapidly toward the ship. +The moving object was a torpedo, which struck the hull to the forward +on the starboard side and passed clean through the ship's engine room. +She began to settle by the bows immediately, and the passengers, +though cool, made rushes for lifebelts and for the small boats. The +list of the boat made the launching of some of these impossible. + +The scenes on the decks of the sinking liner were heartrending. +Members of families had become separated and ran wildly about seeking +their relatives. The women and children were put into the +lifeboats--being given preference. + +"I was on the deck about two o'clock," narrated one of the survivors, +"the weather was fine and bright and the sea calm. Suddenly I heard a +terrific explosion, followed by another, and the cry went up that the +ship had been torpedoed. She began to list at once, and her angle was +so great that many of the boats on the port side could not be +launched. A lot of people made a rush for the boats, but I went down +to my cabin, took off my coat and vest and donned a lifebelt. On +getting up again I found the decks awash and the boat going down fast +by the head. I slipped down a rope into the sea and was picked up by +one of the lifeboats. Some of the boats, owing to the position of the +vessel, got swamped, and I saw one turn over no less than three times, +but eventually it was righted." + +Not all of the women and children got off the liner into the small +boats. "Women and children, under the protection of men, had clustered +in lines on the port side of the ship," reported another survivor. "As +the ship made her plunge down by the head, she finally took an angle +of ninety degrees, and I saw this little army slide down toward the +starboard side, dashing themselves against each other as they went, +until they were engulfed." + +Even under the stress of avoiding death the sight of the sinking hull +was one that held the attention of those in the water. One of the +sailors said afterward: "Her great hull rose into the air and neared +the perpendicular. As the form of the vessel rose she seemed to +shorten, and just as a duck dives so she disappeared. She went almost +noiselessly. Fortunately her propellers had stopped, for had these +been going, the vortex of her four screws would have dragged down many +of those whose lives were saved. She seemed to divide the water as +smoothly as a knife would do it." + +Twenty minutes after the torpedo had struck the ship she had +disappeared beneath the surface of the sea. "Above the spot where she +had gone down," said one of the men who escaped death, "there was +nothing but a nondescript mass of floating wreckage. Everywhere one +looked there was a sea of waving hands and arms, belonging to the +struggling men and frantic women and children in agonizing efforts to +keep afloat. That was the most horrible memory and sight of all." + +Fishing boats and coasting steamers picked up many of the survivors +some hours after the disaster. The frightened people in the small +boats pulled for the shore after picking up as many persons as they +dared without swamping their boats. Some floated about in the waters +for three and four hours, kept up by their lifebelts. Some, who were +good swimmers, managed to keep above water till help came; others +became exhausted and sank. + +Probably the best story, covering the entire period from the time the +ship was hit till the survivors were landed at Queenstown, was told by +Dr. Daniel V. Moore, an American physician: "After the explosion," +said Dr. Moore, "quiet and order were soon accomplished by assurances +from the stewards. I proceeded to the deck promenade for observation, +and saw only that the ship was fast leaning to the starboard. I +hurried toward my cabin below for a lifebelt, and turned back because +of the difficulty in keeping upright. I struggled to D deck and +forward to the first-class cabin, where I saw a Catholic priest. + +"I could find no belts, and returned again toward E deck and saw a +stewardess struggling to dislodge a belt. I helped her with hers and +secured one for myself. I then rushed to D deck and noticed one woman +perched on the gunwale, watching a lowering lifeboat ten feet away. I +pushed her down and into the boat, then I jumped in. The stern of the +lifeboat continued to lower, but the bow stuck fast. A stoker cut the +bow ropes with a hatchet, and we dropped in a vertical position. + +"A girl whom we had heard sing at a concert was struggling, and I +caught her by the ankle and pulled her in. A man I grasped by the +shoulders and I landed him safe. He was the barber of the first-class +cabin, and a more manly man I never met. + +"We pushed away hard to avoid the suck, but our boat was fast filling, +and we bailed fast with one bucket and the women's hats. The man with +the bucket became exhausted, and I relieved him. In a few minutes she +was filled level full. Then a keg floated up, and I pitched it about +ten feet away and followed it. After reaching the keg I turned to see +what had been the fate of our boat. She had capsized. Now a young +steward, Freeman, approached me, clinging to a deck chair. I urged him +to grab the other side of the keg several times. He grew faint, but +harsh speaking roused him. Once he said: 'I am going to go.' But I +ridiculed this, and it gave him strength. + +"The good boat _Brock_ and her splendid officers and men took us +aboard. + +"At the scene of the catastrophe the surface of the water seemed +dotted with bodies. Only a few of the lifeboats seemed to be doing any +good. The cries of 'My God!' 'Save us!' and 'Help!' gradually grew +weaker from all sides, and finally a low weeping, wailing, +inarticulate sound, mingled with coughing and gargling, made me +heartsick. I saw many men die. Some appeared to be sleepy and worn out +just before they went down." + +Officials of the Cunard Line claimed afterward that three submarines +had been engaged in the attack on the liner, but, after all evidence +had been sifted, the claim made by the Germans that only one had been +present was found to be true. The commander of the submarine had +evidently been well informed as to just what route the liner would +take. Trouble with her engines, which developed after she had left New +York, had brought her speed down to 18 knots, a circumstance which was +in favor of the attacking vessel, for it could not have done much +damage with a torpedo had she been going at her highest speed; it +would have given her a chance to cross the path of the torpedo as it +approached. No sign of the submarine was noticed by the lookout or by +any of the passengers on the _Lusitania_ until it was too late to +maneuver her to a position of safety. A few moments before the white +wake of the approaching torpedo was espied, the periscope had been +seen as it came to the surface of the water. From that moment onward +the liner was doomed. + +The German admiralty report of the actual sinking of the ship, which +was issued on the 14th of May, 1915, was brief. It read: "A submarine +sighted the steamship _Lusitania_, which showed no flag, May 7, 2.20 +Central European time, afternoon, on the southeast coast of Ireland, +in fine, clear weather. + +"At 3.10 o'clock one torpedo was fired at the _Lusitania_, which hit +her starboard side below the captain's bridge. The detonation of the +torpedo was followed immediately by a further explosion of extremely +strong effect. The ship quickly listed to starboard and began to sink. + +"The second explosion must be traced back to the ignition of +quantities of ammunition inside the ship." + +One of the effects of the sinking of the _Lusitania_ was to cut down +the number of passengers sailing to and from America to Europe on +ships flying flags of belligerent nations. Attacks by submarines on +neutral ships did not abate, however, for on the 15th of May, 1915, +the Danish steamer _Martha_ was torpedoed in broad daylight and in +view of crowds ashore off the coast of Aberdeen Bay. + +The sinking of ships in the "war zone" continued in spite of rumors +that the German admiralty was expected to discontinue operations of +the submarines against merchantmen on account of the unfriendly +feeling aroused in neutral nations, particularly the United States. On +the 19th of May, 1915, came the news that the British steamship +_Dumcree_ had been torpedoed off a point in the English Channel. A +torpedo fired into her hull failed to sink her immediately, and a +Norwegian ship came to her aid, passing her a cable and attempting to +tow her to port. But the submarine returned, and fearing attack, the +Norwegian ship made off. A second torpedo fired at the _Dumcree_ had +better effect than the first one, and she began to settle. When the +submarine left the scene the Norwegian steamship again returned to the +_Dumcree_ and managed to take off all of her crew and passengers. +Three trawlers, one of them French, were sunk in the same neighborhood +during the next forty-eight hours. + +As soon as Italy entered the war an attempt was made by the Teutonic +Powers to establish the same sort of submarine blockade in the +Adriatic which obtained in the waters around Great Britain. This was +evinced when the captain of the Italian steamship _Marsala_ reported +on May 21, 1915, that his ship had been stopped by an Austrian +submarine, but the latter not wishing to disclose its location to the +Italian navy, allowed his ship to proceed unharmed. + +The suspicion that the German admiralty maintained bases for their +submarines right on the coasts of Great Britain where the submersible +craft could obtain oil for driving their engines, as well as supplies +of compressed air and of food for the crew, was confirmed on the 14th +of May, 1915, when it was reported that agents of the British +admiralty had discovered caches of the kind at various points in the +Orkney Islands, in the Bay of Biscay, and on the north and west coasts +of Ireland. + +In order to damage shipping in the "war zone" by having ships go wrong +through having no guiding lights an attack was made by a German +submarine on the lighthouse at Fastnet, on the southern coast of +Ireland, on the night of May 25, 1915. Shortly after nine in the +evening the submarine was sighted in the waters near the lighthouse by +persons on shore. She was about ten miles from Fastnet, near Barley +Cove. When she came near enough to the lighthouse to use her deck +guns, men on shore opened fire on her with rifles, and she submerged, +not to reappear in that neighborhood again. + +But this same submarine managed to do other damage. The American +steamship _Nebraskan_ was in the neighborhood on its way to New York. +The sea was calm and the ship was traveling at 12 knots, when some +time near nine o'clock in the evening a shock was felt aboard. A +second later there came a terrific explosion, and a subsequent +investigation showed that a large hole, 20 feet square, had been torn +in her starboard bow, not far from the water line. When she began to +settle the captain ordered all hands into the small boats. They stayed +near the damaged ship for an hour and saw that she was not going to +sink. When they got aboard again they found that a bulkhead was +keeping out the water sufficiently to allow her to proceed under her +own steam. In crippled condition she made for port, being convoyed +later by two British warships which answered her calls for help. + +In spite of the sharp diplomatic representations which were at the +time passing back and forth between Germany and the United States over +the matter of the German submarine warfare, the craft kept up as +active a campaign against merchant ships as they did before the issues +became pointed. On May 28, 1915, there came the news that three more +ships had been sent to the bottom. The _Spennymoor_, a new ship, was +chased and torpedoed off Start Point, near the Orkney Islands. Some of +her crew were drowned when the lifeboat in which they were getting +away capsized, carrying them down. On the same day the large liner +_Argyllshire_ was chased and fired upon by the deck guns of a hostile +submarine, but she managed to get away. Not so fortunate, however, was +the steamship _Cadesby_. While off the Scilly Islands on the afternoon +of May 28, 1915, a German submarine hailed her, firing a shot from a +deck gun across her bows as a signal to halt. Time was given for the +crew and passengers to get into small boats, and when these were at a +distance from the ship the deck guns of the submarine were again +brought into action, and after firing thirty shots into her hull they +sank her. The third victim was the Swedish ship _Roosvall_. She was +stopped and boarded off Malmoe by the crew of a German submarine. +After examining her papers they permitted her to proceed, but later +sent a torpedo into her, sinking her. + +A new raider, the _U-24_, made its appearance in the English Channel +during the last week in May, 1915. On the twenty-eighth of the month +this submarine sank the liner _Ethiope_. The captain of the steamship +attempted some clever maneuvering, which did not accomplish its +object. He paid no attention to a shot from the deck guns of the +submarine which passed across his bow. The hostile craft then began to +circle around the liner, while the rudder of the latter was put at a +wide angle in an effort to keep either stern or bow of the ship toward +the submarine, thus making a poor target for a torpedo. But the +commander of the submarine saw through the movement and ordered fire +with his deck guns. After shells had taken away the ship's bridge and +had punctured her hull near the stern the crew and passengers were +ordered into the small boats. They had hardly gotten twenty feet from +their ship when she was rent by a violent explosion and went down. + +The transatlantic liner _Megantic_ had better luck, for she managed to +escape a pursuing submarine on May 29, 1915, as she was nearing +Queenstown, Ireland, homeward bound. A notable change in the methods +adopted by the commanders of submarines as a result of orders issued +by the German admiralty in answer to the protests throughout the press +of the neutral nations after the sinking of the _Lusitania_ was the +giving of warning to intended victims. By the end of May, 1915, in +almost every instance where a German submarine stopped and sank a +merchantman the crew was given time to get off their ship and the +submarine did not hesitate to show itself. In fact, warning to stop +was generally given when the submarine's deck was above water and the +gun mounted there had the victim "covered." This was done in the case +of the British steamship _Tullochmoor_, which was torpedoed off Ushant +near the most westerly islands of Brittany, France. + +On the 1st of June, 1915, there came the news of the sinking of the +British ship _Dixiana_, near Ushant, by a German submarine which +approached by aid of a clever disguise. The crew managed to get off +the ship in time; when they landed on shore they reported that the +submarine had been seen and on account of sails which she carried was +thought to be an innocent fishing boat. The disguise was penetrated +too late for the _Dixiana_ to make its escape. + +The clear and calm weather which came with June, 1915, made greater +activity on the part of German submarines possible. On the 4th of +June, 1915, it was reported by the British admiralty that six more +ships had been made victims, three of them being those of neutral +countries. In the next twenty-four hours the number was increased by +eleven, and eight more were added by the 9th of June, 1915. + +On that date Mr. Balfour, Secretary of the British admiralty, +announced that a German submarine had been sunk, though he did not +state what had been the scene of the action. At the same time he +announced that Great Britain would henceforth treat the captured crew +of submarines in the same manner as were treated other war prisoners, +and that the policy of separating these men from the others and of +giving them harsher treatment would be abandoned. + +On the 20th of June, 1915, the day's reports of losses due to the +operations of German submarines, issued by the British Government, +contained the news of the sinking of the two British torpedo boats, +the _No. 10_ and the _No. 20_. No details were made public concerning +just how they went down. + +On the same day the Italian admiralty announced that a cache +maintained to supply submarines belonging to the Teutonic Powers and +operating in the Mediterranean, had been discovered on a lonely part +of the coast near Kalimno, an island off the southwest coast of Asia +Minor. Ninety-six barrels of benzine and fifteen hundred barrels of +other fuel were found and destroyed. It was believed that this supply +had been shipped as kerosene from Saloniki to Piraeus. How submarines +belonging to Germany had reached the southern theatre of naval warfare +had been a matter of speculation for the outside world. But on the 6th +of June, 1915, Captain Otto Hersing made public the manner in which he +took the _U-51_ on a 3,000 mile trip from Wilhelmshaven on the North +Sea to Constantinople. He was the commander who managed to torpedo the +British battleships _Triumph_ and _Majestic_. + +He received his orders to sail on the 25th of April, 1915, and +immediately began to stock his ship with extra amounts of fuel and +provisions, allowing only his first officer and chief engineer to know +the destination of their craft. He traveled on the surface of the +water as soon as he had passed the guard of British warships near the +German coast; traveling "light" allowed him to make six or seven knots +more in speed. As he passed through the "war zone" he kept watch for +merchantmen which might be made victims of his torpedo tubes. His +craft was sighted by a British destroyer, however, off the English +coast and he had to submerge to escape the fire of the destroyer's +guns. He then proceeded cautiously down the coast of France, +encountering no hostile ships. When within one hundred miles of +Gibraltar he was again discovered by British destroyers, but again +managed to escape by submerging his craft. + +Passage through the Strait of Gibraltar was made in the early morning +hours, while a mist hung near the surface of the water and permitted +no one at the fort to see the wake of the _U-51's_ periscope. Once +inside the Mediterranean he headed for the south of Greece, escaping +attack from a French destroyer and proceeding through the AEgean Sea to +the Dardanelles. The journey ended on the 25th of May, just one month +after leaving Wilhelmshaven. + +The British ships _Triumph_ and _Majestic_ were sighted early in the +morning, but attack upon them was difficult on account of the +destroyers which circled about them; one of the destroyers passed +right over the _U-51_ while she was submerged. Captain Hersing brought +her to the surface soon afterward and let go the torpedo which sank +the _Triumph_. For the next two days the submarine lay submerged, but +came up on the following day and found itself right in the midst of +the allied fleet. This time the _Majestic_ was taken as the target for +a torpedo and she went down. Again submerging his vessel Captain +Hersing kept it down for another day, and when he again came to the +surface he saw that the fleets had moved away. He then returned to +Constantinople. + +On the 23d of June, 1915, the British cruiser _Roxborough_, an older +ship, was hit by a torpedo fired by a German submarine in the North +Sea, but the damage inflicted was not enough to prevent her from +making port under her own steam. + +The deaths of a number of Americans occurred on the 28th of June, +1915, when the Leyland liner _Armenian_, carrying horses for the +allied armies, was torpedoed by the _U-38_, twenty miles west by north +of Trevose Head in Cornwall. According to the story of the captain of +the vessel, the submarine fired two shots to signal him to stop. When +he put on all speed in an attempt to get away from the raider her guns +opened on his ship with shrapnel, badly riddling it. She had caught +fire and was burning in three places before he signaled that he would +surrender. Thirteen men had meanwhile been killed by the shrapnel. +Some of the lifeboats had also been riddled by the firing from the +submarine's deck guns, making it more difficult for the crew to leave +the ship. The German commander gave him ample time to get his boats +off. + +To offset the advantage which the Germans had with their submarines +the British admiralty commissioned ten such craft during the week of +June 28, 1915. These vessels were of American build and design and +were assembled in Canada. During the week mentioned they were manned +by men sent for the purpose from England. Each was manned by four +officers and eighteen men, to take them across the Atlantic. Never +before in history had so many submarines undertaken a voyage as great. +They got under way from Quebec on July 2, 1915, and proceeded in +column two abreast, a big auxiliary cruiser, which acted as their +escort steaming in the center. + +The next large liner which had an encounter with the German submarine +_U-39_ was the _Anglo-Californian_. She came into Queenstown on the +morning of July 5, 1915, with nine dead sailors lying on the deck, +nine wounded men in their bunks, and holes in her sides made by shot +and shell. She had withstood attack from a German submarine for four +hours. Her escape from destruction was accomplished through only the +spirit of the captain and his crew, combined with the fact that patrol +vessels came to her aid forcing the submarine to submerge. + +A variety in the methods used by the commanders of German submarines +was revealed in the stopping of the Norwegian ship _Vega_ which was +stopped on the 15th of July, while voyaging from Bergen to Newcastle. +The submarine came alongside the steamship at night and the commander +of the submarine supervised the jettisoning of her cargo of 200 tons +of salmon, 800 cases of butter, and 4,000 cases of sardines, which was +done at his command under threat of sinking his victim. + +The week of July 15, 1915, was unique in that not one British vessel +was made the victim of a German submarine during that period, though +two Russian vessels had been sunk. Figures compiled by the British +admiralty and issued on the 22d of July, 1915, gave out the following +information concerning the attacks on merchantmen by German submarines +since the German admiralty's proclamation of a "war zone" around Great +Britain went into effect on the 18th of February, 1915. + +The official figures were as follows: + + Week ending Vessels lost Lives lost + Feb. 25, 1915 11 9 + March 4, " 1 None + March 11, " 7 38 + March 18, " 6 13 + March 25, " 7 2 + April 1, " 13 165 + April 8, " 8 13 + April 15, " 4 None + April 22, " 3 10 + April 29, " 3 None + May 6, " 24 5 + May 13, " 2 1,260 + May 20, " 7 13 + May 27, " 7 7 + June 3, " 36 21 + June 10, " 36 21 + June 17, " 19 19 + June 24, " 3 1 + July 1, " 9 29 + July 8, " 15 2 + July 15, " 12 13 + July 22, " 2 None + 235 1,641 + +The first year of the Great War came to an end with the German +submarines as active in the "war zone" as they had been during any +part of it. On the 28th of July, 1915, the anniversary of the +commencement of the war, there was reported the sinking of nine +vessels. These were the Swedish steamer _Emma_, the three Danish +schooners _Maria_, _Neptunis,_ and _Lena_, the British steamer +_Mangara_, the trawlers _Iceni_ and _Salacia_, the _Westward_ Ho, and +the Swedish bark _Sagnadalen_. No lives were lost with any of these +vessels. + +The first year of the war closed with a cloud gathered over the heads +of the members of the German admiralty raised by the irritation the +submarine attacks in the "war zone" had caused. Germany's enemies +protested against the illegality of these attacks; neutral nations +protested because they held that their rights had been overridden. But +the German press showed the feeling of the German public on the +matter--at the end of July, 1915, it was as anxious as ever to have +the attacks continued. Conflicting claims were issued in Germany and +England. In the former country it was claimed that the attacks had +seriously damaged commerce; in the latter it was claimed that the +damage was of little account. + + + + +PART VI--THE EASTERN FRONT--AUSTRO-RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN + + + + +CHAPTER XXXV + +THE CARPATHIAN CAMPAIGN--REVIEW OF THE SITUATION + + +In the beginning of 1915 comparative calm reigned over the +Austro-Russian theatre of war, so far as actual hostilities were +concerned. But it was not altogether the variable climatic conditions +of alternate frost and thaw--the latter converting road and valley +into impassable quagmires--that caused the lull. It was a short winter +pause during which the opposing forces--on one side at least--were +preparing and gathering the requisite momentum for the coming storm. + +During January, 1915, the Russian armies were in a decidedly favorable +position. In their own invaded territory of Poland, as we have seen, +they held an advanced position in front of the Vistula, which +circumstance enabled them to utilize that river as a line of +communication, while barring the way to Warsaw against Von Hindenburg. +Lemberg, the capital of Galicia, which they had captured in September, +1914, was still in their hands. Sixty miles away to the west there lay +the great fortress of Przemysl, invested by the Russians under General +Selivanoff, and completely cut off from the outer world since November +12, 1914. At least 150,000 troops and enormous quantities of stores +and munitions were locked up in the town and outlying forts, together +with a population of 50,000 inhabitants, mostly Polish. In addition to +these material advantages, the Russians held all the Carpathian passes +leading from Galicia into the vast plains of Hungary, and a strong +advanced position on the Dunajec in the west, which, besides +threatening Cracow, the capital of Austrian Poland, served also as a +screen to the mountain operations. Finally, to the far east of the +range, they had occupied nearly the whole of the Bukowina right up to +the Rumanian frontier. + +Such, briefly, was the situation on the Austro-Russian front when the +second winter campaign opened. For Austria the situation was extremely +critical. Her armies, broken and scattered after a series of +disastrous reverses, could scarcely hope by their own efforts to stem +the threatened invasion of Hungary. General Brussilov, however, made +no serious attempt to pour his troops through the passes into the +plain below; although what was probably a reconnaissance emerged from +the Uzsok Pass and penetrated as far as Munkacs, some thirty miles +south, while on several occasions small bands of Cossacks descended +from the Dukla and Delatyn (Jablonitza) passes to raid Hungarian +villages. General Brussilov evidently regarded it inadvisable to risk +an invasion of the plain, especially as he did not hold control of the +southern exits from the passes, beyond which he would be exposed to +attack from all sides and liable to encounter superior forces. The +main Austrian anxiety for the moment was the precarious position of +Przemysl, to relieve which it was first essential to dislodge +Brussilov or to pierce his line. Again, in the hour of her extremity, +Austria's powerful ally came to the rescue. + +[Illustration: The Carpathian Passes and Russian Battle Line.] + +Under the command of the Archduke Eugene the Austrian troops--all that +were available--were formed into three separate armies. For +convenience sake we will designate them A, B, and C. Army A, under +General Boehm-Ermolli, was ordered to the section from the Dukla Pass +to the Uzsog. It was charged with the task of cutting a way through to +relieve Przemysl. Army B, under the German General von Linsingen, who +also had some German troops with him, was to assail the next section +eastward, from the Uzsog to the Wyszkow Pass; and Army C, under the +Austrian General von Pflanzer-Baltin, likewise supplied with a good +"stiffening" of German soldiers, was accredited to the far-eastern +section--the Pruth Valley and the Bukowina. These three armies +represented the fighting machine with which Austria hoped to retrieve +the misfortunes of war and recover at the same time her military +prestige and her invaded territories. We have no reliable information +to enable us to estimate the exact strength of these armies, but there +is every reason to believe that it was considerable, having regard to +the urgency of the situation and the bitter experience of the recent +past. Hence the figure of 400,000 men is probably approximately +correct. Somewhere about January 23, 1914, after a period of thaw and +mud the weather settled down to snow and hard frost. Then the machine +began to move. A snow-clad mountain rampart lay spread before; over +200 miles of its length embraced the area of the projected operations. +Here we may leave this army for a while in order to review some of the +political and strategic considerations underlying the campaign, which +is the scope of this chapter. + +The Russian occupation of the Bukowina, which was undertaken and +accomplished by a force far too small to oppose any serious +resistance, appears to have been carried out with the definite +political object of favorably impressing Rumania, and to guide her +into the arms of the Allies. From her geographical position Rumania +commands nearly the whole western frontier of the Dual Monarchy. Her +fertile soil supplied the Central Powers with grain, dairy produce, +and oil. Furthermore, Rumania's foreign policy leaned to the side of +Italy, and the general European impression was, after the death of +King Carol, October 10, 1914, that if one of the two countries entered +the war, the other would follow suit. As subsequent events have shown, +however, that expectation was not realized. Rumania, too, had +aspirations in the direction of recovering lost territories, but her +grievance in this respect was equally divided between Russia and +Austria, for, while the one had despoiled her of Bessarabia, the other +had annexed Transylvania (Siebenbuergen). Hence the Russian tentative +conquest and occupation of the Bukowina paved the way for Rumania, +should she decide on intervention. The road was clear for her to step +in and occupy the Bukowina (which Russia was prepared to hand over), +and probably Transylvania as well, which latter the proximity of a +Russian force might--at the time--have enabled her to do. But the bait +failed, no doubt for weighty reasons. Even if Rumania had favored the +Triple Entente, which there is strong ground to presume she would, by +entering the war, have found herself in as perilous a position as +Serbia, with her Black Sea littoral exposed to hostile Turkey and her +whole southern boundary flanked by a neighbor--Bulgaria--whose +intentions were as yet unknown. However, on January 27, 1915, the Bank +of England arranged a $25,000,000 loan to Rumania--an event which +further heightened the probability of her entry into the arena. + +We may safely take it for granted that these considerations were not +overlooked by the German staff, in addition to the patent fact that +the Russians were persistently gaining ground against the Austrians. +German officers and men were therefore rushed from the eastern and +western fronts to the south of the Carpathians to form the three +armies we have labeled A, B, and C. The points of attack for which +they were intended have already been stated; but the roundabout manner +in which they traveled to their respective sections is both +interesting and worthy of notice. At this stage a new spirit seemed to +dominate Austro-Hungarian military affairs; we suddenly encounter +greater precision, sounder strategy, and deeper plans: a master mind +appears to have taken matters in hand. It is the cool, calculating, +mathematical composite brain of the German General Staff. As the +formation and dispatching of three great armies can hardly be kept a +secret, especially where hawk-eyed spies abound, a really astute piece +of stage management was resorted to. Wild rumors were set afloat to +the effect that the Austrian Government had decided to undertake a +great offensive--for the third time--against Serbia, and erase her +from the map, with the assistance of four German army corps. The +concentration zone for operations against either Serbia or the Russian +front in the Carpathians was naturally in the central plains of +Hungary. But to cover the real object of Austro-German concentration +active demonstrations were made on the Serb border in the form of +bombardments of Belgrade, and occupation of Danube islands. These +demonstrations made plausible the Teutonic assertion that the +concentration of troops was being carried out with a view to an +invasion of Serbia. So successful was the ruse, and so well had the +secret been kept that on February 1, 1914, a Petrograd "official" +gravely announced to an eagerly listening world: "The statement is +confirmed that the new Austro-German southern army, intended for the +third invasion of Serbia, consists of six Austrian and two German +corps or 400,000 men, under the command of the Archduke Eugene(!)" At +the very time this appeared the new Austro-German "southern" army had +been already, for quite a week, making its presence severely felt in +the eastern and central sections of the Carpathians, and still the +Russian authorities had not recognized the identity of the forces +operating there. + +A brief description of the battle ground will enable the reader to +follow more easily the course of the struggle. Imagine that length of +the Carpathian chain which forms the boundary between Galicia and +Hungary as a huge, elongated arch of, roughly, 300 miles. (The whole +of the range stretches as a continuous rampart for a distance of 900 +miles, completely shutting in Hungary from the northwest to the east +and south, separating it from Moravia [Maehren], Galicia, the Bukowina, +and Rumania.) Through the curve of this arch run a number of passes. +Beginning as far west as is here necessary, the names of the chief +passes eastward leading from Hungary are: into Galicia--Beskid, +Tarnow, Tilicz, Dukla, Lupkow, Rostoki, Uzsok, Vereczke (or Tucholka), +Beskid[2] (or Volocz), Wyszkow, Jablonitza (or Delatyn); into the +Bukowina--Strol, Kirlibaba, Rodna; into Rumania--Borgo. In parts the +range is 100 miles in width, and from under 2,000 to 8,000 feet high. +The western and central Carpathians are much more accessible than the +eastern, and therefore comprise the main and easiest routes across. +The Hun and Tartar invasions flooded Europe centuries ago by this way, +and the Delatyn is still called the "Magyar route." The passes vary in +height from under a thousand to over four thousand feet. The Dukla and +Uzsok passes were to be the main objective, as through them lay the +straightest roads to Lemberg and Przemysl. The former is crossed by +railway from Tokay to Przemysl, and the latter by rail and road from +Ungvar to Sambor. A railroad also runs through the Vereczke from +Munkacs to Lemberg, and another through Delatyn from Debreczen to +Kolomea. So far as concerned means of communication, matters were +nearly equal, but geographical advantage lay with the Russians, as the +way from Galicia to Hungary is by far an easier one than vice versa. + + [Footnote 2: There are two passes named Beskid.] + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI + +BATTLE OF THE PASSES + + +Before proceeding with the opening of the second winter campaign in +the Carpathians, the reader should remember that, as stated in the +beginning of this narrative, a Russian army under General Radko +Dmitrieff (a Bulgarian), held an advanced position on the +Dunajec-Biala line, extending from the Vistula to Zmigrod, northwest +of Dukla. This force was consequently beyond the zone of the +Austro-German offensive, but, as events proved, it had not been +overlooked, for it was here that the heaviest blow was finally to +fall. It is also important to bear in mind that the Russian armies +occupying Galicia and the northern slopes of the Carpathians were not +conducting an isolated campaign on their own account; they formed an +integral part of the far-flung battle line that reached from the +shores of the Baltic down to the Rumanian frontier, a distance of +nearly 800 miles. Dmitrieff's force represented a medial link of the +chain--and the weakest. + +Over the slushy roads of the valleys and into the snow-laden passes +the Germanic armies advanced, each of the widely deployed columns with +a definite objective: From Dukla, Lupkow, and Rostoki to relieve +Przemysl; from Uzsok through the valley of the Upper San to Sambor; +through Beskid and Vereczke northward to Stryj, thence westward also +to Sambor; over Wyszkow to Dolina; via Jablonitza to Delatyn; and +across Kirlibaba and Dorna Vatra into the Bukowina. Opposed to them +were the Russian Generals Brussilov, Ivanoff, and Alexieff, +respectively. + +Correspondents with the Teutonic troops in these weeks wrote in +wonderment of the scenes of the slowly forward toiling advance into +the mountains which they had seen. On every road leading into Galicia +there was the same picture of a flood rolling steadily on. Everywhere +could be seen the German and Austro-Hungarian troops on the move, men +going into the firing line to fight for days, day after day, with the +shedding of much blood, among the peaks and valleys, under changing +skies. + +Here is a word picture of the supply columns winding upward into the +Carpathians to the support of the Teutonic troops furnished by a +German correspondent: + +"Truly fantastic is the appearance of one of these modern supply +caravans, stretching in zigzag, with numerous sharp corners and turns, +upward to the heights of the passes and down on the opposite side. +Here we see in stages, one above the other and moving in opposite +directions, the queerest mixture of men, vehicles, machines and +animals, all subordinated to a common military purpose and +organization by military leadership, moving continually and regularly +along. The drivers have been drummed up from all parts of the +monarchy, Serbs, Ruthenians, Poles, Croats, Rumanians, Hungarians, +Slovaks, Austrians, and turbaned Mohammedans from Bosnia. Everyone is +shouting to his animals and cursing in his own language. The whole +mix-up is a traveling exhibition of most variegated characteristic +costumes, for the most part, of course, extremely the worse for wear. +Common to all these are the little wagons adapted to mountain travel, +elastic and tough, which carry only half loads and are drawn by little +ponylike, ambitious horses. In between are great German draft horses, +stamping along with their broad high-wheeled baggage and ammunition +wagons, as though they belonged to a nation of giants. + +"Gravely, with a kind of sullen dignity, slow-stepping steers drag at +their yokes heavily laden sledges. They are a powerful white breed, +with broad-spreading horns a yard long. These are followed in endless +rows by carefully stepping pack animals, small and large horses, mules +and donkeys. On the wooden packsaddles on their backs are the +carefully weighed bales of hay or ammunition boxes or other war +materials. Walking gingerly by the edges of the mountain ridges they +avoid pitfalls and rocks and walk round the stiff, distended bodies of +their comrades that have broken down on the way. At times there ambles +along a long row of working animals a colt, curious and restlessly +sniffing. In the midst of this movement of the legs of animals, of +waving arms, of creaking and swaying loaded vehicles of manifold +origin, there climbs upward the weighty iron of an Austrian motor +battery, with an almost incomprehensible inevitableness, flattening +out the broken roads like a steam roller. + +"From the first pass the baggage train sinks down into the depths, +again to climb upward on the next ridge, to continue striving upward +ever toward higher passages, slowly pushing forward toward its +objective against the resistance of numberless obstacles. + +"The road to the battle field of to-day crosses the battle field of +recent weeks and months. Here there once stood a village, but only the +stone foundations of the hearths are left as traces of the houses that +have been burned down. Sometimes falling shots or the terrors of a +brief battle in the streets have reduced to ruins only a part of a +village. The roofs of houses have been patched with canvas and boards +to some extent, and now serve as quarters for troops or as stables. In +the narrow valleys the level places by the sides of streams have been +utilized for encampments. Here stand in order wagons of a resting +column and the goulash cannons shedding their fragrance far and wide, +or the tireless ovens of a field bakery. Frequently barracks, hospital +buildings, and shelters for men and animals have been built into the +mountain sides. Here and there simple huts have been erected, made of +a few poles and fir twigs. Often they are placed in long rows, which, +when their inmates are warming themselves by the fire at night turn +the dark mountain road into a romantic night encampment, and +everywhere fresh crosses, ornamented at times in a manner suggestive +of the work of children, remind us of our brothers now forever +silenced, who, but a short time before went the same road, withstood +just such weather and such hardships, talked perhaps in these same +huts of the war, and dreamt of peace. + +"The saddest spectacle, however, were the lightly wounded, poor +fellows, who might under ordinary conditions have readily walked the +distance from the first aid station to the central gathering point, +but who here on account of the ice or muddy roads require double and +three times the usual time." + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII + +BATTLE OF KOZIOWA--OPERATIONS IN THE BUKOWINA + + +Owing to the topographical conditions under which fighting must be +carried on in the central Carpathians, some weeks might be expected to +elapse before a general engagement developed along the entire front. +Lateral communication or cooperation between the advancing columns was +out of the question; the passes were like so many parallel tunnels, +each of which must first be negotiated before a reunion can take place +at the northern exits. + +We will follow the achievements of the three groups in separate order. +Army A, under Boehm-Ermolli, crossed Uzsok and Rostoki, and forced +part of the Russian line back upon Baligrod, but Brussilov held it +fast on Dukla and Lupkow, strongly supported by Dmitrieff on his +right. Here the attack failed with severe losses; the Germanic forces +were thrown back into Hungary, and the Russians commanded the southern +ends of the passes around Dukla. The Uzsok Pass was of small +strategical value to the Austrians now that they had it. It is +extremely vulnerable at every point; steep, narrow, and winding roads +traverse its course nearly 3,000 feet high, with thickly wooded +mountains up to 4,500 feet overlooking the scene from a close circle. +Regarded merely as a short cut to Przemysl and Lemberg, the Uzsok was +a useful possession provided always that the northern debouchment +could be cleared and an exit forced. But the Russians held these +debouchments with a firm grip, and the pass was consequently of no use +to the Austrians. About February 7, 1915, the Russians attempted to +outflank the Austrian position in the Lupkow Pass from the eastern +branch of the Dukla by pushing forward in the direction of Mezo-Laborc +on the Hungarian side. The movement partially succeeded; they took +over 10,000 prisoners, but failed to dislodge the Austrians from the +heights east of the pass. Severe fighting raged round this district +for over a month, the Russians finally capturing Lupkow, as well as +Smolnik at the southern exit of Rostoki. Had the Russians succeeded in +getting between Uzsok and the Austrian line of communication, as was +undoubtedly their aim, the Austrians would have been compelled to +relinquish the pass without even a fight. However, General +Boehm-Ermolli's mission proved a failure. + +Army B, under Von Linsingen, succeeded in traversing all the passes in +its appointed section. Crossing by the railway pass of Beskid and the +two roads leading through Vereczke and Wyszkow, they pushed forward in +the direction of Stryj and Lemberg, but never reached their +destination. Barely through the passes, the Germans struck upon Lysa +Gora, over 3,300 feet high. This mountain range is barren of all +vegetation--no sheltering trees or shrubs adorn its slopes. The route +of the Germans crossed Lysa Gora south and in front of the ridge of +Koziowa, where the Russian lines, under General Ivanoff, lay in +waiting. Passing down the bald slopes of Lysa Gora toward the valley +of the Orava River, the advancing German columns presented a +conspicuous target for the Russians on the opposite slopes of Koziowa, +screened by thick forests. Here one of the most desperate battles of +the campaign ensued on February 6, 1915, between Von Linsingen's +Austro-German army and Brussilov's center. + +In close formation and with well-drilled precision the Germans +attempted to storm the position at the point of the bayonet. Again and +again they returned to the charge, only to be repulsed with severe +losses. As many as twenty-two furious bayonet charges were made in one +day, February 7. Wherever a footing was gained in the Russian lines, +there a few minutes ferocious hand-to-hand _melee_ developed--Saxon +and Slav at death grips--the intruders were expelled or hacked down. +Great masses of Austro-German dead and wounded were strewn over the +lower slopes of Koziowa. For five weeks Von Linsingen hammered at the +Russian front without being able to break through. So long as the +Russians held the heights it was impossible for their enemy to emerge +from the passes. These two, Vereczke and Beskid, so close together, +may literally be described as twin tunnels. Owing to the highland +between them, the two columns moving through could not cooperate; if +one side needed reenforcements from the other, they had to be taken +back over the range into Hungary to the junction where the roads +diverged. It was sound strategy on the Russian side to select Koziowa +as the point from which to check the Germanic advance. For the time +being, with Dukla and Lupkow in their hands and the exits of Uzsok and +Rostoki strongly guarded, the defense of Koziowa held Galicia safe +from reconquest. The attacks against Koziowa continued beyond the +middle of March, 1915. On the 16th of that month the Russians captured +a place called Oravcyk, about four miles westward, from where they +could threaten the German left, which had the effect of keeping Von +Linsingen still closer to his mountain passages. The fighting in this +region represents one of the important phases of the war, for it +prevented the relief of Przemysl; temporarily saved Stryj and Lemberg +for the Russians; enabled them to send reenforcements into the +Bukowina, and, finally, inspired the German General Staff to plan the +great and decisive Galician campaign, which was to achieve the task +wherein Boehm-Ermolli and Von Linsingen had both failed. + +Meanwhile, what had Von Pflanzer-Baltin accomplished with Army C--the +third column? His path lay through Jablonitza, Kirlibaba, and Dorna +Vatra; his task was to clear the Russians out of the Bukowina, and +either to force them back across their own frontiers, or to turn the +extreme end of their left flank. We have seen that the Russian +occupation of the Bukowina was more in the nature of a political +experiment than a serious military undertaking, and that their forces +in the province were not strong enough to indulge in great strategical +operations. Hence we may expect the Austrian general's progress to be +less difficult than that of his colleagues in the western and central +Carpathians. To some extent this presumption is correct, for on +February 18, 1915, after launching out from the southern corner of the +Bukowina at Kimpolung and via the Jablonitza Pass down the Pruth +Valley, they captured Czernowitz, and after that Kolomea, whence the +railway runs to Lemberg. Within three days they reached Stanislawow, +another important railway center, defended by a small Russian force, +and a big battle ensued. Altogether, the Germanic troops in the +Bukowina were reported at 50,000 in number, though these were split up +into two columns, one of which was making but slow progress farther +east. + +[Illustration: Detail Map of the Forts of Przemysl.] + +Russian reenforcements were thrown into the town, and the struggle for +the railway, which lasted a week, appears to have been of a seesaw +nature, for no official reports of the fighting were issued by either +side. Still the Austrians pushed westward in the hope of reaching the +railways which supplied those Russian armies which were barring the +advance through the central passes. The Russians were forced to +withdraw from Stanislawow, and their opponents now held possession of +the line running to Stryj and Przemysl--a serious menace to the +Russian main communications. This meant that Von Pflanzer-Baltin had +succeeded in getting to the rear of the Russians. But assistance came +unexpectedly from the center, whence Ivanoff was able to send +reenforcements to his colleague, General Alexeieff, who was +continually falling back before the Austrians. Furious counterattacks +were delivered by the Russians at Halicz and Jezupol, the +bridgeheads of the southern bank of the Dniester. If the Austrians +could not force a victory at these points, their position in +Stanislawow would be untenable, since the Russians still had a clear +road to pour reenforcements into the fighting area between the +Dniester and the Carpathians. On March 1, 1915, the Austrians were +defeated at Halicz in a pitched battle, and on the 4th the Russians +reentered Stanislawow. According to their official communique the +Russians captured nearly 19,000 prisoners, 5 guns, 62 machine guns, +and a quantity of stores and munitions. About March 16 the opposing +forces came again into touch southeast of Stanislawow on the road to +Ottynia, but nothing of importance appears to have happened. To sum up +the results of the Germanic offensive, we must remember what the +objectives were. Of the latter, none was attained. The Russians had +not been expelled from Galicia; Przemysl was no nearer to relief than +before, and Lemberg had not been retaken. With the exception of Dukla +and Lupkow, all the passes were in Austrian hands; but the Russians +dominated the northern debouchments of all of them excepting +Jablonitza. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII + +FALL OF PRZEMYSL + + +The town and fortress of Przemysl formally surrendered to the Russian +General Selivanoff on Monday, March 22, 1915. The first investment +began at the early stages of the war in September, 1914. On the 27th +of that month the Russian generalissimo announced that all +communications had been cut off. By October 15, 1914, the Russian +investment had been broken again, and for a matter of three weeks, +while the road was open, more troops, provisions, arms, and munitions +were rushed to the spot. As we have seen, however, the Russians +recovered their lost advantage, for, after the fall of Jaroslav, the +fortress to the north of Przemysl, their troops were hurried up from +east, north, and west, and within a few days the Austrians were sent +back along the whole front. From the region of Przemysl three +railroads cross the Carpathians to Budapest, along all of which the +Russians had pushed vigorously, besides advancing on the west. As +regarded railroad communications, the fate of Przemysl was sealed by +the capture of Chyrow, an important junction about twenty miles south +of the fortress. Przemysl itself was important as a road junction and +as a connecting link with the Uzsok and Lupkow passes. The garrison +prepared to make a stubborn resistance with the object of checking the +Russian pursuit. A week later the Russians had broken up their heavy +artillery and had begun a steady bombardment. By November 12, 1914, +Przemysl was once more completely besieged by General Selivanoff with +not more than 100,000 troops. + +Przemysl is one of the oldest towns of Galicia, said to have been +founded in the eighth century. It was once the capital of a large +independent principality. In the fourteenth century Casimir the Great +and other Polish princes endowed it with special civic privileges, and +the town attained a high degree of commercial prosperity. In the +seventeenth century its importance was destroyed by inroads of Tatars, +Cossacks, and Swedes. Przemysl is situated on the River San, and was +considered one of the strongest fortresses of Europe. + +The original strategic idea embodied in the purpose of the fortress +was purely defensive; in the event of war with Russia only the line of +the San and Dniester was intended to be held at all costs, while the +whole northeastern portion of Galicia was to be abandoned. With the +fortress of Cracow guarding the west, Przemysl was meant to be the +first defense between the two rivers and to hold the easiest roads to +Hungary through the Dukla, Lupkow, and Uzsok passes. Within the last +ten years, however, the Austrian War Staff altered its plans and +decided upon a vigorous offensive against Russia should occasion +offer, and that Eastern Galicia was not to be sacrificed. Hence a +network of strategic railways was constructed with a view to attacking +the prospective enemy on a wide front extending from the Vistula near +Cracow on the west to the Bug on the east, where the latter flows +into Austrian territory and cuts off a corner of eastern Galicia. The +plan does not appear to have worked successfully, for, before the war +was many days old, the Russians had taken Lemberg, swept across the +Dniester at Halicz, across the San at Jaroslav, just north of +Przemysl, and had already besieged the fortress, which at no time +imposed any serious obstacle in the path of their progress. Perhaps +the only useful purpose that Przemysl served was that it restrained +the Russians from attempting an invasion of Hungary on a big scale, by +holding out for nearly seven months. Not having sufficient siege +artillery at their disposal, the Russians made no attempt to storm the +place. General Selivanoff surrounded the forts with a wide circle of +counterdefenses, which were so strongly fortified that the garrison +would have found it an almost hopeless task to attempt a rush through +the enemy's lines. The Austrian artillery was naturally well +acquainted with the range of every point and position that lay within +reach of their guns; and Selivanoff wisely offered them little +opportunity for effective practice. Considering it too expensive to +attack by the overland route, he worked his way gradually toward the +forts by means of underground operations. To sap a position is slow +work, but much more economical in the expenditure of lives and +munitions. The weakness of Przemysl lay in the fact that its garrison +was far too large for its needs, and that provisions were running +short. In the early part of the campaign the Germanic armies operating +in the San region had drawn freely on Przemysl for supplies, and +before these could be adequately replaced the Russians had again +forged an iron ring around the place. The Russian commander, moreover, +was aware that a coming scarcity threatened the town, and that he had +only to bide his time to starve it into submission. Whilst he was +simply waiting and ever strengthening his lines, the Austrians found +it incumbent on them to assume the offensive. Several desperate +sorties were made by the garrison to break through the wall, only to +end in complete disaster. General Herman von Kusmanek, the commander +in chief of the fortress, organized a special force, composed largely +of Hungarians, for "sortie duty," under the command of a Hungarian, +General von Tamassy. These sorties had been carried out during +November and December, 1914, especially during the latter month, when +the Austro-German armies were pouring across the mountains. So +critical was the Russian position at the time that the relief of +Przemysl was hourly expected. According to an officer of General +Selivanoffs staff, "The Austrians in the fortress were already +conversing with the Austrians on the Carpathians by means of their +searchlights. The guns of Przemysl could be heard by the Austrian +field artillery. The situation was serious, and General Selivanoff +took prompt measures. He brought up fresh troops to the point of +danger and drove the sortie detachments back to the fortress." It is +stated from the Austrian side that one of the sortie detachments had +succeeded in breaking through the Russian lines and marching to a +point fifteen miles beyond the outer lines of the forts. A Russian +official announcement states that during two months of the siege the +Austrian captures amounted only to 4 machine guns and about 60 +prisoners, which occurred in an engagement where two Honved regiments +fell on a Russian company which had advanced too far to be reenforced +in time. On their part in repulsing sorties by the garrison, +frequently made by considerable forces, the Russians made prisoners 27 +officers and 1,906 soldiers, and captured 7 machine guns, 1,500,000 +cartridges, and a large quantity of arms. In two sorties the garrison +in the region of Bircza had more than 2,000 killed and wounded, among +them being many officers. No further sorties were undertaken in that +particular region. During January and February, 1915, very little +fighting took place around Przemysl; sorties were useless as there was +no Austro-German force anywhere near the fortress, and the Russians +were tightening the pressure around it. The only means of +communication with the outer world was by aeroplane, so that, despite +the rigid investment, the Austro-German war staff were kept fully +informed of the straits in which Przemysl found itself. General +Boehm-Ermolli, with Army A, was making desperate efforts to extricate +himself from the Russian grip round Uzsok, Lupkow, and Dukla; he did +not get beyond Baligrod, as the crow flies, thirty miles south of +Przemysl. + +On March 13, 1915, the Russians stormed and captured the village of +Malkovise, on the northeast, breaking through the outer line of the +defense. From this position they began to bombard parts of the inner +ring. About the beginning of the third week in March, 1915, a new +spirit of activity appeared to seize the beleaguered garrison: they +commenced a terrific cannonade which, however, elicited no response. +It was but the energy of despair: they were firing to get rid of their +ammunition, hoping at the same time to hit something or somebody. The +end was at hand. + +On March 18, 1915, a Petrograd "official" laconically reports that: +"In the Przemysl sector the fortress guns continue to fire more than a +thousand heavy projectiles daily, but our troops besieging the +fortress lose only about ten men every day." It is also on March 18 +that General von Kusmanek issued the following manifesto to the +defenders of Przemysl:--"Heroes, I announce to you my last summons. +The honor of our country and our army demands it. I shall lead you to +pierce with your points of steel the iron circles of the enemy, and +then march ever farther onward, sparing no efforts, until we rejoin +our army, which, after heavy fighting, is now near us." + +Just before the surrender two Austrian officers escaped from the +fortress in an aeroplane. These reported concerning the last days of +the siege: + +"On the 18th of March the last provisions had been dealt out and at +the same time the last attempt at breaking through the line of the +besiegers had been ordered. This was carried out on the night of the +19th of March. It was shattered, however, against the unbreakable +manifold ring of the Russian inclosing lines and against the superior +forces which were brought in time to the threatened points. Our men +were so weakened by their long fasting that it took them fully seven +hours to make the march of seven kilometers, and even in this short +stretch many of them had to lie down from exhaustion, yet they fought +well and were bravely led by their officers. + +"In spite of all this," Captain Lehmann, one of the escaped officers, +reported, "the heroic garrison fought on, after their last sortie, for +fully forty-eight hours, against assaults of the Russians which now +set in with terrific violence. The men of the fortress were fully +informed of the situation by an announcement of the commander. They +knew that the provisions were at an end and this very knowledge +spurred them on to make their last sacrifice. Practically all the +nations of the monarchy were represented in the fortress. Tyrolese +Landsturm held the south, Hungarians the west, Ruthenians and Poles +the north, and lower Austrians the east. To this last battle the +troops marched out singing, striving thus to master their weakness. On +this, occasion the above mentioned notice had fallen into the hands of +the Russians and the prospect had thus been opened to them to seize +the fortress with little effort. For two days and nights all the works +of Przemysl were taken under an uninterrupted terrible artillery fire, +including that of modern howitzers of all calibers, up to eighteen +centimeters. Then followed an assault at night on the east front, +which, however, was again bloodily repelled." + +Starvation is conducive neither to good feeling nor heroism, +especially when it is superimposed upon an unbroken series of more or +less disastrous experiences. Misfortune and the so-called "tradition +of defeat" had dogged the steps of Austria's troops from the beginning +of the war; unlucky generals--Dankl, Auffenberg, and others--had been +relieved of their commands and replaced by "new blood"--Boehm-Ermolli, +Boroyevitch von Bojna, and Von Pflanzer-Baltin. Of these three, two +had as yet failed in carrying to success the German plans which had +taken the place of those of their own strategists. Hence it is not at +all improbable that the reports of dissensions among the garrison, +which leaked out at the time, were substantially accurate. That +jealousies broke out among the numerous races forming the Austrian +Army--especially between the Slavonic and Germanic elements--is +supported by strong evidence. The sentiments of the Slav subjects of +Austria leaned more toward Russia than the empire of which they formed +a considerable portion, while there was never any love lost between +them and the Magyars. However that may be, the Slav regiments were +reported to have refused obedience to the general's order for the last +sortie, which was eventually undertaken by a force composed of the +Twenty-third Hungarian Honved Division, a regiment of Hussars, and a +Landwehr brigade, altogether about 30,000 men. Everything depended +upon the venture, for not only were all their food supplies used up, +but they had already eaten most of their horses. Instead, therefore, +of making southward to where their comrades were fighting hard to tear +themselves away from the Carpathian passes, the sortie turned toward +the east, in the direction of Mosciska, twenty miles off, which was +supposed to be the Russian supply base. This attempted foraging +expedition--for it was nothing else--can only be defended on the broad +general principle that it is better to do something than nothing as a +last resort. Supplies were essential before any more could be +undertaken to cut a passage through the strong double set of Russian +lines that lay between the Carpathians and Przemysl; but that these +supplies were stored at Mosciska was a pure speculation. Further, +considering that the whole country was in their opponents' hands, a +strength of 30,000 men was insufficient to attempt so hazardous an +adventure. Even if they succeeded in breaking through, their return to +the fortress was not assured. In that case, if they could not get +back, they would have to go forward: eastward lay Lemberg, held by the +Russians; northward was the Russian frontier, and southward stood the +Russian forces holding the passes. Thus, in any case, however +successful the expedition might prove, it meant breaking at least +twice through lines which the enemy had spent months in strengthening +or fortifying. Undeterred by the almost certain possibility of +failure, the expedition of the "forlorn hope" set out across the plain +of the San--and speedily came to grief. They had to pass by the +strongest Russian artillery position, which was stationed in the low +hollow through which the railway runs to Lemberg. Here a terrific hail +of shells burst over their heads; rattle of machine guns and rifle +fire tore great holes in their ranks; the stoutest courage and +bravest hearts were unavailing against an enemy who could not be +reached nor even seen. The number of killed and wounded in that fatal +sortie has not been made public; that it was an enormous figure is +certain. The Russians took 4,000 prisoners of those who survived the +ordeal, and captured the forts on the western side directly after the +struggling remnants had regained their starting place. General von +Kusmanek issued his manifesto in the morning, and by the same night +the sortie ended in disaster. Like the misdirected charge of the Light +Brigade at Balaclava in 1854, it was "brilliant, but it wasn't war." + +One more attempt was made on Saturday, March 20, 1915, toward +Oikovice, but it was easily frustrated by the vigilant Russians. On +Sunday and Monday, the 21st and 22d of March, a number of explosions +were heard in and around Przemysl. The Austrians were destroying +everything possible previous to surrendering. Large quantities of +explosives were thrown in the river; all kinds of arms were destroyed +or rendered useless; three bridges were crippled; the few remaining +horses were shot, and a railway bridge over the Wiar, which possessed +no strategic value, was also destroyed. These tactics of destroying +approaches naturally isolated the town more than ever, and made it +exceedingly difficult afterward to convey food supplies to the +starving population. + +On Monday morning, March 22, 1915, the Austrian chief of staff +appeared outside the lines of Przemysl under a flag of truce. He was +blindfolded, driven by automobile to Russian headquarters, and ushered +into the presence of General Selivanoff. When the bandage had been +removed from his eyes, the Austrian officer handed over a letter of +capitulation from General von Kusmanek, which ran as follows: + +"In consequence of the exhaustion of provisions and stores, and in +compliance with instructions received from my supreme chief, I am +compelled to surrender the Imperial and Royal Fortress of Przemysl to +the Imperial Russian Army." + +The Russians took charge without any triumphal display. Some officers +were sent to receive the surrender and take stock of the spoils. +General von Kusmanek himself supplied the inventory, in which were +listed 9 generals, 93 superior officers, 2,500 "Offiziere und Beamten" +(subalterns and officials), and 117,000 rank and file, besides 1,000 +pieces of ordnance, mostly useless, and a large quantity of shells and +rifle cartridges. + +General Artamoff was appointed military governor and to superintend +the process of dispatching the prisoners into Russian territory, which +was carried out at the rate of 10,000 a day. Extensive arrangements +were set on foot to supply the inhabitants with food, drink, and other +necessaries of life. As the Russians had not bombarded the town, its +natural and artificial beauties had suffered no damage beyond that +which the Austrians had themselves inflicted; only the outskirts and +the fortifications had been injured by fire and explosion. + +Thus fell, on March 22, 1915, Przemysl, "by its own momentum like an +overripe fruit," and with a garrison twice as large as would have been +adequate to defend it. To Austria the blow was a severe one, for it +cost her about four army corps; the immediate advantage it brought to +the Russians was the release of Selivanoff's army of 100,000 men, who +were urgently required elsewhere. It was only a week earlier that the +commander in chief of all the Austro-Hungarian armies, the Archduke +Frederick, had granted an interview to an American journalist (Dr. J. +T. Roche), in the course of which he stated: "We have only recently +reached the point where we are really prepared, to carry on a campaign +as it should be carried under modern conditions of warfare. Now that +our organization has been completed and all branches of the service +are working harmoniously, we entertain no doubts as to our ability to +hold the enemy at all points and to drive him back from that section +of Galicia which is still in his possession." + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIX + +NEW RUSSIAN OFFENSIVE--AUSTRO-GERMAN COUNTEROFFENSIVE + + +Three days before the fall of Przemysl the Russians abandoned the +defensive and commenced a vigorous attack on the Carpathian front. +Active preparations for the advance had been completed when the +capitulation of the fortress was to be expected any hour. Having so +far held the Germanic armies in check, it was necessary for the +Russians to regain complete control of the Carpathians and the passes +before the snow should begin to melt, especially if they decided on an +invasion of Hungary. On the other hand, before any offensive could be +undertaken against the Germans in Poland, or the Austrians at Cracow, +it was imperative to secure the southern flank in Galicia. They had by +this time partially grasped one particular feature of German strategy, +namely, to parry a blow from one direction by striking in another. A +further consideration may have been the absolute certainty that +Germany would dispatch more reenforcements to the aid of her ally. +Selivanoff's siege army was distributed between Dmitrieff, Brussilov, +and Ivanoff, but they could not be employed to full advantage owing to +the restricted area presented by the Germanic front. Being largely +composed of siege artillery as well as cavalry, a considerable portion +of Selivanoff's army was unsuited for mountain warfare. Cavalry were +converted into infantry, but could not be supplied with the necessary +equipment; they had no bayonets, and most of the fighting was +hand-to-hand. + +Great masses of Germanic reserves were concentrating in northern +Hungary, into which the Russians had driven a thin wedge south of +Dukla, where they held an isolated outpost near Bartfeld. To leave +this position undeveloped meant compulsory withdrawal or disaster. +With the continual influx of reenforcements on both sides, the +struggle for the main passes gradually develops into an ever-expanding +and unbroken battle front: all the gaps are being filled up. From +Dukla westward to the Dunajec-Biala line and the Carpathian foothills +a new link is formed by the Fourth Austrian Army, commanded by the +Archduke Joseph Ferdinand, with two and a half army corps and one +German division. In the Central Carpathians a fifth army, under the +command of the Austrian General von Bojna, appears between the forces +of Boehm-Ermolli and those of Von Linsingen. Right away eastward the +purely Austrian army of Von Pflanzer-Baltin was holding the Pruth +Valley. The Germanic chain was complete, with every link welded +together. + +When the Russian offensive opened on March 19, 1915, the entire battle +line still rested on the northern side of the Carpathians, and here +the struggle was resumed. The Russian grand attack was directed +between the Lupkow and Uzsok passes, where great forces of the enemy, +concentrated for the purpose of relieving Przemysl, were stationed. In +the western sector, facing Dmitrieff, the Archduke Joseph Ferdinand +held the roads leading from Novy-Sacz and Grybow to Tarnow, covering +Cracow; and from south of the range the two roads diverging from Zboro +to Gorlice and Jaslo were in Russian possession, though the Austrians +held their junction at Zboro, eight miles north of Bartfeld. Of the +actual fighting that took place in this region very few details were +published by the Russian official communique. One of these documents, +dated April 18, 1915, announced that on March 23, "our troops had +already begun their principal attack in the direction of Baligrod, +enveloping the enemy positions from the west of the Lupkow Pass and on +the east near the sources of the San. The enemy opposed the most +desperate resistance to the offensive of our troops. They had brought +up every available man on the front from the direction of Bartfeld as +far as the Uzsok Pass, including even German troops and numerous +cavalrymen fighting on foot. The effectives on this front exceeded 300 +battalions. Moreover, our troops had to overcome great natural +difficulties at every step. In the course of the day, March 23, 1915, +we captured more than 4,000 prisoners, a gun, and several dozen +machine guns." + +On March 24, 1915, the battle was in full progress: "Especially severe +is the fighting for the crest of the mountain south of Jasliska and to +the west of the Lupkow Pass. The forests which cover these mountains +offer special facilities for the construction of strong +fortifications." March 25: "The woods in the Lupkow region are a +perfect entanglement of barbed wire ... surrounded by several layers +of trenches, strengthened by deep ditches and palisades. On this day +our troops carried by assault a very important Austrian position on +the great crest of the Beskid Mountains." The Russian captures for the +day amounted to 100 officers, 5,600 men, and a number of machine guns. +Advancing from Jasliska the Russians seriously threatened the +Austro-German position in the Laborcza Valley, to which strong +reenforcements were sent on March 25. With terrific violence the +battle raged till far into the night of the 27th, the Russians forcing +their way to within seven miles of the Hungarian frontier. + +In eight days they had taken nearly 10,000 prisoners. By the night of +March 28, 1915, the entire line of sixty miles from Dukla to Uzsok was +ablaze--the storm was spreading eastward. Like huge ant hills the +mountains swarmed with gray and bluish specks--each a human +being--some to the waist in snow, stabbing and hacking at each other +ferociously with bayonet, sword, or lance, others pouring deadly fire +from rifle, revolver, machine gun, and heavy artillery. Over rocks +slippery with blood, through cruel barbed-wire entanglements and into +crowded trenches the human masses dash and scramble. Here, with heavy +toll, they advanced; there, and with costlier sacrifice, they were +driven back. Fiery Magyars, mechanical Teutons and stolid muzhiks +mixed together in an indescribable hellbroth of combative fury and +destructive passion. Screaming shells and spattered shrapnel rent the +rocks and tore men in pieces by the thousand. Round the Lupkow Pass +the Russians steadily carved their way forward, and at the close of +the day, March 29, 1915, they had taken 76 officers, 5,384 men, 1 +trench mortar, and 21 machine guns. Along the Baligrod-Cisna road the +fighting proceeded, up to March 30, by day and night. + +Gradually the Russians pushed toward Dvernik and Ustrzyki south of +Lutoviska, threatening the Austrian position in the Uzsok and lines of +communications to the south. German reserves were hurried up from the +base at Ungvar, but could not prevent the capture of 80 Austrian +officers, over 5,000 men, 14 machine guns, and 4 pieces of cannon. +Ivanoff had been careful to hold his portion of Selivanoff's army in +reserve; their presence turned the scale. + +On the day and night of March 31, 1915, the Russians stormed and +carried the Austrian positions 4,000 feet high up on the Poloniny +range during a heavy snowstorm. So deep was the snow in places that +movement was impossible; the trampling of the charging battalions +rushing down over the slopes dislodged avalanches of snow, +overwhelming both attackers and defenders. By April 1, 1915, the +Russians approached Volosate, only twelve miles from the rear of the +Uzsok Pass, from which they were now separated by a low ridge. Holding +full possession of the Poloniny range farther west, they commanded the +road from Dvernik to Vetlina. From the north other Russian columns +captured Michova on the Smolnik-Cisna railroad, crossed the +Carpathians, and penetrated into the Virava Valley. Occupying the +entire loop of the Sanok-Homona railway north and south of Lupkow, and +Mezo-Laborcz toward Dukla, the Russians now threatened the Austrian +mountain positions between Lupkow and the Vetlina-Zboj road from the +western flank as well. Violent winter storms raged across the +Carpathians on April 2 and 3, 1915; nature spread a great white pall +over the scenes of carnage. While the elements were battling, the +weary human fighting machine rested and bound its wounds. But not for +long. Scarcely had the last howls of the blizzard faded away when the +machine was again set in motion. + +South of Dukla and Lupkow and north of Uzsok fighting was resumed with +intense vigor. Painfully digging through the snowdrifts the Austrians +retired from the Smolnik-Kalnica line, now no longer tenable. Storm +hampered the pursuing enemy, who captured the Cisna railway station on +April 4, 1915, with all its rolling stock and large stores of +munitions. + +On April 6, 1915, a Russian communique announced that "during the +period from March 20 to April 3, 1915, we took prisoners in the +Carpathians, on the front from Baligrod to Uzsok, 378 officers, 11 +doctors, and 33,155 men. We captured 17 guns and 101 machine guns. Of +these captives 117 officers, 16,928 men, 8 guns, and 59 machine guns +were taken on a front of fifteen versts (10 miles)." + +The Russians again advanced along their whole front on April 4, 1915; +forcing their way along the Rostoki stream, they carried the village +of Rostoki Gorne with the bayonet and penetrated the snow-bound +Rostoki Pass. Their first line arrived at a Hungarian village called +Orosz-Russka, five miles from Nagy Polena, at the foot of the pass. +The Austrians attempted to drive them back, but they held their +ground. + +While fortune was steadily following the efforts of the czar's troops +in the Lupkow-Uzsok sector, the German War Staff were preparing their +plans for the great decisive blow that was soon to be struck. South of +the Carpathians, barely thirty miles away, formidable reenforcements +were collecting; they arrived from the East Prussian front, from +Poland, and even from the west, where they had faced the French and +British. There were also new formations fresh from Germany. General +von der Marwitz arrived in the Laborcza Valley with a whole German +army corps. These gigantic preparations were not unknown to the +Russians; they, also, strained every nerve to throw all available +reenforcements behind and into the battle line, strengthening every +position _except one_. South of the Lupkow the Germanic forces opened +their counteroffensive on April 6, 1915. Official reports on the first +day's fighting differ somewhat. The Russians admit a slight German +advance, but assert that they were able to withstand all further +attacks. The Germans, on the other hand, claim great successes and the +capture of 6,000 Russian prisoners. + +The Germanic armies in this case, however, certainly did advance, for +the Russians withdrew from the Virava Valley, which they had entered +four days earlier. The first object of the counteroffensive was to +save the Austrians who were holding the frontier south of Lupkow from +being enveloped and cut off. But on April 9, 1915, the Russians again +moved forward, and recovered part of the Virava Valley. By this day +the whole mountain crest from Dukla to Uzsok, a distance of over +seventy miles, had been conquered by the Russians. By the same night +they had repulsed a counterattack near the Rostoki and captured a +battalion of Austrian infantry. The Russian report sums up thus: "We +seized Height 909 (909 meters=3,030 feet) with the result that the +enemy was repulsed along the entire length of the principal chain of +the Carpathians in the region of our offensive." + +For the next three days Brussilov attempted to work his way to the +rear of the Uzsok position with his right wing from the Laborcz and +Ung valleys, while simultaneously continuing his frontal attacks +against Boehm-Ermolli and Von Bojna. Cutting through snow sometimes +more than six feet deep, the Russians approached at several points +within a distance of three miles from the Uzsok Valley. But the +Austrians still held the Opolonek mountain group in force. Severe +fighting then developed northwest of the Uzsok on the slopes between +Bukoviec and Beniova; the Russians captured the village of Wysocko +Nizne to the northeast, which commands the only roads connecting the +Munkacz-Stryj and the Uzsok-Turka lines. Though both sides claimed +local successes, they appear to have fought each other to a deadlock, +for very little fighting occurred in this zone after April 14, 1915. +Henceforth Brussilov directed his main efforts to the Virava and +Cisna-Rostoki sector. From here and Volosate, where there had been +continuous fighting since the early days of April, the Russians strove +desperately for possession of the Uzsok. They were ow only two or +three days' march from the Hungarian plains. + +Between April 17 and 20, 1915, a vigorous Austrian counterattack +failed to check the Russian advance. Between Telepovce and Zuella, two +villages south of the Lupkow, the Russians noiselessly approached the +Austrian barbed-wire entanglements, broke through, and after a brief +bayonet encounter gained possession of two heights and captured the +village of Nagy Polena, a little farther to the east. During the night +of April 16-17, 1915, the Russians took prisoners 24 officers, 1,116 +men, and 3 machine guns. + +On April 18, 1915, the Austrians directed several fierce attacks +against the heights south of Telepovce, but were compelled to evacuate +the approaches to their positions. Here, also, an Austrian battalion +was cut off and forced to surrender. Meanwhile the fighting was +gradually decreasing in intensity; the great Carpathian campaign had +reached the end of another chapter. The Austro-German offensive had +failed in its purpose. From Uzsok eastward there had been but little +fighting after the Russian recapture of Stanislawow. + + + + +CHAPTER XL + +CAMPAIGN IN GALICIA AND BUKOWINA--BATTLE OF THE DUNAJEC + + +While the struggle for the passes was raging in the central +Carpathians an interesting campaign was being conducted in Eastern +Galicia and the Bukowina between Von Pflanzer-Baltin and Lechitsky. +There we left the Russians in possession of Stanislawow, which they +had reoccupied on March 4, 1915. Two days before, an Austrian +detachment of infantry and two divisions of cavalry attempted a raid +into Russian territory near the Bessarabian frontier. Within +forty-eight hours they were hurled back. Beyond local skirmishes and +maneuvering for positions, nothing of importance happened from March 4 +till the 15th, when the Russians attacked the main Austrian forces +southeast of Czernowitz. Crossing the River Pruth opposite +Ludihorecza, which lies about 600 feet high, and where the Czernowitz +waterworks are situated, the Russians occupied the place and +threatened the Austrian position in the town, around which pressed +laborers were digging trenches night and day for the defenders. Along +the line between Sadagora and Old Zuczka the Russians had been settled +for over six months. The Austrians attacked this position on March 21, +1915, with the aid of reenforcements and compelled the Russians to +evacuate Sadagora. While falling back in the south the Russians +endeavored to advance in the north, from the direction of Czerniavka, +and outflank the Austrians. Violent fighting raged for several days, +especially northeast from Czernowitz to beyond Rarancze, with the +result that the Russians were compelled to withdraw toward Bojan, near +their own frontier, on March 27. Three days later some Hungarian +Honved battalions, who had penetrated into Russian territory near +Szylowce, were surrounded by Cossacks and severely handled. Besides +many killed and wounded the Austrians lost over 1,000 prisoners, and +by April 2, 1915, the Russians had thrown the remainder back across +their borders. On April 10, 1915, the Russians withdrew from Bojan, +but returned on the 14th. Here, at the close of April, they +concentrated large reenforcements and recovered most of the ground +they had lost since the middle of March. + +Some twenty miles northwest of Czernowitz, sheltered in a loop of the +Dniester, lies an important fortified town called Zaleszczyki. It had a +population of over 76,000, and is a station on the branch line +connecting Czortkow junction with the Kolomca-Czernowitz railway. From +the dense forests east of the town an Austrian column commanded by Count +von Bissingen had attempted during the night of March 22-23, 1915, to +turn the adjacent Russian positions, held by Cossacks and Siberian +fusiliers. A furious fight developed, and the Austro-Hungarian column, +which included some of the finest troops, was repulsed with heavy loss. +Two other attempts were made here, on April 10 and 17, 1915. On the +latter date a detachment of Tyrolese sharpshooters were trapped in the +wire entanglements and annihilated. + +One more battle on a big scale remains to be chronicled from the far +eastern sector; it may also serve to illustrate the wide divergence +that not infrequently exists between official communiques recording +the same event. Early in April, 1915, a Russian force threw a bridge +across the Dniester near the village of Filipkowu and moved along the +road running from Uscie Biskupie via Okna and Kuczurmik on to +Czernowitz, the intention being to turn the Austrian positions south +of Zaleszczyki from the rear. We will let the rival communiques +relate what happened: + + _Austrian Version_ + + Annihilated two battalions of Russian infantry belonging to the + Alexander Regiment; took 1,400 prisoners, and drove Russians back + beyond the Dniester. + + _Russian Version_ + + Annihilated two battalions of the Honveds; captured 21 officers, over + 1,000 rank and file, and 8 machine guns. + +The curtain was about to rise for the next act, wherein will be played +one of the most terrific reversals of fortune ever produced in +military history. + +For quite a month it had been an open secret that considerable masses +of German troops were being transported to the Carpathian front. What +was not known, however, was the magnitude or the plan of these +preparations. Never was a greater concentration of men and machinery +more silently and more speedily accomplished. All along the south of +the range, on the great Hungarian plains, there assembled a gigantic +host of numerous nationalities. But it was away to the west, in that +narrow bottle neck where the Dunajec flows from the Polish frontier +down to the Tarnow Pass, that the mighty thunderbolt had been forged. +Thousands of heavy guns were here planted in position, and millions of +shells conveyed thither under cover of night. Countless trains carried +war materials, tents, pontoons, cattle, provisions, etc. Finally the +troops arrived--from the different fronts where they could be spared, +and new levies from Germany and Austria-Hungary. Smoothly and silently +men and machines dropped into their respective places: All was ready; +not a detail had been overlooked; German organization had done its +part. The commander was Von Mackensen, nominally Commander of the +Eleventh German Army, but in reality supreme director of the whole +campaign. + +During April, 1915, a number of changes had taken place among the +commanding officers of the Austro-German armies; the new dispositions +of groups along the battle line differ considerably from those which +obtained during the fighting for the passes. The line was now +enormously strengthened, and more compact. This applies only to the +Germanic side; there is little change on the Russian. At this stage +the Russian front on the west of Galicia extended from Opatovie on the +Polish frontier along the Dunajec, Biala, and Ropa Rivers by Tarnow, +Ciezkovice, and Gorlice down to Zboro in Hungary; from here it runs +eastward past Sztropko, Krasnilbrod, Virava, and Nagy Polena to the +Uzsok Pass, a distance of about 120 miles. Ewarts commanded the army +on the Nida; the Dunajec-Biala line was still held by Dmitrieff, +Commander in Chief of the Eighth Russian Army; Brussilov still +commanded the main army of the Carpathians, and Lechitsky in the +Bukowina in the place of Alexeieff, who had succeeded General Russky +in the northern group. The whole southern group, from the Nida to the +Sereth inclusive, was under the supreme command of General Ivanoff. +Facing Dmitrieff on the Dunajec front stood now the Fourth +Austro-Hungarian Army under the Archduke Joseph Ferdinand, about five +army corps, including a German cavalry division under General von +Besser; then the Ninth and Fourteenth Austrian Army Corps; to their +right, several Tyrolese regiments; the Sixth Austro-Hungarian Army +Corps of General Arz von Straussenburg, with the Prussian Guards on +his left and Bavarian troops under Von Emmich on his right; the +Eleventh German Army Corps under Von Mackensen; the Third +Austro-Hungarian Army under General Boroyevitch von Bojna; the Tenth +Army Corps under General Martiny. This formidable combination now +confronted the Dunajec-Biala positions, which Dmitrieff had held +without exertion for four months. Only a mile or two away he still +inspected his trenches and conducted his minor operations, totally +unconscious of the brewing storm specially directed against him. The +Laborza district was held by the Archduke Joseph with the Seventh Army +Corps; on his left stood a German corps under Von Marwitz, and on his +right the Tenth Army Corps, north of Bartfeld, with some additional +forces in between. Around the Lupkow and Uzsok passes the Second +Austro-Hungarian Army under Boehm-Ermolli was stationed where it had +been since February, 1915. Next, on the right, the Austro-Hungarian +army corps under Von Goglia; in the Uzsok lay an army under Von +Szurmay, nearly all Magyars, of whom the chief commander was Von +Linsingen. Farther eastward stood a Prussian corps, embodying a +division of Prussian Guards and other regiments commanded by General +Bothmer, a Bavarian, who had been reenforced with a Hungarian division +under Bartheldy; then followed the corps of Generals Hofmann and +Fleischman, composed of all Austrian nationalities, intrenched in the +mountain valleys. More German troops held the next sector, and, +finally, came Von Pflanzer-Baltin's army groups in the Bukowina and +Eastern Galicia. Against this huge iron ring of at least twenty-four +Germanic corps (about 2,000,000 men) and a great store of reserves, +the Russians could not muster more than about fourteen of their own +corps. As has already been pointed out, the greatest disparity of +strength existed on the Dunajec line, where Dmitrieff stood opposed to +about half of the enemy's entire force with only five corps of Russian +troops. The Austro-German forces, moreover, were infinitely better +equipped with munitions and heavy artillery. The lack of big guns was +undoubtedly the reason why the Russians had not attempted an invasion +of Hungary. Hence they stuck to the mountain passes where their +opponents were unable to carry their artillery, although they were +amply supplied with the same. It is true that the Russians could have +produced an equal--or even greater--number of men, but they had not +the arms and accouterments. + +Speaking from safe knowledge after the event, it is possible to +indicate with moderate accuracy at least one of the ingenious +stratagems adopted by the Germans to disguise their tremendous +preparations against the Dunajec line. For months the fighting in this +region had never been severe. When, therefore, local attacks and +counterattacks on a small scale started on the Biala, as far back as +April 4, 1915, Dmitrieff and his staff regarded this activity on the +Austrians part as merely a continuation of the sporadic assaults they +had grown accustomed to. Besides holding his own, Dmitrieff had on +several occasions been able to assist Brussilov on his left. Until the +big German drive commenced they had only been opposed to three +Austro-German army corps and a Prussian division; now there were +twelve corps on their front, supplied with enormous resources of +artillery, shells, and cavalry. Most serious of all, Dmitrieff had +neglected to construct second and third lines to which he could retire +in an emergency. Of the rivers that lay behind him--the Wisloka, the +Wistok, and the San--the first would be useful to cover Brussilov's +position at the western passes, but beyond that he could not retreat +without imperiling the whole Carpathian right flank. It was on this +very calculation that the German plan--simple but effective--was +based. The Russian grip on the Carpathians could only be released +either by forcing a clear road through any pass into Galicia, or by +turning one of the extreme flanks. Had the Austrians succeeded in +breaking through as far as Jaslo, Dmitrieff would have been cut off +and Brussilov forced to withdraw--followed by the whole line. The same +result would follow if a thrust from the Bukowina succeeded in +recapturing Lemberg. Both methods had been attempted, and both had +failed. Germany's overwhelming superiority in artillery could not be +effectively displayed in mountain warfare, but Dmitrieff's position on +the Dunajec offered an easy avenue of approach. + +At the eleventh hour Dmitrieff grasped the situation and applied to +Ivanoff for reenforcements. Owing to some blunder the appeal never +reached the Russian chief, and Dmitrieff had to do the best he could. +Nothing now could save his small force from those grim lines of gaping +muzzles turned against his positions. The overture began on April 28, +1915, with an advance on the Upper Biala toward Gorlice, by Von +Mackensen's right. Here some minor attacks had been previously made, +and the gradually increasing pressure did not at first reveal the +intent or magnitude of the movement behind it. Meanwhile the German +troops about Ciezkovice and Senkova--respectively northwest and +southeast of Gorlice--were moving by night nearer to the battle line. +The Russian front line extended from Ciezkovice in a southeasterly +direction. Hence it soon became clear that Gorlice itself was to be +the main objective of the attack. A Russian official announcement of +May 2, 1915, boldly states: + +"During the nights of April 30 to May 1 strong Austrian forces opened +an offensive in the region of Ciezkovice. Our fire forced the enemy to +intrench 600 paces in front of our trenches." Furthermore, the Germans +at the same time had directed artillery fire and bayonet attacks +against various points on the Rava, Pilica, Nida, and the Dunajec. +These, however, were merely movements aiming at diversion, meant to +mask the intentions of the main attack and to mislead the Russians. On +the evening of May 1, 1915, the German batteries began experimenting +against the Russian positions. This was kept up all night while the +engineers attempted to destroy the first line of the Russian wire +entanglements. During the same night the Austrians dragged several +heavy howitzers across the road from Gladyszow to Malastow, and got +them into position without the knowledge of the Russians. In the +morning of May 2, 1915, the great batteries began to roar against the +Russian line--a fire such as had perhaps never been witnessed before. +A spectator thus describes the scene: "In one part the whole area was +covered with shells till trenches and men were leveled out of +existence." It was reported that 700,000 shells had been fired in the +space of four hours, for which period this preliminary bombardment +lasted. The Russian line was turned into a spluttering chaos of earth, +stones, trees, and human bodies. The German and Austrian batteries +then proceeded to extend the range, and poured a hurricane of shells +behind the enemy's front line. This has the effect of doubly isolating +that line, by which the survivors of the first bombardment cannot +retreat, neither can reenforcements be sent to them, for no living +being could pass through the fire curtain. Now is the time for the +attacker's infantry to charge. Along the greater part of the +Ciezkovice-Walastow line this stage was reached by ten o'clock in the +morning of May 2, 1915. + +[Illustration: Grand Duke Nicholas.] + +A German writer tells us that "in this part of the front infantry +fighting has given place for the time being to the action of our heavy +artillery, which is subjecting to a terrible fire the positions of the +enemy. These positions had been carefully reconnoitered during the +lull in the fighting which prevailed during the last few months. Only +after all cover is destroyed, the enemy's infantry killed or forced +to retire, we take up the attack against the positions; the _elan_ of +our first attack now usually leads to a favorable result." + +At Ciezkovice the Germans pushed bridges across the Biala under cover +of a furious cannonade. Troops were thrown over, and after a very +short struggle the village was taken. The huge oil tanks soon were in +flames and Ciezkovice a heap of smoldering ruins. The Russian defense +crumpled up like smoke; their position blown out of existence. Their +guns were toys compared with those of the Germans and Austrians. North +of Ciezkovice the Prussian Guard and other German troops under General +von Francois fell upon the Russians and forced them to retire toward +the Olpiny-Biecz line. The ground of the Russian positions on Mount +Viatrovka and Mount Pustki in front of Biecz had been "prepared" by +21-centimeter (7-inch) Krupp howitzers and the giant Austrian +30.5-centimeter (10-inch) howitzers from the Skoda-Werke at Pilsen. +The shells of the latter weigh nearly half a ton, and their impact is +so terrific that they throw the earth up 100 feet high. Whatever had +remained of the town of Gorlice in the shape of buildings or human +beings was meanwhile being wiped out by a merciless spray of shells. +Being the center of an important oil district, Gorlice possessed oil +wells, great refineries, and a sulphuric-acid factory. As the flames +spread from building to building, streets pouring with burning oil, +huge columns of fire stretching heavenward from the oil wells in full +blaze, and, over all, the pitiless hail of iron and explosives pouring +upon them, the horror of the situation in which the soldiers and +civilians found themselves may be faintly imagined. Gorlice was an +inferno in a few hours. When the German infantry dashed into the town +they found the Russians still in possession. Fighting hand to hand, +contesting every step, the Russians were slowly driven out. + +We have mentioned that German troops were moving on Senkova, southeast +of Gorlice, by night. During the last two days of April the Bavarians +captured the Russian position in the Senkova valley. A further move +was made here during the night of May 1-2, 1915, preparatory to +dislodging the Russians from the ground they still held. At seven +o'clock in the morning the big howitzers started to "prepare" that +ground. By ten o'clock it was deemed that every living thing had +perished, when the "fire curtain" was drawn behind the Russian +position. Infantry were then thrown forward--some Bavarian regiments. +To their intense astonishment they were received with a most murderous +fire from Russian rifles, and machine guns. The first attack failed +and many were killed, few getting beyond the wire entanglements. +Cautiously other troops advanced to the battered Russian trenches cut +off from the rear by the artillery screen behind. Yet here again they +met with strenuous resistance in the Zamczysko group of hills. The +Austrian artillery shelled the heights, and the Bavarians finally took +possession. The Tenth Austrian Army Corps had meanwhile conquered the +Magora of Malastow and the majority of the heights in the Ostra Gora +group. On Sunday, May 2, 1915, the Austro-German armies pierced the +Dunajec-Biala line in several places, and by nightfall the Russians +were retreating to their last hope--the line of the Wisloka. The +operations round Gorlice on that day resulted in breaking the Russian +defenses to a depth of over two miles on a front of ten or eleven +miles. Mr. Stanley Washburn wrote from the battle field at the time: +"The Germans had shot their last bolt, a bolt forged from every +resource in men and munitions that they could muster after months of +preparation." Of the Russian army he said, "it was outclassed in +everything except bravery, and neither the German nor any other army +can claim superiority in that respect." + +With the center literally cut away, the keystone of the Russian line +had been pulled out, and nothing remained but to retire. Ten miles +north of Ciezkovice lies the triangle formed by the confluence of the +Dunajec and Biala rivers and the Zakliczyn-Gromnik road. Within this +triangle, commanding the banks of both rivers up to the Cracow-Tarnow +line, the Russians held the three hills marked 402, 419, and 269 which +figures express their height in meters. + +During February and March, 1915, the Austrians attempted to dislodge +the enemy, but without success. It was now necessary to take those +positions before advance could be made against Tarnow, and the Fourth +Austro-Hungarian Army, commanded by the Archduke Joseph Ferdinand, +undertook the task. At six A. M. on May 2 the Austrian artillery +opened fire against Hill 419 from Mount Val (also within the +triangle), and the opposite bank of the Dunajec. After three hours' +bombardment some regiments of Tyrolese fusiliers, who had crossed the +valley between Mt. Val and 419 and had taken up positions at the foot +of the latter, about 400 yards from the Russian trenches, were ordered +to charge. Dashing up the open, steep slope the fusiliers were +suddenly enfiladed from their right by a spray of machine gun and +rifle fire, killing many and driving back the survivors. Next day Hill +419 was again fiercely shelled, this time with deadly effectiveness; +but even then the Russians still clung to their battered ground. + +The Austrians now charged the trenches on Hill 412, whence the +fusiliers had been ambushed the previous day. A desperate hand-to-hand +encounter, in which they had to force their way step by step, finally +gave the position to the attackers. The few Russians still left on 419 +could not hold out after the loss of 412. They retired northward on to +Height 269, but subsequently followed the general retreat of the line. +Still farther north, almost at the right flank of Dmitrieff's line, +the Austrians effected a crossing of the Dunajec opposite Otfinow, +thus breaking the connection between the West Galician Army of +Dmitrieff, and the neighboring Russian Army on the Nida--the left wing +of the northern groups commanded by Alexeieff. + +Just below Tarnow, however, the Russians still held out; losing the +three hills had not quite broken their defense on the Biala. The right +wing of Von Mackensen's army, which had smashed the Russian front +around Gorlice, rapidly moved east in an almost straight line to reach +the Dukla Pass and cut off the retreat of the Russian troops stationed +south of the range between Zboro and Nagy Polena, in northwest +Hungary. The left wing, on the other hand, advanced in a northeasterly +direction, ever widening the breach made in the enemy's domain. This +clever move brought the Germans to the rear of Tarnow and onto the +lines of communications of the Russians holding it. It also prevented +reenforcements from reaching the truncated end of Dmitrieff's +right--or what had been his right--wing. By pushing on to Dembica and +Rzeszow, along which route assistance could otherwise have been sent +to the Russians, Von Mackensen opened a wide triangle into Western +Galicia, by drawing an almost horizontal line from Gorlice to Radymno, +between Jaroslav and Przemysl, and from there perpendicular down to +the Uzsok Pass. + +From Uzsok to the Lupkow westward stood the Second Austro-Hungarian +Army under Boehm-Ermolli on the north of the Carpathians. To his left, +southwest of the Magora of Malastow, and adjoining the formidable +Germanic array facing the Dunajec-Biala line lay the Third +Austro-Hungarian Army under General Boroyevitch von Bojna. These two +armies, it will be remembered, took part in the first offensive in +January, and had been there ever since. Both of these armies now began +to advance into the triangle, and the brilliant simplicity of Von +Mackensen's geometrical strategy becomes clear. Let one imagine +Galicia as a big stone jar with a narrow neck lying on the table +before him, neck pointing toward the left hand, and he will obtain an +approximately accurate idea of the topographical conditions. That side +of the jar resting on the table represents the Carpathian range, solid +indeed, but with numerous openings: these are the passes. The upper +side of the jar represents the Russian frontier, across which the +invaders had swarmed in and taken possession of the whole inside, +lining themselves right along the mouths of the passes at the bottom +and across the neck upwards. + +For months the Austrians vainly endeavored to force an entrance +through the thickest walls--from the lower edge, and from the base or +bottom of the jar (the Bukowina), apparently overlooking the rather +obvious proposition that the cork was the softest part and _that_ was +Dmitrieff's Dunajec-Biala line. Here at least no mountain range stood +in the way. It may also be regarded as a mathematical axiom that, +given sufficient artillery power, the strongest defense the wit of man +could devise can be smashed. What Mackensen did, therefore, was to +blow a hole through the cork, push in a pair of scissors up to the +rivet, meanwhile opening the blades to an angle of about forty-five +degrees. From the lower or southern shoulder of the jar the Third +Austro-Hungarian Army pushes forward inside, supported on its right by +Boehm-Ermolli, who had been just inside a long time, but could get no +farther. They began to shepherd the Russian troops around and in the +western passes toward the lower double-edged blade of Von Mackensen's +terrible scissors. The Russian retreat to the Wisloka was a serious +disaster for Dmitrieff; he had been caught napping, and had to pay +dearly in men and guns for not having created a row of alternative +positions. His force had been a cover for Brussilov's operations on +both sides of the western passes as well as for the whole Russian line +in the Carpathians. Now that Von Mackensen had pried the lid off, +Brussilov's men in the south encountered enormous difficulties in +extricating themselves from the Carpathian foothills, suddenly +transformed from comparative strongholds into death-traps and no +longer tenable. They suffered severely, especially the Forty-eighth +Division. + +Besides the menace from the northwest of Von Mackensen's swiftly +approaching right, a third blade was gradually growing on the deadly +scissors, in the shape of Boehm-Ermolli's and Von Bojna's forces, +threatening to grind them between two relentless jaws of steel. It is +Sunday, the second day of May, 1915; to all intents and purposes the +battle of the Dunajec, as such, was over, and the initial aim of the +Germanic offensive has been attained. The Russian line was pierced and +its defense shattered. Von Mackensen's "Phalanx" was advancing two +mighty tentacles guided by a master mind, remorselessly probing for +the enemy's strongest points. Its formation comprised, in the +northeastern tentacle, the Sixth Austro-Hungarian Army Corps and the +Prussian Guards; in the southern, the Bavarians under Von Emmich and +the Tenth Austro-Hungarian Army corps under General Martiny. + +On May 3, 1915, Dmitrieff's troops were falling back farther every +hour, continuously fighting rear-guard actions and compelling the +pursuers to conquer every foot of ground. There was a powerful reason +for this stubborn retirement: it was to gain time for Brussilov to get +his men out of their perilous positions and to join the main line +again with Dmitrieff's receding ranks. If this could be effected, the +fatal gap between them--made by Von Mackensen's battering-ram--would +be repaired, and they could once more present a united front to the +enemy. It was mentioned a little farther back that the Austrians had +pierced the Dunajec line at Otfinow, north of Tarnow, by which was cut +in two the hitherto unbroken Russian battle front, from the Baltic to +the Rumanian frontier (900 miles); the "scissors" at Gorlice had made +it three; if Boehm-Ermolli's drive from the Uzsok upward along the +"triangle line" to Jaroslav succeeds, there will be four separate +pieces of Russian front. But from Tarnow southward to Tuchow, a small +twenty-mile salient on the Biala, the Russians are still in possession +on May 4, 1915, defying the Fourth Austro-Hungarian Army. + + + + +CHAPTER XLI + +RUSSIAN RETREAT + + +It is a matter for speculation whether the numerous successes achieved +by the Russians against the Austrians and Germans in Galicia and the +Carpathians during the first seven months of the war had begotten a +spirit of overconfidence among the Russian commanders, or whether it +was not in their power to have made more effective preparations than +they had done. We have seen that Dmitrieff had not provided himself +with those necessary safety exits which were now so badly needed. As +no artificially prepared defenses were at hand, natural ones had to be +found. The first defense was irretrievably lost; the second line was a +vague, undefined terrain extending across the hills between Biala in +the west and the River Wisloka in the east. Between Tuchow and Olpiny, +the Mountain Dobrotyn formed one of the chief defensive positions, +being 1,800 feet high and thickly covered with woods. + +Southward, the Lipie Mountain, about 1,400 feet, formed another strong +point. Just below Biecz, close to the road and railroad leading to +Gorlice, a mountain of 1,225 feet, called Wilczak, is the strategical +key to the valley of the lower Ropa. Between Biecz and Bednarka, the +line of defense followed the heights of the Kobylanka, Tatarovka, Lysa +Gora, and of the Rekaw; hence to the east, as the last defense of the +Jaslo-Zmigrod road, lay the intrenched positions on the Ostra Gora, +well within Brussilov's sector. Southward of the Gorlice-Zmigrod line +lay the mountain group of the Valkova, nearly 2,800 feet high, the +last defense of the line of retreat for the Russian forces from Zboro. + +The Wisloka was the third line of defense, only a river, and without +intrenchments. From Dembica to Zmigrod it runs roughly parallel with +the Dunajec-Biala line; its winding course separates it in places from +fifteen to thirty-five miles from the latter river. Strong hopes were +entertained that the Russians would be able to stem the Germanic +torrent by a firm stand on the Wisloka. + +A fierce battle raged on the third and fourth of May, 1915, for the +possession of the wooded hills between the Biala and the Wisloka. The +Prussian Guard stormed Lipie Mountain and captured it on the third; on +the fourth they took Olpiny, Szczerzyny and the neighboring hills at +the point of the bayonet. + +The Thirty-ninth Hungarian Division, now incorporated in the Eleventh +German Army under the direct command of Von Mackensen himself, had +advanced from Grybow via Gorlice on the Biecz railway line, and were +making a strong attack on the Russian positions on Wilczak Mountain +with a tremendous concentration of artillery. It seems the Russians +simply refused to be blown out of their trenches, for it required +seven separate attacks to drive them out. That accomplished, the fate +of Biecz was decided and the road to Jaslo--the "key" to the Wisloka +line of defense--was practically open to General Arz von +Straussenburg. Lying at the head of the main roads leading into +Hungary through the Tilicz, Dukla, and Lupkow passes, Jaslo is the +most important railway junction in the whole region between Tarnow and +Przemysl. It was at Jaslo that Dmitrieff had held his headquarters for +four months. + +Just south of him, barely fifteen miles away, General von Emmich and +General Martiny, with the "Bayonet Bavarians" and the Tenth +Austro-Hungarian Army Corps, went pounding and slashing a passage +along the Bednarka-Zmigrod road and the auxiliary road from Malastow +to Krempna. They were striving hard to reach the western passes before +Brussilov had time to withdraw. He began that operation on the fourth. +On the same night Von Emmich and Martiny reached Krempna, and the last +line of retreat for the Russians around Zboro was imperiled. They have +yet to cross the range from Hungary back into Galicia. So subtly +potent and effective was the pressure on a flank that the whole +line--be it hundreds of miles long--is more or less influenced +thereby, as witness: + +On the same night, May 4, 1915, the retreat spread like a contagion to +the entire west Galician front, compelling the Russians to evacuate +northern Hungary up to the Lupkow Pass; in that pass itself +preparations are afoot to abandon the hard-earned position. It is not +fear, nor the precaution of cowardice that prompted this wholesale +removal of fighting men: the inexorable laws of geometry demanded it. +The enemy was at Krempna; as the crow flies the distance from Krempna +to the northern debouchment of Lupkow is eighty miles; yet Lupkow was +threatened, for the "line" or "front" is pierced--the vital artery of +the defense is severed. The strength of a chain is precisely that of +its weakest link. + +[Illustration: Galician Campaign from Tarnow to Przemysl.] + +The course of events become complex; fighting, advancing and +retreating occurred over a widespread area. Apparently disconnected +movements by the Austro-Germans or the Russians fall into their proper +places in accordance with the general scheme or objective either side +may have in view. It is necessary to follow the scattered operations +separately. We will therefore return now to the Tarnow-Tucho sector, +where we left a small Russian force holding the last remnant of the +Dunajec-Biala front. Tarnow had been the supply base for that front, +and great stores of provisions and munitions still remained in the +town. These the Russians succeeded in removing entirely. The main +forces had already withdrawn in perfect order and fallen back beyond +the Wisloka. During the night of May 4-5, 1915, two regiments of the +Ninth Austro-Hungarian Army Corps crossed the Biala near Tuchow and +moved northward in the direction of the road leading from Tarnow to +Pilzno, along which the remainder of the garrison would have to pass +in order to retreat. On the hills west of Pilzno the Russians still +held a position to protect that road. By the morning of the sixth +everything had gone eastward, and the Austrians had surrounded the +town. + +The small cavalry detachment that had been left behind as rear guard +cut through the Austrian lines and rejoined the main forces on the +Wisloka. The Austrians had been bombarding Tarnow for months with +their heaviest artillery, destroying parts of the cathedral and the +famous old town hall in the process. + +On May 7 the Russians withdrew from the Pilzno district, and the +Dunajec-Biala Russian front had ceased to exist. From the hour that +the Austro-Germans had broken through the line at Ciezkovice, on May +2, 1915, the Russian retreat on the Wisloka had begun. Yielding to the +terrible pressure the line had increasingly lost its shape as the +various component parts fell back, though it gradually resumed the +form of a front on the Wisloka banks, where most determined fighting +continued for five days. + +The Russians lost much of their artillery; they had to reverse the +customary military practice of an army in retreat. If the retreating +army is well equipped with artillery and munitions, its guns cover the +retreat and are sacrificed to save the men. During their retreat the +Russians had often to sacrifice men in order to save their guns for a +coming greater battle at some more important strategic point. Many +prisoners fell to the Germanic armies; according to their own official +reports they took 30,000 in the fighting of May 2-4, 1915. What the +Austro-German side lost in that time was not made public. + + + + +CHAPTER XLII + +AUSTRO-GERMAN RECONQUEST OF WESTERN GALICIA + + +By the time the retreating Russians had reached the Wisloka they had +to some extent recovered from the first shock of surprise, and were +better able to attempt a determined stand against the overwhelming +onrush of the Austro-Germanic troops. Ivanoff hurriedly sent +reenforcements for Dmitrieff and Ewarts which included the Caucasian +Corps of General Irmanoff from the Bzura front. The heavy German guns +belched forth with terrible effect, and the Russians could not reply +at the same weight or distance. Bayonets against artillery means +giving odds away, but the attempt was made. With a savage fury that +seems to belong only to Slavs and Mohammedans--fatalists--the Russians +hurled themselves against the powerful batteries and got to close +quarters with the enemy. For nearly twenty minutes a wild, surging sea +of clashing steel--bayonets, swords, lances and Circassian +daggers--wielded by fiery mountaineers and steady, cool, +well-disciplined Teutons, roared and flowed around the big guns, which +towered over the lashing waves like islands in a stormy ocean. A +railway collision would seem mild compared with the impact of 18,000 +desperate armed men against a much greater number of equally desperate +and equally brave, highly-trained fighters. But machinery, numbers and +skillful tactics will overcome mere physical courage. The Russian +avalanche was thrown back with terrific slaughter; the Caucasian Corps +alone lost over 10,000 men, for which, it is estimated, they killed +and wounded quite as many. More remarkable still was the fact that +they captured a big battery and carried off 7,000 prisoners. For five +days the storm raged backward and forward across the river; during the +more violent bombardments the Russians left their trenches to be +battered out of shape and withdrew into their shelter dugouts; when +the enemy infantry advanced to take possession, the Russians had +returned to face the charge. Whereas cool, machinelike precision +marks the German soldier in battle as on the parade ground, an +imperturbable obstinacy and total disregard of mortal danger +characterizes the Russian. + +During the night of May 6-7, 1915, the Austrians sent two regiments +across the Wisloka, north and south of Brzostek, about midway between +Pilzno and Jaslo, under cover of artillery posted on a 400-foot hill +near Przeczyca on the opposite bank, _i.e._, the left. Austrian +engineers constructed a bridge across the river, and on the morning of +May 7 the Austrian advance guard were in possession of the hills north +of the town. Infantry were then thrown across to storm Brzostek. Here, +again, they met with resolute opposition from the Russian rear guards +covering the retreat of the main armies, which had already fallen back +from the Wisloka. Desperate bayonet fighting ensued in the streets, +each of which had to be cleared separately to dislodge the +Russians--the civilians meanwhile looking out of their windows +watching the animated scenes below. Hungarian troops in overwhelming +masses poured across the river and finally captured the town. Once +more on the backward move, the Russians established themselves along +the western and southern fringe of the forests by Januszkovice, only +eight miles away, and prepared to make another stand. More fighting +occurred here, and during May 7 and 8, 1915, the Russians fell back +farther toward Frysztak, on the river Wistok. + +We left Von Emmich and General Martiny with the Bavarians and the +Tenth Austro-Hungarian Army Corps on their arrival at Krempna on the +night of the 4th, during which time the Russians were making desperate +efforts to evacuate northern Hungary and the western passes. The main +forces of Von Mackensen's "phalanx" were meanwhile pushing on toward +Jaslo, still in Russian possession. On the hills west of the Wisloka +the Russian rear guards had intrenched themselves and held their +positions till nightfall on May 5, 1915, all with the object of +delaying the Germanic advance sufficiently for their comrades to clear +the passes. Then they fell back again and made a stand near Tarnoviec, +about six or seven miles east of Jaslo, where they dominated an +important strategic position. Between them and Jaslo two railways ran +along the valley of the River Jasliska, forming a serious obstacle to +Von Mackensen's advance so long as the Russians could hold it. It was +imperative that they should be cleared out, but the task of carrying +it through was a difficult one. The undertaking fell to the Hungarian +troops of the Thirty-ninth Honved Division, who advanced to the attack +again and again only to be driven back each time by the Russian fire +from the heights. Big howitzers were called into play and soon +demolished the positions. + +The Russians retired east of the Wistok, followed by Von Mackensen's +Austro-Hungarian corps, while the Prussian Guards moved on toward +Frysztak, where the Russian troops from the Tarnow sector had taken up +positions after the retreat from Brzostek. + +On May 7, 1915, the Prussian Guards had passed over the railway at +Krosno, and at night fell upon the Russian lines east of the Wistok. +Particularly fierce encounters took place near Odrzykon and Korczina, +ten to fourteen miles southeast of Frysztak. A little farther westward +Von Mackensen delivered his main attack against the railway crossing +at Jaslo, which fell on the same day, May 7. The Russians retreated in +confusion with Von Mackensen close upon their heels. The whole defense +on the Wisloka collapsed, and nothing apparently could now save the +Dukla and those troops struggling through to escape from the net that +was gradually being tightened around them. Meanwhile, General Ewarts's +Army of the Nida, which formed the connecting link between the Russian +northern and southern armies, had fallen back above Tarnow to the +River Czarna in order to keep in touch and conformity with Dmitrieff's +shrinking line, which was now actually broken by the Wisloka failure. +The Russian position was extremely critical, for it seemed that the +German general would roll up the two halves and thereby inflict a +crushing and decisive defeat. General Ivanoff appears to have +recognized Von Mackensen's intentions in time to devise measures to +counteract the peril and save his left (Brussilov's army) from +disaster. By pushing forward strong columns from Sanok on the Upper +San to impose a temporary check upon the advancing tide, he gained a +brief respite for the troops entangled in the passes. To that sector +we will now turn to review the course of events. + +On May 4, 1915, the Russians began to evacuate the positions they held +south of the range when Von Mackensen's extreme right approached +Krempna. Forging along at high speed the Germans and Austrians +occupied the towns of Dukla and Tylava, and arrived at Rymanow--still +farther east--on the following day. The town of Dukla lies some +fifteen miles due north of the Galician debouchment of the pass of +that name, and Rymanow is about another fifteen miles east of that. +Hence the German strategic plan was to draw a barrier line across the +north of the Carpathians and hem the Russians in between that barrier +and the Austro-Hungarian armies of Boehm-Ermolli and Von Bojna. It +must distinctly be borne in mind that these two forces are also north +of the passes: that of Von Bojna being stationed at the elbow where +the Germanic line turned from the Carpathians almost due north along +the Dunajec-Biala front, or across the neck of our hypothetical jar. +The Dukla and Lupkow passes were still in Russian hands; these were +the only two that the Germanic offensives of January, February, and +March, 1915, had failed to capture; all the others, from Rostoki +eastward, were held by the Austrians and Germans. It was through the +Dukla and Lupkow that the Russians obtained their foothold in northern +Hungary, and it was the only way open to them now to get back again. +Around the Laborcza district stood the Seventh Austro-Hungarian Army +Corps under the command of the Archduke Joseph, who now began to +harass them, aided by the German "Beskid Corps" under General von +Marwitz. This was the only section in the range where the Russians +held both sides. Boehm-Ermolli had forced the Rostoki and Uzsok, but +hitherto had been unable to get very far from their northern +exits--not beyond Baligrod. During the fighting on the Dunajec these +three armies merely marked time; it was their object to keep the +Russians in Hungary and in the two passes until Von Mackensen had +thrown the right of his "phalanx" across their only avenue of escape. +That time was now rapidly approaching, and Von Bojna was gradually +squeezing Brussilov from the west, while Boehm-Ermolli was following +from the east and south. It appears that the commanders of the Twelfth +Russian Army Corps and the Third Russian Army, which stood on +Hungarian soil from Zboro to Nagy Polena, did not grasp the full +significance to them of the Dunajec catastrophe. + +Germanic troops were building a wall against their exits before they +had seriously thought of withdrawing. Escape was impossible for many +of them; some had managed to get across the Dukla in time, while those +left behind would either have to surrender or fight their way through +the lines across their path in the north. At the same time they would +have Von Bojna and Boehm-Ermolli on their tracks. To make matters +worse, they were also being pressed severely from the Hungarian plains +by the troops which hitherto stood inactive. The Second +Austro-Hungarian Army (Boehm-Ermolli) was fighting on both sides of +the range. Through Rostoki they attempted to separate the Russians +around Zboro from those situated farther east at Nagy Polena. We have +stated elsewhere that the Forty-eighth Division was severely handled. +They were surrounded in the Dukla by an overwhelming superior force, +but General Korniloff, the commander, with a desperate effort and no +little skill, succeeded in hacking his way through the enemy's lines +and bringing a large portion of his force safely out of the trap. Inch +by inch the Russian rear guards retreated, fighting tooth and nail to +hold the pass while their comrades escaped. No less brave were the +repeated charges made by the Austrians--clambering over rocks, around +narrow pathways hanging high in the air, dizzy precipices and mountain +torrents underneath. On Varentyzow Mountain, especially, a fierce +hand-to-hand battle was fought between Hungarians and Cossacks, the +latter finally withdrawing in perfect order. To conduct a successful +retreat in the face of disaster is a no less difficult military +achievement than the gaining of a decisive victory, and Brussilov's +retreat from the passes deserves to rank as a masterly example of +skillful tactics. + +On May 8, 1915, the Third Russian Army and the Forty-eighth Division +had reunited with Brussilov's main army in the neighborhood of Sanok, +twenty miles north of the Lupkow. When the commanders of a retreating +army lose their heads the rank and file will inevitably become +demoralized and panic-stricken. The retreat became a rout, and the +possibility of making a stand, and to some extent retrieving the lost +fortune of war, was extremely remote. A deeper motive than the mere +reconquering of Galicia lay behind Von Mackensen's plan--he aimed at +nothing less than the complete overthrow and destruction of the +Russian armies. It was a gigantic effort of the Germanic powers to +eliminate at least one of their most dangerous enemies. Once that was +accomplished it would release some millions of troops whose services +were needed in the western theatre of war. The original plan had +fallen through of crushing Russia quickly at the beginning of the war, +before she would have had time to get ready, and then to turn against +France in full force. The Austro-German Galician campaign was planned +and undertaken with that specific object, and now, although defeated +and in full retreat, the Russian troops still formed an army in being, +and not a fugitive, defenseless rabble. So long as an army is not +captured or annihilated, it can be reorganized and again put in the +field. It is on this consideration that so much importance attaches to +the handling of an army in retreat. The Russians did not, of course, +run away; on the contrary, they fought desperately and stubbornly +throughout the retreat, for their pursuers did not average more than +six miles per day--a fact which testifies to the steady and orderly +character of the Russian retirement. They suffered from the +consequences of inadequate preparation and lack of foresight on the +part of their leaders. + +The Russian troops on the Lower Wisloka held their positions longest, +but they also fell back about May 8, 1915, and for the next two days +engaged the enemy near some villages southwest of Sanok. Here a strong +force had collected, which not only offered a powerful resistance, but +even attempted a counterattack against their pursuers. Over a front of +145 miles, extending from Szczucin near the Vistula north of Tarnow, +down almost to the Uzsok Pass, a fierce battle progressed between May +8 and 10, 1915. In the region of Frysztak, where the Russian line was +weakest, the main German offensive was developing its strongest +attack. Reenforcements were on the way, but could not arrive in time. +For the moment disaster was averted by an aggressive Russian +counteroffensive halfway between Krosno and Sanok, from the +Besko-Jacmierz front, by which move sufficient time was gained to +enable the main forces to retreat. The Russian defense in the Vistok +Valley collapsed on May 10, 1915; the German center had almost arrived +within striking distance of the important railway line from Tarnow via +Dembica and Rzeszow to Jaroslav north of Przemysl. At Sanok the +battered remnants of the Russian troops who had escaped from the +passes maintained themselves with the greatest difficulty. Heavy +German artillery followed the Bavarians to Rymanow, five miles from +the Russian line at Besko, and were now playing fiercely upon the +positions west of Sanok. The Tenth Austro-Hungarian Army Corps as well +as the Seventh were making their presence felt from the southwest +against Odrzechova and from the south, whence Von Marwitz with the +German Beskid Corps was rapidly advancing. To the southeast, +Boehm-Ermolli was battering the Baligrod-Lutoviska front, almost in +the same position he occupied at the end of January in the first +attempt to relieve Przemysl. + +The battle was practically over by the night of May 10, 1915; the +Russians could hold out no longer against the ever-increasing flood of +Austrians and Germans pouring across every road and pathway against +their doomed line. Blasted and scorched by artillery, machine-gun and +rifle fire; standing against incessant bayonet and cavalry charges; +harassed by the Austrians from the south, the Russians were indeed in +sore straits. Yet they had fought well; in the losing game they were +playing they were exhausting their enemies as well as themselves in +men and munitions--factors which are bound to tell in a long, +drawn-out war. Above all, they still remained an army: they had not +yet found their Sedan. No alternative lay before them--or rather +behind them--other than retreat to the next possible line of +defense--toward Przemysl. + +Between May 11-12, 1915, the Germanic troops occupied the districts of +Sendziszow, Rzeszow, Dynow, Sanok, Lisko, Lancut, and Dubiecko. +Przevorsk was deserted by the Russians on the 13th. The Seventh +Russian Railway Battalion, under Captain Ratloff, brought up the rear +of the retreat to the Dembica-Jaroslav line. From Rzeszow onward this +battalion were employed in destroying stations, plants, tunnels, +culverts, rolling stock, and railway bridges, to hamper as much as +possible the German advance. It took the Austro-Hungarian engineers +between two and three weeks to repair the road and put it into +sufficient working order to transport their heavy siege artillery. +With uninterrupted labor and the most strenuous exertions they could +only reconstruct about four miles per day. Repairs and renovations +other than those of the railway system were necessary. The wounded had +to be sent back to hospital, and fresh troops had to be brought up to +fill the gaps torn in the Austro-German ranks during all the severe +fighting since May 2, 1915. It is not known exactly what the series of +victories cost the Germanic armies in casualties, but it is known that +their successes were dearly bought. One fairly competent authority +places the loss at between 120,000 to 130,000. From May 2 to May 12, +1915, the forces of Von Mackensen, the Archduke Joseph Ferdinand, and +Boroyevitch von Boyna claim to have captured 103,500 men, 69 guns, and +255 machine guns. A retreating army must inevitably lose many of their +number as prisoners, besides their wounded must also be abandoned. +Furthermore, the Russian line of retreat led through rough and +mountainous country, where large bodies of troops could not be kept in +touch with each other. Thus it frequently happened that isolated +detachments were captured _en bloc_ without being able to offer any +resistance. In the neighborhood of Sanok and the watering places of +Rymanow and Ivonicz some of the biggest Russian base hospitals were +situated. These, of course, could not have been evacuated in time, and +the patients consequently swelled the number of prisoners. Most of the +guns captured by the Austro-Germans were those of the Russian troops +whose retreat from northern Hungary and the passes had been +intercepted. + +They often sacrificed large bodies of troops to save their guns. The +lack of artillery was the main cause of their defeat; what little they +could save from the wreck was therefore husbanded with jealous care. +The German staff accurately calculated on the preponderance of heavy +artillery, and that Russia would be compelled to bow low before the +superior blast of cannon fire. Though it involved the sacrifice of +many miles of territory, it was now the Russian object to draw the +enemy's line out to the fullest extent. After the retreat from the +Wistok the Russian Generalissimo, Grand Duke Nicholas, was concerned +only to save the most for his country at the greatest expense to her +enemies. It meant continual retreat on a gigantic scale. Przemysl, +captured ten weeks ago, lay behind Ivanoff's line, and Lemberg was but +sixty miles beyond. Two hundred miles northward the Germans were +hammering at the gates of Warsaw. A retreat such as the grand duke +contemplated might involve the loss of all three of these places, but +it would stretch the Germanic lines enormously and enable the Allies +in the west to strike with better effect. No territorial +considerations must stand in the way against the safety of the Russian +armies. It was the same policy that had crippled Napoleon in 1812. + + + + +CHAPTER XLIII + +CAMPAIGN IN EASTERN GALICIA AND THE BUKOWINA + + +In order to keep the narrative abreast of the steadily advancing +Austro-German line, we must change occasionally from one sector to +another to watch the progress of operations over the huge battle +field. In accordance with the details laid down in the great strategic +plan, each of the different Germanic forces had a distinct task to +perform. Turning then to eastern Galicia and the Bukowina, we find +that on May 1, 1915, the Austro-Hungarian and Russian armies were +facing each other along almost the same front where we left them in +the middle of March. That front extended to the north of Nadvorna and +Kolomea, by Ottynia across to Niczviska on the Dniester, and from +there eastward along the river toward Chotin on the Russian frontier +of Bessarabia. + +By the beginning of May, 1915, the spring floods had subsided, when +operations became again possible. General Lechitsky, on the Russian +side, probably aimed at recovering the Pruth Valley, while the +Austrian commander, General von Pflanzer-Baltin, directed his efforts +to establishing himself on the northern bank of the Dniester. He would +then be able to advance in line with the Germanic front that was +pressing on from the west, and northward from the Carpathian range +between Uzsok and the Jablonitza passes; otherwise his force would lag +behind in the great drive, a mere stationary pivot. At that time he +held about sixty miles of the Odessa-Stanislau railroad (which runs +through the valley via Czernovice and Kolomea) with the Russians only +twenty miles north of the line. If that position could be taken the +Austrians would have the South Russian line of communications in their +hands, for it was along this line that supplies and reenforcements +were being transported to Ivanoff's front on the Wisloka from the +military centers at Kiev and Sebastopol. Thus the railway was of +tremendous importance to both belligerents. What it meant to the +Austrians has been stated; to the Russians its possession offered the +only opportunity for a counteroffensive in the east that could +possibly affect the course of the main operations on the Wisloka, San, +and later the Przemysl lines. But however successful such a +counteroffensive might prove, it could not have exerted any immediate +influence on the western front. With the Transylvania Carpathians +protecting the Austro-German eastern flank, there would still be +little hope of checking the enemy's advance on Lemberg even if +Lechitsky succeeded in reconquering the whole of the Bukowina and that +part of eastern Galicia south of the Dniester. Every strategic +consideration, therefore, pointed to the Dniester line as the key to +the situation for the Austrian side, and Von Pflanzer-Baltin decided +to stake all on the attempt. + +[Illustration: Galician Campaign from Przemysl to Bessarabia.] + +On May, 6, 1915, the machine was set in motion by a violent +bombardment. By the 8th the Austrians captured the bridgehead of +Zaleszczyki; on the 9th the Russians drove them out again, capturing +500 men, 3 big guns, 1 field gun, and a number of machine guns. On May +10 the Russians took the initiative and attacked a front of about +forty miles, along the entire Dniester line from west of Niczviska to +Uscie Biskupic, crossed into the Bukowina and advanced to within five +miles of Czernowitz from the east. A little stream and a village both +named Onut are situated southwest of Uscie Biskupic. Here a detachment +of Don Cossacks distinguished themselves on May 10, 1915. Advancing +toward the Austrian wire entanglements in face of a terrific +fusillade, they cut a passage through in front of the Austrian's +fortified positions. Before the latter realized what was happening the +Cossacks were on top of them, and in a few minutes a ferocious bayonet +struggle had cleared out three lines of trenches. Russian cavalry +poured in after them, hacking the Austrian's rear, and compelling them +to evacuate the entire district. The Cossacks charged into the +hurriedly retreating masses--on horse and on foot, with saber, lance, +and bayonet, capturing 4,000 prisoners, a battery of machine guns, +several caissons and searchlight apparati. + +The entire northern bank of the Dniester was in Russian possession by +the night of May 10, 1915; several desperate counterattacks attempted +by the Austrians on the 11th completely failed to recover the lost +ground. Two days later a Russian official reported: "In this operation +the Austrian units which led the offensive were repulsed near +Chocimierz with heavy losses. Our artillery annihilated two entire +battalions and a third surrendered. Near Horodenka the enemy gave way +about seven o'clock in the evening of the same day and began a +disorderly retreat. We again captured several thousand prisoners, +guns, and some fifty ammunition caissons." Being a junction of six +roads and a railway station on the curved line from Kolomea to +Zaleszczyki, Horodenka is considered to be the most important +strategic point along the Dniester-Czernowitz front. It was +undoubtedly a severe blow to the Austrians. + +During the night of May 11, 1915, and the next day they evacuated a +front of about eighty-eight miles, and retired south of the Pruth. +General Mishtchenko led his Cossacks on the Austrian trail, taking +several towns on their way to Nadvorna, which they captured after a +fierce fight. From here they took possession of part of the railway +line from Delatyn to Kolomea, and completely severed the connection +between Von Pflanzer-Baltin's forces and those of Von Linsingen lying +along the north of the range. Larger bodies of Russian troops were on +the way to Kolomea; on May 13, 1915, they stormed and carried some +strongly fortified Austrian positions eight miles north of the town, +in front of which the Austrians had placed reenforcements and all +their last reserves. By dint of great efforts they held their position +here, but from May 9 to May 14, 1915, the Russians drove them back +elsewhere on a front of over sixty miles for a distance of about +twenty miles, also capturing some 20,000 prisoners with many guns and +valuable stores of munitions. About the middle of May matters quieted +down in the eastern sector; the only fighting of importance consisted +of severe artillery combats around Czernowitz and Kolomea. The issue +of the conflict hung in the west with Von Mackensen's armies; fighting +in the Bukowina at this stage became an unnecessary expenditure of +strength and energy. The fate of eastern Galicia was being decided 140 +miles away, on the banks of the River San, to which region we will now +direct the reader's attention. + + + + +CHAPTER XLIV + +RUSSIAN CHANGE OF FRONT--RETREAT TO THE SAN + + +After the Russian troops retreated from the Lower Wisloka northward +toward the confluence of that river with the Vistula they held the two +important bridgeheads of Sandomierz and Rozvadov. + +On May 14, 1915, Ivanoff's right was being forced toward the Vistula +in the vicinity of Opatow. This right wing was the army under General +Ewarts, which since December, 1914, had been stationed in strongly +fortified positions on the Nida in Russian Poland. The front extended +across the frontier into western Galicia and joined on to the right +wing of Dmitrieff's Dunajec-Biala front, which was shattered between +Otfinow and Gorlice. The retreat of Dmitrieff's army was in an +easterly direction along Tarnow, Pilzno, Dembica, Rzeszow, and Lancut +to Przevorsk on the San; from the region of Gorlice and Ciezkovice +along Biecz, Jaslo, Frysztak, Krosno to Dynow, Dubiecko, and Sanok, +the latter also on the San. The troops that Brussilov extricated from +the passes and those with which he held the northern part of the +western Carpathians against Boehm-Ermolli were now likewise +concentrated on the San. A glance at the map will show that the +Russian front on the San from Przevorsk down to Sanok forms a shield +between the Germanic advance and the two towns of Jaroslav and +Przemysl. It will also be observed that General Ewarts's forces about +Rozvadov are on the west side of the San, that is to say, nearer +toward the advancing Austrians under the Archduke Joseph Ferdinand. + +The retreat in Galicia necessitated modifications in the Russian front +in Poland on the way to Warsaw. The line south of the Pilica had to be +withdrawn and positions on the Nida abandoned to conform with the +retreating line in Galicia. New positions were taken up along Radom +and across the Kamienna River. The pivot or hinge from which the line +was drawn back was the town of Ivanlodz, about fifty-five miles +southwest of Warsaw. North of Ivanlodz the front remained unaltered. +While this line shifting was in progress (in Poland) the German troops +hung closely to the heels of the retiring Russians, evidently +mistaking the motive behind the change of position. Mr. Stanley +Washburn thus summarizes the results of these retreating battles: + +"Regarding the movement as a whole, suffice it to say that in the two +weeks following the change of line one (Russian) army inflicted upon +the enemy a loss of nearly 30,000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners. +The Russian losses were comparatively trifling." The Austro-German +forces were following up leisurely the retreating Russian corps, not +expecting any serious fighting to occur until the lines behind the +Kamienna were reached. + +Instead of that, however, on May 15, 1915, the Russian commander +suddenly halted the main body of his troops in front of his fortified +positions on a line extending from Brody by Opatow toward Klimontow. +Between May 15-17, 1915, a battle developed on this front, which is +the more notable as it is one of the few in this war fought in the +open without trenches. To quote Mr. Washburn: "In any other war it +would have been called a good-sized action, as from first to last more +than 100,000 men and perhaps 350 to 400 guns were engaged." + +The Austro-Germans came on in four groups. The Third German Landwehr +was moving from the southwest by Wierzbnik against Ilza, slightly to +the north of Lubienia. Next to it, coming from the direction of +Kielce, was the German Division of General Bredow, supported by the +Eighty-fourth Austrian Regiment. This body was advancing against +Ostroviec, the terminus of a railway which runs from the district of +Lodz to the southeast by Tomaszow and Opoczno, and crosses the +Ivangorod-Olkusz line halfway between Kielce and Radom. Farther to the +south three Austro-Hungarian divisions were also advancing--namely, +the Twenty-fifth Austrian Division against Lagow, and the Fourth +Austrian Landwehr Division, supported by the Forty-first Honved +Division, against Ivaniska; they moved along roads converging on +Opatow. The Twenty-fifth Austrian Division, commanded by the Archduke +Peter Ferdinand, was composed of crack regiments, the Fourth Hoch and +Deutschmeisters of Vienna, and the Twenty-fifth, Seventeenth, and +Tenth Jaeger battalions. The Russians were outnumbered about 40 per +cent. The supposedly demoralized Russians were not expected to give +any battle short of their fortified line, to which they were thought +to be retiring in hot haste. The Russian general selected the +Austrians on whom to spring his first surprise, but commenced by +making a feint against the German corps, driving in their advanced +guards by vigorous attacks which caused the whole force to halt and +begin deployment for an engagement. + +This occurred on May 15, 1915. On the same day, with all his available +strength, he swung furiously with Opatow as an axis from both north +and south, catching in bayonet charge the Twenty-fifth Division on the +road between Lagow and Opatow. Simultaneously another portion of his +command swept up on the Fourth Division coming from Ivaniska to +Opatow. "In the meantime a strong force of Cossacks had ridden round +the Austrians and actually hit their line of communications at the +exact time that the infantry fell on the main column with a bayonet +charge, delivered with an impetuosity and fury that simply crumpled up +the entire Austrian formation. The Fourth Division was meeting a +similar fate farther south, and the two were thrown together in a +helpless mass, losing between 3,000 and 4,000 casualties and nearly +3,000 in prisoners, besides a large number of machine guns and the +bulk of their baggage. The remainder, supported by the Forty-first +Honved Division, which had been hurried up, managed to squeeze +themselves out of their predicament by falling back on Uszachow, and +the whole retired to Lagow, beyond which the Russians were not +permitted to pursue them, lest they should break the symmetry of their +own line." It is admitted by the Austrians themselves that their +losses were very severe in this battle. An Austrian source at the time +stated that on May 16, 1915, not a single officer and only twenty-six +men were left of the entire Fourth Company, First Battalion of the +Tenth Austrian Infantry Regiment. By the 17th of May the Austrians had +withdrawn more than twelve miles from the scene of the disaster. + +During the following night, May 25, 1915, an Austrian division was +moving from the line of advance of General Bredow's troops along the +Lagow-Opatow road where it is separated by a spur of the Lysa Gora, +the highest mountain group in Russian Poland. The Russians, elated +over their recent victory, crossed the mountains by a forced march, +and fell on the right flank of the German formation, while other +troops opened a general frontal attack against it. Bredow was +compelled to fall back in haste in the direction of Bodzentyn and to +call for assistance from the adjoining Fourth German Landwehr +Division. The sudden withdrawal of that division had the effect of +weakening the German line southwest of Radom near the Radom-Kielce and +the Konsk-Ostroviec railway crossings. The opportunity of thinning the +enemy's line in that sector was too good to be lost, for a Russian +communique of May 17, 1915, states that "near Gielniow, Ruski-Brod, +and Suchedniov our sudden counterattacks inflicted severe losses on +the enemy's advance guards." Having thus checked the German advance +for the time being, the Russians ceased from further troubling to +await developments on the San. + + + + +CHAPTER XLV + +BATTLE OF THE SAN + + +When the Austro-German armies reached the line of the San on May 14, +1915, the battle for mid-Galicia was over, and a fresh chapter of the +campaign opened with the battle of the San, which might more fittingly +be described as the battle for Przemysl. The position of Ivanoff's +right has been shown; his right center lay west of the Lower San; the +center east of the river covered Przemysl; his left center extended +along the Upper Dniester, while his left, under Lechitsky, was keeping +Von Pflanzer-Baltin employed. Von Mackensen's "phalanx" was slowly +coming into action again, directing its course toward the Russian +center. The "phalanx" was compelled to travel slowly, for it carried +about 2,000 pieces of artillery with ample munitions, and the +railroads had been wrecked by the retreating Russians. What has been +described by military writers as "Von Mackensen's phalanx" was a +concentration of troops along the lines on which the strongest +resistance was expected or where the quickest advance was intended. No +special group of forces appear to have been set apart for that +purpose; there was very little shifting about or regrouping necessary +during the campaign, and so well was the plan arranged that the +concentrations occurred almost automatically wherever and whenever +they were most needed. The infantry marched in successive lines or +echelons, about forty yards apart, while in the ranks the men were +allowed about four feet elbow room apiece. For frontal attacks this +might be considered fairly close formation, but Von Mackensen +calculated more upon the disintegrating effect of his artillery to +first demoralize the enemy and wreck his position, after which the +infantry came into play to complete the destruction. Without an +overwhelming supply of artillery the "phalanx" plan would have been +unworkable--machine guns would exact too heavy a sacrifice of life. + +Ivanoff's chief object for the moment was to hold the enemy in check +long enough to allow Przemysl to be cleared of ammunitions and +supplies, and to withdraw the troops in possession of the place. +Already, on May 14, 1915, the German troops of Von Mackensen's army +had occupied Jaroslav, only twenty-two miles north of the fortress. +Ivanoff had concentrated his strongest forces on the line between +Sieniava, north of Przevorsk, and Sambor, thirty miles southeast of +Przemysl. Here he had deployed the three armies which had held the +entire front from the Biala to Uzsok in the beginning of May, 1915, +nearly twice as long as the line they were now guarding. These were to +fight a holding battle on the center while he adopted a series of +vigorous counterthrusts on his right and left wings. By the retirement +of the center Ewarts had been compelled to fall back from the Nida to +the Vistula with Woyrsch's Austrian army against him. When Ewarts +dropped behind Kielce in Russian Poland, Woyrsch seized the junction +of the branch line to Ostroviecs in front of the Russian line. Ivanoff +decided to venture a counterattack which would at the same time +relieve the pressure on his center and also check the move on Josefov, +dangerously near to the Warsaw-Ivangorod-Lublin line. The result of +this plan was the brilliant surprise attack on the Austrians and +Germans previously described. Along the San the troops just south of +Ewarts delivered a fierce attack and drove the Archduke Ferdinand back +to Tarnobrzeg on the Vistula. Ivanoff next drew as many reenforcements +from that flank to strengthen his center as was compatible with +safety. What had happened meanwhile on Ivanoff's extreme left--in +eastern Galicia and the Bukowina--has already been stated. These +counterattacks may be regarded as merely efforts to gain time, but the +hour of another great battle was at hand. + +The battle of the San, one of the greatest of the war, opened on May +15, 1915. Jaroslav was in German hands; the Fourth Austro-Hungarian +Army (Archduke Joseph Ferdinand) reached the western side of the San +on the 14th; by the 16th the Austro-German armies held almost the +entire left bank of the river from Rudnik to Jaroslav, about forty +miles. They crossed at several points on the same day and enlarged +their hold on the right bank between Jaroslav and Lezachow near +Sieniava, which they captured. A German division arrived at +Lubaczovka, due north of Jaroslav, and half of the Germanic circle +around Przemysl was now drawn. The German plan was an advance in force +from the Sieniava-Jaroslav front against the Przemysl-Lemberg railway, +the most vulnerable point of the Russian line of retreat from the +fortress. Fifteen bridges were accordingly erected over the San in +that sector between May 20-24, 1915, across which the German battering +ram was to advance on Przemysl. South of the town mounted patrols came +into touch with Russian cavalry; four Austro-Hungarian and one German +army corps were standing prepared between Dobromil and Sambor; Sambor +was occupied by them. The Russians held the left bank close to the +river from Sieniava to Jaroslav, and northward of the former and to +the west as far as Tarnobrzeg. From Jaroslav their front ran in almost +a straight line for thirty miles southeastward to the outer and +northern forts around Przemysl, described nearly a complete circle +around the western and southern forts to Mosciska on the east, thence +south to Sambor, and from Sambor to Stryj. From Stryj; eastward to the +Bukowina the line remained unaltered. In that region Lechitsky and Von +Pflanzer-Baltin had been conducting a campaign all by themselves; they +were now resting, waiting, watching. + +While great Germanic preparations for the capture of Przemysl were +proceeding north of the town, the battle opened on Saturday, May 15, +1915, in the south, against the Russian front between Novemiasto and +Sambor. Here the Austro-German troops were thrown against Hussakow and +Krukenice to hack their way through trenches and barbed-wire +entanglements in order to reach the Przemysl-Lemberg railway and +thereby complete the circle. "At the cost of enormous sacrifices the +enemy succeeded in capturing the trenches of our two battalions." + +But on May 17, 1915, these trenches near Hussakow were recaptured by +the Russians. The Austrians returned to the charge, however, and by +May 19 were within six miles of Mosciska. By May 21 they had overcome +the main Russian defenses to the east of Przemysl and were threatening +the garrison's line--their only line--of retreat to Grodek, for other +Germanic forces were advancing upon Mosciska from the north. + +On May 21, 1915, the Russians opened a sudden counteroffensive along +the whole line in a desperate effort to save, not the fortress, but +the garrison. The Austrians had destroyed most of the forts before +they surrendered the town on March 22; and forts cannot be built or +reconstructed in a few weeks. Besides, the Austrians knew the ground +too well. Von Mackensen's "phalanx" was meanwhile advancing against +the Jaroslav-Przemysl front with Von Bojna's corps on his right; +Boehm-Ermolli deserted the passes which had so long occupied him and +was now pressing against the south of the town while Von Marwitz on +his right attempted to seize the railway between Sambor and Dobromil. +Von Linsingen was forging ahead toward Stryj and the Dniester; he had +finally worked through the ill-fated Koziova positions, and was now +able to rest his right upon Halicz. From there his connection with Von +Pflanzer-Baltin had been broken by Lechitsky, and was not repaired +till June 6, 1915. + +The Russian counteroffensive was a homeopathic remedy, on the +principle of "like curing like:" an enveloping movement against being +enveloped themselves at Przemysl; but the case was hopeless. Yet they +met with some successes of a temporary nature. Between the Vistula and +the San they captured some towns and villages; they also got very +close to Radava, north of Jaroslav, and forced the Austro-German +troops to fall back on to the left bank of the river on a +considerable line of front north of Sieniava, where they captured many +prisoners and guns. + +The counteroffensive reached its zenith on May 27, 1915, when +Irmanow's Caucasian Corps stormed Sieniava and captured something like +7,000 men, six big guns, and six pieces of field artillery. Von +Mackensen resumed the offensive on May 24, by advancing due east of +Jaroslav, capturing Drohojow, Ostrov, Vysocko, Makovisko and Vietlin +all in one day. Radymno was occupied by the Austro-Hungarians under +General Arz von Straussenburg, still further narrowing the circle and +compelling the Russians to fall beyond the San. On the twenty-fifth +the Austrians followed them over, captured the bridgehead of Zagrody, +the village of Nienovice and the Heights of Horodysko, while Von +Mackensen's troops farther north captured Height 241. South of the +village of Naklo, between Przemysl and Mosciska, a hill 650 feet high +was violently attacked; it commanded the only line of retreat from the +fortress still left open. To the south of the town the Russian +counteroffensive tried to outflank the Austrian troops which had +approached close to the fortress and the railroad to Lemberg. With the +assistance of strong reenforcements the Russians were able to check +the advance here and make 2,200 prisoners, besides capturing +ammunitions and machine guns. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVI + +RECAPTURE OF PRZEMYSL + + +The counteroffensive ended--of necessity--on May 24, 1915. The +Russians could still offer an effective resistance between Krukienice +and Mosciska, but the pressure of continuous attack against their +positions around Hussakow grew fiercer every hour. The enemy was +knocking at the outer ring of the forts; from the west the heaviest +cannons were pouring shot and shell with such violence that the fall +of Przemysl could no longer be prevented. Most of the troops had +already been withdrawn, as well as the supplies and munitions; only a +small garrison remained behind to man the guns of the forts to the +last moment; the little avenue to safety on the east was still open. + +On May 30, 1915, the Austrian batteries began their deadly work on the +Grodek line near Medyka. The exit was under fire; since May 17, +Przemysl had been invested from three sides, and the fourth was all +but closed. From the northern side, guarded by the Bavarians under +General Kneusel, twenty-one centimeter Krupp howitzers bombarded the +Russian positions round Korienice and Mackovice, drawing ever nearer +the forts commanding the road and railway to Radymno. The Tenth +Austro-Hungarian Army Corps, approaching from Krasiczyn, endeavored to +rush some of the outer works, but paid heavily for the venture. They +settled down before the forts of Pralkovice, Lipnik, Helicha and +Grochovce, and those round Tatarovka mountain. General Artamoff, the +Russian commander of Przemysl, had laboriously reconstructed some of +the old Austrian forts and equipped them with Russian 12-centimeter +howitzers. As the Austrians had brought only their 15-centimeter +howitzers, they were obliged to wait until their 30.5 batteries +arrived before they could undertake any serious attack. + +These batteries came on the scene about May 25, 1915, it took five +days' preparation, and the final bombardment began on the 30th. It was +an ironical circumstance that the Austrians and Germans were in +numerous places sheltering themselves behind the very earthworks which +the Russians had constructed when they were besieging the place two +months earlier. There had been no time to destroy them on the retreat. + +The northern sector of the outer ring of forts fell on May 30, 1915, +when the Bavarians captured the Russian positions near Orzechovce. A +terrific bombardment was directed against the entire northern and +northwestern front; great columns of infantry were pushed forward to +finish the cannons' work--still the Russians hung on, ever bent on +doing all possible damage to the enemy. + +[Illustration: The triumphal entry of the Austrian uhlans and +artillery into Przemysl. Their horses are decorated with sprays of +leaves] + +During the night of May 30-31, 1915, the enemy succeeded in +approaching within 200 paces, and at some points even in gaining a +footing in the precincts of Fort No. 7, around which raged an +obstinate battle that lasted until two in the afternoon of the 31st, +when he was repulsed after suffering enormous losses. The remnants of +the enemy who had entered Fort No. 7, numbering 23 officers and 600 +men, were taken prisoners. + +Since the 20th of May, 1915, the clearing of the road had been going +on; Von Mackensen battering the western forts and the river line as +far as Jaroslav, and Boehm-Ermolli struggling to force the southern +corner to get within range of the Lemberg railway. On his right, Von +Marwitz had become stuck in the marshes of the Dniester between +Droholycz and Komarno. The Bavarians on the north again let fly their +big guns against the forts round Dunkoviczki on May 31, 1915. At four +in the afternoon they ceased fire; the forts and defenses were +crumpled up into a shapeless mass of wreckage. Now Prussian, Bavarian +and Austrian regiments rushed forward to storm what was left. They +still found some Russians there, severely mauled by the bombardment; +but they could no longer present a front. They retreated behind the +ring. The Tenth Austro-Hungarian Army Corps now made another attempt +on Pralkovice and Lipnik. Von Mackensen's men captured two trenches +near Fort No. 11--"they had to pay a heavy price in blood for every +yard of their advance." Heavy batteries are also spitting fire against +Forts Nos. 10 and 12. When the curtain of night fell over the scene of +carnage and destruction, two breaches had been made in the outer ring +of the forts. + +June 2, 1915, dawned--a bright, warm summer's day; the sun rose and +smiled as impassively over the Galician mountains, and valleys, and +plains as it had smiled through countless ages before the genius of +man had invented even the division of time. From all sides of the +doomed fortress eager, determined men were advancing; Fort No. 10 was +captured at noon by the Twenty-second Bavarian Infantry Regiment; +later in the day the Prussian Grenadier Guards took possession of Fort +No. 12; during the night the besieger's troops marched into the +village of Zuravica, within the outer ring. Austrian troops had broken +through from the southwest and also penetrated the inner circle. + +June 3, 1915, dawned and again the sun smiles over Galicia and sees +the same iron belt of machinelike men still nearer the fortress; but +the haggard defenders, where are they? Gone! Flown! They have vanished +during the night. Austrians and Bavarians march into the town early in +the morning. The only enemies they meet are the dead. + +Przemysl has fallen again--fallen before twenty times as powerful a +blow as that which struck it down seventy-two days earlier. + +Before proceeding with the progress of Von Mackensen and his mighty +"phalanx," let us briefly trace the progress of Von Linsingen, whom we +left on the road to Stryj and the Dniester, or rather, attempting to +force that road. While the forts of Przemysl were being smashed in the +north, Von Linsingen was pounding and demolishing the Russian +positions between Uliczna and Bolechov. Heavy mortars and howitzers +were at the same time being placed into position in front of the +Russian trenches between Holobutow and Stryj. + +On May 31, 1915, they began to roar, and before long the trenches were +completely pulverized--the very trenches that thousands of Germans and +Austrians had died in in vain attempts to carry by assault. The +Thirty-eighth Hungarian Honved Division were sent to finish the work +of clearance and take possession of Stryj. The entire Russian line +withdrew to the Dniester, step by step, ever fighting their favorite +rear guard actions, killing and capturing thousands of their enemies. +They retired behind the Dniester, but maintained their hold on any +useful strategical position south of the river, so far as was possible +without imperiling the continuity of their line. + +We must also consider two more Austro-German sectors in order to bring +the combatants stationed there into line with the Germanic +advance--the Uzsok Pass and the Bukowina-_cum_-Eastern Galicia +sectors. In the former the army of Von Szurmay stood beside that of +Von Linsingen opposite the Ninth Russian Army. Von Szurmay led his +men out of the pass and advanced northward on May 12, after the fall +of Sanok had forced the Russians away from their positions in the +vicinity of it. Their line of retreat was threatened by the Austrian +approach to Sambor. + +On May 16, 1915, Von Szurmay moved across the upper Stryj near Turka +and passed along secondary roads in the direction of the oil districts +of Schodnica, Drohobycz and Boryslav, arriving on May 16-17, 1915. Von +Linsingen's troops had started their advance on the same day as those +of Von Szurmay, when the Russians round Koziowa had to retire for the +purpose of keeping in touch with their line: the same pressure that +Sambor exerted on the Uzsok. Here again the Russians adopted +rear-guard tactics and considerable fighting occurred during their +retreat to Stryj and Bolechow, both of which were eventually captured +by Von Linsingen. + +In Eastern Galicia and the Bukowina matters had come almost to a +standstill between Lechitsky and Von Pflanzer-Baltin about the middle +of May, 1915. When the former had cut the latter's connection with the +main line, the brigade of General von Blum and other adjoining German +troops on the extreme right of Von Linsingen tried hard to relieve the +pressure of Lechitsky on the Austrian forces. Not till after the fall +of Przemysl was the connection restored, when the Russians had to fall +back from Kalusz and Nadvorna; on June 9 they evacuated Obertzn, +Horodenka, Kocman and Sniatyn. Lechitsky was also compelled to +withdraw from the Bukowina between Zaleszczyki, Onut, and Czernowitz, +where the Austrians were moving along the Dniester in the north, the +Pruth in the south, and over the hills in the center against the +village of Szubraniec. Here the Russians once more inflicted severe +losses on the Austrians, but being in danger from a flanking movement +by the Forty-second Croatian Infantry through the Dniester forests, +they retired from the Bukowina on to Russian territory on June 12, +1915. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVII + +CAPTURE OF LEMBERG + + +The capture of Przemysl and of Stryj terminates the second stage of +the Austro-German offensive in Galicia. The third stage may be +described as the battle for Lemberg, or Lwow. Lemberg is the ancient +capital of Galicia, and formerly bore the name of Lwow. The Austrians +many years ago had changed it to "Lemberg." When the Russians captured +the town on September 3, 1914, they had given it back the old Slavonic +name, which, however, was destined soon to be transformed back again +into the more pronounceable appellation of "Lemberg." + +It is estimated that between April 28, 1915, and the recapture of +Przemysl the Russian forces in Galicia had been diminished by at least +a quarter of a million casualties. The heaviest losses occurred among +Dmitrieffs troops in the first days of May, 1915, but in the battles +on the San, at the close of the month, the forces of Von Mackensen's +"phalanx" were also greatly reduced. Along the entire Galician front, +it is computed that quite 600,000 Austro-German troops were put out of +action. + +While the fight for Przemysl was in full swing an important event of +the war occurred--Italy joined the enemies of Austria on May 3, 1915; +the Dual Monarchy had now to defend her western frontier as well. +Dankl and Von Bojna were transferred to the Italian front with a +considerable portion of their Galician troops. A general +redistribution of units was effected among the Austrian and German +armies. The army of the Archduke Joseph Ferdinand was held along the +lower San as far as Sieniava. Von Mackensen was advancing east of +Jaroslav along the railway toward Rawa-Ruska. Boehm-Ermolli was +fighting on the road to Lemberg from Mosciska. An army under Count +Bothmer was operating near the Dniester marshes, beyond which, farther +south, a group of armies under Von Linsingen (mainly German) had +forced the passage of the Dniester at Zuravno, and was trying to +advance on Lemberg and catch Ivanoff's main forces on the flank. This +last movement, if successful, would be the most effective method of +crushing the retreating Russian armies: being thus outflanked, some of +their lines of retreat would be cut and a dissolution of a large +portion of the retiring forces could hardly have been avoided. +However, all attempts in this direction failed. The Russians gradually +rolled up their line on the Dniester from west to east, keeping step +with the retreat of the armies which were facing west. With strong +reenforcements from Kiev and Odessa Brussilov commanded the Dniester +front under the direction of General Ivanoff. If only the ponderous +advance of Von Mackensen could have been arrested, Brussilov would +have had little difficulty in sweeping Von Linsingen back to the +Carpathian barrier. A somewhat similar condition existed in the north, +where the Austrians were at the mercy of Ivanoff's strong right wing. + +The archduke's front was smashed at Rudnik early in June, 1915; his +forces were driven back a day's march and lost 4,000 men in prisoners, +besides many guns. The Second, Third and Fourth Tyrolese regiments +were almost annihilated. German troops were hurried to the rescue. +Boehm-Ermolli also got into serious difficulties at Mosciska, where +the Russians held him up for a week with a furious battle. Ivanoff was +scoring points against all his individual opponents excepting only Von +Mackensen. The "phalanx," always kept up to full strength by a +continuous influx of reserves and provided with millions of +high-explosive shells, not only pursued its irresistible course +eastward, but had to turn now right, now left, to help Austrian and +German commanders out of trouble. Heavy howitzers lumbered along the +way to Rawa-Ruska--not to Lemberg, but to the north of it, on the +flank of the Russian army still holding the Lower San. This army had +therefore to retire northward to the river line of the Tanev stream, +cautiously followed by the archduke's forces. The "phalanx" had again +saved them from disaster. Similarly, at Mosciska, when Boehm-Ermolli +tried to storm the Russian position by mass attacks, his infantry was +driven back with such terrible punishment that they could not be +induced to make another advance. There was nothing to be done here, +but wait till Von Mackensen turned the flank of the Russian position +for them, which he did in one of the most stubborn conflicts of the +war--the battle of the Lubaczovka, a tributary of the San between +Rawa-Ruska and Lemberg. Never were the fighting abilities of Slav and +Teuton more severely tested. For over a week the struggle raged; a +half million men were brought up in groups and flung against the +Russian front. Shell, shrapnel, bullets and asphyxiating bombs finally +wore down the Russian resistance. + +Incapacitated by physical exhaustion and outnumbered by three to one, +the Russian infantry gave way on June 13, 1915. The "phalanx" drove +into their ranks and advanced rapidly in a northerly direction on its +great flanking movement. But the Russian spirit was not broken, for at +this critical moment General Polodchenko rode out with three regiments +of cavalry--the Don Cossacks, the Chernigov Hussars, and the Kimburn +Dragoons. They dashed into the unbroken lines of the triumphant German +infantry like a living hurricane, sabered the enemy, and put thousands +on the run. Swerving aside, they next charged deep into the German +rear, mauled the reserves into confusion, hacked their way out again +and captured several machine guns. The most remarkable feature about +this extraordinary exploit was the fact that the losses sustained by +the cavalry amounted only to 200 killed and wounded. The effect on the +"phalanx," however, was such that no more attacks were made that day, +and the Russians were able to retire to the hills near Rawa-Ruska. +Ivanoff was now compelled to draw reenforcements from other parts of +the line to strengthen his front at Rawa-Ruska. This meant weakening +Ewarts's against the archduke and Brussilov against Boehm-Ermolli. The +downfall of the Dunajec-Biala front had been attributed by the Russian +War Staff to overconfidence or neglect on the part of General +Dmitrieff, who was subsequently relieved of his command and replaced +by General Lesch. At an official inquiry Dmitrieff was exonerated and +reinstated on the reasonable ground that, whatever precautions of +defense he might have taken, they would have proved ineffective +against the preponderance of the German artillery. + +After the battle of Lubaczow the Russian line drew back about twenty +miles. For the defense of Lemberg the front ran in a concave form from +along the River Tanev, five miles from Rawa-Ruska, down to Grodek and +Kolodruby; then eastward behind the Dniester to Zuravno and Halicz. +The marshes of the Dniester, then swollen by heavy rains, formed a +good natural defense; the intrenchments on the hills north of Grodek +to Rawa-Ruska protected the approaches to Lemberg from that direction. +The weakest spot lay around Janov, fifteen miles north of Grodek, +where the level ground would permit the easy transport of heavy +artillery. This position had been fortified with trenches and wire +entanglements. Here also were concentrated the troops withdrawn from +other parts of the line, and four armored trains with quick-firing +guns from the depot at Rovno. General Ivanoff had no intention of +making any decisive stand against the "phalanx"; neither did he think +of risking his armies in a battle for Lemberg. That town was certainly +of great military and political importance--worth a dozen +Przemysls--and worth fighting for. But for that he would need +artillery in enormous quantity. Von Mackensen carried 2,500 guns with +him, as well as siege trains of heavy howitzers. Ivanoff possessed +none of these, and could therefore hope only to fight rear-guard +actions while retiring before Von Mackensen. In any other part of the +Galician line except the center he had little to fear. We left Von +Linsingen forcing the Dniester at Zuravno. He got the bulk of his army +across, the main advance commanded by Von Bothmer, who captured the +northern heights and penetrated the forests near the Stryj-Tarnopol +railway. They were less than fifty miles from Lemberg. + +The "retreating" Brussilov suddenly turned round and fell on Von +Bothmer's advance. The fight lasted three days, with the result that +the Austro-Germans were obliged to fall back across the Dniester, +leaving behind 2,000 killed and wounded, besides 17 guns, 78 machine +guns, 348 officers and 15,430 men as prisoners, June 8-10, 1915. + +On June 11, 1915, however, the Germans renewed the attack on Zuravno, +recaptured the town, and on June 12 were five miles north of it. By +June 13 they had made ten miles, when Brussilov lashed out again. +Within two days the Germans were back on the Dniester. Von Mackensen +had meanwhile concentrated a new series of heavy batteries around +Jaroslav and formed a new "phalanx" (with reenforcements) west of the +San between Piskorovice and Radymno. Another attempt was preparing to +break through Ivanoff's right wing. + +A violent bombardment began on June 12, 1915, and Austro-Hungarian +troops crossed the river and occupied both Sieniava and Piskorovice. +Next day the advance spread along the whole line, extending from +Tarnoviec on the Zlota to the Radymno-Javorov road, pressing north and +eastward against the Russian front. Pivoting on Sieniava, Von +Mackensen swung his right toward Mosciska, which Von Marwitz captured +on June 14, 1915. The same night the Archduke Joseph Ferdinand's +entire army was slowly wheeling from the San toward the Tanev, facing +due north. + +On June 16, 1915, the left of this line was already inside the borders +of Russian Poland, and its right wing along the entire Tanev front. By +June 16 numerous towns and villages were taken by the Germans. The +Wolff Telegraphic Bureau announced that Von Mackensen's army had +captured 40,000 men and 69 machine guns, which undoubtedly referred to +all the Galician groups, for on June 12, 1915, Von Mackensen had +"replaced" the Archduke Frederick as generalissimo of the +Austro-Hungarian armies. The "phalanx" was pressing against +Rawa-Ruska, Magierow, and Janov; Boehm-Ermolli against Grodek, part of +which he captured by a midnight assault on June 16. In five weeks the +Russian line or front in Galicia had shrunk from 300 miles to about +100. Before Dunajec, when it was united with the northern groups, it +had represented the longest battle line in the history of the world. + +The Russians began to evacuate Lemberg about June 17, 1915, the day +Von Mackensen's right entered Javorov. On the 19th his advance guard +was approaching Rawa-Ruska. Boehm-Ermolli was meanwhile undergoing +severe punishment near Komarno, where an Austrian advance force +endeavored to get through the Grodek Lakes. The Russian artillery +drove them back; for three days there were furious bayonet and cavalry +charges and counter-charges; despite the most terrific bombardments +the Austrian attacks were broken by the desperate Russians. On this +occasion, at least, the Russians were well supplied with shells +hurriedly sent by rail from Kiev, which enabled them to repulse the +Austrians on the lakes. Boehm-Ermolli is said to have lost half of his +effectives in his attempt to penetrate through Grodek and Dornfeld, +fifteen miles south of Lemberg. + +Von Mackensen again came to the rescue by making a great turning +movement in the district of Zolkiev, about sixteen miles north of +Lemberg, and attacking the Russian positions about Janov, forcing the +Russians over the hills and the Rawa-Ruska railway to Zolkiev. His +left wing, resting on Lubaczov, swung northward in a wheeling movement +to envelop Rawa-Ruska. But the Russians intercepted the move; +ferocious encounters and Cossack charges threw the Germans back to +their pivot with heavy losses on both sides. Von Mackensen's center, +however, was too strong, and Ivanoff desired no pitched battle--the +only way to check its advance. He therefore fell back between +Rawa-Ruska and Lemberg, yielding the former to Von Mackensen and the +latter to Boehm-Ermolli, who was able to lead his battered troops into +the town on June 22, 1915, without further resistance. Brussilov now +had to withdraw from the Dniester. As at Przemysl, the Russian +garrison departed with all stores and baggage before the victors +arrived. Lemberg had been in Russian possession for 293 days. + +A German attack near Rawa-Ruska was repulsed by the Russians on June +25, 1915. For two days the "phalanx" rested to replenish its stock of +shells; when these had arrived along the Przemysl line, Von Mackensen +turned northward in the direction of Kholm on the Lublin-Brest-Litovsk +railway. On his left marched the Austro-Hungarian army of the Archduke +Joseph Ferdinand. These two armies drop out of the Galician campaign +at this stage and become part of the great German offensive against +the Polish salient. The gigantic enveloping movement had failed in the +south; it was now to be attempted against the Russian line in front +of Warsaw, conducted by Von Hindenburg and Von Gallwitz in the +northern sector, and by Von Mackensen, assisted by General Woyrsch and +Archduke Joseph Ferdinand, in the southern. These operations are +described in the pages following. + +More than three-fourths of Galicia had now been reconquered, and it +was left to the Austrians and the Germans to complete the conquest. +The campaign was one of the greatest operations of the war. An English +military writer thus describes the achievement: "Only a most +magnificent army organization and a most careful preparation, +extending to infinite detail, could execute a plan of such magnitude +at the speed at which it was done by the Austrian and German armies in +May, 1915." + +Not yet, however, were the Russian armies destroyed; to the German War +Staff it was not now a question of taking or retaking territory, but +of striking a final and decisive blow at the vitals of Russia. The +continuous series of reverses suffered by Boehm-Ermolli and Von +Linsingen exerted an important effect on the end of the Galician +campaign: it frustrated the plan of eliminating the Russian forces. +The battle lines in France and Flanders could wait a while till the +Russian power was annihilated. + +After the fall of Lemberg, Ivanoff withdrew the main body of his +troops toward the river line of the Bug, Boehm-Ermolli following up +behind. Again that unfortunate general was roughly handled--another of +his divisions was annihilated southeast of Lemberg in a rear-guard +action. Von Linsingen directed his efforts against the Gnila Lipa and +Halicz, while Von Pflanzer-Baltin still operated on the Dniester. For +many months the Russians and Austrians faced each other in eastern +Galicia; they were still skirmishing at the end of the year. Both +Russia and Austria had more important matters on hand elsewhere: the +former against Germany in the north, and the latter with her new +enemy--Italy. Galicia became a side issue. + +The Galician campaign will rank as one of the most instructive +episodes in military history, an example of unparalleled calculation, +scientific strategy, and admirable heroism, involving, it is computed, +the terrible sacrifice of at least a million human lives. + + + + +PART VII--RUSSO-GERMAN CAMPAIGN + + + + +CHAPTER XLVIII + +WINTER BATTLES OF THE MAZURIAN LAKES + + +The battle known in the German official accounts as the "Winter Battle +in Mazurian Land" is sometimes described as the "Nine Days' Battle." +In this sense it is to be considered as beginning on the 7th of +February, 1915, and ending on the 16th, when the German Great +Headquarters reported that the Tenth Russian Army, consisting of at +least eleven infantry and several cavalry divisions, had been driven +out of its strongly fortified positions to the east of the Mazurian +Lake district, forced across the border, and, having been almost +completely surrounded, had been crushingly defeated. In fact, however, +fighting continued as part of the same action until the 21st of +February, 1915, when the pursuit of the defeated army ended. + +The forces engaged in this titanic conflict were the Russian Tenth Army, +consisting, according to the Russian version, of four corps, under +General Baron Sievers, and the German East Prussian armies, under +General von Eichhorn, operating on the north on the line +Insterburg-Loetzen, and General von Buelow on the line Loetzen-Johannisburg +to the south of Von Eichhorn. Sources favorable to the Allies represent +the strength of General Sievers's army as 120,000 men. They assert that +the total German force consisted of nine corps, over 300,000 men. These +are said to have included the Twenty-first Corps, which had been with +the Crown Prince of Bavaria in the west; three reserve corps, also from +the west; the Thirty-eighth and Fortieth Corps, new formations, from +the interior of Germany; the equivalent of three corps from other +sections of the eastern front; and a reserve corps of the Guard. The +German official description of the battle credits the Russians with +having had in this sector of the battle front in East Prussia at the +beginning of February six to eight army corps, or about 200,000 men. + +For months the heavy fighting in the east had centered on other +sections of the immense battle line, running from the Baltic to the +Carpathians. The second general Russian offensive, the great forward +thrust of the Grand Duke Nicholas toward Cracow in the direction of +Berlin, aimed through the center of the German defense, had been met, +and the German counterthrust toward Warsaw had come to a standstill in +the mud of Poland and before the stone-wall defensive of the Russians +on the Bsura and the Rawka. Attacks launched by the Russians against +the East Prussian frontier, centering at Lyck, in January, 1915, +seemed to forebode a fresh Russian offensive intended to sweep back +the German armies in this section whose position on the Russian right +wing was a continual threat to the communications of the Russian +commander in chief. + +The Germans, disposing of comparatively weak forces, estimated at +three army corps, were compelled to yield a strip of East Prussian +territory, and had fallen back to positions of considerable natural +strength formed by the chain of Mazurian Lakes and the line of the +Angerapp River. They reported their forces standing on the defensive +here as 50 per cent Landwehr, 25 per cent Landsturm, and only 25 per +cent other troops not of the reserve. Repeated attempts of the +Russians to gain possession of these fortified positions had, however, +broken down. They had been directed especially against the bridgehead +of Darkehmen and the right wing of the German forces in the Paprodtk +Hills. Wading up to their shoulders in icy water, the hardy troops of +the Third Siberian Corps had attempted in vain to cross the Nietlitz +Swamp, between the lakes to the east of Lyck. + +At the beginning of February, 1915, finally Von Hindenburg had been +able to obtain fresh German forces and to put them in position for an +encircling movement against the Russians lying just to the east of the +lakes, from near Tilsit to Johannisburg. With the greatest secrecy the +reenforcements, hidden from observation by their fortified positions, +and the border forces maintaining the defense, were gathered behind +the two German wings. The Russians apparently gained an inkling of the +big move that was impending about the time the advance against their +wings was under way. The first news of the opening of the battle came +to the public in a Russian official announcement of the 9th of +February, 1915, to the effect that on the 7th the Germans had +undertaken the offensive with considerable force in the +Goldap-Johannisburg sector. The northern group of Germans began its +movement somewhat later from the direction of Tilsit. + +Extensive preparations had been made by the German leaders to meet the +difficulties of a winter campaign under unfavorable weather +conditions. Thousands of sleighs and hundreds of thousands of sleigh +runners (on which to drag cannon and wagons), held in readiness, were +a part of these preparations for a rapid advance. Deep snow covered +the plain, and the lakes were thickly covered with ice. On the 5th of +February, 1915, a fresh snowstorm set in, accompanied by an icy wind, +which heaped the snow in deep drifts and made tremendously difficult +travel on the roads and railways, completely shutting off motor +traffic. + +The Germans on the south, in order to come into contact with the main +Russian forces, had to cross the Johannisburg Forest and the Pisseck +River, which flows out of the southernmost of the chain of lakes. The +attacking columns made their way through the snow-clad forests with +all possible speed, forcing their way through barriers of felled trees +and driving the Russians from the river crossings. + +Throughout the 8th of February, 1915, the marching columns moved +through whirling snow clouds, the Germans driving their men forward +relentlessly, so that, in spite of the drifted snow which filled the +roads, certain troops covered on this day a distance of forty +kilometers. The Germans under General von Falck took Snopken by +storm; those under General von Litzmann crossed the Pisseck near +Wrobeln. The immediate objectives of these columns were Johannisburg +and Biala, where strong Russian forces were posted. + +On the 9th the southern column, under Von Litzmann, was attacked on +its right flank by Russians coming from Kolna, to the south of them. +The German troops repelled the attack, taking 2,500 prisoners, eight +cannon, and twelve machine guns. General Saleck took Johannisburg, and +Biala was cleared of the Russians. The advance of these southern +columns continued rapidly toward Lyck. + +The German left wing at the same time fell overwhelmingly on the +northern end of the Russian line. On the 9th they took the fortified +Russian positions stretching from Spullen to the Schorell Forest and +nearly to the Russian border. They had here hard work to force their +way through wire entanglements of great strength. Having noticed signs +of a retreat on the part of their opponents, these German forces had +on the preceding day begun the attack without waiting for the whole of +their artillery to come up. The Russians retreated toward the +southeast. + +Swinging forward toward the Russian border, the German left wing now +exerted itself to the utmost to execute the sweeping encircling movement +for which the strategy of Von Hindenburg had become famous. The Russian +right wing had been turned and was being pressed continually toward the +southeast. The German troops rushed forward in forced marches, ignoring +the difficulties which nature put in their way. By the 10th of February +these columns reached the Pillkallen-Wladislawow line, and by the 11th +the main highway from Gumbinnen to Wilkowyszki. The right wing, up to +the capture of Stallupoehnen, had taken some 4,000 prisoners, four +machine guns, and eleven ammunition wagons. The center of this army, at +the capture of Eydtkuhnen, Wirballen, and Kibarty, took 10,000 +prisoners, six cannon, eight machine guns, numerous baggage wagons, +including eighty field kitchens, three military trains and other rolling +stock, a large number of gift packages intended for the Russian troops, +and, of chief interest to the fighting men, a whole day's provisions. + +On the afternoon of February 10 some one and a half Russian divisions +had come to a halt in these three neighboring villages: Eydtkuhnen, +Kibarty, and Wirballen. Although it was known that the Germans were +approaching, it was apparently regarded by the Russians as impossible +that pursuers would be able to come up with them in the raging +snowstorm. So certain were they of their security that no outposts +were put on guard. Only thus could it happen that the Germans, who had +not allowed the forces of nature to stop their advance, arrived right +at the Russian position on the same day, though with infantry alone +and merely a few guns, everything else having been left behind, stuck +in the snowdrifts. + + + + +CHAPTER XLIX + +THE RUSSIANS OUT OF GERMANY + + +It was evening when the Germans made their surprise attack on +Eydtkuhnen and midnight when they fell upon Wirballen. On the roadway +stood two Russian batteries with twelve guns and a considerable number +of ammunition wagons. The German infantry approached without firing a +shot until they were within fifty yards. Then all the horses were shot +down and the guns and ammunition seized. The men of the battery fled. +In both these towns there was street fighting in the night, lit up by +burning houses which had been fired by the Russians in their retreat. + +One of the captured trains was the hospital train of the czar. This +was utilized as headquarters for the night by the staff of General von +Lauenstein. + +By the 12th of February, 1915, the German troops of the left wing, +sweeping down from the north and pressing the Russians back from +village to village, were entirely on Russian soil. Wizwiny, Kalwarja, +and Mariampol were occupied on this day. The number of guns taken by +these troops had been increased by seventeen, according to German +reports. The German Headquarters Staff declared that by this time the +Russian Seventy-third and Fifty-sixth Divisions had been as good as +annihilated, and the Twenty-seventh division nearly destroyed. The +Russians lying before the Angerapp line and the defenses of Loetzen had +in the meantime also begun to retreat toward the east. German troops, +consisting chiefly of reserves of the Landwehr and Landsturm which up +to this time had been held back within the German fortified line, now +advanced to attack the yielding army, whose long marching column could +be observed by the German flyers. While General von Eichhorn's troops, +coming from the neighborhood of Tilsit and making their way through +snow and ice, were advancing upon Suwalki and Sejny, and the German +right wing was fighting its way through Grajewo, toward Augustowo, the +center of the troops of General von Buelow for several days fought the +Russians in furious battle in the vicinity of Lyck. From all sides the +Germans were closing in. To protect the withdrawal of this main army +to Suwalki and Augustowo, the Russians endeavored by all means to hold +the narrows of the lakes before Lyck, where they were favored by the +nature of the ground and aided by strong defensive works, for the most +part well provided with wire entanglements. The best of the Russian +troops, Siberian regiments, here fought with great energy under a +determined leadership, and the Russians, in fact, at some places took +the offensive. By the 12th of February, 1915, however, the Germans had +taken these positions and the Russians had withdrawn to the narrow +passages among the lakes before Lyck. The battles around this town +were carried on under the eye of the German Emperor. The German +soldiers were still occupied in hunting through the houses for +scattered Russians as the emperor stepped from his motor car. He was +received with hurrahs, and the soldiers surrounded him, singing +"Deutschland, Deutschland ueber Alles." The emperor, standing amid the +blackened ruins of burned homes, delivered a short address to the +soldiers gathered about him, giving special recognition to Infantry +Regiment No. 33, an East Prussian unit which had especially +distinguished itself and suffered great losses. On the same day the +Germans advanced beyond Lyck, and by the 15th of February no Russian +remained on German soil. + + + + +CHAPTER L + +TIGHTENING OF THE NET--REPORT OF THE BOOTY + + +The Russian right, retiring to avoid envelopment, sought the natural +line of retreat along the railway to Kovno. In executing this movement +it turned toward the northeast, and exceeding in speed of movement the +corps to the south of it, the Twentieth, under the command of General +Bulgakov, the latter was left out of the line. In consequence its +right wing was turned and it was pressed down toward the south with +the enemy on three sides of it. It speedily became a broken force in +the forest north of Suwalki. The Russians endeavored to reach the +protection of their great fortress of Grodno. It was the task of the +German division coming down from the north in forced marches to cut +off this way of escape and prevent the Russians coming out of the +forest toward the southeast. + +The march of these German troops carried them through great woodlands, +amid frozen lakes, when suddenly a thaw set in. The sleighs which had +been used had to be abandoned and wagons requisitioned on the spot +wherever possible. + +An officer with these troops relates that infantrymen were sent +forward on wagons, and on the night following the 15th of February +took Sopozkin, to the east of Augustowo, on the line of the Russian +retreat, capturing the baggage of an entire Russian army corps. "The +morning," he writes, "presented to us a unique picture. Hundreds of +vehicles, baggage carts, machine guns, ammunition, provision and +ambulance wagons stood in a vast disorder in the market place of the +town and in the street. In between were hundreds of horses, some +harnessed, some loose, dead Russians, dead horses, bellowing cattle, +and sounding over it all the words of command of our troops +endeavoring to create order in this mad mix-up, and to take care of +the rich booty. Many an interesting find did we make--'mementos' which +the Russians had taken with them from Prussia and which now were to +find their way back." + +A German commander tells how, in their efforts to cut off the Russian +retreat, the artillery were compelled to cross many brooks running +through deep gullies, so that it was necessary frequently to lower +guns and wagons by means of ropes on one side and pull them up on the +other. + +One of the German leaders, describing this encircling movement to the +southeast from the north in which he played a part, says: "The roads +and the weather were beyond all description--twelve to fifteen degrees +Reaumur, with a cutting wind and driving snow, with nothing to eat, as +the field kitchens on these roads could not follow. During pauses in +the march one could but lean against the wall of a miserable house or +lie down in the burned-out ruins, without straw to lie on and no +covering. Men and horses sank to their hips in the snow, and so we +worked our way forward, usually only about two kilometers an hour. +Wagons and horses that upset had to be shoveled out of the drifts. It +was a terrible sight, but we got through. We had to go on without +regard for anything, and the example of the higher officers did much." + +Two Russian corps from the southern wing of the army retreating by the +Suwalki-Sejny causeway and by the Ossowetz Railway, according to +accounts from Russian sources, made their way out of the trap under +heavy rear-guard fighting. + +The escaped portions of the Russian army crossed the Bobr toward +Grodno. From the direction of this Russian stronghold a desperate +effort was made to relieve the four corps which were endeavoring to +escape toward the fortress from the forest southeast of Augustowo into +which they had been pressed by the Germans from the west and north. On +the 21st of February came the final act in the great drama. The German +troops pushed forward at their best speed from all directions toward +the forest. The help that had been intended for them came too late. +Concerning the captures of this day, the German Great Headquarters +reported: "On the 21st of February the remnants of the Tenth Army laid +down their arms in the forest of Augustowo after all attempts of the +Russian commander of this army, General Sievers, to cut a way out for +the encircled four divisions by means of those parts of his army which +remained to him after escaping over the Bobr to Grodno failed with +extremely heavy losses." + +Summarizing the results of the entire battle in an announcement of the +22d of February, the German Great Headquarters said: "The pursuit +after the winter battle in Mazurian Land is ended. In cleaning up the +forests to the northwest of Grodno, and in the battles reported during +the last few days in the region of the Bobr and the Narew, there have +been captured to date one commanding general, two division commanders, +four other generals, and in the neighborhood of 40,000 men, +seventy-five cannon, a quantity of machine guns, whose number is not +yet determined, and much other war material. + +"The total booty of the winter battle in Mazurian Land, therefore, up +to to-day rises to seven generals, more than 100,000 men, more than +150 cannon, and material of all sorts, inclusive of machine guns, +which cannot yet be approximately estimated. Heavy guns and ammunition +were in many cases buried by the enemy or sunk in the lakes; thus +eight heavy guns were yesterday dug out or hauled out of the water +near Loetzen and Lake Widmin. + +"The Tenth Russian Army of General Baron Sievers may, therefore, now +be considered as completely annihilated." + +This summary was corrected in a later announcement, which stated that +the number of guns taken as booty in the pursuit after the winter +battle in Mazurian Land had risen to 300, including eighteen heavy +guns. This was published on the 23d of February. In an announcement of +the 26th of February the Great Headquarters amplified its account of +the victory with this statement: + +"In the Russian official report the extent of the disaster in the +winter battle of Mazurian Land is either concealed or an attempt is +made to obscure it. It is unnecessary to go further into these +denials. As evidence of the extent of the defeat, the following list +of the positions held by the captured generals, however, may serve: + +"Of the Twentieth Army Corps: the commanding general, the commander of +the artillery, the commander of the Twenty-eighth and Twenty-ninth +Infantry Divisions, and of the First Brigade of Infantry of the +Twenty-ninth Infantry Division. The commander of this latter division +succumbed to his wounds soon after being made prisoner. + +"Of the Third Army Corps: the commander of the Twenty-seventh Infantry +Division and the commander of the artillery and of the Second Infantry +Brigade of this division. + +"Of the Fifty-third Reserve Division: the division commander and the +commander of the First Infantry Brigade. + +"Of the First Siberian Cossack Division: a brigade commander." + +This brought the total of Russian generals captured up to eleven. + +This account of one of the greatest battles of the European War is +necessarily based to a large extent on reports of the Germans, owing +to the fact that material from this source is virtually the only +official account available of the operation as a whole. The Russian +General Staff has contented itself with the following announcement, +made public on February 21, 1915: + +"When the Germans, after a series of extraordinary obstinate and +persistent attacks which caused them heavy losses, had recognized the +impossibility of pressing in our front on the left bank of the +Vistula, they turned at the end of January to the execution of a new +plan. After the creation of several new corps in the interior of the +country, and the bringing up of troops from their west front, the +Germans threw important forces into East Prussia. The transportation +of troops was made easier by the extraordinarily developed net of +railways which Germany has at its disposal. + +"The task of the new troops sent to East Prussia was to defeat our +Tenth Army, which held strongly constructed positions along the +Angerapp. To assure the success of the undertaking the Germans brought +a portion of their forces from the Bzura and Rawka fronts to the right +bank of the Vistula. A movement of the Germans in East Prussia already +became noticeable on the 4th of February, 1915. But the extent of this +movement could only be recognized a few days later. As our leaders, +because of the lack of railroad lines, could not collect the necessary +forces on the East Prussian front with the necessary speed to meet the +hostile attack adequately, they decided to take back the +above-mentioned army of East Prussia to the border. In this movement +of the right wing the Tenth Army, which was pressed by heavy hostile +forces and threatened with being surrounded from the right, was forced +to make a rapid change of alignment in the direction of Kovno. In this +rapid movement a corps was separated from the rest of the army. The +other corps which continued the battle obstinately without +interruption, slowly drew back in the prescribed direction, bravely +repelling the enemy and inflicting upon him heavy losses. Our troops +overcame unbelievable difficulties, which were caused by the snow +which filled all roads. As the streets were impassable, automobiles +could not run. Trains were delayed and frequently failed to arrive at +their destination. Our corps which formed the left wing of the Tenth +Army held the enemy, while drawing back step for step for nine days on +a stretch of territory which ordinarily is covered in four days. On +the 19th of February these corps withdrawing by way of Augustowo left +the battle field and took the position assigned to them. Further +battles developed in the region before Ossowetz, on the roads from +Lomza to Jedwabno and to the north of Radislow, also halfway between +Plozk and Plonsk. These battles were in places very intense." + +An English authority says: "The chief Russian loss was in General +Bulgakov's Twentieth Corps, which the German staff asserted they had +completely destroyed. But during the fortnight which ended on Saturday +the 20th, at least half of that corps and more than two-thirds of its +guns safely made their way through the Augustowo and Suwalki woods to +the position which had been prepared for the Russian defense. The +total Russian losses may have been 80 guns and 30,000 men; they were +no more. The two southern corps, in spite of their stubborn action at +Lyck, crossed the woods between Augustowo and Ossowetz without serious +disaster." + + + + +CHAPTER LI + +BATTLES OF PRZASNYSZ--BEFORE MLAWA + + +The shattering of the Tenth Russian Army in the "winter battle" of the +Mazurian Lakes was part of a greater conflict which in February, 1915, +extended far down the armies on the right flank of the great Russian +battle line which ran from the Baltic to the Dniester. A "new gigantic +plan" of the Slavs was involved. As interpreted by the German General +Staff it meant that while the extreme northern wing of the Russian +armies was to sweep westward through the projecting section of +Germany, East Prussia, along the Baltic another Russian army was to +advance in force from the south against the corner formed by West +Prussia and the Vistula. With vast masses of cavalry in the van, it +was to break through the boundary between Mlawa and Thorn, and pushing +northward, come into the rear of those German forces which were facing +eastward against the attack aimed at East Prussia from the northeast. +For operations in this section the Russians had favorable railway +connections. Two railways terminating at Ostrolenka permitted the +rapid unloading of large masses of troops at this point, and the line +Warsaw-Mlawa-Soldau led straight into the territory aimed at by such +an invasion. It seemed easily credible that the Russian commander in +chief did, as reported, give orders that Mlawa should be taken be the +cost what it might. + +The northern Russian armies based upon the fortresses of Kovno and +Grodno on the Niemen had not fully started on their part of this great, +well-planned undertaking when the German counteroffensive was suddenly +launched with tremendous strength from the Tilsit-Insterburg-Mazurian +Lakes line. The disaster which followed, and which banished all hope of +an advance of the Russians on this wing, has been described on a +preceding page. While the Germans, using to the best advantage their net +of railroads for the swift accumulation of troops, had gathered large +forces on the Mazurian Lakes line, they had at the same time +strengthened the troops standing on the southern boundary of West and +East Prussia. An artillery officer, General von Gallwitz, was placed in +command of this army with orders to protect the right flank of the +German armies attacking in Mazurian Land, and to prevent the expected +Russian attempt at invasion in his own sector of the front. + +While the "winter battle" was raging to the east of him, Von Gallwitz +in the characteristic German fashion of defense by a strong offensive +moved forward up the right bank of the Vistula to Plozk. A cavalry +division and regiments of the Guard at Sierpe and Racionz, February +12-18, 1915, won well-earned laurels for themselves by driving an +enemy of superior strength before them. At Dobrin, according to German +report, they took 2,500 prisoners. + +General von Gallwitz's plan, however, was of more ambitious scope. It +was his intention, by encircling the Russians in the territory before +him from both wings, to sweep clear of enemies the entire stretch of +country in the Polish triangle between the Vistula and the Orczy +rivers. The right wing of his troops that had come down the bank of +the Vistula was to swing to the eastward in behind the Russians. +German troops which had arrived at Willenberg inside of the East +Prussian boundary, one of the German concentration points on the line +of railroad lying behind their front, on the other hand, received +orders to descend the valley of the Orczy and to come in behind the +Russian right flank from the east. These troops, making a wide detour, +swept past Przasnysz on the east, and swinging round to the south of +the city attacked the Russians holding the place from this direction. +The Germans had understood that only small Russian forces were in the +city. Anticipating the German movement, however, a Russian division, +as the Germans learned later, had hastened to Przasnysz. The Russians +also had collected large forces on the Narew, and were hurrying them +toward Przasnysz on roads covering a wide front. Two full Russian +corps from this line were flung upon the German left wing. + +The forces of Von Gallwitz which had carried out the encircling +movement from the east and south of Przasnysz now found themselves +caught between two Russian armies. However, they were unwilling to +relinquish the booty which they had planned to seize. A part of the +German forces was disposed in a half circle as a defense against the +Russians coming up from the south, and a division of reserves, +February 24, stormed Przasnysz. The German Great Headquarters +announced that the Germans captured 10,000 prisoners, including 57 +officers, and took 36 cannon, 14 machine guns, and much war material +of various sorts. However, the Russian troops were now pressing +forward from the south with irresistible force. The Germans, in +consequence, slowly fell back, fighting under great difficulties, and +moving northward toward their defensive lines, carrying with them +their prisoners and booty. + +The Russian General Staff on the first of March, 1915, devoted an +explicit account to the fighting about Przasnysz which differs but +slightly from the narrative by the German Great Headquarters which has in +general been followed in the preceding description. Both sides apparently +considered the operation of special importance, and as reflecting credit +upon their respective troops. The Russian story emphasizes the attacks +made by their force on the line Lyssakowo-Chainovo simultaneously from +north and south, that is, both in the flank and in the rear of the +Germans to the west of Przasnysz. They represent their troops in the city +as having consisted of only a brigade of infantry and some insignificant +cavalry units. On the 25th of February, when the Germans had established +themselves in the town, the Russians, according to their account, were +pressing their enemies hard upon a long front from Krasnoseltz through +Vengerzinovo, Kolatschkowo to Voliaverlowska. + +On the evening of this day they drove the Germans into positions close +to the city. The Thirty-sixth German Reserve Division on the same +evening is said to have met serious disaster after a determined +resistance at the crossings of the Anetz. On the evening of the next +day the Russians began to reenter Przasnysz, but did not completely +occupy the town until the night after the 27th. "The Germans," the +Russian account continues, "hereupon began a disorderly retreat, +endeavoring to withdraw in the direction of Mlawa-Chorgele. Regardless +of the exhaustion consequent upon the marching they had undergone and +four days of battle, our troops energetically took up the pursuit of +the enemy. On the 28th of February they inflicted serious losses upon +his rear guard. In these battles we seized a large amount of booty. +The total number of prisoners amounts to at least 10,000." The +Russians maintain that they had defeated no less than two German army +corps and thrown them back to the border. + +On the 12th of March, 1915, the German Great Headquarters protested +against this version of the affair, and pointed to the fact that +within a few days their troops were again threatening Przasnysz, and +that since giving up the city they had captured on the battle fields +between the Vistula and the Orczy no less than 11,460 Russians. + +The city of Przasnysz itself suffered heavily in these attacks and +counterattacks. For days and nights it had lain under bombardment and +repeatedly fierce, hand-to-hand combats had been fought in its +streets. Most of the houses of the place were left mere heaps of +smoking ruins. + +From the German point of view this offensive just north of the Vistula +which included the temporary capture of Przasnysz was a success, +especially in this, that it had prevented the big Russian forward +movement against the West Prussian boundary which the impending great +Russian offensive had foreboded. It had been impossible for the +Russians seriously to endanger the German flank in this section, while +the Germans had struck to the east in the "winter battle," and had +definitely spoiled the Russian appetite for invasion from the +Kovno-Grodno line. + +As though determined to avenge their defeat to the east of the lakes, +the Russians now continued to direct a series of fierce attacks in the +direction of Mlawa, intending apparently to break through the German +line of defense between Soldau and Neidenburg. It was said that the +Russians believed General von Hindenburg in person to be in charge of +the German forces in this sector. In consequence the German troops for +the most part were forced to stand upon the defensive. In the +beginning of March the Russian attacks increased steadily in violence. +They broke against the German positions to the east and south of +Mlawa, according to German reports, with enormous losses. At Demsk, to +the east of Mlawa, long rows of white stones mark common graves of +masses of Russians who perished before the German barbed-wire +entanglements. The Germans point to these as dumb witnesses of the +disaster that overtook forty-eight Russian companies that assaulted +ten German ones. The cold weather at this time had made possible the +swampy regions in which the Orczy rises, and had enabled the Russians +to approach close to the German line of defense. + +The Russian attack at this point in the night of the 7th of March, +1915, was typical of the fighting on this line in these weeks. After a +thousand shells from the Russian heavy guns had descended upon and +behind Demsk, a seemingly ceaseless series of infantry attacks set in. +They were carried close up to the lines of wire of the German defense. +Enough light, however, was shed by the searchlights and light balls +shot from pistols to enable the Germans to direct a destructive +infantry and machine-gun fire on the approaching lines. Those of the +Russians who did not fall, fled to the next depression in the ground. +There they were held by the beams of the searchlights until daybreak. +Then they surrendered to the German patrols. Of another attack a few +kilometers farther to the north, at Kapusnik, the Germans reported +that after the enemy had penetrated into their trenches and had been +driven out in a desperate bayonet fight, they buried 906 Russians and +164 Germans. + +On the 8th of March, 1915, General von Gallwitz again tried an +offensive with fresh forces which he had gathered. It was thwarted, +however, on the 12th, to the north of Przasnysz. The Germans estimated +the Russian forces which here were brought, up for the counterattack +at some ten army corps and seven cavalry divisions. The Russians in +advancing this time, instead of directing their thrust at Mlawa, +pushed northeastward of Przasnysz along the rivers Orczy and Omulew. +In this sector the Germans counted from the 13th to the 23d of March +forty-six serious assaults, twenty-five in the daytime and twenty-one +at night. With special fury the battles raged in the neighborhood of +Jednorozez. This attempt to break into Prussia was also unsuccessful, +and in the last week of March the Russian attacks slackened, quiet +ensuing for the weeks following Easter. + +For six weeks the armies had struggled back and forth in this bloody +angle, fighting in cold and wet, amid snow and icy rains. The Germans +asserted that in these six weeks the troops of General von Gallwitz +had captured 43,000 Russians and slain some 25,000. They estimated the +total losses of the enemy in this sector during the period at 100,000. +Countless graves scattered about the land, and the ruins of cities and +villages were left to keep awake the memory of some of the fiercest +fighting of the war in the east. + + + + +CHAPTER LII + +FIGHTING BEFORE THE NIEMEN AND BOBR--BOMBARDMENT OF OSSOWETZ + + +The winter battles of the Mazurian Lakes had forced the armies at the +northern end of the Russian right flank back into their great +fortresses Kovno and Grodno, and behind the line of the Niemen and the +Bobr. A great forest region lies to the east and north of Grodno, and +between the Niemen and the cities of Augustowo and Suwalki which the +Germans, after their successful offensive, used as bases for their +operations. A strip of country including these forests, and running +parallel to the Niemen was a sort of no-man's land in the spring of +1915. Movements of troops in the heavily wooded country were difficult +to observe, and the conditions lent themselves to surprise attacks. +This resulted in a warfare of alternate thrusts by Russians and +Germans aimed now at this point, now at that, in the disputed +territory. Several actions during the spring stand out beyond the rest +in importance, both because of the numbers engaged and their effects. +In what follows will be described a typical offensive movement in this +district undertaken by the Russians, and the way it was met by the +Germans. + +A new Russian Tenth Army had been organized by the end of February, +1915, with Grodno for its base. General Sievers, his chief of staff, +and the general in command of the Third Russian Army Corps had been +demoted from their commands, and three new army corps (Two, Three, and +Fifteen) had been brought to Grodno. The ranks of the remaining corps +that had suffered in the "winter battle" had been filled up with fresh +recruits. Hardly had the German pursuit in the forest of Augustowo +come to an end when the freshly strengthened Russians moved forward +from their defensive lines in a counterattack. The Germans had been +engaged in the task of gathering and carting away their enormous booty +which lay scattered about the forest. They now drew back from in front +of the Russian fortified lines to prepare positions close to +Augustowo, and on a line running roughly north and south from this +place, with the forest in front of them. + +The Third Russian Army Corps advanced from Simno toward Lozdsisjo, +their Second Army Corps from Grodno by way of Kopiewo and Sejny toward +Krasnopol and other Russian corps advanced through the forest of +Augustowo. Here they soon struck strong German resistance, and for +several days vainly attacked German fortified positions. + +On the 9th of March, 1915, a German offensive began against the +Russian Third Corps which held the right wing of the advancing army. +When this corps suddenly found itself threatened in the flank from the +north and in danger of being surrounded it hastily began to retreat +toward the east and southeast, leaving several hundred prisoners and +several machine guns in the hands of the Germans. This withdrawal +exposed the right flank of the adjoining Second Army Corps, which by +this time, March 9, 1915, had reached Berzniki and Giby. The German +attack was now continued against this corps. It was cold weather, the +thermometer was considerably below the freezing point, and the roads +were slippery with ice, so that dozens of horses fell, completely +exhausted, and the infantry could march only two or three kilometers +an hour. + +On March 9 and 10, 1915, the battle flamed up at Sejny and Berzniki, +the Russian corps, which had developed its front toward the west, +being forced to swing about and face the north, whence the Germans +were driving down upon it. At Berzniki two Russian regiments made up +entirely of young troops were, according to the German account, +completely annihilated, and the commanders of the regiments captured. +It seemed as though the leader of the Russian armies saw approaching a +repetition of the encircling movements that had proved fatal to the +Russians in the Mazurian "winter battle," for on the 10th of March he +gave orders for the withdrawal of his entire army. The German airmen +on this day reported the Russian columns on the march through the +forest in full retreat toward Grodno all along the line from Giby to +Sztabiz, far to the south. + +On the 11th of March, 1915, the German troops vigorously pushed the +pursuit. They occupied Makarze, Froncki, and Giby. On the same night a +German cavalry division took Kopciovo by assault. At this place alone +they counted 300 dead Russians, and more than 5,000 prisoners, 12 +machine guns, and 3 cannon, fell into the hands of the Germans. + +The threatened envelopment of this Russian army was typical of the +method employed by the leaders under Von Hindenburg in local +operations, as it was of German method in general when applied to +operations extending over the entire field of action. It could be +applied with special success where the German information service was +superior to that of the Russians, as it usually was, and the movements +of German troops were facilitated by good railway connections. In the +Augustowo forests, however, rapidity of movement had to be achieved by +the legs of the German soldiers to a large extent, and on this they +prided themselves not a little. The operation just described was +regarded by the German Great Headquarters as being of great +significance, valuable for its moral effect in establishing in the +German troops a sense of superiority, and confidence in their +leadership, and for its infliction of material losses of considerable +moment on the Russians. + +The Russians likewise claimed advantages from their forward thrust +from Grodno. As represented by the Russian General Staff the +withdrawal of the Germans from a front close to the line of the +fortress in the first place was not a voluntary one, as it is pictured +in the German account, but was forced by the strong pressure exerted +by the Russian attacks following upon their retreat after the "winter +battle." Thus they report the complete defeat of two German army +corps, resulting in the seizure by the Russians of Height 100.3, which +they described as dominating the entire region of the operations +before Grodno. "In this battle," says the Russian report of March 5, +1915, "we took 1,000 prisoners and six cannon and a machine gun. +Height 100.3 was defended by the Twenty-first Corps, the best of them +all which lost during the battle 12,000 to 15,000 soldiers, as can be +estimated from the dead left behind. After the shattering of the +German counterattack at Height 100.3 the operations of the enemy +became entirely passive. We, on the other hand, took village after +village, and everywhere made prisoners." + +The fortress of Ossowetz on the Bobr River proved inconquerable by the +42-centimeter mortars which had worked such terrific effects on the +forts of Belgium and France. It was continually under German artillery +fire through the months of February and March, 1915, without suffering +appreciable damage. The great mortars were brought up within range of +the fortress with much difficulty, owing to the fact that the place is +almost completely surrounded by swamps. The Germans apparently had +counted seriously at first on making a breach in the Russian defensive +lines at this place. After persistent attempts to make an impression +on the fortress with their heaviest guns they were obliged, however, +to content themselves with keeping the garrison in check so as to +forestall offensive moves. + +A German artillery officer who took part in the bombardment relates +that the chief obstacle to the pressing home of an attack were several +heavily armored batteries which lay concealed outside the visible +works of the fortress itself in the broad strip of swampland +surrounding it. These were built deep into the ground, protected by +thick earthworks, and very effectively screened from observation. They +were a constant menace and apparently could not be destroyed by the +German fire. Even though the main fort itself had been destroyed they +would have prevented the approach of the enemy's troops, for they +commanded the only causeway leading through the swamps to the fortress +and would have blown to pieces any infantry that ventured to push +along this road. + +Furthermore, even the intense cold did not make the swamp passable +except by the roadway because warm springs here and there prevented +the ice from freezing sufficiently strong to bear the troops. The +German gunners noted too that their shots fell practically without +effect, plunging quietly into the mud to a great depth so that they +did not even throw up earth or mud. + +The result was that the 42-centimeter monsters were hastily withdrawn +after a few trial shots and the bombardment was continued with a +battery of 28-centimeter coast defense guns, an Austrian motor +battery, a 30.5-centimeter mortar and some other heavy batteries. The +fire rose to considerable intensity in the last days of February and +the first days of March. + +On the 3d of March the Russians in their official report dwelt on the +fierceness of the bombardment and its ineffectiveness. On the 16th +they reported that the Germans were pushing several of their batteries +up into closer range, as they had recognized the uselessness of +shooting from a greater distance and on the 18th they stated that the +fire was falling off. On the 22d, finally, they reported that +beginning with the 21st the Germans had been withdrawing their heavy +batteries. They added that a 42-centimeter mortar had been damaged by +the Russian fire, and that "not a single shot of these mortars has +reached the fortress, not a redoubt has been penetrated. The +superiority of the artillery fire evidently rests with us. The German +attack was not only far removed from placing the fortifications of +Ossowetz in a critical position, it did not even succeed in driving +our infantry out of the field works." + +On the 27th of March there was a resumption of the bombardment on a +small scale and another effort began on April 11 with some heavy guns, +ending in an attempted advance which was repulsed without difficulty +by the Russians. + + + + +CHAPTER LIII + +RUSSIAN RAID ON MEMEL + + +An event in which no great number of troops were concerned, but which +is of importance, because of the feeling which it aroused in Germany +and because it was the first of a series of operations in what was +practically a new theatre of the war was the Russian invasion of the +very northernmost tip of East Prussia. On Thursday, the 18th of March, +1915, the Russians coming simultaneously from the north and the east +across the border of Courland, moved on the Prussian city of Memel in +several columns. Their troops included seven battalions of militia +with six or eight guns of an old model, several squadrons of mounted +men, two companies of marines, a battalion of a reserve regiment, and +border defense troops from Riga and Libau, a total of some 6,000 to +10,000 men. The German Landsturm troops at the Prussian boundary fell +back on Memel, not being in sufficient force to resist the advance. +They were finally driven through the city and across the narrow strip +of water known as the Kurische Haff to the dunes along the shore of +the Baltic. The Russians burned down numerous buildings along the +roads on which they approached, according to the German report, +inflicting heavy damage on fifteen villages. A considerable number of +the inhabitants, including women and children, were removed to Russia, +and a number of civilians were killed. The troops entered the city on +the evening of March 18 and took the mayor and three other men of the +town as hostages. Apparently the Russian commander made some efforts +to restrain his men, but plundering of stores and dwellings +nevertheless occurred. On the 20th of March, 1915, the city was for a +time cleared of Russian troops, but on Sunday, the 21st, other +soldiers entered the town from the north. These were met by German +patrols, which were followed by stronger German forces that had come +up from the south to drive back the invaders. Street fighting +followed, and the Russians were finally thrown out, losing about 150 +dead. + +The Russians were pursued on March 22 and 23, 1915, and in passing +through Polangen, close to the shore of the Baltic, came under the +fire of German cruisers. They lost some 500 prisoners, 3 guns, 3 +machine guns, and ammunition wagons. With the German troops which +cleared the Russians out of Memel was the son of the emperor, Prince +Joachim of Prussia. + +Concerning this raid the following official announcement was made by +the Germans on March 18, 1915: "Russian militia troops have gained a +cheap success in the northernmost corner of East Prussia in the +direction of Memel. They have plundered and burned villages and farms. +As a penalty, we have ordered the cities occupied by us in Russian +territory to pay considerable sums in damages. For every village or +farm burned down by these hordes on German soil three villages or +farms of the territory occupied by us in Russia will be given over to +the flames. Each act of damage in Memel will be answered by the +burning of Russian Government buildings in Suwalki and other capitals +of governments." + +To this the following Russian official reply was made on March 21, +1915: "The official communique of the German Great Headquarters of the +18th of March concerning the movement of Russian troops against Memel +contains a threat of reprisals to be exacted on Russian villages and +cities held by the enemy on account of the losses which might be +suffered by the population in the neighborhood of Memel. The Russian +General Staff gives public notice that Memel was openly defended by +hostile troops, and that battle was offered in the streets. Since the +civil population took part in this fight our troops were compelled to +reply with corresponding measures. If, therefore, the German troops +should carry out their threat against the peaceful inhabitants of the +Russian territory which they hold, such acts should be considered not +as reprisals but as independent acts. Responsibility for this, as well +as for the consequences, would rest upon the Germans." + +The move against Memel was apparently part of a Russian operation +which was intended also to strike at the city of Tilsit. The German +Great Headquarters reported that for operations intended to seize the +northern regions of East Prussia a so-called Riga-Shavli army group +had been formed under the command of General Apuchtin. While portions +of these troops were active in Memel on March 18, 1915, the fourteen +German Landsturm companies holding Tauroggen, just to the north of the +East Prussian boundary, were attacked by superior forces and +practically surrounded. They fought their way through to Langszargen +with some difficulty, and were being pressed back on the road to +Tilsit when on March 23 German reenforcements came up and General von +Pappritz, leading the Germans, went over to the offensive. + +A heavy thaw made movement of troops anywhere except on the main roads +extremely difficult. Guns were left stuck in the mud, and the infantry +waded to the knee in water, and sometimes to the waist. It is reported +that one of the horses of the artillery literally was drowned on the +road. Germans attacked Tauroggen, where the enemy had intrenched +himself, under an artillery fire directed from the church tower of the +place. On the 28th the town was taken, after a difficult crossing of +the Jura River in front of it, on the ice. The Germans then exulted in +the fact that not a Russian was left on German soil. + + + + +CHAPTER LIV + +GERMAN INVASION OF COURLAND--CAPTURE OF LIBAU + + +On the 20th of April, 1915, an announcement was made by the German +Great Headquarters which took the Russians and the world in general +more or less by surprise. It gave the first glimpse to the public of a +group of operations which caused no little speculation in the minds of +strategists. It read: + +"The advance troops of our forces operating in northwestern Russia +yesterday reached on a broad front the railway running from Dunaburg +(Dvinsk) to Libau. Thus far the Russian troops present in that region, +including also the remnants of those which took part in the raid +against Memel, have attempted no serious resistance anywhere. Fighting +is now in progress near Shavli." + +The advance into Courland here announced had been made by the German +troops at high speed. The forces were under the command of General von +Lauenstein. They had begun to move early on the 27th of April, in +three columns. One of these crossed the Niemen at Schmalleningken, +forming the right wing of the troops engaged in the movement. The +columns of the left wing broke out of East Prussia at its northernmost +point, and moved along the dunes of the Baltic. On the second day of +the forward march it was learned by the leaders of the advancing +troops that the Russians had hastily left their position at Skawdwile, +on the main road from Tilsit to Mitau, to escape being surrounded on +their left flank, and had withdrawn to Shavli by way of Heilmy. On the +third day the German right column crossed the Windawski Canal under +the enemy's fire, and on the afternoon of the 30th of April this +column entered Shavli, which had been set on fire by the Russians. + +[Illustration: German Advance on Riga.] + +The Germans had now crossed at several points the Libau-Dunaburg +railway. They were in Telsche and Trischki. Their cavalry pushed ahead +at full speed with orders to destroy the railways wherever it found +them. On the road to Mitau they captured Russian machine guns, +ammunition wagons, and baggage, and broke up the railway tracks to the +southwest and northwest of Shavli. The Russians who had been taken by +surprise by this movement had apparently only weak forces in Courland, +and these had retired while reenforcements were being rushed up by +railway. The German infantry, upon the receipt of reports that the +Russians were moving up by rail from Kovno on their right flank, was +ordered to stop its advance and prepare to hold the Dubissa line, +taking up a front running a little east of south. Cavalry moving +forward in the center of the German advance on the 3d of May, 1915, +got within two kilometers of Mitau, going beyond Gruenhof and capturing +2,000 Russians. At Skaisgiry on the day before 1,000 prisoners had +been taken, and Janischki and Shagory had been occupied far beyond the +Libau-Dunaburg railway. By this time Russian reenforcements were +arriving at Mitau in huge numbers. The German cavalry ultimately fell +back after indicting all possible damage to the communications in +their reach. + +The Germans prided themselves a good deal on the marching of their +troops in this swift advance. They pointed out that the roads were in +extremely bad condition, the bridges for the most destroyed, and the +population to a large extent hostile. A military correspondent figured +that for a daily march of fifty kilometers, such as was frequently +made in Courland, 62,000 steps of an average of eighty centimeters +were required. This for a day's march of from nine to ten hours gives +an average of five to six kilometers per hour, some 6,000 to 7,000 +steps. That makes in the neighborhood of 100 steps per minute, which +the correspondent regarded as a considerable accomplishment when +allowance is made for the fact that this was kept up hour after hour +in full marching equipment. + +The column coming from Memel, directed along the Baltic shores, had +been steadily moving on Libau. In preparation for the land attack +German naval vessels on the 29th of April had bombarded the forts +defending the town. On the 6th of May the Russians themselves blew up +one of the forts on the eastern front. The shore batteries were soon +after silenced by German fire. The German troops advancing from the +land side took the forts on the south almost without opposition. +Russian troops which had been unloaded at Mitau and sent forward +toward the southwest were unable to come up in time to offer any +obstacles to the German advance, and on the 8th of May, at six o'clock +in the morning, the German soldiers marched into Libau, where they +took about 1,500 prisoners, twelve guns, and a number of machine guns. + +The Germans immediately turned the metal-working plants of the city to +their uses in the manufacture of chains, barbed wire, etc. They also +found here a large supply of tools for intrenching work. Most of the +Russians of the city had fled. One motive for the German advance into +Courland advanced by their enemies was that it was an attempt to +include a rich section of country in foraging operations, and it is a +fact that the German authorities gave expression to their satisfaction +at seizing a region that was of considerable economic value. It is +apparent, however, in regarding these operations in the retrospect +that they had no small bearing on the German plan of campaign as a +whole. It was at the time that the inroad into Courland was started +that the signal was about to be given for the great onslaught far to +the south on the Dunajec, as described in the account of the +Austro-Russian campaign. As the vast campaign along the whole eastern +front developed, it became more and more apparent that the position of +the German troops in Courland placed them advantageously for taking +the Russian line of defenses, of which the fortress of Kovno +represented the northern end in the flank in this carrying out of an +important part of the vast encircling movement which took all Poland +in its grasp. They were a constant threat to the all-important +Vilna-Petrograd Railway. + +In hostile and neutral countries the Courland invasion provoked +comment indicating astonishment at the resources of the Teutonic +powers in being able to extend their lines while already fully engaged +on an enormous front. + +The Russians, awakening from their first astonishment, made vigorous +attempts to obtain permanent possession of the Dubissa line. Along +this line the German troops were for a time forced to yield ground and +to go into the defensive and to resist heavy Russian attacks. Shavli +was given up under Russian pressure. By May 14, all the territory east +of the Dubissa and Windau (Vindowa) was reported free of Germans. + +Especially noteworthy among the struggles for the Dubissa was the +fight at Rossiennie, a town which was of special importance because of +its command of the roads centering in it. On the 22d of May, 1915, an +attack was delivered against this place by the First Caucasian Rifle +Brigade with artillery and assisted by the Fifteenth Cavalry Division. +On the 23d the German cavalry which had resisted their crossing the +river drew back, and the Russians here crossed the Dubissa, +approaching Rossiennie from the north. The Germans during the night +moved the greater part of their troops around the western wing of +their opponents and placed them in position for attack. + +At daybreak heavy artillery fire was poured upon the Russians from the +German position to the north of Rossiennie, while at the same time the +German infantry fell upon the Russian flank and rolled it up, with the +result that the Russians were compelled to recross the Dubissa. In the +crossing numerous wounded were drowned in the river. The Germans took +2,500 prisoners and fifteen machine guns. Similar counterattacks were +delivered by the Germans on the River Wenta. Then, on the 5th of June, +1915, a general offensive was entered upon by the whole German line on +orders from the General Staff, which carried it beyond the Dubissa, +and after heavy fighting finally secured for the Germans the Windawski +Canal, which they had had to relinquish before. Their troops now +slowly pushed their way back toward Shavli until the city came within +reach of their heavy guns, and took Kuze, twelve kilometers to the +northwest of Shavli on the railway. On the 14th of June, 1915, this +series of operations came to a temporary halt. German official reports +pointed to the fact that among 14,000 prisoners which they had taken +there were only a few officers, and that with these not a single +cannon was captured. They regarded it as showing that the Russians +were getting very cautious in the use of their artillery and were +short of officers. + + + + +CHAPTER LV + +RUSSIAN OFFENSIVE FROM KOVNO--FOREST BATTLES IN MAY AND JUNE + + +Offensives on a large scale such as that which had been prevented by +the "Winter Battle of the Mazurian Lakes" were not attempted by the +Russians on their northern wing after the short counterattack that had +pushed their lines into the Mlawa angle in the corner of the Vistula +and the Prussian boundary beyond Przasnysz, to the east of Thorn. They +virtually remained in their strongly fortified positions along the +Narew, the Bobr, and the Niemen, except for the sending out of +occasional attacking columns against the German lines lying opposite +to them. + +These forward thrusts were made especially from the fortresses Grodno +and Kovno, and the fortified place Olita. We have already dealt with +one such operation which came to grief in the forest of Augustowo in +March. The German invasion of Courland had taken place, and the +extension of the German lines to the north invited a thrust at their +communications when, in the middle of May, the Russians attempted to +break through the German lines with columns starting from the great +forest to the west of Kovno. Here German troops under General +Litzmann, acting under the command of General von Eichhorn, stood on +guard. When Litzmann received information that the Russians were +advancing in force he was obliged hastily to gather such troops as he +could find to stem the Russian attack. Troop units from a large +variety of different organizations were freshly grouped practically on +the battle field. At Szaki and Gryszkabuda, on May 17-20, they struck +the Russians with such force that the Slavs were driven back into the +forests. + +The German general now decided to clear this territory of his enemies, +as it had given them a constant opportunity for the preparation of +moves which could not be readily observed, because of the protection +of the thick woods. Again he executed the favorite maneuver of Von +Hindenburg's armies. He gathered as heavy a weight of troops as +possible on his left wing and pushed them forward in an extended +encircling movement. From the south a strong column from Mariampol and +the line of the Szsczupa moved upon the fortified position of the +Russians and the southern corner of the great forest, meeting with +strong resistance at Dumbowa Ruda. The troops moving down from the +northern part of the woods swung to their right to cut off the +Russians from their retreat toward Kovno. By the time the operations +had reached this stage it was the second week in June, 1915, and in +the great pine forests extending for miles there was an oppressive +heat with perfect absence of breeze. Three Russian positions lying in +the river valleys in the forest were encircled one after another from +the north and had to be given up. + +The Russians recognized the danger of the concentric attack directed +at them and fought with great bravery. They strove to keep open the +road of their retreat toward Kovno as long as possible. However, the +ring of the German troops closed swiftly. At Koslowa Ruda, in the +southern part of the forest, they found at night a sleeping army; +something like 3,000 Russians had lain down exhausted in order on the +next day to find the last opening through which to make their escape. +They were now saved the trouble and were led away prisoners. The great +forest was cleared of Russians. The German move had served to insure +the safety of the lines connecting the troops in Courland with their +bases to the south of the Niemen. + +In an official announcement of the 18th of March, 1915, the German +Government sketched the line held in the east by the German troops +northward of the front covered by joint German and Austrian forces. It +read: "The line occupied by us in the east runs from the Pilica, +along the Rawka and Bzura to the Vistula. North of the Vistula the +line of our troops is continued from the region to the east of Plozkz +by way of Zurominek-Stupsk (both south of Mlawa). From there it runs +in an easterly direction through the region to the north of +Przasnysz--south of Mystinez, south of Kolno--to the north of Lomza, +and strikes the Bobr at Mocarce. From here it follows the line of the +Bobr to northwest of Ossowetz, which is under our fire, and runs by +way of the region to east of Augustowo, by Krasnopol, Mariempol, +Pilwiszki, Szaki, along the border through Tauroggen to the northwest. +This is from beginning to end entirely on hostile soil." This long +line, it appears, was under the supreme command of Von Hindenburg, +while Von Mackensen had charge of the great drive to the south. + +The statement here quoted was issued as reassurance to Germans who had +been made nervous by reports of a Russian invasion of East Prussia, +and was connected with the Russian raid on Memel. + +Until June there was practically no change in this great line, except +that on its northern end it was swung outward into Russian territory +to include a large part of Courland, the River Dubissa roughly forming +the dividing line until the front swung eastward toward Libau, in the +line of the Libau-Dunaburg Railway. + +The tasks of both German and Russian troops were similar. +Comparatively weak German forces held the front in the region of the +Niemen, the Bobr, and the Narew, safeguarding such Russian territory +as had been seized by the Germans, and protecting East Prussia against +invasion. Opposed to them lay considerable Russian forces whose task +it was, supported by the fortresses of the Narew and the Niemen, +especially Grodno, to protect the flank and rear of the Russians +standing in Warsaw and southward in the bend of the Vistula, with the +Warsaw-Vilna Railway behind them, while great decisions were fought +for in the Carpathians and Galicia. + +In Poland, between the lower and the upper courses of the Vistula, the +Germans about the middle of February, 1915, having occupied the +Rawka-Sucha ridge of upland, had developed fortified positions along +the rivers Bzura, Rawka, Pilica, and Nida. The bad weather of the +winter and early spring, which had turned the roads of Poland into +pathless morasses, made against extensive operations, and the +momentous undertakings carried out on the wings of the eastern front +led the German General Staff to refrain from important movements in +this section, where the Russians had strongly fortified themselves for +the protection of Warsaw. It was not until the Teutonic allies had +gone over to the offensive in the Carpathians and in western Galicia, +and the Russians had withdrawn to the Polish hills of Lysa-Gora early +in May, that, favored by improved weather conditions, operations in +this part of Poland again took on larger scope. Especially along the +Bzura the German attacks again became violent in an effort to hold the +Russian forces in the district to the west of Warsaw while thrusting +at their wings from the south and north. However, fighting was not of +great consequence in this middle sector until the middle of June, +1915. + + + + +CHAPTER LVI + +CAMPAIGN IN SOUTHERN POLAND--MOVEMENT UPON WARSAW + + +By the 1st of July, 1915, the stupendous enveloping campaign of the +Teuton armies on the eastern front had advanced to a point where the +Allies were forced to recognize the imminence of a catastrophe, which +could be averted only by the most decisive action of the Russian +armies. + +Far in the north, on the extreme right wing of the Russians, the army +of General von Buelow was hammering at the defenses of the Dubissa +line. Off and on fighting was taking place in the neighborhood of +Shavli. Russian counterattacks, reported from day to day through June, +with difficulty had held in check this army, which evidently was +aiming at the Warsaw-Petrograd Railway on the sector between Vilna +and Dvinsk. On the right flank of these forces operated the troops of +General von Eichhorn, with the line of the Niemen for their objective. +Next to these on the south, aiming at the Bobr River and the Upper +Narew, were the forces of General von Scholtz, and on their right the +army of Von Gallwitz, based on Mlawa with Przasnysz in front of it. +Below the line of the Vistula, before the Bzura and down to the middle +course of the Pilica, operated the Ninth German Army, commanded, at +least in the later stages of the Warsaw campaign, by Prince Leopold of +Bavaria. The whole group of northern and central armies was acting +under the general direction of Field Marshal von Hindenburg. + +The armies to the south of this group, cooperating in the drive under +Field Marshal von Mackensen which had gained the Teutons Przemysl and +Lemberg, had as their left flank the forces of Generals von Woyrsch +and Koevess between the Pilica and the Vistula mouth of the San. The +troops of Archduke Joseph Ferdinand were pushing forward on the right +of these, and the army directly under Mackensen himself came next in +line to the eastward, joining up with the armies still operating in +Galicia at the extreme right of the great German battle line. + +The chief danger to the Russians at this stage still threatened from +the south, where the archduke and Mackensen had pushed forward +irresistibly in their advance to the east of the Vistula toward the +railway running from Warsaw through Ivangorod, Lublin, Cholm, and +Kovell to Kiev and Moscow. + +The advance of these Austro-German armies, which had operated in the +neighborhood of Lemberg, was extremely rapid in the last days of June, +1915. In four days they covered from thirty to forty miles in pursuit +of the Russians. By the 1st of July, having swept out of Galicia, +their right, under Mackensen, entered the upper valley of the Wieprz, +a marshy country which presented considerable difficulty to the +advance of troops where a tributary of the Wieprz, the Por, afforded +the Russians a natural line of defense. Drasnik, on the Wyznica, which +here extended the Russian defensive line westward, was occupied by the +archduke's forces on Mackensen's left on the 1st of July, 1915. + +The drive of the Austro-German armies through Galicia has been dealt +with in the account of the Austro-Russian campaign. As we carry +forward the account of the activities of the greatest part of the +forces concerned in that series of operations from the point where +they crossed over the boundary between Galicia and Poland out of +Austrian territory, it will be well to glance backward a moment to +enumerate here briefly the gains of these armies on Polish soil up to +the 1st of July. + +On June 16, 1915, the Teutonic allies forced the Russians to fall back +upon Tarnograd from north of Siemandria, thus pushing this section of +the front across the boundary into Poland about to the line of the +Tanev. Tarnograd itself was occupied by the Teutons on the 17th, and +on the 18th the Russians retreated behind the Tanev. There was little +change in this particular sector during the fighting which was crowned +for the Austro-Germans by the capture of Lemberg on June 22, 1915. +Further to the east, however, to the south of the Pilica and west of +the Vistula, Von Woyrsch was exerting pressure, and on the 20th of +June Berlin announced the capture of several Russian advance posts by +these troops. By the 24th the Slavs had begun to retreat before Von +Woyrsch in the forest region south of the Ilza on the left bank of the +Vistula; thus rear guards had been thrown across the Kamienna, and +Sandomir was occupied by the Austro-Hungarians. On the 25th the +fighting developed on the line Zarvichost-Sienno-Ilza, to which the +Russians had fallen back. + +Defeats of the Russian rear guards on June 29, 1915, to the northeast +and west of Tomaszow, where Teutonic forces had now also crossed into +Poland, caused the Slavs to begin the relinquishment of the Tanev +forest district and the lower San. Tomaszow itself was occupied by the +pursuing troops. By the 30th the Teutonic allies had swept forward +beyond the Tanev region to Franpol, Zamoez, and Komarovo, and on the +same evening they threw the Russians out of their strong defenses on +the Zavichost-Ozarow-Sienno line, west of the Vistula. The pursuit was +pushed energetically on both sides of the Kamienna. The important +bridgehead on the Vistula, Josefovo, was taken on the 1st of July. + +The Russians between the Bug and the Vistula were now offering strong +resistance with large forces on the line Turobin-Krasnik-Josefovo, the +rivers Por and Wyznica forming roughly their defensive front, as +previously pointed out. + +In its daily bulletins of July 1, 1915, the German Great Headquarters +made this announcement for the eastern theatre of war (from the Baltic +to the Pilica): "The booty for June is: Two colors, 25,595 prisoners, +including 121 officers, seven cannon, six mine throwers, fifty-two +machine guns, one aeroplane, also a large amount of war material." For +the southeastern theatre of war (from the Pilica to Bukowina) the +headquarters announced: "The total booty for June of the allied troops +fighting under the command of General von Linsingen, Field Marshal von +Mackensen, and General von Worysch is 409 officers, 140,650 men, 80 +cannon, 268 machine guns." The Austro-Hungarian General Staff on the +same day reported: "The total booty for June of the troops fighting +under Austro-Hungarian command in the northeast is 521 officers, +194,000 men, 93 cannon, 364 machine guns, 78 ammunition wagons, 100 +field railway carriages, etc." + + + + +CHAPTER LVII + +BATTLE OF KRASNIK--CAPTURE OF PRZASNYSZ + + +On July 2, 1915, the forces of the Archduke Joseph Ferdinand which had +passed through Krasnik, on the Lublin road, struck serious resistance +from the Russian army of General Loesche which held strong positions +across the highway, just to the north of the town, and was now +evidently determined to stop once for all the Teuton advance toward +the railway at its back, connecting Warsaw with Kiev, through Lublin +and Cholm. + +On July 3, 1915, the Austrian report, however, announced that 4,800 +prisoners and three machine guns had been taken in the neighborhood of +Krasnik and along the Por stream, and the next day they reported that +they had occupied the heights which run along to the north of the +city, having pierced the enemy's main position on both sides of +Studzianki, and taken more than 1,000 prisoners, three machine guns +and three cannon. + +The Russian front was turned to such an extent that they had to fall +back some three miles on the Lublin road. The Austrians on the 5th of +July summed up their enemy's losses as twenty-nine officers, 8,000 +men, six cannon, five ammunition wagons, and six machine guns. As the +result of this Austrian advance the adjoining enemy forces to the +eastward along the Wieprz River had been obliged to fall back beyond +Tarnograd, and by the 6th of July Vienna summarized the Austrian +captures in these battles as having grown to forty-one officers, +11,500 men. + +The Austrians, however, could make no further headway. On July 5, +1915, they were heavily attacked, being forced back to their +intrenched lines on a ridge of hills to the north of Krasnik. The +Russians now reported that they had taken 15,000 prisoners and a large +number of machine guns. Two thousand bodies were reported by the +Russians to have been found before their front. More prisoners were +taken by the Russians on the 7th and it was only on the afternoon of +July 9 that the Austrians were able to stem the tide. The total loss +of the Austrians in this action was given by their opponents as 15,000 +men. + +The Austrian explanation of their retirement in front of Krasnik +issued on July 11, 1915, pointed out that the relative subsidence of +activity of the Teutonic allies was due to the fact that the goal set +for the Lemberg campaign had now been attained. This, they explained, +was the taking of the city and the securing of strong defensive +positions to the east and north. The ridge to the northward of Krasnik +was a natural choice for this purpose on the north, while the line of +the Zlota Lipa and Bug rivers served the purpose toward the east (see +Austro-Russian campaign). The Austrian explanation pointed out further +that some of their troops had rushed beyond the positions originally +selected to meet heavy reenforcements brought up by the Russians from +Lublin, and that these had to withdraw to the ridge, where they were +successfully resisting all attacks. + +The battle of Krasnik was regarded by the Russians as an effective +victory, for it seemed to have halted the advance on Lublin. The army +of Von Mackensen had now also come to a stop about halfway between +Zamosc and Krasnostav, an artillery duel on July 7, 1915, being the +last activity noted on the front of this army for some time. + +Their comparative quiet in the region between the Vistula and the Bug +where the main advance of the Teutonic forces on the south had been +under way with great vigor for several weeks until the check at +Krasnik was not interrupted until July 16, 1915. Day after day the +Teutonic headquarters reported "nothing of importance" in this +quarter. When the quiet was finally broken it appeared that it had +been the lull before the storm. Before taking up again the activities +on this section of the front, it will be necessary to take a glance +toward the northern half of the great arc that enveloped the Warsaw +salient on two sides. + +In these early days of July, 1915, considerable uncertainty prevailed +among those who were watching the progress of the campaign in Poland +as to where the heaviest blow of the Teutons would fall, whether from +the south or the north. The decisive stroke came with lightning +suddenness. A tremendous attack was launched in the direction of the +Narew by the army of General von Gallwitz. + +A laconic announcement of the German General Staff on July 14, 1915, +bore momentous news, although its modest wording scarcely betrayed the +facts. It read: "Between the Niemen and the Vistula, in the region of +Walwarga, southwest of Kolno, near Przasnysz and south of Mlawa, our +troops have achieved some local successes." The Russian report +referring to the beginning of the same action was equally +noncommittal, though possibly more misleading. This states: +"Considerable enemy forces between the Orczy and the Lidynja adopted +the offensive and the Russians declining a decisive engagement +retreated during the night of the 13th to the second line of their +positions." + +On July 15, 1915, the Germans announced that the city of Przasnysz, +for which such hot battles had been fought in February, and which had +since been strongly fortified by the Russians, had been occupied by +them. The German summary of this action given out a few days later +stated that three Russian defensive lines lying one behind the other +northwest and northeast of Przasnysz had been pierced and taken, the +troops at once rushing forward to Dzielin and Lipa, respectively west +and east of the town. Under attack from these two points the Russians +after yielding Przasnysz, on the 14th, retired to their defensive line +Ciechanow-Krasnosielc which had been prepared long beforehand. On the +15th the German troops pressing closer upon the retiring Slavs stormed +this line and broke through it to the south of Zielona on a breadth of +seven kilometers, forcing the Russians again to retire. General von +Gallwitz's troops in this assault were supported by the forces of +General von Scholtz, on their left, who were pressing the Russians +from the direction of Kolno. On July 16, 1915, the Russians were +retreating on the whole front between the Pissa and the Vistula, +toward the Narew. + +The German summary of the fighting during these days reported the +capture by the army of General von Gallwitz of eighty-eight officers, +17,500 men, thirteen cannon (including one heavy gun), forty machine +guns, and seven mine throwers; and by the army of General von Scholtz +of 2,500 prisoners and eight machine guns. + +This great attack in the north, to which may be ascribed the final +breaking of the lines that had so long protected Warsaw, had been +carefully planned and undoubtedly was timed in coordination with the +movements of Mackensen's armies on the south, striking the Russians +just when Mackensen and the Archduke Josef, having had time for +recuperation and preparation for another push forward after the check +administered at Krasnik, were in readiness to inflict a heavy blow on +their side of the Warsaw salient. When it began the German lines all +along the front burst into fresh activity. It was the signal for a +simultaneous assault along nearly a thousand miles of battle front. + +In the Mlawa sector to the north of Przasnysz the Russians had +developed an exceedingly strong system of fortified positions between +their advance lines and the Narew fortresses. For miles, to a depth of +from fifteen to twenty kilometers, there ran some three or four and at +certain points even five systems of trenches, one behind the other. +Hundreds of thousands of thick tree trunks had been worked into these +defensive works and millions of sand bags piled up as breastwork. +Bombproof dugouts had been constructed deep in the ground. Everywhere +there were strong wire entanglements before the front, sometimes sunk +below the level of the earth, arranged in from two to three rows. +Projecting bastions and thoroughly protected observation posts gave +these systems of trenches the character of permanent fortifications. + +The country in this region is hilly, with here and there steep +declivities and peaks of considerable elevation. The Russians had cut +down whole stretches of forest in order to afford them a free field +for their fire and an opportunity to observe the advance of their +opponents. Enveloping tactics on the part of the Germans were here +quite excluded as the two lines ran uninterruptedly close to one +another. Przasnysz which had become a heap of ruins had been converted +virtually into a fortress by strong defensive works built while the +Germans and Russians lay opposite each other in front of it throughout +the spring. The country round about had been drenched with much German +and Russian blood. + +General von Gallwitz, to capture a place with the least possible loss, +decided to break through the Russian defenses at two points at both +sides of the town sufficiently close to each other so that the +intervening lines would be immediately affected. His attacks were +therefore directed at the first line Russian positions, which formed +projecting angles to the northwest and northeast of Przasnysz so that +instead of taking the city directly from the front he would seize it +as with a gigantic pair of pincers from both sides and behind. The +plan succeeded to the full. The Russian lines were broken on both +sides of the city and the German troops, rushing through, met behind +it, forcing the Russian defenders hastily to evacuate the place to +avoid being caught within the circle. + +Strong infantry forces were collected opposite the points of attack, +and enormous masses of artillery were placed in position with +abundance of ammunition in readiness. The preparations had been made +with all possible secrecy and even when the German batteries had begun +gradually to get their range by testing shots no serious assault seems +to have been expected by the Russians. On the morning of the attack +they were just to inaugurate service on a small passenger railway line +they had constructed behind their front. + +On the morning of July 13, 1915, soon after sunrise, a tremendous +cannonade was let loose from guns of all calibers. Although the +weather was rainy and not well fitted for observation the German guns +seem to have found their marks with great accuracy. When the German +infantry stormed the first line of works which had been shattered by +the artillery fire they met with comparatively little resistance and +their losses were small. The bombardment apparently had done its work +thoroughly. The German infantry rushes were started in successive +intervals of a quarter of an hour, line following line. Swarms of +unarmed Russians could be seen coming out of the trenches seeking to +save themselves from the terrible effect of the shell fire by +surrendering. During the course of the forenoon the sun came out and +illuminated a scene of terrific destruction. The Russian positions on +the heights northwest of Przasnysz had been completely leveled. In +their impetuous forward rush the German troops did not give the enemy +time to make a stand in his second line of trenches and overrunning +this, by night began to enter the third Russian defensive line. +Przasnysz was flanked in the course of twenty-four hours and could no +longer be held. A fine rain was falling as the German columns marched +through the deserted, smoke-blackened city, a melancholy setting for a +victory. + +On July 14, 1915, the German troops had broken through on both sides +of the city, met to the south of it and forming a mighty battering +ram, on the next day, forced the next Russian line, the last, to the +north of the Narew. This ran through Wysogrod-Ciechanow-Zielona to +Kranosiele. The Russians here made a desperate defense and the German +advance pushed forward but slowly. The effect of the German artillery +fire seems not to have been as striking as on the first day of battle. +The German report of the attack on this line points out that the +regiment of the Guard holding the right wing of a division which was +to attack the heights to the south and southeast of Zielona was +impatient to go forward, and was allowed to advance before the +reserves which were to be held in readiness to support the move had +come up. + +However, confident of the accuracy with which the "black brothers" +(shells from the big guns) struck the enemy's trenches, the riflemen +leapt forward through fields of grain as soon as they saw that a gust +of their shells had struck in front of them. By means of signs which +been agreed upon they then signaled their new positions and the guns +laid their fire another hundred meters farther forward. The +infantrymen then stormed ahead into the newly made shell craters. Thus +they went forward again and again. Neither Russian fire nor the double +barbed wire entanglements were able to check their assaults. + +As the German shouts rolled forth the Russians ran. A neighboring +division consisting of young men who had enlisted in the course of the +war, in a brilliant charge took a bastion at Klosnowo. The effect of +this first penetration of the Russian main position made itself felt +in the course of the afternoon and night along the whole front. +Further German forces were thrown into the breach and strove to widen +it. + +The Russians at many points resisted obstinately, but under the +pressure from the front and in the flank they were finally unable to +hold their ground. The German account speaks with admiration of the +ride to death of a Russian cavalry brigade which attacked the German +infantry southeast of Opinozura without achieving any results. +Cossacks and Hussars were mowed down in an instant. + +The German advance taking several intermediate places did not halt +until it stood before the fortification of the Narew line itself. As a +result of this stroke the German troops had advanced some forty to +fifty kilometers into hostile territory on a breadth of a hundred and +twenty kilometers and had captured some 10,000 prisoners and much war +material. By the 18th of July, 1915, German trains were running as far +as Ciechanow. + +Advances were likewise made by the Germans to the right of the attack +on the Przasnysz positions on both sides of the Mlawa-Ciechanow +Railway, rolling up the Russian positions as far as Plonsk. On the +left progress had also been made and heavy fighting done, but the +German great headquarters pointed out that in times to come history +will assign the important place to the central feature of this great +offensive by General von Gallwitz, that is the enveloping attack at +Przasnysz and the ramming thrust at Zielona. + +The report issued by the Russian General Staff on July 19, 1915, +admitted that to the west of Omulev their troops had withdrawn to the +Narew bridgeheads on the 17th. The points of some of the German +columns on this day, in fact, came within the range of the artillery +of the fortress of Novo-Georgievsk and the army of General von Scholtz +reached the line of the Bobr and the Narew between Osowice and +Ostrolenka. The action at Przasnysz had been decisive. It resulted +ultimately in the relinquishing by the Russians of the lines of the +Rawka and Bzura which had been so stubbornly held against the Germans +in the long defense of Warsaw. The troops directly charged here with +defending the capital fell back to the Blonie lines about fifteen +miles from the city. + + + + +CHAPTER LVIII + +GRAND OFFENSIVE ON THE WARSAW SALIENT + + +The great stroke at Przasnysz was the most dramatic feature of a grand +offensive all around the German lines that were endeavoring to close +in upon the Russian armies. On July 16, 1915, the Archduke Joseph +struck hard at the Russians on the Krasnik-Lublin road in an endeavor +to carry the fortified positions at Wilkolaz. His men, however, were +thrown back after ten furious assaults. Krasnostav, on the road to +Cholm, was attacked on the same day by the army of General von +Mackensen, and after a series of desperate rear-guard actions had been +fought by the Russians was swept over by the German Allies. By the +close of the day the Germans had taken twenty-eight officers, 6,380 +men, and nine machine guns. + +The Germans, prepared in the recent pause in the fighting, by the +bringing up of their artillery on the long lines of communication +which now stretched behind them, with troops reenforced by such fresh +forces as they could muster, were hurling themselves upon the Russian +defensive positions everywhere along the line. Thus, on the forenoon +of July 17, 1915, the army of General von Woyrsch, whose objective was +the mighty fortress Ivangorod, operating just to the west of the upper +Vistula, broke through the Russian wire entanglements and stormed the +enemy's trenches on a stretch of 2,000 meters. The breach was widened +in desperate hand-to-hand combat. The Teutons by evening inflicted a +heavy defeat on the Moscow Grenadier Corps at this point and the +Russians were forced to retreat behind the Ilzanka to the south of +Swolen. Some 2,000 men were taken prisoners by the Germans in this +battle and five machine guns were captured. + +Far in the northeast in Courland the army of General von Buelow, on +July 17, 1915, defeated Russian forces that had been rushed up at +Alt-Auz, taking 3,620 prisoners, six cannon and three machine guns, +and pursuing the Slavs in an easterly direction. Desperate fighting +was also taking place to the northeast of Kurschany. + +Notes of anxiety mixed with consoling speculations had begun to appear +in the press of the allied countries when the vast German offensive +had thus become plainly revealed and had demonstrated its driving +force. A Petrograd dispatch to the London "Morning Post" on the 15th +of July, 1915, said of the German plan that it was to catch the +Russian armies like a nut between nut crackers, that the two fronts +moving up from north and south were intended to meet on another and +grind everything between them to powder. The area between the +attacking forces was some eighty miles in extent, north to south, by +120 miles west to east. The writer offered the consolation that this +space was well fortified, the kernel of the nut "sound and healthy, +being formed of the Russian armies, inspired not merely with the +righteousness of their cause, but the fullest confidence in themselves +and absolute devotion to the proved genius of their commander in +chief." + +The dispatch pointed out that it was all sheer frontal fighting, that +the Germans had been twelve months trying frontal attacks against +Warsaw on a comparatively narrow front and in vain. What chance had +they, he added, "of success by dividing their forces against the +united strength of Russia." This sort of argument is typical of the +endeavor to sustain the hopes of Russia's friends during these days. +Doubts, however, began to creep in more strongly as to the possibility +of holding Warsaw. + +In Berlin the announcement of the Teutonic victories that began with +the successful assault at Przasnysz was received with general +rejoicing, and the appearance of flags all over the city. The Russian +retreat toward the Narew River in particular was regarded by the +military critics as threatening momentarily to crumble up the right +flank of the positions of the Russians before the capital of Poland. + +[Illustration: German Attempts to reach Warsaw in 1914.] + +Cholm and Lublin on the southern line of communication of the Russian +armies were now in imminent danger. On July 19, 1915, came the +announcement that the troops under Field Marshal von Mackensen, which +had pierced the Russian line in the region of Pilaskowice and +Krasnostav, had increased their successes, and that the Russians were +making the most desperate effort to prevent complete defeat. All day +the battle had swayed in a fierce struggle for mastery. The Russians +threw a fresh division of the Guards into the fight, but this too had +to yield to the overwhelming force of the Teuton onslaught. Farther to +the east as far as the neighborhood of Grabowiec, Austro-Hungarian and +German troops forced the crossing of the Wolica, and near Sokal in +Galicia Austro-Hungarian troops crossed the Bug. (See Austro-Russian +Campaign.) In consequence of these Teuton successes the Russians on +the night of the 18th to the 19th of July retreated along the whole +front between the Vistula and the Bug--practically the last line of +defense, for the Warsaw-Kiev railway had been broken down. The German +troops and the corps under the command of Field Marshal von Arz alone +from the 15th to the 18th of July, 1915, took 16,250 prisoners and 23 +machine guns. + +It was announced by the Germans that according to written orders +captured during this action the Russian leaders had resolved to hold +the positions here conquered by the Germans to the utmost, regardless +of losses. + +The same day that brought the report of this Russian retreat on the +south brought the news that in the adjoining sector to the west of the +Upper Vistula the army of General von Woyrsch had met resistance from +the Russians behind the Ilzanka after the Russian defeat on July 13, +1915, that, however, Silesian Landwehr on the 18th had captured the +Russian defenses at Ciepilovo by storm, and that the Russian line at +Kasonow and Barenow was beginning to yield. The army of General von +Gallwitz had now taken up positions along the whole Narew line from +southwest of Ostrolenka to Novo Georgievsk. The Russians, however, as +already indicated, were still holding fortified places and bridgeheads +on the right bank of the river. In this sector the number of prisoners +taken by the Germans had risen to 101 officers and 28,760 men. + +In the sector next adjoining, passing onward around the enveloping +lines, that lying between the Pissa and the Szkwa, the Russians +likewise had retreated until they stood directly on the Narew. Here +the Slavs had been favored by forests and swampy land which made +pursuit difficult. + +At the extreme left end of the German line a magnificent success had +been achieved in the occupation of Tukkum and Windau. This capture +brought the Germans to within fifty miles of Riga, seat of the +governor general of the Baltic provinces. They were, however, destined +not to make any substantial progress in the direction of that city for +many months to come. + +Blow fell upon blow. The question "Can Warsaw be held?" began to +receive doubtful answers in the allied capitals. The colossal +coordinate movement of the Teutonic forces in these July days had +received so little check from the Russian resistance that the British +press had begun to discount the fall of the Polish capital. Shortness +of ammunition and artillery was ascribed as the cause of Russia's +failure to make a successful stand against the onrushing Teutons. + +On July 20, 1915, Berlin announced the capture of those fortifications of +Ostrolenka lying on the northwest bank of the Narew River. This was one +of the strong places designed to protect the Warsaw-Grodno-Petrograd +railway. The threatened fall was highly significant. To the south of the +Vistula the Teuton troops had advanced to the Blonie-Grojec lines. Blonie +is some seventeen miles west of Warsaw and Grojec twenty-six miles south +of the city. + +Farther eastward and to the south troops of the army of General von +Woyrsch had completely turned the enemy out of the Ilzanka positions, +having repulsed the counterattacks of the Russian reserves which had +been quickly brought up, and captured more than 5,000 prisoners. Von +Woyrsch's cavalry had now reached the railway line from Radom to the +great fortress of Ivangorod, the objective point of this army, and +Radom itself had been seized. + + + + +CHAPTER LIX + +BEGINNING OF THE END + + +So uncertain had grown the positions of Lublin on the southern railway +line leading to Warsaw that the Russian commander in chief had issued +an order that in case of a retreat the male population of the town was +to attach itself to the retiring troops. + +On July 21, 1915, the Russians throughout the empire were reported to +be joining in prayer. "Yesterday evening," telegraphed the London +"Daily Mail's" Petrograd correspondent on the 21st, "the bells in all +the churches throughout Russia clanged a call to prayer for a +twenty-four hours' continual service of intercession for victory. + +"To-day, in spite of the heat, the churches were packed. Hour after +hour the people stand wedged together while the priests and choirs +chant interminable litanies. Outside the Kamian Cathedral here an +open-air Mass is being celebrated in the presence of an enormous +crowd." + +The chronicle of the closing days of July, 1915, is an unbroken +narrative of forward movements of German armies on all parts of the +great semicircle. The movement now, however, was slow. The Russians +were fighting desperately, and the Germans had to win their way inch +by inch. By the 21st the Russians were withdrawing in Courland to the +east of the line Popeljany-Kurtschany, and the last Russian trenches +westward of Shavly had been taken by assault. To the north of Novgorod +the capture of Russian positions had yielded 2,000 prisoners and two +machine guns to the Germans on the 20th. + +Farther south on the Narew a strong work of the fortress Rozan +defending an important crossing was stormed by the Germans, and +desperate fighting was going on at Pultusk and near Georgievsk. +Already the Russians were beginning to yield their positions to the +west of Grojec, which meant that the Teuton armies were about to push +into the opening between Warsaw and Ivangorod and divide the Russian +forces. The armies of Von Woyrsch on July 20, 1915, seized a +projecting bridgehead to the south of Ivangorod, and captured the +lines that had been held by the Russians near Wladislavow. + +In the positions defending the railway between Cholm and Lublin, +Russian resistance was once more marked, and was checking the progress +of the armies of Von Mackensen and Archduke Joseph Ferdinand. + +By noon of July 21, 1915, the Silesian troops of Von Woyrsch had +stormed the bridgehead on the Vistula between Lagow and Lugawa-Wola, +with the result that Ivangorod was now inclosed from the south, while +to northwest of the fortress Austro-Hungarian troops were fighting on +the west bank of the Vistula. Austro-Hungarian troops too were +battling their way close up to the fortress directly from the west. +Line after line was giving way before the Teutons. The Russian retreat +over the bridge at Novo Alexandria to the south of Ivangorod was +carried on under the fire of German artillery. Numerous villages set +afire by the Russians were now sending great clouds of smoke into the +sky over all this region. + +The troops of the Archduke Joseph Ferdinand, after a stubborn +resistance on the part of the Russians, seized enemy positions on July +21, 1915, near Chodel and Borzechow, advancing another step toward +Lublin. Eight thousand Russian prisoners, 15 machine guns, and 4 +ammunition wagons were taken. + +By the 23d of July, 1915, the Teutonic troops were close up to the +encircling forts of Ivangorod and stood on the Vistula all the way +between the fortress and the mouth of the Pilica. On the 24th the +Teutons announced a victory over the Fifth Russian Army by General von +Buelow at Shavli. The report read: "After ten days of continuous +fighting, marching, and pursuit, the German troops yesterday succeeded +in bringing the Russians to a stand in the regions of Rozalin and +Szadow and in defeating them and scattering their forces. The booty +since the beginning of this operation on the 14th of July consists of +27,000 prisoners, 25 cannon, 40 machine guns, more than 100 loaded +ammunition wagons with their draft animals, numerous baggage wagons +and other material." + +This day brought the announcement also of the capture of the +fortresses of Rozan and Pultusk on the Narew, after violent charges by +troops of General von Gallwitz. The crossing of the Narew between +these places was now in German hands, and strong forces were advancing +on the southern shore. The Russians had been resisting obstinately in +this quarter, and the Germans had made their way only by the most +heroic efforts. German headquarters announced at this time that in the +battles between the Niemen and the Vistula covering the ten days since +July 14, 1915, more than 41,000 prisoners, 14 cannon, and 19 machine +guns had been captured. The German troops now also attained the +Vistula to the north of the Pilica. In their summing up of results +since the 14th of July the Teutons recounted further on this day, the +24th, that some 50,000 prisoners had been taken by the armies of +General von Woyrsch and Field Marshal von Mackensen during the period. + +The army of Archduke Joseph Ferdinand had been making rapid progress. +On July 24, 1915, under the attacks of these troops the Russians +retreated on a front of forty kilometers, between the Vistula and the +Bistritza, from eight to ten kilometers northward to prepared lines, +their attempts to halt in intermediate positions being frustrated by +the onrush of the victorious Teutonic forces in pursuit. + +By July 25, 1915, the Narew had been crossed by the Germans along its +whole front, southward from Ostrolenka to Pultusk, and by the 26th they +had gained the farther side of the Narew above Ostrolenka likewise. The +troops moving southeast from Pultusk now approached the Bug, getting +toward the rear of Novo Georgievsk and Warsaw, and threatening to close +the Russians' line of escape, the Warsaw-Bielostok railway. + +On July 26, 1915, the Russians made a determined counteroffensive from +the line of Goworowo-Wyszkow-Serock in an effort to remove the threat +to the rear of Warsaw. This, however, had little success, the Russians +losing 3,319 men to the Germans in prisoners. + +To the south of Warsaw the Germans had seized the villages of Ustanov, +Lbiska, and Jazarzew, which brought them nearly to the Vistula, just +below the capital. + +The great attacks of the Germans on the troops defending Warsaw were +being hampered to some extent by the laying waste of the country by +the retiring Russians. Difficulty in moving heavy artillery on roads +had also interfered with their progress, but on the morning of July +28, 1915, Von Woyrsch crossed to the eastern shore of the Vistula +between the mouth of the Pilica and Kozienice at several places, and +was threatening the Warsaw-Ivangorod railway. + +Novo Georgievsk was steadily being inclosed. The Russian +counterthrusts in the neighborhood of Warsaw both on the north and the +south of the city were repelled by night and day. To the south near +Gora-Kalvaria a desperate attempt of the Russians to push forward +toward the west on the night from July 27th to the 28th, 1915, was +shattered. + +The armies of Field Marshal von Mackensen, breaking through Russian +positions to the west of the Wieprz, captured thousands of prisoners +and many guns, and once more thrust back the Russian front between the +Vistula and the Bug. On the evening of the 29th they attained the +Warsaw-Kiev railway at Biskupice, about halfway between Lublin and +Cholm, thus crowning their efforts to get astride their important line +of communications. The Russians were destroying everything of value in +the country as they retired, even burning grain in the fields. + +On the afternoon of July 30, 1915, Lublin at last was occupied by the +army of the Archduke Joseph Ferdinand, and on the 31st the Germans of +Von Mackensen passed through Cholm. Thus the Teutonic armies were now +across the important railway from Warsaw and Ivangorod to Kiev, on a +broad front, running all the way down to the Vistula at Novo +Alexandria. In Courland the Germans continued to push forward, so that +on the 12th of August they were enabled to seize the important railway +center Mistan. + +Hope in Russia died hard. Press correspondents up to July 29, 1915, +still spoke of the possibility of the Russians standing a siege in +their principal fortress on the Warsaw salient. On the 29th, however, +reports came from Petrograd that the fortresses of the Warsaw defense +were to be abandoned and the capital of Poland given up to the army. + +The correspondent of the New York "Times" on July 29, 1915, in a +special cable summed up the situation in an announcement that the fate +of Europe hung on the decision that Russia might make on the question: +"Shall Russia settle down to a war of position in her vast +fortifications around Warsaw, or shall she continue to barter space +against time, withdrawing from the line of the Vistula and points on +it of both strategic and political importance, in order to gain the +time which Germany has already stored in the form of inexhaustible gun +munitions?" The reply was the evacuation of Warsaw. + +The decisive blow to Russia's hopes came with the crossing of the +Vistula about twenty miles north of Ivangorod on July 28, 1915, +already noted. It showed that Warsaw was being rapidly surrounded. The +Russian communique of the 30th of July told of the crossing over of +the Teutons on both sides of the Radomka, a tributary of the Vistula, +to the right bank of the Vistula on pontoons, and of attempts to throw +bridges across the great rivers. Von Woyrsch's troops that had crossed +over were irresistibly pursuing still farther east on the 30th, +defeating troops hastily brought up to stop their advance. By August 1 +two entire German army corps reached the right bank of the Vistula. +Ivangorod, now threatened from all directions, could evidently not be +held much longer. + +The fortress surrendered on August 4, 1915, after a violent +bombardment of the outer forts had taken place, beginning on the first +of the month. Austro-Hungarian troops under General von Koevess +especially distinguished themselves in the attack on the west front. + + + + +CHAPTER LX + +WARSAW FALLS + + +The retreat from Warsaw began during the night of August 3 and 4, +1915. Already the city had been stripped as far as possible, to judge +by reports from Petrograd, of metals, such as church bells and +machinery that might possibly be of use to the Germans. A portion of +the civilian population left the city. The Blonie line just to the +west of the capital was given up under pressure from the Teutons on +the 3d. While the retreat was taking place the Russians gave all +possible support to their forces defending the Narew lines, so far as +they still were maintained. + +Desperate charges were hurled by the Russians against the Germans +moving forward all along the front Lowza-Ostrow-Wyszkow. The bravery +of the Russians, especially in their counterattacks on both sides of +the road from Rozan to Ostrow on the 4th of August, won the admiration +of the Germans. + +The correspondent of the London "Times" reports that on August 4, +1915, there was probably not over one Russian corps on the west side +of the Vistula. "Half of that crossed south of Warsaw before 6 p. m.," +he writes, "and probably the last division left about midnight, and at +3 a. m. on August 5 the bridges were blown up. The Germans arrived at +6 a. m." The formal entry of the Polish capital was made by Prince +Leopold of Bavaria as Commander in Chief of the army which took the +city. + +[Illustration: The central figure is Prince Leopold of Bavaria, who +led the victorious Teutons into Warsaw, August 6, 1915. The Prince +with his staff are posed before Warsaw's magnificent cathedral.] + +The formal announcement issued by the German Great Headquarters on the +5th of August read: "The army of Prince Leopold of Bavaria pierced and +took yesterday and last night the outer and inner lines of forts of +Warsaw in which Russian rear guards still offered stubborn resistance. +The city was occupied to-day by our troops." + +[Illustration: Advance and Capture of Warsaw.] + +In the capture of Warsaw seven huge armies had been employed. The +German northern army, operating against the double-track line which +runs from Warsaw to Petrograd, 1,000 miles in the northeast, via +Bielostok and Grodno; the army operating in the Suwalki district, +threatening the same line farther west; the army aimed at the Narew +based on Mearva; the army directly aimed at Warsaw, north of the +Vistula; the (Ninth) army directly aimed at Warsaw, south of the +Vistula; ten or twelve Austrian army corps attempting to reach the +single-and double-track railway from Ivangorod to Brest-Litovsk and +Moscow, and the line from Warsaw to Kiev via Lublin and Cholm, which +is for the most part a single track, and, finally, the army of Von +Linsingen, operating on the Lipa east of Lemberg. + +The campaign for Warsaw had been fought along a front of 1,000 miles, +extending from the Baltic to the frontier of Rumania. An estimate +which lays claim to being based upon authoritative figures placed the +number of men engaged in almost daily conflict on this long line at +between 6,000,000 and 7,000,000. The attacks upon the sides of the +lines on which the defense of Warsaw depended had been the most +furious in the course of the war on the eastern front. The losses on +both sides undoubtedly were enormous, though they can be ascertained +only with difficulty, if at all. + +The following summary of captures was issued by the German Great +Headquarters on August 1, 1915: "Captured in July between the Baltic +and the Pilica, 95,023 Russians; 41 guns, including two heavy ones; 4 +mine throwers; 230 machine guns. Taken in July in the southeastern +theatre of war (apparently between Pilica and the Rumanian frontier): +323 officers; 75,719 men; 10 guns; 126 machine guns." + + + + +PART VIII--THE BALKANS + + + + +CHAPTER LXI + +DIPLOMACY IN THE BALKANS + + +In discussing the causes of the Great War in Vol. I we have already +shown how important a part the little Balkan States played in the long +chain of events leading up to the final catastrophe. When two mighty +lords come to blows over the right of way through the fields of their +peasant neighbors, it is only natural that the peasants themselves +should be deeply concerned. While it is not likely that any of them +would feel especially friendly toward either of the belligerents, it +might, however, be to their advantage to take a hand in the struggle +on the side of the victor. But until each thought he had picked the +winner he would hold aloof. + +This was, in fact, the situation of all the Balkan States when the +Great War began, with the exception, of course, of Serbia, which had +been directly attacked. Rumania, Bulgaria, and Greece very hastily +announced their complete neutrality to each other as well as to the +world at large, though Greece was in the very awkward position of +having signed a defensive treaty with Serbia. + +Though the Balkan situation has always been considered very +complicated, certain broad facts may be laid down which will serve as +a key to a fair understanding of the motives behind each of the +various moves being made on the Balkan chess board. + +First of all, it must be realized that popular sentiment plays a much +smaller part in Balkan politics than it does in such countries as +England, France and our own country. Though each is more or less +democratic in form, none of these governments is really controlled by +its people in matters requiring such quick decisions as war. At the +head of each of the Balkan States is a monarch surrounded by a +governing clique who have full authority in military matters. Each of +these cliques has only one aim in mind: How shall it increase the area +of its territory, or at least save itself from losing any of what it +already controls? + +Rumania, being of Latin blood, has no natural affinity with either of +the big fighting powers that concern her: Austria or Russia. In her +case, therefore, sympathy may be entirely eliminated. She does, +however, covet a piece of Austrian territory, Transylvania, in which +there is a substantial Rumanian population which has always been +rather badly treated by Austria. + +Bulgaria, like Russia, is Slavic. Added to that, Bulgaria owes her +freedom to Russian arms. Because of these two reasons there is a very +strong sentiment among the people in favor of Russia. Russian +political intrigues during the past thirty years have done a great +deal, however, in undermining this kindly feeling among the more +intelligent Bulgarians. And then Russia's ambition to possess herself +of the Bosphorus as an outlet into the Mediterranean is directly +contrary to the ambitions of the governing clique of Bulgaria, which +also has its eyes on Constantinople. + +Toward the Austrians the Bulgarians feel nothing but dislike: +"Schwabs," they call them contemptuously. Moreover, Austria's +contemplated pathway to Saloniki would cut down through Macedonia, +another territory coveted by Bulgaria. Ferdinand, King of Bulgaria, +however, is a German by birth and training. + +Greece, like Rumania, is also racially isolated. She fears Russia for +the same reason that Bulgaria does; Greece is determined that +Constantinople shall one day be hers. And she fears Austria because +Austria's pathway would even take Saloniki from her. And finally she +fears Italy because Italy has ambitions in Asia Minor and Albania. All +the belligerents seem to be treading on the toes of Greece. + +It will be seen, therefore, that the diplomatic game was an especially +delicate one in the Balkans. Being comparatively weak, these small +states cannot fight alone for themselves. Their selfish ambitions, or +of their governing cliques rather, make a combination impossible. +Their only chance is to bargain with the winner at the right moment. + +During the first half year of the war there was very little for the +Balkan diplomats to do but lie low and watch; watch for the first +signs of weakening of either the Allies or the Teutons. To be sure, +Turkey threw in her lot with the Teutons during this period, but +German control of the Turkish machinery of government and the army +appears to have been so strong that it seems doubtful whether Turkish +initiative was much of a factor in the move. + +One of the first moves by the Teutonic Powers through Austria-Hungary +was the attempted invasion of Serbia, by which they hoped to eliminate +her from the field and also to swing the other Balkan States, +especially Bulgaria, over to their side. And had Austria succeeded in +penetrating the peninsula through Serbia, there can hardly be any +doubt that the effect would have been immediate. + +But the invasion by Austria, attempted three times, was an abject +failure. At the end of five months a whole Austrian army corps had +been annihilated by the Serbians and the rest of the huge invading +armies had been driven back across the Danube and Save. Following +close upon this came the extraordinary success of the Russians in +Bukowina and in the Carpathians, which placed Hungary in immediate +danger of being invaded. The cause of the Allies began to look +promising and the machinery of Balkan diplomacy began slowly to +revolve. + +Meanwhile the principal efforts of the Entente statesmen had been +directed toward effecting a reconciliation between Bulgaria and the +other Balkan States which, she maintained, had robbed her of +Macedonia. Indeed, it may well be said that the Treaty of Bucharest, +whereby the Macedonian Bulgars were largely handed over to Serbia, and +Greece was, and continued to be, the main stumblingblock in the path +of the Allies to bring Bulgaria around to a union with Serbia and +Greece and Rumania, for Rumania had also picked Bulgaria's pockets +while she was down, by taking a strip of territory at the mouth of +the Danube. In this she had not even had the excuse of reclaiming her +own people, for here were none but pure Bulgarians. + +In January, 1915, Rumania began to show signs of shaping a definite +policy that might later lead her to taking sides. Her King, Carol, a +Hohenzollern by blood, had died shortly after the war and his nephew, +Ferdinand, ascended the throne on October 11, 1914. Possibly he may +have had something to do with the change. At any rate, though Rumania +had previously accepted financial assistance from Austria, in January +she received a loan of several millions from Great Britain, most of +which was spent on the army, then partly mobilized. + +At the same time negotiations of a tentative nature were opened by the +Foreign Office with Russia offering to throw the Rumanian troops into +the conflict on the side of the Allies for a certain consideration. +This consideration was that she receive Bukowina, part of the province +of Banat, and certain sections of Bessarabia populated by Rumanians. +The Allies considered these demands extortionate, and the negotiations +were protracted. When the Austrians and Germans, later in the spring, +succeeded in driving the Russians out of the Carpathians, Rumania +hastily dropped these negotiations and seated herself more firmly on +top of the fence. And so, under the guidance of Bratiano, her prime +minister, she has continued throughout the whole year, listening to +proposals, first from one side, then from the other, but always +carefully maintaining her neutral position. + +Bulgaria had, at about the same time, accepted a loan from Germany. +Attempts were made at the time to explain away the political +significance of the transaction by representing the advance as an +installment of a loan the terms of which had been arranged before the +beginning of the war, but the essential fact was that the cash came +from Germany at a time when she was herself calling in all the gold of +her people into the Imperial treasury. + +Bulgaria now plainly let it be understood under what conditions she +would join a union of the Balkan neutrals against the Teutonic Powers. +Her premier, Radoslavov, head of the Bulgarian Liberal Party, whose +policy has always been anti-Russian, is one of the most astute +politicians in the Balkans, and this description is equally true of +King Ferdinand as a monarch. These two stated definitely Bulgaria's +price; that part of Macedonia which was to have been allowed to her by +the agreement which bound her to Serbia and Greece during the first +Balkan War; the Valley of the Struma, including the port of Kavalla, +that part of Thrace which she herself had taken from Turkey, and the +southern Dobruja, the whole of the territory Rumania had filched from +her while her back was turned during the two Balkan wars. + +The Entente Powers held council with the other Balkan States, each of +which had taken its share of booty from Bulgaria. In order to persuade +them to consent to Bulgaria's terms, they suggested certain +compensations for the concessions they were asked to make. To Serbia, +which, in spite of her very precarious situation at the time, was very +averse to returning any part of her Macedonian territory, they pointed +out that she could find compensation in adding to her territory +Bosnia, Herzegovina and the other Slav provinces of Austria, where the +population was truly Serb. To Rumania, which was already willing to +meet Bulgaria half way, they promised Transylvania and Bukowina. To +Greece, which had done less and gained more than any of the other +states during the two Balkan Wars and so could afford to be generous, +they held out the prospect of gaining a considerable area in Asia +Minor, thickly populated by Greeks. + +These changes naturally all depended on the complete defeat of the +Teutonic Powers, but Bulgaria demanded that at least some, and +especially Serbian Macedonia, should be handed over to her at once. + +This latter demand brought about strong opposition. The other Balkan +States considered that, granting even that all these concessions were +to be promised to Bulgaria, she should not expect their fulfillment +until she had earned them by helping to defeat the Teutonic Powers. + +Venizelos, the premier of Greece, and probably the most broad-minded +statesman in the Balkans, stated that, on the part of Greece, +concessions to Bulgaria were possible, though, as developed later, in +this he did not have the backing of the King and the rest of the +governing clique. In February no progress in the negotiations had been +made, though a special French Commission, headed by General Pau, +visited all the Balkan capitals and tried to bring about a mutual +agreement. + +At about that time another important military event occurred, +especially affecting the Balkans; the warships of the Entente began +bombarding the forts in the Dardanelles and it seemed that +Constantinople was presently to fall into their hands. Not long after +Venizelos stated, in an interview, that he was privy to this action +and proposed to send 50,000 Greek soldiers to assist the Allies by a +land attack on the Turks. + +The Greek General Staff, however, immediately declined to support +Venizelos. Such a campaign, it declared, was impossible unless Greece +first had strong guarantees that Bulgaria would not take the +opportunity to invade Greek Macedonia and fall on the flank of the +Greek army operating against the Turks. Venizelos thereupon approached +Bulgaria and was told that Bulgaria would remain neutral if Greece +would cede most of her Macedonian conquests, which would include +Kavalla, Drama, and Serres, which stretch so provokingly eastward +along the coast and hold Bulgaria back from the sea. + +Venizelos attempted to compromise, and here he was caught between two +obstacles. Bulgaria absolutely refused to recede one inch from her +demand; and, on the other hand, the Greek governing clique suddenly +refused to consider any proposal that would mean the cession of any +territory at all to the hated Bulgars. What probably stiffened the +opposition of the other members of the Greek Government to the Turkish +campaign was the growing suspicion on their part that the Allies were +also negotiating with Italy for her support. Now it was obvious that +if Italy was to fight in the Near East, she meant to demand a good +price. And this looked bad for Greece. Greece and Italy had already +nearly come to blows over their clashing interests in southern +Albania, yet even this was a small matter compared to rivalry in the +AEgean and Asia Minor. What deepened these suspicions was the fact +that the Allies refused to indicate definitely just what territory +Greece was to have in return for her support against the Turks. Their +promise of "liberal compensation" was not at all definite enough. Only +Venizelos was satisfied with this promise; he was in favor of trusting +implicitly to Anglo-French gratitude. + +To bring this deadlock to a conclusion King Constantine called a Royal +Council, and by this body the matter was thoroughly discussed during +the first few days of March. The Council, together with the king, +decided against supporting the Allies actively on such terms. On the +morning of March 6 Venizelos called at the British legation in Athens +to say that the opposition of the king made it impossible to fulfill +his promise. That night he resigned. + +The fall of Venizelos was, naturally, a heavy blow to the Allies. He +was succeeded by Gounaris, an ex-Minister of Finance, who announced +his policy as one of strict neutrality. Venizelos was so deeply +mortified that he declared that he would withdraw permanently from +public life, and then left Greece. + +April, 1915, opened with an occurrence that seemed to throw a strong +light on the attitude of Bulgaria. On the night of the second day of +the month a large force of Bulgar Comitajis made a raid over the +southeastern frontier of Serbia, and, after attacking successfully the +Serbian outposts and blockhouses, in an attempt to cut the railroad, +by which Serbia was getting war supplies from the Allies, they were +repelled by the Serbians, though only after severe fighting. + +Serbia and Greece both protested loudly, but Bulgaria affirmed that +she had had nothing to do with the matter. + +As has developed since, Bulgaria had by this time definitely decided +to strike for the Teutonic allies when the right moment should come. +Already back in January, 1912, a secret treaty had been negotiated +between Bulgaria and Germany. This was signed a little later by Prince +Buelow and M. Rizoff at Rome. There were more reasons than one for +keeping this secret. For within the Bulgarian Parliament there was a +strong opposition to the German policy of Ferdinand and Radoslavov, +led by Malinoff, chief of the Democratic party, and Stambulovski, +chief of the Agrarian party, an opposition so bitter and determined +that the king had good reason to fear an open revolution should he +openly declare himself for the Germans. + +On May 29, 1915, the Allies again sent a note to Bulgaria, making +proposals which comprised the results of their efforts to obtain +concessions from the other Balkan States. On June 15 Radoslavov sent a +reply, asking for further information, obviously drawn up in order to +gain time. + +Meanwhile, on June 11, Venizelos had again appeared in Athens, where +he received a warm welcome from the populace, with whom he was the +prime favorite. Within a few days he resumed the leadership of the +Greek Liberal party and, at a general election, which was held shortly +after, he showed a popular majority support of 120 seats in the +Popular Assembly, notwithstanding a determined opposition made by his +opponents. Before the Balkan wars the Greek Parliament had consisted +of 180 members, but by according representation to the districts in +Macedonia annexed after the wars the number was brought up to 316. +Venizelos and his policy in favor of the Allies were emphatically +indorsed by the Greek suffrage. Naturally this expression of the +people's voice was a smart blow at the king and his councillors. On +the other hand, they were encouraged by an unfavorable turn that was +now taking place in the military operations of the Allies. + +The attack on the Dardanelles by the warships had been a decided +failure. Nor were the operations of the British troops on the +peninsula of Gallipoli meeting with any real success. The Austrians +and the Germans had driven the Russians back from the Carpathians and +had retaken Przemysl and Lemberg. In fact, the situation of the +Austro-German armies had now become so favorable that it was possible +for the Teutonic allies to make proposals to the Balkan States with a +fair chance of being listened to. + +During July, 1915, Serbia was approached by Germany with an offer of a +separate peace, but Serbia would not even consider the terms. + +On July 8 Austria delivered a note to Rumania, through the Austrian +Minister in Bucharest, Count Czernin, which contained two sets of +proposals. One was contingent upon the continued but "friendly" +neutrality of Rumania, the other on her active participation in the +war on the side of Austria-Hungary. + +In the first proposal Rumania was promised all of Bukowina south of +the Seret River, better treatment of the Rumanian population of +Austrian territory, the establishment of a Rumanian university in +Brasso, large admissions of Rumanians into the public service of +Hungary, and greater liberty of administration to the Rumanian +churches in Austria. + +The second proposal specified that Rumania should put five army corps +and two cavalry divisions at the disposal of the Austro-Hungarian +General Staff to operate against the Russians. In return Rumania +should receive all of Bukowina up to the Pruth River, territory along +the north bank of the Danube up to the Iron Gate, complete autonomy +for the Rumanians in Transylvania and all of Bessarabia that the +Rumanian troops should assist in conquering from the Russians. + +Just a week after this note was received in the Rumanian capital, +Prince Hohenlohe-Langenburg, whose wife was a sister of the Queen of +Rumania, arrived in Bucharest and tried to induce King Ferdinand to +come to terms with Austria, or at least to allow the transportation of +war munitions through the country to the Turks, who were then running +short of ammunition. The king refused this concession. How important +it would have been, had it been granted, may be judged from the many +efforts the Germans had made to smuggle material down to Turkey. In +one case the baggage of a German courier traveling to Constantinople +had been X-rayed and rifle ammunition had been found. Again, cases of +beer had been opened and found to contain artillery shells. + +Rumania, however, could not yet make up her mind which was going to be +the winner. She accepted neither of the Austrian proposals, and +protracted making any definite answer as long as possible. + +There was another reason why Rumania wished to continue her neutrality +until the following winter, at least. The harvesting of her great +wheat crops would begin soon, and this wheat could, as had been done +the previous year, be sold to the Germans and Austrians at big prices, +the blockade of the British fleet having already produced a pressing +shortage in foodstuffs. And then, her conscience being uneasy +regarding her robbery of territory from Bulgaria, she must also be +quite certain how Bulgaria was going to turn. + +Having failed at Bucharest, the German agent, Prince +Hohenlohe-Langenburg, moved on to Sofia. At that moment King Ferdinand +of Bulgaria was endeavoring to get Turkey to sign a treaty, for which +negotiations had been going on secretly for some months, by which +Bulgaria was to obtain all the Turkish land on the west side of the +Maritza River, and so free the Bulgarian railroad to Dedeagatch from +Turkish interference. On July 23 this treaty was finally signed, and +Bulgaria acquired a full right of way along the line. + +Bulgaria was now frankly asking bids for her support from both sides. +In an interview which the Premier, Radoslavov, granted to the +correspondent of a Budapest newspaper on August 3, 1915, and who +remarked to the premier that it was at least strange for a nation to +carry on such negotiations simultaneously with two groups of powers, +he replied: + +"It is these negotiations which give us the chance to make a decision. +Our country seeks only her own advantages and wishes to realize her +rights. We have decided to gain these in any case. The only question +is: How can we achieve this with the least sacrifices? As regards the +internal situation of Bulgaria, I may proudly say that our conditions +have improved, and that everybody in the country looks forward to the +great national undertaking we are about to embark on with immense joy +and enthusiasm." + + + + +PART IX--ITALY ENTERS THE WAR + + + + +CHAPTER LXII + +SPIRIT OF THE ITALIAN PEOPLE--CRISIS OF THE GOVERNMENT + + +The crystallization of popular opinion in favor of intervention kept +pace with the trend of diplomatic negotiations. Italy, especially the +northern provinces, was a great beehive, humming with patriotic +fervor. Evenings in almost any northern town might be seen companies +of young men in civilian dress marching in companies and maneuvering +with military precision. At first the organizers of these "training +walks," as they were called, maintained reticence regarding their +purpose. The youths, they said, were merely undergoing voluntary +training to be ready "in case they should be needed." But the purpose +of these volunteer drills was unmistakable. At times, when the drill +grounds were rather isolated, the marchers would burst into patriotic +songs--the hymn of the Garibaldians, or, perhaps "Trieste of My +Heart." Soon the neutralists began to organize counterpreparations. +Encounters between bands of the rival factions became increasingly +frequent, in fact daily occurrences. From jeers they passed to +scuffles, in which missiles and clubs were the weapons. As a rule +these encounters took place far enough from the city limits to avoid +interference by the police, and only vague reports of them reached the +main body of home-loving citizens. + +Milan was the center of these demonstrations. During April, 1915, the +Socialists proclaimed a "general strike," which left a large part of +the working population idle to attend gatherings addressed by the +neutralist orator. These meetings generally wound up with a parade, +and perhaps a hostile demonstration in front of the office of some +interventionist newspaper, or cheers outside the German Consulate. The +next day the Piazza would be thronged with a gathering of +interventionists wearing the national colors entwined with the flag of +Trieste, and, perhaps, with the "honorable red shirt" of the +Garibaldians. During the period just before the entrance of Italy into +the war these rival processions were held on different days by order +of the police, who ruthlessly broke up any attempt to interfere with +assemblies entitled to the right of way. As the war party began to +gain, their opponents adopted the custom of attacking the demonstrants +after they had disbanded. + +As it was, a mob attacked the Milan branch of the Siemens-Schuckert +works, the great Berlin electrical machinery factory, battered in the +main entrance, and exchanged shots with some young German employees +left in charge. The timely arrival of the armed police stopped this +riot, and removed the Germans to safe quarters. + +At this juncture, or before, the influence of the "Garibaldi" movement +became widely apparent. Early in the war the Garibaldians had launched +a movement to recognize the aid received from France by Italy during +her War of Independence. A special corps of Garibaldi volunteers was +enrolled in France, and its valiant service in the Alsace campaign, +where one of the members of the Garibaldi family fell, had a telling +effect in Italy. Volunteers for this corps at once sprang up from all +parts of the country. + +On May 10, 1915, Germans and Austrians throughout Italy were advised +by their consulates to leave the country. The exodus proceeded +rapidly, and during the next ten days nearly all the citizens of the +two Central Powers who were able to leave had taken refuge in +Switzerland. Italy seemed ripe for war; but still the Government +delayed. There was now no doubt of the popular mind; but events +outside the country were not encouraging. Perhaps the weightiest of +these deterring factors was news of the Russian retirement in the +north and information reaching the Italian Minister of War that the +Entente Allies were short of ammunition. + +Then came the crisis in the Government. Baron Sonnino's denunciation of +the Alliance caused a change in the attitude of the Austro-Hungarian +Foreign Office. Prince von Buelow and the Austrian Ambassador, Baron von +Macchio, were authorized to conclude a new agreement on the basis of +further Austrian concessions. Sonnino refused to accept the new terms and +the German and Austrian representatives played their last trump. Baron +von Macchio telegraphed to Vienna accusing the Italian Foreign Minister +of concealing information of the Austrian concessions both from the king +and the majority of the cabinet. The concessions were printed and +circulated widely among the people. Signor Giolitti, Salandra's +predecessor, and at one time all but dictator of Italy, hurried to Rome +and rallied his followers. The neutralists hailed him as the man to save +Italy from a ruinous war. + +Parliament was to meet on May 20, 1915. It was clear that the +supporters of Giolitti, in majority both in the Senate and the Chamber +of Deputies, could, if they chose, overthrow the Government. Popular +anxiety was intense. + +On the evening of May 13, 1915, came the announcement that the +Salandra ministry had resigned. If there had been any doubt of the +state of things throughout Italy up to that point, this news cleared +the situation. The whole country burst into a flame of indignation. +The next day Italy learned for the first time that the Triple Alliance +had been denounced early in the month. + +It became clear that whatever the fate of Salandra and his cabinet, +his foreign policy was bound to be continued. + +On May 15, 1915, announcement that the king had declined to accept +Salandra's resignation caused a great popular outburst of joy. In Rome +an immense gathering called to protest against the Giolittians and +German influence was transformed into a demonstration of triumph; more +than 150,000 persons took part in a procession a mile long that moved +from the Piazza del Popolo to the Quirinal. + +The next morning, May 16, 1915, there was nobody in Rome who doubted +what Italy would do. That day Giolitti left Rome, and his departure +marked the end of his active influence during the opening months of +the war. His party crumpled. + +When Parliament met on May 20, 1915, Salandra received an overwhelming +vote of confidence in the passage of a bill conferring extraordinary +powers upon the Government in the event of war. Miles north of Rome, +word came to the Austrian commanders, working feverishly to strengthen +their forts in the fastnesses of the Alps, to brace themselves for the +assault. + + + + +CHAPTER LXIII + +THE DECISION MADE--ITALIAN STRATEGIC PLAN + + +On the night of May 24, 1915, little groups of the Alpini, Italy's +famous mountain troops, moved silently. They passed from San Giorgio, +Cividale and Palmanova on the eastern frontier, from Paluzza and San +Stefano and Pieve on the north, from Agordo, Feltre and Asiago, from +Brentino and Malcesine toward Lake Garda, from Garganano the western +shore of the lake and from other positions all along the mountain +frontier up to the Stelvio Pass. + +Marching silently and in single file, by three o'clock in the morning +of May 25, 1915, one detachment reached a deep trench. "Our +frontiers," said their officers. "We advance to make new ones." Then +began a long, steep climb up narrow mountain paths, through snow lying +in patches knee-deep, and through a storm of sleet and rain that broke +along the Trentino boundary before dawn. As dawn broke they hurled +themselves upon an Austrian shelter trench excavated the autumn before +on the plateau. It was empty. The enemy had retired only a few hours +before. The camp-fire ashes were still warm. As the sun began to throw +the long shadows of the Alpine peaks to the west Austrian guns +crashed out their first salute from the rocky fortresses beyond. Italy +and Austria-Hungary were at war. + +To comprehend the task before the Italian army it is necessary to +examine the Italian-Austrian frontier. Austria's problem was one only +of defense. Her warning had been ample and when war was declared she +was prepared to the last detail. Being the challenged party hers was +the choice of weapons, and she had equipped herself with an almost +impregnable line of fortifications. The grievance was Italy's, and +hers the duty of assault. Every advantage of position lay with +Austria. + +The strategic plan of the Italian generals was determined by hard +geographical facts. The Italo-Austrian frontier is about 480 miles +long, divided naturally into three sections. On the west the Austrian +province of Trentino indents Italian territory like a wedge; next +comes the great wall of the Dolomites and the Carnic and Julian Alps; +then, on the east, a boundary line running north and south between the +main Alpine chain and the Adriatic Sea. Steep mountain heights +dominated by Austrian troops guarded the first two parts of this +frontier. Only on the eastern border, from Pontebba to the Adriatic +was Italian offensive on a large scale at all feasible; but before +offensive operations could be started here it was necessary for the +Italians to close the open gates to the north. + +Here in the north lay Italy's problem at the opening of the war; and +here her armies confronted an almost impossible task. In a word, they +had to fight uphill. A salient, such as that formed by the Trentino, +may offer dangers for the side that holds it--an example of which is +the Russian position in Poland at the opening of the war; but the +Trentino situation was quite unlike that in Poland. The sides of the +Trentino were buttressed with mountains. The most tempting avenue of +invasion was the valley of the Adige River. An enemy advancing by this +route would find himself confronted with the strongly fortified town +of Trent, which long resisted attacks from Venice in the Middle Ages. +Having forced his way past Trent the enemy would be in a wilderness of +lateral valleys with the main ridge of the Alpine chain, at the +Brenner, still before him. + +On the western side of the Trentino is the lofty Stelvio Pass, leading +from the Upper Adige to the valley of Adda. This pass is 9,000 feet +high and its narrow defiles were easily defended. To the south lies +the pass of Tonale over which runs the road from Noce to the Oglio, +but this offers similar difficulties. The road pass of Cornelle, close +to Lake Garda, is too narrow for any considerable force. On the +eastern side of the salient conditions for invasion are still worse. +The railway from Venice to Innsbruck crosses the Valsugana at Tezze, +but the Brenta valley through which it runs is a difficult road to +Trent. Summed up, the salient of the Trentino was an ideal position +for those who held it, both offensive and defensive. The few breaches +by which invasion could come were a source of strength rather than +weakness, because they compelled attack from the Italian plain to be +made on divergent lines from different bases. + +The second part of the frontier is the ramparts of the Dolomite and +Carnic ranges through which an important offensive was possible for +neither belligerent. The main pass, at Ampezzo, 5,000 feet high, makes +a sharp detour toward the west to circumvent the mass of Cristallo, +and here the road is a narrow defile commanded by a hundred points of +danger. The adjacent passes of Misurina and the Monte Croce are no +better, and the defiles to the east contain little more than bridle +paths. The lowest pass, which leads from the valley of the Fella by +Pontebba to the upper streams of the Drave and carries the railway +from Venice to Vienna is only 2,615 feet high at its greatest +elevation. Although this is the easiest of the great routes through +the mountain barrier, it is still narrow and difficult. A modern army +given the advantages of time and preparation should be able to close +and hold it with ease. + +Although the maps show few natural difficulties on the third section +of the frontier to compare with those farther west, it is not the +obvious avenue of attack a hasty survey would seem to suggest. It is +only twenty miles wide and behind it is the line of the River Isonzo +with hills along its eastern bank. The upper part of this stream, +above Salcana, is a ravine; then comes six miles of comparatively +level ground in front of Gorizia; then the hills begin again and +sweep round to the seacoast by Monfalcone. What this front lacks in +natural defenses had been amply supplied before the war opened by +Austria with artillery and men. Toward this narrow twenty-mile +stretch, and especially toward the plain before Gorizia, tended, in a +sense, however, all the operations of the Italian strategists. The +engagements fought during the first of the Italo-Austrian struggle all +had their bearing upon the great offensive launched later against +Gorizia. + +But the natural lay of the land was by no means the only consideration +with which the rival generals had to deal. In respect to lateral +communications Italy had the advantage. Behind her invading armies +stretched an elaborate system of railways through her northern +provinces. Austria had a railway running through the whole curve of +the frontier, but owing to the difficulty of breaking through from the +hill valleys this system had few feeders. This lack of branch lines +meant that Austria had to concentrate any offensive at certain +definite places--Trent, Tarvis, and Gorizia. Italy aimed at these +points and one more, Franzensfeste, the junction of the Pusterthal +line with the railway from Innsbruck to Trent. If she could take this +point she could cut Austria's communications in the whole Trentino +salient. But Franzensfeste was the most difficult of any of these +local points for Italy to reach, for south and east of it lay the +bristling system of the Dolomites. + +The successive revelations of Italian strategy during the first months +of the war brought few surprises. Austria had her hands full in the +Carpathians just then and was unable to take advantage of the +opportunities for swift offensive which her frontier positions +offered. It was a foregone conclusion that the first advance would +come from the Italian side and the direction of that movement was not +long in doubt. Its objective was Trieste, the Austrian peninsula, and +the hills of Styria which sweep to Vienna. There lay the country where +modern armies could maneuver. At the same time the whole northern +boundary must be watched to prevent Austrian forces from the Trentino +cutting the communications of the invader and attacking him in the +rear. Therefore General Cadorna, the Italian commander in chief, +resolved to attack at all the salient points. Such a plan led to a +series of movements--toward Trent, across the Dolomite passes against +the Pusterthal railway, at the Pontebba Pass, and across the Julian +Alps to threaten the line between Tarvis and Gorizia. Meanwhile the +main Italian army was to strike at the Isonzo and the road to Trieste. + +The same conditions which made the Austrian frontier lines easy to +defend also would have given the Central Power a big advantage in +offensive operations, but for excellent reasons the Austrian staff did +not attack. In the first place, Austria lacked men. The Teutonic war +councils concluded that Austro-Hungarian troops were of more value in +the great drive then in progress against the Russians than they would +have been in offensive operations against the cities of the northern +Italian plains. Had the Austrians debouched from their mountain +strongholds and forced the Italians to concentrate against them in +Italian territory, as they undoubtedly could have done, the benefits +of such an enterprise from the standpoint of the alliance powers would +have been small in proportion to the risks. Only a combined drive by +both Austria and Germany, it is believed, could have gained any +telling advantage in northern Italy; and Italy, it must be remembered, +had not declared war on Germany. Ensconced in their mountain +fastnesses, the Austrians believed they could maintain a successful +defensive indefinitely. Then, after the Italian armies had exhausted +themselves beating against the mountain barrier, an opportunity might +arise for Austrian reprisals. At the time few believed that Italy +would long be able to maintain her attitude of neutrality regarding +Germany--an opinion, by the way, which was not supported by the +developments of the first year of the war. + +The Austrians had months in which to prepare, and they had made good +use of their time. The natural difficulties confronting an Italian +assault had been enormously increased by trenches of steel and +concrete. The Austrian engineers had connected their elaborate systems +of wire entanglements with high-power electric stations, and dug mines +at all vulnerable points. Heavy guns had been moved, at great +expenditure of labor, to the frontier forts and rails laid on which to +move them from place to place. The broken nature of the ground +afforded ideal opportunities for the concealment of artillery +positions. It is safe to say that nowhere in the whole theatre of the +Great War was there a line better adapted by nature and equipped by +man for purposes of defensive warfare. The Austrian Archduke Eugene, +who was in charge of the Italian operations, revealed his plan of +campaign during the first few days after the beginning of hostilities. +His aim was to risk nothing until Field Marshal von Mackensen had +finished his operations in Galicia, where Austria's best troops were +fighting with their German allies. To meet the Italians he had only +the Landsturm and a few reserve divisions, but these were considered +enough. The archduke resolved to hold the crests of the passes along +the Trentino frontier and the line of the Carnic Alps, withdrawing his +outposts before the enemy's advance. On the Isonzo he would abandon +the country west of the river line and make his stand on a fortified +line to the east which touched the Isonzo only at Gorizia, where the +Austrians held the bridgehead on the western bank. + +It has been pointed out in preceding pages that not a little of +Italy's delay in entering the war, and of the tortuous diplomatic +negotiations which for several months kept the outside in doubt as to +her ultimate intentions, was due to the state of military +unpreparedness confronting the country in the summer of 1914. But by +May, 1915, the country had had nine months in which to get ready. +Moreover, she had been able to profit by the lessons of the war. When +Italy started to get ready there was no waste motion, although the +task to be accomplished entailed enormous labor and expense. + + + + +CHAPTER LXIV + +STRENGTH OF ITALIAN ARMY AND NAVY + + +At the head of the Italian army and navy was the king, Victor +Emmanuel, a monarch whose gallantry and simplicity had made him a +popular idol. Popularity with the people meant also popularity with +the army. The chief of the General Staff was General Count Luigi +Cadorna. At the outbreak of the war General Cadorna was sixty-five +years old. As a young man he had seen service under his father, +Rafaele Cadorna, who, in September 1870, led an army into papal +territory and blew in the Porta Pia. He had been a corps commander at +Genoa. In 1914 he had succeeded General Pollio as chief of the General +Staff. + +Cadorna was the Von Hindenburg of Italy. As the German commander had +studied the bogs of East Prussia, so he had devoted a large part of +his life to becoming familiar with the broken line of Italy's northern +frontier. He was known throughout Europe for his writings on military +science. + +The beginning of the war found the Italian navy far better equipped +than the army. For the task of holding Austria in the Adriatic, which +Italy now took over from France, she possessed four dreadnoughts and +two more almost ready. She possessed also ten battleships of the +predreadnought class and a number of older vessels. Compared with +those of Great Britain and Germany, her armored cruisers were slow, +none of them being capable of a speed exceeding twenty-two knots; but +she had twenty submarines, forty destroyers and a large number of +torpedo boats. Compared with the Austro-Hungarian fleet, the Italian +navy showed on paper a distinct superiority. Its admiral in chief, the +Duke of the Abruzzi, ranked among the most brilliant men of his time, +not only as a naval man, but as a scientist, explorer, and man of +affairs. He was first cousin of the king. + +By May, 1915, General Cadorna virtually had remade the Italian army. +Nine months earlier Italy's military forces were anything but +prepared. There was a shortage in every kind of munitions, stores, and +equipment. This was plainly evidenced when General Porro had refused +an offer of the portfolio of Minister of War in the spring of 1914 +because he was unable to obtain a pledge for the adoption of a program +of re-equipment that demanded a great expenditure of money. The late +Government had not made good the expenditure of material caused by the +Lybian War, and great quantities of stores had been allowed to +deteriorate until they were almost valueless. There was a certain +number of guns of medium caliber, but no heavy artillery of the modern +type which the Teutonic allies soon showed they possessed in +abundance. Of machine guns Italy had a lower proportion than any other +of the great powers. All this had been realized, but the money to +repair these deficiencies was not forthcoming until the Italian +statesmen knew that they were on the brink of war. + +Filling the gaps in the army, raising it from a peace to a war +footing, was an easier matter. The Italian military law provided +automatically for this increase. Every Italian citizen able to bear +arms is liable to military service. Recruits are called in the year +during which they become twenty years old, although volunteers are +accepted as young as eighteen. The last Italian census, in 1911, gave +Italy a population of 34,686,683 and the levy lists of that year +totaled 487,570. By the close of the year 1914, when the mobilization +began, it is reasonable to suppose that the population had grown to +something like thirty-six or thirty-seven million, with a +corresponding increase in the number available for military service. +The peace strength of the army was 14,000 officers and 271,000 men. +Mobilization added to each of the twelve corps a division of Mobile +Militia bringing its strength up to 37,000 men and 134 guns. The +army's war strength was about 700,000 in the first line--from the two +classes of the regular army--and 320,000 in the Mobile Militia with a +reserve of more than 2,000,000 in the Territorial Militia. The force +of trained men that Italy put into the field at the beginning of +hostilities, therefore, numbered something over 1,000,000 men. The +reservoir of the Territorial Militia contained twice as many more +untrained men who for some reason or other were exempt from military +service in times of peace, although physically fit to be soldiers. +This class was designed primarily for garrison duty, guarding railways +and bridges, but in war time was liable to any service. When the +mobilization began the men of this class immediately went into +training. Each of the twelve army corps consisted of two divisions of +line infantry, a regiment of Bersaglieri (light infantry corresponding +to the French Chasseurs and the German Jaegers), a regiment of +cavalry, a section of Carabinieri (military police), thirty-six field +guns and from two to three heavy howitzer batteries. In addition there +was the ammunition column, telegraph and engineer parks, ambulance and +supply sections, reserve store and supply sections, and a section of +field bakery. + +The famous Alpine troops ("Alpini") and the mountain artillery were +not within the organization of the twelve permanent army corps. These +numbered seventy-eight companies, each of 256 officers and men on a +war footing. The rest of the Italian infantry units at normal war +strength were as follows: Company, 255 officers and men; Battalion, +1,043 officers and men; Regiment, 3,194 officers and men. Five of the +cavalry regiments contained six squadrons, the rest five. The war +strength of a squadron was 142 officers and men. + +The infantry were armed with a magazine rifle of very small caliber, +.256-inch. The magazine held six rounds and was loaded with a clip. +The length of this piece was 4 feet 2-3/4 inches, with bayonet 5 feet +2-1/2 inches. It weighed without bayonet 8 pounds 6 ounces, and was +sighted up to 2,200 yards. The outbreak of the war found a process of +rearmament going on in the artillery. Italy at that time had no +adequate siege train and her heaviest mobile weapons were +210-millimeter howitzers and 149-millimeter guns. While the details of +the final artillery equipment were not made public by the War +Department, events showed that the Italians were well supplied with +modern guns of both medium and heavy caliber. The mountain artillery, +of which there were thirty-nine batteries, was especially efficient, +not only in guns, but in men and transport animals. It was said that +the Italian artillery mules could drag a gun wherever there was room +for its emplacement. + +Italy was one of the first countries to use aeroplanes in war, and her +aviation corps had had experience in Tripoli. Although handicapped by +lack of money, the Italian military aviators were well abreast of +their opponents, at least in the theoretical and mechanical +development of the science. During the winter of 1914 a considerable +increase was made in the personnel of the corps and in the number of +machines. + +There is reason to believe that at the beginning of the war the +Italian soldier was not highly regarded by Austrian and German +military authorities. As a whole the army's reputation had been +injured by the Adowa disaster and by the slowness of the campaign in +Tripoli. But the developments of actual warfare in the spring and +summer of 1915 proved that Italian apologists were correct in their +claim that in the former war the army was handicapped by political +causes. Physically the Italian troops were equal to any in Europe. The +Alpini were perhaps the best mountain soldiers in the world. The +Italian soldier is not impressive as to stature, but he is tough and +enduring. He is cheerful and obedient under discipline and hardship, +and the relations between officers and men were such as to produce the +best results in a hard campaign. + +All these qualities were requisite for the difficult task to which +General Cadorna now turned his first line troops, numbering about +700,000 men. To oppose this advance the Austrians mustered on the +frontier about half that number. General von Hofer was chief of staff +under Archduke Eugene and General Dankl was in command in the Tyrol. + +Two reasons have been advanced to explain the succession of small +victories with which the Italians opened their campaign. The first, +already mentioned, is that it was part of the Austrian plan to yield +their outpost positions with slight resistance and protect their +numerically inferior forces in the main strongholds of the mountains. +The other is that the archduke and his generals made the mistake of +underestimating the enemy. For centuries Italy had supplied the +Austrian Court with its poets and musicians, until in the Dual +Monarchy the Italians were regarded as an effete race, fit only for +the politer pursuits of art, literature and song. Italy's successful +War of Independence in the latter half of the nineteenth century had +not altogether destroyed this impression. This idea, it may be said, +was not shared by the Germans, whose military men had made a closer +study of world conditions and had learned to respect the virility of +the men of modern Italy. + + + + +CHAPTER LXV + +FIRST ENGAGEMENTS + + +Owing to the nature of the scene of hostilities the first days of the +Austro-Italian campaign brought a series of engagements between small +groups of combatants. Artillery played a large part, and here the +Austrians, with their big guns already in carefully studied positions, +had a decided advantage. Viewed as a whole only does the campaign at +this stage take on an importance and dignity that ranks with the great +battles on other fronts of the Great War. Never before had two great +powers fought in territory so absolutely ill adapted to the movement +of large bodies of troops. For the same reason the story attains a +picturesqueness absent from the dreary plains of Galicia and Poland +and Flanders. Austrians, Hungarians and Italians fought in a land +known throughout the world to tourists for its grandeur of scenery, +its towering, snow-clad peaks, and idyllic lakes and valleys. It was +warfare where the best soldier was the man most able to surmount the +natural difficulties and take advantage of the natural protection of +the ground. The official statements of the Italian and Austrian war +offices told of feats of mountaineering, and of hand-to-hand +struggles, of dripping bayonets and of combatants locked in last +embrace with hands clutching each other's throats. + +On both sides of the boundary were thousands of men who had spent +their lives exploring the trackless mountainsides, climbing with ropes +and ice axes and staves. Both nations had encouraged the formation of +Alpine clubs. + +Soon after midnight on May 23, 1915, the Alpini and Bersaglieri of the +Italian army, supported by a few battalions of first line troops and +gendarmes, crossed the mountain frontier. Soon the peaks resounded +with the popping of rifle fire and the louder detonations of the +Austrian mountain guns. Along the whole Trentino front that night a +hundred skirmishes drove back the Austrian outpost. Only a few +thousand men in all were engaged. The Italian cyclist sharpshooters +advanced swiftly up the steep mountain roads until greeted by musketry +fire. Then they sought shelter, pushing forward from rock to rock and +from tree to tree. Often the light infantry and Alpini foot soldiers +were able to skirt the enemy's posts and catch them in the rear. + +By May 26, 1915, all Italy was thrilled by the news that all the lower +passes of the Dolomites were won and breaches made at Tonale Pass +along the northwest and in the Carnic and Julian Alps along the +northeast front. Among the points occupied were the Montozzo Pass, +9,585 feet high, Ponte Caffaro, running into southwestern Trentino, +the ridge of Monte Baldo, extending northward fifteen miles toward +Arco and Roverto in southern Trentino, some of the heights looking +westward toward Trento, all the valleys in the labyrinth of the +Dolomites, and several footholds in the Alps of Carinthia. The eastern +army was well inside Austrian territory, its left at Caporetto on the +Isonzo just under Monte Nero, its center looking down on Gorizia from +the heights between Indria and the Isonzo, and its right between +Cormons and Terzo. Losses on both sides were surprisingly small +considering the extent of territory covered by the fighting. The +Austrians, after slight resistance, withdrew into their fortresses and +waited behind their guns, grimly conscious that the real struggle was +still before them. + +Then, through the holes pierced by the mountain troops, the Italian +engineers began to move forward their artillery and building +emplacements and constructing trenches. Skirmishing on the mountain +frontier continued until the end of May, 1915. By that time Italian +forces attacking Trentino had crossed the Lessini Mountains north of +Verona, captured the Austrian town of Ala on the Adige, and penetrated +nearly ten miles into Austrian territory. They held high ground on the +south commanding the forts of Roverto, and had begun to bring up their +heavy guns against this important stronghold. Roverto is one of a +number of strongly fortified places girdling Trent and commanding the +converging routes to this center of the Austrian defensive. Other +lesser fortresses in this girdle are Laredo on the Chiese, Levico on +the Brenta, and Riva at the head of Lake Garda. Upon these the +Italians closed in, and there they consolidated their positions +awaiting the support of the first-line troops advancing in heavy +detachments, and of their artillery. + +While Italy struck the first blow on land, the first offensive +operation of the Italo-Austrian conflict by sea came from Austria. +This was an extensive raid on Italy's Adriatic coast. Its object was +to delay the Italian concentration by attacking vital points on the +littoral railway from Brindisi to the north. + +[Illustration: The Coasts of Italy and Austria, Showing the Naval Raid +May, 1915.] + +The Austrian fleet began its attack early on the morning of Monday, +May 24, 1915. The ships engaged were a squadron from Pola, consisting +of two battleships, four cruisers, and eighteen destroyers, strongly +supported by aircraft. The assault extended from Brindisi to Venice, +and covered a large extent of coast territory hard to defend. At +Venice the Austrian air raiders dropped bombs into the arsenal and the +oil tanks and balloon sheds on the Lido. The priceless relics of art +and architecture, all that remained to recall the city's proud +position as ruler of the Adriatic, were uninjured, but the attack from +the air caused an outcry from the nations of the Entente almost equal +to that which rang through the world when the Germans shelled the +cathedral at Rheims and destroyed Louvain. The Austrians replied that +the attack was a serious military operation, and by no means the +wanton outrage their enemies had tried to make it appear. + +The Austrian naval raid lasted barely two hours, but in that time the +cruiser _Novara_ and several destroyers attacked Porto Corsini, north +of Ravenna, in a vain effort to destroy the Italian torpedo base; the +cruiser _St. Georg_ shelled the railway station and bridges at Rimini; +the battleship _Zrinyi_ attacked Sinigaglia, and wrecked the railway +station and bridge; south of Ancona the battleship _Radetzky_ +destroyed a bridge over the River Potenza. In the south the cruisers +_Helgoland_ and _Admiral Spaun_ with destroyers shelled a railway +bridge and station and several signal stations in the neighborhood of +Manfredonia and Viesti, and caused some damage in small coast towns. +The raid was well planned and swiftly executed, and it accomplished +much of its purpose. The Italian fleet was taken by surprise, and the +marauders were back in safety at Pola by six o'clock in the morning, +unharmed. + +While Italian Alpine troops were driving in the Austrian outposts on +the frontiers of Trentino and the Tyrol, General Cadorna advanced his +main infantry force, the Third Army, across the Friuli Plain through +Udine, Palmanova, and St. Georgio toward the Isonzo. Here the covering +troops on May 24 and 25 had captured nearly all the small towns and +villages between the frontier and the river from Caporetto in the +north just below Monte Nero to Belvedere in the south on the Gulf of +Trieste. Cadorna feared lest his opponent, General von Hofer, would +launch his main attack from Gorizia against the Italian city of +Palmanova, fourteen miles to the west. But Von Hofer, so it developed, +had a subtler plan of campaign than a direct attack through Gorizia. +What he did was to place a strong force on the mountain of Korada +between the Isonzo and the Judrio. This height commanded the middle +course of the Isonzo, and it had been transformed into a network of +permanent trenches, protected by strong wire entanglements. + +The Austrian general believed that by the time the Italians could +bring up their heavy artillery and begin to smash the entanglements +with their field guns, supports could be pushed across the river. +Realizing that Korada must be captured, if at all, by dash and +surprise, the Italian brigadier in charge of the attack gathered a +herd of fierce bulls, which are numerous in that part of Venetia, and +penned them in a hollow out of sight of the enemy, while his artillery +began to bombard the hostile trenches. When the animals were wrought +to a frenzy of rage and fear by the noise of the guns, they were let +loose and driven up the mountain against the Austrian positions. Their +charge broke through many strands of the wire entanglements, and +before the last of them fell dead under the Austrian rifle fire, +Italian troops with fixed bayonets had crowded through the gaps in the +wires and captured the position. + +By the end of May, 1915, the Third Army had reached the Isonzo River, +but had not crossed. Its advance was slow and cautious. Operations +were hampered by the heavy rains, which caused the river to overflow +its banks and added greatly to the difficulties put in the path of the +advancing army by the Austrians, who, as they withdrew, left not a +bridge behind them. + +Grado, a fishing town of about 5,000 inhabitants, but important on +account of its strategic situation, was occupied by the Italians with +no great difficulty. Grado lies at the head of the Adriatic, and is +twelve miles from Trieste and sixty from Pola. The waters of the +lagoons in this neighborhood were valuable to the Italians as a safe +shelter for submarines and other small war-craft, and as a base for a +prospective attack later upon Pola itself. The inhabitants, most of +whom preserved their Italian traits and sympathies, although the town +had been under Austrian rule since 1809, hailed the conquerors +enthusiastically. Cannon and military carriages were decorated with +flowers. Thousands of Italian flags appeared as if by magic. The +entering troops were greeted with shouts of "All our lives we have +been waiting for this moment when we can cry 'Viva Italia!'" The +possession of Grado gave the Third Army virtual control of the mouth +of the Isonzo, but the main Austrian position of defense at Gorizia +remained apparently unweakened. + +Scenes like those at Grado were witnessed at Ala, the first Austrian +town of any size and the first railroad center captured by the +Italians in the Trentino. Ala was occupied May 27, 1915. Three days +before this the Italian light infantry had massed behind the boundary +line, and when they began their advance along the main highway their +first act was to pull down the yellow and black pole that marked the +frontier. + +The next day, May 28, 1915, the commanding general with his chief of +staff and two guards motored to the spot, cut a passage-way through +the barricade, and, encountering no opposition, kept on until they +reached Ala, seven miles beyond. + +The Italian troops were ordered to advance next day, May 29, 1915, and +as they marched into the town, officers shouted: "Open your windows. +Long live Italy!" The Mayor of Ala called out his townsmen and set +them at work removing the barricades on the main road. + +In the midst of these rejoicings the sharp rattle of musketry was +heard, and the Italians rushed to cover. A reconnoitering party +reported that the Austrians were intrenched in a large villa beyond a +stream outside the town. The Italian troops began an attack upon this +position, and a skirmish party sought to take a position in a house on +a near-by hill commanding the villa held by the enemy. Although the +way to this house was exposed to the Austrian fire, the Italian +officer decided to risk an attempt to reach it. But as he raised his +sword to signal an advance, a young girl ran to his side and told him +of a path sheltered from the Austrian fire. This girl, Signorina +Abriani, whose name will go down in Italian history as one of the +first heroines of the war, guided the detachment safely. The Austrians +holding the villa were strongly intrenched, and they held out against +superior forces until late in the afternoon, when four shells crashed +into the building, bringing it down about their ears. The Italians had +brought up a battery on the opposite side of the Adige River and +opened fire at long range. The Austrians made good their retreat, +leaving all their ammunition and three dead. Later fifty-seven +Austrians were taken prisoners. + +That night the Italian general took the precautions, usual on entering +a newly occupied town, of ordering that all the windows in town be +kept open and illuminated, and kept patrols about the town. The mayor +was reconfirmed, and his first act was to announce to the citizens +that "the royal military authorities, knowing the needs of the +inhabitants, have with affectionate solicitude and great generosity +placed 5,000 rations of bread and 2,000 of rice at the disposal of the +poor." Thus Ala became Italian. + +The incidents of these first advances into Austrian territory were +reported in detail in Italy, and are set down here as typical of +events that accompanied the irruption of Italian troops over the +border into the country which once had been Italian and where, despite +more than a century of Austrian occupation, a large proportion of the +inhabitants in spirit was Italian still. Such reports spread through +Italy naturally increased enthusiasm for the restoration of the +"unredeemed" provinces. + +Although, as a rule, the Austrians retired before the first Italian +advance into Trentino, they did not depart until they had left every +possible obstacle. Roads were barricaded, bridges destroyed, and mines +were laid, cleverly concealed on hillsides where it was intended their +explosion would overwhelm the Italians under masses of rock and earth. +But this was just what the Alpini and Bersaglieri had been trained to +anticipate. According to the official Italian accounts, their scouting +was so excellent that the wires connecting these mines with Austrian +hiding places were discovered and cut, and hardly a mine was exploded. +All this took place while the Austrians were drawing in their outposts +and consolidating their forces in the great strongholds where later +they held the Italians in absolute check. The Italians advanced +cautiously in small groups, and the Austrians abandoned the frontier +villages soon enough to avoid serious encounters, but not a minute +sooner. + +In the Alps in these days of May, 1915, the Great War was fought much +as wars have been fought in times we are accustomed to regard as the +age of true romance. The Italian King visited the Alpine troops and +surprised his men and redoubled their devotion by showing his skill as +a mountain climber. "You forget," he told an officer who remonstrated +with him as he was about to scale a particularly difficult position to +examine a gun "chamois hunting is my favorite sport." + +If certain portions of the Italian population seemed lukewarm toward +the war during the period of diplomatic negotiations, there was no +doubt of the temper of the nation after hostilities actually began. +The chord of national feeling was struck by King Victor Emmanuel in an +order issued upon taking supreme command of the army and navy. + +"Soldiers on land and sea," said the order, "the solemn hour of the +nation's claims has struck. Following the example of my grandfather, I +take to-day supreme command of Italy's forces on land and sea, with +the assurance of victory which your bravery, self-abnegation, and +discipline will obtain. + +"The enemy you are preparing to fight is hardened to war and worthy of +you. Favored by the nature of the ground and skillful works, he will +resist tenaciously, but your unsubdued ardor will surely vanquish him. + +"Soldiers, to you has come the glory of unfurling Italy's colors on +the sacred lands which nature has given as the frontiers of our +country. To you has come the glory of finally accomplishing the work +undertaken with so much heroism by our fathers." + +The stormy scenes which followed the resignation of the Salandra +cabinet gave way to a confident calm. From his seclusion in the +Vatican the pope addressed a letter to Cardinal Vannutelli, breathing +a spirit of resignation and faith, but carefully refraining from any +expression of partisanship in the great struggle. + +"The hour which we are traversing is painful," he said, "but our +prayers will go out more frequently and more fervently than ever to +those who have in their hands the fate of nations." The pope recalled +that in his first Encyclical issued at the beginning of the war he +exhorted the belligerent nations to make peace, but his voice was +unheeded and the war continued "until the terrible conflagration has +extended to our beloved Italy. While our hearts bleed at the sight of +so much misery," he wrote, "we have not neglected to continue our work +for relief and the diminution of the deplorable consequences of war. I +wish that the echo of our voice might reach to all our children +affected by the great scourge of war, and persuade all of them of our +participation in their troubles and sorrows. There is little of the +grief of the child that is not reflected in the soul of the father." + +The greatest enthusiasm, naturally, was manifested in the cities of +the north nearest the scene of war. The Master Workers' Guild of Milan +voted unanimously to give up one day's pay each month to be devoted to +the relief of the families of men at the front. Many business houses +carried soldiers' names on their payrolls and remitted their wages to +their families. + +In all cities within range of the enemy's aircraft precautions were +taken to guard public buildings, and especially the famous objects +which for centuries had made Italy the Mecca of lovers of art. In +Venice the bronze horses of St. Mark's were taken down from their +pedestals and hidden in the subterranean caverns of the cathedral. The +gilded statue of the Virgin surmounting the celebrated white marble +cathedral at Milan was covered with cloth, so that it might not serve +as a guide to Austrian raiders. The stained glass windows of the +edifice were removed as a precaution against possible bombardment. +After the first Austrian sea and air raid along the Adriatic coast +orders were issued that lights should be darkened in all Adriatic +ports. This order was extended also to certain inland cities, such as +Milan, Bologna, Verona, Brescia, and Udine. A special watch for +aeroplanes was kept at Bologna on account of the location there of an +important factory for the manufacture of explosives. Watches were set +on the crests of the Appenines ready to notify Rome of approaching +danger from the air. + +The attitude of Germany toward Italy at this period of the war is best +indicated by the speech delivered at the session of the Reichstag by +Dr. von Bethmann-Hollweg, the Imperial Chancellor. He imputed the +Italian declaration of war to a combination of mob dictation, bad +faith on the part of the cabinet of Premier Salandra, and, to a +certain degree, to the money of the powers of the Entente. The greater +part of the Italian people, the chancellor asserted, and a majority in +the Italian Parliament had not wanted war, and were even kept in +ignorance of the extent of the concessions which Austria-Hungary was +willing to make for the sake of peace. The Salandra cabinet, he +declared, long before the Triple Alliance had ceased to exist, +aligned itself with the Triple Entente and "unchained the mob spirit +and intimidated the advocates of peace." + +On the eve of leaving Rome, Prince von Buelow gave out a statement in +which he declared that Italy was led into the war by a "noisy +minority," and that even if in the end she obtained what she asked she +would not get much more than what Austria already had offered. "It +should be understood," he explained, "that it was impossible to +deprive the central empires of Trieste, their only outlet to the +Adriatic in the Mediterranean." + +Turkey regarded the entrance of Italy into the war on the side of the +Entente with apparent equanimity. "We will not declare war on Italy," +announced Talaat Bey, the Turkish Minister of the Interior. "We can +wait. What can Italy do to us?" + + + + +CHAPTER LXVI + +FIGHTING IN THE MOUNTAINS + + +While the world hears little about strategic plans that fail to work +out, it is believed that the Austrians in May, 1915, had in mind to +let the enemy obtain a good start in his advance against Trieste. +Then, when the Italian operations were well under way, and the two +railroads from Venice were choked with their supplies, the Austrians +probably intended to launch a swift attack upon Verona and the rich +cities of Lombardy, thus cutting off the chief centers of Italian +industry. At the same time, they undoubtedly meant to send an invading +army through the passes of the Carnic and Julian Alps from their base +at Tarvis, and by a sudden swoop southward take the Italian forces on +the Isonzo in the flank. At least this is what the Italian staff +believed was their plan, and they arranged their own forces +accordingly. + +This was the reason for the extensive Italian drive during the third +week of May, 1915, at all the mountain passes of the long frontier. +For almost any of these passes might prove to be the gateway of +invasion, whereas, once captured, they could be held by a few +battalions. But behind each force that occupied the passes won in the +first Italian dash was a large reserve ready to lend support wherever +the enemy tried to break through. The Italians were not kept long in +suspense as to where this thrust from the north first would come. + +On May 29, 1915, under cover of a heavy fog, the Austrians +concentrated a strong force from Villach, brought them to Mauthen, and +from that point launched five successive attacks in an effort to win +back the pass of Monte Croce in the Carnic Alps. The Alpini met the +attacks with musketry and machine-gun fire, then, after the last +attempt had failed, leaped from their trenches and drove the Austrians +down the valley. + +Thus began the battle of Monte Croce, an engagement described in the +official bulletins of both countries in a way that gave the world its +first intimation of the peculiar features of this mountain warfare. +Each side had large reserves, and the struggle for the pass continued +day and night, the Italians pushing over the neighboring passes and +gathering their strength for a counterattack when the Austrians were +exhausted. + +On June 8, 1915, the Italians stormed Freikofel, a height commanding +the Plocken Plateau, and took the Pass of Valentina and the Pass of +Oregione, 7,500 feet high, and overlooking the wooded valley of Gail. +The Alpini won Oregione by climbing through ice and snow over Paralba +Mountain and fighting their way downward. Undaunted, General Dankl +called up a fresh corps. + +On the night of June 14, 1915, the Austrians made a supreme effort to +break through the Italian line and put into effect his plan of pouring +an army through the Carnic Alps to attack the flank of the main +Italian army. Although 100,000 men were engaged in this battle, the +ground permitted no massed movements. For miles the saddle of +Oregione, the snow-clad sides of Paralba, and every smaller peak and +ravine extending to Monte Croce and Freikofel were speckled with +fighting men. After the two sides came to grips, the big guns held +their fire, and it was man to man and bayonet against bayonet. At one +point only did the Austrian thrust reach Italian soil. For a short +time the Austrians were on Paralba at an elevation of 8,840 feet, but +threatened both in the flank and in the rear they were forced to +retreat and take refuge in their prepared positions on Steinwand, a +huge limestone mountain overlooking the Gail Valley. + +The strategic idea of General Cadorna is more easily understood when +one studies the railway map of the Austrian territory north of the +Carnic border. Here their railway line through the Drave Valley passed +closer to the boundary line than did the Italian system on the south, +and they could bring up fresh troops with more speed. In the Gail +Valley they had a wide region in which they could mass hidden from the +enemy, and they had a good road up the mountains from Mauthen, while +the Italians had to depend upon rough tracks through the valley. +Although Cadorna had the hard task of keeping the doorway to Venice +closed while he attacked the enemy on both flanks, he accomplished his +purpose. + +The Italian army operating in the province of Cadore won its next +success in an attack upon the village of Cortina, situated in a +salient of the frontier, 4,000 feet high, amid some of the most +beautiful scenery in the world. Cortina was taken on May 30. The +Austrians had barricaded the famous road winding up through the +Dolomites, and dug elaborate trenches; but the Italians, by superhuman +efforts, moved up their mountain guns, while the Alpini scrambled over +the mountains by the glaciers of Serapis and the tarns of Croda da +Lago, and descended into Cortina on either side. Then, holding the +enemy on the east, they advanced into the Tyrol westward to Falzarego. + +In this region they had an experience which illustrated the foresight +of the Austrians in preparing for the attack they believed would come. +Some years before an Austrian had built a hotel in a deep ravine shut +in by walls of limestone and very difficult of approach. Tourists had +commented upon the lack of practicability of the man who placed a +hostelry in so inaccessible a spot. But when the war came it developed +that the hotel builder probably had a subsidy from the Government. For +sandbags, machine guns, and quick-firers quickly converted the hotel +into an excellent fort, which dominated the famous ravine. Thanks to +the hardiness and ingenuity of their picked Alpine troops, the +Italians, after a week of hard fighting, cleared the mountains above +the ravine and dropped upon the hotel fort. + +By June 9, 1915, the Italians had won the Falzarego Pass. At times the +fighting raged on summits 10,000 feet high, where the thin air +exhausted the combatants far quicker than their physical exertions. In +the last battle of this engagement the Italians obtained a footing +upon a point of great strategical importance three miles beyond the +pass on the Sasso d'Istria, close to where the Dolomite road bends +southward through the ravine and penetrated the mountains in two +tunnels. + +This victory gave the Austrians cause for anxiety regarding the +western defenses of Tyrol, for by a double flanking movement along the +Cordevole River and the Dolomite road the Italians in Cadore had +extended like two arms around one of the principal systems of defense. +General Dankl hurried reenforcements to the Cadore front to check the +thrust up the Cordevole Valley. At the end of this valley was the +focal point of the system of railways that carried food and munitions +to both the Trentino forces and those in southern Tyrol. If the +Italians had succeeded in cutting the railway at this point the enemy +would have had great difficulty in maintaining his armies on the +Trentino and Tyrol fronts. The Italian effort was not pushed to +success; but it at least had the effect of discouraging any plans +General Dankl might have formed of invading the plains of northern +Italy at the foot of the frontier mountains. + +Only twenty miles south of the Austrian outposts was the important +city of Verona, famed for its memories of Romeo and Juliet. Nearer +still was Brescia with the fertile lands of Lombardy surrounding it. +But by his maneuvers at the opening of the war, General Cadorna +effectively protected Italian territory and forced the enemy to devote +all his attention to resisting the attacks of active light infantry +and mountain artillery. The great 12-inch Skoda howitzers, upon which +Austria depended to batter down the defenses of these Italian cities, +were needed elsewhere, behind the Julian and Carnic Alps, and +especially in the corner of the frontier near Predil Pass, by which +Napoleon invaded Italy, and on the Isonzo front between Tolmino and +the Adriatic. + +Thus with his infantry, Cadorna overcame the artillery handicap under +which Italy labored during all the first months of the war. The Skoda +gun was reputed to be the best in the world. It had proved its worth +in Belgium and Russia, and the fact that the Austrians were able to +lend guns to their ally proved their wealth of big-gun power. Now, +even after ten months of war, when thousands of the great howitzers +were busy in Galicia and along the Danube, the Skoda works could still +produce an armament superior to that of Italy. Much of the +effectiveness of the Skoda gun lay in the fact that it could be +separated into two parts for easier transportation. In addition to +these 12-inch mortars, Austria had a 6-inch steel Skoda, designed in +the summer of 1914, for use in the Carpathians and well adapted to +fighting in the Alps. Due in part to their realization of this +superiority of Austria in big guns, the Italians remained neutral for +ten months, but meanwhile they had created a new armament for their +own armies at full speed. For the attack on the Austrian infantry in +the field they adapted the French 75-millimeter quick-firer, and for +siege work they manufactured 6-and 12-inch howitzers. But it takes +time to build heavy artillery, and at this time every armament firm in +the world was pushed to its full capacity, while the Italians, being +without coal fields, were handicapped in the development of armament +resources at home. For political reasons also General Cadorna would +not risk sacrificing his men to overcome this artillery handicap. His +problem was to conserve his forces as much as possible in readiness +for a defensive campaign against combined Teutonic armies, winning +what small victories he could, and meanwhile keeping down his casualty +lists, while fighting heavy howitzers with light mountain guns and +3-inch quick-firers. + +After the Italians had established their hold upon the frontier points +there was an apparent relaxation of effort while the infantry of the +line waited for the heavy siege artillery to issue from the armament +factories and come into action. This movement of artillery was slow, +especially on the Isonzo front where engineering operations were +delayed by the summer floods caused by the melting snows from the +mountain tops. To transport heavy pieces of ordnance across the floods +the Italian engineers had to build strong bridges, often under heavy +fire from the enemy, who, even after their retirement from the east +bank of the river, continually harassed the Italian advance guard +holding the bridgeheads. The Austrians aided the work of the mountain +floods by breaking down the high embankment used to carry off the snow +water, and thereby inundated the plain. Working under a plunging fire +from the enemy's batteries on the foothills, the Italian sappers built +light pontoon bridges over the floods upon which the first Italian +contingent crossed at night and occupied the first line of Austrian +trenches near the river. + +This much the Italians accomplished by the first week in June, 1915; +but there they were forced to pause for the reasons already described. +Active hostilities during the first part of June on the Isonzo front +centered around Monfalcone, a seaport just below the dominating Carso +headlands. Taken from Venice by the Austrians during the Napoleonic +era, Monfalcone had become the third most important port in the +empire. In its yards warships were being constructed. + +On June 9, 1915, the Italians made their swift stroke in a +southwesterly direction from their Isonzo line. The port was bombarded +on June 7, 1915, by a light Italian cruiser squadron, and the Castle +of Duino, standing at the sea edge near Trieste and defended by three +artillery batteries, was shattered and set afire apparently to prepare +for the operations against Monfalcone from the southwestern side of +the Gulf of Panzano. Archduke Eugene hastily collected a strong force +above Duino ready to resist an attempt by the Italians to land, but +the attempt never was made. It developed that the bombardment of Duino +was a feint. + +The real movement against Monfalcone was launched from another quarter +straight across the Isonzo. The Bersaglieri cyclist corps and +grenadiers broke through the Austrian line at the river, and since the +Austrians had neglected to prepare a reserve line, the Italians +advanced by a swift, running fight through the villages around the +Isonzo delta. Near the historic town of Aquileia, now a mere hamlet, +the Italians forced a passage of the river at the point of the bayonet +and flowed in two streams around the enemy's positions, depending for +their rapid movements upon their cyclists with machine guns and their +fast-marching light infantry. The Austrians set fire to the pine-clad +mountain slopes, but were unable to stem the rush of the Italians who, +under the flare of the forest fires, broke into the open town of +Monfalcone after storming the promontory of Rocca. + +Here, however, the Italian advance guard was in a dangerous position, +for the Austrian batteries posted on the limestone bluffs rising 1,000 +feet on the northern side of the town still dominated the streets +occupied by the Italians near the water's edge. The situation was +critical, not only because the troops in the lower town were in danger +of annihilation if they held their ground, but because the Italians +were anxious to save the town from bombardment, and preserve the +warships under construction in the shipyards. So a brigade of light +troops scaled the limestone cliffs dragging their mobile 3-inch guns, +and forced the Austrians to retire, taking their heavy howitzers with +them. Monfalcone now rested securely in Italian possession. The +Italians in all this engagement lost only about 100 killed and +wounded, while the enemy's casualties were estimated at 2,000. The +loss stung the Austro-Hungarian Government deeply. + + + + +CHAPTER LXVII + +ATTACKS IN GORIZIA + + +After the Italian success in June, 1915, certain readjustments were +manifest in the Austrian forces in the Italian theatre. Although there +was no declaration of war between Italy and Germany, it was reported +that German officers were sent to aid the Austrians, and that the +forces of Archduke Eugene were progressively strengthened from this +time on. German soldiers who joined the Austrian detachments were +supposed to have volunteered in an irregular individual manner. In +this manner Germany preserved the appearance of neutrality. + +The latter part of June, 1915, found Austria occupied with the siege +of Lemberg, and the archduke, apparently, was content to hold his own +on the Italian front until a decision had been obtained in the more +important operations against the Russians. Satisfied with their +initial successes, General Cadorna on land and the Duke of Abruzzi at +sea settled down to a slow, patient chess play, not unlike that worked +out by General Joffre in France. Cadorna issued a statement to the +Italian people in which he warned them that the preliminary successes +which, he said, had made good the strategical defects of their +frontier, would be followed by a long stage of gradual approaches +against the enemy's second line. + +The attrition of the Austro-Hungarian forces would be carried on by +long-range artillery and sappers and local trench warfare with hand +grenades. The Italian commander in chief resolutely refused to divert +any part of his forces to the Dardanelles. Possible danger to Italian +dominion in Tripoli, pointed out by the leaders of the Entente Powers, +did not change his purpose to maintain a single concentrated front and +not diffuse his efforts. The war with Austria, he believed, would be +won or lost on the Italian frontier. His theory as to the best way to +meet advances by the Teutonic allies in new fields was to increase +pressure on their home frontiers where their interests were most +vital. The Italian army in the field was increased to a million men, +and, after the fall of Lemberg, Austria gradually moved more and more +troops to the Alpine passes and the Isonzo, until by August she had +600,000 men facing the Italians, double the number arrayed on this +front when Italy declared war. Had the Russians been able to hold out +longer in Galicia, there is little doubt that Cadorna would have had +something to show for the month of July besides a few local victories +which did not vitally affect the main campaign. + +[Illustration: Italian Attack on Austria.] + +On June 9, 1915, the capture of Gradisca completed the Italian control +of the lower Isonzo, and Cadorna prepared for a general attack on +all the strongholds guarding Trieste. Of these the most important were +the Carso tableland on the south, Gorizia barring the river-valley of +the Vipacco between the Carso and the foothills of the Julian Alps, +the fortified system of heights north of Gorizia surrounding the town +of Tolmino, and the great intrenched camp of Tarvis above Tolmino +extending to Malborghetto and the other Alps of Carinthia. These +fortified points had to be attacked generally or not at all. Any +attempt to mass an army against any one of them would have spelled +disaster, for the Italians would have been flanked by Austrian forces +from the north or south. A properly defined advance against Trieste +called for a simultaneous thrust at Tolmino and the Tarvis fortress +commanding the road to Vienna. The Austrians had been strengthening +Tarvis ever since 1859, after Napoleon III overthrew the Austrians in +the battles that freed Lombardy. The Austrian fortresses were again +strengthened after the siege of Port Arthur had demonstrated the power +of high-explosive shells, and again in 1910 when the Teutonic allies +made their great discovery that their new giant howitzers laughed at +modern defense works of steel and concrete. In remodeling her Alpine +strongholds Austria selected positions on the plateau for systems of +earthworks containing mobile siege guns. + +The key to this immensely strong Austrian line of defense was the +railway town of Plava on the eastern bank of the Isonzo under the +wooded heights of the Ternovane Forest. Plava was in a salient +occupying about the middle of the Austrian line. + +Here, on the night of June 17, 1915, the Italians began their general +offensive by an attack from Mount Korada on the opposite side of the +river. Under cover of darkness the Italian sappers built a pontoon +bridge, and the Bersaglieri crossed and carried the town and the +surrounding heights at the point of the bayonet. The Austrians +realized the importance of the position and quickly returned to a +violent counterattack. The Italians threw all their available men into +the gap, and a great battle raged on the edge of the highlands east of +the river. The Austrians had the advantage of position, for their +forces could be massed in the woodland out of sight of the Italian +aviators. But, on the other hand, the Italian batteries on Mount +Korada were able to pour a plunging fire into the lower tableland; and +due mainly to the aid of their artillery the Italian troops drove back +the enemy and maintained the ground won by the first dash. + +General Cadorna was now in a position to begin a direct attack upon +Gorizia. He assailed the Hill of Podgora, forming the barbican of the +city's system of defenses and advanced a reconnoitering force toward +Mount Fortin. Meanwhile he massed 500 pieces of artillery on the +heights commanding the city. But the defenses of Gorizia had been well +planned, and they proved their completeness by a long resistance +covering a period that brought successive reports that the fortress +had fallen. All these reports proved false. South of the city the +Austrian intrenchments covered a front of more than ten miles, from +the Mount of San Gabriele below Plava to Mount San Michele on the +Carso tableland. The trenches were built in the most modern style, of +concrete more than a yard thick covered with steel armor, against +which ordinary shrapnel had no more effect than so much hail, and even +high-explosive shells of medium power did little damage. The Italian +weapons of attack were hand grenades and short knives, in the use of +which the infantry were expert. Four army corps operating under the +Duke of Aosta between Gorizia and the sea were beaten back by the +Austrians with heavy losses. This victory so encouraged the archduke +and chief lieutenant, General Boroevics, that they decided upon a +counteroffensive in force. Therefore, as soon as the Italian attack +slackened, the main Austrian army advanced across the Carso Plateau. + +The series of battles that now followed were the first engagements of +any size between the Italians and the Austro-Hungarians in the open +field. They began June 22, 1915, and lasted until the close of July, +with a short let-up at the end of the first week in July. The theatre +included the whole Carso front, the Vipacco Valley, and the southern +part of the Ternovane Forest. After his first repulse General +Boroevics brought up fresh corps and renewed the attack, but in the +end he was driven back to his main line with shattered forces. + +In the Carso tableland the Austrians had as nearly perfect a position +of natural defense as a general could choose. On the east of the +Isonzo plain the broken, rocky wall rises in places to 1,000 feet, +seamed with gullies and ravines, and bristling with forest growth +which afforded ideal cover. The action of the rain has pitted the +limestone with funnel-shaped holes which form natural redoubts for +machine guns; and there are larger depressions and caves where heavier +pieces of artillery may be placed in excellent shelter. + +But while the Italians were unable to capture this position, when +General Boroevics took his troops out of their defenses and sent them +charging across the open ground, he found that the enemy had made good +use of his precarious hold on the edges of the tableland. Although +they occupied barely more than the rim of the plateau, with the +flooded Isonzo a third of a mile broad beneath them, the Italians had +strengthened their positions with sandbag intrenchments and hauled up +a few pieces of light artillery. + +The chief support of the infantry holding these sandbag defenses was +the heavy guns across the river, which searched out the Austrian +columns whenever they left cover. In weight of artillery the Italians +had the advantage, for most of the Austrian 12-inch howitzers were +busy in the Alps, and they had to depend mainly upon 6-inch pieces. + +By the second week in July, 1915, the Austrians relaxed their efforts, +and the Italians began a slow advance, working up the hills +overlooking Gorizia by a variety of methods. In the places, +comparatively few, where there was cultivated ground, they practiced +the siege method of sapping forward, but generally their advance was +over bare rock, where trenches could be excavated only by the use of +dynamite, and when a charge was made the troops had to carry sandbags +to build temporary cover from machine-gun fire. This method of +warfare, in fact, was general throughout the whole mountain front, +where the hard rock carried a mere veneer of earth, and sandbags had +to serve for defense until the engineers could blast trenches and +galleries in the flintlike face of the slopes. + +The repulse of the Austrian counterattack in the middle of July, 1915, +ended the first phase of the battle of Gorizia. On July 18th, 19th and +20th, General Cadorna delivered a fierce assault aided by knowledge +gained in the first stage of the battle, which, for the Italians, was +little more than a reconnaissance in force. For three days and nights +he drove the troops of his combined Second and Third Armies against +the enemy's lines all along the Isonzo. His system was to attack by +day and then at night resist the enemy's counterassaults on his newly +won positions. The Italians retained all the ground they won during +these days of terrific fighting, and captured 3,500 prisoners. + +By the 20th of July their confidence had increased to such an extent +that they determined upon a night assault. But next morning Cadorna +received word from his aeroplane scouts and his spies that the enemy +was massing for a supreme effort. The Italian advance was stayed and +every man was set at work helping the engineers strengthen the +trenches. + +On July 21, 1915, there came a complete lull. The next day the +Austrians opened their attack with a concentrated bombardment. During +the period of Italian advance the railways had been piling up the +Austrian shells and German gunners had been sent by the Crown Prince +of Bavaria to help serve the heavy howitzers rushed to the Carso from +the Julian Alps and the Tyrol and Trentino salients. With the design +to cut the Italian line of communication, the main Austrian infantry +attack was delivered toward Gradisca where the Italians had +constructed their principal bridges across the Isonzo. The infantry +massed behind the neighboring hills and under cover of a tremendous +artillery bombardment advanced in close formation. The first line of +Italian troops seemed about to be swept away when the gunners on the +heights across the river got the range and poured into the advancing +Austrians a massed fire from all their 500 pieces. General Boroevics's +advance was pounded to pieces; the Italians brought up reenforcements +and charged and captured the lines from which the Austrians had +delivered their assault, taking 2,000 prisoners. + +[Illustration: A cloud of poisonous gas released by Italian troops +from tanks concealed in the thicket.] + +On July 23, 1915, the archduke ordered another attack upon the Italian +positions near the sea on the edge of the Carso tableland. This was +really an effort to recapture Monfalcone; but it failed, although the +Italians did not dare risk pursuit over the rough ground. Later two +Austrian divisions, advancing from San Michele and San Martino against +Sagrado were repulsed with heavy losses. + +By July 25, 1915, the Italians were able to attack and capture some of +the intrenchments on the slopes of San Martino and to storm Sei Busi. +This hill of Sei Busi witnessed some of the most sanguinary fighting +of the whole series of engagements. On a single day it was won, lost +and won again by the Italians, both sides bringing up strong +reenforcements and concentrating against the summit all the artillery +within range. Over the crest of San Michele which dominated a large +part of the tableland the battle surged for many days. + +On July 27, 1915, the Italians, attacking with bombs and bayonets were +able to occupy the summit, but could not establish themselves there in +the face of the enemy's bombardment. The lower slopes they were able +to hold behind their sandbag intrenchments, but the crest, swept by +the enemy's heavy artillery and offering no shelter, was absolutely +untenable. In all this fighting artillery played the major role. The +Italians charged that Archduke Eugene, realizing that any infantry +advance against this terrific gunfire was a certain sacrifice of men, +placed in his van regiments of men from the Italian-speaking provinces +and from Old Serbia and Croatia. In this position these troops were +exposed to fire from their own batteries with the knowledge that any +attempt at treachery meant annihilation by their own guns in the rear. +No figures as to the number of men from the "unredeemed" provinces +forced to fight against their kinsmen on the frontier are obtainable. +Italian writers, however, maintain that during the first months of the +war Austrian infantrymen of Latin and Slav origin were sacrificed by +the hundred thousand around Gorizia and Trento. + +Like other great drives of the Allies on the French front, the Italian +offensive on the chain of forts guarding Gorizia failed to break the +enemy's resistance. The fighting, however, seasoned the untried troops +of General Cadorna and won them praise even from the veterans of +General Boroevics and from Boroevics himself. "I cannot refrain from +saying," declared the Austrian General in an interview published in a +Hungarian newspaper, "that the bravery of the Italian regiments was +almost incredible, for even if certain regiments lost all their +officers, this did not deter them from advancing with the greatest +contempt for death." + + + + +CHAPTER LXVIII + +FIGHTING IN THE ALPS--ITALIAN SUCCESSES + + +Leaving the situation on the Isonzo where it rested at the close of +July, 1915, in a condition virtually of stalemate, we return to the +still more picturesque struggle in the Alps. While the Italian Third +Army in massed assault was making its unsuccessful fight for +possession of Gorizia with Trieste as its ultimate objective, warfare +was in progress in a hundred places in the Julian, Carnic, Dolomite, +Trentino and Tyrolean mountains. Although along this part of the +frontier the Italians inflicted no vital harm upon the enemy during +the first two months of the war, they were successful in a multitude +of minor enterprises, each of which furnishes its stirring tale of +hand-to-hand fighting, individual heroism and novel expedients in a +country singularly adapted to some of the methods of primeval warfare. +Being on the defensive, the Austrians frequently made use of the +primitive ambush of mountain tribes. Loose, heavy bowlders were lashed +to the edge of a precipice and masked with pine branches. Then when +the enemy passed along the mountain path beneath, the wires holding +the rocks in place were cut, releasing a deadly avalanche upon the +advancing foe. + +Any description of the fighting on this Alpine front becomes by +necessity a catalogue of apparently isolated operations, for the +nature of the ground negatived any great battle in force such as that +along the Isonzo River. In the Julian Alps the Italian mountaineers +gained a lucky success early in June. General Rohr, the Austrian +commander, had set two companies to guard a rampart of rock between +Tolmino and Monte Nero. The position was so strong that a few hundred +men with Maxims and quick-firers could have held it against an army +corps. Its strength, in fact, was so apparent that the Austrians took +their duties too lightly. Leaving only a few sentries on watch, both +companies enjoyed plenty of sleep at night. But one night the Italian +Alpinists climbed silently over the mountain, killed the enemy's +sentries with knives before they could make an outcry and coming upon +the two companies from the rear captured them with scarcely a +struggle. + +The peak of Monte Nero, a stump-shaped mountain 7,370 feet high at the +headwaters of the Isonzo, proved important to the Italians, for it +gave them a fire-control station from which 12-inch shells were +dropped into the forts of Tolmino and the southern forts of Tarvis. +North of Monte Nero, where the boundary turns to the west, is the +important pass of Predil, the gateway to Tarvis, guarded on the +southeast by the fortress of Flitsch and on the west by Malborghetto. +These two positions were the strongest points in a great ring of +fortified heights protecting the pass and the highway and railroad +running through an angle of the Julian Alps into the heart of Austria. +The forts of Malborghetto projected into Italian territory and its +chief works, Fort Hensel, a great white oblong of armored concrete, +was visible miles away in the Italian mountains. Against this system +of fortifications the Italians brought their heaviest howitzers and +demonstrated, as satisfactorily as the Germans had shown months +earlier at Liege, that the strongest forts were no match for modern +artillery. Fort Hensel and the other permanent forts were shattered +and the ground around them was pitted with great craters from +explosions of the 12-inch shells. + +The final ruin of Fort Hensel was accomplished by a shell which +penetrated through the thickest of its steel and concrete layers and +exploded in its ammunition magazine. This bombardment of Malborghetto +necessitated firing mortar shells at a high angle completely over +mountains which hid the target from the Italian gunners. The work of +destruction was slow owing to the fact that mists often curtained the +mountain tops and forced the gunners to cease operations, because to +fire while the observers were unable to watch every shot and telephone +the results would have been only a waste of ammunition. + +But the Austrians already knew that their forts were no match for +12-inch howitzers, once these great guns could get into position, and +they had prepared another method of defense which they put into use as +soon as the forts were destroyed. Batteries of Skodas, hidden in a +stretch of pasture land below the summit of the mountain, were brought +up and placed in pits concealed by tufts of grass and brush from +reconnoitering airmen, while at a safe distance dummy guns were +displayed to draw the Italians' fire. Thus one of the greatest +artillery duels of the whole front continued day after day, neither +side being able to see the enemy and relying for information upon +observers posted on mountain tops and in aeroplanes. These 12-inch +guns were not intended for such work. They had been laboriously hauled +to their lofty emplacements five and six thousand feet above sea level +to destroy 6-inch batteries, as these 6-inch guns had been brought up +to overpower the lighter 3-inch mountain guns, some of which the +Italians worked from peaks as high as 10,000 feet. When both sides got +these monster howitzers into position the natural sequence was a +deadlock. The most the infantry could do was to drive the enemy's +troops from summits valuable as observation points in the service of +the heavy artillery. + +Thus the official reports issued by the Austrian and Italian staff +headquarters reiterated the names of peaks hitherto unknown to the +traveler and tourist mountaineer, peaks which became of immense +importance now, not so much on account of their height as because they +commanded the best views of the surrounding territory. One of these +was Freikofel. The Alpini captured it early in the war with scarcely a +struggle and then for weeks the Austrians sacrificed regiments and +even brigades in vain attempts to recover it. + +The loss of Freikofel by the Austrians was followed, on June 24, 1915, +by the loss of Cresta Verde, and then in the first week of July the +Italians captured the important observation peak of Zellenkofel. This +mountain was held by the Austrians with a force of only forty men, but +in view of its extraordinary position this squad was considered +sufficient. The slopes below them were swept by a battery of their +mountain guns, in telephonic communication with the more distant +howitzer battery upon which it could call for assistance if necessity +arose, and a large infantry reserve was stationed in the wooded valley +below. But one night twenty-nine Alpini crept up the almost sheer +precipice a thousand feet high that separated them from the Austrian +defenders. They carried ropes and a machine gun and just as the moon +rose they attained the summit, set up their Maxim and opened fire. +Every man in the observation station was shot down. + +Then followed a desperate fight with the Austrian mountain battery on +the reverse slope. But thanks to their machine gun the Italians were +able to break up the enemy's charge and as day broke they captured the +Austrians' guns and drove the men who served them down the mountain. +When the Austrian reserves arrived the Italians had intrenched +themselves on the southern slope and were able to make use of the +captured guns. The attacks of the reserves were repulsed and the +Italians held the mountain. + + + + +CHAPTER LXIX + +MORE MOUNTAIN FIGHTING--RESULTS OF FIRST CAMPAIGN + + +At the western end of the rugged battle front, the Italian mountain +troops, after the first advance, were less successful than the troops +of Cadorna in the Carnic and Julian Alps. Here the fighting +mountaineers of Tyrol redeemed their reputation by a daring stroke. +The scene of this brilliant operation was close above the Tonale Pass, +the site of one of the greatest glaciers in Europe. From Presanella to +Care the ice extends in a gleaming crescent for more than twenty +miles. Its broadest part stretches for six miles to Monte Adamello, +11,640 feet high. The paths over or by these glaciers had been seized +and fortified by the Italians and their line along this front lay +mostly within Italian territory. In mid-July a force of Tyroleans +found a new track through the ice and before the Italians, engrossed +with operations elsewhere, knew what they were doing they had +penetrated several miles into Italian lands. The Italians met the +invaders at the famous Garibaldi Hut owned by the Italian Alpine Club +just beneath Mount Adamello and checked the advance, although the +Austrians retained some of the peaks commanding the Hut. + +Just north of the Adamello group of peaks in the upper part of the +Giudicari Valley extending to Lake Garda the Italians took one of the +northern passes by surprise and advanced toward the forts defending +Riva and Arco. Eventually they won all the country south of the Ledro +Valley with a series of fierce artillery duels. A similar advance was +made east of Lake Garda and down the Lagarina Valley. The forward +movement was signalized by engineering feats comparable, in their +mastery of the human hand over the forces of nature, only to the +building of the Pyramids. The great siege guns weighing many tons were +hoisted to the top of cloud-piercing summits solely by man power. +Every bit of ammunition and supplies had to be brought up by the same +laborious method. At Col di Lana the Austrians had an intricate series +of works excavated deep in the solid rock. High explosive shells and +hand bombs were useless against this defense, but Colonel Garibaldi, a +grandson of the great Italian Liberator, found a way to drive the +Austrians out of their position. He mustered a corps of engineers who +had helped drill the great railway tunnels on the Swiss frontier and +under his direction they tunneled right through the mountain into the +Austrian galleries on the reverse slope. When the fumes of the last +charge of blasting dynamite cleared away a detachment of bomb +carriers leaped through the jagged hole, drove the enemy from their +galleries, and, constantly fed by supporting troops, cleared their way +up and down the mountain. + +The first of August, 1915, found the Italians holding the Austrian +outpost positions they had taken during June and July; but the +Austrian main defenses from one end of the frontier to the other, a +distance of more than 300 miles, were virtually intact. It must be +borne in mind, however, that the Italian General Staff at this period +of the war never contemplated any general offensive except on the +Isonzo River. Although their attack along the Isonzo did not attain +its object of reducing the main defenses of Trieste and Gorizia, +proved too hard a nut to crack, the Italians here won a series of +minor victories against great odds and, to the Italian mind at least, +demonstrated the valor of the army and the effectiveness of the new +artillery which boded well for the future. + +It has been pointed out that in these operations General Cadorna had +to consider other things besides the immediate problems facing his +troops. The Italo-Austrian warfare was but a small factor in the great +plan of the Entente allies, who as the war progressed, realized more +and more the importance of cooperative action. All that happened in +Galicia, Poland, Lithuania and Courland had a direct influence upon +Cadorna's plans. Russian reverses and the failure of all attempts by +the French and British to break the German line in France and Belgium +made the Italian commander cautious. The series of Teutonic victories +made it possible that at any time he might have to face an +overwhelming host of Austrians and Germans equipped with artillery +which he could not hope to equal and backed by an apparently limitless +supply of ammunition. For political reasons, also, he could not risk, +even in the hope of reaching Trieste, sacrificing his men in an +offensive costing anything like the quantities of human material being +used up each day in other theatres. His preponderance of troops at the +opening of operations in May was gradually reduced. But the enemy's +positions and his superior artillery offset the Italian's greater +numbers. On the whole it may be said that the Italians accomplished +quite as much as any of their allies. They penetrated farther into the +Alps and the rugged tableland west of Trieste than the British and +French with their colonials did into the hills of Gallipoli or into +the ridge of the Lille region, and the length of their thrusts was +greater than the French advances in Artois and Champagne. + +The Italians were more successful in concealing the extent of their +losses than most of the other belligerents. A conservative estimate +places their total casualty list between the last week in May and the +first of August, 1915, at 25,000. The Austrians in the same period on +the same front lost about 15,000 dead, 50,000 wounded and 15,000 +prisoners. The slight Italian losses compared with their enemy's is +remarkable in view of the fact that they were almost constantly on the +offensive. By far the greater portion of the casualties were suffered +in the east, during the two assaults on the defenses of Gorizia. + +Measuring the territory gained during these two months and comparing +it with the concessions offered by Austria as the price of Italy's +neutrality--on this basis the Italians had no cause to regret their +decision. On the Venetian Plain by the lower Isonzo a few thousand men +in two days with comparatively small loss conquered all the territory +which the Italian nation had been offered for keeping out of war. This +conquered territory, however, was far less than the prize the Italian +King and his Cabinet set before the eyes of the people when they +declared war. + + + + +PART X--THE DARDANELLES AND TURKEY + + + + +CHAPTER LXX + +BEGINNING OF OPERATIONS + + +During the month of January, 1915, the British and French naval +authorities came to a decision to attempt a naval attack upon the +Dardanelles. It was decided, too, to lose no time in the matter, but +to push the campaign with all speed. Undoubtedly, behind this decision +there were many political factors of a grave kind because, on the face +of it, there were many reasons why the attack should have been delayed +until fine weather. Once having come to a decision, no time was lost. +The Island of Tenedos was seized, and under an agreement with +Venizelos, the Greek Premier, the island of Lemnos was occupied. In +the latter the large harbor of Mudros offered an ideal naval and +military base for operations against the Dardanelles, overcoming one +of the chief original handicaps of the allied command, distance of +base from scene of operations. Lemnos was less than fifty miles from +the tip of the Gallipoli Peninsula, while Tenedos was but twenty-two +miles away, lying close to the Turkish coast. At these two depots a +considerable Anglo-French naval squadron was rapidly collected. They +came from all parts of the world. + +The elimination of the German commerce raiders from the high seas, and +the obvious intentions of the main German and Austrian fleets to avoid +a general action against overwhelming odds, freed a large number of +allied, and especially British, warships of secondary fighting value. + +By the middle of February, 1915, the rendezvous was complete. Besides +the ships belonging to the British and French Mediterranean fleets, +there had arrived, fresh from the battle of the Falkland Islands, the +_Inflexible_, a dreadnought battle cruiser. The _Queen Elizabeth_, +too, arrived, the newest and strongest of the ships of the whole +British navy. It is evident that great reliance had been placed on the +enormous gun power of this vessel, it being hoped that her great +15-inch pieces would blow the Dardanelles defenses to pieces, somewhat +in the way the gigantic German land guns had blown the Belgian forts +into fragments. In no other way is it possible to explain the risking +of this capital ship in the highly dangerous operations in the AEgean +sea. + +In addition to the _Queen Elizabeth_ and the _Inflexible_, the British +force included the _Agamemnon_, the _Irresistible_, the _Vengeance_, +the _Triumph_, the _Albion_, the _Lord Nelson_, the _Ocean_ and the +_Majestic_. The French ships numbered the _Charlemagne_, the +_Gaulois_, the _Suffern_, and the _Bouvet_. + +Early in the morning of February 19, 1915, these vessels, under the +supreme command of Vice Admiral Sackville Carden, and with Rear +Admiral Guepratte in command of the French division, arrived off the +Gallipoli Peninsula. At 8 a. m. they opened an intense bombardment of +the several forts. At first they battered away at the Turks at long +range but finally, about the middle of the afternoon, the _Vengeance_, +_Cornwallis_ and _Triumph_ of the British forces, and the _Suffern_, +_Gaulois_ and _Bouvet_ of the French fleet, closed in upon the Turkish +forts which were still replying. It was not until darkness that all +the land batteries had been apparently silenced. + +At this time, and throughout the various attempts to reduce the +Dardanelles forts by naval bombardment, there was considerable +difficulty in making the demolition permanent. On the following +morning a detachment of the Naval Flying Corps made a reconnaissance +and discovered that the damage was not as great as had been hoped. +Accordingly, preparations were made to give the Turks another dose of +the 12-inch guns. Before this could be done bad weather intervened. + +On February 25, 1915, there was a further bombardment and by five +o'clock in the evening all the forts again had been silenced. Mine +sweeping operations were then begun. For this work English-Scotch +trawlers from the North Sea had been brought down and the crews of +these little unprotected boats added many pages of heroism to the book +of great deeds of the Dardanelles operations. + +The following day a division of the battleship fleet entered the +straits for a distance of four miles, the mine sweepers having cleared +the channel for that distance. The _Albion_, _Vengeance_ and +_Majestic_ opened fire with their 12-inch guns on Fort Dardanos, a +battery mounting nothing but 5.9-inch guns, situated on the Asiatic +shore some distance below the Narrows. Fort Dardanos bravely replied, +however, until put out of action, as did several concealed batteries, +the presence of which the British and French had not suspected. + +With the completion of this operation the allied command believed they +had not only permanently silenced the forts guarding the entrance to +the Dardanelles but had, as well, made both sides of the straits then +too warm for the Turkish troops. Accordingly forces of marines were +landed to complete the work of demolition. They were successful except +at Kum Kale where the Turks proved to have maintained a large force. +The British landing party was driven back to its boats in a hurry +after suffering a score of casualties. + +The apparent success of these naval operations raised high hopes in +Great Britain and in the other allied countries. The British +Government, which had established a censorship for all news that might +tend to depress the British public, saw no reason for interfering to +prevent the publication of news that might tend unduly in the other +direction. The newspapers and the so-called military experts gave the +public what they evidently wanted. The attack upon the Dardanelles, +according to the majority of these, was practically over. A few voices +of warning were raised, but they were immediately silenced as +"croakers" and "pessimists" and even "pro-Germans." Absurd reports of +consternation and panic in Constantinople were sent broadcast +throughout Great Britain, and thence to the whole world. Thousands of +Turks, in abject fear, were pictured as spending most of their days +and nights on the housetops of the sacred city, anxiously awaiting the +first glimpse of the victorious allied fleet sailing up the Golden +Horn. Hundreds of thousands were said to be fleeing into Asia Minor +and preparations were being made by the sultan and his government to +follow suit. + +Meanwhile, nothing of the kind was happening, either in Gallipoli or +in Constantinople. The German and Turkish authorities, confident in +their ability to hold the straits against all the forces that could be +brought against it, were quietly perfecting their plans. Bad weather +again interrupted the Allies' operations, and it was not until March +1, 1915, that the _Triumph_, _Ocean_ and _Albion_ again entered the +straits, and bombarded Fort Dardanos (once more active), and the +concealed shore batteries. The same night the mine sweepers, under the +protection of destroyers, cleared an additional five miles of the +channel, and the waters were safe up to within a mile and a half of +the entrance to the Narrows. + +About the same time the two French squadrons bombarded the Bulair +lines, where the Gallipoli Peninsula connects with the mainland, in an +attempt to interrupt the Turks' supply of troops and ammunition. + +On the following day, March 2, 1915, the _Canopus_, _Swiftsure_ and +_Cornwallis_ drew close into Fort Dardanos and opened fire. By so +doing they got within range of the Turkish batteries in the pine woods +just below the Kilid Bahr plateau and all three boats were hit. + +For the next few days the bombardment of various Turkish positions and +batteries was continued. On the afternoon of March 4, 1915, a large +landing party was put ashore at Kum Kale and Sedd-el-Bahr to complete +the demolition of the works. That on the Asiatic shore again had a +hard time and was driven off by a Turkish force after doing only small +damage. The force on the European side also found that the Turks had +quickly returned to the tip of the peninsula as soon as the fire of +the warships had ceased. + +On the following day there occurred at Smyrna an incident that is hard +to explain. Even British experts have not made any attempt to solve +the puzzle. Vice Admiral Peirse with a British and French fleet, +appeared off the city and opened a bombardment. The Turkish command +did not reply and, after doing considerable damage, Peirse and his +ships sailed away. He made no attempt to land, indeed he is not +believed to have had a force for that purpose with him. The only +reasonable explanation of the bombardment is that it was in the nature +of a diversion intended to keep as many troops as possible from +Gallipoli. + +In the Dardanelles the operations were rapidly coming to a head. The +Anglo-French command believed the time had now arrived for an attack +in force upon the forts at the Narrows, the real defenses of the +straits. Accordingly, on March 6, 1915, the _Albion_, _Prince George_, +the _Vengeance_, the _Majestic_ and the _Suffern_ steamed well up the +straits and opened a direct fire on the big forts. It was not upon the +work of these ships, however, that great hopes rested. A new +experiment was being tried from the Gulf of Saros on the other side of +the Peninsula of Gallipoli, at the same time. With their long range +guns the _Queen Elizabeth_, the _Agamemnon_, and the _Ocean_ stood +well out and, by indirect fire, threw shell after shell over the +heights of the peninsula into the land works. All the while circling +aeroplanes, under the constant fire of the Turkish antiaircraft guns, +watched and corrected the firing, while a captive balloon, sent up +from the _Agamemnon_, did additional and valuable service in this +respect. + +It was found that, because of the angle of fire of the big naval guns, +it was not possible to score any hits from the Gulf of Saros on the +Turkish forts on the European side of the straits and the attempt was +soon abandoned. Modern big gun ammunition was too expensive to be +lightly thrown away. Furthermore, the life of one of the big guns of +these battleships is strictly limited, especially if full charges are +being used. Ultimately, the three battleships in the Gulf shifted +their fire to the forts near Chanak, on the Asiatic side, where the +works were on low ground, almost at sea level. + +It was confidently hoped that, by means of this indirect fire, it +would be possible to put the 14-inch guns of these forts out of +action, without giving them a chance to reply. The idea of trying to +force a way past these great guns, exposing the relatively frail sides +of precious battleships to their direct fire, was not relished by the +allied command. + +But if the Turks could not reply to the fire of the three battleships +in the Gulf of Saros with their 14-inch guns, they could and did do +effective work with smaller guns concealed on the heights of the +peninsula overlooking the gulf, and the _Queen Elizabeth_ was hit +three times. + +On the following day, March 7, the attack was renewed. The four French +battleships, the _Charlemagne_, _Gaulois_, the _Bouvet_ and the +_Suffern_ took the post of greatest danger inside the straits and +finally again silenced the Dardanos fort. The _Agamemnon_ and the +_Lord Nelson_, behind them, made a long range attack upon the forts +fringing the Narrows. Three of the allied battleships, the _Gaulois_, +the _Agamemnon_ and the _Lord Nelson_ were hit by Turkish shells but, +as an offset, it was believed that the great forts at Chanak, as well +as the works at Dardanos, had been permanently silenced. + +This confidence, as we shall see later on, was not justified. Inside +the great forts, it is true, the Turks and their German officers were +suffering terribly from the bombardment. That they stood it in some +cases for periods of seven hours at a stretch, and continued firing +effectively for the whole of that time, is testimony to their courage +and devotion to duty. As the great shells of the _Queen Elizabeth_ +landed in the forts they did frightful havoc. The shrapnel shells +contained something like 12,000 separate bullets and it is on record +that one of these shells wounded or killed no less than 250 Turkish +soldiers. As the high explosive shells struck the works and exploded +they threw up tons of earth and cement a hundred feet in the air, +plainly visible to the allied observers on the warships in the +straits. + +But this was not the worst that the defenders had to endure. The +exploding shells gave off poisonous gases that filled the underground +passages of the redoubts. The heroic Turks worked under such +conditions as long as it was humanly possible, but eventually their +German officers were compelled to withdraw their men from each fort in +turn to allow the gases to clear away. These circumstances undoubtedly +account for the fact that almost every one of the forts was reported +permanently silenced, only to resume action a few days later, much to +the surprise and consternation of the allied command. + +Furthermore, there is abundant evidence that the Turks were +economizing ammunition, especially big gun shells. They had made up +their minds that there would be a direct naval attack upon the forts +sooner or later, and their instructions were to reserve their fire +"until they saw the whites of the enemy's eyes," so to speak. + +From March 6 to March 18, 1915, there was a lull in activity at the +straits. Momentous events were transpiring in London and at the island +of Lemnos, and upon the outcome of these events depended the future +course of the operations at the Dardanelles. While the individual +ships of his fleet conducted minor bombardments intended to harass the +Turks, Vice Admiral Carden, pleading ill health, had been allowed to +relinquish the command of the allied fleet, and Vice Admiral John de +Robeck, newly promoted to his rank, succeeded him. Almost immediately +the latter steamed away to Mudros to engage in a fateful conference. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXI + +PREPARATIONS FOR LANDING--COMPOSITION OF FORCES + + +It had evidently been the intention of the Allies to force the Narrows +by naval power, and then follow up the success by an occupation of +Gallipoli by a land force. For this purpose the troops solicited of +Venizelos, the Greek Premier, were undoubtedly to be used, but sole +reliance was not to be placed upon them. For one thing, the Allies +had no intention of allowing Greece to assume too great an importance +in the campaign against Constantinople, well knowing that the Greek +people had large ambitions in that part of the world--ambitions that +clashed with those of more important powers. + +In early March, 1915, the French were busy concentrating an +expeditionary force in North Africa, under the command of General +d'Amade. By March 15 the French force had been gathered together at +Bizerta, in the AEgean Sea. At the same time the British Government had +been undertaking a similar concentration, and by the third week in +March a force estimated at about 120,000 men had arrived in transports +at Mudros in the island of Lemnos. This English force consisted of the +Twenty-ninth Division, the Royal Naval Division, a special force +formed by Winston Churchill, British Secretary to the Admiralty, and +used in the attempt to relieve Antwerp, the Australian and New Zealand +divisions originally brought to Egypt, a Territorial division, and +some Indian forces. + +These troops, with the comparatively small French force under General +d'Amade, were placed under the command of one of the most popular of +British officers--General Sir Ian Hamilton. + +Sir Ian Hamilton and his staff were hurried from London by special +trains and a fast cruiser steaming upward of 30 knots an hour. By the +time he reached Mudros the French troops had also arrived from +Bizerta. + +The island of Lemnos presented a strange and picturesque spectacle +when all these troops, drawn from so many distant parts of the world, +were gathered in the sheltering bay. The blue and red of the +Frenchmen's uniforms, the khaki of the British, the native costumes of +the Indian and North African troops contrasted strangely. Mixing +freely with them and driving hard bargains, were the native Greek +tradesmen. All over the little town thousands of temporary huts and +shops and tents sprang up for the supply of the needs of the troops. + +Out in the harbor hundreds of ships of every description were moored. +There were battleships, cruisers, torpedo boats, submarines, +transports, supply boats, barges, picket boats, and dozens of Greek +trading vessels. Into all this mess and chaos came the British +commander. + +Then followed a long conference with General d'Amade, Admiral de +Robeck, and Admiral Guepratte. There does not seem to be any reason +for doubting that the plan was to launch a land attack upon the +Gallipoli defenses immediately. But General Hamilton demurred. He +inspected the loading of the transports, and refused to give the order +for an attack until grave defects had been remedied. Of this period he +wrote subsequently: + +"I knew that nothing but a thorough and systematic scheme for flinging +the whole of the troops under my command very rapidly ashore could be +expected to meet with success." + +The slightest delay in landing, Sir Ian Hamilton realized, would prove +terribly costly, if not absolutely fatal. He and his troops were +embarking on a campaign opening with a feat of arms for which there +was no precedent in history. He did not intend that there should be +the slightest chance of failure if forethought and intelligent +preparation could prevent it. + +The prime obstacle to an immediate descent of the allied land forces +upon Gallipoli Sir Ian Hamilton found to be the manner in which the +British transports had been loaded. The only consideration that seems +to have been present in the minds of the military authorities who +superintended the work was the question of getting the material and +men aboard the ships. The supplies, artillery, and ammunitions had all +been loaded without any consideration as to which was to come off the +boats first. Material absolutely necessary for the protection of the +troops once they had landed on hostile shores, and vital in any +attempt to press home the advantage thus gained, was buried under +tents, hut parts, cooking material, etc. + +"I cannot go ahead with a transport fleet in this condition," said +General Hamilton in substance to his French and English colleagues. +"The whole fleet must return to Egypt and be reloaded." + +"But time," urged Admiral de Robeck. "It will take weeks of valuable +time." + +"Better lose time than run straight to certain disaster," declared +General Hamilton. + +And back to Alexandria went the whole fleet of transports, with the +exception of a few vessels carrying the Australian Infantry Brigade, +which, by some miracle, had been properly loaded. + +When General Hamilton and his soldiers sailed out of Mudros Harbor, +bound for Alexandria, Admiral de Robeck came to a momentous and +historic decision. Acting either on his own responsibility or under +orders or advice of some superior authority, he decided not to wait +for the troops, but to make a determined attack upon the Narrows with +his whole fleet. By sheer weight of guns he would try to run past the +great forts that lined the 1,500-yard channel, pounding his way +through on the theory that "what will not bend must break." + +March 18, 1915, was an ideal day for such an heroic attempt. The +sailors of the allied fleet were called to quarters as the morning +sun, in a perfect sky, arose over the towering hills that lined the +straits. Briefly the officers addressed the men, told them of the work +ahead, spoke of the glory that awaited them if successful, and ordered +each man to his post. + +The reader, in order to gain some definite idea of the defenses that +were to be attacked, should take up a map showing the Dardanelles. He +will find, about ten miles from the entrance, a narrow channel where +the shores of Asia and Europe almost touch. There, at the narrowest +point of the channel, the Turks had built their chief defenses. On the +south slope of the Kalid Bahr were three powerful works. The Rumeli +Medjidieh Battery mounted two 11-inch, four 9.4-inch, and five +3.4-inch guns. The Hamidieh II Battery had two 14-inch, while the +Namazieh Battery had one 11-inch, one 10.2-inch, eleven 9.4-inch, +three 8.2-inch, and three 5.9-inch guns. + +On the Asiatic side of the Narrows, near Chanak, was a system of +redoubts of equal strength. The Hamidieh I Battery, south of Chanak, +consisted of two 14-inch and seven 9.4-inch guns, while the Hamidieh +III Battery possessed two 14-inch, one 9.4-inch, one 8.2-inch, and +four 5.9-inch guns. + +Besides all these formidable defenses there were many minor positions +on the very edge of the Narrows. In fact the whole channel, and the +way of the allied fleet to the Sea of Marmora, lay through rows upon +rows of high-power guns. + +The disastrous naval attack upon the big forts at the Narrows, +resulting, as it did, in the loss of three battleships and the +disabling of others, convinced the British and French naval +authorities that it was hopeless to expect success along that line, +except at a price that they could ill afford to pay, and that would +have a terribly depressing effect upon public opinion at home. + +Admiral de Robeck and his British "bulldogs" were called off to await +the coming of Sir Ian Hamilton and his mixed expeditionary force. This +force, while the 12-and 15-inch guns of the Anglo-French fleet had +been vainly battering the Dardanelles forts, had returned to +Alexandria, and, under the careful supervision of Sir Ian Hamilton and +General d'Amade, had been reshipped aboard the great transport fleet. + +At this point there appears to have arisen a serious misunderstanding +between Great Britain and France as to the exact number of troops to +be supplied by each. Although the true facts have not yet come to +light, it is believed that General Joffre emphatically refused to +detach any of the French troops from the western front. The force that +France eventually contributed to the allied army at the Dardanelles +consisted of units not at that time in view for service in northern +France. These numbered a small detachment of Fusiliers Marines, a +section of the Armee Coloniale, and the Foreign Legion, a force made +up of volunteers from all over the world, enlisted for service +anywhere, and generally assigned to a post of unusual danger. + +Great Britain was, therefore, under the necessity of providing the +bulk of the troops. + +The British authorities did not make the mistake of throwing raw +troops into the initial struggle at the Dardanelles. The backbone of +the force supplied to General Sir Ian Hamilton was the Twenty-ninth +Division of Regulars, made up largely of the hardiest of England's +youth--the north countrymen. It comprised the Eighty-sixth Brigade of +Infantry--Second Royal Fusiliers, First Lancashire Fusiliers, First +Royal Munster Fusiliers, and the First Royal Dublin Fusiliers; the +Eighty-seventh Brigade--Second South Wales Borderers, First King's Own +Scottish Borderers, First Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers, and First +Border Regiment; the Eighty-eighth Brigade--Second Hampshires, Fourth +Worcesters, First Essex, and the Fifth Royal Scots, the latter a +Territorial battalion. Attached to this force of infantry was a +squadron of the Surrey Yeomanry and two batteries of the Fourth +Mountain Brigade, a Highland artillery unit. + +To the command of these regular troops, Major General Hunter-Weston +was appointed. This officer had been through much of the early +fighting in the western theatre, originally commanding the Eleventh +Brigade of the Third Corps of General French's army. His appointment +to the Dardanelles was in the nature of a promotion, it being +recognized that his dash and energy would be useful in the style of +warfare that would govern the battle for the straits. + +In addition to the regular troops brought out from England, there was +the Naval Division. This force had seen a bit of action in the attempt +to save Antwerp. It consisted of two Naval Brigades and a Royal Marine +Brigade. + +Also there was a Territorial Division, known as the East Lancashires, +under the command of Major General Douglas. Immediately upon the +outbreak of war this division had volunteered for foreign service and +had been shipped to Egypt, where it had had six months' training. It +comprised the Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Lancashire Fusiliers, +the Fourth and Fifth East Lancashires, the Ninth and Tenth +Manchesters, the Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Manchesters. + +These troops, with the inclusion of the Australian and New Zealand +forces brought to Egypt at the beginning of the war, under the command +of Lieutenant General Birdwood, and a considerable number of Indian +troops, made up the force at the disposal of Sir Ian Hamilton. They +numbered in all, with the French troops, about 120,000 men. + +What had the Turkish authorities to set against this army, supported +by the great fleet of battleships and unlimited number of transports +and subsidiary vessels? Estimates of the potential strength of the +Turkish army available for service in and about the Gallipoli +Peninsula at this time vary widely. There were those, for instance, +who claimed that, if necessary, the Turks could command at least +600,000 troops for the defense of the straits, and that any attempt to +capture the positions with the force supplied to Sir Ian Hamilton was +doomed to failure. On the other hand were those who claimed that the +Turks were short of equipment and ammunition, and had no means of +replenishment; that they had no heart in the fight; that they were +already in revolt against their German taskmasters; that the Suez and +Caucasus defeats had undermined their morale and depleted their +numbers, and that the Turkish high command had decided that it was +useless to attempt to defend the position. Fortunately, between these +two extremists there was a happy mean, and the best evidence points to +the conclusion that, for the defense of the Dardanelles, from first to +last, the Turks depended upon about 200,000 men with reenforcements +brought up from time to time to refill the ranks. Probably when the +great landing took place only a small proportion of the Turkish troops +were in Gallipoli. + +These troops were under the command of the German General Liman von +Sanders, although, from time to time in the operations, the +picturesque figure of Enver Pasha appeared. Admiral Usedom, a high +German naval expert, was placed in command of the purely naval +defenses of the straits. + +Unfortunately for the allied force the attack upon the Dardanelles +lacked the important--and perhaps indispensable--element of surprise. +By their early naval attack upon the outer fort, by the gathering of +the army at Mudros and its subsequent return to Alexandria, and, +finally, by the ill-fated naval attack upon the Narrows' defenses, the +Allies had given the Turks ample warning of their intentions. During +the many weeks that intervened between the first naval attack upon the +outer forts and the approach of Sir Ian Hamilton's army, the Turks, +under the supervision of their German mentors, and borrowing largely +of the lessons of the trench campaign in Flanders and France, made of +the Peninsula of Gallipoli a network of positions which it proved +possible, to borrow an expression used of the German concrete trenches +in France, "for a caretaker and his wife to hold." This elaborate +system of trenches and redoubts was dominated by the three great +heights. Every foot of the sides of these major positions had been +prepared with barbed wire, monster pits, mines, concealed machine-gun +batteries, and the almost endless variety of traps evolved out of six +months' experience with the new style of warfare. + +Along the many miles of coast of the Peninsula of Gallipoli there were +but few places where, even under the most advantageous of conditions, +it was possible to effect a landing in the face of a strongly +intrenched enemy. The steep slopes of the hills rose from the very +water's edge. Even in cases where there was a low, sandy beach, the +nature of the country in the immediate vicinity made it impossible to +deploy and maneuver any considerable number of troops. + +Furthermore the Turks, well aware of the limited possibilities at the +disposal of the allied force, had made terrifically strong defensive +positions of the few beaches where successful landings were at all +possible. Row upon row of barbed wire had been run along the shores +and even out into the sea. Mines had been constructed that could be +depended upon to blow the intrepid first landing parties to pieces. +The ground had been thoroughly studied and machine-gun batteries +placed so that every inch of the beaches could be raked with a +devastating fire. And finally the ranges for all the great guns in the +hills beyond had been accurately measured so that the ships and the +troops would be literally buried under an avalanche of shells. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXII + +PLANS OF SIR IAN HAMILTON--FIRST LANDING MADE + + +The broad outlines of the problem that faced Sir Ian Hamilton and his +force were comparatively simple. The assault upon the Gallipoli +Peninsula resolved itself into rush attacks upon two major heights, +leading up to a grand assault upon the key position to the Narrows. + +These three positions formed an irregular triangle. The first was Achi +Baba, situated within three and a half miles of the tip of the +peninsula. The second was Sari Bair, about eight miles due north of +the Narrows. By either taking or isolating these two positions the +Allies would be in a position for a grand attack upon the third and +most important height, the plateau of Kilid Bahr, or Pasha Dagh. This +position not only commanded the Narrows and the adjacent channel but +it contained two of the great forts that successfully withstood the +grand fleet attack. It was, in the minds of the allied command, the +key to the whole situation. With Kilid Bahr in their hands, they +believed the way to Constantinople would be open and the elimination +of the Turk as a factor in the war and the settlement of the Balkan +question or questions in a manner favorable to the allied powers would +necessarily follow. + +The operations as planned by Sir Ian Hamilton, then, consisted of a +number of landings--as many as possible so as to conceal the real +objectives of the allied troops and to disperse the Turkish force--and +an attempt to rush the position of Achi Baba, and to isolate the +position of Sari Bair by advancing through the low country that lay +between that position and Kilid Bahr. + +On April 7, 1915, Sir Ian Hamilton, with his staff, returned to Mudros +and held a conference with the naval commands. By the 20th his plans +had been perfected and the great landing was fixed to take place on +Sunday, April 25, 1915. During the previous week the Allies had been +making feints along the shore of the Gulf of Saros in an attempt to +give an element of surprise to the real attack. + +As Sir Ian Hamilton subsequently wrote, the question of weather was +one of vital importance to the success of the landing. If, after a +number of the troops had been thrown upon the beaches, bad weather had +intervened, prevented further landings and perhaps driven the fleet +and auxiliary vessels to Mudros Harbor, the unfortunate troops ashore +would have been wiped out. + +Sunday, April 25, 1915, however, was a perfect day. The low mist of +the early morning hid the great fleet until it was close to the shore +of the peninsula. As the day progressed the mist disappeared, the blue +sky presented an unbroken expanse, while no wind disturbed the placid +sea. In a setting such as this was enacted one of the greatest battles +of all history. + +At the tip of the Gallipoli Peninsula were five small beaches. They +were subsequently named by the Allies, for identification purposes, +Beaches S, V, W, X, and Y. Against these points was to be flung the +Twenty-ninth Division, supported by some of the naval division. These +troops, once having gained the shore and held it against the enemy +counterattacks, were to push on in all haste by the road that led to +the village of Krithia, northwest of Achi Baba, turn east before +reaching that place, and carry Achi Baba with a rush. + +At the same time the Australian and New Zealand troops were to effect +a landing at Gaba Tepe, about twelve miles up the AEgean coast of the +peninsula and about three and a half miles south of Sari Bair. Running +southeast from near Gaba Tepe was a good road connecting with the town +of Maidos, on the Dardanelles, above the Narrows. The whole way lay +through low country and, once in command of this road, the allied +troops would not only sever direct communications between Sari Bair +and Kilid Bahr but would be in a position to attack the defenses of +the latter on the flank. + +[Illustration: Pictorial Map of the Dardanelles, Showing Where the +Allies Landed.] + +Meantime the French were to make a landing at Kum Kale on the Asiatic +side of the straits. There is some doubt as to the real purpose of +this landing. After the French had reembarked--"driven off with +terrible losses," according to the Turkish official account--it was +claimed that the landing was merely a diversion. Certainly nothing +more than that could be claimed for a feint made by a portion of the +Naval Division farther up the Gulf of Saros. + +These, then, were the plans of Sir Ian Hamilton: four landing +operations in widely separated points, two of serious importance and +the other two, probably, intended only to draw the troops and energy +of the defenders. How they prospered, what measure of success they +obtained, how the Turks, fighting with the valor which has made them +famous through ages, how the British Colonial and French troops +accomplished almost unbelievable deeds of heroism and skill, make one +of the most fascinating stories in the annals of warfare. + +While these operations were timed to occur simultaneously, they will +appear more clear to the reader if they are taken separately and each +followed to its conclusion from the opening day. In this way we will +tell the story, first, of the Australian-New Zealand landing northeast +of Gaba Tepe; then of the landings on the five beaches at the tip of +the peninsula; and, finally, of the French landing on the Asiatic +shore and the naval brigade demonstration at Bulair. + +By one o'clock on the morning of Sunday, April 25, 1915, the allied +expeditionary force had arrived within five miles of the Gallipoli +shore. Under cover of darkness the final dispositions were made and +the ships maneuvered so that the timing of the several landings would +be accurately synchronized. Shortly after one o'clock the landing +boats were lowered from the transports. + +Strung in lines of four and five the boats were slowly towed toward +shore by steam pinnaces. Not a sound was heard but the panting of the +engines of the little boats. The speed was accurately calculated to +bring the parties close in shore with the first break of the dawn. + +Accompanying the Australian and New Zealand troops, were a number of +destroyers. Just as they reached the shallow water in front of the +cliffs of Gaba Tepe, a Turkish lookout spied them in the hazy light of +the morning. Instantly he gave the alarm and a flaring searchlight +flashed its rays on the little flotilla. + +The need for silence had disappeared. With a cheer the British troops +leaped from their boats into the shoal water and splashed their way +ashore. While many of them were still in their boats, however, the +Turks opened fired. The whole ground had been carefully prepared and +from every cover on the shore and the cliffs beyond a deadly fire was +poured upon the Colonial troops. + +Without faltering, however, the Australian and New Zealand troops, +supported by a squadron of battleships and destroyers, came on +straight at the strongly intrenched Turks. The first of the +Australians to reach the shore were the Third Brigade under Colonel +Sinclair Maglagan. With a rush they charged the first Turkish lines, +bayoneted the defenders, and scrambled up the steep cliffs that rise a +hundred feet in the air. + +Fortunately for the British troops, as these and subsequent events +proved, there had been a slight miscalculation in the landing, and the +men had actually gone ashore a mile and a half northeast of Gaba Tepe, +instead of at that point. Gaba Tepe is so rugged and uninviting that +it was believed that the Turks would not trouble to intrench it. +Actually the Turks appeared to have intrenched and prepared every inch +of the coast. But at Sari Bair, where the Australian and New Zealand +troops actually landed, the character of the ground, although not so +advantageous at first, afforded much more protection once the men were +ashore. Sir Ian Hamilton, in his graphic account of the operations, +subsequently said: + +"Owing to the tows having failed to maintain their exact direction, +the actual point of disembarkation was rather more than a mile north +of that which I had selected, and was more closely overhung by steeper +cliffs. Although this accident increased the initial difficulty of +driving the enemy off the heights inland, it has since proved itself +to have been a blessing in disguise, inasmuch as the actual base of +the force of occupation had been much better defiladed from shell +fire. + +"The beach on which the landing was actually effected is a very narrow +strip of sand about 1,000 yards in length, bounded on the north and +the south by two small promontories. At its southern extremity, a +deep ravine with exceedingly deep, scrub-clad sides, runs inland in a +northeasterly direction. Near the northern end of the beach a small +but steep gully runs up into the hills at right angles to the shore. +Between the ravine and the gully the whole of the beach is baked by +the seaward face of the spur which forms the northwestern side of the +ravine. From the top of the spur the ground falls almost sheer, except +near the southern limit of the beach where gentler slopes give access +to the mouth of the ravine behind. Farther inland lie in a tangled +knot the under-features of Sari Bair separated by deep ravines which +take a most confusing diversity of direction. Sharp spurs, covered +with dense scrub and falling away in many places in precipitous sandy +cliffs, radiate from the principal mass of the mountain, from which +they run northwest, west, southwest and south to the coast." + +As fresh British troops came ashore they cast aside their heavy packs +and followed their comrades across the forty feet of open beach and +into the scrub that covered the side of the cliffs. Halfway up the +Turks had prepared a second position. Attacking it in open formation +the Third Brigade succeeded in clearing it within fifteen minutes of +the time they came ashore, despite the desperate and brave defense of +the Turks. + +Meanwhile some of the landing boats, subjected to the terrible fire of +the Turkish guns, were having a bad time. The towing ropes of three of +them were cut by the fire and the boats drifted helplessly about under +the withering rain of bullets that rapidly wiped out their cargoes of +men. But despite these mishaps the First and Second Brigades were +hurried ashore to support the Third. Soon, in the face of terrible +difficulties including the narrowness of the beach, there were between +3,000 and 4,000 allied troops ashore. + +By this time the Turks, by means of the mobile carriages prepared for +them by the Germans, had maneuvered some heavy artillery into position +on the heights inland. Also some of their warships, moored in the +Narrows, began throwing heavy shells across the peninsula into the +allied fleet standing close inshore. So dangerous and accurate became +this fire that the transports had to be ordered out to sea and this +delayed the operations seriously. + +At Gaba Tepe and on the heights to the north of the beach the Turks +posted guns and enfiladed the Narrows beach. Thus the troops, as they +landed, had to make their way through a rain of shrapnel, machine gun +and rifle fire that wiped out hundreds. Despite the success of the +Australian Brigades in clearing the beach and the face of the cliff, +the Turkish fire never seemed to slacken. + +Because of the nature of the country there could be no central control +over the advance fighting and no continued communications between the +several forces making their way to the top of the cliffs. The battle +resolved itself into a series of fights between small parties, or even +individual soldiers, whose one object was to kill as many of the enemy +as possible and make their way as far inland as possible in the first +rush. + +By two o'clock about twelve British regiments had been landed and the +ground gained consolidated and prepared against counterattack. +Thousands of Turkish troops were by this time pouring along the road +from Maidos and by the middle of the afternoon it was calculated that +there were fully 20,000 of them before the Australian and New Zealand +troops. The latter, in the meantime, had been further reenforced by +two batteries of Indian Mountain Artillery. The pressure of the +constantly increasing Turkish force compelled General Birdwood, who +came ashore about this time, to contract his lines and to reach a +decision that, at that time at least and until the arrival of more +troops, no further advance could be made. The Gaba Tepe landing had +not been the surprise that was expected and the Turks had proved to be +in unexpected strength. + +About three o'clock the Turkish counterattacks began. Absolutely +regardless of human life, they threw themselves in dense masses +against the Second and Third Brigades. The British battleships, the +_Queen_, the _London_, the _Prince of Wales_, the _Triumph_ and the +_Majestic_, posted close inshore, poured a devastating fire on the +advancing Turkish troops as they came into the open. + +About five o'clock the Turks, after repeated assaults upon the British +lines, massed for a final attempt to drive the invaders into the sea. +On and on they came, concentrating on the hard-pressed Third Brigade +as the weak spot in the British defense. Fighting gamely against heavy +odds, this Australian Brigade which had borne the brunt of the landing +attack and which had been almost continually counterattacked all +afternoon, gave way slowly, selling every inch of ground dearly. +Hundreds of the brave Turkish troops were mown down by the machine +guns which the Australians had by this time brought ashore. At +nightfall, however, General Birdwood, as a consequence of the +persistence of the enemy, had to contract his lines further. + +As night settled on the battle field on the ridge above Gaba Tepe and +Sari Bair, and the two forces rested from sheer exhaustion, the +British troops, who once were well inland toward Maidos, their +objective, were barely hanging onto the ridge overlooking the shore of +the Gulf of Saros. All their water and food and munitions and +reenforcements had to be brought ashore across the exposed beach, +while the landing of the necessary artillery in the face of the +Turkish fire was a feat to appal the bravest. But though their hold on +their position was precarious it was tenacious and, in the end, +effective. If they had not won all they expected to win they had at +least won a foothold in the face of terrific difficulties. + +While the Australians and New Zealanders were fighting desperately +beyond Gaba Tepe, the other forces of the allied army were +accomplishing similar deeds of heroism at the tip of the peninsula. + +Coming down the coast of the peninsula from Gaba Tepe, about three +miles from the extreme southwestern tip, was what was known as Beach +Y. It was almost due west of the important town of Krithia, and the +landing was intended primarily to protect the left flank of the +British landing forces from attack by the considerable forces believed +to be concentrated there. + +The actual landing seems to have been somewhat of a surprise to the +Turks. Indeed, subsequent events showed that they were correct in +their estimate that a landing at the so-called Beach Y would be a +mistake. A narrow strip of sandy beach led to the cliffs, two hundred +feet high, that were believed to be almost unscalable. It is easy to +be wise after the event, but military writers subsequently declared +that if the Turks had been prepared to defend the position, the force +that landed at Beach Y would have been wiped out in the preliminary +attempt to establish a footing. + +The force assigned to this point of attack consisted of the First +King's Own Scottish Borderers, and the Plymouth Battalion of the Royal +Naval Division, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Koe. The +latter was under orders, if the landing proved successful, to work his +way south to effect a junction with the force landing at Beach X, some +two miles away. + +About five o'clock, Koe's force appeared off Beach Y, on the +transports _Braemar Castle_ and _Southland_, and escorted by the +battleship _Goliath_, and the cruisers _Amethyst_ and _Sapphire_. The +Turks had posted a large force at Beach Y 2, between Beach Y and Beach +X, but half of the Scottish Borderers were ashore before the Turkish +command had realized what was happening. As a result Colonel Koe's +force was partly established on the cliffs before the Turks had begun +to arrive. + +But if the initial stages were unexpectedly easy for this force, +difficulties soon developed. Once on the heights, Colonel Koe ordered +an advance to link up with the force at Beach X. The British troops +had not gone far when they ran into the Turkish troops from Beach Y. +So large was this force and so determined an opposition did it offer +to the British troops that Colonel Koe soon decided it would be +impossible, with the two battalions at his disposal, to accomplish the +task assigned him. + +Early in the afternoon the little British force was dismayed by the +approach on its left flank of a large force of Turks from Krithia, +which threatened to cut it off from the landing beach. Reluctantly +Colonel Koe, just before he received a fatal wound, gave the order to +intrench. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXIII + +THE BRITISH IN DANGER--BITTER FIGHTING + + +The British troops were now in a critical position. There was a +peculiar spoonlike formation of the ground at the end of the Gallipoli +Peninsula. From the high cliffs along the shore the ground fell away. +Thus it was impossible for the supporting warships lying offshore to +give any effective aid to the little British force once it had left +the shore and the edge of the heights. The Turks realized to the full +their advantage and attacked the Borderers and the marines with fury. +Frequent attacks were launched against the dwindling line of the +British force. Guns of large caliber were rapidly brought up from +Krithia, while the Turks showed extraordinary daring and cleverness in +bomb attacks upon the hastily dug trenches of the enemy. + +All night long the Turks attacked. By morning the remnants of the +British force were in desperate straits. Sir Ian Hamilton subsequently +declared that the losses at this time had been "deplorable." Many of +the officers, in addition to Lieutenant Colonel Koe, had been killed +or wounded, while 50 per cent of the Borderers had been put out of +action. They were no longer able to defend properly their trenches. +Food, water, and ammunition were running short. A consultation of the +remaining officers was held. The question of trying to hold out until +reenforcements arrived was considered, but ultimately it was decided +to retreat to the shore and to reembark. + +At seven o'clock on Monday morning the order was given. The attending +fleet had been strengthened by the arrival of the cruisers _Talbot_ +and _Dublin_, and, supported by the _Goliath_, the _Amethyst_, and the +_Sapphire_, they began a terrific bombardment of the tops of the +cliffs. Protected by this screen of fire, the few remaining British +troops were able to get away in their boats without molestation save +for a long distance bombardment by the Turkish artillery. + +The landing at Beach X was more successful. The Eighty-seventh +Brigade, under the command of Brigadier General Marshall, was assigned +to this part of the field. It was to work its way as far as possible +inland and link up with the troops coming ashore at Beach W. At Beach +X the Turks were well prepared. They had constructed bomb-proof +shelters and trenches on the heights and were well led by German +officers. + +Before the actual landing the supporting battleships, led by the +_Swiftsure_ and the _Implacable_, bombarded the Turkish positions for +almost an hour with their heaviest guns. The ground was thoroughly +swept by the great 12-inch and smaller guns of the warships. Finally, +just before the actual landing, the _Implacable_ steamed within 500 +yards of the shore, dropped her anchor and smothered the near cliffs +and the foreshore with her fire. + +Subsequent investigation proved that in this affair of Gallipoli, as +in Flanders and elsewhere, the British suffered from their lack of +foresight in the provision of proper shells. The battleships used +shrapnel, which, it was afterward discovered, did little damage to the +deep, protected trenches prepared by the Turks under the supervision +of the German officers. If the British had had instead the +high-explosive shells that were necessary for the work, the story of +the Gallipoli landings under the wing of the great fleet of +battleships might have made different reading. + +After about a quarter of an hour's final bombardment by the +_Implacable_, two companies and a machine-gun section of the First +Royal Fusiliers were thrown ashore at Beach X. Under cover of the +battleships, the landing was safely accomplished and the Fusiliers +advanced almost 1,000 yards without much opposition. Hill 114 on their +right, where the Turks proved to be firmly intrenched, then proved a +serious obstacle to the advance. While the Royal Fusiliers were +considering the best method of attacking this position, a Turkish +battery, in position near the town of Krithia, opened fire and tore +holes in the left wing of the British force. At the same time they +were heavily counterattacked by a Turkish force coming from the east. +Gradually the Royal Fusiliers were compelled to give ground. Two +battalions of the Eighty-seventh Division were sent ashore and with +these reenforcements the British again advanced, this time clearing +Hill 114 of the enemy. There they joined hands with the First +Battalion of the Lancashire Fusiliers, and although all day long the +Turks tried to break the union of the two forces, they did not succeed +in doing so. + +However, General Marshall's force was hard pressed. Once more the +unceasing Turkish counterattacks drove them back to the very edge of +the heights overlooking Beach X, where only the intense bombardment of +the protecting warships saved them. General Marshall was wounded, but +refused to relinquish his command, and a very large proportion of the +total force was either killed or wounded in the day's fighting. When +night fell the British troops held only half a mile of territory +around their original landing place, with their right wing resting on +Hill 114, linked up with the force from Beach W. + +Here at Beach W, a mile and a half down the coast, midway between +Tekke Burna and Hellas Burna, was being enacted a feat of arms which, +in the opinion of competent military men, is fit to rank with the +great military accomplishments of all time. In speaking of it +subsequently Sir Ian Hamilton made use of the following terms: + +"So strong, in fact, were the defenses of Beach W that the Turks may +well have considered them impregnable, and it is my firm conviction +that no finer feat of arms has ever been achieved by the British +soldier--or any other soldier--than the storming of these trenches +from open boats on the morning of April 25." + +At Beach W the Turks, fully foreseeing a landing, had prepared as at +no other point. The beach is in a wide bay and leads into a gully +flanked on one side by the hills extending to Cape Tekke and, on the +other side by the steep cliffs extending to Cape Hellas. + +Every inch of the ground had been prepared against attack. Sea and +land mines had been profusely laid, wire entanglements had been placed +along the shore and stretching out into the water. Deep trenches had +been dug on the heights and on the sides of the slopes while strong +redoubts had been built at two dominating positions. Every bush and +cover contained a sniper while larger covers concealed machine guns +trained to sweep the beach and the slopes leading to the Turkish +trenches. + +As a defensive position Beach W was almost ideal. It had two weak +points, however, which in the end turned the scales and made success +possible for the attacking force. At either end of the bay were small +rock positions from which it was possible to enfilade the elaborate +system of defenses. + +The landing party at Beach W consisted of the First Battalion +Lancashire Fusiliers, under command of Major Bishop. "It was," wrote +Sir Ian Hamilton, "to the complete lack of the sense of danger or of +fear of this daring battalion that we owed our astonishing success." +After a preliminary bombardment by the supporting warships the men of +the First Battalion, in thirty-two cutters drawn by eight picket +boats, approached the shore. The Turks made no move until the men were +in shallow water and were leaping out of the boats. Then they opened +fire with a murderous torrent from artillery, machine guns, and +rifles. The first line of the First Battalion went down to a man. The +second never faltered, but came on bravely into the fire, striving +desperately to cut the wire entanglements. So quickly did they fall +that observers on the warships wondered why they were "resting" on the +bullet swept shore instead of running to cover. + +Rapidly the men from Lancashire worked. Finally a remnant of the +battalion forced its way through the last line of wire and ran for +shelter on the bush covered slopes. Almost at the same moment, +detachments that had landed on the rocks at Cape Tekke and under Cape +Hellas began to have an important effect upon the struggle. At the +latter point, the Eighty-eighth Brigade, under Brigadier General Hare, +clambered up the steep side of the cliffs, searched out the machine +gun positions of the enemy and swept the ground clear with the +bayonet. This and the work of the force at Cape Tekke eased the +Turkish fire on the beach and, on the slopes of the Cape Tekke side of +the ravine, the few remaining officers of the First Battalion were +able to re-form the remnants of their force and advance upon Hill 114. + +About nine o'clock reenforcements were landed, this time not on the +exposed beach but under Cape Tekke, the heights of which were by now +largely in the hands of the British troops. With the help of these +fresh troops, three lines of Turkish trenches were carried. Brigadier +General Hare was seriously wounded and his place was filled by Colonel +Wolley-Dod, who was sent ashore with orders to organize a further +advance at all speed. At this point the attacking force ran up against +the Turkish redoubt at Hill 138. + +The afternoon opened with an intense naval bombardment of the ground +around Hill 138 and of that redoubt itself. At two o'clock the Fourth +Battalion of the Worcesters was ordered to take the position by +assault. Under Lieutenant Colonel D. E. Cayley, they advanced a +considerable distance under rifle fire and charged up the heights with +a cheer. The Turks fought bravely against a stronger force, but by +four o'clock Hill 138 was in the hands of the Worcesters. + +Less than a mile down the coast, almost to the old fort and village of +Sedd-el-Bahr, was what was known as V Beach. There a landing in great +force was attempted. Largely because of the scale of the operations, +but also because of the difficulties and the accidents of warfare, +this landing was made with great losses. + +The beach and the shore in the immediate vicinity form a most regular +amphitheatre of a radius of about 400 feet. The beach is about 10 +yards wide and 350 to 400 feet long and it runs into a slightly +concaved, grassy slope that rises gently to a height of a hundred +feet. Little or no real cover was to be found on this slope and the +defenders were able to sweep it from all angles with a devastating +rain of all kinds of shells. Just at the edge of the strip of sand, +however, was a continuous escarpment about four feet high, which +afforded a cover in which troops once ashore might be re-formed. As a +result of the early naval bombardment of the tip of the peninsula, +much of the village of Sedd-el-Bahr and the fort and the barracks had +been reduced to ruins. The ruins afforded, however, excellent cover +for the Turkish troops and proved a serious obstacle to the advance of +the British when they reached the shore. + +In addition to the natural disadvantages under which the attacking +party had to work, the Turks had constructed two lines of barbed wire +obstacles--one at the edge of the beach and the second two-thirds of +the way up to the top of the ridge. These two lines of barbed wire +were more stoutly constructed than were any others with which the +British had to contend. Just beyond the second obstacle the Turks had +built their first line of trenches and beyond the ground was scored +with innumerable covers for the defenders. + +The force assigned to the attack upon V Beach was composed of the +Dublin Fusiliers, the Munster Fusiliers, half a battalion of the +Hampshire Regiment, the West Riding Field Company and a few minor +units. The action opened with a short range bombardment of the enemy's +trenches and such parts of the fort, the village and the barracks as +were still standing and believed to be affording cover for riflemen +and machine-gun batteries. Then three companies of the Dublin +Fusiliers were towed ashore. At this point one of the great +experiments of the Gallipoli landings was put to the test, and, +despite the cleverness of its conception, it did not meet with great +success. + +A large transport vessel, the _River Clyde_, had been loaded with +about 2,000 troops. She had been reconstructed inside and great doors +had been cut in one of her sides. The troops were ready on long +platforms for instant disembarkation. The ships were to be run ashore, +as close as possible to the beach, lighters were to be floated in +between her and the shore, the side doors were to be flung open, and +the troops were to rush ashore and carry the slopes by sheer momentum. +In the front of the vessel, protected by sandbags, was a battery of +machine guns which, it was hoped, would be especially effective in +protecting the landing force from counterattacks. + +As at the other landings, the Turks gave no sign of life until the +collier had been beached and the other landing force had almost +reached the shore in its tows. Indeed, so long did they hesitate in +opening fire that at one time the watchers on the warships thought the +landing was going to be unopposed. They were soon disabused of such an +idea, however, as the first of the towboats grounded on the sandy +beach, the Turks opened fire from a dozen different positions. Many of +the Dublin Fusiliers were killed before they were able to get out of +their boats. A few scrambled ashore and reached the shelter of the +escarpment that rimmed the beach. The Turks concentrated their fire on +the boats and their crews. None of them were able to get away, and +almost instantly their crews were killed and the boats wrecked. + +Meantime the _River Clyde_, had been run ashore. Unfortunately, the +operation was not carried out as expeditiously as it was hoped it +would be, and the Turks soon became aware of the intentions of the +British. They poured a punishing fire on the naval party attempting to +get the lighters into position between the ship and the shore. The +heavy tide that at this point sweeps around the point of land also +seriously interfered with the work. Finally however, by deeds of +heroism that received subsequent official acknowledgment, the lighters +were got into position and the doors of the _River Clyde_ flung open. + +At a trot a company of the Munster Fusiliers led the way. It was +almost impossible to live for even a short time in the fire that the +Turks concentrated upon the lighters, and hardly a man reached the +shore. Nothing daunted, a second company of the same battalion +followed. As they dropped in scores the lighters began to drift and +dozens of the men, in attempting to swim ashore in their heavy kits, +were drowned. + +Despite the storm of fire, volunteers once more swung the lighters +into position. The third company of the Munsters were ordered to +attempt to reach the beach. By this time the Turks had been able to +concentrate shrapnel fire on the _River Clyde_ and her human freight, +and the third company suffered even more casualties than had the first +two. + +There is a limit to human sacrifice, and Brigadier General Napier, in +command of the troops, called a halt in the attempt to land. A little +later, it was resumed, with General Napier and Captain Costeker and a +detachment of the Hampshire Regiment heroically leading the way. When +they had reached the lighters the moorings again gave way and they +drifted into deep water. In the torrent of bullets that was being +poured down upon them by the Turks it was impossible to do anything +but lie flat on the exposed decks and wait for the lighters to be +swung into position again. Scores of them were killed, including both +Brigadier General Napier and Captain Costeker. + +With this major disaster, all attempts to make further landings were +abandoned for the day. A few hundred British troops had succeeded in +reaching the escarpment on the shore and there they huddled, not +daring to lift their heads above the four-foot natural cover. +Fortunately for them, the machine-gun battery on the _River Clyde_ +raked the slope, kept the fire of the Turkish defenders down and +prevented any counterattacks, which might have ended disastrously for +the British troops. The troops still on board the _River Clyde_, +numbering about 1,000 were effectively protected from the fire of the +Turks, suffering few casualties, although shrapnel tore four great +holes in the side of the collier. + +Matters had not gone any better at other sections of the beach. Half a +company of the Dublins landed east of Sedd-el-Bahr for the purpose of +flanking the Turkish defenses, failed to accomplish its purpose and +lost all except twenty-five of its men. In the afternoon the landing +at V Beach was definitely accepted as a failure and plans made for the +diversion of the troops not yet landed to one of the other beaches. It +was first thought that Y Beach would be the best point, but it was +decided that it would be too late to effect the issue there and the +troops were finally diverted to W Beach, where, despite the heavy +cost, the Lancashire landing had led to some real results. + +As nightfall approached there was a momentary thrill of hopefulness +among those who remained on V Beach because of the fact that some of +the Worcestershire and Lancashire Fusiliers succeeded in working their +way across country from W Beach and threatened to make untenable the +Turkish positions. The few hundred men on V Beach and the thousand or +more cooped up in the _River Clyde_ could hear the fight coming closer +and closer and, cheered by their officers, their spirits rose. But the +men from W Beach were stopped finally by the frequent lines of +barbed-wire obstructions that had been stretched by the Turk at right +angles to the shore, between the two beaches, in preparation for just +such an eventuality as this. + +Night came, but with it not much relief from the constant vigilance of +the Turks. There was in the perfect sky not a cloud to screen the +moon's rays. A successful attempt was made, however, to land the +infantry from the _River Clyde_, and subsequently the force then +ashore, numbering close upon 1,500 men, tried to clear the ruins of +the fort and the outskirts of the village. All these efforts were in +vain, however, and finally the troops returned to the protection of +the escarpment along the shore. From there the task of removing the +wounded to the protection of the _River Clyde_ was proceeded with +under a heavy fire. + +In comparison with the sanguinary affairs at the four other beaches, +the landing at S Beach was a minor affair, costing only about fifty +casualties. This beach was located at the extreme eastern end of Morto +Bay, close by Eski Hissarlik Point, and the work was delegated to the +Second South Wales Borderers under Lieutenant Colonel Casson. The +chief difficulty of this landing was found in the powerful current +which delayed it for several hours beyond the appointed time. However, +the men were finally got ashore and easily drove out the small Turkish +force that had been posted in the neighborhood. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXIV + +FURTHER EFFORTS AT LANDING--FAILURE TO TAKE KRITHIA + + +Meanwhile the French were carrying on a disastrous operation at Kum +Kale, on the Asiatic shore, directly south of S Beach. About 2,800 men +had been landed after a preliminary bombardment by the French fleet. +Before they reembarked next morning they had lost more than a quarter +of their effectives. After landing they stormed the ruined castle of +Kum Kale and then drove inland with the object of clearing the village +of Yeni Shehr. The Turks were in force, however, at that point and +held the French midway between Kum Kale and Yeni Shehr. Finally it +became apparent that further advance was impossible without +reenforcements and the French intrenched for the night. All through +the darkness the Turks launched a counterattack upon the landing force +and morning found the French preparing to reembark. Under the guns of +the French warships this was accomplished without any great further +loss. + +Thus of the seven landings that had been attempted by the allied +forces two, that at Kum Kale and that at Y Beach, had been definitely +abandoned. Of the remaining five only two had been successful in +linking up--that at Beach X and that at Beach W. Farther up the Gulf +of Saros, near the lines known by the name of Bulair, a force of the +Royal Naval Reserve made a demonstration but did not effect a landing. + +The Australians and the New Zealanders on the cliffs above Gaba Tepe +were fighting desperately against the constant Turkish counterattacks, +but, assisted by the fleet under Admiral Thursby, successfully +resisted all attempts to drive them into the sea. Already the little +cove in which the landing had been made had been christened "Anzac +Cove," "Anzac," of course, was formed by taking the first letters of +the official designation of the colonial forces--Australian and New +Zealand Army Corps. The spirits of the men were high, despite the +awful experience they had gone through, and they frequently exchanged +cheery messages with the gunners of the warships who were pounding +away at the Turkish positions, although not accomplishing any great +damage in their blind firing. + +It had been intended to organize an immediate resumption of the +advance from Anzac Cove with daybreak of April 26. But the Turks were +constantly bringing up reenforcements. Watchers on the warships could +see them creeping over the crest of Sari Bair and although the naval +guns were turned on them, their loss was comparatively small because +of their open formation and their cleverness in making use of every +bit of cover. + +During the early morning the Anzacs had hauled heavy field guns up the +face of the steep cliffs and had, in many other ways, strengthened +their positions. This was all the more necessary as it became apparent +that the Turks were massing for a great attack shortly after nine +o'clock. About noon the battle reached its height. The Turks attacked +bravely and although they suffered great losses, never wavered. +Despite their efforts, however, the Anzacs held fast. By this time +reenforcements were beginning to arrive and a more permanent character +was given to the trenches. An attempt was made to organize for an +advance as headquarters were constantly impressing upon the individual +commands the necessity of making good as much ground as possible +before the Turks were able to bring into action their undoubted +superiority in forces. + +The constant attacks of the Turks, however, made any real attempt at +advance impossible, although a little ground was gained on the 26th by +counterattacks. It soon became apparent, too, that, although the +operation at Anzac Cove was part and parcel of the general attack, it +had, through its inability to make progress, become a separate affair +and had been so conducted for the rest of the campaign--or at least +until a much greater advance had been made in all quarters. + +At the tip of the peninsula the chief events of the second day of the +landing, April 26, 1915, occurred at V Beach, where the _River Clyde_ +had been run ashore. About 1,500 men were left, composed of the +survivors of the Dublins and the Munsters and two companies of the +Hampshires, under cover of the escarpment on the beach. There Colonel +Doughty-Wylie and Captain Walford rallied them on the morning of the +26th and covered by a heavy bombardment by the warships set out to +clear the village. Desperate hand-to-hand fighting followed and the +casualties were appalling. Most of the houses contained squads of +riflemen and the more important machine guns. Each had to be carried +separately. By noon, however, the town had been cleared. Captain +Walford had fallen, bravely leading his troops in a way that earned +him the Victoria Cross. + +Colonel Doughty-Wylie called a halt and collected the survivors of the +attack. Under cover of some empty houses he rallied them, re-formed +them as best he could, called upon them for one last effort and +walked out into the open at the head of his troops for the assault +upon the old Castle, and Hill 141. + +Carrying a light cane, the figure of Colonel Doughty-Wylie was a +conspicuous one. Yet he survived almost to the end and to victory. He +reached the slope leading up to Hill 141, urging his men forward. He +was in the lead when a bullet killed him instantly. Fired by his +splendid example which earned him a posthumous Victoria Cross, the +Dublins, Munsters, and Hampshires swept on and carried the summit. By +two o'clock the commanding position was in the hands of the British. + +At the same time the Lancashire Landing force had linked up with the +landing at V Beach. Also, the French Expeditionary force, after its +hard experience at Kum Kale, was successfully landed at V Beach. +Additional troops were landed at S Beach to prevent the South Wales +Borderers being wiped out in their isolation. + +On the morning of April 27, 1915, Sir Ian Hamilton looked over the +positions. He found that, although he had several beaches securely in +his grasp, he lacked room in which to maneuver. Also his force was +beginning to suffer from lack of water. Accordingly he decided that an +immediate advance was necessary. + +Sir Ian Hamilton set his men the task of clearing the comparatively +low ground at the tip of the peninsula--a distance of about two miles +from the extreme southwestern point of the land. He drew a straight +line from the position held by the South Wales Borderers near the +ruined De Tott's Battery to Y Beach. After some hard fighting this was +accomplished with the exception of the extreme left wing, which got +only as far as Y 2 Beach, where the Turks were in force. + +On the following day, April 27th, despite the fact that his forces +were almost exhausted, Sir Ian Hamilton called upon them for a supreme +effort. He intended, he said, to capture the Village of Krithia and, +from that point, carry Achi Baba, the first main objective in the +campaign to open the Narrows. + +The advance was ordered for eight o'clock in the morning. The +Twenty-ninth Division, under Major General Sir Aylmer Hunter-Weston, +was to move on Krithia, the French force was to move along the right +flank of the Twenty-ninth to the Kereves Dere, which ran from the base +of Achi Baba, and there await the capture of Krithia and the assault +upon the main height. + +The leading units of the Twenty-ninth Division advanced almost without +opposition for a couple of miles, but was then heavily attacked by the +enemy. Despite all further attempts the British troops were able to +make no further advance at this point and intrenched for the night. A +little to the right, other units eventually got within three-quarters +of a mile of Krithia, but finally were compelled to fall back in line +with the force on its left. Still farther to the right the +Eighty-eighth Brigade had been brought to a halt and found itself +running short of ammunition. + +The Eighty-sixth Brigade, which had been held in reserve, came into +action shortly after one o'clock in the afternoon. It was ordered to +move through the Eighty-eighth Brigade and carry Krithia. A few units +got within sight of Krithia, but the main body of the Eighty-sixth +Brigade was unable to force a way beyond the line reached by the +Eighty-eighth. + +The French, meanwhile, were having an equally hard time. At one time +they were within a mile of Krithia, but ultimately they, in company +with the whole allied line, had to give way before strong Turkish +counterattacks. Masses of Turkish troops advanced against the British +center and right and against the whole line of the French and drove +them back with the bayonet. An almost successful attempt was made to +pierce the allied line at the point where the French linked up with +the British. The French gave way and uncovered the right flank of the +Eighty-eighth Brigade. The Fourth Worcesters suffered cruelly and had +it not been for the reenforcements of the Eighty-sixth Brigade a +serious situation might have ensued. + +In speaking of this critical moment Sir Ian Hamilton subsequently +wrote: + +"The men were exhausted and the few guns landed at the time were +unable to afford them adequate artillery support. The small amount of +transports available did not suffice to maintain the supply of +munitions, and cartridges were running short despite all efforts to +push them up from the landing places." + +The situation was now becoming serious and it became apparent that +Krithia could not be carried. Accordingly, the allied forces were +ordered to dig in as rapidly as possible and hold their ground at all +costs. Thus ended the Battle of the Landings, extending over three +days. The results obtained fell far short of expectations. Krithia and +Achi Baba had not been carried, the Australians and New Zealanders had +been unable to advance along the road to Maidos and, indeed, were +hanging on to a thin strip of shore by their very teeth. It became +more apparent with each new attempt that the difficulties before the +attackers in the Gallipoli Peninsula were far beyond anything that had +been conceived. + +In speaking of his failure to reach Krithia, Sir Ian Hamilton said: + +"Had it been possible to push in reenforcements in men, artillery and +munitions during the day, April 27, Krithia should have fallen, and +much subsequent fighting for its capture would have been avoided. + +"Two days later this would have been feasible, but I had to reckon +with the certainty that the enemy would, in that same time, have +received proportionately greater support. I was faced by the usual +choice of evils, and although the result was not what I had hoped, I +have no reason to believe that hesitation and delay would better have +answered my purpose." + + + + +CHAPTER LXXV + +KRITHIA AGAIN ATTACKED--HEROIC WORK OF "ANZACS" + + +On April 28, 1915, Sir Ian Hamilton decided to send reenforcements in +force to Anzac Cove. Despite the constant landing of fresh troops +there the Australians and New Zealanders, because of their heavy +losses and the increasing pressure of the Turkish attacks, had been +almost continually in the firing line. They had been able to enjoy +little or no rest or sleep, and things began to look serious. +Accordingly four battalions of the Royal Naval Division were sent to +General Birdwood. On the following day two more naval battalions were +landed and as well a company of the Motor Maxim Section. + +These fresh units moved into the Anzac trenches and held them against +renewed Turkish attacks. Meanwhile the Australian and New Zealand +battalions were being reorganized behind the line and after three and +a half days' rest took their places again in the front-line trenches. + +From the evening of the 27th of April until May 1 there was +comparative quiet on what might be called the Krithia front, at the +tip of the peninsula. Fresh forces were landed by the French and the +English, the latter bringing into line the Twenty-ninth Indian +Infantry Brigade. Heavy artillery was brought ashore and moved up to +positions inland, and the whole organization of the allied force was +re-formed and strengthened. + +At 10 p. m. on the evening of May 1 opened what is known as the first +battle of Krithia. It was elaborately organized by the German staff of +the Turkish forces and took the allied troops by surprise. Indeed, the +first line of the attacking force, creeping up on its hands and knees, +got into the trenches of the Eighty-sixth Brigade and bayoneting most +of the defenders opened up what Sir Ian Hamilton subsequently +described as "an ugly gap." Thanks to the fine conduct of some +territorial units, however, the Turks were not able to press home this +temporary advantage and the hole was soon closed. + +Along the rest of the British front the attack of the Turks was not +serious. Instead they concentrated on the left of the French line, +held by a Senegalese brigade. After several attacks the African troops +began to give way. Realizing the seriousness of the situation, the two +companies of the Worcesters moved across from the British right and +saved the day. Some hours later, the extreme French right was hard +pressed, and it was necessary to bring up a battalion of the Royal +Naval Division from the reserves to strengthen it. + +The following morning, the allied troops moved out of their trenches +in a counterattack. It at first met with great success. As Sir Ian +Hamilton wrote in his dispatch to London: "Had it not been for those +inventions of the devil--machine guns and barbed wire--which suit the +Turkish character and tactics to perfection, we should not have +stopped short of the crest of Achi Baba." + +By 7.30 in the morning the British left had advanced more than 500 +yards, while the center and the right and the French left had also +registered promising advances. The rest of the French line, however, +was held up by strong Turkish forces posted along the Kereves Dere and +the more advanced sections of the British left came under heavy +cross-fire. In the end it was necessary to relinquish all the ground +gained and to retire to the original trenches. + +Although the Turks made night attacks against the French line on May 2 +and 3, 1915, and in the end inflicted such heavy losses that it was +necessary to shorten the line held by General d'Amade's troops, it was +not until May 6, 1915, that heavy fighting occurred again along the +whole line. On May 5 the Lancashire Fusilier Brigade of the East +Lancashire Territorial Division, which had been training in Egypt, +arrived and was placed in reserve, behind the British left. + +At this time it was calculated that the British total losses, killed, +wounded and missing since the initial operations of the landing, had +been just short of 14,000 men. This of course did not include the sick +who must have numbered 10,000 or the French losses, which were not +revealed. These were heavy and serious and more than counterbalanced +the reenforcements that had arrived. + +Sir Ian Hamilton decided to make a fresh attempt against Krithia and +Achi Baba on May 6, 1915. This battle was important because it marked +the turning point in the character of the campaign carried on by the +allied troops in Gallipoli. Although an advance was registered none of +the main positions of the Ottoman troops were carried or even reached, +and it became apparent that the task of reducing the Dardanelles was +not one likely to be solved by rush frontal attacks. Rather, as in +other fields of the world war, the problem became one of siege +tactics, and from the date of the end of this second battle of Krithia +the operations in Gallipoli resolved themselves into variations of the +methods that were being forced upon the troops of all the belligerent +countries in Europe. + +For his grand attack upon Krithia and Achi Baba, Sir Ian Hamilton +brought down from Anzac Cove the Second Australian Infantry Brigade +and the New Zealand Brigade. With two brigades of the Royal Naval +Reserve he formed them into a reserve division. The Twenty-ninth +Division held the British line, and was ordered forward about 11 a. m. +of May 6, 1915, with orders to go as far as Krithia if possible, but +at all events to seize as much of the ground around that point as +possible. At the same time the French corps were to attempt to wrest +from the Turks the crest above the Kereves Dere. + +The advance was extremely slow. At the end of two hours the +Twenty-ninth Division had progressed less than three hundred yards and +had not yet come into touch with any of the main Turkish positions. +Three hours more of desperate fighting showed many fluctuations but no +more progress. Finally they were ordered to intrench where they were +for the night. + +The French had succeeded in reaching the crest aimed at, but found it +by no means a comfortable position. They could not go forward and they +dared not go back. Yet they were subject to a raking fire that cost +them hundreds of casualties. Time and time again the Senegalese troops +were sent against the Turkish trenches and machine gun positions, but +each time they were beaten back with cruel losses. To make matters +even worse, the French could not, in the heavy fire maintained by the +Turks, intrench until after nightfall, and they had to spend hours in +the exposed position. + +[Illustration: Embarking the stores at Suvla Bay, Gallipoli, two days +before the British and French forces evacuated their positions at this +part of the peninsula and removed the troops to Salonica.] + +The following morning May 7, 1915, the allied warships opened a +furious bombardment of the ground around Krithia. Every few feet of +the difficult country was searched out by the destroying lyddite of +the Allies' shells, until it seemed that not a living creature could +have survived. But when the Lancashire Fusiliers Brigade moved out +to the attack a few minutes later it soon became apparent that the +naval bombardment had by no means exterminated or demoralized the +Turks. + +The British troops were greeted by a perfect hurricane of fire from +rifles and machine guns. Hundreds of the men went down and, brave as +the remainder were, they were compelled to abandon the attempt to +cross the open ground that lay between the British front and Krithia. +Some progress was made on the right, however, where a clump of fir +trees which had been holding up the advance for some time was finally +carried by the Fifth Royal Scots. Early in the afternoon the Turks +recaptured the firs and such of the ground they had lost and shortly +after four o'clock when Sir Ian Hamilton relieved the situation, the +British were in the position of being absolutely "stuck." The British +commander decided to make another desperate attempt, however, and +called upon the French for cooperation. The whole allied line advanced +to the attack just as evening was closing in but the Turks by this +time had brought up some additional batteries and poured in on the +French and the British a smothering fire of deadly shrapnel. So heavy +was the punishment of the French that the line literally melted away +and General d'Amade was compelled to throw his last reserve into the +front line. At nightfall the allied attack subsided. + +During the night, word came to Sir Ian Hamilton that heavy Turkish +reenforcements were on their way and he decided to make one last +attempt to carry Krithia and Achi Baba before they arrived in the +morning. Accordingly, the Lancashire Fusiliers Brigade which had been +particularly roughly handled was withdrawn from the line, and their +places taken by the New Zealand Brigade. After another naval +bombardment the New Zealanders were ordered forward shortly after 10 +a. m. of May 8, 1915. By 1.30 they were two hundred yards closer to +Krithia than any allied troops had been up to that time. There, +however, they were heavily checked. Other units were unable to +advance, and the French sent word that they were unable to go any +farther unless the British line could move. + +There was a long pause. Finally word was passed along the line that +the final desperate effort was to be made--namely to carry Krithia and +Achi Baba by a combined bayonet attack. Every man in the line was +ordered to fix bayonets and not to stop short of the objectives. At +5.30 in the afternoon came the order to advance, after a bombardment +by the fleet. Almost immediately all central control was lost, and +each unit was fighting desperately for itself in the hills and gullies +of that difficult, almost uncharted, country. Not for many hours +afterward, indeed, in some cases not for days, was it possible to +piece the story together. + +The New Zealand troops got well past the Turkish machine guns without +discovering them, with the consequence that their supports were mown +down by a hail of fire from unexpected quarters. Nevertheless, they +got within a few yards of the Turkish trenches and proceeded to dig +themselves in. The Second Australian Infantry Brigade actually won +about 400 yards of ground and stuck to it with a tenacity warmly +praised by Sir Ian Hamilton. To the left the Eighty-seventh Brigade +had suffered terribly from machine-gun fire while the French had been +severely handled. The French troops were steady enough, but the +Senegalese broke in. At one point General d'Amade rallied the troops +in person. + +Nightfall came and still Krithia and Achi Baba were far away. Thus +ended the second battle of Krithia, the supreme attempt of the allied +troops to carry the Turkish positions by a maneuver battle. Some +little ground had been gained, but the losses had been all out of +proportion to the advantage wrested from the brave and tenacious +Ottoman troops. The only consolation found in the situation by the +higher commands was in the assurance that the enemy had suffered +equally heavy losses, but as they were largely on the defensive this +statement is open to a very large measure of doubt. + +While all this fighting was going on at the tip of the peninsula, the +Anzacs, or that part of them left on the cliffs overlooking the cove, +were having a hard time to maintain their positions. The Turks were +aware of the withdrawal of the two brigades to assist in the second +battle of Krithia, and they made a heavy demonstration to prevent the +departure of any further troops. To understand how vital a matter this +was one has only to read the dispatches of the period. Indeed, it has +often since been pointed out by military writers that, had the troops +landed from first to last at Anzac Cove been available at the tip of +the peninsula, Krithia and Achi Baba would undoubtedly have been +carried in the early days of the fighting, thus altering the whole +course of the campaign. This dispersal of forces would appear to have +been one of the major blunders of the Dardanelles campaign. + +For five days, beginning May 6, 1915, the Anzacs were in almost +constant action. The fortunes fluctuated, gains were made by both +forces, but in the end, aside from heavy losses by both, there was +practically no change in the relative positions. The allied troops +still held a strip of land on the top of the cliffs, of a radius of +about 1,100 yards. As illustrating the intense character of the combat +at this period, it was calculated that during one bombardment no less +than 1,400 Turkish shells fell on this small strip of land in one +hour. + +It has been said that the task of the Anzacs at this period was to +keep open this door to the vitals of the Turkish army and to hold as +many of the Turks as possible, and thus relieve the pressure on the +Krithia front. It can be said with equal force that the task of the +Turks arrayed against them was to hold as many of the Anzacs on this +front as possible. Judged from these angles, both Turks and Britons +were successful. + +In the following week both the British and the French received +substantial reenforcements. On May 14 General d'Amade, in command of +the French forces at the Dardanelles, was relieved by General Gouraud, +who, at the age of 47, was the youngest officer of his rank in the +French army. He had enjoyed conspicuous success in northern France, +and had been nicknamed by his soldiers, the "Lion of the Argonne." It +was believed that his experience in the country of the Argonne and the +style of fighting that had developed there would make him especially +valuable to Sir Ian Hamilton, who, of course, had had no previous +experience with the new style of warfare. + +On May 18, 1915, began the second battle of Anzac. Elaborate +preparations were made by General Liman von Sanders, the German +commander in chief of the Ottoman forces. Fully 30,000 troops are said +to have been gathered for the attack upon the Colonial troops. The +latter were fully prepared, warned of the concentration by the +observers on the warships and the aerial scouts. + +About midnight of that day the attack began. After a preliminary +bombardment of the British positions, successive infantry attacks in +massed formation were launched against the trenches. For six hours the +battle waged, but the Anzacs' positions were not shaken. In the end +the ground in front of the trenches was literally covered with the +dead and wounded. An actual observer wrote of the scene: + +"The ground presents an extraordinary sight when viewed through the +trench periscopes. Two hundred yards away, and even closer in some +places, are the Turkish trenches, and between them and our lines the +dead lie in hundreds. There are groups of twenty or thirty massed +together, as if for mutual protection, some lying on their faces, some +killed in the act of firing; others hung up in the barbed wire. In one +place a small group actually reached our parapet, and now lie dead on +it, shot at point-blank range or bayoneted. Hundreds of others lie +just outside their own trenches, where they were caught by rifle or +shrapnel when trying to regain them. Hundreds of wounded must have +perished between the lines." + +There was a lull after this terrible slaughter, during which the Turks +made unsuccessful overtures to obtain an armistice to bury their dead. +On May 20, 1915, toward evening, the Turks again attacked, +concentrating on Quinn's Point, a strong Anzac redoubt at the outer +edge of the Australian trenches. No results were obtained and finally, +out of sheer necessity for reasons of health, an opportunity was given +the Turks to bury their slain. + +There was some additional fighting on this line during the remaining +days of May, but nothing of real importance occurred. It was +calculated, at the end of the month, that the total British losses, +killed, wounded and missing and not including sick, was just short of +40,000 men. The figures for the sick were not given out, but reports +made later make it tolerably certain that they must have numbered +between 30,000 and 35,000 additional. The intensity of the struggle at +the Dardanelles will be realized when it is pointed out that the total +British casualties in the three years of the South African War were +only 38,156. + +During the last two weeks of May the British and French troops on the +Krithia fronts made elaborate preparations for an attack upon the +Turkish lines. Miners had been brought out from England and France, +and mining and sapping had been conducted on a large scale. On June 4, +1915, Sir Ian Hamilton ordered the attack. It was preceded by the +usual heavy naval and artillery bombardment. Finally, at noon, the +mines were exploded, and the troops advanced along the whole line with +fixed bayonets. + +It is calculated that the British had no less than 24,000 men on a +front of less than 4,000 yards. Their attack was delivered with +tremendous power and was brilliantly successful. At one point, +however, where the French line linked up with the British, the Turks +discovered a weak spot. By noon about a third of a mile had been +gained over a front of four miles, but soon afterward the French began +to weaken and subsequently were compelled to retreat. This exposed the +right wing of the British, which was enfiladed by the Turkish riflemen +and machine gun batteries and suffered terrible losses. The +Collingwood battalion of the Royal Naval Reserve, according to Sir Ian +Hamilton, having gone forward in support when the right wing was hard +pressed, was practically wiped out. + +The attack slackened in the afternoon and nightfall found almost all +the gains of the morning lost to the heavy Turkish counterattacks. So +exhausted were the British and French troops that it was impossible to +renew the battle on the following day. + +On June 21, 1915, the French force fought probably its most successful +action since the landing. About noon of that day, the Second Division +stormed two lines of Turkish trenches and captured what had been +called the "Haricot" redoubt, a strong Turkish position which had +twice changed hands. On the right, the First Division was unable to +make corresponding progress until General Gouraud made a last +inspiring appeal. Before night the whole of the Turkish first line +trenches above Kereves Dere were in the hands of the French troops. +The cost had been terrible, no less than 2,500 soldiers of the +Republic falling in the assault. More important still, General Gouraud +was so seriously injured that he had to return to France. On the way +his right arm was amputated. He was succeeded in command of the French +Expeditionary force by General Bailloud. + +A week of comparative inaction was followed by an action on the +British right, which became known as the battle of the Gully Ravine. +This was a successful attempt to capture the ground originally +included in Sir Ian Hamilton's instructions for the second day of the +Battle of the Landings, near Beach Y, where the Turks had maintained +themselves in force, on June 28, by a strong British force, including +the overworked Twenty-ninth Division, which at this time had but few +of the officers who commanded at the landing on April 25, 1915, the +156th Brigade of the Lowland Division, and the Indian Brigade. Several +of the Turkish trenches could be easily enfiladed from the sea and +H.M.S. _Talbot_, guarded by a ring of destroyers against the German +submarines which had given effective evidence of their presence in the +Gulf of Saros, did terrible execution and played a large part in the +success of the British attack. + +By nightfall, five lines of Turkish trenches along the coast had been +captured, 200 prisoners had been taken and several guns and much +ammunition had fallen to the British troops. The Turks made +counterattacks on the two succeeding nights but never regained the +ground they had lost. + +While this was going on, Enver Pasha directed in person a determined +attack upon the troops at Anzac Cove. On the night of June 29, 1915, +after artillery preparation, two unsuccessful attempts were made by +the Ottoman troops to carry the British lines. + +On July 4, 1915, the Turks launched another attack, starting from the +neighborhood of Achi Baba, against the whole allied front, +concentrating on the point where the French and British lines joined +up. They had a momentary success when they penetrated into one of the +British trenches, but in the end they were driven out. + +On July 12, 1915, Sir Ian Hamilton ordered an attack which won about +400 yards in the direction of Achi Baba, but at heavy loss to one of +the Territorial Brigades, which broke through a couple of the Turkish +trench lines, but was unable to establish a connection with the French +on their right. Finally some local points and a few trenches were +carried, but as the Turks had something like fifty miles of trenches +in Gallipoli, it became apparent that at this rate the allied troops +would be wiped out long before they came within sight of the Narrows. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXVI + +RUSSO-TURKISH OPERATIONS + + +The Russo-Turkish campaign which had developed in Transcaucasia, the +Caucasus and Persia at the beginning of 1915, proved to be little more +than a futile dissipation of energy for the best part of a year. To +Russia it was more of an inconvenience than otherwise, while for the +Turks it was the only point besides Egypt where their geographical +position permitted them to strike a blow against the enemies of +Germany. Her two nearest neighbors--Greece and Bulgaria--were both +neutral at the time. The most interesting feature of this campaign is +the fact that it largely influenced the allied operations at the +Dardanelles. + +On August, 1915, Sir George Buchanan, the British Ambassador in +Petrograd, published the following statement in an interview which +appeared in the Russian press: "When Turkey declared war Russia turned +to Great Britain with a request that she would divert a portion of the +Turkish troops from the Caucasus by means of a counterdemonstration +at some other point. The operations at the Dardanelles were undertaken +with a double object--on the one hand, of reducing the pressure of the +Turks in the Caucasus, and, on the other, of opening the straits and +so making it possible for Russia to export her grain and receive +foreign products of which she stands in need." + +The Turkish offensive in the Caucasus, as we found in Volume II, began +in the middle of December, 1914, and reached its farthest point toward +the end of the year. Although it was subsequently broken by Russia, +its renewal was expected when the weather became more favorable. That +it was not renewed during the summer of 1915, and that Tiflis was in +consequence relieved from further menace, was due entirely to the +British attack on the Dardanelles, to which all available Turkish +troops were immediately dispatched. Russia had her hands full enough +at the time to maintain her long front of 900 miles--from the Baltic +through the Polish salient and through the Carpathian line of Galicia. +She could therefore ill afford to spare any considerable part of her +forces for an extended Transcaucasian campaign. + +Turkey's first plan of action in the Great War appears to have been an +attempt to recover Ardahan and Kars, both of which places, as well as +Batum, had been taken from Turkey and handed over to Russia by the +Treaty of Berlin in 1878. To forestall any such aspirations Russian +troops had entered Asia Minor on November 4, 1914, and advanced for +seventeen miles along the road to Erzerum in Armenia, and on November +8 they successfully resisted an attack by the Turks, armed with heavy +German artillery, at Kuprikeui, from which place several mountain +paths lead to Erzerum. Further attacks had also been made by the Turks +during the rest of the month and in December likewise in the Euphrates +Valley without any notable result, until they had reached Ardahan and +Sarikamish in an attempt to regain Kars. + +In a three days' battle with the Russians, January 1-4, 1915, they +were driven back with enormous losses, the whole of one Turkish army +corps (the Ninth) surrendering. (See Volume II, Turkey in the War.) +The Turks did not get within thirty miles of Kars. In numerical +strength the Turks were estimated at three to one against the +Russians. Fighting in the deep snow at altitudes of 8,000 to 10,000 +feet in a severe winter is an enormously difficult undertaking for the +attacking side, and it is evident that the Turkish forces suffered +terrible hardships in their attempt to retain a footing on Russian +territory. + +At the end of January and the beginning of February furious fighting +raged in the neighborhood of Sarikamish, when the Russians inflicted +another defeat on the Turks. During a blinding snowstorm the former +had crossed a mountain and, after heavy fighting, captured the +commanding general and the staff of the Thirtieth Turkish Division and +a large quantity of war material. The roaring of the wind was so great +that the Russian approach could not be heard, while the thickly +blowing snow rendered the troops invisible. + +At the same time the Russian squadron bombarded the Turkish barracks +at Trebizond and Rizah from the Black Sea, also sinking some Turkish +sailing vessels used as transports. Under the superintendence of +German engineers the Turks hurriedly set about constructing a branch +railroad from Angora to Sivas, Asia Minor, intended to replace the +Trebizond water route as a line of communication for the Turkish +troops on the Caucasus front. Meanwhile another Russian column pushed +out from Julfa along the Tabriz road to force battle upon the Turkish +army invading the Persian province of Azerbaijan. The Turks advanced +northward from Tabriz to Marand, where a stubborn battle was fought. +They were commanded by Djevet Pasha, who was considered one of their +best tacticians and most aggressive fighters, but after a series of +unsuccessful frontal onslaughts his army broke in disorder, abandoning +cannon, colors (standards), and all their dead and wounded. To the +Russians the victory was more of political than military value, for it +dealt a severe blow at Turkish and German influence in Persia. + +On February 8, 1915, the Turkish cruiser _Midirli_ (formerly the +German warship _Breslau_) fired upon the Russian port of Jalta on the +Crimean Peninsula, opposite Balaklava. The Russian fleet retaliated +by again bombarding Trebizond on the other side of the Black Sea. + +About February 20-21, 1915, several small engagements were fought in +the vicinity of Chorokh, as a result of which the Turks were driven +beyond the river. + +On February 22, 1915, news came from Petrograd to the effect that the +Turks had indulged in cruel atrocities during their occupation of +Ardanuten in Transcaucasia, near the Armenian frontier. The Tiflis +correspondent of the "Russkoye Slovo" (the "Russian Word") stated that +at first the Turks confined themselves to pillage and killed only +fifteen civilians, but that after December 30, 1914, when news of the +Russian occupation of Ardaham was received, the local Mussulmans had +organized a systematic massacre. A hundred and fifty Armenians were +led out into the streets and killed. + +Fifty Armenians were removed from prisons, stripped naked, and +compelled to leap into the abyss of Jenemdere, the "Devil's Gap," +until one victim carried a Turk with him, when the remainder were +shot. At Tamvot 250 Armenians were massacred and the women carried +into captivity. The Turks did not permit the burial of the corpses, +which were left to be devoured by dogs till the arrival of the +Russians. Again, it was reported from Urumiah, northwestern Persia, +that prior to the evacuation of towns between Julfa and Tabriz the +Turks and Kurds, who were retiring before the Russian advance, +plundered and burned the villages and put to death some of the +inhabitants. At Salnac, Pagaduk, and Sarna orders were said to have +been given by the Turkish commissioner for the destruction of the +towns. All the Armenian inhabitants of Antvat were collected and, +according to this message, 600 males were put to death, and the women, +after being compelled to embrace the Islamic faith, were divided into +parties and sent to various interior towns. + +On March 19, 1915, the Armenian Red Cross fund in London issued some +details supplied by an Armenian doctor named Derderian, who testified +that the whole plain of Alashgerd was virtually covered with the +bodies of men, women, and children. When the Russian forces had +retreated from this district the Kurds fell upon the helpless people +and shut them up in mosques. The men were killed and the women were +carried away to the mountains. The Armenian Red Cross fund stated that +there were 120,000 destitute Armenians in the Caucasus at that time. + +As war in itself is not far removed from being a wholesale, organized +atrocity on a large scale, it is always advisable to accept such +accusations with extreme reserve and to consider the probability of +their having been perpetrated. In the case of Turk and Kurd _versus_ +Armenian, however--and unfortunately--there is little reason to doubt +even the most gruesome stories that could possibly be written. It is a +feud as old as the hills, and no historic battle field of the world +was ever so liberally drenched with human blood as the soil of +Armenia. + +Having expelled the Turks from the Transcaucasian region toward the +end of February, 1915, the Russians again moved forward on the Asiatic +front, sweeping aside, destroying and capturing detachments of Turks +that opposed their advance. + +By March 1, 1915, the Russians were approaching Oltichai along one of +the main highroads toward Erzerum from the west. Another column +advancing from the east encountered some Turks in the mountain passes +south of Alashkort. These they defeated, capturing two guns. On +February 28, 1915, the Russian troops operating in the coast region +occupied the port of Khopa on the Black Sea, eighteen miles southwest +of Batum. This port was of great military value to the Turks. + +On March 3, 1915, the Russian Army of the Caucasus, driving the +Turkish forces before it, had reached the River Khopachas, the estuary +of the Chorokh in Armenia. This move severed the route of Turkish +reenforcements and supplies from Constantinople to the Caucasian +frontier through Khlopa, Turkish Armenia, thereby isolating a big +portion of Turkish territory. From Batum Russian troops advanced near +the Turkish border, the Turks opposing them step by step. Russian +warships from the Black Sea sprayed their shells over the shore and +cleared a fifteen-mile strip of coast of Turkish barracks and troops, +successively cutting off several lines of their communications by sea +until, after a three days' battle, the last route was effectively +closed. A number of Turkish coasting vessels, laden with ammunition +and supplies, were also sunk. + +According to an official Russian report issued on March 3, 1915, the +number of Turkish prisoners who had passed through Pyatigorsk on their +way to the interior of Russia (since Turkey entered the war) up to +February 13, 1915, amounted to 527 officers and 49,000 men. + +During February, 1915, the Turks had been nibbling at Egypt through +the Sinai Peninsula. On the 25th of that month the allied squadrons +had begun heavy firing on the Dardanelles. This decided the supreme +Turkish war council early in March to recall most of the troops from +Egypt and the Caucasus to defend the straits. By March 16, 1915, the +Turks had lost so many important points in the Chorokh region that +they completely abandoned to the Russians what positions they still +held on the river. + +On March 20, 1915, Petrograd announced that the Russian advance to the +sea had deprived the enemy of all means of operating in the +Transchorokh region or of transporting troops and munitions to +Erzerum, and that the Turks had been put to flight near Olti. The road +between Archava and Khopa, to the eastward, was strongly defended by +the Turks in a series of stubbornly contested battles. The Russian +advance created a panic throughout the Chorokh Valley; the inhabitants +fled to the mountains, abandoning farms and villages. The mountain +heights in the district of Ardanuch, however, were strongly fortified +and still in Turkish possession. These fortifications had been built +under German supervision, and the defense thereof was conducted by a +German officer. + +Hostilities were resumed in Persia during the last week in March, +1915, and on the 25th the Russians defeated the Turks in a violent, +sanguinary battle at Atkutur, north of Bilman in northwestern Persia. +The Turks were stated to have lost 12,000 in killed, wounded, and +prisoners, as well as many guns. Preceding the Russian occupation of +Salmac Plains in Azerbaijan province, northwest of Urumiah, hundreds +of native Christians were rounded up by the Turks in the village of +Haftdewan and massacred. Many of them were dragged out from the homes +of friendly Mohammedans, who tried to hide them. The Russians on +entering the village found 720 bodies, mostly naked and mutilated. The +recovery of bodies from wells, pools, and ditches, and their interment +kept 300 men busy for three days. The wailing of women intensified the +horror of the scene. Surviving widows who were able to identify the +bodies of their husbands insisted upon digging graves and burying the +bodies. "Some of the victims had been shot. In other cases they were +bound to ladders, and their heads, protruding through, were hacked +off. Eyes were gouged out and limbs chopped off." + +Messages from Urumiah confirmed earlier reports that more than 800 +persons had already been killed in the neighborhood, and that more +than 2,000 had died of disease. + +A dispatch from Tiflis, Transcaucasia, dated April 24, 1915, stated +that refugees who had reached the Russian line reported that the +massacre of Armenians was being continued on an even greater scale. +All the inhabitants of ten villages near Van were stated to have been +killed. On being advised of massacres at Erzerum, Berjan, and Zeitun, +and of the conditions at Van, the Katolikos, head of the Armenian +Church at Etchmiadzin, near Erivan, cabled to President Wilson an +appeal to the people of the United States to act on behalf of the +Armenians. + +The village governments or relief committees had managed to issue +eight pounds of flour to each refugee in six weeks. A journey through +Salmac three weeks after the outrages revealed unmistakable signs of +the slaughter. Pools of blood still marked the "execution" places in +Haftdewan. The caps of thirty-six victims lay where a mud wall had +been toppled over them. A young Armenian named Hackatur related the +story of his escape from a well in which the bodies of the dead had +been crammed. He had fallen with the others and was flung into the +well, but he managed to wriggle through the bodies lying on top of +him, and escaped at nightfall. + +At the end of April, 1915, after a slight lull, fresh activity broke +out again in various regions of the Caucasian front. The campaign had +almost come to a standstill owing to typhus. On the average, 150 men +succumbed daily. The epidemic raged for a while under indescribably +awful conditions. Every available doctor was hurried out, and several +of them died of the disease. The Russians had cleared the Kurds out of +the Alashkart valley and were now pushing forward in the direction of +Olti. The fight for the valley centered on the possession of +Klichgjaduk Pass, which would have been extremely useful to the Turks, +could they have held it securely for a few days to enable them to +complete a junction with their separated forces. The Russians "lay +low" in strongly protected positions. The Turks came on, first +obviously for reconnaissance, and were easily repulsed without the +Russians making much display of force. Whatever may be said of the +Turkish soldier, he is at all times a brave and self-reliant fighter. +They advanced to make the real attack, supported by some mountain +guns. But the Russian artillery continued to lie silent, and the +Turkish attack developed with misplaced confidence and swept boldly up +to the line of the Russian wire entanglements. Only sixty yards +separated the combatants when, suddenly, a perfect tornado of fire +rattled out from the Russian intrenchments. Maxims, mountain guns and +rifles poured a deadly shower of shells and bullets into the closely +packed thousands of Turks. With extraordinary courage the Osmanli +still rushed into the trap, uttering fierce shouts of "Allahoo Akbar!" +The Russians then broke from cover and some terrible bayonet work +completed the task of securing the pass for the Russians. + +By May 10, 1915, the Turks had been driven back to the southwest, +leaving a large quantity of tents and munitions behind them. Farther +south, from Sarikamish, a number of insignificant conflicts were kept +up. Turkish stragglers formed partnerships with local professionals +and organized companies of banditti; the Russians were kept busy +clearing out the villages where these bands had established their +headquarters, driving them into the hills. To the southeast, the +pursuit of Halil Bey's defeated army continued during the first week +in May. The battle had begun at Hantahta, near Urumiah, on April 29, +1915. Both sides lost heavily. In the beginning the Russians had held +the Turks at bay, but the latter received reenforcements and on April +30, 1915, the Russians had to withdraw from Dilman. They intrenched +themselves at Magonzhio, the first village on the way to Khori, whence +they battered the Turks with their heavy artillery until the arrival +of Russian reenforcements. + +On May 14, 1915, it was announced from Washington that replies were +being prepared at the State Department to a flood of communications +from various parts of the country urging that steps be taken to +protect Christians in Armenia and other regions under Turkish control. +Assurance was given that the Department was doing all in its power to +aid the Armenians. Mr. Morgenthau, our Ambassador at Constantinople, +was instructed to make representations to the Turkish Government. It +was at his request that Turkish regular troops were sent to Urumiah, +Persia, to keep order. + +The Russian consul at that place reported on May 15, 1915, that 6,000 +Armenians had been massacred at Van, which has been the scene of so +many similar outrages during the last twenty years. On May 23, 1915, a +detachment of Russian soldiers occupied the town of Van, in Asiatic +Turkey, thus bringing the eagerly expected relief to the Armenians, +who were besieged by the Turks--besieged in their own country by their +own countrymen. Upon the arrival of the Russians the Turks retreated +in the direction of Bitlis. + +The Russian successes in the Van region included the occupation of +Baslan; in the capture of Van itself they took twenty-six guns, a +great quantity of war materials and provisions, as well as the +Government Treasury. A considerable part of the town was destroyed by +fire. All the foreigners residing there were reported as safe. By June +6, 1915, the Russians had the whole Van region and part of the Sanjak +of Mush in their hands. They had practically annihilated Halil Bey's +original corps and cleared the Turkish troops out for many miles +around. A Turkish offensive in the Province of Azerbaijan ended in a +complete breakdown. On their right wing the Russians occupied Turkish +territory between the old frontier and the line of the rivers Chorokh +and Tortun and the mountain range of Tchakhir Baba. A violent +counterattack made by the Turks at Zinatcher was repulsed. In the +course of an engagement in the valley of Oltichai 200 Cossacks charged +on horseback to the trenches, where they dismounted. Leaving their +well-trained horses to look after themselves, the Cossacks dashed into +the Turks and put them to the sword. Two days later a Turkish official +report from Constantinople via wireless to Berlin and London very +briefly announced: "On the Caucasian front we occupied enemy positions +in the district of Olti, on the Russian border of Transcaucasia." + +The operations in the Dardanelles apparently had but little effect on +Turkish activity in the Caucasus, for by June 19, 1915, they had +replaced the Ninth Army Corps which had been captured by the Russians +at Sarikamish, and had also restored and supplied with ammunition the +Tenth and Eleventh Corps, which were seriously reduced in numbers by +fighting and disease. The main Turkish concentration was taking place +about this time against Olti, Melo, and Kiskin, outside of which line +the First and Sixth Corps and the remainder of Halil Bey's army were +drawn up. Here the Turks undertook some cautious offensive maneuvers, +besides attempting to prevent the Russians from outflanking Erzerum. +Some of the Kurdish leaders who were responsible for the Armenian +massacres in the Van district voluntarily surrendered to the Russians +and were deported to the interior with their dependents. + +On June 20, 1915, in a battle near Olti, fifty-five miles west of +Kars, 200 Russians were killed and prisoners and war materials were +taken. By June 24, 1915, the Russians had occupied Gob, a town +twenty-five miles north of Lake Van. A general movement of Russian +troops toward Bitlis, where the armies of two Turkish commanders were +concentrated, pointed to a favorable situation in the Caucasus from +the Russian standpoint. Gob and Bitlis are connected by several +comparatively good roads. But matters now began to quiet down +somewhat--activities on both sides decreased. Russian sentiment had +grown strong in North and Central Persia, a fact accentuated by the +spirit displayed among the Moslem sects. Various isolated mountain +tribes met the Russians with declarations of allegiance--obviously the +safest policy to adopt with a powerful conqueror. Disease and famine +stalked through the smoldering district of Van; only one doctor was +available for 40,000 people--a large number of them in dire need of +medical assistance. + +In the first week of July, 1915, lively fighting was reported to have +occurred north and south of Lake Van and south of Olti. A Turk force +of 30,000 men, concentrated to the east of Bitlis, were being hard +pressed by the Russians. Organized massacre of Armenians in Bitlis was +regarded as an indication that the Turks intended to retreat from that +point. They had also distributed 40,000 rifles among Kurds in the Mush +Valley for use against Armenians. + +Up to July 6, 1915, there had been only an artillery duel in the coast +region, and a Russian motor boat sank a Turkish sailing vessel. South +of the Kara Dagh range a Russian detachment encountered a regiment of +Turkish infantry with artillery, machine guns, and two squadrons of +cavalry. The Turks were again reported as coming off second best with +considerable damage inflicted upon them. A Turkish offensive west of +Ahlavat also failed. + +After the Russians penetrated to Mush (eighty-three miles south of +Erzerum), and Plian, Halil Bey, commander of the Turkish forces in the +Caucasus, reorganized his army, bringing its strength up to 90,000, +including six divisions of infantry, one of cavalry, and a large body +of Kurds. General Eudenitch, the Russian commander, thus found himself +confronted with the alternative of hastily attempting to concentrate +his forces in the face of a strong Turkish army, or to retreat and +thus expose a large Armenian population to Turk and Kurdish revenge. +The main Russian army withdrew along the right bank of the Euphrates, +the Turks occupying the left bank, July 22-25, 1915, being held in +partial check by rear-guard actions. + +On August 1, 1915, Halil Bey's forces came into contact with a +considerable body of Russians at Palantchen, on the left bank of the +Euphrates, twelve miles southwest of Kara Kilissa. The Russians had +taken positions on a line extending from the northeast to the +southwest from Darabi, six miles north of Kara Kilissa, to Djamschato, +six miles southwest of the important Akhtunski Pass, covering the +roads to Erivan, in Transcaucasia. In opposing this front the Turks +exposed their communications, then 150 miles long, to attack from the +direction of Sarikamish. The violent and picturesque fighting that +developed during the first week of August will be described in the +next volume. + +The Turkish and Persian borders had meanwhile settled down to +comparative quiet. Up to this stage the Russian commander had made no +attempt to advance to Erzerum, though there were strong grounds for +belief that the defenses of that fortress were by no means so strong +as had been supposed or represented. + +Russia was waiting her time in this theatre of war: her object was +merely to hold the gate. She had just suffered severe reverses in +Galicia and the Carpathians, and was now fighting desperately to avoid +the great enveloping movement engineered by all the skill and weight +of Von Hindenburg and Von Mackensen on her own territory of Poland and +Russia itself. + + + + +PART XI--THE WAR IN AFRICA + + + + +CHAPTER LXXVII + +THE CAMEROONS + + +The war in Africa smoldered and flamed during the second period from +February to August, 1915. The fight for the colonial possessions +became a struggle for existence. + +During the spring of 1915 the fighting in the Cameroons was generally +favorable to the allied arms. In April the advance of the French and +British troops forced the Germans to transfer their seat of Government +from Buea to Yaunde. In this month, Colonel Mayer's French column +succeeded in pushing its way over the River Kele, while about the same +time a British detachment seized a bridge across Ngwa. + +On May 11, 1915, the station of Escha was taken. The Germans who +occupied a strong position at Njoke were driven out, and the place was +occupied by the British on May 29, 1915. + +In the hinterland, along the Sanga River, the French columns had met +with continued success in harrying and driving out the enemy. The +Germans displayed great bravery, and offered stubborn resistance, but +were forced to fall back on fortified Monso. Here they held out for +some days, when they were forced to capitulate, and considerable +stores of guns and ammunition fell to the victors. + +The French troops continued their successful drive by taking Assobam +and Besam on June 25, 1915, and then occupied the important post of +Lomji, in the capture of which, the Belgian soldiers furnished +invaluable assistance, proving themselves to be skillful and fearless +fighters. + +What especially contributed to make the Allies' successes easier in +this section of the war area was the revolt of the natives against +their German masters. The Germans during their retreat had burned +villages and destroyed a vast amount of property which so enraged the +natives that many deserted. Having a perfect knowledge of the country +it was easy for them to escape capture. It was stated that many hung +around the German flanks and took revenge on their former masters by +hindering their retreat and by occasionally sniping the German +officers. + +The natives of the Cameroons were not generally trusted by the +Germans, and were forbidden to fish in the streams of the country, +lest they should furnish information to the enemy. + +Countercharges of British cruelty were brought at this time by certain +German missionaries of the Basle Mission, on the Sanga River. It was +claimed that British troops promised to reward natives for delivering +Germans into their hands, and for killing them. A number of Germans, +it was stated, had been cut to pieces, while others had been tortured +and delivered to the British. It was charged against the French +military authorities that German prisoners had been deported to French +Dahomey where they were forced to labor under black overseers. These +charges were denied by the accused in each instance. + +During April and May, 1915, there was sharp fighting on the Nigeria +frontier. The large native town of Gurin, just inside British +territory, was attacked by a German force from Garua in April. The +contingent numbered sixteen Europeans, and about 350 natives. It was +equipped with some large guns and Maxims. For the defense of the town +there was only a small garrison of forty native troops commanded by +Lieutenant Pawle. For seven hours the garrison held off the enemy, +when he was forced to retire. During the struggle Lieutenant Pawle, +the gallant commander of the garrison, was killed. The news of this +engagement was carried by native soldiers who escaped from Gurin, to +Colonel F. G. Cunliffe at Yola, who immediately set off with a +detachment of the African Frontier Force, arriving on the scene of the +siege the day following. After being joined by a body of French +troops, he moved on to capture Garua where the British had met with +disastrous defeat in August, 1914. + +Since that time the four forts of the town had been greatly +strengthened and every preparation was now made for a stout +resistance. The British and French having intrenched themselves, the +British guns began a vigorous bombardment of the forts. During the +night sapping and mining went on steadily, enabling the British to +move their trenches gradually nearer their objective. + +The siege lasted from May 31 to June 10, 1915, when the forts +surrendered. The allied troops entered Garua on June 11, taking over +thirty-seven German, and 270 native prisoners, while great quantities +of arms, ammunition and stores became their prizes. It was said that +the garrisons of the forts might have held out much longer if they had +not lost their nerve and become panic-stricken, which caused many +desertions. It was a remarkable feature of this spirited struggle that +the Allies did not lose a man. + +Leaving Garua, the British and French troops now moved on Ngaundere, +capital of the Adamawa District, which was taken with insignificant +losses to the Allies on July 29, 1915. The retiring Germans were +closely pursued to Tangere, which stands on a plateau nearly 4,000 +feet high. This place was captured by the allied forces July 12, and +attempts made by the Germans to regain it eleven days later were +repulsed. + +Early in August, 1915, the British captured Gaschaka and Koncha, when +the heavy rains suspended for the time any further military +operations. Meanwhile the French force had been working its way toward +Yaunde, occupying the station of Dume on the way. The arrival of +French troops at this town seems to have surprised and dismayed the +Germans, who hastily abandoned several fortified places and destroyed +their transport. They continued, however, to hold the hill above Dume +for some time, but were driven out by a French detachment after a +short struggle. From Dume a French column was dispatched against +Abong-Mbong. + +At the beginning of the fall of 1915, the Germans still held Yaunde, +and a district in the center of the country, but the Cameroons could +no longer be considered a German possession. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXVIII + +BRITISH CONQUEST OF SOUTHWEST AFRICA + + +Our attention is now drawn to Southwest Africa. In the first week of +February, 1915, the Germans made a determined effort to break through +the encircling armies that were closing in on them. Kakamas on the +Orange, where a British garrison was stationed to protect Schuit +Drift, was fiercely attacked on February 5 by about 600 Germans, well +equipped with Maxims and machine guns. They were beaten off after a +short engagement with a loss of nine men killed, twenty-two wounded, +and fifteen taken prisoners. On the Union side the casualties were one +killed, and two wounded. + +On February 22, 1915, General Botha's army being ready, he moved out +of Swakopmund, and on the following day occupied the stations of +Nonidas and Goanikontes, meeting with only slight resistance. Nearly a +month was now spent in preparing for the advance on the capital, +Windhoek. Careful reconnoitering of the enemy's positions was made, +and an advanced base was established. + +On the night of March 19, 1915, two mounted brigades left the post at +Husab to clear the railway line. General Botha accompanied the first +brigade, which was commanded by Colonel Brits, their object being +Riet, an important place south of the railway, where it was known that +the enemy was strongly prepared. Riet was of utmost importance to the +Union force for it commanded the highway to Windhoek. It was planned +that while Colonel Brits's brigade attacked Riet the Bloemhof +Commando was to execute a flank movement and seizing Schwarze Kopje to +endeavor to cut off the enemy's retreat. + +At daybreak on March 20, 1915, the brigade reached the German +position. The right rested on the Swakop stream; the left on the +foothills of Langer Heinrichberg, while the artillery was effectively +placed so as to command the river and highway. Assisted by the guns of +the Transvaal Horse Artillery a frontal attack was made, and the +fighting became general. With varying fortunes it continued until the +evening when the Germans were finally driven out and dispersed. + +The second brigade commanded by Colonel Celliers had been directed to +cut the railway line between Jakalswater and Sphinx. He was to attack +the former place after blocking the way, in case any reenforcements +should be sent by the enemy from Windhoek. Celliers succeeded in +cutting the railway and seized a train containing supplies for the +Germans, but his attack on Jakalswater was a failure, and the enemy +made forty-three of his men prisoners. + +General Botha was so confident of the ultimate success of his +campaign, that he was not disposed to imperil his chances by any hasty +operations, and so his progress toward Windhoek was at first +necessarily slow. The nature of the country afforded the enemy many +natural advantages and unfortunately the Union forces were not +provided with aeroplanes, which would have proved invaluable in +scouting. + +Pforto, a station on the line where the Germans occupied a strong +position, was surrounded by a column led by Colonel Alberts. The enemy +had two large guns and a number of Maxims. A charge by the Union force +and the effective work of their battery soon silenced the enemy's +artillery. The Germans had lost twenty killed, of whom three were +officers, when they surrendered unconditionally. There were 210 +prisoners taken, four guns and a large quantity of ammunition. + +General Botha was engaged in April and May, 1915, clearing the railway +system of the enemy. To prevent any flank attacks it was necessary to +hold the two main lines, which run from Swakopmund north to +Grootfontein, Tsumeb, and to Windhoek. This line being cleared for +fifty miles, Colonel Skinner and the Kimberley Regiment were stationed +at Trekopje, which became the Union railhead. + +On April 26, 1915, about 700 Germans and a dozen guns vigorously +assailed this encampment and for four hours the fight raged with +varying consequences. The Germans under a withering fire from their +batteries tried to surround the Union trenches to enfilade them, but +were forced to retire, when they had got within 150 feet of their +objective, leaving twenty-five killed and wounded behind them. The +Union force lost eleven men, of whom three were officers, and forty +wounded. + +Meanwhile, the southern army was actively engaged. Sir Duncan +Mackenzie's column had dispersed the Germans and taken some booty from +one or two places near Luederitz Bay, and had seized many miles of +railway. On February 22, 1915, his advance guard occupied Garub, a +station seventy miles inland. Here a company of Union scouts pushed +after the retiring Germans, and in a skirmish with mounted men +protecting a troop train their leader was wounded. They were forced to +retire, leaving one of their comrades a prisoner in the hands of the +enemy. The British camp at Garub was also attacked by a hostile +aeroplane which dropped hand grenades and shells, but there were no +casualties. + +Aus, an important station fifteen miles from Garub, was next occupied +by Mackenzie. The place was evacuated without a struggle, but it +showed that much work had been done to fortify it, and that the enemy +had intended to resist. Owing to the rapid movements of the British +force the Germans had abandoned everything, though several mines +exploded when the town was occupied. + +Turning now to the movements of General Smut's army in the south. +Colonel Van der Venter, who commanded an important section of the +army, crossed the Orange River and occupied a group of stations, +including Nabas, Velloor, Ukamas, Jerusalem, and Heirachabis. + +On the last day of March, 1915, Van der Venter's force was engaged in +several skirmishes in which one man was killed and two wounded, while +six of the enemy were killed and twenty-eight taken prisoners. At this +price the stations of Platbeen and Geitsaud which yielded a great +quantity of supplies and horses and live-stock were occupied. + +On April 30, 1915, Van der Venter occupied Warmbad, the railway +terminus, without opposition and pushing forward along the line his +men entered Kabus, a station sixty-five miles to the north, two days +later. + +General Smut met Van der Venter at Kalkfontein on April 11, 1915, +where plans were laid to drive the Germans from Karas Mountains where +they occupied some strong positions. The enemy was attacked in three +columns, advancing from different points. Finding themselves +threatened on all sides, the Germans made no resistance and abandoned +everything. + +On April 17, 1915, Van der Venter entered Seeheim, the Germans fleeing +in such hot haste that they could not stop to destroy the bridge over +the Great Fish River. Colonel Berrange's force which had set out from +Kimberley was now in touch with Van der Venter's column. At Hasnur +near Rietfontein, Berrange took an intrenched position with slight +losses and after frequent skirmishes and hard fighting joined Van der +Venter's forces near Keetmanshoop, which surrendered to the combined +forces April 20, 1915. + +Sir Duncan Mackenzie's column left at Aus now struck out to the +northeast with his mounted men and occupied the towns of Bethany and +Berseba without meeting resistance and April 24, 1915, reached +Aritetis on the railway, seventy miles north of Keetmanshoop, General +Mackenzie could now act in conjunction with Van der Venter against the +Germans retreating from Seeheim and Keetmanshoop. At Kabus, twenty +miles north, in an indecisive engagement with the enemy, the Union +forces lost twenty-two men taken prisoners, while the Germans +numbering about 600, continued their retreat, their objective being +Gibeon, where they hoped to entrain for the capital, Windhoek. General +Mackenzie therefore sent a small party to destroy the railway to the +north of Gibeon, while the Ninth Brigade was to engage the enemy. This +body was defeated by the Germans with severe loss. They took some +seventy prisoners and forced the Ninth Brigade to fall back on the +main body. + +On the morning of April 28, 1915, Mackenzie led his whole force +against the Germans in a dashing attack that drove them from the +field, and his cavalry continued to pursue them over twenty miles of +country. The rocky and irregular character of the ground in this +neighborhood made it difficult for cavalry operations, and the Germans +made good their escape. The British lost three officers and twenty men +killed; the wounded numbered fifty-five, of whom eight were officers. +Among the killed was Major J. H. Watt of the Natal Light Horse. The +British captured from the enemy seven officers, and about 200 men. +They also released seventy of their own soldiers who had been made +prisoners by the Germans on the previous day. + +The booty that fell to the victors included field guns and Maxims, +transport wagons, and large numbers of live stock. It was at Gibeon, +where this battle was fought, that Sir George Farrar was killed in a +railroad accident on May 18, 1915. His important services in the +Commissariat Department during the invasion of the colony had +contributed to making the successes of the Union forces possible. His +career had been full of adventure. He was sentenced to death for the +part he had taken in the Jamieson raid, and had fought against the +Boers in 1899-02. + +While General Mackenzie was successfully operating around Gibeon, +General Botha's troops were active in the north; but nothing of +importance occurred until May 1, 1915, when Kubas was hurriedly +evacuated by the Germans and occupied by General Brits. Here, it was +discovered that the Germans had made elaborate preparations for +resistance, but--became panic-stricken by the sudden and unexpected +arrival of Union forces. Miles of intrenchments surrounded the place, +and a hundred contact mines were discovered and removed. From this +point Colonel Brits continued his advance, and encountered the enemy +at Otyimbigue, sixty-one miles from the capital of Windhoek. After a +spirited skirmish the place was taken, the Germans losing twenty-eight +men as prisoners. Continuing their victorious advance the Union forces +captured Karibib, an important railroad junction, and Johann +Albrechtshoehe and Wilhelmstal were next occupied. + +With General Botha threatening the capital from the west, and all the +colony south of Gibeon in British hands, the greatest difficulties in +the way of the invaders had been successfully overcome, and the end +seemed to be near. + +On May 10, 1915, General Botha was informed that Windhoek, the +capital, was prepared to surrender. He set out at once for the town in +a motor car accompanied by a small escort, and arranged with the +Burgomaster of Windhoek the terms of capitulation. + +On May 12, 1915, General Myburgh and a detachment of Union forces +entered the town which contained at the time about 3,000 Europeans and +some 12,000 natives. + +Before the courthouse, in the presence of the town officials, and +Union officers and men, a proclamation by General Botha in Dutch, +English, and German was read, which placed the conquered districts +under martial law, and which further expressed the hope that there +would be no attempts to resist the Union forces as they must prove +futile. The great wireless station at the capital, which kept the +colony in touch with Berlin, was found to be uninjured, and with its +capture the Germans lost their last wireless station outside of +Europe. Thousands of cases of ammunition and parts of guns were among +the prizes taken, while on the railway a number of locomotives and +quantities of rolling stock were seized. + +It now became the immediate business of General Botha's army to deal +with those German straggling forces which remained still under arms in +the north. In a few days following the occupation of the capital, +Colonel Mentz found part of the enemy at Seeis, and without losing a +man took 252 prisoners and a great quantity of booty. General Botha +meanwhile occupied Omaruru, a station on the railway, and in the same +week took possession of Kalkfield which was strongly intrenched, but +which the Germans were compelled to abandon owing to Botha's adroit +flanking movements. The Germans declining to make a stand, Botha's +army swept victoriously onward. + +In the last week in June, 1915, all the districts around Waterberg +were cleared of the enemy. Leaving Okaputu in the evening of June 30, +1915, General Manie Botha with the Fifth Brigade got in touch with the +Germans at dawn the next day near Osib, after a forced march of +forty-two miles in sixteen hours. The Germans were driven off, and +before nightfall Otavi was occupied. Here a good supply of water was +found and as the country around is arid and like a desert, the loss of +the town was a serious one to the enemy. + +General Lukin with another brigade had set out from Omarasa at the +same time as Manie Botha, and between them came General Botha and the +Headquarters Staff. + +The fight at Otavi was the last stand of importance made by the +Germans. They had shown great bravery, but supplies were failing, they +had been driven into the most inhospitable part of the colony, the +natives were not always friendly, and during the first days of July, +1915, they made preparations to surrender. + +The Union troops under General Myburgh, having left the railway, +encountered a body of Germans sixteen miles south of Tsumeb and in the +skirmish that followed lost one man and took eighty-six prisoners. + +At Tsumeb, which Myburgh entered on July 8, 1915, some 600 more +prisoners were taken, while he was able to release a number of Union +comrades who had been left behind by the Germans in their hurried +retreat. Colonel Brits had by this time reached the German port of +Namutoni, where he took 150 prisoners, and released some Union +captives, the last that remained in German hands. + +Dr. Seitz, the Governor of German Southwest Africa, now opened +communications with General Botha concerning a surrender, and received +the Union officer's terms in the form of an ultimatum. Botha stated +that he and his troops stood ready to fight, if need be, another +battle, but his terms were accepted before the time limit he had fixed +expired. + +[Illustration: Conquest of German Southwest Africa by Union Troops +under General Botha.] + +At two o'clock in the morning of July 9, 1915, at a spot called Kilometre +500, General Botha, Dr. Seitz the Governor, and Colonel Francke, +commander of the German troops in Southwest Africa, signed the terms of +capitulation. All the Germans surrendered unconditionally. Officers were +released on parole, and were free to live where they pleased in the +country. The regular troops were permitted to retain their rifles, but no +ammunition, and were interned for the remainder of the war in charge of +one of their officers. The Landwehr and Landsturm of the reserve forces +were permitted to retain their horses, but no arms, and were released on +parole, and could return to their homes. + +The formal surrender of the prisoners was held at Otavi, July 11, +1915, where General Lukin who was in charge of the details took over +204 officers, and 3,293 of other ranks; thirty-seven field guns and +twenty-two machine guns. By the conquest of German Southwest Africa +322,450 square miles of territory, 113,670 more miles than all +Germany, came under the British flag. + +The suppression of the rebellion at home, and the invasion and +conquest of this large territory had been accomplished by the Union +forces with comparatively small loss of life considering the great +number of engagements that were fought in a most difficult country for +military operations. The best estimate gives 1,612 for both campaigns. +The killed numbered 406, of whom ninety-six were killed in action by +the Germans and ninety-eight by the rebels, fifty-eight died of +wounds, and 153 by disease, accident, and other causes, and 606 were +taken prisoners. The losses to the rebels were 190 killed and between +300 and 350 wounded. The Germans lost 103 killed, and 195 wounded. +Before the surrender the Union forces held 890 German prisoners in +Southwest Africa. + +While it is true that the Union troops greatly outnumbered the +Germans, General Botha's conquest of the colony was none the less a +brilliant military achievement. The most dangerous foe that the Union +soldiers encountered was not the Germans, but the deadly climate; the +stretches of burning desert veld from eighty to a hundred miles wide, +that had to be crossed in a heat that rose at times to 120 deg. Fahrenheit +in the shadow of the tents. All the supplies, the provisions for the +men, and much of the water for their consumption had to be brought +from Cape Town. The care taken in the commissariat department, and +especially in the water supply, in a country where the enemy had +polluted the wells, accounted for the general good health of the +invading army. That 30,000 men should have been able to fight in such +a difficult country for five months at a cost of less than 2,000 +casualties was an experience rare in military annals, and reflects +lasting credit on General Botha who planned the entire invasion. + +The Germans, outmatched and outnumbered, avoided engagements whenever +possible, but offered a stubborn resistance and fought with great +bravery when there was no alternative. Once the Union forces were +ready to advance, their rapid movements and forced marches took the +Germans by surprise in the midst of their preparations, and baffled +and bewildered them. Cut off entirely from help from the outside, and +running short of ammunition which could not be replaced, their +struggle could only result in one conclusion. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXIX + +OTHER AFRICAN OPERATIONS + + +The fighting along the African coast during this period was minor but +picturesque. On February 26, 1915, the British military authorities +announced that the coast of German East Africa would be blockaded on +February 28, four days being allowed for the departure of neutral +vessels. Some minor successes, chiefly naval, were obtained by the +British during the month of March, when they occupied Shirati on Lake +Victoria Nyanza and established there a base for armed steamers. + +It was here on March 6, 1915, that the _Muanza_, the only German +armed steamer that remained on the lake, was destroyed by the British +steamer _Winifred_. + +In April, 1915, Major General Tighe, who had won distinction in the +Indian Service, was appointed to command the British troops in German +East Africa. During this month there was some desultory fighting along +the edges of Kilmanjaro, and repeated but ineffectual attempts were +made to cut the Uganda Railway line; otherwise there were no hostile +movements worthy of note in this region. + +On March 9, 1915, a German column, marching along the Maru River to +invade the Karungu district on the eastern shore of Lake Victoria +Nyanza, was defeated and scattered, after a short engagement, by a +force of British troops under Colonel Hickson. + +Along the region between the Uganda Railroad and the German frontier +there were frequent skirmishes during May between British patrols and +German troops, in which the losses were trifling on either side. The +German forces had been operating for some time from the fortified port +of Bukoba, and it was important to the future movements of the British +that the place should be destroyed. On June 20 an expedition was +dispatched by steamer from the British port at Kisumu, 240 miles away +on the eastern shore; at the same time it was planned that British +troops on the Kagora River were to cross the thirty miles that divided +them from the German fortified port. + +On June 25, 1915, Brigadier General J. A. Stewart, commanding +detachments of the First Loyal North Lancashires, King's African +Rifles, and the Twenty-fifth Royal Fusiliers reached Bukoba. The port +was attacked by land and water. The British were in superior numbers, +having only about 400 against them, but the Germans fought intrepidly, +and their Arab allies showed great bravery. The British success was +not easily won. The Germans lost most of their artillery and there +were heavy casualties. The wireless station was ruined, boats in the +harbor were sunk or captured, and the destruction wrought by the +British on the port was complete. + +The capture of Bukoba was important to the British, for as a direct +result the Uganda borders were kept clear of the enemy for the greater +part of the summer of 1915. + +The German town of Sphynxhaven on the eastern shore of Lake Nyassa was +attacked on May 30, 1915, by a British naval force under Lieutenant +Commander Dennistoun, supported by field artillery and a landing party +of King's African Rifles. During the sharp, short engagement that +followed the place was bombarded from the water, the enemy was driven +out, and great quantities of rifles, ammunition, and military stores +fell to the British. + +The climatic conditions in the low-lying Nyassaland and Uganda borders +in the summertime caused the British soldiers more suffering and +deaths than their enemies. Insect pests like the tsetse fly swarm +around Lake Victoria Nyanza, while different fevers of peculiarly +malignant varieties lie in wait to attack the European. There is the +terrible sleeping sickness that spares neither white nor black race. +The great lake cannot be bathed in without danger for its abounds in +crocodiles and hippopotami. + +Guerrilla warfare was kept up during most of the summer of 1915 along +the northeastern borders of Rhodesia and in Nyassaland. On June 28 the +Germans were driven off when they attacked in two bands on the Saisa +River, near Abercorn. A month later, having gathered 2,000 men, they +besieged the place for six days, when British reenforcements arriving +they were driven off. During these skirmishes and engagements the +Belgian troops were of great service to the British in defending the +frontier between Lake Mweru and Lake Tanganyika, and especially the +western shore of the latter lake. + +It was in this summer of 1915, during the early days of July, that the +German cruiser, the _Koenigsberg_, met her end. Late in October of 1914 +she was in shelter at a point some distance up the Rufiji River, where +the water was so shallow that a ship of ordinary draft could not +approach. When the British discovered the location of the cruiser they +sank a collier across the mouth of the river to prevent the German +boat from reaching the sea. The _Koenigsberg_, surrounded by forests +and thick jungle growth, was exactly located by British aircraft. On +July 4, 1914, Vice Admiral King Hall, commander in chief of the Cape +station, entered the river with the monitors _Severn_ and _Mersey_ and +opened fire. + +The crew of the _Koenigsberg_ had been active in fortifying their +position during the time the cruiser had been sheltering in the river. +They had established shore batteries with German thoroughness that +commanded all the turnings of the river, and there were observation +towers from which they could get the range of any vessel attacking. +The British could not get a clear view of the enemy because of the +dense jungle, but their aeroplanes were of great service in directing +the action of the guns. There was never any doubt of what the ultimate +fate of the _Koenigsberg_ would be. + +On July 4, 1915, the British bombarded the cruiser for six hours, when +she was seen to be on fire. The attack for some reason was not renewed +until July 11, 1915, when the cruiser was found to be completely +destroyed, whether as the result of the British shells or because she +was blown up by her own crew was not discovered at the time. The +annals of naval warfare offer no more curious story than this of the +German cruiser, which lay for so many months helpless in a jungle +river, surrounded by steaming swamps, while far beyond lay the +longed-for open sea. + + + + +PART XII--WAR IN ARABIA, MESOPOTAMIA AND EGYPT + + + + +CHAPTER LXXX + +MESOPOTAMIA AND ARABIA + + +The flames of war were sweeping across Mesopotamia and Arabia. In the +last days of January, 1915, Lord Hardinge, Viceroy and Governor +General of India, made a tour of the conquered territory around the +Persian Gulf, and at Basra was received by the native community with +an address of welcome, which expressed the hope of permanent British +occupation. + +Owing to the overflow of the Tigris and Euphrates in February and +March, when the surrounding country is flooded, there was little +fighting in those regions. But on March 3 the enemy appeared near +Ahwaz, on the Karun River, where the British had a small garrison to +protect the Anglo-Persian Oil Company's pipe line. + +A contingent sent out from the town to discover the strength of the +Turkish force, located them at Ghadir. The enemy was found to be about +12,000 strong, having been joined by a body of tribesmen from Arabia +and Persia. As the British troops only numbered 1,000 men, there was +imminent danger of them being cut off, and a hurried retreat was +ordered. The Turks seemed determined that their enemy should not +escape them, and used every effort to prevent a successful retreat. +There was much hand-to-hand fighting before the British could struggle +back to Ahwaz. As the Turks did not continue to attack it was to be +supposed that they had lost heavily. The Anglo-Indian force had lost +about 200. The colonel of the Seventh Rajputs was wounded, and four +of their white officers were killed. + +On this day, March 3, 1915, a body of British cavalry reconnoitering +toward Nakaila, about twenty-five miles northwest of Basra, was +attacked while on their way back to camp by some 1,500 mounted Turks. +The British pretending to retire, maneuvered to lure them on to a +position where they had concealed infantry with machine guns and +artillery. The Turks, quite unsuspecting a ruse came on, were met by a +withering fire from the guns that sent them shattered and broken +flying back to Nakaila. In this little fight the British had four +officers killed and several severely wounded. + +Reenforcements had been sent from India in anticipation of the end of +the flood season, and Ahwaz and Kurna were greatly strengthened. +Lieutenant General Sir J. E. Nixon, K. C. B., accompanied the new +troops, and on his arrival took command of the entire force of between +30,000 and 40,000 men. + +The Turks, who had also been largely reenforced with soldiers probably +from Bagdad, on April 11 attacked the three British positions at +Kurna-Ahwaz and Shaiba, the last a fort protecting Basra. Kurna was +bombarded for two days, with small result. A bridge across the Tigris +was partly destroyed, but they inflicted no casualties. Guns from the +shore and those in H.M.S. _Odin_ did effective work in scattering such +of the enemy as appeared in boats. At Ahwaz large bodies of hostile +cavalry could be seen against the sky line surrounding the British +positions, but they did not attack. + +[Illustration: Mesopotamia--The British Operations from the Persian +Gulf.] + +The main object of the Turks was evidently to capture Basra, their +attempts on Kurna and Ahwaz being merely feints to keep the British +occupied while they struck a real blow at Shaiba. On April 12, 1915, +an action began that lasted three days--one of the most notable fights +in the history of this campaign. The attacking force was estimated at +between 18,000 and 22,000 men. Perhaps 11,000 were regular infantry +and cavalry from Bagdad, and 12,000 irregular levies of Kurds and +Arabs. The Turkish infantry after some irregular artillery fire, +commanded by German officers, advanced in the early morning of the +12th toward the south-southwest, and west of the British lines. For +three hours they were pressing forward, and then when the artillery +fire fell off began to dig themselves in. An attack from the south was +made in the afternoon, but was beaten off by the British before making +much progress. The Turks were busy during the night of the 12th +keeping up a spirited fire from rifles and machine guns, and by +morning were found to have occupied some houses on a rising ground to +the north of the British position. An Anglo-Indian force easily +dislodged them from this place, and a counterattack made by the Turks +from the west was repulsed with a loss to them of several hundred +prisoners. The British also captured eighteen officers and two guns. + +The British had repulsed all attacks, but the most difficult part of +their task now lay before them, for the Turks were strongly intrenched +near Basra some four miles from the British lines. On April 14, 1915, +the Anglo-Indian force moved from camp toward Zobeir to the south, and +driving off the Turks from their advanced position found themselves in +front of their main lines. Some 15,000 Turkish soldiers and six big +guns occupied well-concealed trenches in a tamarisk wood. The +Anglo-Indian troops began their advance toward the enemy at 11.30 in +the morning, and continued for five hours across a bare plain under a +fierce sun and a pitiless heat. Not an enemy could be sighted, but a +continuous fire, too accurate to be pleasant to the advancing host, +came from the concealed trenches. At about 4.30 p. m. the 117th +Mahrattas and Dorsets had led the way into the trenches, and, the +whole line uniting in a great charge, the Turks were driven out at the +point of the bayonet and dispersed. The Anglo-Indian troops however +had purchased their victory dearly. There were some 700 casualties. +Lieutenant Colonel H. L. Rosher of the Dorsets, Lieutenant Colonel T. +A. Britten of the 110th Mahrattas, and Major J. C. M. Wheeler of the +Seventh Lancers were among the seventeen British officers killed. + +The routed Turks had fled toward Nakaila, and were vigorously pursued +by the victors. They tried to escape by land and water. A dozen boat +loads of fugitives were overhauled or sunk. The Turks lost about +2,500, of whom 700 were prisoners in British hands. Great quantities +of stores, ammunition and guns were also captured. The region around +Basra was now cleared of Turkish soldiers for a distance of fifty +miles. + +On April 17 the Anglo-Indian cavalry occupied Nakaila. The rout of the +Turks was complete, and it was said that in their retreat they were +attacked by their former allies the Arabs, who turned on them as soon +as the tide of battle went against them. + +During the greater part of the month of May the British were occupied +in clearing the territory of the Turks that remained. At Kurna and +Ahwaz and their neighborhood the enemy had gathered in sufficient +numbers to give some trouble. A British contingent was dispatched to +drive them out of the Ahwaz locality, but the Kharked River was in +flood, and severe sand storms hindered progress, so that before the +Turkish camp could be reached the enemy had vacated Persian soil and +fallen back to Amara. + +General Gorringe, who commanded the British troops, now set about +punishing those tribes which had been assisting the enemy. Some +surrendered and gave up a number of rifles and arms. Others were +disposed to show resistance, but the British easily defeated them, +cleared out their strongholds, and destroyed some of their property. + +On May 31, 1915, the Turks had become threatening in the vicinity of +Kurna, and a British expedition consisting of soldiers and sailors set +out at 1.30 a. m. to attack them. By wading and in boats the British +surprised the enemy's position, two miles from the town, and soon +silenced his guns by superior artillery work. The heights were won by +midday, and the Turks took to flight, leaving three guns and about 250 +prisoners behind them. They retreated to Amara as the force from Ahwaz +had done. Their flight was so precipitate, that tents were left +standing, as they took to mahalas and steamers on the river to escape. +The British naval flotilla carrying General Townshend and Sir Percy +Cox, Chief British Resident of the Gulf, was in pursuit of the fleeing +Turks. Their gunboat _Marmaris_ was sunk, and the transport _Masul_ +captured. Two lighters containing field guns, mines, and military +stores were also taken, and about 300 prisoners. + +Amara, the important business town on the Tigris about sixty miles +from Kurna to which the Turks had fled, surrendered to the British +June 3, 1915, its garrison of 1,000 becoming prisoners of war. In the +town and vicinity 80 officers and some 2,000 men were also captured, +and large quantities of ammunition, 13 guns, 12 steel barges, and 4 +river steamers. + +The whole of the country between Amara and the sea was now in British +hands, and the Turkish forces in Mesopotamia had been partly destroyed +and so demoralized that it was unlikely that they would soon take the +offensive again. + +In the last weeks of July, 1915, they again became troublesome. On +July 24 the British, under General Gorringe, advanced to attack +Nasiriyeh. The town was shelled by gunboats, and after a prolonged +struggle the enemy retired, and the British occupied the place on the +following day. They had captured during the fight 1,000 prisoners and +13 guns, while the dead Turks numbered about 500. The British +casualties were between 300 and 400. During this engagement the +fiercest foe the British had to contend against was the excessive +heat, which registered as high as 113, and caused great suffering and +some deaths. + +Along the Euphrates, between Sukh-es-Sheyukh and Nasiriyeh, operations +now began that lasted for twenty days. The country around here is +peculiarly difficult for military movements, presenting a network of +marshes and canals. The Turks occupied intrenched positions at the +entrance of Kut-el-Hai Channel on the main line of communication +between the Tigris and Bagdad. A British force was dispatched from +Kurna to attack these positions. The expedition was supported by +extemporized gunboats, and took the waterway of the Euphrates and +Hamar Lake. Their progress was fiercely opposed by the Turks, who +hovered about their flanks. The river had overflowed it banks, and +inundated the neighboring country so that marching was difficult. It +was necessary to drag boats over the land in some places along the +advance. But the British troops were successful when reaching their +objective. One regiment outflanked the enemy's gun position on the +right bank, and during the engagement the Turks lost 7 officers and 83 +regular troops and Arabs. The British casualties were 109. There were +25 killed. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXXI + +SYRIA AND EGYPT + + +After the declaration of war against Turkey, the allied war vessels +were concentrated in the Levant and Red Sea to watch the coasts of +southern Asia Minor, Syria, and Turkish Arabia. On the Syrian coast +there was only one point where a naval force could effectively attack +communications between Constantinople and the Turkish forces. This was +the little town of Alexandretta, and the shore north to Payaz, a small +village. The Turks, if they wished to reenforce their Syrian army must +move their men, guns, and stores up a mountainous road over the Amanus +from Baghche to Radju, or risk great losses by the coast route between +Payaz and Alexandretta. The Turks took this chance, and were +successful, for there was no allied warship in the Gulf of +Alexandretta to oppose their progress. On December 17, 1914, H.M.S. +_Doris_, a protected cruiser, appeared off Alexandretta and destroyed +four bridges on the road and railway between that town and Payaz. The +captain of the _Doris_ sent an ultimatum to the Turkish commandant of +Alexandretta demanding the surrender of the town, failing which he +threatened bombardment of the place. To this the Turks paid no +attention. A second ultimatum brought forth a telegraphic message from +Djemal Pasha at Damascus, threatening to execute allied subjects +interned in that city if any Ottoman noncombatants were killed at +Alexandretta by the British guns. The captain of the _Doris_ promptly +replied that Djemal Pasha would be held responsible for the execution +of allied subjects, if he dared to carry out what he proposed. Thanks +to the influence brought to bear on the Porte by the American Embassy +at Constantinople, the Ottoman military authorities in Syria became +more reasonable, and finally agreed to blow up the two railway engines +at Alexandretta themselves, much of the war material having been +removed from the town while negotiations were pending. + +During the first three months of 1915 there was only one fight of any +importance on the coast of the Gulf of Alexandretta. On February 6 a +landing party from H.M.S. _Philomel_ was subjected to heavy fire from +a concealed trench where eighty Turks were located. Six of the British +and New Zealanders who formed the crew of the _Philomel_ were wounded, +three mortally. The cruiser promptly avenged their death by steaming +in and opening a point-blank fire on the trenches with her 4.7-inch +guns. More than fifty of the Turks were killed or badly wounded, the +high-explosive shells shattering some to pieces. After this salutary +lesson the Turks at Alexandretta did not seek any further encounters +with the sailors of allied war vessels. + +The British cruisers were late in arriving in the Gulf of +Alexandretta, and had lost some opportunities to injure the enemy by +their delay, but now they did valiant duty in preventing the Turks +from sending any number of men or stores to Aleppo for the Caucasus, +Mesopotamia, or the Egyptian border by the coast route, which would +greatly have facilitated their movements. They were forced, owing to +the vigilance of British warships, to send their troops and munitions +over the Giaur Dagh by the pass called the Syrian Gates, between +Cilicia and northern Syria, a rough, mountainous region, with bad +roads, that made progress extremely difficult. + +At the beginning of the allied operations against the Dardanelles, the +observation of the Syrian coast was taken over entirely by the French +fleet. + +On April 19, 1915, the Turkish intrenchments at El Arish were +bombarded by the French battleship _St. Louis_. The Turks had some +fifteen or twenty field guns, and replied vigorously, but only one +shell hit the battleship, which did no damage. The Turks suffered some +losses. In the early part of May the big camp at Gaza, where numbers +of Ottoman soldiers were gathered to be reviewed by Djemal Pasha, was +shelled by the _St. Louis_, when some fifty Turks were killed by +French shrapnel, and perhaps as many more wounded. + +On April 29, 1915, the cruiser _D'Entrecasteaux_ worked effectively on +the Cilician coast, shelling the trenches at Taruss, while her +hydroplane, dropping a bomb on the railway tracks, blew up trucks +laden with high explosives and wrecked the railway station. On May 10 +the Turks at El Arish were again shelled by the guns of the _Jeanne +D'Arc_. + +On Ascension Day, Alexandretta was the scene of some spirited work, in +which the cruiser _D'Estrees_ played the leading part. M. de la +Passadiere, her commander, demanded of the Kaimakam that the German +flag should be hauled down that was flying over the German Consulate. +The Turkish commander sent no reply, and it was pretended that he was +ill or absent. M. de la Passadiere having fixed a time limit when the +flag must be hauled down, cleared his decks for action and trained the +ship's guns on the consulate building. At the expiration of the time +limit he opened fire, and the consulate was reduced to ruins. The only +casualties were three Turkish soldiers, who, in spite of warning, had +remained near the building. + +The captain of the _D'Estrees_ on May 14, 1915, destroyed a petrol +depot which might be used to supply hostile submarines, and which +contained over 1,000 cases. A few days earlier a much larger depot +containing some 20,000 cases at Makri on the southern coast of Cilicia +had been destroyed by the cruiser _Jeanne D'Arc_. + +[Illustration: The Turkish Attack on the Suez Canal.] + +Budrum on the southwest coast of Asia Minor in the Gulf of +Halicarnassus was bombarded for a serious act of Turkish treachery. +The captain of the _Dupleix_ had sent two boat crews to parley with +the authorities, when they were fired upon by armed Turkish civilians +and some soldiers. About twenty French soldiers were killed or +captured as a result of this treacherous act, concerning which the +Ottoman authorities published a communique in which they described the +incident as the repulse of a landing force. The French losses were +quickly avenged, for the _Dupleix_ at once began a bombardment of +the Moslem quarter of the town, and continued firing for three hours +during which great damage was done. + +Armed Turkish inhabitants perpetrated a similar outrage on boat +parties on May 18, 1915, at Banias, near Latakia; a tug and a boat +belonging to the _D'Estrees_ were fired on from roofs and landing +places while chasing a merchantman belonging to the enemy that was +seeking refuge in the port. As a punishment for the treachery of the +civilians, who had posed as peaceable inhabitants until the French +boats came into port, part of the town was destroyed by the shells of +the _D'Estrees_. + +In February, 1915, toward the close of the month, in the Red Sea, the +French armored cruiser _Desaix_ landed a reconnoitering party near +Akaba, and found the Turks occupying a neighboring village. After +receiving reenforcements from the cruiser, the French sailors drove +out the fifty or sixty Turks hiding among the houses of the village, +killing and wounding a dozen of them, their only casualty being one +man, who was slightly wounded. The Red Sea was now patrolled by +vessels of the Indian Marine, which were frequently successful in +making captures, and in removing mines from the Gulf of Akaba. + +On March 21, 1915, H.M.S. _Dufferin_ at Mutweilah on coast of Midian, +where an old Turkish fort is located, was the victim of the white-flag +trick. Through this treacherous act one British sailor was killed, and +an officer and nine other men were wounded. In the middle of May, +H.M.S. _Northbrook_ captured a dhow, having on board six German +officers belonging to the merchant marine, and ten men who were trying +to reach one of the Turkish Red Sea ports to the north. In these +waters and in the Levant there were many incidents of this character, +insignificant in themselves, but important in the aggregate, since +they kept the enemy worried, and created a wholesome fear of allied +vigilance. + +In the last week of January, 1915, the three Turkish columns advancing +on Egypt, the northern marching toward Kantara, the central and main +advance headed for Ismailia, and the southern, whose objective was +Suez, had been located, and were under surveillance of allied +aeroplanes. By January 26 advanced guards of the central and southern +columns were discovered near the canal. The central column was at Moia +Harab, and some thousand men were also discovered at Wadi Um Muksheib. +The southern column was found to be located at Bir Mabeiuk. On this +same date British troops engaged the northern Turkish column a few +miles east of El Kantara, losing in the skirmish five men and one +officer. It was now evident to the British that the Turks were about +to begin the main attack on the canal. Consequently the Auckland and +Canterbury Battalions were dispatched to Ismailia; the Otago and +Wellington Battalions were sent to El Kubri, and the New Zealand +Infantry Brigade was sent up by rail from Cairo. + +While this was transpiring on land, H.M.S. _Ocean_, _Swiftsure_, +_Clio_, and _Minerva_ joined the French warship _D'Entrecasteaux_ and +H.M.S. _Hardinge_ and two torpedo boats already stationed in the +canal. For three or four days following there were numerous skirmishes +between enemy outposts and British patrols, the most effective work +being wrought by allied aeroplanes and hydroplanes, which dropped +bombs on the Turks as they swept over them and killed many camels and +men. Lieutenant Patridge of the Indian Army Reserve of Officers and a +French pilot lost their machine outside the British lines through the +engine breaking down, and on returning to camp at night were shot and +killed by a British picket. + +On February 1, 1915, Djemel Pasha's main force occupied Katayib el +Kheil, some low hills east of the southern end of Lake Timsah. The +Turkish commander had every reason to feel satisfied with the progress +he made in bringing his army across the desert in good condition, and +with only the loss of a few deserters from among the irregulars. As +many Tripolitan, Algerian, and Indian pilgrims had been forced to join +the army by the persuasion of the leaders of the irregular troops, the +Turkish force had increased in numbers. + +Djemel Pasha's plan was to attack the canal with the main force, made +up of the Twenty-fifth Division, and all, or part of the Twenty-third +Division, which were to force their way between Serapeum and Tussum, +while his right wing by a feint attack was to hold the British force +at the Ismailia Ferry bridgehead. El Kantara was to be attacked by the +northern column, while at the same time to prevent reenforcements from +arriving, a demonstration was to be made at Ferdan. The southern +column was directed to carry out the same tactics at Kubri, near Suez, +which, as was subsequently shown, they did most ineffectually. + +In the morning of February 2, 1915, an Indian reconnoitering force met +the Turks about four miles east of the Ismailia Ferry. In the +desultory action that followed, the British troops tried ineffectually +to draw the Turks within range of their main position, and a violent +sand storm arising in the afternoon, the engagement ended. The Turks +retired and intrenched themselves about 2-1/2 miles southeast of the +Ferry post. On this same afternoon the Twenty-fifth Division of the +Turkish army had arrived at a point within four or five miles of the +canal. Their scouts were already established on the eastern bank, +which is backed by trees, brushwood, and sand hills, affording +excellent cover for infantry. A narrow sandy beach, not more than 9 +feet wide extends along the foot of the eastern bank. The Turkish +advance was made after night had set in, the Twenty-fifth Division, +with pontoon companies and engineers of the Fourth and Fifth Army +Corps, being first to reach the canal. They brought with them some +twenty pontoons, and five or six rafts constructed out of kerosene +cans fastened in wooden frames. + +The first comers were followed by a part of the Seventy-fifth +Regiment, old fighters from Tripoli and the Balkans; "Holy Warriors" +as the Arabs called them. About 3 a. m. they had gained the openings +along the canal bank, the most northerly of which being within a few +hundred yards of the Tussum bridgehead. The remainder of the +Seventy-fifth Regiment covered them from the left. Toward Serapeum, +some distance south, the Seventy-fourth Regiment was stationed. + +The night was dark and thickly clouded, and from the silence on the +western bank of the canal the Turks must have believed it to be +unoccupied. That they were entirely confident of success was shown in +a letter afterward found on a dead Turkish officer and dated February +2. After describing the hard march across the desert, he concluded, +"And to-morrow we shall be across the canal on our way to Cairo!" + +The Turks crowded on the narrow strip of beach or in the gaps in the +banks, and suffered heavily from the fire of this mountain battery. A +number of their boats which left the shore were sunk. The Sixty-second +Punjabis left their cover under a withering fire, and pluckily charged +down the bank to repel the Turkish attempts to make a landing. Toward +Tussum, farther south, a field battery belonging to the East +Lancashire Division, supported by New Zealanders of the Canterbury +Battalion, opened a rattling fire, to which the Turks immediately +replied with machine guns and rifles. The small torpedo boat _O-43_ +with its crew of thirteen now took part in the fray by dashing up the +canal and landing a few men at a point south of Tussum. + +At the first gray light of dawn the action became general, and fresh +forces entered the conflict. The Turks on the eastern bank who had +occupied the day line of the Tussum post now advanced, protected by +artillery, against the bridgehead, while the Serapeum post was +assailed by another body of troops. On the canal and Lake Timsah the +allied warships opened fire, and continued it for some time. From the +slopes of Katayib el Kheil three batteries of Turkish field guns +replied, doing considerable damage to every visible target. But they +had not taken careful observations of the British positions, and the +carefully masked Territorial battery between Tussum and Serapeum was +not discovered. This battery, aided by the New Zealanders, almost +silenced the Turkish fire from the eastern bank, and enabled them to +attend to the reserves of the enemy now seen advancing on the desert +to the east. Four of the Territorial gunners were wounded by the +Turkish batteries. A pontoon which the Turks had pushed across the +canal in the dark was sunk, but until daybreak those who had +engineered this work managed to keep afloat, and continued sniping +with some damage to British artillery horses until they were rounded +up and taken prisoners by some Indian cavalry. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Story of the Great War, Volume III +(of VIII), by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF THE GREAT WAR *** + +***** This file should be named 29265.txt or 29265.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/9/2/6/29265/ + + +Produced by Christine P. 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