diff options
Diffstat (limited to '2927-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 2927-0.txt | 902 |
1 files changed, 902 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/2927-0.txt b/2927-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5133016 --- /dev/null +++ b/2927-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,902 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Darwinian Hypothesis, by Thomas H. Huxley + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most +other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of +the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have +to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. + +Title: The Darwinian Hypothesis + +Author: Thomas H. Huxley + +Release Date: November, 2001 [Etext #2927] +[Most recently updated: October 30, 2020] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DARWINIAN HYPOTHESIS *** + + + + +This eBook was converted to HTML, with additional editing, by Jose Menendez +from the text edition produced by Amy E. Zelmer. + + + + +The Darwinian Hypothesis* + +by Thomas H. Huxley + + + +DARWIN ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES. + + +THERE is a growing immensity in the speculations of science to which no +human thing or thought at this day is comparable. Apart from the +results which science brings us home and securely harvests, there is an +expansive force and latitude in its tentative efforts, which lifts us +out of ourselves and transfigures our mortality. We may have a +preference for moral themes, like the Homeric sage, who had seen and +known much:— + + “Cities of men + And manners, climates, councils, governments”; + +yet we must end by confession that + + “The windy ways of men + Are but dust which rises up + And is lightly laid again,” + +in comparison with the work of nature, to which science testifies, but +which has no boundaries in time or space to which science can +approximate. + +There is something altogether out of the reach of science, and yet the +compass of science is practically illimitable. Hence it is that from +time to time we are startled and perplexed by theories which have no +parallel in the contracted moral world; for the generalizations of +science sweep on in ever-widening circles, and more aspiring flights, +through a limitless creation. While astronomy, with its telescope, +ranges beyond the known stars, and physiology, with its microscope, is +subdividing infinite minutiae, we may expect that our historic +centuries may be treated as inadequate counters in the history of the +planet on which we are placed. We must expect new conceptions of the +nature and relations of its denizens, as science acquires the materials +for fresh generalizations; nor have we occasion for alarms if a highly +advanced knowledge, like that of the eminent Naturalist before us, +confronts us with an hypothesis as vast as it is novel. This hypothesis +may or may not be sustainable hereafter; it may give way to something +else, and higher science may reverse what science has here built up +with so much skill and patience, but its sufficiency must be tried by +the tests of science alone, if we are to maintain our position as the +heirs of Bacon and the acquitters of Galileo. We must weigh this +hypothesis strictly in the controversy which is coming, by the only +tests which are appropriate, and by no others whatsoever. + +The hypothesis to which we point, and of which the present work of Mr. +Darwin is but the preliminary outline, may be stated in his own +language as follows:—“Species originated by means of natural selection, +or through the preservation of the favoured races in the struggle for +life.” To render this thesis intelligible, it is necessary to interpret +its terms. In the first place, what is a species? The question is a +simple one, but the right answer to it is hard to find, even if we +appeal to those who should know most about it. It is all those animals +or plants which have descended from a single pair of parents; it is the +smallest distinctly definable group of living organisms; it is an +eternal and immutable entity; it is a mere abstraction of the human +intellect having no existence in nature. Such are a few of the +significations attached to this simple word which may be culled from +authoritative sources; and if, leaving terms and theoretical subtleties +aside, we turn to facts and endeavour to gather a meaning for +ourselves, by studying the things to which, in practice, the name of +species is applied, it profits us little. For practice varies as much +as theory. Let the botanist or the zoologist examine and describe the +productions of a country, and one will pretty certainly disagree with +the other as to the number, limits, and definitions of the species into +which he groups the very same things. In these islands, we are in the +habit of regarding mankind as of one species, but a fortnight’s steam +will land us in a country where divines and savants, for once in +agreement, vie with one another in loudness of assertion, if not in +cogency of proof, that men are of different species; and, more +particularly, that the species negro is so distinct from our own that +the Ten Commandments have actually no reference to him. Even in the +calm region of entomology, where, if anywhere in this sinful world, +passion and prejudice should fail to stir the mind, one learned +coleopterist will fill ten attractive volumes with descriptions of +species of beetles, nine-tenths of which are immediately declared by +his brother beetle-mongers to be no species at all. + +The truth is that the number of distinguishable living creatures almost +surpasses imagination. At least a hundred thousand such kinds of +insects alone have been described and may be identified in collections, +and the number of separable kinds of living things is underestimated at +half a million. Seeing that most of these obvious kinds have their +accidental varieties, and that they often shade into others by +imperceptible degrees, it may well be imagined that the task of +distinguishing between what is permanent and what fleeting, what is a +species and what a mere variety, is sufficiently formidable. + +But is it not possible to apply a test whereby a true species may be +known from a mere variety? Is there no criterion of species? Great +authorities affirm that there is—that the unions of members of the same +species are always fertile, while those of distinct species are either +sterile, or their offspring, called hybrids, are so. It is affirmed not +only that this is an experimental fact, but that it is a provision for +the preservation of the purity of species. Such a criterion as this +would be invaluable; but, unfortunately, not only is it not obvious how +to apply it in the great majority of cases in which its aid is needed, +but its general validity is stoutly denied. The Hon. and Rev. Mr. +Herbert, a most trustworthy authority, not only asserts as the result +of his own observations and experiments that many hybrids are quite as +fertile as the parent species, but he goes so far as to assert that the +particular plant _Crinum capense_ is much more fertile when crossed by +a distinct species than when fertilised by its proper pollen! On the +other hand, the famous Gaertner, though he took the greatest pains to +cross the primrose and the cowslip, succeeded only once or twice in +several years; and yet it is a well-established fact that the primrose +and the cowslip are only varieties of the same kind of plant. Again, +such cases as the following are well established. The female of species +A, if crossed with the male of species B, is fertile; but, if the +female of B is crossed with the male of A, she remains barren. Facts of +this kind destroy the value of the supposed criterion. + +If, weary of the endless difficulties involved in the determination of +species, the investigator, contenting himself with the rough practical +distinction of separable kinds, endeavours to study them as they occur +in nature—to ascertain their relations to the conditions which surround +them, their mutual harmonies and discordances of structure, the bond of +union of their parts and their past history, he finds himself, +according to the received notions, in a mighty maze, and with, at most, +the dimmest adumbration of a plan. If he starts with any one clear +conviction, it is that every part of a living creature is cunningly +adapted to some special use in its life. Has not his Paley told him +that that seemingly useless organ, the spleen, is beautifully adjusted +as so much packing between the other organs? And yet, at the outset of +his studies, he finds that no adaptive reason whatsoever can be given +for one-half of the peculiarities of vegetable structure; he also +discovers rudimentary teeth, which are never used, in the gums of the +young calf and in those of the foetal whale; insects which never bite +have rudimental jaws, and others which never fly have rudimental wings; +naturally blind creatures have rudimental eyes; and the halt have +rudimentary limbs. So, again, no animal or plant puts on its perfect +form at once, but all have to start from the same point, however +various the course which each has to pursue. Not only men and horses, +and cats and dogs, lobsters and beetles, periwinkles and mussels, but +even the very sponges and animalcules commence their existence under +forms which are essentially undistinguishable; and this is true of all +the infinite variety of plants. Nay, more, all living beings march side +by side along the high road of development, and separate the later the +more like they are; like people leaving church, who all go down the +aisle, but having reached the door some turn into the parsonage, others +go down the village, and others part only in the next parish. A man in +his development runs for a little while parallel with, though never +passing through, the form of the meanest worm, then travels for a space +beside the fish, then journeys along with the bird and the reptile for +his fellow travellers; and only at last, after a brief companionship +with the highest of the four-footed and four-handed world, rises into +the dignity of pure manhood. No competent thinker of the present day +dreams of explaining these indubitable facts by the notion of the +existence of unknown and undiscoverable adaptations to purpose. And we +would remind those who, ignorant of the facts, must be moved by +authority, that no one has asserted the incompetence of the doctrine of +final causes, in its application to physiology and anatomy, more +strongly than our own eminent anatomist, Professor Owen, who, speaking +of such cases, says (_On the Nature of Limbs_, pp. 39, 40): “I think it +will be obvious that the principle of final adaptations fails to +satisfy all the conditions of the problem.” + +But, if the doctrine of final causes will not help us to comprehend the +anomalies of living structure, the principle of adaptation must surely +lead us to understand why certain living beings are found in certain +regions of the world and not in others. The palm, as we know, will not +grow in our climate, nor the oak in Greenland. The white bear cannot +live where the tiger thrives, nor _vice versa_, and the more the +natural habits of animal and vegetable species are examined, the more +do they seem, on the whole, limited to particular provinces. But when +we look into the facts established by the study of the geographical +distribution of animals and plants it seems utterly hopeless to attempt +to understand the strange and apparently capricious relations which +they exhibit. One would be inclined to suppose _a priori_ that every +country must be naturally peopled by those animals that are fittest to +live and thrive in it. And yet how, on this hypothesis, are we to +account for the absence of cattle in the Pampas of South America, when +those parts of the New World were discovered? It is not that they were +unfit for cattle, for millions of cattle now run wild there; and the +like holds good of Australia and New Zealand. It is a curious +circumstance, in fact, that the animals and plants of the Northern +Hemisphere are not only as well adapted to live in the Southern +Hemisphere as its own autochthones, but are in many cases absolutely +better adapted, and so overrun and extirpate the aborigines. Clearly, +therefore, the species which naturally inhabit a country are not +necessarily the best adapted to its climate and other conditions. The +inhabitants of islands are often distinct from any other known species +of animal or plants (witness our recent examples from the work of Sir +Emerson Tennent, on Ceylon), and yet they have almost always a sort of +general family resemblance to the animals and plants of the nearest +mainland. On the other hand, there is hardly a species of fish, shell, +or crab common to the opposite sides of the narrow isthmus of Panama. +Wherever we look, then, living nature offers us riddles of difficult +solution, if we suppose that what we see is all that can be known of +it. + +But our knowledge of life is not confined to the existing world. +Whatever their minor differences, geologists are agreed as to the vast +thickness of the accumulated strata which compose the visible part of +our earth, and the inconceivable immensity of the time of whose lapse +they are the imperfect, but the only accessible witnesses. Now, +throughout the greater part of this long series of stratified rocks are +scattered, sometimes very abundantly, multitudes of organic remains, +the fossilized exuviae of animals and plants which lived and died while +the mud of which the rocks are formed was yet soft ooze, and could +receive and bury them. It would be a great error to suppose that these +organic remains were fragmentary relics. Our museums exhibit fossil +shells of immeasurable antiquity, as perfect as the day they were +formed, whole skeletons without a limb disturbed—nay, the changed +flesh, the developing embryos, and even the very footsteps of primeval +organisms. Thus the naturalist finds in the bowels of the earth species +as well defined as, and in some groups of animals more numerous than, +those that breathe the upper air. But, singularly enough, the majority +of these entombed species are wholly distinct from those that now live. +Nor is this unlikeness without its rule and order. As a broad fact, the +further we go back in time the less the buried species are like +existing forms; and the further apart the sets of extinct creatures are +the less they are like one another. In other words, there has been a +regular succession of living beings, each younger set being in a very +broad and general sense somewhat more like those which now live. + +It was once supposed that this succession had been the result of vast +successive catastrophes, destructions, and re-creations _en masse_; but +catastrophes are now almost eliminated from geological, or at least +palaeontological speculation; and it is admitted on all hands that the +seeming breaks in the chain of being are not absolute, but only +relative to our imperfect knowledge; that species have replaced +species, not in assemblages, but one by one; and that, if it were +possible to have all the phenomena of the past presented to us, the +convenient epochs and formations of the geologist, though having a +certain distinctness, would fade into one another with limits as +undefinable as those of the distinct and yet separable colours of the +solar spectrum. + +Such is a brief summary of the main truths which have been established +concerning species. Are these truths ultimate and irresolvable facts, +or are their complexities and perplexities the mere expressions of a +higher law? + +A large number of persons practically assume the former position to be +correct. They believe that the writer of the Pentateuch was empowered +and commissioned to teach us scientific as well as other truth, that +the account we find there of the creation of living things is simply +and literally correct, and that anything which seems to contradict it +is, by the nature of the case, false. All the phenomena which have been +detailed are, on this view, the immediate product of a creative fiat +and consequently are out of the domain of science altogether. + +Whether this view prove ultimately to be true or false, it is, at any +rate, not at present supported by what is commonly regarded as logical +proof, even if it be capable of discussion by reason; and hence we +consider ourselves at liberty to pass it by, and to turn to those views +which profess to rest on a scientific basis only, and therefore admit +of being argued to their consequences. And we do this with the less +hesitation as it so happens that those persons who are practically +conversant with the facts of the case (plainly a considerable +advantage) have always thought fit to range themselves under the latter +category. + +The majority of these competent persons have up to the present time +maintained two positions,—the first, that every species is, within +certain defined or definable limits, fixed and incapable of +modification; the second, that every species was originally produced by +a distinct creative act. The second position is obviously incapable of +proof or disproof, the direct operations of the Creator not being +subjects of science; and it must therefore be regarded as a corollary +from the first, the truth or falsehood of which is a matter of +evidence. Most persons imagine that the arguments in favour of it are +overwhelming; but to some few minds, and these, it must be confessed, +intellects of no small power and grasp of knowledge, they have not +brought conviction. Among these minds, that of the famous naturalist +Lamarck, who possessed a greater acquaintance with the lower forms of +life than any man of his day, Cuvier not excepted, and was a good +botanist to boot, occupies a prominent place. + +Two facts appear to have strongly affected the course of thought of +this remarkable man—the one, that finer or stronger links of affinity +connect all living beings with one another, and that thus the highest +creature grades by multitudinous steps into the lowest; the other, that +an organ may be developed in particular directions by exerting itself +in particular ways, and that modifications once induced may be +transmitted and become hereditary. Putting these facts together, +Lamarck endeavoured to account for the first by the operation of the +second. Place an animal in new circumstances, says he, and its needs +will be altered; the new needs will create new desires, and the attempt +to gratify such desires will result in an appropriate modification of +the organs exerted. Make a man a blacksmith, and his brachial muscles +will develop in accordance with the demands made upon them, and in like +manner, says Lamarck, “the efforts of some short-necked bird to catch +fish without wetting himself have, with time and perseverance, given +rise to all our herons and long-necked waders.” + +The Lamarckian hypothesis has long since been justly condemned, and it +is the established practice for every tyro to raise his heel against +the carcass of the dead lion. But it is rarely either wise or +instructive to treat even the errors of a really great man with mere +ridicule, and in the present case the logical form of the doctrine +stands on a very different footing from its substance. + +If species have really arisen by the operation of natural conditions, +we ought to be able to find those conditions now at work; we ought to +be able to discover in nature some power adequate to modify any given +kind of animal or plant in such a manner as to give rise to another +kind, which would be admitted by naturalists as a distinct species. +Lamarck imagined that he had discovered this _vera causa_ in the +admitted facts that some organs may be modified by exercise; and that +modifications, once produced, are capable of hereditary transmission. +It does not seem to have occurred to him to inquire whether there is +any reason to believe that there are any limits to the amount of +modification producible, or to ask how long an animal is likely to +endeavour to gratify an impossible desire. The bird, in our example, +would surely have renounced fish dinners long before it had produced +the least effect on leg or neck. + +Since Lamarck’s time, almost all competent naturalists have left +speculations on the origin of species to such dreamers as the author of +the “Vestiges,” by whose well-intentioned efforts the Lamarckian theory +received its final condemnation in the minds of all sound thinkers. +Notwithstanding this silence, however, the transmutation theory, as it +has been called, has been a “skeleton in the closet” to many an honest +zoologist and botanist who had a soul above the mere naming of dried +plants and skins. Surely, has such an one thought, nature is a mighty +and consistent whole, and the providential order established in the +world of life must, if we could only see it rightly, be consistent with +that dominant over the multiform shapes of brute matter. But what is +the history of astronomy, of all the branches of physics, of chemistry, +of medicine, but a narration of the steps by which the human mind has +been compelled, often sorely against its will, to recognize the +operation of secondary causes in events where ignorance beheld an +immediate intervention of a higher power? And when we know that living +things are formed of the same elements as the inorganic world, that +they act and react upon it, bound by a thousand ties of natural piety, +is it probable, nay is it possible, that they, and they alone, should +have no order in their seeming disorder, no unity in their seeming +multiplicity, should suffer no explanation by the discovery of some +central and sublime law of mutual connexion? + +Questions of this kind have assuredly often arisen, but it might have +been long before they received such expression as would have commanded +the respect and attention of the scientific world, had it not been for +the publication of the work which prompted this article. Its author, +Mr. Darwin, inheritor of a once celebrated name, won his spurs in +science when most of those now distinguished were young men, and has +for the last 20 years held a place in the front ranks of British +philosophers. After a circumnavigatory voyage, undertaken solely for +the love of his science, Mr. Darwin published a series of researches +which at once arrested the attention of naturalists and geologists; his +generalizations have since received ample confirmation, and now command +universal assent, nor is it questionable that they have had the most +important influence on the progress of science. More recently Mr. +Darwin, with a versatility which is among the rarest of gifts, turned +his attention to a most difficult question of zoology and minute +anatomy; and no living naturalist and anatomist has published a better +monograph than that which resulted from his labours. Such a man, at all +events, has not entered the sanctuary with unwashed hands, and when he +lays before us the results of 20 years’ investigation and reflection we +must listen even though we be disposed to strike. But, in reading his +work it must be confessed that the attention which might at first be +dutifully, soon becomes willingly, given, so clear is the author’s +thought, so outspoken his conviction, so honest and fair the candid +expression of his doubts. Those who would judge the book must read it; +we shall endeavour only to make its line of argument and its +philosophical position intelligible to the general reader in our own +way. + +The Baker-street Bazaar has just been exhibiting its familiar annual +spectacle. Straight-backed, small-headed, big-barrelled oxen, as +dissimilar from any wild species as can well be imagined, contended for +attention and praise with sheep of half-a-dozen different breeds and +styes of bloated preposterous pigs, no more like a wild boar or sow +than a city alderman is like an ourang-outang. The cattle show has +been, and perhaps may again be, succeeded by a poultry show, of whose +crowing and clucking prodigies it can only be certainly predicated that +they will be very unlike the aboriginal _Phasianus gallus_. If the +seeker after animal anomalies is not satisfied, a turn or two in Seven +Dials will convince him that the breeds of pigeons are quite as +extraordinary and unlike one another and their parent stock, while the +Horticultural Society will provide him with any number of corresponding +vegetable aberrations from nature’s types. He will learn with no little +surprise, too, in the course of his travels, that the proprietors and +producers of these animal and vegetable anomalies regard them as +distinct species, with a firm belief, the strength of which is exactly +proportioned to their ignorance of scientific biology, and which is the +more remarkable as they are all proud of their skill in _originating_ +such “species.” + +On careful inquiry it is found that all these, and the many other +artificial breeds or races of animals and plants, have been produced by +one method. The breeder—and a skilful one must be a person of much +sagacity and natural or acquired perceptive faculty—notes some slight +difference, arising he knows not how, in some individuals of his stock. +If he wish to perpetuate the difference, to form a breed with the +peculiarity in question strongly marked, he selects such male and +female individuals as exhibit the desired character, and breeds from +them. Their offspring are then carefully examined, and those which +exhibit the peculiarity the most distinctly are selected for breeding, +and this operation is repeated until the desired amount of divergence +from the primitive stock is reached. It is then found that by +continuing the process of selection—always breeding, that is, from +well-marked forms, and allowing no impure crosses to interfere,—a race +may be formed, the tendency of which to reproduce itself is exceedingly +strong; nor is the limit to the amount of divergence which may be thus +produced known, but one thing is certain, that, if certain breeds of +dogs, or of pigeons, or of horses, were known only in a fossil state, +no naturalist would hesitate in regarding them as distinct species. + +But, in all these cases we have _human interference_. Without the +breeder there would be no selection, and without the selection no race. +Before admitting the possibility of natural species having originated +in any similar way, it must be proved that there is in nature some +power which takes the place of man, and performs a selection _sua +sponte_. It is the claim of Mr. Darwin that he professes to have +discovered the existence and the _modus operandi_ of this natural +selection, as he terms it; and, if he be right, the process is +perfectly simple and comprehensible, and irresistibly deducible from +very familiar but well nigh forgotten facts. + +Who, for instance, has duly reflected upon all the consequences of the +marvellous struggle for existence which is daily and hourly going on +among living beings? Not only does every animal live at the expense of +some other animal or plant, but the very plants are at war. The ground +is full of seeds that cannot rise into seedlings; the seedlings rob one +another of air, light and water, the strongest robber winning the day, +and extinguishing his competitors. Year after year, the wild animals +with which man never interferes are, on the average, neither more nor +less numerous than they were; and yet we know that the annual produce +of every pair is from one to perhaps a million young,—so that it is +mathematically certain that, on the average, as many are killed by +natural causes as are born every year, and those only escape which +happen to be a little better fitted to resist destruction than those +which die. The individuals of a species are like the crew of a +foundered ship, and none but good swimmers have a chance of reaching +the land. + +Such being unquestionably the necessary conditions under which living +creatures exist, Mr. Darwin discovers in them the instrument of natural +selection. Suppose that in the midst of this incessant competition some +individuals of a species (A) present accidental variations which happen +to fit them a little better than their fellows for the struggle in +which they are engaged, then the chances are in favour, not only of +these individuals being better nourished than the others, but of their +predominating over their fellows in other ways, and of having a better +chance of leaving offspring, which will of course tend to reproduce the +peculiarities of their parents. Their offspring will, by a parity of +reasoning, tend to predominate over their contemporaries, and there +being (suppose) no room for more than one species such as A, the weaker +variety will eventually be destroyed by the new destructive influence +which is thrown into the scale, and the stronger will take its place. +Surrounding conditions remaining unchanged, the new variety (which we +may call B)—supposed, for argument’s sake, to be the best adapted for +these conditions which can be got out of the original stock—will remain +unchanged, all accidental deviations from the type becoming at once +extinguished, as less fit for their post than B itself. The tendency of +B to persist will grow with its persistence through successive +generations, and it will acquire all the characters of a new species. + +But, on the other hand, if the conditions of life change in any degree, +however slight, B may no longer be that form which is best adapted to +withstand their destructive, and profit by their sustaining, influence; +in which case if it should give rise to a more competent variety (C), +this will take its place and become a new species; and thus, by +_natural selection_, the species B and C will be successively derived +from A. + +That this most ingenious hypothesis enables us to give a reason for +many apparent anomalies in the distribution of living beings in time +and space, and that it is not contradicted by the main phenomena of +life and organization appear to us to be unquestionable; and so far it +must be admitted to have an immense advantage over any of its +predecessors. But it is quite another matter to affirm absolutely +either the truth or falsehood of Mr. Darwin’s views at the present +stage of the inquiry. Goethe has an excellent aphorism defining that +state of mind which he calls _Thätige Skepsis_—active doubt. It is +doubt which so loves truth that it neither dares rest in doubting, nor +extinguish itself by unjustified belief; and we commend this state of +mind to students of species, with respect to Mr. Darwin’s or any other +hypothesis, as to their origin. The combined investigations of another +20 years may, perhaps, enable naturalists to say whether the modifying +causes and the selective power, which Mr. Darwin has satisfactorily +shown to exist in nature, are competent to produce all the effects he +ascribes to them, or whether, on the other hand, he has been led to +over-estimate the value of his principle of natural selection, as +greatly as Lamarck overestimated his _vera causa_ of modification by +exercise. + +But there is, at all events, one advantage possessed by the more recent +writer over his predecessor. Mr. Darwin abhors mere speculation as +nature abhors a vacuum. He is as greedy of cases and precedents as any +constitutional lawyer, and all the principles he lays down are capable +of being brought to the test of observation and experiment. The path he +bids us follow professes to be, not a mere airy track, fabricated of +ideal cobwebs, but a solid and broad bridge of facts. If it be so, it +will carry us safely over many a chasm in our knowledge, and lead us to +a region free from the snares of those fascinating but barren Virgins, +the Final Causes, against whom a high authority has so justly warned +us. “My sons, dig in the vineyard,” were the last words of the old man +in the fable; and, though the sons found no treasure, they made their +fortunes by the grapes. + + * _Times_, December 26th, 1850. + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Darwinian Hypothesis, by Thomas H. Huxley + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DARWINIAN HYPOTHESIS *** + +***** This file should be named 2927-0.txt or 2927-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/9/2/2927/ + +This eBook was converted to HTML, with additional editing, by Jose Menendez +from the text edition produced by Amy E. Zelmer. + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will +be renamed. + +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part +of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm +concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, +and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive +specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this +eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook +for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, +performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given +away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks +not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the +trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. + +START: FULL LICENSE + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full +Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at +www.gutenberg.org/license. + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or +destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your +possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a +Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound +by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the +person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph +1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this +agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the +Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection +of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual +works in the collection are in the public domain in the United +States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the +United States and you are located in the United States, we do not +claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, +displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as +all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope +that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting +free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm +works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the +Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily +comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the +same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when +you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are +in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, +check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this +agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, +distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any +other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no +representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any +country outside the United States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other +immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear +prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work +on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, +performed, viewed, copied or distributed: + + This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and + most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no + restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it + under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this + eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the + United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you + are located before using this ebook. + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is +derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not +contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the +copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in +the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are +redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply +either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or +obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm +trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any +additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms +will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works +posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the +beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including +any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access +to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format +other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official +version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site +(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense +to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means +of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain +Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the +full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +provided that + +* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed + to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has + agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project + Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid + within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are + legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty + payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project + Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in + Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg + Literary Archive Foundation." + +* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all + copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue + all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm + works. + +* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of + any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of + receipt of the work. + +* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than +are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing +from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The +Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm +trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project +Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may +contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate +or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other +intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or +other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or +cannot be read by your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium +with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you +with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in +lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person +or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second +opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If +the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing +without further opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO +OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT +LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of +damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement +violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the +agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or +limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or +unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the +remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in +accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the +production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, +including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of +the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this +or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or +additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any +Defect you cause. + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of +computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It +exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations +from people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future +generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see +Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at +www.gutenberg.org + + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by +U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the +mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its +volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous +locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt +Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to +date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and +official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact + +For additional contact information: + + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND +DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular +state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To +donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project +Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be +freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and +distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of +volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in +the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not +necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper +edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search +facility: www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + |