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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 02:47:13 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 02:47:13 -0700 |
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diff --git a/29270-h/29270-h.htm b/29270-h/29270-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2df54c3 --- /dev/null +++ b/29270-h/29270-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,18534 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Story of the Great War, Volume II (of 8), by Various</title> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- + +body {font-size: 1em; text-align: justify; margin-left: 8%; margin-right: 8%;} + +h1 {font-size: 110%; text-align: center; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} +h2 {font-size: 110%; text-align: center; margin-top: 4em; margin-bottom: 2em; line-height: 1.5em;} + +a:focus, a:active { outline:#ffee66 solid 2px; background-color:#ffee66;} +a:focus img, a:active img {outline: #ffee66 solid 2px; } + +hr.small {width: 20%; text-align: center;} +ul.none {list-style-type: none;} +ul.roman {list-style-type: upper-roman;} +p {text-indent: 1em;} +.tn p {margin-left: 10%; width: 80%; font-size: 85%; text-indent: 0em;} + +.pagenum {visibility: hidden; + position: absolute; right:0; text-align: right; + font-size: 10px; + font-weight: normal; font-variant: normal; + font-style: normal; letter-spacing: normal; + color: #C0C0C0; background-color: inherit;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps; font-size: 95%;} +.smaller {font-size: smaller;} +.small {font-size: 70%;} + +.p2 {margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} +.p4 {margin-top: 4em; margin-bottom: 1em;} +.b1 {margin-bottom: 1em;} +.add3em {margin-left: 3em;} + +.toc {margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%;} +.quote {margin-left: 5%; font-size: 95%;} +.title {margin-bottom: 2em; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em;} + +.center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em;} +.ralign {position: absolute; right: 5%; top: auto;} +.right10 {text-align: right; margin-right: 10%;} + +.figcenter {margin-top: 1.5em; text-align: center;} +.figcenter p {font-variant: small-caps; font-size: 90%;} + +--> +</style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Story of the Great War, Volume II (of +VIII), by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Story of the Great War, Volume II (of VIII) + History of the European War from Official Sources + +Author: Various + +Editor: Francis J. Reynolds + Allen L. Churchill + Francis T. Miller + +Release Date: June 29, 2009 [EBook #29270] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF THE GREAT WAR *** + + + + +Produced by Merv McConnel, Christine P. Travers and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net; +This file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="tn"> +<p>Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected. +Hyphenation and accentuation have been standardised, all +other inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling +has been maintained.</p> + +<p>Page 365, 299 mm. is probably an error for .299-in.</p> + +<p>Page 399, "could reach effectively the trenches of the +Russians" should probably be "could reach effectively the trenches of the +Austrians".</p> +</div> + +<a id="img000" name="img000"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/img000.jpg" width="500" height="706" alt="Frontispiece" title=""> +</div> + +<a id="img001" name="img001"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/img001.jpg" width="600" height="394" alt="" title=""> +<p><i>A great French siege gun in action near the +much-contested battle field of Arras. During the terrific explosion the +gunners cover their ears.</i></p> +</div> + + +<h1><span class="smaller"><i>The</i></span><br> + STORY OF THE<br> + GREAT WAR</h1> + +<p class="center">THE WAR BEGINS<br> + INVASION OF BELGIUM<br> + BATTLE OF THE MARNE<br> + CRACOW · WARSAW<br> + POLISH CAMPAIGN<br> + WAR IN EAST PRUSSIA</p> + +<a id="img002" name="img002"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/img002.jpg" width="150" height="158" alt="Editor's logo" title=""> +</div> + +<p class="p2 center">VOLUME II</p> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p class="p4 center smaller">P · F · COLLIER & SON · NEW YORK</p> +<p class="p2 center small">Copyright 1916<br> + By <span class="smcap">P. F. Collier & Son</span></p> + + +<div class="toc"> + +<a id="toc" name="toc"></a> +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page001" name="page001"></a>(p. 001)</span> CONTENTS</h2> + +<p class="p2 center">PART I.—GREAT BATTLES OF THE WESTERN ARMIES</p> + +<p class="smcap">CHAPTER</p> + +<ul class="roman"> +<li><span class="smcap">Attack on Belgium</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page009">9</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Siege and Capture of Liege</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page012">12</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Belgium's Defiance</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page023">23</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Capture of Louvain—Surrender of Brussels</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page027">27</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Coming of the British</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page033">33</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Campaigns in Alsace and Lorraine</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page038">38</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Siege and Fall of Namur</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page045">45</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Battle of Charleroi</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page054">54</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Battle of Mons</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page060">60</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">The Great Retreat Begins</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page068">68</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Fighting at Bay</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page079">79</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">The Marne—General Plan of Battle Field</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page087">87</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Allied and German Battle Plans</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page095">95</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">First Moves in the Battle</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page101">101</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">German Retreat</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page111">111</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Continuation of the Battle of the Marne</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page116">116</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Continuation of the Battle of the Marne</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page119">119</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Other Aspects of the Battle of the Marne</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page126">126</a></span></li> + +<li>"<span class="smcap">Crossing the Aisne</span>" +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page130">130</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">First Day's Battles</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page135">135</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">The British at the Aisne</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page140">140</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Bombardment of Rheims and Soissons</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page146">146</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Second Phase of Battle of the Aisne</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page149">149</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">End of the Battle</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page153">153</a></span></li> + +<li>"<span class="smcap">The Race to the Sea</span>" +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page158">158</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Siege and Fall of Antwerp</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page160">160</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Yser Battles—Attack on Ypres</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page168">168</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Attacks of La Bassée and Arras</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page177">177</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">General Movements on the French and Flanders Fronts</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page181">181</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Operations Around La Bassée and Givenchy</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page187">187</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">End of Six Months' Fighting in the West</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page193">193</a></span></li> +</ul> + + +<p class="p2 center"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page002" name="page002"></a>(p. 002)</span> PART II.—NAVAL OPERATIONS</p> + +<ul class="roman"> +<li value="32"><span class="smcap">Strength of the Rival Navies</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page196">196</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">First Blood—Battle of the Bight</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page208">208</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Battles on Three Seas</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page219">219</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">The German Sea Raiders</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page225">225</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Battle Off the Falklands</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page230">230</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Sea Fights of the Ocean Patrol</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page237">237</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">War on German Trade and Possessions</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page242">242</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Raids on the English Coast</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page245">245</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Results of Six Months' Naval Operations</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page258">258</a></span></li> +</ul> + + +<p class="p2 center">PART III.—THE WAR ON THE EASTERN FRONT</p> + +<ul class="roman"> +<li value="41"><span class="smcap">General Characteristics of the Theatre of Warfare</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page261">261</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">The Strategic Value of Russian Poland</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page268">268</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Austrian Poland, Galicia, and Bukowina</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page272">272</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">The Balkans—Countries and Peoples</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page275">275</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">The Caucasus—The Barred Door</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page286">286</a></span></li> +</ul> + + +<p class="p2 center">PART IV.—THE AUSTRO-SERBIAN CAMPAIGN</p> + +<ul class="roman"> +<li value="46"><span class="smcap">Serbia's Situation and Resources</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page291">291</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Austria's Strength and Strategy</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page298">298</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Austrian Successes</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page301">301</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">The Great Battles Begin</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page305">305</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">First Victory of the Serbians</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page310">310</a></span></li> +</ul> + + +<p class="p2 center">PART V.—THE AUSTRO-SERBIAN CAMPAIGN</p> + +<ul class="roman"> +<li value="51"><span class="smcap">Results of First Battles</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page321">321</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Serbian Attempt to Invade Austrian Territory</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page323">323</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Austria's Second Invasion</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page329">329</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">End of Second Invasion—Beginning of Third</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page331">331</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Preliminary Austrian Successes</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page335">335</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Crisis of the Campaign—Austrian Defeat</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page339">339</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">The Fate of Belgrade</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page345">345</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Attempts to Retake Belgrade</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page348">348</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Serbians Retake the City—End of Third Invasion</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page353">353</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Montenegro in the War</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page358">358</a></span></li> +</ul> + + +<p class="p2 center"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page003" name="page003"></a>(p. 003)</span> PART VI.—AUSTRO-RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN</p> + +<ul class="roman"> +<li value="61"><span class="smcap">Strength and Equipment of the Antagonists</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page362">362</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">General Strategy of the Campaign</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page371">371</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Austria Takes the Offensive</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page376">376</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">A Cautious Russian Advance—Russian Successes—Capture + of Lemberg</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page379">379</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Dankl's Offensive and Retreat</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page390">390</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Battle of Rawa-Russka</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page395">395</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Russian Victories—Battles of the San</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page398">398</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Summary of Operations of September, 1914</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page403">403</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Investiture of Przemysl</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page405">405</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Austrian Retreat Begins</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page410">410</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Fighting at Cracow</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page416">416</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Austrians Again Assume the Offensive</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page423">423</a></span></li> +</ul> + + +<p class="p2 center">PART VII.—RUSSO-GERMAN CAMPAIGN</p> + +<ul class="roman"> +<li value="73"><span class="smcap">First Clash on Prussian Frontier</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page430">430</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Advance of Russians Against the Germans</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page435">435</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Battle of Tannenberg and Russian Retreat</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page438">438</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Second Russian Invasion of East Prussia</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page446">446</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">First German Drive Against Warsaw</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page450">450</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">German Retreat from Russian Poland</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page458">458</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Winter Battles of the Polish Campaign</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page462">462</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Winter Battles in East Prussia</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page478">478</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Results of First Six Months of Russo-German + Campaign</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page482">482</a></span></li> +</ul> + + +<p class="p2 center">PART VIII.—TURKEY AND THE DARDANELLES</p> + +<ul class="roman"> +<li value="82"><span class="smcap">First Moves of Turkey</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page493">493</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">The First Blow Against the Allies</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page501">501</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">British Campaign in Mesopotamia</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#page506">506</a></span></li> +</ul> + + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page005" name="page005"></a>(p. 005)</span> LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + +<ul class="none"> +<li><span class="smcap">French Siege Gun at Arras</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img001"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></span></li> + +<li> <span class="ralign smcap">Opposite Page</span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Bridge Destroyed by the Belgians at Liege</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img005">14</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">General Joffre</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img009">78</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Germans Refortifying Antwerp</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img013">158</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Emden Aground After the Sydney's Victory</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img018">222</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Wreck of the Blücher in the North Sea Battle</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img020">254</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Serbian Infantrymen on Their Way to the Front</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img024">302</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">General von Hindenburg</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img027">382</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Gerdauen, East Prussia, Destroyed in Russian Invasion</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img029">478</a></span></li> +</ul> + + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page006" name="page006"></a>(p. 006)</span> LIST OF MAPS</h2> + +<ul class="none"> +<li> <span class="ralign smcap">Page</span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Peace Distribution of Army Corps and Naval Stations of Belligerent + Powers</span> (<i>Colored Map</i>) +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img003"><i>Front Insert</i></a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">France, Pictorial Map of</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img004">11</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Belgium, Beginning of German Invasion of</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img006">17</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Alsace-Lorraine, French Invasion of</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img007">51</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Battle of Mons and Retreat of Allied Armies</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img008">71</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Battle of the Marne—Beginning on September 5, 1914</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img010">89</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Battle of the Marne—Situation on September 9, 1914</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img011">98</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Battle of the Marne—End of German Retreat and the Intrenched + Line on the Aisne River</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img012">107</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Liege Fort, German Attack of</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img014">162</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Antwerp, Siege and Fall of</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img015">162</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Flanders, Battle Front in</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img016">173</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">German and English Naval Positions</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img017">199</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">War in the East—Relation of the Eastern Countries to Germany</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img021">263</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">The Balkans, Pictorial Map of</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img022">293</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Serbian and Austrian Invasions</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img023">296</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Russia, Pictorial Map of</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img025">364</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Galicia, Russian Invasion of</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img026">367</a></span></li> + +<li><span class="smcap">Battle of Tannenberg</span> +<span class="ralign"><a href="#img028">440</a></span></li> +</ul> +</div> + + +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page007" name="page007"></a>(p. 007)</span> + +<a id="img003" name="img003"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/img003.jpg"> +<img src="images/img003tb.jpg" width="500" height="339" alt="" title=""></a> +<p>Peace Distribution of Army Corps and Naval +Stations of Belligerent Powers.</p> +</div> + + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page009" name="page009"></a>(p. 009)</span> PART I—GREAT BATTLES OF THE WESTERN ARMIES</h2> + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER I</h2> + +<p class="title">ATTACK ON BELGIUM</p> + + +<p>The first great campaign on the western battle grounds in the European +War began on August 4, 1914. On this epoch-making day the German army +began its invasion of Belgium—with the conquest of France as its +ultimate goal. Six mighty armies stood ready for the great invasion. +Their estimated total was 1,200,000 men. Supreme over all was the +Emperor as War Lord, but Lieutenant General Helmuth von Moltke, chief of +the General Staff, was the practical director of military operations. +General von Moltke was a nephew of the great strategist of 1870, and his +name possibly appealed as of happy augury for repeating the former +capture of Paris.</p> + +<p>The First Army was assembled at Aix-la-Chapelle in the north of Belgium, +within a few miles of the Dutch frontier. It was under the command of +General von Kluck. He was a veteran of both the Austrian and +Franco-Prussian Wars, and was regarded as an able infantry leader. His +part was to enter Belgium at its northern triangle, which projects +between Holland and Germany, occupy Liege, deploy on the great central +plains of Belgium, then sweep toward the French northwestern frontier in +the German dash for Paris and the English Channel. His army thus formed +the right wing of the whole German offensive. It was composed of picked +corps, including cavalry of the Prussian Guard.</p> + +<p>The Second Army had gathered in the neighborhood of Limbourg <span class="pagenum"><a id="page010" name="page010"></a>(p. 010)</span> +under the command of General von Bülow. Its advance was planned down the +valleys of the Ourthe and Vesdre to a junction with Von Kluck at Liege, +then a march by the Meuse Valley upon Namur and Charleroi. In crossing +the Sambre it was to fall into place on the left of Von Kluck's army.</p> + +<p>The German center was composed of the Third Army under Duke Albrecht of +Württemberg, the Fourth Army led by the crown prince, and the Fifth Army +commanded by the Crown Prince of Bavaria. It was assembled on the line +Neufchateau-Treves-Metz. Its first offensive was the occupation of +Luxemburg. This was performed, after a somewhat dramatic protest by the +youthful Grand Duchess, who placed her motor car across the bridge by +which the Germans entered her internationally guaranteed independent +state. The German pretext was that since Luxemburg railways were German +controlled, they were required for the transport of troops. Preparations +were then made for a rapid advance through the Ardennes upon the Central +Meuse, to form in order upon the left of Von Bülow's army. A part of the +Fifth Army was to be detached for operations against the French fortress +of Verdun.</p> + +<p>The Sixth Army was concentrated at Strassburg in Alsace, under General +von Heeringen. As inspector of the Prussian Guards he bore a very high +military reputation. For the time being General von Heeringen's part was +to remain in Alsace, to deal with a possibly looked for strong French +offensive by way of the Vosges or Belfort.</p> + +<p>The main plan of the German General Staff, therefore was a wide +enveloping movement by the First and Second Armies to sweep the shore of +the English Channel in their march on Paris, a vigorous advance of the +center through the Ardennes for the same destination, and readiness for +battle by the Sixth Army for any French force which might be tempted +into Alsace. That this plan was not developed in its entirety, was due +to circumstances which fall into another place.</p> + +<a id="img004" name="img004"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/img004.jpg"> +<img src="images/img004tb.jpg" width="500" height="317" alt="" title=""></a> +<p>Pictorial Map of France.</p> +</div> + +<p>The long anticipated <i>Day</i> dawned. Their vast military machine moved +with precision and unity. But there was a surprise <span class="pagenum"><a id="page012" name="page012"></a>(p. 012)</span> awaiting +them. The Belgians were to offer a serious resistance to passage through +their territory—a firm refusal had been delivered at the eleventh hour. +The vanguard was thrown forward from Von Kluck's army at Aix, to break +through the defenses of Liege and seize the western railways. This force +of three divisions was commanded by General von Emmich, one of them +joining him at Verviers.</p> + +<p>On the evening of August 3, 1914, Von Emmich's force had crossed into +Belgium. Early on the morning of August 4, 1914, Von Kluck's second +advance line reached Visé, situated on the Meuse north of Liege and +close to the Dutch frontier. Here an engagement took place with a +Belgian guard, which terminated with the Germans bombarding Visé. The +Belgians had destroyed the river bridge, but the Germans succeeded in +seizing the crossing.</p> + +<p>This was the first actual hostility of the war on the western battle +grounds. With the capture of Visé, the way was clear for Von Kluck's +main army to concentrate on Belgian territory. By nightfall, Liege was +invested on three sides. Only the railway lines and roads running +westward remained open.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER II</h2> + +<p class="title">SIEGE AND CAPTURE OF LIEGE</p> + +<p>A view of Liege will assist in revealing its three days' siege, with the +resulting effect upon the western theatre of war. Liege is the capital +of the Walloons, a sturdy race that in times past has at many a crisis +proved unyielding determination and courage. At the outbreak of war it +was the center of great coal mining and industrial activity. In the +commercial world it is known everywhere for the manufacture of firearms. +The smoke from hundreds of factories spreads over the city, often +hanging in dense clouds. It might aptly be termed the Pittsburg of +Belgium. The city lies in a deep, broad cut of the River Meuse, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page013" name="page013"></a>(p. 013)</span> at its junction with the combined channels of the Ourthe and +Vesdre. It stretches across both sides, being connected by numerous +bridges, while parallel lines of railway follow the course of the main +stream. The trunk line from Germany into Belgium crosses the Meuse at +Liege. For the most part the old city of lofty houses clings to a +cliffside on the left bank, crowned by an ancient citadel of no modern +defensive value. Whatever picturesqueness Liege may have possessed is +effaced by the squalid and dilapidated condition of its poorer quarters. +To the north broad fertile plains extend into central Belgium, southward +on the opposite bank of the Meuse, the Ardennes present a hilly forest, +stream-watered region. In its downward course the Meuse flows out of the +Liege trench to expand through what is termed the Dutch Flats.</p> + +<p>Liege, at the outbreak of the war, was a place of great wealth and +extreme poverty—a Liege artisan considered himself in prosperity on $5 +a week. It was of the first strategic importance to Belgium. Its +situation was that of a natural fortress, barring the advance of a +German army.</p> + +<p>The defenses of Liege were hardly worth an enemy's gunfire before 1890. +They had consisted of a single fort on the Meuse right bank, and the +citadel crowning the heights of the old town. But subsequently the +Belgian Chamber voted the necessary sums for fortifying Liege and Namur +on the latest principles. From the plans submitted, the one finally +decided upon was that of the famous Belgian military engineer Henri +Alexis Brialmont. His design was a circle of detached forts, already +approved by German engineers as best securing a city within from +bombardment. With regard to Liege and Namur particularly, Brialmont held +that his plan would make passages of the Meuse at those places +impregnable to an enemy.</p> + +<p>When the German army stood before Liege on this fourth day of August, in +1914, the circumference of the detached forts was thirty-one miles with +about two or three miles between them, and at an average of five miles +from the city. Each fort was constructed on a new model to withstand the +highest range and power of offensive artillery <span class="pagenum"><a id="page014" name="page014"></a>(p. 014)</span> forecast in the +last decade of the nineteenth century. When completed they presented the +form of an armored mushroom, thrust upward from a mound by subterranean +machinery. The elevation of the cupola in action disclosed no more of +its surface than was necessary for the firing of the guns. The mounds +were turfed and so inconspicuous that in times of peace sheep grazed +over them. In Brialmont's original plan each fort was to be connected by +infantry trenches with sunken emplacements for light artillery, but this +important part of his design was relegated to the dangerous hour of a +threatening enemy. This work was undertaken too late before the onsweep +of the Germans. Instead, Brialmont's single weak detail in surrounding +each fort with an infantry platform was tenaciously preserved long after +its uselessness must have been apparent. Thus Liege was made a ring +fortress to distinguish it from the former latest pattern of earth +ramparts and outworks.</p> + +<p>Six major and six minor of these forts encircled Liege. From north to +south, beginning with those facing the German frontier, their names ran +as follows: Barchon, Evegnée, Fleron, Chaudfontaine, Embourg, Boncelles, +Flemalle, Hollogne, Loncin, Lantin, Liers, and Pontisse. The armaments +of the forts consisted of 6-inch and 4.7-inch guns, with 8-inch mortars +and quick firers. They were in the relative number of two, four, two and +four for the major forts, and two, two, one and three for the minor +<i>fortins</i>, as such were termed. The grand total was estimated at 400 +pieces. In their confined underground quarters the garrisons, even of +the major forts, did not exceed eighty men from the engineer, artillery +and infantry branches of the service. Between Fort Pontisse and the +Dutch frontier was less than six miles.</p> + +<a id="img005" name="img005"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/img005.jpg" width="600" height="355" alt="" title=""> +<p>This bridge over the Meuse at Liege was blown up by the +Belgians to delay the German advance. The German army crossed on pontoon +bridges.</p> +</div> + +<p>It was through this otherwise undefended gap that Von Kluck purposed to +advance his German army after the presumed immediate fall of Liege, to +that end having seized the Meuse crossing at Visé. The railway line to +Aix-la-Chapelle was dominated by Fort Fleron, while the minor Forts +Chaudfontaine and Embourg, to the south, commanded the trunk line by way +of Liege into Belgium. On the plateau, above Liege, Fort Loncin held +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page015" name="page015"></a>(p. 015)</span> the railway junction of Ans and the lines running from Liege +north and west. Finally, the forts were not constructed on a geometric +circle, but in such manner that the fire of any two was calculated to +hold an enemy at bay should a third between them fall. This was probably +an accurate theory before German guns of an unimagined caliber and range +were brought into action.</p> + +<p>In command of the Belgian forts at Liege was General Leman. He had +served under Brialmont, and was pronounced a serious and efficient +officer. He was a zealous military student, physically extremely active, +and constantly on the watch for any relaxation of discipline. These +qualities enabled him to grasp at the outset the weakness of his +position.</p> + +<p>If the Germans believed the refusal to grant a free passage for their +armies through Belgium to be little more than a diplomatic protest, it +would seem the Belgian Government was equally mistaken in doubting the +Germans would force a way through an international treaty of Belgian +neutrality. Consequently, the German crossing of the frontier discovered +Belgium with her mobilization but half complete, mainly on a line for +the defense of Brussels and Antwerp. It had been estimated by Brialmont +that 75,000 men of all arms were necessary for the defense of Liege on a +war footing, probably 35,000 was the total force hastily gathered in the +emergency to withstand the German assault on the fortifications. It +included the Civic Guard.</p> + +<p>General Leman realized, therefore, that, without a supporting field +army, it would be impossible for him to hold the German hosts before +Liege for more than a few days—a week at most.</p> + +<p>But he hoped within such time the French or British would march to his +relief. Thus his chief concern was for the forts protecting the railway +leading from Namur down the Meuse Valley into Liege—the line of a +French or British advance.</p> + +<p>On the afternoon of August 4, 1914, German patrols appeared on the left +bank of the Meuse, approaching from Visé. They were also observed by the +sentries on Forts Barchon, Evegnée and Fleron. German infantry and +artillery presently came into <span class="pagenum"><a id="page016" name="page016"></a>(p. 016)</span> view with the unmistakable +object of beginning the attack on those forts. The forts fired a few +shots by way of a challenge. As evening fell the woods began to echo +with the roar of artillery. Later, Forts Fleron, Chaudfontaine and +Embourg were added to the German bombardment. The Germans used long +range field pieces with powerful explosive shells. The fire proved to be +remarkably accurate. As their shells exploded on the cupolas and +platforms of the forts, the garrisons in their confined citadels began +to experience that inferno of vibrations which subsequently deprived +them of the incentive to eat or sleep. The Belgians replied vigorously, +but owing to the broken nature of the country, and the forethought with +which the Germans took advantage of every form of gun cover, apparently +little execution was dealt upon the enemy. However, the Belgians claimed +to have silenced two of the German pieces.</p> + +<p>In the darkness of this historic night of August 4, 1914, the flames of +the fortress guns pierced the immediate night with vivid streaks. Their +searchlights swept in broad streams the wooded slopes opposite. The +cannonade resounded over Liege, as if with constant peals of thunder. In +the city civilians sought the shelter of their cellars, but few of the +German shells escaped their range upon the forts to disturb them.</p> + +<p>This exchange of artillery went on until near daybreak of August 5, +1914, when infantry fire from the woods to the right of Fort Embourg +apprised the defenders that the Germans were advancing to the attack. +The Germans came on in their customary massed formation. The prevalent +opinion that in German tactics such action was employed to hearten the +individual soldier, was denied by their General Staff. In their opinion +an advantage was thus gained by the concentration of rifle fire. Belgian +infantry withstood the assault, and counterattacked. When dawn broke, a +general engagement was in progress. About eight o'clock the Germans were +compelled to withdraw.</p> + +<a id="img006" name="img006"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/img006.jpg"> +<img src="images/img006tb.jpg" width="300" height="444" alt="" title=""></a> +<p>Beginning of German Invasion of Belgium.</p> +</div> + +<p>The first engagement of the war was won by the Belgians. It was reported +that the Belgian fire had swept the Germans down in thousands, but this +was denied by German authorities. Up <span class="pagenum"><a id="page018" name="page018"></a>(p. 018)</span> to this time the German +forces before Liege were chiefly Von Kluck's vanguard under Von Emmich, +his second line of advance, and detachments of Von Bülow's army. On the +Belgian side no attempt was made to follow up the advantage. The reason +given is that the Germans were seen to be in strong cavalry force, an +arm lost totally in the military complement of Liege. The German losses +were undoubtedly severe, especially in front of Fort Barchon. This was +one of the major forts, triangular in shape, and surrounded by a ditch +and barbed wire entanglements. The armament of these major forts had +recently been reenforced by night, secretly, with guns of heavier +caliber from Antwerp. As they outmatched the German field pieces of the +first attack, presumably the German Intelligence Department had failed +in news of them. An armistice requested by the Germans to gather in the +wounded and bury the dead was refused. Thereupon the artillery duel +recommenced.</p> + +<p>A hot and oppressive day disclosed woods rent and scarred, standing +wheat fields shell-plowed and trampled, and farm houses set ablaze. The +bringing of the Belgian wounded into Liege apprised the citizens that +their side had also suffered considerably. Meanwhile, the Germans were +reenforced by the Tenth Hanoverian Army Corps, from command of which +General von Emmich had been detached to lead Von Kluck's vanguard, also +artillery with 8.4-inch howitzers.</p> + +<p>The bombardment on this 5th day of August, 1914, now stretched from Visé +around the Meuse right bank half circle of forts to embrace Pontisse and +Boncelles at its extremities. In a few hours infantry attack began +again. The Germans advanced in masses by short rushes, dropping to fire +rifle volleys, and then onward with unflinching determination. The +forts, wreathed in smoke, blazed shells among them; their machine guns +spraying streams of bullets. The Germans were repulsed and compelled to +retire, but only to re-form for a fresh assault. Both Belgian and German +aeroplanes flew overhead to signal their respective gunners. A Zeppelin +was observed, but did not come within range of Belgian fire. The +Belgians claim to have shot down one German aeroplane, and another is +said to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page019" name="page019"></a>(p. 019)</span> have been brought to earth by flying within range of +its own artillery.</p> + +<p>During the morning of August 5, Fort Fleron was put out of action by +shell destruction of its cupola-hoisting machinery. This proved a weak +point in Brialmont's fortress plan. It was presently discovered that the +fire of the supporting forts Evegnée and Chaudfontaine could not command +the lines forming the apex of their triangle. Further, since the Belgian +infantry was not in sufficient force to hold the lines between the +forts, a railway into Liege fell to the enemy. The fighting here was of +such a desperate nature, that General Leman hastened to reenforce with +all his reserve.</p> + +<p>This battle went on during the afternoon and night of August 5, into the +morning of August 6, 1914. But the fall of Fort Fleron began to tell in +favor of the Germans. Belgian resistance perforce weakened. The +ceaseless pounding of the German 8.4-inch howitzers smashed the inner +concrete and stone protective armor of the forts, as if of little more +avail than cardboard. At intervals on August 6, Forts Chaudfontaine, +Evegnée and Barchon fell under the terrific hail of German shells. A way +was now opened into the city, though, for the most part, still contested +by Belgian infantry. A party of German hussars availed themselves of +some unguarded path to make a daring but ineffectual dash to capture +General Leman and his staff.</p> + +<p>General Leman was consulting with his officers at military headquarters, +on August 6, 1914, when they were startled by shouts outside. He rushed +forth into a crowd of citizens to encounter eight men in German uniform. +General Leman cried for a revolver to defend himself, but another +officer, fearing the Germans had entered the city in force, lifted him +up over a foundry wall. Both Leman and the officer made their escape by +way of an adjacent house. Belgian Civic Guards hastening to the scene +dispatched an officer and two men of the German raiders. The rest of the +party are said to have been made prisoners.</p> + +<p>The end being merely a question of hours General Leman <span class="pagenum"><a id="page020" name="page020"></a>(p. 020)</span> ordered +the evacuation of the city by the infantry. He wisely decided it could +be of more service to the Belgian army at Dyle, than held in a +beleaguered and doomed city. Reports indicate that this retreat, though +successfully performed, was precipitate. The passage of it was scattered +with arms, equipment, and supplies of all kinds. An ambulance train was +abandoned, twenty locomotives left in the railway station, and but one +bridge destroyed in rear beyond immediate repair. After its +accomplishment, General Leman took command of the northern forts, +determined to hold them against Von Kluck until the last Belgian gun was +silenced.</p> + +<p>Early on August 7, 1914, Burgomaster Kleyer and the Bishop of Liege +negotiated terms for the surrender of the city. It had suffered but +slight damage from the bombardment. Few of the citizens were reported +among the killed or injured. On behalf of the Germans it must be said +their occupation of Liege was performed in good order, with military +discipline excellently maintained. They behaved at first fairly +impartial in establishing their rule in the city, and paid for all +supplies requisitioned. They were quartered in various public buildings +and institutions, probably to the number of 10,000. The German troops at +first seemed to present an interesting spectacle. They were mostly young +men, reported as footsore from their long march in new, imperfectly +fitting boots, and hungry from the lack of accompanying commissariat. +This is proof that the German's military machine did not work to +perfection at the outset. Later, alleged hostile acts by Belgian +individuals moved the German military authorities to seize a group of +the principal citizens, and warn the inhabitants that the breaking of a +peaceful attitude would be at the risk of swiftly serious punishment. +Precautions to enforce order were such as is provided in martial law, +and carried out in the beginning with some show of fairness. The Germans +appeared anxious to restore confidence and win a feeling of good will.</p> + +<p>For some days after the capitulation of the city the northern forts +continued a heroic resistance. So long as these remained uncaptured, +General Leman maintained that, strategically, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page021" name="page021"></a>(p. 021)</span> Liege had not +fallen. He thus held in check the armies of Von Kluck and Von Bülow, +when every hour was of supreme urgency for their respective onsweep into +central Belgium and up the Meuse Valley. The Germans presently brought +into an overpowering bombardment their 11-inch siege guns.</p> + +<p>On August 13, 1914, Embourg was stricken into ruin. On the same day the +electric lighting apparatus of Fort Boncelles having been destroyed, the +few living men of its garrison fought through the following night in +darkness, and in momentary danger of suffocation from gases emitted by +the exploding German shells.</p> + +<p>Early in the morning of August 14, 1914, though its cupolas were +battered in and shells rained upon the interior, the commander refused +an offer of surrender. A little later the concrete inner chamber walls +fell in. The commander of Boncelles, having exhausted his defensive, +hoisted the white flag. He had held out for eleven days in a veritable +death-swept inferno.</p> + +<p>Fort Loncin disputed with Boncelles the honor of being the last to +succumb. The experience of its garrison differed only in terrible +details from Boncelles. Its final gun shot was fired by a man with his +left hand, since the other had been severed. Apparently a shell exploded +in its magazine, and blew up the whole fort. General Leman was +discovered amid its débris, pinned beneath a huge beam. He was released +by his own men. When taken to a trench, a German officer found that he +was merely unconscious from shock.</p> + +<p>When sufficiently recovered, General Leman was conducted to General von +Emmich to tender his personal surrender. The two had previously been +comrades at maneuvers. The report of their meeting is given by a German +officer. The guard presented the customary salute due General Leman's +rank. General von Emmich advanced a few steps to meet General Leman. +Both generals saluted.</p> + +<p>"General," said Von Emmich, "you have gallantly and nobly held your +forts."</p> + +<p>"I thank you," Leman replied. "Our troops have lived up to their +reputation. War is not like maneuvers, <i>mon Général</i>," he <span class="pagenum"><a id="page022" name="page022"></a>(p. 022)</span> +added with a pointed smile. "I ask you to bear witness that you found me +unconscious."</p> + +<p>General Leman unbuckled his sword to offer it to the victor.</p> + +<p>Von Emmich bowed.</p> + +<p>"No, keep it," he gestured. "To have crossed swords with you has been an +honor."</p> + +<p>Subsequently the President of the French Republic bestowed on Liege the +Cross of the Legion of Honor. To its motto in this instance might have +been added appropriately: Liege, the Savior of Paris. The few days of +its resistance to an overwhelming force enabled the Belgium army to +improve its mobilization, the British to throw an expeditionary army +into France, and the French to make a new offensive alignment. It will +forever remain a brilliant page in war annals. In a military estimate it +proved that forts constructed on the latest scientific principles, but +unsupported by an intrenched field army, crumple under the concentrated +fire of long-range, high-power enemy guns.</p> + +<p>The fall of the northern and eastern Liege forts released Von Kluck's +army for its march into central Belgium. Meanwhile the Belgian army had +been concentrated on a line of the River Dyle, with its left touching +Malines and its right resting on Louvain. Its commander, General +Selliers de Moranville, made his headquarters in the latter city. The +Belgian force totaled 110,000 men of all complements. Whether this +included the reenforcement by the Liege infantry is uncertain.</p> + +<p>During August 10 and 11, 1914, General Moranville threw forward +detachments to screen his main body in front of the German advance. On +the 11th a rumor that the French had crossed the Sambre, moved General +Moranville to extend his right wing to Eghezee, with the hope of getting +in touch with the Allies. That the French and British were hastening to +his support could not be doubted. They were already overdue, but +assuredly would come soon. That was the Belgian reliance, passing from +mouth to mouth among the Court, Cabinet Ministers, General Staff, down +to the factory toilers, miners, and peasants on their farms. The Sambre +report, like many others in various places, proved unfounded.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page023" name="page023"></a>(p. 023)</span> CHAPTER III</h2> + +<p class="title">BELGIUM'S DEFIANCE</p> + + +<p>A view of the general situation in Belgium will assist in clearing the +way for swiftly following events. Germany had invaded Belgium against +the diplomatic and active protests of its Government. But the German +Government still hoped that the heroic resistance of Liege would satisfy +Belgian national spirit, and a free passage of German troops now be +granted. The German Emperor made a direct appeal to the King of the +Belgians through the medium of the Queen of Holland. From the German +point of outlook their victory could best be attained by the march +through Belgium upon Paris. The German Government asserted that the +French and British contemplated a similar breach of Belgian neutrality. +To their mind, it was a case of which should be on the ground first. On +the other hand, the Allies pronounced the German invasion of Belgium an +unprovoked assault, and produced countertestimony. The controversy has +continued to this day. But the war as it progressed has seen many +breaches of neutrality, and a certain resignation to the inevitable has +succeeded the moral indignation so easily aroused in its early stages.</p> + +<p>Let us now glance at the condition of Belgium when war was declared. The +Belgians were an industrial and not a militant people. They had ample +reason to yearn for a permanent peace. Their country had been the +cockpit of Europe from the time of Cæsar until Waterloo. The names of +their cities, for the most part, represented great historic battle +fields. Again and again had the ruin of conflict swept over their +unfortunately situated land. At all periods the Belgians were brave +fighters on one side or the other, for Belgium had been denied a +national unity. Doubtless, therefore, they welcomed the establishment of +their independent sovereignty and the era of peace which followed. +Historically, they had suffered enough, with an abundance to spare, from +perpetual warfare. Their minds turned hopefully toward industrial and +commercial activity, stimulated by the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page024" name="page024"></a>(p. 024)</span> natural mineral wealth +of their soil. Thus the products of their factories reached all +countries, South America, China, Manchuria, and Central Africa, +especially of later years, where a great territory had been acquired in +the Congo. The iron and steel work of Liege was famous, Antwerp had +become one of the chief ports of Europe and growing into a financial +power. But owing to the confined boundaries of Belgium, there grew to be +a congestion of population. This produced a strong democratic and +socialistic uplift which even threatened the existence of the monarchy. +Also, all that monarchy seemed to imply.</p> + +<p>The Belgians, doubtless with memories of the past, despised and hated +the display of military. Consequently it was only with difficulty, and +in the face of popular opposition, that the Belgium Government had +succeeded with military plans for defense, but imperfectly carried out. +Herein, perhaps, we have the keynote to Belgium's desperate resistance +to the German invaders. In the light of the foregoing, it is easily +conceivable that the Germans represented to the Belgians the military +yoke. They were determined to have none of it, upon any overtures or +terms. But they relied on France and England for protection, when common +prudence should have made the mobilization of an up-to-date army of +500,000 men ready for the call to repel an invader on either of the +frontiers, instead of the practically helpless force of 110,000.</p> + +<p>The German General Staff did not believe the Belgians intended to raise +a serious barrier in their path. But with the crisis, democratic Belgium +united in a rush to arms, which recalls similar action by the American +colonists at the Revolution. Every form of weapon was grasped, from old +muskets to pitchforks and shearing knives. It was remarked by a foreign +witness that in default of properly equipped armories, the Belgians +emptied the museums to confront the Germans with the strangest +assortment of antiquated military tools.</p> + +<p>As testimony of Belgian feeling, the Labor party organ "Le Peuple" +issued the following statement: "Why do we, as irreconcilable +antimilitarists, cry 'Bravo!' from the bottom of our hearts to all those +who offer themselves for the defense of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page025" name="page025"></a>(p. 025)</span> country? Because +it is not only necessary to protect the hearths and homes, the women and +the children, but it is also necessary to protect at the price of our +blood the heritage of our ancient freedom. Go, then, sons of the +workers, and register your names as recruits. We will rather die for the +idea of progress and solidarity of humanity than live under a régime +whose brutal force and savage violence have wiped outright."</p> + +<p>The Belgian General Staff, foreseeing dire consequences from the +invading hosts, warned all to maintain as peaceful an attitude as +possible. In spite of the efforts of Belgian officials, severe penalties +were inflicted on the citizens.</p> + +<p>On Wednesday, August 12, 1914, a German cavalry screen, thrown in +advance of the main forces, came in touch with Belgian patrols. A series +of engagements took place. The Germans tried to seize the bridges across +the Dyle at Haelen, and at Cortenachen on the Velpe, a tributary of the +former river, mainly with the object of outflanking the Belgian left +wing. The Belgians are said to have numbered some 10,000 of all arms, +and were successful in repulsing the Germans.</p> + +<p>On August 13, 1914, similar actions were continued. At Tirlemont 2,000 +German cavalry swept upon the town, but were beaten off. At Eghezee on +the extreme Belgian right—close to Namur and the historic field of +Ramillies—another brush with the Germans took place. Belgian cavalry +caught a German cavalry detachment bivouacked in the village. Sharp +fighting through the streets ensued before the Germans withdrew. In +spite of the warning of the Belgian General Staff, and similar advance +German notices, the citizens of some of these and other places began +sniping German patrols.</p> + +<p>Meantime, moving over the roads toward Namur, toiled the huge German +42-centimeter guns. The German General Staff had taken to mind the +lesson of Liege. Each gun was transported in several parts, hauled by +traction engines and forty horses. Of this, with the advance of Von +Kluck and Von Bülow, the Belgian General Staff was kept in total +ignorance by the German screen of cavalry. So ably was this screen work +performed that the Belgians were led to believe the Germans had +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page026" name="page026"></a>(p. 026)</span> succeeded in placing no more than two divisions of cavalry, +together with a few detachments of infantry and artillery, on Belgian +soil. They, in fact, regarded the German cavalry skirmishing as a rather +clumsy offensive.</p> + +<p>As we have seen, the resistance of Forts Boncelles and Loncin at Liege +held back the main German advance from seven to ten days. Their fall +released into German control the railway junction at Ans. With that was +included the line from Liege up the left bank of the Meuse to Namur. +Also, another line direct to Brussels.</p> + +<p>On August 15, 1914, the cavalry screen was withdrawn, and four German +army corps were revealed to the surprised Belgian line. In this +emergency, clearly their only hope lay with the French. In Louvain, +Brussels, and Antwerp, anxious questions lay on all lips. "Why do not +the French hasten to our aid? When will they come? Will the British fail +us at the twelfth hour?"</p> + +<p>Eager watchers at Ostend beheld no sign of the promised transports to +disembark a British army of support in the day of overwhelming need. +About this time some French cavalry crossed the Sambre to join hands +with the Belgian right wing near Waterloo. But it was little more than a +detachment. The French General Staff was occupied with a realignment, +and had decided not to advance into Belgium until they could do so in +force sufficient to cope with the Germans. The Belgian General Staff saw +there was no other course but to fall back, fighting rear-guard actions +until the longed-for French army was heralded by the thunder of friendly +guns.</p> + +<p>The Belgian army was thus withdrawn from the River Gethe to hold +Aerschot on its left stubbornly through August 14, 1914. Diest, St. +Trond, and Waremme fell before the German tidal wave without resistance. +Von Kluck's main army endeavored to sweep around the Belgian right at +Wavre, but was checked for a brief space.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page027" name="page027"></a>(p. 027)</span> CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<p class="title">CAPTURE OF LOUVAIN—SURRENDER OF BRUSSELS</p> + + +<p>During August 17, 1914, the German center was hurled forward in +irresistible strength. The citizens of the villages in its path fled +precipitously along the roads to Brussels. At intersections all kinds of +vehicles bearing household effects, together with live stock, blocked +the way to safety. The uhlan had become a terror, but not without some +provocation. Tirlemont was bombarded, reduced, and evacuated by the +Belgian troops. The latter made a vigorous defensive immediately before +Louvain, but their weakness in artillery and numbers could not withstand +the overwhelming superiority of the Germans. They were thrust back from +the valley of the Dyle to begin their retreat on Antwerp, chiefly by way +of Malines. This was to elude a successful German envelopment on their +Louvain right. They retired in good order, but their losses had been +considerable.</p> + +<p>This body was the Belgian right wing, which fell back to take up a +position before Louvain. Here it fought a well-sustained action on +August 19, 1914, the purpose of which was to cover the retreat of the +main army by way of Malines on Antwerp. The Belgian right wing thus +became a rear guard.</p> + +<p>It withstood the German attack until the early morning of August 20, +1914, when, separated from the main body, the overpowering number of +German guns and men drove it back to a final stand between Louvain and +Brussels. If its losses had been heavy, the carrying away of the wounded +proved that it still maintained a fighting front. The retreat of the +main army on Antwerp was part of Brialmont's plan for the defense of +Belgium, since the position of Brussels was not capable of a strong +defense. By this time the main army was safely passing down the valley +of the Dyle to the shelter of the Antwerp forts, leaving the right wing +to its fate. Louvain thus fell to the Germans.</p> + +<p>Toward noon of August 20, 1914, the burgomaster and four <span class="pagenum"><a id="page028" name="page028"></a>(p. 028)</span> +sheriffs awaited at one of the city gates, the first German appearance. +This proved to be a party of hussars bearing a white flag. They +conducted the burgomaster to the waiting generals at the head of the +advance column. In token of surrender the burgomaster was requested to +remove his scarf of office, displaying the Belgian national colors. The +German terms were then pronounced. A free passage of troops through the +city was to be granted, and 3,000 men garrisoned in its barracks. In +return, cash was to be paid for all supplies requisitioned, and a +guarantee given for the lives and property of the inhabitants. The +Germans further agreed to maintain the established civil power, but +warned that hostile acts by civilians would be severely punished. These +terms were in general in conformity with the rules of war governing the +military occupation of an enemy city. The Germans put forward the claim +that the hostile act of any civilian places him in the same position as +a spy, to be punished by death.</p> + +<p>The Germans entered Louvain with bands playing, and singing in a great +swelling chorus: "Die Wacht am Rhein" and "Hail to the War Lord." They +marched to quick time, but in passing through the great square of the +Gare du Nord broke into the parade goose step. In the van were such +famous regiments as the Death's Head and Zeiten Hussars. The infantry +wore heavy boots, which, falling in unison, struck the earth with +resounding blows, to echo back from the house walls. Thus cavalry, +infantry, and artillery poured through Louvain in a gray-green surge of +hitherto unimagined military might. This, for the latter part of the +20th and the day following.</p> + +<p>At first the citizens looked on from the sidewalks in a spellbound +silence. Scarcely one seemed to possess the incentive to breathe a +whisper. Only the babies and very small children regarded the +awe-inspiring spectacle as something provided by way of entertainment. +For the rest of the citizens it was dumbfounding beyond human +comprehension. Cavalry, infantry, and artillery rolled on unceasingly to +the clatter of horses' hoofs, the tramp of feet, the rumble of guns, and +that triumphant mighty chorus. There was nothing of aforetime plumed and +gold-laced <span class="pagenum"><a id="page029" name="page029"></a>(p. 029)</span> splendor of war about it, but the modern Teutonic +arms on grim business bent. Except for a curious glance bestowed here +and there, the German troops marched with eyes front, and a precision as +if being reviewed by the emperor. A few shots were heard to stir instant +terror among the citizen onlookers, but these were between the German +advance guard and Belgian stragglers left behind in the city. Presently +the side streets became dangerous to pedestrians from onrushing +automobiles containing staff officers, and motor wagons of the military +train. General von Arnim, in command, ordered the hauling down of all +allied colors, but permitted the Belgian flag to remain flying above the +Hôtel de Ville. He promptly issued a proclamation warning all citizens +to preserve the peace. It was both placarded and announced verbally. The +latter was performed by a minor city official, ringing a bell as he +passed through the streets accompanied by policemen.</p> + +<p>Toward evening of August 20, 1914, the cafés and restaurants filled up +with hungry German officers and men; every hotel room was occupied, and +provision shops speedily sold out the stores on their shelves. The +Germans at first paid in cash for everything ordered, and preserved an +attitude of nonaggression toward the citizens. But subconsciously there +ran an undercurrent of dread insecurity. At the outset a German officer +was said to have been struck by a sniper's bullet. Somewhat +conspicuously the wounded officer was borne on a litter through the +streets, followed by the dead body of his assailant. Very promptly a +news curtain was drawn down around the city, cutting it off from all +information of the world without. Artillery fire was heard. Presumably +this came from the last stand of the Belgian rear guard in a valley of +the hilly country between Louvain and Brussels. With sustained optimism +to the end, rumor had it that the artillery fire was that of French and +British guns coming to the relief of Louvain. Toward nightfall one or +two groups of alleged snipers were brought in from the suburbs and +marched to the place of execution.</p> + +<p>The feeling of a threatened calamity deepened. Another warning +proclamation was issued ordering all citizens to give up their <span class="pagenum"><a id="page030" name="page030"></a>(p. 030)</span> +arms. Further, everyone was ordered to bed at eight o'clock, all windows +were to be closed and all doors unlocked. A burning lamp was to be +placed in each window. On the claim that German soldiers had been killed +by citizens, the burgomaster and several of the city officials were +secured as hostages. A stern proclamation was issued threatening with +immediate execution every citizen found with a weapon in his possession +or house. Every house from which a shot was fired would be burned.</p> + +<p>This was on August 22, 1914. By the evening of that day the German army +had passed through Louvain, estimated to the number of 50,000 men. Only +the 3,000 garrison remained in the city. Outwardly, the citizens resumed +their usual daily affairs as if with a sense of relief, but whispers +dropped now and then revealed an abiding terror beneath. Some time +during the next day or two the anticipated calamity fell upon Louvain. +The Germans without any proof insisted that sniping was going on, and +the military authorities seized this pretext to put into force their +threatened reprisal. The torch was thrown into convicted houses. Larger +groups of citizens were led to execution. Thereupon the "brute" passion +dormant in soldiers broke the bonds of discipline. Flames burst forth +everywhere. Beneath the lurid glow cast upon the sky above Louvain whole +streets stood out in blackened ruin, and those architectural treasures +of the Halles and the University, with its famous library, were +destroyed beyond hope of repair. Only the walls of St. Peter's Church, +containing many priceless paintings, remained.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, on the morning of August 20, 1914, the German army had swept +away the comparatively small Belgian rear-guard force before Brussels, +and advanced upon the capital. On the previous 17th the King of the +Belgians removed his Government to Antwerp. The diplomatic corps +followed. Mr. Brand Whitlock, the American Minister, however, remained. +In his capacity as a neutral he had assisted stranded Germans in +Brussels from hasty official and mob peril. He stayed to perform a +similar service for the Belgians and Allies. His success in these +efforts won for him German respect and the gratitude of the whole +Belgian nation.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page031" name="page031"></a>(p. 031)</span> A lingering plan for defending Brussels by throwing up +barricades and constructing wire entanglements, to be manned by the +Civic Guard, was abandoned in the face of wiser counsel. It would merely +have resulted in a bombardment, with needless destruction of life and +property. Brussels was defenseless.</p> + +<p>In flight before the German host, refugees of all classes were streaming +into Brussels—young and old, rich and poor, priest and layman. Nearly +all bore some burden of household treasure, many some pathetically +absurd family heirloom. Every kind of vehicle appeared to have been +called into use, from smart carriages drawn by heavy Flemish horses to +little carts harnessed to dogs. Over all reigned a stupefied silence, +broken only by shuffling footfalls. Among them the absence of +automobiles and light horses would indicate all such had been +commandeered by the Belgian military authorities. Their cavalry was +badly in need of good light-weight mounts. At crossroads passage to +imagined safety was blocked by farm live stock driven by bewildered +peasants.</p> + +<p>On Thursday morning, August 20, 1914, the burgomaster motored forth to +meet the Germans. His reception and the terms dictated by General von +Arnim were almost identically the same as at Louvain. The burgomaster +was perforce compelled to accept. The scene of the entry of the German +troops into Louvain was repeated at Brussels. There was the same +stolidly silent-packed gathering of onlookers on the sidewalks, the same +thundering triumphant march of the German host. Corps after corps, +probably of those who had fought at Liege, and subsequently passed +around the city on the grand sweep toward the French frontier. Moreover, +huge bodies of German troops were advancing up the valley of the Meuse +and through the woods of the Ardennes. As in Louvain, that night the +hotels, restaurants, cafés, and shops of Brussels were patronized by a +rush of trade which never before totaled such extent in a single day. +Bills of purchase were settled by the Germans in cash. The city was +promptly assessed a war indemnity of $40,000,000.</p> + +<p>With the fall of Brussels, the first objective of the Germans <span class="pagenum"><a id="page032" name="page032"></a>(p. 032)</span> +may be said to have been gained. But the right wing of Von Kluck's army +was still operating northward upon Antwerp. The Belgian army had escaped +him within the circle of Antwerp's forts, so that he detailed a force +deemed to be sufficient to hold the enemy secure. Then he struck +eastward between Antwerp and Brussels at Alost, Ghent, and Bruges. In +his advance he swept several divisions of cavalry, also motor cars +bearing machine guns. Beyond Bruges his patrol caught their first +glimpse of the North Sea, drawing in toward another much-hoped-for goal +on the English Channel.</p> + +<p>But the Belgian army within security of Antwerp had not been routed. It +had retreated in good order, thanks to the resistance of its right-wing +rear guard. General de Moranville promptly reenforced it with new +volunteers to the extent of some 125,000 men. In addition, he drew upon +a fresh supply of ammunition, and new artillery well horsed. His +cavalry, however, were certainly no better and probably worse than that +with which his army had been complemented originally.</p> + +<p>On August 23, 1914, obtaining information that the Germans were in +considerably inferior force at Malines, the Belgians began a vigorous +counteroffensive. General de Moranville drove the Germans out of Malines +on the day following. That was in the nature of a master stroke, for it +gave the Belgians control of the shortest railway from Germany into West +Flanders. Further, since Von Kluck had reached Bruges, and +reenforcements under General von Boehn had passed across the Belgian +direct line on Brussels, the great German right wing was in danger of +being caught in a trap. Von Boehn, therefore, was hurriedly detached +rearward to deal with the Belgian counteroffensive. But this deprived +Von Kluck of his needed reenforcements to overcome 2,000 British marines +landed at Ostend, that, together with the Civic Guard, had beaten back +German patrols from the place. Had the British now landed an army at +Ostend, Von Kluck, between the Belgian and British forces, would have +been in serious danger of annihilation. With the German right wing thus +crumpled, the whole of their offensive would have broken down. But the +British did not come, and so the Belgians <span class="pagenum"><a id="page033" name="page033"></a>(p. 033)</span> were left to fight +it out single handed. This fighting went on for three weeks, with +accurate details lacking. Mainly it was upon the line Aerschot-Dyle +Valley-Termonde, with Antwerp for the Belgian base.</p> + +<p>On August 24, 1914, a German Zeppelin sailed over Antwerp and dropped a +number of bombs. The Belgians thrust their right wing forward and +recaptured Alost. They advanced their center to a siege of Cortenburg. +Malines seemed secure. To the Belgians this was a historic triumph. +Famous for its manufacture of lace under the name of Mechlin, almost +every street contained some relic of architectural interest. The +Cathedral of St. Rombaut, the seat of a cardinal archbishop, held upon +its walls some of Van Dyck's masterpieces. Margaret of Austria had held +court in its Palais de Justice.</p> + +<p>In this emergency, Von Boehn was heavily reenforced with the Third Army +Corps, reserves from the south, and 15,000 sailors and marines. His army +was now between 250,000 and 300,000 men. This placed overwhelming odds +against the Belgians. But for four days they fought a stubborn battle at +Weerde.</p> + +<p>This was from September 13 to 16, 1914, and resulted in the capture of +the Louvain-Malines railway by the Germans. The Belgians had now fought +to the extremity of what could be expected without aid from the Allies. +The sole action left for them was to fall back for a defense of Antwerp. +Von Kluck's right wing of the whole German offensive had completed its +task on Belgian soil.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER V</h2> + +<p class="title">COMING OF THE BRITISH</p> + + +<p>We now come to the arrival of the British on the Continent. In using the +term British, it is expressly intended to comprise the united forces of +the British Isles.</p> + +<p>On August 3, 1914, the British Government practically gave up hope that +war with Germany could be avoided, though it would <span class="pagenum"><a id="page034" name="page034"></a>(p. 034)</span> appear to +have lingered until the ultimatum to Germany to vacate Belgian soil +remained unanswered. On that day the army was mobilized at Aldershot.</p> + +<p>On August 5, 1914, Lord Kitchener was recalled at the outset from a +journey to Egypt, and appointed Minister of War. No more fortunate +selection than this could have been made. Above all else, Lord +Kitchener's reputation had been won as an able transport officer. In the +emergency, as Minister of War, the responsibility for the transport of a +British army oversea rested in his hands. On August 5, 1914, the House +of Commons voted a credit of $100,000,000, and an increase of 500,000 +men to the regular forces. Upon the same day preparations went forward +for the dispatch of an expeditionary army to France.</p> + +<p>The decision to send the army to France, instead of direct to a landing +in Belgium, would seem to have been in response to an urgent French +entreaty that Great Britain mark visibly on French soil her unity with +that nation at the supreme crisis. For some days previously British +reluctance to enter the war while a gleam of hope remained to confine, +if not prevent, the European conflagration, had created a feeling of +disappointment in France.</p> + +<p>The British expeditionary army consisted at first—that is previous to +the Battle of the Marne—of two and a half army corps, or five +divisions, thus distributed: First Corps, Sir Douglas Haig; Second +Corps, General Smith-Dorrien; Fourth Division of the Third Corps, +General Pulteney. The Sixth Division of the Third Corps and the Fourth +Corps under General Rawlinson were not sent to France till after the end +of September, 1914. It contained besides about one division and a half +of cavalry under General Allenby. A British division varies from 12,000 +to 15,000 men (three infantry brigades of four regiments each; three +groups of artillery, each having three batteries of six pieces; two +companies of sappers, and one regiment of cavalry). The force totaled +some 75,000 men, with 259 guns. The whole was placed under the command +of Field Marshal Sir John French, with Lieutenant General Sir Archibald +Murray, Chief of Staff.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page035" name="page035"></a>(p. 035)</span> Field Marshal French was sixty-two and was two years younger +than Lord Kitchener. His responsibilities were great, how great no one +at the beginning of the war realized his capabilities for the developing +scope of the task untried, but as a serious and courageous officer he +fully merited the honors he had already won.</p> + +<p>By August 7, 1914, Admiral Jellicoe was able to guarantee a safe passage +for the British army across the English Channel. A fortunate +mobilization of the British Grand Fleet in the North Sea for maneuvers +shut off the German Grand Fleet from raiding the Channel. There was +nothing to criticize in the manner in which the Expeditionary Army was +thrown into France. Its equipment was ready and in all details fully +worthy of German military organization. From arms to boots—the latter +not long since a scandal of shoddy workmanship—only the best material +and skill had been accepted. Its transport proved the genius of Lord +Kitchener in that brand of military service. The railways leading to the +ports of embarkation, together with passenger steamships—some of them +familiar in American ports—were commandeered as early as the 4th of +August.</p> + +<p>During the night of August 7, 1914, train after train filled with troops +steamed toward Southampton, and some other south-coast ports. +Complements were also embarked at Dublin, Avonmouth, and the Bristol +Channel. In the middle of the night citizens of small towns along the +route were awakened by the unceasing rumble of trains. They had no +conception of its import. They did not even realize that war had +actually burst upon the serenity of their peaceful lives. Each transport +vessel was placed in command of a naval officer, and guarded in its +passage across the channel by light cruisers and torpedo destroyers. The +transport of the whole Expeditionary Army was completed within ten days, +without the loss of a man and with a precision worthy of all military +commendation. But such secrecy was maintained that the British public +remained in ignorance of its passage until successfully accomplished. +American correspondents, however, were not yet strictly censored, so +that their papers published news of it on August 9.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page036" name="page036"></a>(p. 036)</span> On Sunday, August 9, 1914, two British transports were observed +making for the harbor of Boulogne. The weather was all that could be +wished, the crossing resembled a bank-holiday excursion. For some days +previously the French had taken a gloomy view of British support. But +French fishermen returning from Scotland and English ports maintained +confidence, for had not British fishermen told them the French would +never be abandoned to fall a prey to the enemy.</p> + +<p>When the two advance British transports steamed into view, "Les +Anglais," at last everyone cried. At once a hugely joyful reversion of +feeling. The landing of the British soldiers was made a popular ovation. +Their appearance, soldierly bearing, their gentleness toward women and +children, their care of the horses were showered with heartfelt French +compliments. Especially the Scotch Highlanders, after their cautious +fashion, wondered at the exuberance of their welcome. For the brave +Irish, was not Marshal MacMahon of near-Irish descent and the first +president of the Third Republic? The Irish alone would save that +republic. Women begged for the regimental badges to pin on their +breasts. In turn they offered delicacies of all kinds to the soldiers. +For the first time in a hundred years the British uniform was seen on +French soil. Then it represented an enemy, now a comrade in arms. The +bond of union was sealed at a midnight military mass, celebrated by +English-speaking priests, for British and French Catholic soldiers at +Camp Malbrouch round the Colonne de la Grande Armée. The two names +recalled the greatest of British and French victories—Blenheim, +Ramillies, and Oudenarde, Ulm, Austerlitz, and Jena.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, officers of the French General Staff had journeyed to London +to confer with the British General Staff regarding the camping and +alignment of the British troops. Meanwhile, also, the British reserves +and territorials were called to the colors. The latter comprised the +militia, infantry and artillery, and the volunteer yeomanry cavalry, +infantry and artillery. The militia was the oldest British military +force, officered to a great extent by retired regular army men, its +permanent staffs of noncommissioned officers were from the regular army, +and it was under <span class="pagenum"><a id="page037" name="page037"></a>(p. 037)</span> the direct control of the Secretary of State +for War. The volunteer infantry, artillery, and yeomanry cavalry were on +a somewhat different basis, more nearly resembling the American militia, +but the British militia were linked with regular-line battalions. The +reserves, militia and volunteers, added approximately 350,000 +well-trained men for immediate home defense.</p> + +<p>On Sunday, August 17, 1914, it was officially announced that the whole +of the British Expeditionary Army had landed in France. Conferences +between the British and French General Staffs resulted in the British +army being concentrated first at Amiens. From that point it was to +advance into position as the left wing of the united French and British +armies, though controlled by their separate commanders.</p> + +<p>The French Fifth Army had already moved to hold the line of the River +Sambre, with its right in touch with Namur. Cavalry patrols had been +thrown forward to Ligny and Gembloux, where they skirmished with uhlans. +Charleroi was made French headquarters. It was the center of extensive +coal-mining and steel industry. Pit shafts and blast furnaces dominated +the landscape. Historically it was the ground over which Blücher's +Fourth Army Corps marched to the support of the British at Waterloo. Now +the British were supporting the French upon it against their former +ally.</p> + +<p>On Thursday, August 20, 1914, the British took up their position on the +French left. Their line ran from Binche to Mons, then within the French +frontier stretched westward to Condé. From Mons to Condé it followed the +line of the canal, thus occupying an already constructed barrier. +Formerly Condé was regarded as a fortress of formidable strength, but +its position was not held to be of value in modern strategy. Its forts, +therefore, had been dismantled of guns, and its works permitted to fall +into disuse. But the fortress of Maubeuge lay immediately in rear of the +British line. In rear again General Sordêt held a French cavalry corps +for flank actions. In front, across the Belgian frontier, General +d'Amade lay with a French brigade at Tournai as an outpost.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page038" name="page038"></a>(p. 038)</span> Before proceeding to British headquarters, General French held +a conference with General Joffre, Commander in Chief of all the French +armies. Until the outbreak of the war, General Joffre was practically +unknown to the French people. He was no popular military idol, no +boulevard dashing figure. But he had seen active service with credit, +and had climbed, step by step, with persevering study of military +science into the council of the French General Staff. As a strategist +his qualities came to be recognized as paramount in that body. A few +years previously he had been intrusted with the reorganization of the +French army, and his plans accepted. Therefore, when war with Germany +became a certainty, it was natural the supreme command of the French +army should fall to General Joffre.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<p class="title">CAMPAIGNS IN ALSACE AND LORRAINE</p> + + +<p>The French staff apparently had designed a campaign in Upper Alsace and +the Vosges, but the throwing of a brigade from Belfort across the +frontier on the extreme right of their line on August 6 would seem to +have been undertaken chiefly with a view of rousing patriotic +enthusiasm. French aeroplane scouts had brought in the intelligence that +only small bodies of German troops occupied the left bank of the Rhine. +Therefore the opportunity was presented to invade the upper part of the +lost province of Alsace—a dramatic blow calculated to arouse the French +patriotic spirit. Since the Germans had expended hardly any effort in +its defense, leaving, as it were an open door, it may have been part of +the strategic idea of their General Staff to draw a French army into +that region, with the design of inflicting a crushing defeat. Thus +French resistance in the southern Vosges would have been weakened, the +capture of Belfort, unsupported by its field army, a probability, and a +drive beyond into France by the German forces concentrated at +Neubreisach made triumphant. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page039" name="page039"></a>(p. 039)</span> Doubtless the French General +Staff fully grasped the German intention, but considered a nibble at the +alluring German bait of some value for its sentimental effect upon the +French and Alsatians. Otherwise the invasion of Upper Alsace with a +brigade was doomed at the outset to win no military advantage.</p> + +<p>On August 7, 1914, the French dispersed a German outpost intrenched +before Altkirch. Some cavalry skirmishing followed, which resulted in +the French gaining possession of the city. As was to be expected, the +citizens of Altkirch welcomed the French with enthusiasm. The following +morning the French were permitted an uncontested advance to Mülhausen. +That such an important manufacturing center as Mülhausen should have +remained unfortified within striking distance of the French frontier, +that the French entered it without being compelled to fire a shot, was a +surprise to every one with the probable exception of the German and +French General Staffs.</p> + +<p>The citizens of Mülhausen repeated the joyous ovation bestowed on the +French troops in Altkirch. The French uniform was hailed as the visible +sign of deliverance from German dominion, and the restoration of the +lost province to their kindred of the neighboring republic. The climax +of this ebullition was reached in a proclamation issued by direction of +General Joffre. "People of Alsace," it ran, "after forty years of weary +waiting, French soldiers again tread the soil of your native country. +They are the pioneers in the great work of redemption. What emotion and +what pride for them! To complete the work they are ready to sacrifice +their lives. The French nation with one heart spurs them forward, and on +the folds of their flag are inscribed the magical names Liberty and +Right. Long live France! Long live Alsace!"</p> + +<p>During August 8, 1914, some intermittent fighting went on in the +vicinity of Mülhausen, which seems to have given the French general in +command the impression that the Germans were not eager for a +counterattack. In turn the Germans may well have been puzzled that a +French brigade instead of an army was thrown into Upper Alsace for the +bait of Mülhausen. Possibly they waited a little for the main body, +which did not come.</p> + +<p>Sunday, August 9, 1914, revealed the Germans in such overpowering +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page040" name="page040"></a>(p. 040)</span> strength, that the French were left no other choice than to +beat a hasty retreat. They accordingly fell back upon Altkirch, to +intrench a few miles beyond their own border. Thus ended the French +initial offensive. In military reckoning it achieved little of value.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile in the Ardennes on August 13, 1914, the German Crown Prince, +commanding the Fourth Army, advanced from Luxemburg into the southern +Ardennes and captured Neufchâteau. His further objective was to break +through the French line somewhere near the historic ground of Sedan. But +at this point some change in the German plan seems to have taken place. +From the maze enveloping the opening events of the war, one can only +conjecture a reason which would move such an irrevocable body as the +German General Staff to alter a long-fixed plan. Probably, then, the +unanticipated strength of Belgian resistance foreshadowed the summoning +of reenforcements to Von Kluck's right wing of the whole German army. We +have seen, in fact, how he came to be near a desperate need at Bruges, +and only the heavy reenforcement of Von Boehn enabled that general to +deliver a final defeat to the Belgian field army at Weerde. Whatever the +cause of change of plan may have been, important forces attached to or +intended for the armies of the Duke of Württemberg and the crown prince +were withdrawn to support the armies of Von Kluck and Von Bülow. These +forces went to form a unit under General von Hausen, a veteran of +Sadowa. This change left the Saxon army of the crown prince with hardly +sufficient strength for a main attack on the French line at Sedan, but +still formidable enough to feel its way cautiously through the Ardennes +to test the French concentration on the central Meuse's west bank. When +the German right had finally settled Liege, the Saxon army could then +join in the united great movement on Paris.</p> + +<p>Early on the morning of August 15, 1914, a French detachment of half an +infantry regiment, thrown into Dinant, was surprised by a mobile Saxon +advance force of cavalry, infantry and artillery. Dinant lies across the +Meuse eighteen miles south of Namur. It is a picturesque ancient town, +the haunt of artists <span class="pagenum"><a id="page041" name="page041"></a>(p. 041)</span> and tourists. In the vicinity are the +estates of several wealthy Belgian families, particularly the +thirteenth-century château of Walzin, once the stronghold of the Comtes +d'Ardennes. A bridge crosses the Meuse at Dinant, which sits mainly on +the east bank within shadow of precipitous limestone cliffs. A stone +fort more imposing in appearance than modern effectiveness crowns the +highest cliff summit overlooking Dinant. The Germans came by way of the +east bank to occupy the suburbs. They presently captured the fort and +hoisted the German flag. Meanwhile the French took possession of the +bridge, being at a considerable disadvantage from German rifle fire from +the cliffs. The solid stone abutments of the bridge, however, enabled +the French to hold that position until strong reenforcements arrived +early in the afternoon. While French infantry cleared the environs of +Germans, their artillery bombarded the fort from the west bank. Their +shells played havoc with the old fort defenses, soon compelling its +evacuation by the Germans. One of the first French artillery shells blew +into shreds the German flag flying triumphantly over the fort, thus +depriving the French of the satisfaction of hauling it down. Toward +evening the Germans retreated toward the Lesse, followed by the French. +In previous wars the forces engaged were of sufficient strength to +designate Dinant a battle, but with the vast armies of the present +conflict it sinks to the military grade of a mere affair. However, it is +called by the French the Battle of Dinant.</p> + +<p>The troops which entered Alsace on August 7, 1914, to the number of +18,000 to 20,000, belonged to the army of the frontier.</p> + +<p>This first army, which was under the orders of General Dubail, was +intrusted with the mission of making a vigorous attack and of holding in +front of it the greatest possible number of German forces. The general +in command of this army had under his orders, if the detachment from +Alsace be included, five army corps and a division of cavalry. His +orders were to seek battle along the line Saarburg—Donon, in the Bruche +Valley, at the same time possessing himself of the crests of the Vosges +as well as the mountain passes. These operations were to have as their +theaters: (1) the Vosges Mountains, (2) the plateau of Lorraine to +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page042" name="page042"></a>(p. 042)</span> the northwest of Donon, and (3) the left bank of the Meurthe. +This left bank of the Meurthe is separated from the valley of the +Moselle by a bristling slope of firs, which is traversed by a series of +passages, the defiles of Chipotte, of the Croix Idoux, of the Haut +Jacques d'Anozel, of Vanemont, of Plafond. In these passes, when the +French returned to the offensive in September, 1914, furious combats +took place. The German forces opposed to this first army consisted of +five active army corps and a reserve corps.</p> + +<p>The first French army, after a violent struggle, conquered the passes of +the Vosges, but the conquest was vigorously opposed and took more time +than the French had reckoned on. As soon as it had become master of the +Donon and the passes, the first French army pushed forward into the +defile of Saarburg. At St. Blaise it won the first German colors, took +Blamont and Cirey (August 15, 1914), seized the defiles north of the +canal of the Marne and the Rhine, and reached Saarburg. Here a +connection was established with the army of Lorraine, which had +commenced its operations on the 14th. A violent battle ensued, known +under the name of the Battle of Saarburg. The left wing of the French +army attacked August 19, 1914; it hurled itself at the fortified +positions, which were copiously fringed with heavy artillery. In spite +of the opposition it made progress to the northwest of Saarburg.</p> + +<p>On the 20th the attack was renewed, but from the beginning it was +evident that it could not succeed and that the duty intrusted to the +Eighth Army Corps of opening up the way for the cavalry corps could not +be accomplished. This army corps had gone through a trying ordeal as a +result of the bombardment by the heavy German artillery established in +fortified positions, covering distances all measured in advance, with +every group and French battery presenting a sure target and the action +of the French cannon rendered useless.</p> + +<p>If the left wing of the First Army found itself checked, the center and +the right on the other hand were in an excellent position and were able +to advance. But at this point (August 21, 1914) the Second French Army +the army of Lorraine met a <span class="pagenum"><a id="page043" name="page043"></a>(p. 043)</span> serious reverse in the region of +Morhange and was compelled to retreat. This retreat left the flank of +the First Army gravely unprotected, and as a consequence this army was +also obliged to fall back. This rear-guard movement was accomplished +over a very difficult piece of country down to the Baccarat-Ban de +Sapt-Provenchère line, south of the Col du Bonhomme. It was found +necessary to abandon the Donon and the Col de Sapt.</p> + +<p>The task committed to the Second Army, that of Lorraine under De +Castlenau, was to protect Nancy, then to transfer itself to the east, +advancing later to the north and attacking in a line parallel to that +taken by the First Army on the Dieuze-Château Salins front in the +general direction of Saarbrücken. Its mission was therefore at once both +offensive and defensive: to cover Nancy and continue toward the west the +attack of the First Army.</p> + +<p>After having repulsed, August 10 and 11, 1914, the strong German attacks +in the region of Spincourt and of Château Salins the Second Army took +the offensive and went forward almost without stopping during four days +of uninterrupted fighting. Penetrating into Lorraine, which had been +annexed, it reached the right bank of the Selle, cut off Marsal and +Château Salins, and pushed forward in the direction of Morhange. The +enemy fell back; at Marsal he even left behind enormous quantities of +ammunition.</p> + +<p>As a matter of fact, he fell back on positions that had been carefully +fortified in advance and whence his artillery could bombard at an almost +perfectly accurate range. August 20, 1914, made a violent counterattack +on the canal of Salines and Morhange in the Lake district. The immediate +vicinity of Metz furnished the German army with a vast quantity of heavy +artillery, which played a decisive rôle in the Battle of Morhange. The +French retreated, and during this rear-guard movement the frontier city +of Lunéville was for some days occupied by the Germans.</p> + +<p>Thus the First and Second Armies failed in their offensive and saw +themselves obliged to retreat, but their retreat was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page044" name="page044"></a>(p. 044)</span> +accomplished under excellent circumstances, and the troops, after a +couple of days of rest, found themselves in a condition again to take +the offensive. The First Army gave energetic support to the Second Army, +which was violently attacked by the Germans in the second week of +August. The German attack, which was first arrayed against Nancy, turned +more and more to the east.</p> + +<p>The battle, at first waged in the Mortagne basin, was gradually extended +to the deep woods on the left bank of the Meurthe and on to Chipotte, +Nompatelize, etc. The battles that have been named the Battle of +Mortagne, the Battle of the Meurthe, the Battle of the Vosges, all waged +by the First Army, were extremely violent in the last week of August and +the first two weeks of September. These combats partly coincided with +the Battle of the Marne; they resulted, at the end of that battle, in +the German retreat. The Second Army renewed the offensive August 25, +1914; it decisively checked the march of the German army and commenced +to force it back.</p> + +<p>The instructions issued to General de Castelnau directed him everywhere +to march forward and make direct attacks. The day of August 25, 1914, +was a successful day for the French; everywhere the Germans were +repulsed. From August 26 till September 2, 1914, the Second Army +continued its attacks.</p> + +<p>At this point the commander in chief having need of important forces at +his center and at his right relieved the Second Army of much of its +strength. This did not prevent it from engaging in the great Battle of +Nancy and winning it. It was September 4, 1914, that this battle began +and it continued till the 11th, the army sustaining the incessant +assaults of the Germans on its entire front advanced from Grand +Couronne. The German emperor was personally present at this battle. +There was at Dieuze a regiment of white cuirassiers at whose head it was +his intention to make a triumphal entry into Nancy. Heavy German +artillery of every caliber made an enormous expenditure of ammunition; +on the Grand Mont d'Amance alone, one of the most important positions of +the Grand Couronne of Nancy, more than 30,000 howitzer shells were fired +in two days. The fights among the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page045" name="page045"></a>(p. 045)</span> infantry were characterized +on the entire front by an alternation of failure and success, every +point being taken, lost and retaken at intervals.</p> + +<p>The struggle attained to especial violence in the Champenoux Forest. On +September 5, 1914, the enemy won Maixe and Remereville, which they lost +again in the evening, but they were unable to dislodge the French from +the ridge east of the forest of Champenoux. The Mont d'Amance was +violently bombarded; a German brigade marched on Pont-à-Mousson. The +French retook Crevic and the Crevic Wood.</p> + +<p>On the 7th the Germans directed on Ste. Geneviève, north of the Grand +Couronne, a very violent attack, which miscarried. Ste. Geneviève was +lost for a time, but it was retaken on the 8th; more than 2,000 Germans +lay dead on the ground. The same day the enemy threw themselves +furiously on the east front, the Mont d'Amance, and La Neuvelotte. South +of the Champenoux Forest the French were compelled to retire; they were +thrown back on the ridge west of the forest. On the 9th a new +bombardment of Mont d'Amance, a struggle of extreme violence, took place +on the ridge west of the forest of Champenoux, the French gaining +ground. General Castelnau decided to take the direct offensive, the +Germans giving signs of great fatigue. On the 12th they retired very +rapidly. They evacuated Lunéville, a frontier town, where they left a +great quantity of arms and ammunition. The French began immediately to +pursue them, the Germans withdrawing everywhere over the frontier.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<p class="title">SIEGE AND FALL OF NAMUR</p> + + +<p>When the Germans occupied Brussels on August 20, 1914, we observed that +corps after corps did not enter the city, but swept to the south. This +was Von Kluck's left wing moving to attack the Allies on the Sambre-Mons +front. The forces which <span class="pagenum"><a id="page046" name="page046"></a>(p. 046)</span> passed through Brussels were Von +Kluck's center, advancing south by east to fall in line beside the right +wing, which had mainly passed between Brussels and Antwerp to the +capture of Bruges and Ghent. The whole line when re-formed on the French +frontier would stretch from Mons to the English Channel—the great right +wing of the German armies.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, Von Bülow's second army had advanced up the valley of the +Meuse, with its right sweeping the Hisbaye uplands. Some part of this +army may have been transported by rail from Montmédy. Its general +advance in columns was directed chiefly upon the Sambre crossings. As +Von Kluck's wide swing through Belgium covered a greater distance, Von +Bülow's army was expected to strike the Allies some twenty-four hours +earlier. Its march, therefore, was in the nature of an onrush.</p> + +<p>But Von Bülow was now in the full tide of fighting strength—an amazing +spectacle to chance or enforced witnesses. Well may the terrified +peasants have stood hat in hand in the midst of their ruined villages. +Any door not left open was immediately broken down and the interior +searched. Here and there a soldier could be seen carrying a souvenir +from some wrecked château. But for the most part everyone fled from +before its path, leaving it silent and abandoned. The field gray-green +uniforms were almost invisible in cover, in a half light, or when +advancing through mist. No conceivable detail seemed to have been +overlooked. Each man carried a complete equipment down to handy trifles, +the whole weighed to the fraction of an ounce, in carefully estimated +proportions.</p> + +<p>But this was not enough. Waiting for each column to pass were men with +buckets of drinking water, into which the soldiers dipped their aluminum +cups. Temporary field post offices were established in advance, so that +messages could be gathered in as the columns passed. Here and there were +men to offer biscuits and handfuls of prunes. In methodical, +machine-like progress came the ammunition wagons, commissariat carts, +field kitchens, teams of heavy horses attached to pontoons, traction +engines hauling enormous siege guns, motor plows for excavating +trenches, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page047" name="page047"></a>(p. 047)</span> aeroplanes, carriages containing surgeons, +automobiles for the commanders, and motor busses in which staff officers +could be seen studying their maps. On some of these vehicles were +chalked Berlin-Paris. No branch of the service was absent, no +serviceable part if it overlooked—not even a complement of grave +diggers. It moved forward always at an even pace, as if on parade, with +prearranged signals passed down the line when there was any obstacle, a +descent or bend in the road.</p> + +<p>The tramp of many thousands cast into the atmosphere clouds of fine +dust, but even those in rear marched through it as if their lungs were +made of steel. No permission was granted to open out for the circulation +of air, though it was the month of August. It is safe to assert there +was not a single straggler in Von Bülow's army. At the first sign of it +he was admonished with a vigor to deter his comrades. Discipline was +severely maintained. At every halt the click of heels, and rattle of +arms in salute went on down the line with the sharp delivery of orders.</p> + +<p>On Wednesday, August 12, 1914, the town of Huy, situated midway between +Liege and Namur, was seized. It possessed an old citadel, but it was +disarmed, and used now only as a storehouse. Some Belgian detachments +offered a slight resistance at the bridge, but were speedily driven off. +The capture of Huy gave the Germans control of the railway from +Aix-la-Chapelle to France, though broken at Liege by the still standing +northern forts. But they secured a branch line of more immediate +service, running from Huy into Central Belgium.</p> + +<p>On August 15, 1914, Von Bülow's vanguard came within sight of Namur. +Before evening German guns were hurling shells upon its forts. Began +then the siege of Namur. Namur, being the second fortress hope of the +Allies—the pivot upon which General Joffre had planned to swing his +army into Belgium in a sweeping attack upon the advancing Germans—a +brief survey of the city and fortifications will be necessary. The +situation of the city is not as imposing as that of Liege. For the most +part it sits on a hillside declivity, to rest in the angle formed by the +junction of the Sambre and Meuse. It is a place of some historic +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page048" name="page048"></a>(p. 048)</span> and industrial importance, though in the latter respect not so +well known as Liege. To the west, however, up the valley of the Sambre, +the country presents the usual features of a mining region—pit shafts, +tall chimneys issuing clouds of black smoke, and huge piles of unsightly +débris. While away to the north stretches the great plain of Central +Belgium, southward the Central Meuse offers a more picturesque prospect +in wooded slopes rising to view-commanding hilltops. Directly east, the +Meuse flows into the precipitous cut on its way to Liege.</p> + +<p>But in Belgian eyes the fame of Namur lay to a great extent in its being +the second of Brialmont's fortress masterpieces. Its plan was that of +Liege—a ring of outer detached forts, constructed on the same +armor-clad cupola principle. At Namur these were nine in number, four +major forts and five <i>fortins</i>. The distance between each fort was on +the average two and a half miles, with between two and a half to five +miles from the city as the center of the circumference.</p> + +<p>Facing Von Bülow's advance, fort Cognelée protected the Brussels +railway, while the guns of Marchovelette swept the space between it and +the left bank of the Meuse. In the southwest angle formed by the Meuse, +forts Maizeret, Andoy and Dave continued the ring. Again in the angle of +the Sambre and Meuse forts St. Héribert and Malonne protected the city. +North of the Sambre, forts Suarlée and Emines completed the circle.</p> + +<p>In the emergency Namur possessed one advantage over Liege. The +resistance of Liege gave Namur due warning of the German invasion, and +some days to prepare for attack. General Michel was in command of the +garrison of Namur, which comprised from 25,000 to 30,000 men. Doubtless +reports had come to him of the situation at Liege. He immediately set to +work to overcome the cause of the failure of Brialmont's plan at Liege, +by constructing trenches between the forts, protected by barbed wire +entanglements, and mines in advance of the German approach. As his +circumference of defense was less than that of Liege, his force promised +to be capable of a more prolonged resistance.</p> + +<p>Besides the Allies were close at hand. Only eighteen miles <span class="pagenum"><a id="page049" name="page049"></a>(p. 049)</span> +separated him from strong detachments of French infantry and artillery +at Dinant. As we have seen French cavalry had been thrown forward as far +as Gembloux on the road to Brussels, but ten miles to the northeast of +Namur. Somewhere between that place and Charleroi French Chasseurs +d'Afrique had advanced to occupy outpost positions. His position +appeared by no means hopeless—considerably better than the unsupported +field army at Liege. The armor of his forts was calculated to withstand +the 36-lb. shells of the heaviest German fieldpieces, but comparatively +slight damage was anticipated from the known heavier howitzers. If the +Germans purposed to assault Namur in mass formation, as they had done at +Liege, General Michel had every reason to feel confident he could +repulse them with tremendous losses.</p> + +<p>But the Germans had learned a severely taught lesson at Liege. They had +no intention of repeating those tactics. Behind a remarkable screen of +secrecy, they managed to conceal from General Michel—as they did from +the Allies—the existence of their enormous siege guns. Whether they +brought into action at Namur their famous 42-centimeters, capable of +throwing a shell of high explosive power weighing 2,500 lbs., is +uncertain. In fact, it is still doubtful where they were first fired at +the allied enemy. Two are said to have assisted in the final destruction +of the northern forts of Liege, and two were seen rolling over the field +of Waterloo. The Germans remained silent upon the subject, and nothing +definite about their first discharge was disclosed. But unquestionably +their fire was capable of demolishing into ruin any fort on earth within +a short period. It is certain, however, the Germans brought against +Namur their 28-centimeter guns, and probably some of 21-centimeter +caliber. These artillery weapons were quite formidable enough to reduce +the Namur forts. The former threw a shell of 750 pounds from a range of +three miles—beyond the reach of the Namur guns. The latter projected +shells of 250 pounds. The Germans are said to have employed thirty-two +of the heavier caliber guns, and a large number of 21-centimeter.</p> + +<p>Thus Namur was doomed before the bombardment commenced. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page050" name="page050"></a>(p. 050)</span> Von +Bülow's left wing advanced up the Meuse north bank from Huy, some part +of it crossing to the south bank at Ardenne, where it came in touch with +the Saxon army.</p> + +<p>At sundown of August 20, 1914, Von Bülow was in position before Namur, +three miles from its defenses. Darkness fell upon a hot and sultry +August atmosphere. Presently the flashes and boom of the German guns +began a bombardment of the trenches between forts Cognelée and +Marchovelette. It continued through the night. But the Belgian fortress +guns were outranged. It would have been a mere waste of ammunition to +reply. Neither could the Belgian infantry venture on a counterattack, +for the Germans were clearly observed in overwhelming strength. At the +outset the Germans devoted their efforts to clearing the trenches of the +Belgian infantry, leaving the forts for subsequent demolition. The +unfortunate Belgian infantry, therefore, could do nothing but fire +intermittent rifle volleys, without any effect upon the Germans. They +bravely bore this storm of shells for ten hours. Not a man who lifted +his head above the German machine gun-swept parapets but was not +instantly killed or wounded. Thus the majority of the officers were +killed, and the ranks within the trenches decimated.</p> + +<p>Toward morning on August 21, 1914, the Belgians could stand the tornado +of death no longer. The demoralized troops fled from the trenches, +leaving the gap between forts Cognelée and Marchovelette open. The +Germans then opened fire on the forts. In comparison with the new German +siege howitzers, the old-fashioned Belgian guns proved to be weak +weapons. The tremendous pounding of the German shells not only smashed +the fort cupolas, and crumpled into ruin the interior stone and steel +protective armor, but quickly put the Belgian guns out of action. Thus +while fort Maizeret received some 1,200 German shells at the speed of +twenty to the minute, it was able to reply with only ten shots. Forts +Marchovelette and Maizeret were the first to fall. Seventy-five men of +the Marchovelette garrison were found dead amid its ruins—nearly its +total complement.</p> + +<a id="img007" name="img007"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/img007.jpg"> +<img src="images/img007tb.jpg" width="300" height="471" alt="" title=""></a> +<p>French Invasion of Alsace-lorraine.</p> +</div> + +<p>Early on Friday morning of August 21, 1914, forts Andoy, Dave, St. +Héribert and Malonne were subjected to a similar <span class="pagenum"><a id="page052" name="page052"></a>(p. 052)</span> furious +bombardment. After three hours of the cannonade Andoy, Dave and St. +Héribert surrendered. During the morning the Germans thrust a force into +the southern angle of the Sambre and Meuse. Here the Belgian infantry +offered a vigorous resistance. It was hoped that the French at Dinant +would hasten to their relief. But Dinant was for the second time within +a few days the scene of conflict. Some 6,000 French Turcos and artillery +did arrive, but too late to be of use in helping to save Namur. Shells +now began to drop in the city while aeroplanes flung down bombs. A +thunderstorm rumbled in combination with the continuous roar of the +German guns. A panic took hold of the citizens. Distracted men, women +and children huddled together in spellbound terror, or sought the +shelter of their cellars. The more superstitious pronounced this to be +the end of all things, from the eclipse of the sun which darkened the +sky. Fort Malonne succumbed sometime during the afternoon of August 21, +1914.</p> + +<p>As at Liege, with General Leman, so in Namur General Michel foresaw the +city and forts' fate was imminent. Only the northwest forts Suarlée, +Emines and Cognelée held out. The Belgians and French had been defeated +by the Germans in the angle of the Sambre and Meuse. The horizon +revealed no sign of a French army advancing. General Michel, therefore, +decided upon the evacuation of the city by the Belgian infantry. It was +successfully accomplished, though even more in the nature of a flight +than at Liege. But General Michel went with them, instead of remaining, +like General Leman, to fight the defense of his fortress to the last.</p> + +<p>The retreating Belgians on August 22, 1914, had some adventurous +wandering before them. They had first to cut their way through a body of +German troops, then to become involved with a French force near +Charleroi. It took them seven days to reach Rouen by way of Amiens. +There they were embarked for sea transport to Ostend. At Ostend, they +joined the main Belgian army after its retreat from Antwerp.</p> + +<p>On Sunday morning, August 23, 1914, the Germans began the bombardment of +Fort Suarlée. This fort repeated the heroic <span class="pagenum"><a id="page053" name="page053"></a>(p. 053)</span> resistance of Fort +Boncelles at Liege. It held out until the afternoon of August 25. It was +apparently then blown up by the explosion of its own magazine, thus +again repeating the end of Fort Loncin at Liege. Meantime the Germans +had succeeded in reducing Forts Cognelée and Emines.</p> + +<p>The Germans entered Namur on the afternoon of August 23, 1914. There +seems to have been some oversight in the plan, for the advance guard +found themselves under fire of their own guns directed upon the citadel +and the Grande Place. This, however, was speedily rectified. Their +behavior was much the same as at Louvain and Brussels. They marched in +with bands playing and singing patriotic songs. Proclamations were at +once issued warning the citizens not to commit any hostile act. The +inhabitants were far too cowed to contemplate anything but submission. +Good discipline was preserved. The city took fire that night probably by +deliberate design of the invaders. The citizens were induced to come +forth from their cellars and hiding places to reopen the cafés and +shops.</p> + +<p>General von Bülow entered Namur on Monday morning August 24, 1914. He +was accompanied by Field Marshal Baron von der Goltz, recently appointed +Governor General of Belgium. Previous to the former Balkan War he had +been employed in reorganizing the Turkish army. An onlooker in Namur +thus describes the German Field Marshal:—"An elderly gentleman covered +with orders, buttoned in an overcoat up to his nose, above which gleamed +a pair of enormous spectacles."</p> + +<p>General Michel attributed his defeat to the German siege guns. The fire +was so continuous upon the trenches that it was impossible to hold them, +and the forts simply crumpled under the storm of shells. But back of +General Michel's plea the allied Intelligence Departments lacked +efficiency or energy, or both, in not gaining more than a hint, at any +rate, of the enormous German siege guns until they were actually +thundering at the gates.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page054" name="page054"></a>(p. 054)</span> CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<p class="title">BATTLE OF CHARLEROI</p> + + +<p>Toward the end of the third week of August, 1914, the atmosphere of +every European capital became tense with the realization that a +momentous crisis was impending. It was known that the French-British +armies confronted German armies of equal, if not of superior strength. +In Paris and London the military critics wrote optimistically that the +Germans were marching into a trap.</p> + +<p>The British army had arrived at the front in splendid fighting trim. It +was difficult to restrain the impetuous valor of the French soldiers. +The skies were bright and there was confidence that the Germans would +unquestionably meet with a crushing defeat. Let us glance at the line of +the French and British armies stretched along the Belgian frontier. It +ran from within touch of Namur up the right bank of the Sambre, through +Charleroi to Binche and Mons, thence by way of the coal barge canal just +within the French frontier to Condé. For the choice of a great battle +ground there was nothing particularly attractive about it in a military +sense.</p> + +<p>There is evidence to show in an official communiqué from General Joffre +published on August 24, 1914, that it was intended to be merely the left +wing of a gigantic French battle offensive—on the adopted German +plan—from Condé to Belfort. "An army," runs the communiqué, "advancing +from the northern part of the Woevre and moving on Neufchâteau is +attacking the German forces which have been going through the Duchy of +Luxemburg and are on the right bank of the Samoy. Another army from the +region of Sedan is traversing the Belgian Ardennes and attacking the +German forces marching between the Lesse and the Meuse. A third army +from the region of Chimay has attacked the German right between the +Sambre and the Meuse. It is supported by the English army from the +region of Mons."</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page055" name="page055"></a>(p. 055)</span> These attacks comprised chiefly the battle of Dinant and +cavalry skirmishing, but the purpose of General Joffre was otherwise +made plain in throwing advance French troops across the Belgian frontier +into Ligny and Gembloux on the road to a recapture of Brussels. This we +have previously noted in another connection. The rout of the French army +in Lorraine, however, put an end to the grand Condé-Belfort offensive.</p> + +<p>Thus the Namur-Condé line became a main defensive position instead of an +offensive left wing sweep through Belgium upon Germany. As such it was +well enough—if its pivot on the fortress of Namur held secure. Liege +had already proved its vulnerability, but it would seem that the French +General Staff joined with General Michel, the Commander of Namur, in +believing the Namur forts would give a better account. The French +General Staff were informed of the approximate strength of the advancing +armies of Von Kluck and Von Bülow, and had nothing to fear from +inferiority in numbers. The staff never gave out the strength of their +forces, but there is reason for believing the great armies were nearly +equally matched after mobilization—about 1,200,000 men.</p> + +<p>Let us now see what was developing in the Ardennes away to the French +right. It has been established that woods, particularly in summer, form +the best cover from the observation or attacks of airmen. The spreading, +leafy boughs are difficult to penetrate visually from a height of even a +few hundred feet, at least to obtain accurate information of what is +transpiring beneath.</p> + +<p>French air scouts brought in correct information that they had seen the +armies of the Duke of Württemberg and crown prince massed along the +southern Luxemburg and Belgian forest region. But under the foliage +there was another army unseen—that of General von Hausen. The French +moved their Fifth Army up to position on the line of the Sambre. They +advanced their Third Army, commanded by General Ruffey, upon Luxemburg, +and their Fourth Army under General de Langle de Cary across the River +Semois to watch the Meuse left bank and gain touch with General +Lanzerac. General de Cary came from Sedan, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page056" name="page056"></a>(p. 056)</span> throwing out +detachments upon the Meuse left bank. These operations were to confront +the armies of the Duke of Württemberg and crown prince.</p> + +<p>But the French apparently knew nothing of the movements of the army of +General von Hausen. Their air scouts either could not distinguish it +from the armies of the Duke of Württemberg and the crown prince, amid +the forest of the Ardennes, or they did not observe it at all. To the +army of General von Hausen there clings a good deal of mystery. When +last noted by us, previous to the minor battle of Dinant, it had been +formed by forces drawn from the armies of the Duke of Württemberg and +crown prince. Ostensibly at that time, it was destined to support, as a +separate field force, the armies of Von Kluck and Von Bülow.</p> + +<p>Possibly the Germans had begun to doubt how long Liege could hold out. +Von Kluck was compelled to mark time in his impetuous march on Central +Belgium. His losses had been heavy. Support in strength seemed urgent. +But this need passed as the Liege forts fell one after the other under +the fire of the German siege guns. General von Hausen was released for +action elsewhere. Thus we may assume, he was ordered to follow the +armies of the Duke of Württemberg and crown prince down through the +Ardennes to strike the Meuse south of Namur. By this time he had been +substantially reenforced. Now under his command were the complete +Twelfth and Nineteenth Corps, and the Eleventh Reserve Corps. Also a +cavalry division of the Prussian Guard, with some other detachments of +cavalry. His Eleventh Reserve Corps were Hessians, the Twelfth and +Nineteenth Corps were Saxons. The latter two corps were regarded as +among the best in the German army. In the Franco-Prussian War they +fought with conspicuous bravery through every battle in which they were +engaged. They won the battle for Prussia at Gravelotte by turning the +French right and capturing St. Privat. They marched to Sedan under the +crown prince—subsequently the Emperor Frederick—to occupy the first +line in the hard fighting of the Givonne Valley. During the siege of +Paris they occupied a part of the German northern line, finally to march +in triumph <span class="pagenum"><a id="page057" name="page057"></a>(p. 057)</span> into Paris. This infantry and cavalry of the +Prussian Guard stiffened Von Hausen's force into an army of battle +strength.</p> + +<p>We have thus two factors to bear in mind with regard to the French +defensive position at Charleroi—the resisting power of the Namur forts, +and the unknown, to the French, proximity of Von Hausen's army.</p> + +<p>However substantial was the measure of reliance that the French General +Staff and General Michel placed on the Namur forts, evidently General +von Bülow regarded them as little more than passing targets for his +siege guns. He seemed to have made a comparatively simple mathematical +calculation of almost the number of shells necessary to fire, and the +hours to be consumed in reducing the Namur forts to masses of débris.</p> + +<p>We can picture General von Bülow as he sat in the motor car with Marshal +von der Goltz—the old gentleman with an overcoat buttoned up to his +nose in August, and huge spectacles. Doubtless discussion ran mainly +upon the impending attack of their Second Army on the French right. +Emphasis would have been laid on the positions of the armies of the Duke +of Württemberg and crown prince advancing away to their left upon the +forces of the French Generals Ruffey and de Cary. But there was +apparently a German gap here between Von Bülow's army and the armies of +the Duke of Württemberg and crown prince, though we noticed previously +Von Bülow's army came in touch with Saxon troops half way between Huy +and Namur, when a detachment of Von Bülow's left wing was thrown across +the Meuse at Ardenne. This gap was faced by the French extreme right +resting on the southward Namur bend of the Meuse. It was possibly the +"trap" military critics of the moment foresaw for the Germans. Quite +likely the two German generals Von Bülow and Von der Goltz, chatting in +their motor car, referred to this gap, and it is hardly a stretch of +imagination to suggest a twinkle in the huge glasses of the old +gentleman in the August overcoat, when now and then the name of Von +Hausen was mentioned.</p> + +<p>The German attack on the French right began early in the morning of +Friday, August 21, 1914. A party of German hussars <span class="pagenum"><a id="page058" name="page058"></a>(p. 058)</span> crossed the +Meuse, rode through Charleroi, and trotted on toward the Sambre. At +first they were mistaken for a British cavalry patrol. Probably the +populace in Charleroi were not sufficiently familiar at that time with +the British hussar uniform to distinguish it from the German. In all +armies hussar uniforms bear a close resemblance. A French officer, +however, presently detected the situation. After a skirmish the German +hussars were driven off with the loss of a few killed and wounded. But +the raid evidently came out of the gap as a surprise to the French. The +citizens were promptly ordered to their homes. Barricades were raised in +the streets, and mitrailleuses were placed in sweeping positions. An +artillery engagement began at Jemappe, nine miles above Namur on the +left bank of the Sambre, between Von Bülow's vanguard and the main +French right. Later in the day Von Bülow's vanguard artillery had +advanced to open fire on Charleroi and Thuin, seven miles beyond.</p> + +<p>On Saturday, August 22, 1914, Von Bülow attacked Charleroi in full +strength. As we have seen, he had already practically settled with +Namur. Their main assault on Saturday was delivered on the Sambre +bridges at Chatelet and Thuin, below and above Charleroi, respectively. +Sometime on Saturday they succeeded in crossing to turn Charleroi into +one of the most frightful street battle grounds in history. The conflict +raged for the possession of iron foundries, glass works, and other +factories. The thoroughfares were swept by storms of machine-gun fire. +Tall chimneys toppled over and crashed to the ground, burying defenders +grouped near under piles of débris. Desperate hand-to-hand encounters +took place in workshops, electric-power stations, and manufacturing +plants. The normal whir of machinery, now silent, was succeeded by the +crack and spitting of continuous rifle fire.</p> + +<p>The French-Turco and Zouave troops fought with savage ferocity, with +gleaming eyes, using bayonets and knives to contest alleys and +passageways. House doors were battered in to reach those firing from +upper windows. Roofs and yard walls were scaled in chase of fleeing +parties. The Germans were driven out of Charleroi several times, only to +return in stronger <span class="pagenum"><a id="page059" name="page059"></a>(p. 059)</span> force. Similarly with the French. With each +change of victors, the losing side turned to bombard with a torrent of +artillery shells the war-engulfed city.</p> + +<p>At nightfall on August 22, 1914, Charleroi burst into flames. A dread +and significant glow fell upon the sky. Absent were the usual +intermittent flare of blast furnaces. The greater part of Charleroi had +become a heap of ruins. Those of its citizens still alive cowered in +holes or corners for shelter.</p> + +<p>The battle of Charleroi went on throughout the night. Early on the +morning of Sunday, August 23, 1914, Von Hausen swept down through the +gap between the armies of Von Bülow and the Duke of Württemberg. He +crossed the Meuse, drove from before him the French detachments watching +it, and advanced to attack the rear of the French right.</p> + +<p>Von Hausen took the French at Charleroi completely by surprise. At the +moment they could comprehend neither where he came from nor the measure +of his strength. But he was in army force.</p> + +<p>The French were compelled to withdraw their right from Charleroi. Von +Hausen seized the advantage to hurl his forces upon their rear, while +Von Bülow thundered in assault more vigorously than ever on the French +front. A powerful force was hurled upon them from an unexpected +direction. Presently the retreat of the French Fifth Army was threatened +by the two Saxon corps of Von Hausen's army, pressing on the French +right flank and rear. In this emergency the retirement of the French +Fifth Army appears to have been undertaken with spontaneous realization +of utmost danger. It gave way before the attacks of Von Bülow and Von +Hausen to move southward, leaving their British left wing without +information of defeat.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page060" name="page060"></a>(p. 060)</span> CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<p class="title">BATTLE OF MONS</p> + + +<p>On Friday, August 21, 1914, the British force began to take position on +the French left, forming the line Binche-Mons-Condé. When finally +concentrated it comprised the First and Second Army Corps, and General +Allenby's cavalry division. The regiments forming the cavalry division +were the Second Dragoon Guards, Ninth Lancers, Fourth Hussars, Sixth +Dragoon Guards, with a contingent of the Household Guards. The First +Army Corps was given the right of the line from Binche to Mons. It was +commanded by Sir Douglas Haig. He was a cavalry officer like the +commander in chief, and a comparatively young man for such a +responsibility, but had seen active service with credit. His corps was +comprised of six guards' battalions. The First Black Watch, Second +Munster Fusiliers, The Royal Sussex, North Lancashire, Northamptons, +Second King's Royal Rifles, Third West Surreys, The South Wales +Borderers, Gloucesters, First Welsh Regiment, Highland Light Infantry, +Connaught Rangers, Liverpools, South Staffords, Berkshires, and First +King's Royal Rifles. The First Irish Guards went into action for the +first time in its history.</p> + +<p>The second corps extended from Mons to Condé, commanded by Sir Horace +Smith-Dorrien. General Dorrien was a west of England man, and turning +fifty-six. He had seen active service in the Zulu War, Egypt, Sudan, the +Chitral Relief Force, and Tirah campaign. He had occupied the positions +of adjutant general in India, commander of the Quetta division, and +commander in chief at Aldershot. He was recognized as a serious military +student, and possessing the approval and confidence of Lord Kitchener. +The Second Corps was composed of Royal Irish Rifles, Wiltshires, South +Lancashires, Worcesters, Gordons, Royal Scots, Royal Irish, Middlesex, +Royal Fusiliers, Northumberland Fusiliers, Royal Scots Fusiliers, +Lincolns, Yorkshire Light Infantry, West Kent, West Riding, Scottish +Borderers, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page061" name="page061"></a>(p. 061)</span> Manchesters, Cornwalls, East Surreys, and Suffolks. +To the rear Count Gleichen commanded the Norfolks, Bedfords, Cheshires, +and Dorsets. On the left of the Second Corps was stationed General +Allenby's cavalry.</p> + +<p>In passing we may note that the commander in chief of the British forces +was a cavalry officer, the commander of the First Army Corps a cavalry +officer, and that the cavalry was in comparatively ample force. Von +Mackensen of the German force came from that branch of the service. +Cavalry officers are excellent soldiers, but their training as such is +not promising for the command of modern armies, mainly of infantry and +artillery, with other complements. In war much has changed since +Waterloo, with the value of cavalry retreating into the background as +aeroplanes sweep to the front for scouting and other purposes.</p> + +<p>From Binche to Condé the line assigned to the British was approximately +twenty-five miles. Their force totaled some 75,000 men with 259 guns. +General French, therefore, had 2,500 men to the mile of front. This was +an insufficient force, as the usual fighting front for a battalion of a +thousand men in defense or in attack is estimated in all armies at about +425 yards. The British brigade of four battalions (4,000 rifles) covers +a half-mile front. General French's Third Army Corps having been +utilized elsewhere, he was compelled to use his cavalry in four brigades +as reserve.</p> + +<p>Previous to the German attack on Charleroi, General Joffre still held to +his plan of a left-wing attack, or rather a counterattack after the +Germans were beaten. But battles were commencing on other fronts, +properly belonging to the general retreat, which made its execution +doubtful even in an hour of victory. The capture of Charleroi, of +course, dissipated it as a dream. That General French realized the +superiority in numbers of Von Kluck's advancing army both in infantry +and artillery is nowhere suggested. His airmen had merely brought in the +information that the attack would be in "considerable force." The French +Intelligence Service were led to believe and informed the British +commander that Von Kluck was advancing upon him with only one corps, or +two at the most. Some of General <span class="pagenum"><a id="page062" name="page062"></a>(p. 062)</span> French's cavalry scouting as +far toward Brussels as Soignes, during the 21st and 22d, confirmed it. +But the British proceeded to prepare for attack immediately on taking +position. They set to work digging trenches.</p> + +<p>While continuing their defensive efforts through Saturday, August 22, +1914, there floated to them a distant rumble from the eastward. Opinions +differed as to whether it was the German guns bombarding Namur, or a +battle in progress on the Sambre. For the most part British officers and +men had but a vague idea of their position, or the progress of the +fighting in the vicinity. Even the headquarters staff remained +uninformed of the desperate situation developing on the French right at +Charleroi.</p> + +<p>The headquarters of the British army was at Mons. It lies within what is +known as "le Borinage," that is the boring district of Belgium, the +coal-mining region. In certain physical aspects it much resembles the +same territory of Pennsylvania. Containing one or two larger towns such +as Charleroi and Mons, it is sprinkled over with villages gathered near +the coal pits. Everywhere trolley lines are to be seen running from the +mines to supply the main railways and barge canals.</p> + +<p>Formerly the people were of a rough, ignorant and poverty toiling type, +but of late years have greatly improved with the introduction of +organized labor and education. Previous bad conditions, however, have +left their mark in a stunted and physically degenerate type of +descendants from the mining population of those times. In contrast to +later comers they resemble a race of dwarfs. The men seldom exceed four +feet eight inches in height, the women and children appear bloodless and +emaciated.</p> + +<p>The output of the Borinage coal field exceeds twenty million tons a +year. Its ungainly features of shafts, chimneys, and mounds of débris +are relieved in places by woodlands, an appearance of a hilly country is +presented where the pit mounds have been planted with fir trees. Apart +from its mining aspect, Mons is a city of historic importance. It +contains a Gothic cathedral and town hall of medieval architectural +note. It also, cherishes a special yearly fête of its own on Trinity +Sunday, when in the parade of the Limaçon, or snail, the spectacle of +St. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page063" name="page063"></a>(p. 063)</span> George and the Dragon is presented. With great pride the +citizens of Mons showed the British soldiers of occupation an ancient +cannon, claimed to have been used by their forefathers as an ally of the +English at Crécy.</p> + +<p>Especially east of Mons, toward Binche, the British line ran through +this district. Several of the greatest European battles have been fought +in its vicinity—Ramilles, Malplaquet, Jemappe, and Ligny.</p> + +<p>The night of Saturday, August 22, 1914, passed peacefully for the +British soldiers, still working on their trenches. But distant boom of +guns from the east continued to vibrate to them at intervals. Of its +portend they knew nothing. Doubtless as they plied the shovel they again +speculated over it, wondering and possibly regretting a chance of their +having been deprived of the anticipated battle.</p> + +<p>Sunday morning, August 23, 1914, dawned brightly with no sign of the +enemy. In Mons and the surrounding villages the workmen donned their +usual holiday attire, women stood about their doors chatting, children +played in the streets. Church bells rung as usual summoning to public +worship. General French gathered his generals for an early conference. +General Joffre's message on Saturday morning, assured General French of +victory, and positively informed him that Von Kluck was advancing upon +him with no more than one or two army corps. In testimony of it, General +French thus wrote a subsequent official dispatch.</p> + +<p>"From information I received from French headquarters, I understood that +little more than one or at most two of the enemy's army corps, with +perhaps one cavalry division, were in front of my position, and I was +aware of no outflanking movement attempted by the enemy" (Von Hausen's +advance on the right). "I was confirmed in this opinion by the fact that +my patrols encountered no undue opposition in their reconnoitering +operations. The observations of my aeroplanes seemed also to bear out +this estimate."</p> + +<p>To General French, therefore, his position seemed well secured. In the +light of it he awaited Von Kluck's attack with confidence. Toward +mid-day some German aeroplanes swept up above the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page064" name="page064"></a>(p. 064)</span> woods in +front, and circled over the British line. British marksmen at once fired +on the bodies and hawklike wings of the intruders.</p> + +<p>Some tense interest was roused among the men as British aeroplanes rose +to encounter the German aircraft. It was the first real battle of the +sky they had witnessed. General French's cavalry patrols now brought +information that the woods were thick with German troops, some of them +deploying eastward toward their right at Binche.</p> + +<p>At twenty minutes to one the first shots swept from the woods upon the +British line. Presently, Von Kluck's main attack developed with great +rapidity. The German artillery was brought to the front edge of the +woods to hurl a storm of shells on the British trenches. It was returned +with equal vigor. But very soon it became apparent to British commanders +along the line that the German artillery fire was in far greater volume +than what might be expected from two army corps, whose normal complement +would be some 340 guns. Instead it was estimated 600 German guns were +shortly brought into action.</p> + +<p>The battle field was described by the Germans as "an emptiness." The +term is intended to emphasize that the old martial display and pomp has +completely gone. A grand advance upon each other, with trumpets +sounding, banners fluttering, brilliant uniforms, and splendid cavalry +charges, was impossible with long range weapons hailing storms of +bullets and shells of devastating explosive power. Cover was the all +important immediate aim of both attack and defense. In this respect as +we have seen, the German gray-green uniform assisted by rendering them +almost invisible within shelter of such woods as those before Mons. On +the other hand, the brown khaki shade of the British field +uniforms—originally designed for the same purpose on the sandy wastes +of Egypt and Northern India—became conspicuous upon a green background.</p> + +<p>As the battle of Mons developed, the British line of the Condé Canal was +swept with German shrapnel. German shells, also, began bursting in the +suburbs of Mons and in the near-by villages. Sir Douglas Haig's right +thus came under strong fire. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page065" name="page065"></a>(p. 065)</span> German aeroplanes assisted by +dropping smoke bombs over the British positions to give the angle of +range for their artillery. Thereupon fights above took place between +British and German airmen, while the armies beneath thundered shot and +shell upon each other. The Germans came on in massed formation of +attack. The British were accustomed to attack in open extended line, and +their shooting from any available cover was generally excellent. They +could not understand the German attack in such close order that they +were mowed down in groups of hundreds.</p> + +<p>The German infantry rifle fire, breaking from the shelter of the woods +to encounter a stronger British fire than was anticipated, was at first +ineffective. As to the mass formation they depended upon overwhelming +reserves to take the places of those dead piled in heaps before the +British trenches. It was General Grant's "food for powder" plan of +attack repeated.</p> + +<p>Thus the battle raged upon the entire length of the British line, with +repeated advances and retreats on the part of the Germans. Now and then +the bodies almost reached the British trenches, and a breach seemed in +certain prospect. But the British sprang upon the invaders, bayonet in +hand, and drove them back to the shelter of the woods. The Irish +regiments, especially, were considered invincible in this "cold steel" +method of attack, their national impulsive ardor carrying them in a fury +through the ranks of an enemy. But at Mons always the Germans returned +in ever greater numbers. The artillery increased the terrible rain of +shells. Pen pictures by British soldiers vividly describe the battle +somewhat conflictingly.</p> + +<p>"They were in solid square blocks, standing out sharply against the +skyline, and you couldn't help hitting them. It was like butting your +head against a stone wall.... They crept nearer and nearer, and then our +officers gave the word. A sheet of flame flickered along the line of +trenches and a stream of bullets tore through the advancing mass of +Germans. They seemed to stagger like a drunken man hit between the eyes, +after which they made a run for us.... Halfway across the open another +volley tore through their ranks, and by this time our artillery began +dropping shells around them. Then an officer gave an order and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page066" name="page066"></a>(p. 066)</span> +they broke into open formation, rushing like mad toward the trenches on +our left. Some of our men continued the volley firing, but a few of our +crack shots were told off for independent firing.... They fell back in +confusion, and then lay down wherever cover was available. We gave them +no rest, and soon they were on the move again in flight.... This sort of +thing went on through the whole day."</p> + +<p>From another view we gather that "We were in the trenches waiting for +them, but we didn't expect anything like the smashing blow that struck +us. All at once, so it seemed, the sky began to rain down bullets and +shells. At first they went wide ... but after a time ... they got our +range and then they fairly mopped us up.... I saw many a good comrade go +out."</p> + +<p>During the early part of the battle Von Kluck directed his main attack +upon the British right, with a furious artillery bombardment of Binche +and Bray. This was coincident with the crumpling of the French right at +Charleroi by the army of Von Bülow, and its threatened retreat by that +of Von Hausen. The retirement of the French Fifth Army, therefore, left +General Haig exposed to a strong flank attack by Von Kluck. Confronted +with this danger, General Haig was compelled to withdraw his right to a +rise of ground southward of Bray. This movement left Mons the salient of +an angle between the First and Second British Army Corps. Shortly after +this movement was performed, General Hamilton, in command of Mons, found +himself in peril of converging German front and flank attacks. If the +Germans succeeded in breaking through the British line beyond Mons, he +would be cut off and surrounded. General Hamilton informed his superior, +General French, of this danger, and was advised in return "to be careful +not to keep the troops in the salient too long, but, if threatened +seriously to draw back the center behind Mons."</p> + +<p>A little after General French had sent General Hamilton this warning, he +received a telegram from General Joffre which he describes as "a most +unexpected message." General Joffre's telegram conveyed the first news +to General French not only that the French Fifth Army had been defeated +and was in retreat—the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page067" name="page067"></a>(p. 067)</span> first intimation even that the French +right at Charleroi under General Lanrezac was in peril—but that at +least three German army corps were attacking the British. Doubtless the +German smashing of General Joffre's planned grand counterattack, after +the Germans were to be beaten, was disheartening as well as a sore +disappointment.</p> + +<p>General French possessed 75,000 men. It was now disclosed that in front +Von Kluck was hurling upon him 200,000 men, Von Bülow was hammering on +his right, Von Hausen in pursuit of the French threatened his rear, +while some 50,000 Germans were enveloping his left. He had no option but +to order a retreat.</p> + +<p>Dealing with the combined action of the French and British in this +critical period a French military writer says:</p> + +<p>"The French armies of the center—that is to say, the Third and Fourth +Armies—had as their mission the duty of attacking the German army in +Belgian Luxembourg, of attempting to put it to flight and of crumpling +it up against the left flank of the German main body at the north. This +offensive on the part of the French center began on August 21, 1914. The +Third Army (General Ruffey) followed from the east to the west the +course of the Semoy, a tributary on the right of the Meuse. The Fourth +Army operated between the Meuse and the Lesse. The Germans occupied the +plateau which extends from Neufchâteau to Paliseul. It is uncertain +territory, covered with heaths and thick woods, and lends itself poorly +to the reconnaissance work of aviators or cavalry patrols. There are no +targets for the artillery. The Germans had strongly fortified the +ground. The infantry of the Fourth Army which hurled itself against +these positions was thrown back; still fighting it fell back over the +Meuse. The pursuit by the Germans was punctuated by strong +counterattacks, which inflicted great losses on them. The Third Army was +similarly checked in its march on Neufchâteau by the superior forces of +the crown prince and was thrown back on the Semoy. Thus the offensive +actions undertaken by the armies of the French center miscarried. Not +only were they unable to lend their aid to the armies of the left, but +they saw themselves obliged to retreat.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page068" name="page068"></a>(p. 068)</span> "The situation could only be reestablished by a victory on the +part of the Fifth French Army operating in conjunction with the army of +General French. This army, however, found itself in the presence of +German forces of great strength, consisting of the crack corps of the +German army. On the 22d the Germans at the cost of considerable losses +succeeded in passing the Sambre, and General Lanrezac fell back on +Beaumont-Givet, being apprehensive of the danger which threatened his +right. On the 24th the British army retreated, in the face of a German +attack, on to the Maubeuge-Valenciennes line. It appeared at first that +the British had in front of them at most an army corps, with perhaps a +corps of cavalry. They were apprised, however, about five o'clock in the +evening that three army corps were advancing against them, while a +fourth was marching against their left along the road from Tournai in a +turning movement. General French effected his retreat during the night +behind the salient of Mons. Threatened on August 24 by the strength of +the whole German army, he fled backward in the direction of Maubeuge."<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER X</h2> + +<p class="title">THE GREAT RETREAT BEGINS</p> + + +<p>The German hosts now stood at the gates of France. It was a mighty +spectacle. The soldiery of the Kaiser which had swept their way into +Belgium, there to meet the unexpected resistance of the defenders of +King Albert, had reached their goal—the French frontier.</p> + +<p>About the middle of August, 1914, General Joffre, assigned to the +British Expeditionary Force, commanded by Sir John French, the task of +holding Mons against the powerful German advance. The British force +formed the left wing of the line of front that stretched for some two +hundred miles close to the Belgian frontier. Extending from Arras +through the colliery towns of Mons and Charleroi, the extreme western +front of the armies <span class="pagenum"><a id="page069" name="page069"></a>(p. 069)</span> was held by General D'Amade at Arras, with +about 40,000 reserve territorial troops; by General French, with 80,000 +British regulars, at Mons; by the Fifth French Army of 200,000 +first-line troops, under General Lanrezac, near Charleroi; and by a +force of 25,000 Belgian troops at Namur. The total Allied troops in this +field of battle were thus about 345,000 men.</p> + +<p>Opposed to them, on the north, were about 700,000 German troops, General +von Kluck farthest to the west, Generals von Bülow and von Hausen around +the Belgian fortress of Namur, Grand Duke Albrecht of Württemberg in the +neighborhood of Maubeuge, and finally, on the extreme left of the German +line, the Army of the Moselle, under Crown Prince Wilhelm.</p> + +<p>The position of the Allied armies was based on the resisting power of +Namur. It was expected that Namur would delay the German advance as long +as Liege had done. Then the French line of frontier fortresses—Lille, +with its half-finished defenses; Maubeuge, with strong forts and a large +garrison; and other strongholds—would form a still more useful system +of fortified points for the Allies.</p> + +<p>The German staff, however, had other plans. At Liege they had rashly +endeavored to storm a strong fortress by a massed infantry attack, which +had failed disastrously until their new Krupp siege guns had been +brought up. These quickly demolished the defenses. These siege guns, +therefore, which had thus fully demonstrated their value against +fortifications soon brought about the total defeat of the French +offensive, and compelled the Allies to retreat from Belgium and northern +France. The Germans lost no time in investing Namur, and on Saturday, as +noted above, August 22, 1914, the fortress fell into the invaders' +hands.</p> + +<p>On the same day, August 22, 1914, the Fifth French Army, under the lead +of General Lanrezac, was enduring the double stress of Von Bülow's army +thundering against its front, and Von Hausen's two army corps pressing +hard upon its right flank and rear, threatening its line of retreat. +Against such terrific odds the French line at Dinant and Givet broke, +exposing the flank and rear of the whole army; and by the evening of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page070" name="page070"></a>(p. 070)</span> that day, August 22, the passages of the River Sambre, near +Charleroi, had been forced, and the Fifth Army was falling back, +contesting every mile of the ground with desperate rear-guard action. +The British, meanwhile, defending the Mons position, were in grave +danger of being cut off, enveloped, and destroyed.</p> + +<p>Sir John French had put his two army corps into battle array. He had +about thirty miles of front to defend, with Mons nearly in the center.</p> + +<p>On Sunday afternoon, August 23, 1914, the full weight of the German +onset fell for the first time upon the British.</p> + +<p>All that night the British were under the fire of German artillery.</p> + +<p>Sir John French realized the danger of his Maubeuge-Jenlain position, +and on Monday evening, August 24, 1914, realizing the importance of +putting a substantial barrier, such as the Somme or the Oise, between +his force and the enemy, gave orders for the retirement to be continued +at five o'clock the next morning, August 25, 1914. He had decided upon a +new position about the town of Le Cateau, east of Cambrai. Before dawn, +August 25, 1914, the southward march over rough, hilly country was +resumed, and toward evening of August 25, 1914, after a long, hard day's +fighting march over the highroads, in midsummer heat and thundershowers, +the Guards Brigade and other regiments of the Second Corps, wet and +weary, arrived at the little market town of Landrecies. From Landrecies, +after an encounter with a German column, they marched south toward +Wassigny on Guise.</p> + +<a id="img008" name="img008"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/img008.jpg"> +<img src="images/img008tb.jpg" width="500" height="311" alt="" title=""></a> +<p>Battle of Mons and Retreat of Allied Armies.</p> +</div> + +<p>While the night attack on Landrecies was raging, the Germans, taxing +their men to the uttermost, marched four other corps through the tract +of country between the west side of the forest and the road from +Valenciennes to Cambrai. These corps were in a position along +Smith-Dorrien's front before dawn of Wednesday, August, 26, 1914, and in +the earliest hours of the morning it became apparent that the Germans +were determined to throw the bulk of their strength against the British +battalions which had moved up to a position south of the small +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page072" name="page072"></a>(p. 072)</span> town of Solesmes, extending to the south of Cambrai. Thus +placed, this force could shield the Second Corps, now beginning its +retreat under pressure of the German army advancing from Tournai. These +troops under General Snow were destined to play an important part in the +impending battle of Le Cateau.</p> + +<p>By sunrise the guns of the four German corps were firing from positions +facing the British left, and gray-green masses of infantry were pressing +forward in dense firing lines. In view of this attack, General +Smith-Dorrien judged it impossible to continue his retreat at daybreak. +The First Corps was at that moment scarcely out of difficulty, and +General Sordêt—whose troops had been fighting hard on the flank of the +Fifth French Army, with General Lanrezac, against General von Bülow's +hosts—was unable to help the British, owing to the exhausted state of +his cavalry. The situation was full of peril; indeed, Wednesday bade +fair to become the most critical day of the retreat.</p> + +<p>As the day of August 26, 1914, wore on, General von Kluck, abandoning +frontal attacks, began to use his superior numbers in a great enveloping +move on both flanks, and some of his batteries secured positions from +which they could enfilade the British line. Smith-Dorrien, having no +available reserves, was thus virtually ringed by enemy guns on one side +and by hostile infantry on all sides. "It became apparent," says Sir +John French's dispatch, "that if complete annihilation was to be +avoided, a retirement must be attempted; and the order was given to +commence it about 3.30 p. m. The movement was covered with the most +devoted intrepidity and determination by the artillery, which had +suffered heavily, and the fine work done by the cavalry in the farther +retreat from the position assisted materially in the completion of this +difficult and dangerous operation. The saving of the left wing could +never have been accomplished unless a commander" (Sir Horace +Smith-Dorrien) "of rare coolness had been present to personally conduct +the operation."</p> + +<p>This retirement foreshadowed the end of the battle. Worn out by repeated +repulses, the Germans had suffered too heavily to continue their attacks +or to engage in an energetic pursuit. According to General French's +estimate, the British losses during <span class="pagenum"><a id="page073" name="page073"></a>(p. 073)</span> the trying period from +August 23 to August 26, 1914, inclusive, were between 5,000 and 6,000 +men and the losses suffered by the Germans in their pursuit and attacks +across the open country, owing largely to their dense formation, were +much greater. The Battle of Le Cateau gave the Germans pause. Further +retreat of the British could now be resumed in orderly array; for by now +General Sordêt with his cavalry was relieving the pressure on the +British rear, and General D'Amade with his two reserve divisions from +the neighborhood of Arras was attacking General von Kluck's right, +driving it back on Cambrai. Disaster to the British forces was averted, +though the peril of German interposition between the Allied army and +Paris would soon compel still further withdrawals.</p> + +<p>Covered by their gunners, but still under heavy fire of the German +artillery, the British began again to retire southward. Their retreat +was continued far into the night of August 26, 1914, and through the +27th and 28th; on the last date—after vigorous cavalry fighting—the +exhausted troops halted on a line extending from the French cathedral +town of Noyon through Chauny to La Fère. There they were joined by +reenforcements amounting to double their loss. Guns to replace those +captured or shattered by the enemy were brought up to the new line. +There was a breathing space for a day, while the British made ready to +take part in the next great encounter.</p> + +<p>This fourth week in August marked a decisive period in the history of +the Great War. All the French armies, from the east to the west, as well +as the British army, were in retreat over their frontiers. To what +resolution had the French commander in chief come? That was the question +on every lip. What at that moment was the real situation of the French +army? Certainly the first engagements had not turned out as well as the +French could have hoped. The Germans were reaping the reward of their +magnificent preparation for the war. Their heavy artillery, with which +the French army was almost entirely unprovided, was giving proof of its +efficacy and its worth. The moral effect of those great projectiles +launched from great distances by the immense German guns was +considerable. At such <span class="pagenum"><a id="page074" name="page074"></a>(p. 074)</span> great distances the French cannons of +75, admirable as they were, could make no effective reply to the German +batteries. The French soldiers were perfectly well aware that they were +the targets of the great German shells while their own cannon could make +no parallel impression on the enemy.</p> + +<p>The German army revealed itself as an extraordinary instrument of war. +Its mobility and accouterments were perfect. It had over a hundred +thousand professional noncommissioned officers or subofficers, admirably +suited to their work, with their men marching under the control of their +eye and finger. In the German army the active corps, as well as the +reserve corps, showed themselves, thanks to these noncommissioned +officers, marvelously equipped.</p> + +<p>In the French army the number of noncommissioned officers by profession +totaled hardly half the German figures. The German army, moreover, was +much more abundantly supplied with machine guns than the French. The +Germans had almost twice as many, and they understood how to use them in +defense and attack better than the French. They had moreover, to a +degree far superior to that of the French, studied the use of +fortifications in the field, trenches, wire entanglements, and so on. +The Germans were also at first better trained than the French +reservists; they had spent longer periods in the German army, and their +reserve corps were almost equal to the active corps.</p> + +<p>In the French army, on the other hand, an apprenticeship and training of +several weeks were required to give to the divisions of reserve their +full worth. At the end of two weeks, nevertheless, thanks to the +marvelous elasticity of the French soldier and the warlike qualities of +the race, the training was completed. At the beginning of the month of +September the reserve divisions fought with the same skill, the same +keenness, and the same swing as the active army corps.</p> + +<p>Moreover, certain incompetencies had revealed themselves in the French +high command. These General Joffre attended to without the loss of an +instant. Every general that appeared to him incapable of fulfilling the +task allotted to him was weeded <span class="pagenum"><a id="page075" name="page075"></a>(p. 075)</span> out on the spot, without +considering friendships or the bonds of comradeship, or intimacy that +might be between them.</p> + +<p>As things were seen in Paris, all may be summed up in this formula: That +the German army was better prepared for war than the French army, for +the simple reason that Germany had long prepared for the war, because +she had it in view, a thing which could not be said of France. But the +French army revealed right from the beginning the most admirable and +marvelous qualities. The soldiers fought with a skill and heroism that +have never been equaled. Sometimes, indeed, their enthusiasm and courage +carried them too far. It mattered little. In spite of losses, in spite +even of retreat, the morale of the whole French army on the entire front +from Alsace to the Somme remained extraordinarily high.</p> + +<p>The violation of Belgian neutrality and the passage of the German armies +through Belgium had been foreseen by the French General Staff, but +opinions differed in regard to the breadth of the turning movement +likely to be made by the German right wing in crossing Belgian +territory. Among French experts some were of opinion that the Germans +would confine themselves to the right bank of the Meuse, while others +thought that they would cross the Meuse, and make a much vaster turning +movement, thus descending on France in a direction due north and south.</p> + +<p>If the violation of Belgian neutrality was no surprise to the French +Staff, it was nevertheless hardly expected that the Germans would be +able to put in line with such rapidity at the outset all their reserve +formations. Each army corps was supported by its reserve corps, which +showed itself as quick in mobilization and preparation as the active +corps.</p> + +<p>Germany, while maintaining sufficient forces on the Russian front, was +still able to put in the field for its great offensive against France a +more numerous body of troops than would have been believed in France. +This permitted them to maintain in Alsace, in Lorraine, and in Belgian +Luxembourg armies as numerous as those which faced them on the French +side, and at the same time to mass the major part of their troops on the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page076" name="page076"></a>(p. 076)</span> right so as to pour into the valley of the Oise their chief +invading forces.</p> + +<p>This explains why the French left, which was exposed to the offensive of +the German right, was obliged to make a rapid retreat, permitting the +German armies of General von Kluck and General von Bülow to advance with +all speed in the direction of Paris.</p> + +<p>The French military staff, as soon as they perceived the danger that +threatened, proceeded to a new alignment of forces. As long as this +alignment of forces could not be effected the retreat had to continue. +As soon as it was accomplished, as soon as General Joffre had his armies +well in hand and the situation of his troops well disposed, he checked +the retreat, gave the signal for the offensive, and so followed the +great Battle of the Marne.</p> + +<p>The German plan consisted, therefore, in delivering the main blow +through the medium of the right wing of the German forces, consisting of +the army of Von Kluck, the army of Von Bülow, and the army of Von +Hausen, which were to march with all speed in the direction of Paris.</p> + +<p>What plan had the French staff in mind to oppose to this plan of the +Germans? Its plan aimed at checking and holding the greatest possible +number of Germans by a vigorous offensive in Alsace and Lorraine so as +to prevent them from joining the three first German armies which +threatened Paris. In support of this offensive of the armies of Alsace +and Lorraine, the central French armies attacked in the direction of the +Ardennes and Belgian Luxembourg with the object of checking the center +of the German armies and then turning toward the west so as to cooperate +in the offensive of the French forces which, aided by the British army +and the Belgian army, were fighting in Belgium.</p> + +<p>The French armies, which are numbered from the right to the left—that +is, from the east to the west—comprised: A detachment of the Army of +Alsace that was dissolved toward the end of the month of August; the +First Army (General Dubail); the Second Army (General de Castelnau); the +Third Army (General Ruffey, replaced at the end of August, 1914, by +General Sarrail); the Fourth Army (General de Langle de <span class="pagenum"><a id="page077" name="page077"></a>(p. 077)</span> Cary); +the Fifth Army (General Lanrezac, replaced in the last days of August, +1914, by General Franchet d'Espérey). At the right of this army was +stationed the British army under the command of General French.</p> + +<p>To what resolution did General Joffre come? On that memorable evening of +the 24th, and on that morning of the 25th, two alternatives presented +themselves before him. Should they, rather than permit the enemy to +invade the soil of France, make a supreme effort to check the Germans on +the frontier?</p> + +<p>This first apparent solution had the evident advantage of abandoning to +the enemy no part of the national soil, but it had some serious +inconveniences. The attack of the German armies operating on the right +(Generals von Kluck, von Bülow, von Hausen) were extremely menacing. In +order to parry this attack it was necessary considerably to reenforce +the French left, and for that purpose to transfer from the right to the +left a certain number of army corps. That is what the military call, in +the language of chess players, "to castle" the army corps. But this +movement could not be accomplished in a few hours. It required, even +with all the perfection of organization shown by the French railways +during this war, a certain number of days. As long as this operation +from the right to the left had not been accomplished, as long as the +left wing of the French army and even the center remained without the +reenforcement of elements taken from the right, it would have been +extremely imprudent, not to say rash, for the French high command to +attempt a decisive battle. If General Joffre had risked a battle +immediately he would have been playing the game without all his trumps +in hand and would have been in danger of a defeat, and even of a decided +disaster, from which it might have been impossible to recover.</p> + +<p>The second alternative consisted in drawing back and in profiting from a +retreat by putting everything in shipshape order to bring about a new +grouping of forces. They would allow the Germans to advance, and when +the occasion showed itself favorable the French armies, along with the +British army, would take the offensive and wage a decisive battle.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page078" name="page078"></a>(p. 078)</span> It was to this second decision that General Joffre came. As +soon as on August 25, 1914, he had made up his mind as to what the +French retreat was going to lead he gave orders for a new marshaling of +forces and for preparations with a view to the offensive.</p> + +<p>General Joffre has made no objection to the publication of his orders in +detail from that date, August 25, 1914, down to the Battle of the Marne. +They constitute an eloquent and convincing document. The series of +orders were contained in the "Bulletin des Armées de la République +Française," June 6, 1915, Sunday. The first of these orders, dated +August 25, 1914, runs as follows:</p> + +<p>"The projected offensive movement not having been found possible of +execution, the consequent operations will be so conducted as to put in +line, on our left, by the junction of the Fourth and Fifth Armies, the +British army, and new forces recruited from the eastern district, a body +capable of taking the offensive while other armies for the needed +interval hold in check the efforts of the enemy...."</p> + +<p>The retreating movement was regulated so as to bring about the following +disposition of forces preparatory to an offensive:</p> + +<p>"In the Amiens district a new grouping of forces, formed of elements +conveyed by rail (Seventh Corps, four divisions of reserve, and perhaps +another active army corps), brought together from August 27 to September +2, 1914. This body will remain ready to take the offensive in the +general direction of St, Pol-Arras or Arras-Bapaume."</p> + +<p>The same general instructions of August 25, 1914, marks out the zones of +march, and says:</p> + +<p>"The movement will be covered by the rear guards spread out at favorable +points of vantage so as to utilize every obstacle for the purpose of +checking, by brief and violent counterattacks in which the artillery +will play the chief part, the march of the enemy or at least to retard +it."</p> + +<p class="right10"> + (Signed) <span class="add3em smcap">J. Joffre.</span></p> + +<a id="img009" name="img009"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/img009.jpg" width="300" height="481" alt="" title=""> +<p>General Joffre.</p> +</div> + +<p>The object of this maneuver is thus already on August 25, 1914, clearly +indicated; it looked not to a defensive, but to an offensive <span class="pagenum"><a id="page079" name="page079"></a>(p. 079)</span> +movement, which was to be resumed as soon as circumstances appeared +favorable. Much is made clear in these orders of General Joffre, which +are characterized by perspicuity, foresight, and precision.</p> + +<p>The retreat was effected; but it was only a provisional retreat. +Whenever an occasion presented itself to counterattack the enemy for the +purpose of delaying his advance, that occasion was to be taken advantage +of. And that is, in fact, what took place.</p> + +<p>Two days later, on August 27, 1914, General Joffre brought together, +using army corps and divisions recruited elsewhere, a supplementary +army, the Ninth Army, which was detailed to take its place between the +Fourth and Fifth Armies. He intrusted its command to a general, who, +while commanding the Twentieth Corps, had distinguished himself by his +brilliant conduct in Lorraine, General Foch.</p> + +<p>The establishment of the army of Manoury on the left of the French +armies so as to fall on the right flank of the Germans when they marched +on Paris; the establishment of a strong army under one of the best +French generals at the center for the purpose of encountering the main +weight of the German army; such were the two decisions of the French +commander in chief, taken on August 25 and 27, 1914, which contained in +germ the victory of the Marne, waged and won two weeks later.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<p class="title">FIGHTING AT BAY</p> + + +<p>The forces of France also had been fighting to protect their retreat +southward in these August days of 1914. After the passages of the Sambre +were forced, during the great Mons-Charleroi battle, the Fifth French +Army was placed in very perilous straits by the failure of the Fourth +Army, under General Langle, to hold the Belgian river town of Givet. +Hard pressed <span class="pagenum"><a id="page080" name="page080"></a>(p. 080)</span> in the rear by General von Bülow's army, and on +their right by General von Hausen commanding the Saxon Army and the +Prussian Guard, the Fifth Army of France had to retire with all possible +speed, for their path of retreat was threatened by a large body of +Teutons advancing on Rocroi.</p> + +<p>On August 23, 1914, holding their indomitable pursuers in check by +desperate rear-guard action, with their two cavalry divisions under +General Sordêt galloping furiously along the lines of the western flank +to protect the retiring infantry and guns, the Fifth Army unexpectedly +turned at Guise. At that point considerable reenforcements in troops and +material arrived, making the Fifth Army the strongest in France. It now +defeated and drove over the Oise the German Guard and Tenth Corps, and +then continued its retirement. But the left wing of the French army was +unsuccessful, and Amiens and the passages of the Somme had to be +abandoned to the invaders.</p> + +<p>On Sunday, August 23, 1914, the Fourth Army, operating from the Meuse, +was heavily outnumbered by the Saxon army around the river town of +Dinant. They fell back, after furious fighting for the possession of the +bridges, which the French engineers blew up as the army withdrew +southward to the frontier. Soon after, at Givet, the Germans succeeded +in wedging their way across the Meuse. Some advanced on Rocroi and +Rethel, and other corps marched along the left bank of the Meuse, +through wooded country, against a steadily increasing resistance which +culminated at Charleville, a town on the western bank of the river. +There a determined stand was made.</p> + +<p>On August 24, 1914, the town of Charleville was evacuated, the civilians +were sent away to join multitudes of other homeless refugees, and then +the French also retired, leaving behind them several machine guns hidden +in houses, placed so that they commanded the town and the three bridges +that connected it with Mézières.</p> + +<p>The German advance guards reached the two towns next day, August 25, +1914, which, as we know, witnessed the British retirement toward Le +Cateau. Unmolested, they rode across the three bridges into the quiet, +empty streets. Suddenly, when all <span class="pagenum"><a id="page081" name="page081"></a>(p. 081)</span> had crossed, the bridges +were blown up behind them by contact mines, and the German cavalrymen +were raked by the deadly fire of the machine guns. Nevertheless, finding +their foes were not numerous, they made a courageous stand, waiting for +their main columns to draw nearer. Every French machine gunner was +silenced by the Guards with their Maxims; but when the main invading +army swept into view along the river valley, the French artillery from +the hills around Charleville mowed down the heads of columns with +shrapnel. Still the Teutons advanced with reckless courage. While their +artillery was engaged in a duel with the French, German sappers threw +pontoon bridges across the river, and finally the French had to retire. +Between Charleville and Rethel there was another battle, resulting in +the abandonment of Mézières by the French.</p> + +<p>The retreating army crossed the Semois, a tributary of the Meuse, which +it enters below Mézières, and advanced toward Neufchâteau; but they were +repulsed by the Germans under the Duke of Württemberg. At Nancy on +August 25, 1914, there was another engagement between the garrison of +Toul and the army of the Crown Prince of Bavaria; after fierce +onslaughts the garrison was compelled to yield and retire. Finally, on +August 27, 1914, at Longwy, a fortified town near Verdun, the army of +the German crown prince succeeded in bursting into France after a long +siege, and marched toward the Argonne. Thus from the western coast +almost to Verdun there was a general Franco-British retreat.</p> + +<p>On August 28, 1914, pressed by the German armies commanded by Von Kluck +on the west, by Von Hausen from Dinant and Givet, by Von Bülow from +Charleroi and Namur, the Allies were pushed back upon a line stretching +roughly from Amiens through Noyon-Le Fère to Mézières; while their +forces east of the Meuse between Mézières and Verdun were retreating +before Duke Albrecht of Württemberg, and to the southeast of Verdun +before the Bavarians. All northern France was thus open to the invaders.</p> + +<p>After the battle of Le Cateau, however, the Germans slackened their +pursuit for a very brief interval; partly because the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page082" name="page082"></a>(p. 082)</span> terrific +strain of marching and fighting was telling upon them no less than upon +the Allies, partly because the engineers had blown up the bridges over +every river, canal, and stream, behind the retreating armies, and partly +because, under directions from the French commander in chief, General +Manoury was organizing a new force on the British left, a new Sixth +Army, mainly reserve troops, one corps of line troops, and General +Sordêt's cavalry. On the right of the British were General Lanrezac's +troops; then, between Lanrezac's Fifth Army and the Fourth Army, came a +Ninth Army, under General Foch, formed of three corps from the south.</p> + +<p>Counterattacks were ordered by the French general in chief, continued +during the entire retreat and had frequently brilliant results.</p> + +<p>On August 29, 1914, a corps of the Fifth Army and of the divisions of +reserve attacked with success in the direction of St. Quentin with the +object of withdrawing the pressure on the British army. Two other corps +and a division of reserves joined issue with the Prussian Guard and the +Tenth Corps of the German army which debouched from Guise. This was a +very violent battle, known under the name of the Battle of Guise. At the +end of the day, after various fluctuations in the fight, the Germans +were thrown completely over the Oise and the entire British front was +relieved. The Prussian Guard on that occasion suffered great losses.</p> + +<p>August 27, 1914, the Fourth Army under General de Langle de Cary +succeeded likewise in throwing the enemy across the Meuse as he +endeavored to secure a footing on the left bank. The success continued +on the 28th; on that day a division of this army (First Division of +Morocco under the orders of General Humbert) inflicted a sanguinary +defeat on a Saxon army corps in the region of Signy l'Abbaye.</p> + +<p>Thanks to these brilliant successes, the retreat was accomplished in +good order and without the French armies being seriously demoralized; as +a matter of fact, they were actually put to flight at no point. All the +French armies were thus found intact and prepared for the offensive.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page083" name="page083"></a>(p. 083)</span> The right wing of the German army marched in the direction of +Paris at great speed, and the rapidity of the German onslaught obliged +the French General Staff to prolong the retreat until they were able to +establish a new alignment of forces. The new army established on the +left of the French armies, and intrusted to General Manoury, was not +able to complete its concentration in the localities first intended. In +place of concentrating in the region of Amiens it was obliged to operate +more to the south.</p> + +<p>The situation on the evening of September 2, 1914, as a result of the +vigorous onward march of the German right, was as follows:</p> + +<p>A corps of German cavalry had crossed the Oise and had reached Château +Thierry. The First German Army (General von Kluck), consisting of four +active army corps and a reserve corps, had passed Compiègne. The Second +Army (General von Bülow), with three active army corps and two reserve +corps, had attained to the region of Laon. The Third German Army +(General von Hausen), with two active army corps and a reserve corps, +had crossed the Aisne and reached Château Porcin-Attigny.</p> + +<p>Farther to the east the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh German Armies, +making about twelve active army corps, four reserve corps, and numerous +Ersatz companies, were in contact with the French troops (Fourth and +Fifth Armies) between Vouziers and Verdun, the others from Verdun to the +Vosges. Such was the situation.</p> + +<p>It may be seen, if a map is consulted, that the Fifth French Army, +commanded from August 30 by General Franchet d'Espérey, would have found +itself in grave peril following on the backward bending of the British +and French forces operating on its left, if the French had accepted the +challenge of a decisive battle. The French commander in chief resolutely +chose the alternative that obviated such a risk, that is, he decided on +a postponement of the offensive and the continuation of the retreat.</p> + +<p>Already on September 1, 1914, he prescribed as the extreme limits of the +retreat the line running through Bray-sur-Seine, Nogent-sur-Seine, +Arcis-sur-Aube, Vitry-le-François, and the region north of Bar-le-Duc. +That line would have been reached had <span class="pagenum"><a id="page084" name="page084"></a>(p. 084)</span> it been necessary. On +the other hand, it was his intention to attack before it was reached if +the forces could be offensively arrayed, allowing of the cooperation of +the British army and the army of Manoury on the left, and on the right +that of the divisions of reserve that had been held on the heights of +the Meuse.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, late in the afternoon of August 29, 1914, the British +retirement began afresh, and 10,000 French troops also withdrew from the +Somme, blowing up the bridges as they went. Everywhere along the roads +were crowds of country folk and villagers with wagons and carts piled +high with household goods or carrying aged persons and children, all in +panic flight before the dreaded invaders, fleeing for refuge in Paris. +At various places these stricken multitudes joined the army ambulances, +taking the shortest routes. Rumors of the coming of the uhlans ran along +the straggling lines with tales of the grievous havoc and ruin which +these horsemen, vanguards of the German columns, had wrought in the +land. Hardly had the retirement begun, when a body of uhlans entered +Amiens and demanded from the mayor the surrender of the town. This was +formally given, and the civilians were ordered, on pain of death, not to +create the slightest disturbance and not to take part in any action, +overt or covert, against the soldiery. Afterward, cavalry, infantry, and +artillery took possession of the town on August 30, 1914. On the same +day a German aeroplane dropped bombs on Paris.</p> + +<p>While retiring from the thickly wooded country south of Compiègne, the +British First Cavalry Brigade were surprised while dismounted and at +breakfast in the early morning of September 1, 1914. Moving figures on +the distant skyline first attracted the attention of those who had field +glasses, but in the dim light their identity was not at first revealed. +Suddenly all doubt was resolved by a rain of shells on the camp. Many +men and a large number of horses were killed. At once the order "Action +front!" rang out, and the remaining horses, five to a man, were hurried +to cover in the rear, while on the left a battery of horse artillery +went into instant action. The German attack <span class="pagenum"><a id="page085" name="page085"></a>(p. 085)</span> was pressed hard, +and the battery was momentarily lost until some detachments from the +British Third Corps, with the guns of the artillery brigade, galloped up +to its support. Then they not only recovered their own guns, but also +succeeded in capturing twelve of the enemy's.</p> + +<p>On the eventful day of September 3, 1914, the British forces reached a +position south of the Marne between Lagny and Signy-Signets. They had +defended the passage of the river against the German armies as long as +possible, and had destroyed bridges in the path of the pursuers. Next, +at General Joffre's request, they retired some twelve miles farther +southward with a view to taking a position behind the Seine. In the +meantime the Germans had built pontoon bridges across the Marne, and +were threatening the Allies all along the line of the British forces and +the Fifth and Ninth French Armies. Consequently several outpost actions +took place.</p> + +<p>By the 1st of September, 1914, the day of the Russian victories at +Lemberg, Von Kluck's army had reached Senlis, only twenty-five miles +from Paris. Despite this imminent danger, the capital was remarkably +quiet and calm; every day, as fateful event crowded upon event, seemed +to renew the resolution and coolness of the population. It seemed +advisable, however, to transfer the seat of government for the time +being from Paris to Bordeaux, after assuring the defense of the city by +every means that could be devised.</p> + +<p>The defenses of Paris consisted of three great intrenched camps, on the +north, east, and southwest, respectively. Of these the most important is +the last, which includes all the fortified area to the south and west of +the Seine. A railway over sixty miles in length connects all the works, +and, under the shelter of the forts, it could not only keep them +supplied with the necessary ammunition and stores, but also it could be +utilized to convey troops from point to point as they might be needed. +However, it was an open secret that even the outer and newer defenses +were not of any great strength. If the Germans broke through the +outlying circle of forts, the inner line would be of small value, and +the city itself would be exposed to long-range bombardment. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page086" name="page086"></a>(p. 086)</span> +Paris was not ready for a siege, and if attacked it would speedily fall.</p> + +<p>Early in the morning of September 3, 1914, President Poincaré, +accompanied by all the ministers, left Paris, and was followed at noon +by the members of the Senate and Chamber of Deputies, and the reserves +of the Banque de France. The higher courts were also transferred to +Bordeaux. The municipal authority was constituted by the president of +the City Council, and the Council of the Seine Department, who were +empowered to direct civil affairs under the authority of General +Galliéni as military governor, the prefect of Paris, and the prefect of +police.</p> + +<p>On his appointment to the command, Galliéni did what he could to +strengthen the defenses. Trenches were dug, wire entanglements were +constructed, and hundreds of buildings that had been allowed to spring +up over the military zone of defense were demolished in order to leave a +clear field of fire. The gates of the city were barred with heavy +palisades backed by sandbags, and neighboring streets also were +barricaded for fighting. Certain strategic streets were obstructed by +networks of barbed wire, and in others pits were dug to the depth of a +man's shoulders. The public buildings were barricaded with sandbags and +guarded with machine guns.</p> + +<p>But while Paris was preparing for siege and assault the French staff +were concentrating their efforts on making a siege impossible by a +decisive stroke against the German advance.</p> + +<p>Hardly had the Government left the city when tidings arrived that +instead of marching on Paris, General von Kluck had swung southeastward +toward the crossing of the Marne. This news was obtained by the allied +flying corps, which had made daring flights over the enemy's line.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page087" name="page087"></a>(p. 087)</span> CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<p class="title">THE MARNE—GENERAL PLAN OF BATTLE FIELD</p> + + +<p>On September 4, 1914, the bugler of Destiny sounded the "Halt!" to the +retreat of the armies of the Allies from the Belgian frontier. The +marvelous fighting machine of the German armies, perhaps the most superb +organization of military potency that has been conceived by the mind of +man, seemed to reach its limit of range. Success had perched upon the +German eagles, and for two weeks there had been a steady succession of +victories. Nevertheless the British and French armies were not crushed. +They were overwhelmed, they were overpowered, and, under stern military +necessity, they were forced to fall back.</p> + +<p>Day after day, under the swinging hammer-head blows of the German drive, +the flower of the forces of the Allies had been compelled to break. A +little less generalship on the part of the defenders, or a little more +recklessness behind that smashing offensive might have turned this +retirement into a rout. Even as it was, the official dispatches reveal +that, while occasional and local retirements had been considered, such a +sweeping retreat was far from contemplated by Generals Joffre and +French. German official dispatches bear testimony to the intrepid +character of the defenders sullenly falling back and contesting every +inch of the way, as much as they do to the daring and the vivid bravery +of the German attackers who hurled themselves steadily, day after day, +upon positions hastily taken up in the retreat where the retirement +could be partly repaid by the heaviest toll of death.</p> + +<p>The great strategical plan of the Germans, which had displayed itself +throughout the entire operations on the western theatre of war from the +very first gun of the campaign, came to its apex on this September 3, +1914. If the allied armies could develop a strong enough defense to halt +the German offensive at this point, and especially if they could develop +a sufficiently powerful counteroffensive to strike doubt into the +confident <span class="pagenum"><a id="page088" name="page088"></a>(p. 088)</span> expectations of the armies of the Central Powers, +then the strategical plan had reached a check, which might or might not +be a checkmate, as the fortunes of war might determine. If, on the other +hand, the stand made by the Allies at this point should prove +ineffective, and if the counteroffensive should reveal that the German +hosts had been able to establish impregnable defenses as they marched, +then the original strategic plan of the attackers must be considered as +intact and the peril of France would become greatly intensified.</p> + +<p>It is idle, in a war of such astounding magnitude, to speak about any +one single incident as being a "decisive" one. Such a term can only +rightly be applied to conditions where the opposing powers each have but +one organized army in the field, and these armies meet in a pitched +battle. None the less, the several actions which are known as the +Battles of the Marne may be considered as decisive, to the extent that +they decided the limit of the German offensive at that point. The German +General Staff, taking the ordinary and obvious precautions in the case +of a possible repulse, chose and fortified in the German rear positions +to which its forces might fall back in the event of retreat. These +prepared positions had a secondary contingent value for the Germans in +view of the grave Russian menace that might call at any moment for a +transfer of German troops from the western to the eastern front.</p> + +<p>The Battle of the Marne stopped the advance of the main German army on +that line, forcing it back.</p> + +<a id="img010" name="img010"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/img010.jpg"> +<img src="images/img010tb.jpg" width="500" height="286" alt="" title=""></a> +<p>Battle of the Marne—Beginning on September 5, 1914.</p> +</div> + +<p>The scene of the battle ground is one of the most famous in Europe, not +even the plains of Belgium possessing a richer historical significance +than that melancholy plain, the Champagne-Pouilleuse, upon whose +inhospitable flats rested for centuries the curse of a prophecy, that +there would the fate of France be decided, a prophecy of rare +connotation of accuracy, for it refrained from stating what that fate +should be. Yet the historic sense is amplified even more by remembrance +than by prophecy, for in the territory confronting that huge arc on +which 1,400,000 German and Austrian soldiers lay encamped, awaiting what +even the German generals declared to be "the great decision," there +lies, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page090" name="page090"></a>(p. 090)</span> on the old Roman road running from Châlons a vast oval +mound, known to tradition as "the Camp of Attila." In that country, a +Roman general, Aetius, leading a host of soldiers of whom many were +Gauls, broke a vast flood wave of the Huns as those savage Mongol hordes +hurled themselves against Rome's westernmost possession. On that +occasion, however, the Visigoths, under their King Theodoric, fought +side by side with the Gauls. Then, the dwellers on the banks of the +Rhine and on the banks of the Seine were brothers in arms, now, that +same countryside shall see them locked in deadly conflict.</p> + +<p>The morale of tradition is a curious thing, and often will nerve a sword +arm when the most impassioned utterance of a beloved leader may fail. +There were few among the soldiers of France who forgot that in the south +of this same plain of Champagne-Pouilleuse was the home of Joan of Arc, +the Maid of Orleans, patriot and saint, and more than one French soldier +prayed that the same voices which had whispered in the ear of the virgin +of Domremy should guide the generalissimo who was to lead the armies of +France upon the morrow. Here, tradition again found old alliances +severed and new ones formed, for the Maid of Orleans led the French +against the English, while in the serried ranks awaiting the awful test +of the shock of battle, English and French soldiers lived and slept as +brothers.</p> + +<p>The topography of the region of the battle field is of more than common +interest, for modern tactics deal with vaster stretches of country than +would have been considered in any previous war. This is due, partly, to +the large armies handled, partly to the terrific range of modern +artillery, and also to what may be called the territorial perceptiveness +which aeronautical surveys make possible to a general of to-day. While +war has not changed, it is true that a commander of an army in modern +campaign is compelled to review and to take into account a far larger +group of factors. A modern general must be capable of grasping increased +complexities, and must possess a synthetic mind to be able to reduce all +these complicating factors into a single whole. The first factor of the +battles of the Marne was the topographical <span class="pagenum"><a id="page091" name="page091"></a>(p. 091)</span> factor, the +consideration of the land over which the action was to take place.</p> + +<p>Let the River Marne be used as a base from which this topography can be +determined. The Marne rises near Langres, which is the northwest angle +of that pentagon of fortresses (Belfort, Epinal, Langres, Dijon, and +Besançon), which incloses an almost impregnable recuperative ground for +exhausted armies. From Langres the Marne flows almost north by west for +about fifty miles through a hilly and wooded country, then, taking a +more westerly course, it flows for approximately seventy-five miles +almost northwest, across the Plain of Champagne, past Vitry-le-François +and Châlons, thence almost due westward through the Plateau of Sézanne, +by Epernay, Château Thierry, La Ferté-sous-Jouarre, and Meaux to join +the Seine just south of Paris. In the neighborhood of Meaux, three small +tributaries flow into the Marne—the Ourcq from the north, and the Grand +Morin and Petit Morin from the east. The Marshes of St. Gond, ten miles +long from east to west and a couple of miles across, lie toward the +eastern borders of the Plateau of Sézanne, and form the source of the +Petit Morin, which has been deepened in the reclamation of the marsh +country.</p> + +<p>Once more considering the source of the Marne, near Langres, it will be +noted that the River Meuse rises near by, flowing north by east to Toul, +and then north-northwest past Verdun to Sedan, where it turns due north, +flowing through the Ardennes country to Namur, in Belgium. To the east +of the Meuse lies the difficult forest clad hill barrier, known as the +Hills of the Meuse; to the east extends (as far as Triaucourt) the +craggy and broken wooded country of the Argonne, a natural barrier which +stretches southward in a chain of lakes and forests.</p> + +<p>West of this impassible country of the Meuse and the Argonne lies the +plain of Champagne-Pouilleuse, which is almost a steppe, bare and open, +only slightly undulating, overgrown with heath, and studded here and +there by small copses of planted firs, naught but a small portion of the +whole being under cultivation. Between the Forest of the Argonne and +this great plain, which is over a hundred miles long from north to south +and forty miles in <span class="pagenum"><a id="page092" name="page092"></a>(p. 092)</span> width, lies a short stretch of miniature +foothills, with upland meadows here and there, but crossed in every +direction by small ravines filled with shrubs and low second-growth +timber. Here lies the source of the Aisne, a river destined to live in +history; and on the farther side begins the great plain.</p> + +<p>On the west of the plain of Champagne rises, 300 feet, with a curious +clifflike suddenness, the Plateau of Sézanne. The effect is as though a +geological fault had driven the original plateau from north to south +throughout its entire length, and then as though there had been a +general subsidence of the plain, giving rise to the clifflike formations +known as Les Falaises de Champagne, at the foot of which runs the road +from La Fère-Champenoise to Rheims.</p> + +<p>The disposition and arrangement of the German forces is next to be +considered. It can be assumed that their objective was Paris. It is also +worthy of remembrance that the German tactical method has always favored +the envelopment of the enemy's flanks rather than a frontal attack +aiming to pierce the enemy's center, which latter was a favorite method +of Napoleon I to reach decision.</p> + +<p>The tactical method of envelopment demands great numerical superiority, +and on account of the extreme extension of front necessitated is apt to +become dangerous as perforce the center is left weak. Attempts to +envelop, with which the observer is confronted again and again when +considering the military movements of the Central Powers on the western +battle front, were revealed on the morning of September 3, 1914, in the +position occupied by the German forces, and, correspondingly, in the +arrangement of the allied armies.</p> + +<p>The German right, on September 3, 1914, and September 4, 1914, at which +time it was nearest to its desired goal of Paris, held the banks of the +Marne from Epernay to the banks of the little tributary the Ourcq, which +runs into the Marne from the north. This extreme right comprised the +Second Corps and the Fourth Reserve Corps, encamped on the western bank +of the little stream the Ourcq; while the Fourth Corps was given the +honor of the tip of the right, being camped on the Marne at La +Ferté-sous-Jouarre, supported by the Third Corps, the Seventh <span class="pagenum"><a id="page093" name="page093"></a>(p. 093)</span> +Corps and the Seventh Corps Reserve. The Ninth Cavalry Division occupied +an advanced position west of Crécy and the Second Cavalry Division +occupied an advanced position near the British army, north of +Coulommiers. These troops constituted the First German Army, under the +command of General von Kluck.</p> + +<p>The Allies' left, confronting this position, held strong reserves, and +by the nature of the ground itself, was well placed to prevent any +enveloping movement, dear to the German school of military tactics. It +rested securely on the fortress of Paris, believed by its constructors +to be the most fully fortified city in the world, and should the German +right endeavor to encircle the left wing of the Allies, should it +develop a farther westerly movement, it would but come in contact with +the outer line of those defenses and thence be deflected in such an +enormous arc as to thin the line beyond the power of keeping it strong +enough to resist a piercing attack at all points. Clearly, then, as long +as the extreme left of the Allies remained in contact with the defenses +of Paris, an enveloping movement was not possible on the easterly flank.</p> + +<p>Facing the German extreme right, was the Sixth French Army, one of the +great reserves of General Joffre, which had been steadily building up +since August 29, 1914, with its right on the Marne and its left at Betz, +in the Ourcq Valley, encamped on the western side of that stream, facing +the Second and Fourth Corps of the Germans. The strengthening of that +army from the forces at Paris was hourly, and while three or four days +before it had been felt that the Sixth French Army was too weak to be +placed in so vital a point—that it should have been supplemented with +the Ninth Army—the results justified the French generalissimo's plans +and more than justified his confidence in the British Army, or +Expeditionary Force, which faced the tip of the German right wing drive +and was encamped on a line from Villeneuve le Comte to Jouy le Chatel, +the center of the British army being at a point five miles southeast of +Coulommiers. This army was under the command of General Sir John French.</p> + +<p>The right center of the German line was held by General von Bülow's +army, consisting of the Ninth Corps, the Tenth Corps, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page094" name="page094"></a>(p. 094)</span> the +Tenth Reserve Corps, and the Guard Corps. This army also was encamped +upon the Marne, stretching from the eastern end of General Von Kluck's +army as far as Epernay. This army thus held the Forests of Vassy but was +confronted by the marshes of St. Gond.</p> + +<p>Confronting this right center was, first of all, General Conneau's +Cavalry Corps, which was in touch with the right wing of the British +army under Sir John French. Then, holding the line from Esternay to +Courtaçon lay the Fifth French Army under General d'Espérey. Full in +face of the strongest part of the German right center stood one of the +strongest of General Joffre's new reserves, the Ninth Army under General +Foch, with the marshes of St. Gond in front of him, and holding a +twenty-mile line from Esternay, past Sézanne to Camp de Mailly, a +remarkably well-equipped army, very eager for the fray.</p> + +<p>The hastily replenished corps, largely of Saxons, which had been General +von Hausen's army, lay next to General von Bülow, a little north of +Vitry, and as it proved, a weak spot in the German line. The left center +of the attacking force was under the command of the Duke of Württemberg +and extended across the whole southern end of the plain of Champagne to +the upper streams of the Aisne south of St. Menhould. The extreme left +of this advanced line was the army of the Imperial Crown Prince, holding +the old line on the Argonne to the south of Verdun. In close relation to +this advanced line, but not directly concerned with the battles of the +Marne, were the armies of the Bavarian Crown Prince, encamped in the +plateau of the Woevre, engaged largely in the task of holding open the +various lines of communication, while far to the south, in the vicinity +of the much battered little town of Mulhouse, lay the remains of the +decimated army of the Alsace campaigns under General von Heeringen.</p> + +<p>Facing this left center came General Langle's Fourth French Army, +covering the southern side of the plain of Châlons, it lay south of +Vitry-le-François, and faced due north. On this army, it was expected, +the brunt of the drive would fall. At this point the French battle line +made a sharp angle, the Third French <span class="pagenum"><a id="page095" name="page095"></a>(p. 095)</span> Army, commanded by +General Sarrail, occupying a base from Bar-le-Duc to Verdun. It thus +faced almost west, skirting the lower edge of the Forest of Argonne. At +the same time it was back to back with the Second French Army, which +covered the great barrier of forts from Verdun to Toul and Epinal, while +the First French Army held the line from Epinal to Belfort.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XIII</h2> + +<p class="title">ALLIED AND GERMAN BATTLE PLANS</p> + + +<p>So much for the actual disposition of the armies. The question of +preponderance of numbers, of advantages of position, and of comparative +fighting efficiency is the next factor with which to be reckoned. The +numbers were fairly evenly matched. About twelve days before this +fateful day of September 3, 1914, there were approximately 100 German +divisions as against seventy-five French, British, and Belgian +divisions. But, during those twelve days, French and British +mobilization advanced with hectic speed, while, at the same time, +Germany was compelled to transfer ten or perhaps fifteen of her +divisions to the eastern theater of war. It follows, therefore, that +there were about 4,000,000 soldiers in all the armies that confronted +each other in the week of September 3-10, 1914, of whom, probably, +3,000,000 were combatants.</p> + +<p>An early estimate placed the German strength at 1,300,000 combatants, +and the Allies at about 1,700,000. A later French estimate put the +Germans at 1,600,000, with the Allies between 1,400,000 and 1,500,000. +The preponderance of efficiency of equipment lay with the Germans.</p> + +<p>The plans of the German campaign at this time, so far as they can be +determined from the official orders and from the manner in which the +respective movements were carried out, were three-fold. The first of +these movements was the order given to General <span class="pagenum"><a id="page096" name="page096"></a>(p. 096)</span> von Kluck to +swirl his forces to the southeast of Paris, swerving away from the +capital in an attempt to cut the communications between it and the Fifth +French Army under General d'Espérey. This plan evidently involved a +feint attack upon the Sixth French Army under General Manoury (though +General Pare took charge of the larger issues of this western campaign), +coupled with a swift southerly stroke and an attack upon what was +supposed to be the exposed western flank of General d'Espérey's army. +The cause of the failure of this attempt was the presence of the British +army, as has been shown in the alignment of the armies given above, and +as will be shown in detail later, in the recital of the actual progress +of the fighting. Important as was this movement, however, it was the +least of the three elements in General von Moltke's plan for the +shattering of the great defense line of the Allies.</p> + +<p>The second element in this plan was, contrary to Germany's usual +tactics, the determination to attack the center of the French line and +break through. Almost three-quarters of a million men were concentrated +on this point. The armies of General von Bülow, General Hausen and the +Duke of Württemberg were massed in the center of the line. There, +however, General Foch's new Ninth Army was prepared to meet the attack. +It will be remembered that, in the disposition of the troops, these +respective armies were facing each other across the great desolate +plain, the ancient battle ground. If the German center could break +through the French center, and if at the same time General von Kluck, +commanding the German right, could execute a swift movement to the +southeast, the Fifth French Army would be between two fires, together +with such part of the Ninth Army as lay to the westward of the point to +be pierced. This strategic plan held high promise, and it would have +menaced the whole interior of France southward from the plain of +Champagne, but even this second part of the plan, important as it was, +does not appear to have been the crucial point in the campaign.</p> + +<p>The glory of the victory, if indeed victory it should prove, as the +successes of the previous two weeks had led the Germans to believe, was +to be given to the crown prince. With a great deal <span class="pagenum"><a id="page097" name="page097"></a>(p. 097)</span> of trouble +and with far more delay than had been anticipated, the crown prince's +army had at last managed to get within striking distance of the +forefront of the great battle line. His forces occupied the territory +north of Verdun to a southern point not far from Bar-le-Duc. Here the +German secret service seems to have been as efficient, as it failed to +be with regard to conditions only fifty miles away. General Sarrail's +army, which confronted the army of the crown prince, was somewhat weak. +It consisted of about two army corps with reserve divisions. Nor could +General Joffre send any reenforcements. Every available source of +reenforcements had been drawn upon to aid the Sixth Army, encamped upon +the banks of the Ourcq, in order that Paris might be well guarded. No +troops could be spared from the Fifth and Ninth Armies, which had to +bear the brunt of the attack from the German center. General Sarrail, +therefore, had to depend on the natural difficulties of the country and +to avoid giving battle too readily against the superior forces by which +he was confronted. It was a part of the plan of the French +generalissimo, however, to feel the strength of the German center, and +if it proved that they could be held, to release several divisions and +send them to the aid of General Sarrail.</p> + +<p>Subordinate to this contemplated attack by the crown prince, yet forming +a part of it, and, in a measure, a fourth element in the campaign, was +the double effort from the garrisons of Metz and Saarbrücken, combining +with the armies of the Bavarian Crown Prince and the forces of General +von Heeringen. The Second French Army, therefore, could not come to the +aid of the Third, except in desperate need, for it was in the very +forefront of the attack on Nancy. If the German left could pierce the +French lines at Nancy and pour through the Gap of Lorraine, it would be +able to take General Sarrail's army in the rear at Bar-le-Duc, and would +thus completely hem it in, at the same time isolating Verdun, which, +thus invested in the course of time must fall, forming an invaluable +advanced fortress to the German advance.</p> + +<a id="img011" name="img011"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/img011.jpg"> +<img src="images/img011tb.jpg" width="500" height="284" alt="" title=""></a> +<p>Battle of the Marne—Situation on September 9, 1914.</p> +</div> + +<p>Before proceeding to the actual working out of this plan of campaign it +may be well to recapitulate it, in order that each development +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page099" name="page099"></a>(p. 099)</span> may be clear. The German plan was to pierce the French line +at three places, at Meaux, at Bar-le-Duc and at Nancy. General von +Kluck, at Meaux, would cut off the Fifth and the Ninth Armies from +communication with their base at Paris, the Bavarian Crown Prince would +weaken General Sarrail's defense in the rear, and if possible come up +behind him, and thus the stage would be set for the great onrush of the +Imperial Crown Prince, who, with an almost fresh army, and with a most +complete and elaborate system of communications and supplies, should be +able to crush the weak point in France's defense, the army under General +Sarrail. Such a victory was designed to shed an especial luster upon the +crown prince and thus upon the Hohenzollern dynasty, a prestige much +needed, for the delays in the advance of the crown prince's army had +already given rise to mutterings of discontent. From a strategical point +of view the plan was sound and brilliant, the disposition of the forces +was excellently contrived, and the very utmost of military skill had +been used in bringing matters to a focus.</p> + +<p>The French plan, is the next to be considered. From official orders and +dispatches and also from the developments of that week, it is clear that +General Joffre had perceived the possibility of such a plan as the +Germans had actually conceived. He had brought back his armies—and +there is nothing harder to handle than a retreating army—step by step +over northern France without losing them their morale. The loss of life +was fearful, but it never became appalling. The French soldiers had +faith in Joffre, even as their faith in France, and, while the Germans +had victories to cheer them on, the soldiers of the Allies had to keep +up their courage under the perpetual strain of retreat. The +administration had evacuated Paris. Everywhere it seemed that the +weakness of France was becoming apparent. To the three armies in the +field, those commanded severally by General Manoury, Sir John French, +and General Lanrezac, the generalissimo steadily sent reenforcements. +But he informed the French Government that he was not able to save the +capital from a siege. Yet, as after events showed, while these various +conditions could not rightly be considered as ruses upon General +Joffre's part to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page100" name="page100"></a>(p. 100)</span> lure on the Germans, there is no doubt that +he understood and took full advantage of the readiness of the attacking +hosts to esteem all these points as prophetic of future victory. The +first feature of the French plan, therefore, was to lend color to the +German belief that the armies of the Allies were disheartened and +thereby to induce the attacking forces to join the issue quickly.</p> + +<p>The second part of the French plan lay in General Joffre's decision not +to do the expected thing. With General Sarrail placed at the extremest +point of danger, it would have been a likely move to transfer the entire +British Expeditionary Force from the left wing to the weak point at +Bar-le-Duc. There is reason to believe that General von Kluck believed +that this had been done.</p> + +<p>The third part of the defensive prepared by General Joffre was that of a +determination to turn the steady retreat into a counterdrive. Time after +time had the other generals implored their leader to give them leave to +take the offensive, and on every occasion a shake of the head had been +the reply. Sir John French had wondered. But when the French officers +found themselves in the region of the Marne, close to the marshes of St. +Gond, where in 1814 Napoleon had faced the Russians, they were more +content. It was familiar as well as historic ground. Even the youngest +officer knew every foot of that ground thoroughly. It was, at the same +time, the best point for the forward leap and one of the last points at +which a halt could be made.</p> + +<p>The fourth part of the plan was the holding fast to the point of Verdun, +for thereby the communication of the armies of the Central Powers was +seriously weakened. It is to be remembered that this actual fighting +army of more than a million men depended for food and for ammunition +supplies upon the routes from Belgium and Luxemburg by way of Mézières +and Montmédy, and the circuitous line to Brussels via St. Quentin. Had +Maubeuge fallen a little earlier the situation of the Central Powers +would have been less difficult, and both commissariat and ammunition +problems would have been easier of solution. But Maubeuge held out until +September 7, 1914, and by that time <span class="pagenum"><a id="page101" name="page101"></a>(p. 101)</span> the prime results of the +battles of the Marne had been achieved. To this problem Verdun was the +key, for from Metz through Verdun ran the main line, less than one-half +the length of line to the Belgian bases of supplies, and, owing to the +nature of the country, a line that could be held with a quarter the +number of men. But Verdun stood, and General Joffre held the two armies +back to back, converging on the point at Verdun.</p> + +<p>Such was the country over which the battles of the Marne were fought, +such were the numbers and dispositions of the several armies on each +side, and such, as far as can be judged, were the plans and counterplans +of the strategic leaders in the great conflict.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XIV</h2> + +<p class="title">FIRST MOVES IN THE BATTLE</p> + + +<p>The first movement in this concerted plan was taken by the German +extreme right. This was the closing in of General von Kluck's army in a +southeasterly direction. It was a hazardous move, for it required +General von Kluck to execute a flank march diagonally across the front +of the Sixth French Army and the British Expeditionary Force. At this +time, according to the dispatches from Sir John French, the British army +lay south of the Marne between Lagny and Signy-Signets, defending the +passage of the river and blowing up the bridges before General von +Kluck.</p> + +<p>On September 4, 1914, air reconnaissances showed that General von Kluck +had stopped his southward advance upon Paris, and that his columns were +moving in a southeasterly direction east of a line drawn through +Nanteuil and Lizy on the Ourcq. Meanwhile the French and British +generals more effectually concealed their armies in the forests, doing +so with such skill that their movements were unmarked by the German air +scouts. All that day General von Kluck moved his forces, leaving his +heavy artillery with about 100,000 men on the steep eastern bank +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page102" name="page102"></a>(p. 102)</span> of the Ourcq and taking 150,000 troops south across the Marne +toward La Ferté Gaucher. He crossed the Petit Morin and the Grand Morin, +all unconscious that scores of field glasses were trained upon his +troops.</p> + +<p>Probably believing that the British army had been hurried to the aid of +General Sarrail, General von Kluck advanced confidently. Having +concealment in view, the commanders of the French army and the British +army between them had left a wide gap between the two armies. Through +one of these apparently unguarded openings a strong body of uhlan +patrols advanced, riding southward until they reached Nogent, south of +Paris, and seemingly with the whole rich country of central France laid +wide open to a sharp and sudden attack. Among the many strange features +of this series of the battles of the Marne this must certainly be +reckoned as one. Though possessing an unequaled military organization, +though priding itself on its cavalry scouts, though aided by aerial +scouts, and though well supplied with spies, yet the Allied armies, with +the age-old device of a forest, were able to cloak their movements from +this perfectly organized and powerful invading army. Much of the credit +of this may be assigned to the French and English aircraft, which kept +German scouting aircraft at a distance. But the Allied generals were +astounded at the result of their maneuver, which, as they admitted +afterward, was merely a military precautionary measure against the +discovery of artillery sites, and a device to keep the enemy in general +ignorance.</p> + +<p>On Saturday, September 5, 1914, at the extreme north of the line of the +two armies facing each other across the Ourcq, an artillery duel began. +The offensive was taken by the French, and though in itself it was not +more striking than any of the artillery clashes that had marked the +previous month's fighting, it was significant, for it marked the +beginning of the battles of the Marne. The plans of General Joffre were +complete, but the actual point at which the furious contest should begin +was not yet determined. In the northern Ourcq section, however, the +realization by the French that they were actually on the offensive at +last, that the long period of retreat was over, could not be <span class="pagenum"><a id="page103" name="page103"></a>(p. 103)</span> +restrained. The troops were eager to get to work with the bayonet, and +greatly aided by their field artillery, in which mobility had been +sacrificed to power, they quickly cleared the hills to the westward of +the Ourcq. By nightfall of September 5, 1914, the country west of the +Ourcq was in French hands. But to cross that river seemed impossible. +General von Kluck's heavy artillery had been left behind to hold that +position, and every possible crossing was covered with its own blast of +death.</p> + +<p>Here General von Kluck's generalship was successful. It might have been +regarded as risky to leave 100,000 men to guard a river confronted by +250,000 picked and reenforced French troops. But General von Kluck's +faith in German guns and German gunnery was not ill-founded. This was +the first of the open-air siege conflicts, and the French army had no +guns which could be used against the German heavy artillery. Hence it +followed that the brilliant work of the Sixth French Army on this first +day of the battles of the Marne achieved no important result, for the +long-range hidden howitzers, manned by expert German gunners and well +supplied with ammunition, defied all attempts at crossing the little +stream of the Ourcq.</p> + +<p>This first day's fighting on the Marne revealed one of France's chiefest +needs—heavy artillery. The French light quick-firing gun was a deadly +weapon, but France had neglected the one department of artillery in +which the Germans had been most successful—the use of powerful motor +traction to move big guns without slackening the march of an army. +General von Kluck's artillery was impregnable to the French. Indeed, the +Germans could not be dislodged from the Ourcq until the British +Expeditionary Force sent up some heavy field batteries. It was then too +late for the withdrawal from the Ourcq to be of any serious consequence +in determining the result along the battle front.</p> + +<p>The afternoon of that day, when the Zouaves were driving the Germans +across the Ourcq with the bayonet and were themselves effectually +stopped by the German wall of artillery fire, General Joffre and Sir +John French met. At last the British commander received the welcome news +from the generalissimo that retreat was over and advance was about to be +begun.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page104" name="page104"></a>(p. 104)</span> "I met the French commander in chief at his request," runs the +official dispatch, "and he informed me of his intention to take the +offensive forthwith by wheeling up the left flank of the Sixth Army, +pivoting on the Marne, and directing it to move on the Ourcq; cross and +attack the flank of the First German Army, which was then moving in a +southeasterly direction east of that river.</p> + +<p>"He requested me to effect a change of front to my right—my left +resting on the Marne and my right on the Fifth Army—to fill the gap +between that army and the Sixth. I was then to advance against the enemy +on my front and join in the general offensive movement. German troops, +which were observed moving southeast up the left bank of the Ourcq on +the Fourth, were now reported to be halted and facing that river. Heads +of the enemy's columns were seen crossing at Changis, La Ferté, Nogent, +Château-Thierry, and Mezy.</p> + +<p>"Considerable German columns of all arms were seen to be converging on +Montmirail, while before sunset large bivouacs of the enemy were located +in the neighborhood of Coulommiers, south of Rebais, La Ferté-Gaucher, +and Dagny.</p> + +<p>"These combined movements practically commenced on Sunday, September 6, +at sunrise; and on that day it may be said that a great battle opened on +a front extending from Ermenonville, which was just in front of the left +flank of the Sixth French Army, through Lizy on the Marne, Maupertuis, +which was about the British center, Courtaçon, which was the left of the +Fifth French Army, to Esternay and Charleville, the left of the Ninth +Army under General Foch, and so along the front of the Ninth, Fourth, +and Third French Armies to a point north of the fortress of Verdun."</p> + +<p>Sunrise on Sunday morning, on a summer day in sunny France, was the +setting for the grim and red carnage which should show in the next five +consecutive days that the German advance was checked, that the +southernmost point had been reached, and that for a long time to come it +would tax the resources of the invaders to hold the land that already +had been won. General Joffre had so arranged his forces that the most +spectacular—and the easiest—part <span class="pagenum"><a id="page105" name="page105"></a>(p. 105)</span> fell to the British, and it +was accomplished with perfection of detail. But the honors of the +battles of the Marne lay with General Sarrail's army and with the "Iron +Division of Toul."</p> + +<p>On the same morning, this special army order, issued by Sir John French, +was read to the British troops:</p> + +<p>"After a most trying series of operations, mostly in retirement, which +have been rendered necessary by the general strategic plan of the allied +armies, the British forces stand to-day formed in line with their French +comrades, ready to attack the enemy. Foiled in their attempt to invest +Paris, the Germans have been driven to move in an easterly and +southeasterly direction with the apparent intention of falling in +strength upon the Fifth French Army. In this operation they are exposing +their right flank and their line of communications to an attack from the +combined Sixth French Army and the British forces.</p> + +<p>"I call upon the British army in France to now show the enemy its power +and to push on vigorously to the attack beside the Sixth French Army.</p> + +<p>"I am sure I shall not call upon them in vain, but that, on the +contrary, by another manifestation of the magnificent spirit which they +have shown in the past fortnight, they will fall on the enemy's flank +with all their strength and, in unison with the Allies, drive them +back."</p> + +<p>As before, the day's fighting began with the efforts of the Sixth French +Army against the Ourcq. Before the Germans could be driven from the east +bank the few villages they occupied on the west bank had to be taken, +and as these were covered by heavy artillery from the farther bank, the +French loss of life was very severe. Yet these several combats—of which +there were as many as there were villages—were stationary. In every +case the Germans were compelled to cross the river; in every case the +artillery made it impossible for the French to follow them.</p> + +<p>At dawn also every one of the French armies advanced, and within two or +three hours of sunrise found themselves engaged with the German front. +The spirited order to the troops issued <span class="pagenum"><a id="page106" name="page106"></a>(p. 106)</span> that morning by +General Joffre had left no doubt in the minds of Frenchmen on the +importance of the issue. It read:</p> + +<p>"At a moment when a battle on which the welfare of the country depends +is going to begin, I feel it incumbent upon me to remind you all that +this is no longer the time to look behind. All our efforts must be +directed toward attacking and driving back the enemy. An army which can +no longer advance must at all costs keep the ground it has won, and +allow itself to be killed on the spot rather than give way. In the +present circumstance no faltering can be tolerated."</p> + +<p>Yet in spite of the powerful efforts of the French armies they were all +held in check, and General Sarrail was beginning to give way.</p> + +<p>Though the fighting in the center had been stationary on this sixth of +September, 1914, it had been desperate. D'Espérey was facing the 150,000 +men of Von Kluck's army, and the effect of the British attack on Von +Kluck's flank had not yet been felt. He more than held his own, but at +great cost. General Foch, with the Ninth Army, had a double problem, for +he was wrestling with General von Bülow to hold the southern edge of the +Sézanne Plateau, while General von Hausen's Saxon Army was trying to +turn his right flank. A violent attack, which, for the space of over two +hours seemed likely to succeed, was launched by the Duke of Württemberg +against General Langle and the Fourth Army. The attack was repelled, but +the French losses were proportionately great. There could be no denial +that many such attacks could break through the line. General Sarrail's +army, fighting a losing game, showed marvelous stubbornness and +gameness, but even so, it could not resist being pushed south of Fort +Troyon, itself unable to support the battering it might expect to +receive when the German siege guns should be brought into place.</p> + +<a id="img012" name="img012"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/img012.jpg"> +<img src="images/img012tb.jpg" width="500" height="283" alt="" title=""></a> +<p>Battle of the Marne—End of German Retreat and the +Intrenched Line on the Aisne River.</p> +</div> + +<p>At every point but one the Germans had a right to deem the day +successful. The only reversal had been a minor one before the forest of +Crécy. Yet, of all the generals on that front Von Kluck alone was in a +position to see the gravity of the situation. The British had caught him +on the flank as he tried to pierce <span class="pagenum"><a id="page108" name="page108"></a>(p. 108)</span> the left wing of General +d'Espérey's army, and if he should now retreat, that army could envelop +him and thus catch him between two fires.</p> + +<p>Next morning, Monday, September 7, 1914, another glorious summer +morning, saw a resumption of the battle along exactly the same lines, +with the same persistent attack and defense along the eastern part of +the front, and with the British making full use of the blunder made by +the German right. General von Kluck had realized his plight, but, even +so, he had not secured an understanding of the size of the force that +was threatening his flank, and he sent as a reenforcement a single army +corps which had been intrenched near Coulommiers on the Grand Morin. The +British had three full army corps and were well supplied with cavalry +and artillery. Yet Coulommiers was Von Kluck's headquarters and +actually, when the Germans were driven back and the British troops +entered the town, Prince Eitel, the second son of the kaiser; General +von Kluck and his staff were compelled to run down to their motor cars +and escape at top speed along the road to Rebais, leaving their +half-eaten breakfast on the table, and their glasses of wine half +emptied. One of the most dramatic cavalry actions of this period of the +war took place shortly before noon, when one hundred and seventeen +squadrons of cavalry were engaged. In this action the British were +successful, but the German cavalry were tired and harassed, having been +severely handled the day before.</p> + +<p>In this engagement between the British and the German right, all the +odds had been in favor of the British, and success meant merely the +grasping at opportunities that presented themselves. Still, by +constantly striking at General von Kluck's exposed flank, his frontal +attack of General d'Espérey was so weakened, that, toward evening at the +close of two days of continuous and very severe fighting, the Fifth +French Army was able to advance and hold the position from La +Ferté-Gaucher to Esternay. The ground gained was valuable but not +essential, yet it made a profound impression.</p> + +<p>General d'Espérey's step forward was the Germans' step back. It meant +that the road to Paris was barred. How fully <span class="pagenum"><a id="page109" name="page109"></a>(p. 109)</span> this was realized +may be seen from an order signed by Lieutenant General Tuelff von +Tschepe und Weidenbach and found in the house that had been occupied by +the staff of the Eighth German Army Corps when the victorious French +entered Vitry-le-François. The order was dated "September 7, 10:30 p. +m." and it read as follows:</p> + +<p>"The object of our long and arduous marches has been achieved. The +principal French troops have been forced to accept battle, after having +been continually forced back. The great decision is undoubtedly at hand. +To-morrow, therefore, the whole strength of the German army, as well as +all that of our Army Corps, are bound to be engaged all along the line +from Paris to Verdun. To save the welfare and the honor of Germany I +expect every officer and man, notwithstanding the hard and heroic fights +of the last few days, to do his duty unswervingly and to the last +breath. Everything depends on the result of to-morrow."</p> + +<p>Much did, indeed, depend on the result of the morrow, and for the third +day, again, it was General von Kluck's initial move that brought +disaster to the German side.</p> + +<p>Why was it that Von Kluck, instead of marching directly on Paris, as +would have been expected, made a detour, having as his object not the +capital but the French army? It may be said in favor of it that the +decision taken by the German General Staff was in conformity with the +military doctrine of Napoleon. According to this doctrine, a capital, +whatever its importance, is never more than an accessory object, +geographical or political. What is of importance is the strategical +object. The strategical object is the essential, the geographical object +is only accessory. Once the essential object is attained, the accessory +object is acquired of itself. Once the French armies had been beaten, +thrown back, and dispersed, Von Kluck could return to the capital and +take it easily.</p> + +<p>Conceive of him, on the other hand, attacking the capital with the army +of Manoury on his right, which constituted a serious menace to his left, +and in front of him the British army and the Fifth French Army; he might +have been caught as in a vise <span class="pagenum"><a id="page110" name="page110"></a>(p. 110)</span> between these forces while all +his activity was being absorbed by his attack on the intrenchments +around Paris.</p> + +<p>It has been said that if Von Kluck had won the French capital, as it +seemed he might, the French could not have gained the Battle of the +Marne, and the result of the war might have been very different. It was, +however, no mistake on the part of Von Kluck, no false maneuver on his +part, that determined the victory of the Marne. Von Kluck did exactly +what he ought to have done; the decision taken by the German General +Staff was exactly what it ought to have taken, and what was foreseen +during the whole course of the war.</p> + +<p>It was on September 4, 1914, in the morning, that the observations made +by the French cavalry, as well as by British aviators and those of the +army of Manoury and the military government of Paris, made it clear that +the German right (Von Kluck's army) was bending its march toward the +southeast in the direction of Meaux and Coulommiers, leaving behind it +the road to Paris.</p> + +<p>At this moment the Fifth French Army of the left was ready to meet the +German forces in a frontal attack, and it was flanked toward the +northwest by the British army and by General Manoury's army to the +northeast of the capital.</p> + +<p>The disposition of forces aimed at in General Joffre's order of August +25 was thus accomplished; the French escaped the turning movement, and +they were in a position to counter with an enveloping movement +themselves. The wings of the French forces found support in their +maneuvering in their contact with the strongholds of Paris and Verdun. +Immediately the commander in chief decided to attack, and issued on the +evening of September 4 the series of general orders, which announced the +big offensive and eventually turned the tide of battle.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page111" name="page111"></a>(p. 111)</span> CHAPTER XV</h2> + +<p class="title">GERMAN RETREAT</p> + + +<p>That morning of the 8th, then, saw General von Kluck in full retreat. +His frontal attack on General d'Espérey had failed and the Fifth French +Army had advanced. The British were at his flank, and besides, they had +been able to spare some of their heavy artillery to send to the Sixth +Army under General Maunoury, to enable him to cross the Ourcq. It is by +no means certain that even with this assistance could the Sixth Army +have silenced the terrible fire of those howitzers, but General von +Kluck dared no longer leave his artillery there, it must be taken with +him on his retreat, or become valuable booty. Leaving a few batteries to +guard the crossings of the river, the Ourcq division of the German right +retreated in good order, to rejoin their comrades who had been so +unexpectedly mauled by the British. The honor of this day was, +curiously, not to the victorious, but to the defeated army. Had General +von Kluck done nothing other than conduct his army in retreat as he did, +he would have shown himself an able commander. Sir John French and +General d'Espérey followed up their advantage. The artillery fire of the +British was good and in a running fight, such as this retreat, the light +field artillery of the French did terrible execution. The brunt of the +British fighting was at La Trétoire. General d'Espérey fought steadily +forward all day, driving the retreating army as closely as he could, but +proceeding warily because of General von Kluck's powerful +counterattacks. The fighting was continuous from the first break of +daylight until after dusk had fallen, and it was in the twilight that +the French Army at last carried Montmirail on the Petit Morin, a feat of +strategic value, since it exposed the right flank of Von Bülow's army, +exposed by the retreat of General von Kluck.</p> + +<p>From this review of the forced retirement of General von Kluck, it will +be seen that the German right was compelled to sustain an attack at +three points, from the Sixth French Army <span class="pagenum"><a id="page112" name="page112"></a>(p. 112)</span> on the banks of the +Ourcq, from the British army in the region of Coulommiers and from the +Fifth French Army near Courtaçon. Each of these attacks was of a widely +different character. The result of this attack has been shown in the +summary of the three days (four days on the Ourcq) which resulted in the +British capture of Coulommiers and in the French capture of Montmirail. +This was General Joffre's counteroffensive, and it developed in detail +almost exactly along the lines that he had laid down.</p> + +<p>The scene of the fighting across the west bank of the Ourcq was that of +a wide-open country, gently undulating, dotted with comfortable +farmhouses, and made up of a mosaic of green meadow lands and the +stubble of grain fields. The German heavy guns came into action as soon +as the French offensive developed. Tremendous detonations that shook the +earth, and which were followed by sluggish clouds of an oily smoke +showed where the high-explosive shells had struck. Already, by the +evening of the first day's fighting, there were blazing haystacks and +farmhouses to be seen, and the happy and smiling plain showed scarred +and rent with the mangling hand of war. On the 6th, a sugar refinery, +which had been held as an outpost by a force of 1,800 Germans, was set +on fire by a French battery. The infantry had been successful in getting +to within close range and as the invaders sought to escape from the +burning building, they were picked off one by one by the French +marksmen. The French infantry, well intrenched, suffered scarcely any +loss. It was in brilliant sunshine that the fire broke out, and the +conflagration was so fierce that the empty building sent up little +smoke. The flames scarcely showed in the bright light, and to the +onlooker, it seemed as if some rapid leprous disease was eating up the +building. The situation was horrible for the Germans, either to be +trapped and to perish in the flames, or to face the withering French +infantry fire without any opportunity to fight back. Less than 300 of +the occupants of the refinery won clear.</p> + +<p>Wherever the forces met, the slaughter was great and terrible. In the +excitement and the eagerness of the first offensive, the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page113" name="page113"></a>(p. 113)</span> +French seemed to have forgotten the lessons of prudence that the long +retreat should have ingrained into their memory, and they sought to take +every village that was occupied by the Germans with a rush. The loss of +life was greatest at a point four miles east of Meaux. There, on a +sharp, tree-covered ridge, the Germans had intrenched, and gun platforms +had been placed under the screen of the trees. An almost incessant hail +of shrapnel fell on these lines, and the French infantry charges were +repulsed again and again, with but little loss on the German line. But, +meantime, village after village had been attacked by the French and +carried with the bayonet, and on Sunday, September 6th, 1914, that part +of the battles of the Marne which dealt with the driving back of the +Germans to the line of the Ourcq, was in some of its feature like a +hand-to-hand conflict of ages long gone by. Yet, overhead aeroplanes +circled, on every side shells were bursting, the heavy smell of blood on +a hot day mingled with the explosive fumes, but the Zouaves and the +Turcos fought without ceasing and with a force and spirit that went far +to win for the French the cheering news that village after village had +been freed of the invaders.</p> + +<p>When the night of that Sunday fell, however, on the line of the Ourcq, +the balm of darkness seemed to be almost as much a forgotten thing as +the blessedness of silence. There was no darkness that night. As the +Germans evacuated each village they set fire to it. The invaders +actually held their machine guns at work in the burning village until +the position was no longer tenable. The wind blew gustily that night, +and all the hours long, the Germans collected their dead, built great +pyres of wood and straw and cremated their comrades who had fallen on +the field of battle.</p> + +<p>The next day, at this point, developed fighting of the same general +character. One of the most heroic defenses of General von Kluck's army +was that of the Magdeburg Regiment, which held its advanced post ten +minutes too long and consequently was practically annihilated. Although +the French had everywhere shown themselves superior with the bayonet and +at close infighting, even as the Germans had displayed an incredible +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page114" name="page114"></a>(p. 114)</span> courage in advance under gunfire, and rightly held their heavy +artillery to be the finest in the world, in the mêlée around the colors +of the Magdeburg Regiment, there was nothing to choose for either side. +The lieutenant color bearer was killed, in the midst of a ring of dead, +and not until almost the whole regiment had been killed under the impact +of far superior numbers, were the tattered colors taken into the French +lines. It was on this day, Tuesday, September 8, 1914, that the British +army realizing that it had turned the flank of General von Kluck's +southern divisions sent its heavy batteries to the pressure on the banks +of the Ourcq.</p> + +<p>A graphic picture of the artillery side of the fighting on the Ourcq was +given by one of the artillery officers detached from the British force.</p> + +<p>"Meaux was still a town of blank shutters and empty streets when we got +there this morning," he wrote, "but the French sappers had thrown a +plank gangway across the gap in the ruined old bridge, built in A. D. +800, that had survived all the wars of France, only to perish at last in +this one.</p> + +<p>"Smack, smack, smack, smack go the French guns; and then, a few seconds +later, four white mushrooms of smoke spring up over the far woods and +slowly the pop, pop, pop, pop, of the distant explosions comes back to +you. But now it is the German gunners' turn. Bang! go his guns, two +miles away; there is a moment of eerie and uncomfortable +silence—uncomfortable because there is just a chance they might have +altered their range—and then, quite close by, over the wood where the +battery is, come the crashes of the bursting shells. They sound like a +Titan's blows on a gigantic kettle filled with tons of old iron.</p> + +<p>"At Trilport there is a yawning gap, where one arch of the railway +bridge used to be, with a solitary bent rail still lying across it. And, +among the wreckage of the bridge below, lying on its side and more than +half beneath the water, is the smashed and splintered ruin of a closed +motor car.</p> + +<p>"Beyond the town was a ridge on which the French batteries were posted. +We could see the ammunition wagons parked on the reverse slope of the +hill. More were moving up to join them.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page115" name="page115"></a>(p. 115)</span> "The village beyond, Penchard, was thronged with troops and +blocked with ambulance wagons and ammunition carts.</p> + +<p>"Through the rank grass at the side came tramping a long file of dusty, +sweating, wearied men. They carried long spades and picks as well as +their rifles. They had come out of the firing line and were going back +to Penchard for food.</p> + +<p>"Topping the next ridge ... the hill slopes steeply down to the hamlet +of Chamvery, just below us. The battery which I mentioned just now is in +the wood on this side of it to our right. The Zouaves' firing line is +lying flat on the hillside a little way beyond the village, and behind +them, farther down the hill, are thick lines of supports in the cover of +intrenchments. It is a spectacle entirely typical of a modern battle, +for there is scarcely anything to see at all. If it were not for those +shells being tossed to and fro on the right there, and an occasional +splutter of rifle fire, one might easily suppose that the lines of +blue-coated men lying about on the stubble were all dozing in the hot +afternoon sun.</p> + +<p>"Even when some of them move they seem to do it lazily, to saunter +rather than to walk.... It is only in the cinematograph or on the +comparatively rare occasions of close fighting at short range that men +rush about dramatically. For one thing, they are too tired to hurry; and +anyhow, what is the use of running when a shell may burst any minute +anywhere in the square mile you happen to be on?</p> + +<p>"I walked with the company officers who were planning a fresh advance, +map in hand. They had gained the village in which we were that morning, +but at tremendous loss.</p> + +<p>"'Out of my company of 220,' said one captain, 'there are only 100 left. +It's the same story everywhere—the German machine guns. Their fire +simply clears the ground like a razor. You just can't understand how +anyone gets away alive. I've had men fall at my right hand and my left. +You can't look anywhere, as you advance, without seeing men dropping. Of +our four officers, two are wounded and one dead. I am left alone in +command.'"</p> + +<p>This hand-to-hand fighting for the possession of villages on the west +bank of the Marne, this heavy loss to the French troops by <span class="pagenum"><a id="page116" name="page116"></a>(p. 116)</span> the +German artillery, and this sudden check at the Ourcq itself, until +British heavy batteries were sent, marks the character of what may be +called the battle of the Ourcq, the westernmost of the battles of the +Marne. As General von Kluck had divided his forces, in order to carry +out the attempt to pierce the left of General d'Espérey's army, the +German forces in the battle of the Ourcq were outnumbered almost three +to one. In spite of these odds against them, the extreme German right +held for four days the position it had been given to hold.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XVI</h2> + +<p class="title">CONTINUATION OF THE BATTLE OF THE MARNE</p> + + +<p>Remembering again the general outline of General von Kluck's plan, that +of executing a diagonal movement with 150,000 of his men to attack the +easternmost point of the Fifth Army, and possibly to envelop it by a +flank movement, the continuation of the Battle of the Marne may be +treated with more detail. This part is called by some the Battle of +Coulommiers.</p> + +<p>In this battle there was as great a change in morale as in the battle of +the Ourcq. There, the French had been stirred to high endeavor by the +realization that the word to advance had at last been given. This also +operated in part on the British in the battle of Coulommiers, but, in +addition, there was another very important factor.</p> + +<p>The dawn of that Sunday summer morning, September 6, 1914, was one of +great exhilaration for the British forces. The offensive was begun, the +time for striking back had come, and every column resounded with +marching choruses. The countryside was lovely, as had been all the +countryside through which the retreating armies had passed, gay with the +little French homesteads, flower decked and smiling, heavily laden +orchards, and rich grain fields, some as yet uncut, some newly stacked. +Women and children, with here and there an old man, ran along <span class="pagenum"><a id="page117" name="page117"></a>(p. 117)</span> +the line of march ministering to the wants of their defenders. There was +no need for language, as courtesy and gratitude are universal, and the +English were fighting for "La Belle France." So the morning wore on.</p> + +<p>Through the forested region of Crécy the British passed, and it has been +told hereinbefore how they surprised the two cavalry commands thrust out +as scouts by General von Kluck. But, as they reached the land that had +been occupied by the German hosts, the bearing of the men changed, even +as the country changed. The simple homes of the peasants were in ashes, +every house that had showed traces of comfort had been sacked or gutted +with fire. Between noon and three o'clock in the afternoon of that day +three burned churches were passed. The songs stopped. A black silence +fell upon the ranks. Bloody business was afoot.</p> + +<p>It was in the middle of the afternoon, a slumbrous harvest afternoon, +that a big gun boomed in the distance, and the shell shrieked dolefully +through the air, its vicious whine ceasing with a tremendous sudden roar +as it burst behind the advancing British lines. On the instant, Sir John +French's batteries almost wiped out the German cavalry, and ten minutes +had not elapsed before the full artillery on both sides had begun a +terrific fire that was stunning to the senses. Under cover of their own +fire, the British infantry advanced and hurled themselves against the +outer line of General von Kluck's Second Army. The attack failed. The +British were driven back, but though the loss of life was sharp, it was +not great, as the British commander had but advanced his men to test out +the invader's strength. The British artillery was well placed, and under +its cover the British made a second advance, this time successful. The +Germans replied with a counterattack which was repulsed, but in that +forty minutes 10,000 men had fallen.</p> + +<p>A dispatch has been quoted from a French soldier, showing the terrible +havoc caused by the German machine guns, and a letter from a German +officer, published in the "Intelligenzblatt" of Berne pays a like +tribute to the artillery of the Allies. Speaking of this very section of +the battle front, he wrote:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page118" name="page118"></a>(p. 118)</span> "We were obliged to retreat as the English were attempting a +turning movement, which was discovered by our airmen. [This refers to +the advance of the British First Army Corps under Sir Douglas Haig in +the direction of La Ferté-sous-Jouarre, which, if it could have been +successfully carried out, would have meant the entire loss of General +von Kluck's southern army.] During the last two hours we were +continually exposed to the fire of the enemy's artillery, for our +artillery had all either been put out of action or had retreated and had +ceased to fire. [This dispatch was evidently, therefore, written toward +the end of the second day, on Monday, September 7, 1914, when General +von Kluck realized that his forward drive had failed and that he must +fall back.]</p> + +<p>"The enemy's airmen flew above us, describing two circles, which means, +'there is infantry here.' The enemy's artillery mowed the ground with +its fire. In one minute's time I counted forty shells. The shrapnel +exploded nearer and nearer; at last it reached our ranks. I quickly +hugged a knapsack to my stomach in order to protect myself as best I +could. The shrieks of the wounded rang out on all sides. Tears came to +my eyes when I heard the poor devils moaning with pain. The dust, the +smoke, and the stench of the powder were suffocating.</p> + +<p>"An order rang out, and bending as low as possible, we started up. We +had to pass right in the line of fire. The men began to fall like +ninepins. God be thanked that I was able to run as I did. I thought my +heart would burst, and was about to throw myself on the ground, unable +to continue, when your image and that of Bolli rose before my eyes, and +I ran on.</p> + +<p>"At last we reached our batteries. Three guns were smashed to pieces, +and the gun carriages were burned. We halted for a few seconds to take +breath. And all the time that whistling and banging of the shells +continued. It is a wonder one is not driven mad."</p> + +<p>Admiration cannot be withheld from General von Kluck for his splendid +fight at the battle of Coulommiers. He was out-generaled, for one thing, +because of his plan—or his orders—to strike a southeasterly blow; he +was outmaneuvered by the presence <span class="pagenum"><a id="page119" name="page119"></a>(p. 119)</span> of a vastly larger British +force than he had any reason to expect, and he was outnumbered almost +two to one.</p> + +<p>Through the apple and pear orchards of La Trétoire the battle was +sanguinary; the British (reenforced on September 7, 1914, by some French +divisions) swept through the terrain in widely extended lines, for close +formation was not to be thought of with artillery and machine guns in +front. It was bitter fighting, and the German right contested every inch +of ground stubbornly. Once, indeed, it seemed that General von Kluck +would turn the tables. He rapidly collected his retreating troops, and +with unparalleled suddenness hurled them back upon the advancing First +Corps under Sir Douglas Haig. Aeroplane scouts decided the issue. Had +the British been compelled to await the onset, or had they been forced +to depend on cavalry patrols, there would have been no opportunity to +resist that revengeful onslaught. But no sooner had the Germans begun to +re-form than Sir Douglas Haig moved his machine guns to the front and +fell back a few hundred yards to a better position. This happened on +September 8, 1914, and may be regarded as the last offensive move made +by General von Kluck's army in the west. On that same day Coulommiers +was invested and Prince Eitel compelled to flee, and the battle of +Coulommiers was won.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XVII</h2> + +<p class="title">CONTINUATION OF THE BATTLE OF THE MARNE</p> + + +<p>The third part of the battle of the Marne, called by some the Battle of +Montmirail, was not marked by special incident. General d'Espérey's part +was to hold firm, and this he did. Not only by reason of the British +assistance on the left, but also because the strong army of General Foch +to the right was a new army, of greater strength than was known to +General von Moltke and the German General Staff. The battle of +Montmirail was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page120" name="page120"></a>(p. 120)</span> won by the steady resistance of the Fifth Army +to the hammer blows of the German right, and to the quick advantage +seized by General d'Espérey when the British weakened the flank of the +force opposing him. On September 8, 1914, General d'Espérey had not only +held his ground, but had driven General von Kluck back across the Grand +Morin River at La Ferté-Gaucher, and also across the Petit Morin at +Montmirail. Since the British had butted the Germans back from the Petit +Morin at La Trétoire, these three days of fighting in the battles of +Coulommiers and Montmirail had won the Allies advanced positions across +two rivers, and had so weakened the German right that it was compelled +to fall back on the main army and forego its important strategic +advantage on the east bank of the Ourcq River.</p> + +<p>These three battles, Ourcq, Coulommiers, and Montmirail, constitute the +recoil from Paris, and at the same time they constitute the defeat of +what was hereinbefore shown to be one of the four fundamentals of the +great German campaign plan. With the situation thus cleared, so to +speak, one may now pass to the details of the second part of the German +plan, which was to engage the powerful Ninth and Fourth Armies, under +the command of Generals Foch and Langle, respectively, to break through +them, if possible, but at all hazards to keep them sufficiently menaced +to disable General Joffre from sending reenforcements therefrom to the +army of General Sarrail, on which the whole force of the army of the +crown prince was to be hurled.</p> + +<p>The next section of the Allied armies, then, was General Foch's Ninth +Army, which encountered the German drive at Fère Champenoise, and which +resulted in the severe handling of General von Bülow's forces. With +characteristic perception of the difference between a greater and a +lesser encounter, General Foch called his share of the battles of the +Marne, the "Affair of the Marshes of St. Gond." This did not culminate +until Wednesday, September 9, 1914, so that the German retreat there was +one day later than the final retreat of General von Kluck.</p> + +<p>The clash between the armies of General von Bülow and of General Foch +began, as did the battle wrath along the whole front, at dawn of that +fateful Sunday, September 5, 1914. General <span class="pagenum"><a id="page121" name="page121"></a>(p. 121)</span> Foch, a well-known +writer on strategy, had devised his army for defense. He was well +supplied with the famous 75-millimeter guns, holding them massed in the +center of his line. His extreme right and left were mobile and thrown +partly forward to feel the attack of the invading army. But, in spite of +all preparations, General Foch found himself hard-set to hold his own on +September 5, 6, 7, and 8, 1914. The battle continued incessantly, by +night as well as by day, for the artillerists had found each other's +range. There was comparatively little hand-to-hand fighting at this +point, General Foch only once being successful in luring the Germans to +within close firing range. The results were withering, and General von +Bülow did not attempt it a second time. There seems reason to believe +that General von Bülow had counted upon acting as a reserve force to +General von Kluck during the latter's advance, and that, consequently, +he did not think it prudent to risk heavy loss of life until he knew the +situation to westward of him. There was some sharp "bomb" work at Fère +Champenoise on September 8, and then came the night of the 8th.</p> + +<p>It will be remembered that at the close of the battle of Montmirail on +the evening of September 8, 1914, the western flank of Von Bülow's army +had been exposed by the advance of General d'Espérey and the retreat of +General von Kluck. Information of this reached Foch, and despite the +danger of the maneuver, he thrust out his mobile left like a great +tongue. That night the weather turned stormy, facilitating this move. At +one o'clock in the morning, the statement has been made, word reached +General Foch indirectly that air patrols had observed a gap in the +alignment of the German armies between General von Bülow's left and +General von Hausen's right.</p> + +<p>During the darkness and the rain, therefore, General Foch had worked two +complete surprises on General von Bülow. He had enveloped the German +commander's right flank, and was safely ensconced there with General +d'Espérey's army behind him, since the latter had by now advanced to +Montmirail. At the same time he had thrust a wedge between Von Bülow and +General von Hausen, threatening General von Bülow's left flank as well. +The <span class="pagenum"><a id="page122" name="page122"></a>(p. 122)</span> first was a seizure of an opportunity, executed with +military promptness, the second was a bold <i>coup</i>, and its risk might +well have appalled a less experienced general.</p> + +<p>Considering the westernmost of these movements first, it will be seen at +once how the enveloping action brought about the "Affair of the Marshes +of St. Gond." General von Bülow's army was stretched in an arc around +the marshes, which, it will be remembered, have been described as a +pocket of clay, low-lying lands mainly reclaimed, but which become miry +during heavy rains. It was General von Bülow's misfortune, that, on the +very night that his flank was exposed, there should come a torrential +downpour. These same marshes had figured more than once before in +France's military history, and General Foch, as a master strategist, was +determined that they should serve again. When the rain came, he thanked +his lucky stars and acted on the instant.</p> + +<p>When the morning of September 9, 1914, dawned, the left wing of General +Foch's army was not only covering the exposed flank of General von +Bülow's forces, but parts of it were two miles to the rear. Under the +driving rain, morning broke slowly, and almost before a sodden and +rain-soaked world could awake to the fact that day had come, General +Foch had nipped the rear of the flank of the opposing army, and was +bending the arc in upon itself. Under normal circumstances, such an +action would tend but to strengthen the army thus attacked, since it +brings all parts of the army into closer communication. But General Foch +knew that the disadvantages of the ground would more than compensate for +this, since the two horns of General von Bülow's army could not combine +without crossing those marshes, now boggy enough, and growing boggier +every second. The task was harder than General Foch anticipated, for the +same rainy conditions that provided a pitfall for the Germans were also +a manifest hindrance to the rapid execution of military maneuvers. But, +in spite of all difficulties, by evening of that day, the flank broke +and gave way, and two entire corps from General von Bülow's right were +precipitated into the marshes. Forty guns were taken—to that time the +largest capture of artillery made by the Allies—and a number of +prisoners. Hundreds perished miserably, but <span class="pagenum"><a id="page123" name="page123"></a>(p. 123)</span> General Foch held +back his artillery from an indiscriminate slaughter of men made helpless +in the slimy mud. Thus ended the "Affair of the Marshes of St. Gond," +which broke still further the German right wing.</p> + +<p>Thanks to General Foch's further activities, General von Bülow had +troubles upon his left wing. When dawn of this same day of torrential +rain, September 9, 1914, broke over the hill-road that runs from Mareuil +to Fère-Champenoise, at which point lay the left of General von Bülow's +army, it witnessed a number of 75-millimeter guns on selected gun sites +commanding the right flank of the German right center. General Foch's +daring, the success of the maneuver, and the fact that the conduct of +all the French armies on that day and the day following seems to be with +the full cognizance of this venture, led inevitably to the conclusion +that those brilliant feats, conceived by General Foch, had been +communicated to General Joffre in time for the French General Staff to +direct the French armies to the right and left of General Foch to +cooperate with his action. Had General Foch been less ably supported, +his wedge might have proved a weak salient open to attack on both sides. +But General Foch's main army to the west kept General von Bülow busy, +and General Langle's army to the east fought too stubbornly for the Duke +of Württemberg to dare detach any forces for the relief of General von +Bülow. General von Hausen's Saxon Army was weak, at best.</p> + +<p>What were the forces that operated to make this particular point so weak +are not generally known. As, however, the divisions from Alsace were +much in evidence three or four days later, it is more than probable that +these divisions were intended for service at this point, and also to +reenforce General von Kluck's army, but that, by the quick offensive +assumed by General Joffre on the Ourcq, and, owing to the roundabout +nature of the German means of communication, these expected +reenforcements had not arrived. The German official dispatches point out +that General von Bülow's retreat was necessitated by the retreat of +General von Kluck. Of this there is no doubt, but even military +necessity does not quite explain why General von Bülow bolted <span class="pagenum"><a id="page124" name="page124"></a>(p. 124)</span> +so precipitately. His losses were fearful, and the offensive of General +Foch rendered it necessary for the Germans to fall back on the Aisne.</p> + +<p>The armies of the Duke of Württemberg and of the crown prince may be +considered together, for they were combined in an effort to pierce the +French line near the angle at Bar-le-Duc. General Langle held on +desperately against the repeated attacks of the Duke of Württemberg. +Ground was lost and recovered, lost again and recovered, and every +trifling vantage point of ground was fought for with a bitter intensity. +Though active, with all the other armies, on September 5 and 6, 1914, it +was not until September 7 that General Langle found himself strained to +his utmost nerve. If he could hold, he could do no more, and when night +fell on September 7, no person was more relieved than General Langle. +Yet the next day was even worse. Instead of slackening in the evil +weather, the German drive became more furious. The exhausted Fourth Army +fought as though in a hideous nightmare, defended their lines in a +sullen obstinacy that seemed almost stuporous, and countercharged in a +blind frenzy that approached to delirium. It was doubtful if General +Langle's army could hold out much longer. But, when General von Bülow +was compelled to retreat, when General Foch turned his attention to +General von Hausen's Saxon Army, and when General Joffre found himself +in a position to rush reenforcements and reserves to the aid of General +Langle, a new color was given to the affair. The defense stiffened, and +as rapidly as it stiffened, so much the more did it become patent that +the Duke of Württemberg could not afford to be in an exposed position +far in advance of all the other attacking armies. Wednesday, September +9, 1914, revealed to the German center the need of falling back on the +crown prince's army, which was the pivot on which the whole campaign +swung.</p> + +<p>Meantime, the crown prince's army had been steadily victorious. The weak +French army under General Sarrail had been pushed back, yielding only +foot by foot, back, back, along the rugged hill country of the Meuse. A +determined stand was made to protect the little fort of Troyon, ten +miles south of Verdun, for <span class="pagenum"><a id="page125" name="page125"></a>(p. 125)</span> had the Germans succeeded in taking +this, Verdun would have been surrounded. No army and no generalship +could have done more than the Third Army and General Sarrail did, but +they could not hold their ground before Troyon. On September 7, 1914, +the way to Troyon was open, and the army of the crown prince prepared to +demolish it. Then came September 9, 1914, when the allied successes in +the western part of the Marne valley allowed them to send +reenforcements. Thus the Third Army was perceptibly strengthened and +hope for Troyon grew. One day more, certainly two days more, and nothing +could have saved Troyon, but with the whole German line in retreat, the +army of the crown prince could not be left on the advance.</p> + +<p>Incredible though it may seem, when the army of the crown prince +besieging Troyon withdrew, that little fort was a mere heap of ruins. +There were exactly forty-four men left in the fort and four serviceable +guns. Even a small storming party could have carried it without the +least trouble, and its natural strength could have been fortified in +such wise as to make it a pivotal point from which to harry Verdun.</p> + +<p>At the extreme east, on that ring of wooded heights known as the Grande +Couronne de Nancy, and drawn up across the Gap of Nancy, the Second +French Army, under General de Castelnau, successfully resisted the drive +of the Crown Prince of Bavaria. Great hopes had been placed on this +attack, and on September 7, 1914, the German Emperor had viewed the +fight at Nancy from one of the neighboring heights. Surely a victory for +the German arms might come either at the point where stood the German +Emperor or where led the crown prince. But the fortunes of war decided +otherwise. Far from losing at Nancy, the French took the offensive. +After an artillery duel of terrific magnitude, they drove the Bavarian +army from the forests of Champenous and took Amance. The line of the +Meurthe was then found untenable by the Germans, and on September 12, +1914, General de Castelnau reoccupied the town of Lunéville, which had +been in the hands of the Germans since August 22, 1914.</p> + +<p>With General von Kluck in retreat on September 7, 1914, General von +Bülow hastening to the rear on September 8, 1914, with <span class="pagenum"><a id="page126" name="page126"></a>(p. 126)</span> the +Duke of Württemberg falling back on September 9, 1914, and the Imperial +Crown Prince and the Bavarian Crown Prince retreating to an inner ring +of defense on September 10, 1914, the battles of the Marne may, in a +measure, be said to have concluded. As, however, the new alignments were +made mainly by reason of the topographical relationships of the Marne +and the Aisne Rivers and the territory contiguous thereto, it is perhaps +more in keeping with the movement to carry forward the German retreat +across the Marne as a part of the same group of conflicts.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XVIII</h2> + +<p class="title">OTHER ASPECTS OF THE BATTLE OF THE MARNE</p> + + +<p>In dealing with a battle as important as that of the Marne points of +view are valuable. We therefore follow with an account of its general +course and description of its main features by a French military writer, +whose knowledge is based on information that is official.</p> + +<p>"Before the German armies," he says, "became engulfed in the vast +depression that stretches from Paris to Verdun, General Joffre with +admirable foresight had brought together a powerful army commanded by +General Manoury and having as its support the fortified camp of Paris. +As soon as General von Kluck, turning momentarily from the road to the +French capital and bending his march to the southeast, laid bare his +right wing, General Joffre vigorously launched against his flank the +entire army of General Manoury. The brilliant offensive of this army +achieved success from the beginning; it threw back the German forces. +Von Kluck perceived the danger that threatened him, and the danger was +serious, for it only required that Manoury should advance a little +further and he would have been almost totally defeated. Resolutely, +energetically, and with a sang-froid to which homage must be rendered, +Von Kluck proceeded <span class="pagenum"><a id="page127" name="page127"></a>(p. 127)</span> to circumvent this danger. He ordered back +to the north two of his army corps, recrossed the Marne, and threw +himself with intrepidity on Manoury.</p> + +<p>"But the retreat of these two army corps allowed General French and +General Franchet d'Espérey both to drive forward vigorously. Something +resembling the phenomenon of a whirlwind then took place in the German +ranks. The British army made progress toward the north, the Fifth French +Army, commanded by General Franchet d'Espérey, did the same. General +Manoury, assisted by all the troops that General Galliéni was able +rapidly to put at his disposal, made headway against the furious +onslaught of Von Kluck. Thus the entire German right found itself in a +most critical situation. It could not overcome Manoury, who was +threatening its communications, and on the other hand it found itself +powerless to resist the victorious advance of Generals French and de +Franchet d'Espérey.</p> + +<p>"It was the critical moment of the battle. The German General Staff +decided that there was only one method of putting an end to it, and that +was to direct against the army of General Foch in the center an +offensive so violent that the center would be pierced and the French +armies cut in two. If this attack succeeded it would free at once the +German right and separate into two impotent parts the entire French +military force. During the 7th, 8th, and 9th of September the Imperial +Prussian Guard directed to the compassing of that end all its energy and +courage. All in vain. General Foch not only checked the German +onslaught, but drove it back. Thus the French center was not pierced, +Von Kluck was not relieved, and he found himself in a position that grew +more and more critical. The general retreat of the German armies was the +inevitable result. To this decision the German General Staff came, and +on the evening of September 9 orders were given to all the armies of the +right and center to retire sixty kilometers to the rear. Thus the battle +of the Marne was won by the French."</p> + +<p>The writer then goes on to say: "It was on September 5, toward the end +of the morning, that the general order of General Joffre, leading to the +great battle, reached the French armies. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page128" name="page128"></a>(p. 128)</span> Each separate army +immediately turned and vigorously engaged in battle. The army of +Manoury, the first to get ready, sprang forward to the attack. It thrust +back the German forces which were at first inferior in number, and it +attained on the evening of the 5th the Pinchard—St. Soulplet—Ver +front; but Von Kluck threw two army corps over the Marne and hurled +himself on Manoury. He summoned from Compiègne all the reenforcements at +his disposal, and he placed all his heavy artillery between Vareddes and +May-en-Multien. During the day of September 6th Manoury made headway +toward the Ourcq. On the following day he advanced at a lesser pace on +its left bank, taking and then losing the villages of Marcilly and +Chambry—murderous struggles maintained amid terrible heat. General +Galliéni, who followed the battle with the utmost attention, hurriedly +came to the assistance of Manoury; he sent to him on the 7th and 8th the +Seventh Division, which had just arrived at Paris, half of the division +being transferred by rail, the other half by means of thousands of +automobiles requisitioned for the purpose. General Joffre likewise sent +to Manoury the Fourth Army Corps, recruited from the Third Army, though +an almost entire division of it was called for by the British to +safeguard the junction of forces.</p> + +<p>"The day of September 8 turned out the most arduous for Manoury; the +Germans, making attacks of extreme violence, won some success. They +occupied Betz, Thury-en-Vallois and Nanteuil-le-Haudouin. Von Kluck +attacked all his force on the right, and it was at that time he who +threatened Manoury with an encircling movement. The Fourth French Army +Corps, sent forward at full speed by General Joffre and arriving at the +spot, had the order to allow itself to be killed to the last man, but to +maintain its ground. It maintained it. It succeeded toward evening in +checking the advance of the Germans. In a brilliant action the army of +Manoury took three standards. It rallied the main body of its forces on +the left and prepared for a new attack.</p> + +<p>"During this time the British army, following on the retreat of part of +the forces of Von Kluck, was able to make headway <span class="pagenum"><a id="page129" name="page129"></a>(p. 129)</span> toward the +north. It was the same with the Fifth French Army. The British, leaving +behind it on September 6 the Rosoy—Lagny line, reached in the evening +the south bank of the Great Morin. On the 7th and 8th they continued +their march; on the 9th they debouched to the north of the Marne below +Château Thierry, flanking the German forces which on that day were +opposing the army of Manoury. It was then that the German forces began +to retreat, while the British army, pursuing the enemy, took seven +cannon and many prisoners and reached the Aisne between Soissons and +Longueval. The British army continued till before Coulommiers, and after +a brilliant struggle forced the passage of the Little Morin. The Fifth +French Army under General Franchet d'Espérey made the same advance. It +drove back the three active army corps of the Germans and the reserve +corps that it found facing it. On September 7 it pressed forward to the +Courtaçon—Cerneux—Monceaux—les—Provins—Courgivaux—Esternay line. +During the days that followed it reached and crossed the Marne, +capturing in fierce combats some howitzers and machine guns.</p> + +<p>"General Foch showed admirable sang-froid and energy. At the most +critical moment, the decisive hour of the battle, he accomplished a +magnificent maneuver, which is known under the name of the <i>maneuver of +Fère Champenoise</i>. Foch noted a rift between the German army of Von +Bülow and that of Von Hausen. The German Guard was engaged with the +Tenth Division of the reserve in the region of the marshes of St. Gond.</p> + +<p>"On September 9 Foch resolutely threw into this rift the Forty-Second +Division under General Grossetti, which was at his left, and his army +corps of the left. He thus made a flank attack on the German forces, +notably the Guard which had bent back his army corps on the right. The +effect produced by the flank attack of Manoury on the right of General +von Kluck's army was renewed here. The enemy, taken aback by this +audacious maneuver, did not resist and made a precipitate retreat. On +the evening of the 9th the game was thus lost to the Germans. Their +armies of the right and of the center were beaten and the retreat +followed. The Imperial Guard left in the marshes of St. Gond <span class="pagenum"><a id="page130" name="page130"></a>(p. 130)</span> +more than 8,000 men and almost all its artillery. Victory henceforth +began to perch on the Allied banners over all the vast battle field."</p> + +<p>Such was this battle of seven days in which almost 3,000,000 men were +engaged. If it is examined in its ensemble, it will be seen that each +French army advanced step by step, opening up the road to the +neighboring army, which immediately gave it support, and then striking +at the flank of the enemy which the other attacked in front. The efforts +of the one were closely coordinated with the efforts of the other. A +deep unity of ideas, of methods, and of courage animated the whole +Allied line.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XIX</h2> + +<p class="title">"CROSSING THE AISNE"</p> + + +<p>In order to gain a clear idea of what was involved in the feat of +"crossing the Aisne," which more than one expert has declared to be the +greatest military feat in river crossing in the history of arms, it is +well to look at the topography of that point, first in its relation to +the whole German line, and, second, in its relation to possible attack +in September, 1914.</p> + +<p>The prepared positions on the Aisne to which the Germans fell back after +the battle of the Marne, were along a line of exceptionally strong +natural barriers. The line extends from a point north of Verdun, on the +heights of the Meuse, across the wooded country of the Argonne and the +plain of Champagne to Rheims, thence northwest to Brimont, crossing the +Aisne near its confluence with the Suippe, and from thence proceeding to +Craonne, whence it takes a westerly course along the heights of the +Aisne to the Forest of the Eagle, north of Compiègne. The eastern end of +this line has already been described in connection with the battles of +the Marne, and it is the western section of this line which now demands +consideration. Just as the River Marne was taken as a basis for the +consideration of the topography of the battles <span class="pagenum"><a id="page131" name="page131"></a>(p. 131)</span> that centered +round the crossing of the Ourcq, Grand Morin, Petit Morin, and the +Marne, so the Aisne is naturally the most important determinant in the +problems of its crossing.</p> + +<p>The River Aisne rises in the Argonne, southwest of Verdun. Through the +Champagne region its banks are of gradual slope, but shortly after it +passes Rethel, on its westerly course, the configuration changes +sharply, and at Craonne the bluffs overlooking the river are 450 feet +high. It is easy to see what an inaccessible barrier is made by such a +line of cliffs. For forty miles this line of bluffs continues, almost +reaching to Compiègne, where the Aisne enters the Oise. Not only are the +banks of the Aisne thus guarded by steep bluffs, but the character of +those bluffs is peculiarly fitted for military purposes. For long +stretches along the north side the cliffs stand sheer and have spurs +that dip down sharply to the valley. The ridge, or the top of the bluff, +which looks from below like the scarp of a great plateau, lies at an +average of a mile or more from the stream. Many of these spurs jut out +in such a way that if fortified they could enfilade up and downstream. +To add to the military value of such a barrier the edge of the scarp is +heavily wooded, while the lower slopes are steep and grassy, with small +woods at irregular intervals. Even from the high ground on the south +bank of the stream, the top of the plateau on the north cannot be seen, +and from below it is effectually cloaked.</p> + +<p>Two tributaries are to be considered in this river valley which thus +forms so natural a post of defense. Both flow in from the south, the +Suippe, which joins the main stream at Neufchâtel-sur-Aisne and the +Vesle, on which stands the ancient city of Rheims. This river joins the +Aisne a little over seven miles east of Soissons, which is itself twenty +miles east of Compiègne.</p> + +<p>The line taken by the German armies for their stand was not the river +itself, but the northern ridge. At no place more than a mile and a half +from the river, it was always within gunfire of any crossing. Every +place of crossing was commanded by a spur. Every road on the north bank +was in their hands, every road on the south bank curved upward so as to +be a fair mark for their artillery. As the German drive advanced, a huge +body <span class="pagenum"><a id="page132" name="page132"></a>(p. 132)</span> of sappers and miners had been left behind to fortify +this Aisne line, and the system developed was much the same along its +entire distance.</p> + +<p>There were two lines of barbed-wire entanglements, one in the bed of the +stream which would prevent fording or swimming, and which, being under +water, could not easily be destroyed by gunfire from the southern bank. +Above this was a heavy chevaux-de-frise and barbed-wire entanglement, +partly sunk and concealed from view; in many places pitted and covered +with brushwood. Above this, following approximately a thirty-foot +contour, came a line of trenches for infantry, and fifty yards behind a +second line of trenches, commanding a further elevation of fifty feet. +Two-thirds of the way up the hill came the trench-living quarters, the +kitchens, the bakeries, the dormitories, and so forth, and the crest of +the hill bristled along its entire length with field guns, effectually +screened by trees. On the further side of the ridge, in chalk pits, were +the great howitzers, tossing their huge shells over the ridge and its +defenses into the river itself, and even on the south bank beyond. +Truly, a position of power, and one that the boldest of troops might +hesitate to attack.</p> + +<p>It is quite possible that had the entire strength of the German position +been known, no attempt to cross would have been made, but there was +always a possibility that the counterchecks of the German army were no +more than the rear-guard actions of the three or four days immediately +preceding. Yet Sir John French seems to have expected the true state of +affairs, for he remarks in his dispatches:</p> + +<p>"The battles of the Marne, which lasted from the morning of the 6th to +the evening of the 10th, had hardly ended in the precipitate flight of +the enemy when we were brought face to face with a position of +extraordinary strength, carefully intrenched and prepared for defense by +an army and staff which are thorough adepts in such work."</p> + +<p>Yet it was evident that if the armies of the Allies were to secure any +lasting benefit from the battles of the Marne, they must dislodge the +invading hosts from their new vantage ground. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page133" name="page133"></a>(p. 133)</span> It was obvious +that the task was one of great peril and one necessarily likely to be +attended with heavy loss of life. Sir John French, knowing the tactical +value of driving a fleeing army hard, determined on forcing the issue +without delay.</p> + +<p>Before proceeding to recount in detail the events of that six days' +battle of the Aisne, which little by little solidified into an impasse, +it might be well to trace the new positions that had been taken by the +respective armies engaged in the struggle for the supremacy of western +Europe. General von Kluck, still in charge of the First German Army, was +in control of the western section from the Forest of the Eagle to the +plateau of Craonne. He had forced his men to almost superhuman efforts, +and by midnight of September 11 he had succeeded in getting most of his +artillery across the Aisne, at Soissons, and had whipped his infantry +into place on the heights north of the stream. That, with his exhausted +troops, he succeeded remains still a tribute to his power as a +commander. But the men were done. Further attack meant rout. His +salvation lay in his heavy field guns and howitzers, an arm of the +service in which the French army, under General Maunoury (and General +Pau, who had taken a superior command during the turning of the German +drive at the Marne), was notoriously weak. Still there was little +comfort there, for the British army was well supplied with heavy +artillery, and the Fifth French Army of General d'Espérey, also coming +up to confront him, was not entirely lacking in this branch of the +service.</p> + +<p>General von Bülow's army was combined with that of General von Hausen, +who fell ill and was retired from his command. Against this combined +army was ranged the victorious and still fresh army of General Foch, +lacking two corps, which had been detached for reserves elsewhere. One +of these corps apparently went to the aid of General Sarrail, whose +stand was still a weak point in the Allies' line. General Sarrail, +however, was now better supported by the movement of General Langle with +the Fourth French Army, who advanced toward Troyon and confronted the +combined armies of the Imperial Crown Prince and the Duke of +Württemberg. This released General Sarrail to his <span class="pagenum"><a id="page134" name="page134"></a>(p. 134)</span> task of +intrenching and enlarging the defenses about Verdun, the importance of +which had become more poignant than ever before in the events of the +past week. The far eastern end of the line remained unchanged.</p> + +<p>The credit for the crossing of the Aisne lies with the British troops. +The battles of the Marne had thrust Sir John French into a prominent +position, wherein he was able to achieve a much-desired result without +any great loss of life. But the battle of the Aisne was different. It +was a magnificent effort boldly carried out, and, as was afterward +learned, it could not have been successful had the onset been delayed +even one day.</p> + +<p>General Maunoury's army, encamped in the forest of the Compiègne, was +again the first to give battle, as it had been in the battles of the +Marne. Using some heavy guns that had been sent on from Paris, in +addition to the batteries that had been lent him by the British, he +secured some well-planned artillery positions on the south bank, and +spent the morning in a long-range duel with the German gunners near +Soissons. The Germans had not all taken up their positions on the north +side of the Aisne on the morning of September 12, 1914, and the heavy +battery of the Fourth British Division did good service early in the +morning, dislodging some of these before it wheeled in line beside the +big French guns, in an endeavor to shell the trenches and level the +barbed-wire entanglements, that an opportunity might be made to cross. +But the results were not encouraging of success, for the reply from the +further shore was terrific. General von Kluck's army might be worn out, +but the iron throats of his guns were untiring, and he knew that huge +reenforcements were on the way.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page135" name="page135"></a>(p. 135)</span> CHAPTER XX</h2> + +<p class="title">FIRST DAY'S BATTLES</p> + + +<p>That first day of the battle of the Aisne, September 12, 1914, which was +indeed rather preparatory than actual, was also marked by some unusually +brilliant cavalry work in General Allenby's division. The German line +was on the farther side of the Aisne, but all the hill country between +the Marne and the Aisne had to be cleared of the powerful rear guards of +the retreating German army, or perhaps it would be more correct to say +the advance guards of the new German line. Early in the morning the +cavalry under General Allenby swept out from the town of Braisne on the +Vesle and harried in every direction the strong detachments that had +been sent forward, driving them back to the Aisne. Over the high wooded +ridge between the Vesle and the Aisne the Germans were driven back, and +the Third Division, under General Hamilton, supported the cavalry in +force, so that, by the evening, General Hamilton's division was able to +camp below the hill of Brenelle, and even, before night fell, to get +their guns upon that height, from which they could reply to the German +batteries snugly ensconced upon the frowning ridge on the northern bank +of the Aisne.</p> + +<p>The Fifth British Division, under Sir Charles Fergusson, found itself in +a tight place at the confluence of the Vesle and Aisne Rivers, for at +that point lay a stretch of flat bottomland exposed to the German fire. +By a ruse, which returned upon their own heads, the Germans had +preserved one bridge across the Aisne, the bridge at Condé. This was +done as a lure to Sir Charles Fergusson's forces, but even more so it +was intended as a sallying point as soon as the German army deemed +itself in a position to attack again. The bridge was destined to figure +in the events of the great conflict when the grapple should come.</p> + +<p>One of the most graphic of all the accounts of the fighting of that day +was from the pen of a major in the British field artillery, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page136" name="page136"></a>(p. 136)</span> +and it presented in sharp and vivid colors how the field artillery +joined with the cavalry in clearing the German troops from the hills +between the Marne and the Aisne. He wrote:</p> + +<p>"We got the order to go off and join a battery under Colonel ——'s +orders. We came en route under heavy shrapnel fire on the road. I gave +the order to walk, as the horses had hardly had any food for a couple of +days, and also I wanted to steady the show. I can't say I enjoyed +walking along at the head with old —— behind me, especially when six +shrapnel burst right in front of us. We got there just in time, rushed +into action, and opened fire on a German counterattack at short range, +destroying the lot so far as I could see.</p> + +<p>"We then moved slightly to another position to take on a valley, down +which they were attacking, and were at it the whole day, firing about +900 rounds into quantities of German attacks and counterattacks. They +cannot stand the shrapnel, and the moment I got one on them they turned +and bolted back to the wood.</p> + +<p>"I got on to their trenches; one shell dropped in. [It would appear from +this that some of the advance guards of the new defense line were either +intrenching or occupying trenches made during the battles of the Marne, +probably the latter, or else the writer is speaking of the actions of +his battery on the 10th as well as the 12th before the invaders had +retreated across the Marne.] I was enfilading them, and they tore out of +the trenches, and so on, each trench in turn, and fell in hundreds. +Also, through the range finder, —— saw I'd hit a machine gun, and they +had abandoned it and another. So it went all day, shells and bullets +humming around, but only one of my staff horses was hit. Our infantry +advancing and retiring—others advancing and coming back—Germans doing +likewise, a hellish din of shell fire, and me pouring in fire whenever I +could see them.</p> + +<p>"At last I got six shrapnel into a wood and cleared a heap of them out +and got into them with shrapnel. It was awful! The sergeant major put +his hand up to his head and said: "Oh, sir, it's terrible!" That seemed +to settle them, and at last we saw the infantry advancing to their +positions without resistance.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page137" name="page137"></a>(p. 137)</span> "Now was my chance. I determined to get those machine guns if I +could, as otherwise the infantry would. So I left —— in command and got +the trumpeter, sergeant major, and six men with six rifles, and went +forward 'to reconnoiter,' as I reported to —— after I had gone. It was +a weird ride, through thick black woods, holding my revolver ready, +going in front with the little trumpeter behind and the others following +some way in the rear. We passed some very bad sights, and knew the woods +were full of Germans who were afraid to get away on account of the +dreaded shell fire. We got in front of our infantry, who were going to +fire at us, but I shouted just in time.</p> + +<p>"At last we came to the edge of a wood, and in front of us, about 200 +yards away, was a little cup-shaped copse, and the enemy's trenches with +machine guns a little farther on. I felt sure this wood was full of +Germans, as I had seen them go in earlier. I started to gallop for it, +and the others followed. Suddenly about fifty Germans bolted out, firing +at us. I loosed off my revolver as fast as I could, and —— loosed off +his rifle from the saddle. They must have thought we were a regiment of +cavalry, for, except for a few, they suddenly yelled and bolted. I +stopped and dismounted my lot to fire at them, to make sure that they +didn't change their minds.</p> + +<p>"I waited for a lull, and mounted all my lot behind the bushes and made +them spring as I gave the word to gallop for cover to the woods where +the Welsh company was. There I got ——, who understands them (the guns), +and an infantryman who volunteered to help, and —— and I ran up to the +Maxims and took out the breech mechanism of both and one of the belts, +and carried away one whole Maxim. We couldn't manage the other.</p> + +<p>"We got back very slowly on account of the gun, and the men went wild +with excitement that we had got one gun complete and the mechanism and +belt of the other."</p> + +<p>With such incidents the pursuit of the Germans across the Marne and to +the Aisne was replete, and so thoroughly did the advance French and +English troops scour that country that when the morning of September 13, +1914, dawned there was scarcely <span class="pagenum"><a id="page138" name="page138"></a>(p. 138)</span> a German soldier left on the +southern side of the Aisne, west of Rheims.</p> + +<p>The administration of the German armies meanwhile had been markedly +changed. In the turning movement on the Marne the plan was clearly +outlined, each commander had his instructions, and that was all. But +with the need for changes of plan there was need for a directing head, +and Field Marshal von Heeringen was sent in a hurry to take charge of +the Aisne. This placed both General von Kluck and General von Bülow into +subordinate positions. Field Marshal von Heeringen held a deserved +reputation as one of the most brilliant as well as one of the most +iron-willed of the German military leaders. He had been the backbone of +the crown prince's movement against Troyon, a movement which, given a +day or two longer, might have meant the capture of Verdun.</p> + +<p>This was not the only factor that was framing up to give the German +armies a decided advantage. The essential factor of the Aisne was the +arrival of General von Zwehl and his guns. On September 13, 1914, at 6 +a. m., Zwehl arrived in Laon, and in less than an hour he was in action +on the Aisne front. The story of General von Zwehl and his guns is +essential to an understanding of the causes that rendered the British +victory of the Aisne a barren and a fruitless victory at best.</p> + +<p>The week of September 5-12, 1914, witnessed the entire series of the +battles of the Marne, which drove the Germans across the Marne and +across the Aisne, as well as a German victory which exerted almost as +powerful an influence in favor of the invaders as the check at the Marne +did for the defenders. This victory was the fall of Maubeuge. It is +going too far to say—as several military writers have done—that +General von Zwehl saved Germany, and that unless he had arrived as +opportunely as he did the "German retreat to the Aisne valley would have +been changed into a disastrous and overwhelming rout." But it is not +going too far to say that the successful holding of the Aisne line was +due to the victor of Maubeuge.</p> + +<p>General von Zwehl was one of the iron-jawed battle-scarred warriors of +1870, a man with a will as metallic as his own siege <span class="pagenum"><a id="page139" name="page139"></a>(p. 139)</span> guns, and +a man who could no more be deflected from his purpose than a shell could +be diverted in its flight. He had been set to reduce Maubeuge and he had +done so with speed and with thoroughness. Maubeuge was not protected by +open-air earthworks, but by a circle of armor-plate concrete forts. To +the mighty siege guns handled by General von Zwehl, these were no +trouble, for Von Zwehl had not only the heavy batteries attached to the +Seventh Army Reserve, but he also had a number of Von Kluck's guns and +the majority of General von Bülow's, neither of whom was expected to +need siege guns in the forward drive where mobility was an essential. In +addition to this, General von Zwehl also had the great siege train that +had been prepared for the reduction of Paris. What chance had Maubeuge +against such a potency?</p> + +<p>On September 8, 1914, word reached General von Zwehl that the forward +drive had failed, that the main armies had been beaten back and that he +was to bring up his guns as rapidly as possible to cover the retreat. As +rapidly as he could, to General von Zwehl, meant but one thing—to get +there! He collected 9,000 reserve troops, which was almost immediately +swelled by another 9,000, and with a total of 18,000 troops he started +his siege trains for the town of Laon, where Field Marshal von Heeringen +had taken up his headquarters. The weather turned bad, rendering the +heavy guns extremely difficult to handle, but there could be no delay, +no explanations, to General von Zwehl. If a gun was to be brought it was +to be brought and that was all about it! Four days and three nights of +almost continuous marching is killing. The German commander cared +nothing for that. The guns must be kept moving. Could he get them there +on time? In the last twenty-four hours of the march, his 18,000 troops +covered 41 miles and they arrived in Laon at six o'clock in the morning +of September 13, 1914, and were in action an hour later. The problem, +therefore, before the English and French at the Aisne, was not the +carrying of the river against a disheartened and retreating army, but +the carrying of the river against a well-thought-out and forceful +plan—a plan, moreover, backed up by the most powerful artillery that +the world has ever seen.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page140" name="page140"></a>(p. 140)</span> CHAPTER XXI</h2> + +<p class="title">THE BRITISH AT THE AISNE</p> + + +<p>In the battles of the Marne, the brunt of the fighting had been borne +mainly by the French armies, but the major part of work of the battle of +the Aisne was borne by the British Expeditionary Force. Sir John French +wasted no time. Saturday night, September 12, 1914, was a night of labor +for engineers and gunners. The bridge trains belonging to the First and +Second Army Corps were ordered to the edge of the river at daybreak, and +as soon as the first gleam of dawn appeared in the sky, the heroic +effort began.</p> + +<p>At the risk of seeming a little detailed, in order to understand the +somewhat involved maneuvers by which the British won the crossing of the +Aisne, instead of dealing with the advance of the British army as a +unit, in the manner that was done in discussing the battles of the +Marne, their activities will be shown as army corps: the Third Army +Corps to the westward, under General Pulteney; the Second Army Corps, +under Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien, and the First Army Corps to the +eastward, under Sir Douglas Haig, all, of course, under the general +direction of Sir John French.</p> + +<p>The British had no means of knowing what was in front of them. There was +only one way to find out—a way, alas, often costly, a way that in every +campaign costs thousands of lives apparently fruitlessly, and that is a +frontal attack. Down over the slopes of the southern bank, into the +bright, smiling river valley, where the little white villages in the +distance were hiding their dilapidated state, marched the British army. +Not a sign of activity showed itself upon the farther shore. A summer +haze obscured objects at a distance, but, shortly before nine o'clock, +the German batteries opened fire with a roar that was appalling.</p> + +<p>The Third Army Corps, after a brief artillery duel, advanced on Soissons +to cover the work of the engineers who were building a pontoon bridge +for the French troops. The German fire was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page141" name="page141"></a>(p. 141)</span> deadly, yet though +more than half their men fell, the engineers put the pontoon bridge +across. German howitzer fire, from behind the ridge, however, soon +destroyed the bridge. The Turcos crossed the river in rowboats and had a +fierce but indecisive struggle in the streets of the medieval city. +Meanwhile, with the failure of the pontoon bridge at Soissons, General +Pulteney struck to the northeast along the road to Venizel. The bridge +at that point had been blown up, but the British sappers repaired it +sufficiently to set the Eleventh Brigade across, and even, despite the +lurid hail of shot and shell, four regiments gathered at Bucy-de-Long by +one o'clock on that Sunday, September 13, 1914. Over the heads of these +courageous regiments towered the great hill of Vregny, a veritable +Gibraltar of heavy guns with numerous machine guns along the wooded +edge. There was no protection, and no shelter against the terrible +German Maxim fire, so that the moment came when to attempt further +advance meant instant annihilation. Still, under cover of the success of +the Eleventh Brigade the engineers built a pontoon bridge at Venizel and +the Twelfth Brigade crossed to Bucy-de-Long, with a number of the +lighter artillery. As there was absolutely no shelter, to storm the +height at that point was impossible, and to remain where they were was +merely to court sudden death, so the Twelfth Brigade worked over the +slopes to the ravine at Chipres, where they intrenched.</p> + +<p>The task in front of the Second Army Corps was no less difficult. The +bridge at Condé was too strongly defended to be taken by assault, as Sir +Horace Smith-Dorrien speedily found out, so he divided his forces into +two parts, one of which was directed at the village of Missy, two and +one half miles west of Condé, while the other concentrated its attack on +a crossing at the town of Vailly, three miles east of Condé. Both +detachments made good their crossing, but the regiments that found +themselves near Missy also realized that hasty, very hasty intrenchment +was imperative, lest every one of them should be blown into kingdom come +before half an hour had passed by. During the night some troops were +rafted over, three men at a time, and these encamped near Missy. It was +a false move. For sixteen days thereafter the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page142" name="page142"></a>(p. 142)</span> British troops +had to remain in their dugouts, a large part of the time without food or +water. To show a head above the trench was sudden death.</p> + +<p>The regiments that crossed the river at Vailly found themselves in even +a worse plight. No sooner had they crossed than the bombardment began, +and the Germans knew every range in the place accurately. More than +that, the line of trenches was open to enfilade fire from a hidden +battery, which did not unmask until the trench was filled with soldiers. +This Eighth Brigade had to retire in disorder.</p> + +<p>The Fifth Brigade, attached to the First Army Corps under Sir Douglas +Haig, an Irish and Scotch group of regiments, were the most successful +of all. The bridge at Pont Arcy had been destroyed, but still one of its +girders spanned the stream. It would have been tricky walking, even +under ordinary circumstances, but nerve racking to attempt, when from +every hill and wood and point of land, Maxims, machine guns and a steady +rifle fire are concentrated on the man crossing that one girder. By the +afternoon, the engineers attached to the First Army Corps had also +established a pontoon bridge, and the whole brigade crossed the river in +the evening and dug itself in.</p> + +<p>Late on Sunday afternoon, however, a weak spot showed itself in the +German line and Sir John French threw the First Division of the First +Army Corps across the river near Bourg. Some of the infantry crossed by +a small pontoon bridge and a brigade of cavalry started to follow them. +When they were in mid-stream, however, a terrific storm of fire smote +them. The cavalry pushed on, but could not ride up the hill in the teeth +of the bombardment. The infantry were eager to go, but nothing was to be +gained by the move, so the cavalry returned over the pontoon, by a most +extraordinary occurrence not having lost a single member in the three +hours it had been scouting on the hostile side of the Aisne. The +infantry intrenched themselves solidly to await the morning.</p> + +<p>The main forces of the First Division were especially lucky. Using the +canal aqueduct they made their way toward Bourg, and drove the Germans +back toward the main ridge.</p> + +<p>More than three-quarters of the summit of the ridge had been <span class="pagenum"><a id="page143" name="page143"></a>(p. 143)</span> +won, the entire Second Infantry Brigade was across, the Twenty-fifth +Artillery Brigade was across, ready to support, and General Bulfin, +instead of tiring his men by making them intrench there, ordered them to +rest, throwing their outposts in front of the hamlet of Moulins.</p> + +<p>This ended the first day's fighting on the battle of the Aisne. Of the +Third Army Corps, a small body of men had reached Chipres. There they +had been joined by a small force from the Second Army Corps. In the +First Army a strong detachment dug itself in not far from Pont d'Arcy. +The incomparably superior position of the Germans, their huge numbers, +their possession of innumerable guns, made even this shaky tenure +dangerous, though all held on. Sir John French had tested and found out +the German strength and the result was not encouraging.</p> + +<p>Although this repulse of the British army at every point was a decided +victory for the German gunners, Field Marshal von Heeringen had been +impressed by two things: the courage of the British attacking army, and +the destructiveness of the French artillery on the south bank of the +river. The German commander withdrew all his men from the advanced +trenches on between the ridge and the river, keeping, however, strongly +intrenched detachments of riflemen at all commanding points with +powerful artillery as their support.</p> + +<p>Sunday night was a veritable pandemonium of destruction and tumult. All +night long, without cessation, the batteries of both sides, knowing +exactly their opponents' range, fired perpetually. All night long +searchlight bombs were thrown. All night long, golden and red and yellow +streams of flame or the sudden jagged flash of an explosion lit up the +black smoke of burning buildings and fields in the valley, or showed the +white puff-like low clouds of the bursting shrapnel. Not for an instant +did the roar diminish, not for a second was the kindly veil of night +left unrent by a fissure of vengeful flame. Yet, all night long, as +ceaselessly as the great guns poured out their angry fury, so did men +pour out their indomitable will, and in that hell light of battle flame +engineers labored to construct bridges, small bodies of troops moved +forward to join their comrades in the trenches who had been <span class="pagenum"><a id="page144" name="page144"></a>(p. 144)</span> +able to make a footing the day before, and all night long, those ghastly +yet merciful accompaniments of a battle field—the ambulance +corps—carried on their work of relief. The searchlights swept up and +down the valley, like great eyes that watched to give direction to the +venom of war.</p> + +<p>At three o'clock in the morning of Monday, September 14, 1914, two +regiments were sent to capture a sugar factory strongly held by the +enemy. That sugar factory became a maelstrom. Three more regiments had +to be brought up and finally the guards, and even thus heavily +overpowered, the Germans successfully defended it until noon. They sold +their lives dearly—those defenders. That sugar factory stood on that +Monday as did Hogoumont at Waterloo. It delayed the advance of the +entire First Corps, but at four o'clock in the afternoon, Sir Douglas +Haig ordered a general advance. The last afternoon and evening scored a +distinct success for the English arms, and when at last it grew +absolutely too dark to see, that corps held a position stretching from +Troton to La Cour de Soupir. Its chief importance, however, was that it +gave the Allies a strongly intrenched position on the plateau itself.</p> + +<p>It was of this day's fighting that, almost a month later, Sir John +French was able to say in his official dispatches:</p> + +<p>"The action of the First Corps on this day under the direction and +command of Sir Douglas Haig was of so skillful, bold, and decisive a +character that he gained positions which alone have enabled me to +maintain my position for more than three weeks of very severe fighting +on the north bank of the river."</p> + +<p>The offensive of this entire movement was intrusted to the First Corps. +The artillery strength of the armies of General von Kluck and Von Bülow +was such that it was almost impossible for the Second and Third British +Army Corps to assail them by a charge up the bluff. But, meantime, the +French had not been idle. On September 13, 1914, General d'Espérey's +Fifth Army crossed the Aisne east of Bourg, and on the following day +commenced the assault on the Craonne plateau.</p> + +<p>The next day, Tuesday, September 15, 1914, was a day of several small +victories for the Germans. General von Zwehl was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page145" name="page145"></a>(p. 145)</span> hard hitter +and a quick hitter. Having disposed of his artillery where he thought it +could be of the most use, he aided Field Marshal von Heeringen with +counsels of counterattack, counsels that the Field Marshal fully +indorsed. The Sixth French Army under General Manoury, at the extreme +west of the line, was the chief point of attack. Though well placed on a +strong position at Nampcel, the Germans drove the French before them +like clouds before the wind, recaptured the spurs, forced the French +backward through the Morsain ravine and back to their original crossing +place of the Aisne between Viv and Fontenoy.</p> + +<p>The Third Corps of the British suffered heavy loss of life without any +opportunity to retaliate, for it was too thoroughly and completely +dominated by the guns of Vregny.</p> + +<p>The lull of Wednesday, September 16, 1914, was a foretaste of the +deadlock which was gradually forming. The French Fifth Army had been +compelled to abandon all idea of a direct attack upon the Craonne +plateau, the natural position being far too strong. The Second and Third +Corps of the British army could do nothing. Sir John French, though +eager to push the advantage, secured by his position on the heights, was +well aware that such a move was not possible unless the entire French +line was ready to cooperate with him, for, if he tried to drive down +upon the ridge of the Aisne, or, for that matter, tried to flank it, the +line of the Duke of Württemberg would bend back upon him and nip him in +a way which would render escape difficult.</p> + +<p>A sudden recrudescence of activity on the western front gave rise to the +hope that the deadlock might yet be avoided, that the two great armies +might come to handgrips again. Bolstered up by reenforcements, General +Manoury checked the German attack and regained all the ground that had +been lost. Concentrating on the need of driving the invaders out of the +quarries of Autreches, the French succeeded. This eased the western end +of the line, and the Second and Third British Army Corps were left in +peace.</p> + +<p>Friday, September 18, 1914, is again a date of moment, not because +anything of importance was transacted, but because nothing was +transacted. It was a day of realizations. It was a <span class="pagenum"><a id="page146" name="page146"></a>(p. 146)</span> day that +convinced the Allies that the German positions could not be broken down +by frontal attack, just as the battles of the Marne had convinced the +Germans that the road to Paris was not yet open. The six days from +September 12 to 18 had revealed beyond preadventure that the German line +along the ridge of the Aisne was not merely a convenient halting place +for a rear-guard action, but that it was formed of lines of strong +fortifications, almost impregnable and absolutely beyond the hope of +storming. The forces were too evenly balanced for any concerted action +to produce a desired effect, the possession of air scouts eliminated any +question of a surprise. In other words, the conclusion was borne in upon +the Allies with full force that, much as the German plan had failed at +Marne, so had the Allies' plan failed at Aisne. The crossing of the +Aisne, the winning of the heights by Sir Douglas Haig were +victories—not only that, but they were full of that glory which goes +with successful daring—yet they led nowhere. The plan of the Allies +must be abandoned and a new one formed. This decision of a change of +strategical plan, then, closed the Allies' frontal attack upon the +position of the Central Powers on the ridge of the Maise, and marks the +end of the first phase of the battle of the Aisne.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XXII</h2> + +<p class="title">BOMBARDMENT OF RHEIMS AND SOISSONS</p> + + +<p>To be considered almost as a part of the advance upon the Aisne were the +bombardments of Soissons and of Rheims, the former being a part of the +first phase of the Aisne battles, the second belonging to the second +phase. Soissons, it will be remembered, lies at the western end of the +high bluffs that form a bank to the River Aisne for over fifty miles. It +is on the high road between Rheims and Compiègne, and on the south side +of the Aisne, and consequently returned into French hands on September +13, 1914. No sooner did the French armies enter the little <span class="pagenum"><a id="page147" name="page147"></a>(p. 147)</span> +town, however, than Soissons, dominated by the twin towers of its +ancient cathedral, became a target for the concentrated fire of the +Germans, whose artillery, it will be remembered, had been supplemented +that morning by the huge guns brought on from Maubeuge by the +magnificent forced marches of General von Zwehl. By noon the lower half +of that once lovely city was in flames. On every hand walls collapsed as +though they had been made of pasteboard. Women and children were buried +beneath the ruins or blown to pieces as they fled into the streets. One +of the towers of the cathedral was damaged, and there was not a corner +of the town that was safe from fire. The French batteries tried to cover +the city and silence the batteries opposing them on the north front of +the river, but the odds were too great.</p> + +<p>All day long, and throughout the greater part of every night, for the +first three days of the battle of the Aisne, September 13, 14, and 15, +1914, the bombardment of Soissons was continual, and, in addition to +being a wreck, the town became a shambles.</p> + +<p>Closely allied to the Soissons bombardment, and occurring simultaneously +with the battle of the Aisne, was the series of engagements occurring in +the quarries around Autreches and Coucy-le-Château, fought by advanced +bodies in front of the right wing of the German army encamped on the +ridge of the Aisne. These engagements developed the illuminating fact +that during times of peace German capital had been invested in these +quarries and with their usual intrigue the Germans had fortified these +quarries, so that they were veritable fortresses, and indeed, formed a +continuation of that line of defense the crowning point of which was the +Aisne cliff near the plateau of the Craonne. During the days when the +British First Army Corps, under Sir Douglas Haig, was performing the +astounding feat of crossing the Aisne and holding the land thus gained +against a veritable tempest of counterattack, these stone quarries were +taken and lost again every few hours. The French infantry of General +Manoury's army, far less exhausted than the harassed regiments of +General von Kluck's forces, found little difficulty in forcing the +Germans back from Autreches, but, no sooner were they well established, +than the roar of the combined guns of General von <span class="pagenum"><a id="page148" name="page148"></a>(p. 148)</span> Kluck and +General von Zwehl would make the position untenable, and under cover of +that appalling rain of death, the German infantry would creep back to +reoccupy the positions from which they had been ousted by the bayonets +only a few hours before. It was the German tactics of machine vs. men, a +direful and cruel battle plan to the opposing forces.</p> + +<p>Upon the day that the advance of the British definitely stopped, or, in +other words, when General Joffre and Sir John French realized that +further effort against the defenses of the Germans on the ridge beyond +the Aisne would only mean loss of life to no gainful purpose, the +bombardment of Rheims began. The old city had suffered severely during +the German advance upon the Marne. Still, it had not been pillaged, and +when the Germans retreated across the Aisne the old city held much of +its glory unimpaired. Still the flawless beauty of Rheims Cathedral +stood guard over the ancient city.</p> + +<p>Then on September 18, 1914, the shelling of the city began and a +bombardment of the most terrific character continued for ten days. +Rheims Cathedral, which the French declared was outside the zone of +direct fire and was used as a hospital with the Red Cross flag flying, +and which the Germans asserted to have been used for a signal station +and to have been surrounded by gun stations, was said to have been +demolished by the German guns. This act created a sensation throughout +the world, for Rheims Cathedral was like a gem from Paradise, regarded +by most art lovers as one of the most beautiful buildings in the world. +Every civilized country was shaken with grief when the news of the +disaster to Rheims Cathedral was published.</p> + +<p>The Germans were apparently unmoved by the world's indignation. They +claimed to have acted only from "military necessity," which, according +to the old brutal theory, still regarded by the Huns, knows no law. In +an inspired article written by Major General von Ditfurth, in the +"Hamburger Nachrichten," this latter point is emphasized. He wrote:</p> + +<p>"It is of no consequence if all the monuments ever created, all the +pictures ever painted, and all the buildings ever erected by the great +architects of the world were destroyed, if by their destruction +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page149" name="page149"></a>(p. 149)</span> we promote Germany's victory over her enemies.... The +commonest, ugliest stone placed to mark the burial place of a German +grenadier is a more glorious and perfect monument than all the +cathedrals in Europe put together.</p> + +<p>"Let neutral peoples and our enemies cease their empty chatter, which is +no better than the twittering of birds. Let them cease their talk about +the cathedral at Rheims and about all the churches and castles of France +which have shared its fate. These things do not interest us."</p> + +<p>Opinions have differed concerning Von Ditfurth's appraisal of the +comparative values of Rheims Cathedral and the tombstone of a German +grenadier, but even the champions of military necessity were glad to +learn later that the cathedral still stood, though much damaged. There +was military excuse for the bombardment of the city of Rheims. But the +cathedral was by far the most conspicuous object in the Rheims +landscape. It was optional with the Germans to spare it except for some +casual shell that missed its aim. On the contrary they chose the great +church as a special target, as evidenced by repeated damage to the +cathedral and by the destruction of buildings all about it by shell +fire. This was certainly not military necessity, though the city of +Rheims had a place in the new strategical plan developed by Field +Marshal von Heeringen upon the collapse of the drive on Paris, which was +foiled by the battles of the Marne.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XXIII</h2> + +<p class="title">SECOND PHASE OF BATTLE OF THE AISNE</p> + + +<p>The second phase of the battle of the Aisne contained two factors. One, +the simplest, was the maintenance of that line of defense against any +force that could be brought up against it by the Allies. It meant the +ability to hold strongly fortified positions against all odds. The +history of the trenches that <span class="pagenum"><a id="page150" name="page150"></a>(p. 150)</span> winter, of which more will be +said later, reveals the extent to which the Germans succeeded, aided by +the iron craft of the old Prussian fighter General von Zwehl.</p> + +<p>The other factor depended on the vexed question of means of +communication. There was no cross-country railway linking the eastern +German wing to the western German wing. As has been previously remarked, +all supplies and munitions had to come in a roundabout way. Verdun was a +desired goal, but Field Marshal von Heeringen was wise enough to know +that if the crown prince's effort against General Sarrail had failed, if +the Third French Army had secured heavy reenforcement, and if it had +been left unmolested for a week, the outer ring of defenses around +Verdun would, by that time, have become so amazingly strengthened that +direct or frontal attack would be impossible, while the flanking attack +had failed. It was vain, therefore, at the present time, to hope that +the establishment of the direct communication between Metz and Verdun +might pass into the hands of the invaders.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, there was a direct line of railway running through +Rheims, Rethel, Mezières to the great war depot, Coblenz on the Rhine. A +branch line from Metz, through Luxemburg, thus gave communication to the +eastern wing. All the links of this were in German hands, except Rheims, +and if that railroad center could be secured, the importance to the +German advance would be enormous. Under such circumstances, it can +scarcely be held that Rheims was not necessarily a point, the attack of +which was due to military necessity.</p> + +<p>The formation for this began on September 17, 1914. Crossing the Aisne +by the old ford of Berry-au-Bac, a powerful army under the direct +leadership of Field Marshal von Heeringen debouched upon the open +country between Berry-au-Bac and Suippes, east of Rheims. It was at this +point that the German commander in chief of this section of the battle +line intended to deliver a crushing blow by which might be regained the +prestige secured at Charleroi and lost again at the Marne.</p> + +<p>Surprise may be felt that so important a railway center as Rheims should +not have been a strongly fortified place. It had <span class="pagenum"><a id="page151" name="page151"></a>(p. 151)</span> been so once, +though the fortifications were old-fashioned. But, instead of bringing +these points of natural defense up to the highest degree of modern +efficiency, the French had dismantled them entirely, so as to make +Rheims with its glorious cathedral an open town, safe from bombardment. +It was, according to the rules of war, safe from bombardment, but only +in the event of its not being defended. General Foch did not dare to +take this stand. He knew, as well as did General von Heeringen, the +strategic value of Rheims as railroad center, and accepted the issue of +battle.</p> + +<p>In the falling back of the several German armies from the Marne to the +Aisne, the Germans had kept possession of the chief forts of the +district around Rheims. No strong effort had been made to dislodge them, +for the forward movement of the Allies had been directed against the +fortified heights of the Aisne, facing the Soissons-Craonne defense. It +will be remembered that the armies of General Foch and Langle, +especially the latter, had taken no part in the first phase of the +Battle of the Aisne, but had stubbornly thrown back the armies of the +Duke of Württemberg, which had combined with those of the crown prince. +The right wing of this large conjoined army had held the fort sites +around Rheims and especially they had made full use of the chief fort on +the wooded heights of Nogent l'Abbesse, a trifle less than half a mile +from the cathedral city and therefore within easy destructive shelling +range. The heavy artillery was planted here, the infantry intrenched +around it, and strong defense trenches were established along the River +Suippe that runs into the Aisne near Berry-au-Bac.</p> + +<p>On Friday, September 18, 1914, the first movement of the second phase +was begun, when the Germans launched a sharp counterattack on the French +center. This was the first German offensive movement since their retreat +from the Marne, and it was powerful and well handled. General Foch fell +back into defensive positions, but had much ado to hold his own. He +evaded giving battle around Rheims and took up a position at Souain, +which he held with the jaunty obstinacy he had displayed so often in the +retreat through northern France. It was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page152" name="page152"></a>(p. 152)</span> obvious that he could +not hold out long, but by clever generalship, and especially by an +extraordinarily brilliant use of the cavalry arm, he held off the army +for that day. That night strong reenforcements came to his aid, and on +September 19, 1914, the balance of the forces was more nearly equal.</p> + +<p>On September 19, 1914, therefore, the situation of the armies was much +as follows: The Germans, acting under the general command of Field +Marshal von Heeringen, controlled Rheims under the gunfire of their +heavy artillery from two points, the heights of Nogent l'Abbesse to the +southeast of Rheims, and the hill of Brimont a little over half a mile +to the northeast. Their right flank was covered by the powerful defenses +of the Aisne and the guns of the Craonne plateau, their left flank was a +series of intrenchments along the river Suippe, which merged into the +second line of defense of the main army under the Duke of Württemberg.</p> + +<p>On the other side of Rheims, or to the west of the cathedral city, the +Allies also held two heights, one at Pouillon, between the Aisle and the +Vesle, and therefore to the northwest of the city, and the other on a +sharp steep, known as the Mountain of Rheims, near Verzenay, on the +south side of the river. This was therefore west and a little south of +Rheims. But, and herein lies the question that has so often arisen in +the discussion of the comparative strength of the two armies—especially +without the British batteries—the French lacked heavy long-range +artillery. They had no such howitzers as those of the German forces. +Thus the Germans could shell Rheims to their hearts' content, and the +Allies could not silence that gunfire from their own fortified +positions. Once more, then, it became a battle between infantry and +artillery, between men and machines.</p> + +<p>This time, however, the advance was not favorable to the Germans. Their +heavy artillery commanded Rheims, but it did not command the French line +to the west of Rheims. The invaders performed prodigies of valor. Again +and again they hurled themselves against the French line. But General +Foch's troops were well supplied with that terrible engine of +destruction—the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page153" name="page153"></a>(p. 153)</span> French 3-inch fieldpiece, known, as the +75-mm., an extremely powerful gun for its caliber.</p> + +<p>In four successive night attacks on September 19-20, 1914, the heaviest +onset was made. Supported by a terrific gunfire, directed with the long +pointing fingers of searchlights, the German infantry, invigorated by a +week's rest, rolled up in gray-clad tidal waves against the French line. +General Foch had known how to post his defense, and within twenty-four +hours he had made the line between Pouillon and the Mountain of Rheims +almost as strong as the German line between Brimont and Nogent +l'Abbesse. Poor Rheims lay between, wide open to the eruption of +destruction that belched from the throats of the German howitzers.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XXIV</h2> + +<p class="title">END OF THE BATTLE</p> + + +<p>After September 22, 1914, there was a lull in the fighting at Rheims, +and as afterward appeared, this was due mainly to another change of plan +on the part of the German Staff. But it was no part of General Foch's +intentions to leave the bombardment of the cathedral unrevenged. He had, +indeed, caused an unparalleled slaughter on the night of September 19, +1914, as has been stated, but his troops were avid for reprisal and the +French strategist knew well how dangerous it is to allow an army, eager +for action and revenge, to eat its heart out vainly. He was too wise to +run the risk of a countercharge, but four days later his opportunity +came, and he took advantage of it to the full.</p> + +<p>At dawn on September 26, 1914, a detachment of 15,000 Germans, including +all that remained of the famous Prussian Guards Corps, that same body +that had fought so marvelously on many occasions, and which had suffered +the most cruelly in the affair of the marshes of St. Gond, made a sortie +from the base line at Nogent l'Abbesse to destroy the railway line +between Rheims and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page154" name="page154"></a>(p. 154)</span> Verdun, this line was, indeed, the +principal link of communication to that all-important fortress that +protruded its bristling salient into the heart of the German position. A +French aviator, who had climbed into his machine when it was yet dark, +in order to do a little daybreak scouting before the light should be +sufficiently bright to make him an easy target, saw this movement and +reported it immediately to General Foch. That commander, who knew how to +use cavalry, ordered a regiment at the gallop to occupy the village of +Auberive, on the Suippe, and there harry the advancing column +sufficiently to give him time to bring up the light artillery and to +bring into action a large body of infantry encamped at Jouchery, five +miles away.</p> + +<p>Before six o'clock, the cavalry were in Auberive. The men worked like +fiends. The streets were rapidly barricaded, machine guns hoisted to +roofs and other points where they might command a wide sweep of fire. +Then the cavalry rode forward to meet the advancing column. Not knowing +what might be in front of him, the German commander halted, awaiting +reports from his air scouts. The halt was but three-quarters of an hour, +but that was of vast importance. The scouts reported only a regiment of +cavalry ahead, but a powerful detachment of French artillery on the road +from Jouchery. The German leader detached 2,000 of the Death's Head +Hussars, his crack cavalry, to cut off, or at all events to delay, the +French guns. He was aware that the artillery would have no anticipation +of this and, in the surprise, the guns might be captured. Meantime, he +hurried his advance to Auberive, captured the village, though after +another hour's delay, caused by the resistance of the cavalry, who +retreated to St. Hilaire.</p> + +<p>Meantime, at St. Hilaire, the surprise charge of the Death's Head +Hussars was launched. It was scarcely a question of minutes, it was +rather a matter of seconds. But the French artillery knew their light +fieldpieces as thoroughly as the Germans were masters of the heavy guns. +In less than two minutes the artillery teams were unharnessed, the guns +were in position and the gunners took their places when the Hussars were +so near the voices of their leaders could be heard. Thirty seconds +earlier, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page155" name="page155"></a>(p. 155)</span> and the Hussars would have been in among the guns and +made a notable capture. There was just time enough for a man to breathe +twice, when the order came to fire. The Hussars were at less than a +hundred yards' range. As the shrapnel burst, the front squadrons seemed +to stumble and fall. The ranks were so near that the change from living +human beings into mangled pieces of flesh and rags could clearly be +seen. More than one veteran gunner felt squeamish at the sight. But the +rear squadrons, though their horses' hoofs were squelching in the blood +of their comrades of a moment before, never blenched or faltered but +swept on at a thundering gallop. Again the guns spoke, and again. That +was all. Amid the vines, here and there a writhing figure could be seen, +or a wounded horse endeavoring to rise, and here and there a straggler +striving to escape. It was level open country; twice again the guns +roared, five rounds in all, and all movement ceased. The engagement had +lasted less than five minutes and of those two thousand splendid +horsemen not one escaped. The French artillerists picked up the wounded +and sent them back to Rheims to receive nursing and care, and then +hurried on to the action whither they were bound when surprised by the +Hussars.</p> + +<p>The infantry of the Germans and of the French were now coming to hand +grips. A battalion of Zouaves was creeping round to attack the advancing +column in the rear. The German commander at Nogent l'Abbesse learned +from his air scouts what was happening. He saw the peril of the +advancing column, that it was almost surrounded, and he threw further +columns into the fray, to cover the retreat. The sortie on the railway +had now become impossible. General Foch had moved too quickly. But, even +so, the peril was great, for the German force was almost cut off. It +meant the loss of 15,000 men and artillery, or it meant the sacrifice of +some one corps to cover the retreat. The latter course was chosen.</p> + +<p>Three thousand of the Guards Corps, the flower of the Prussian Army, +were sent like a catapult at the gap in the French line, immediately in +front of Rheims. Five times they charged, and with such heroic daring +and such penetrative energy <span class="pagenum"><a id="page156" name="page156"></a>(p. 156)</span> that General Foch did not dare +break from his position. As they came up for the fifth assault, a wild +cheer of admiration broke out along the French line. But the rifles +spoke steadily, none the less for that. After the fifth assault, barely +a hundred men were left, nearly all wounded. They reversed rifles, a +sign of surrender, and in all honor they were received by General Foch, +who conducted them to the hospital in the rear. They lived up to the +full the most heroic traditions of the old Prussian corps and they saved +that whole German force from destruction. Still, with the annihilation +of the Death's Head Hussars and the remainder of the Prussian Guards +Corps on the same day, the forces under General Foch felt that in part +Rheims had been avenged.</p> + +<p>The other section of this second phase of the Aisne consisted of the +trench warfare, which solidified from September 19 to October 6, 1914, +under conditions of extreme difficulty and more than extreme discomfort. +It was practically the establishment of a trench campaign that lasted +all winter, and revived the centuries-old fortress warfare, applying it +under modern conditions to field fortifications. The French during that +winter on the Aisne never quite succeeded in rivaling the mechanical +precision of the German movements; the Germans, on the other hand, never +showed themselves to possess the emotional fervor of the French with the +bayonet.</p> + +<p>In many places German and Allies' trenches almost touched each other. +The first two weeks at the Aisne were one continual downpour, and the +foundation of that ground is chalk. On the sides of the plateau of +Craonne, after two weeks' rain, the chalky mud seemed bottomless. "It +filled the ears and eyes and throats of our men," wrote John Buchan, "it +plastered their clothing and mingled generously with their diet. Their +grandfathers, who had been at Sebastopol, could have told them something +about mud; but even after India and South Africa, the mire of the Aisne +seemed a grievous affliction." The fighting was constant, the nervous +strain exhausting, and the cold and wet were even harder to bear. There +had as yet been no time to build trenches with all conveniences, such as +the Germans possessed on the crest <span class="pagenum"><a id="page157" name="page157"></a>(p. 157)</span> of the ridge, and the +trenches of the Allies were a chilled inferno of woe.</p> + +<p>A stretch of waste ground lay between the trenches, and often for days +at a time the fire was too heavy to rescue the wounded or bring in the +dead. The men in the trenches, on either side, were compelled to hear +the groans of the wounded, lying in the open day after day, until +exhaustion, cold and pain brought them a merciful release. In letters +more than one soldier declared that the hardest thing to bear was to +hear a fellow comrade shrieking or groaning in agony a few steps away +for hours—even days at a time—and to be able to do nothing to help. +The stench from the unburied bodies was so great that officially all the +tobacco for the whole battle front was commandeered and sent to the +trenches under the plateau of Craonne and on the hill to the westward, +where the British First Army Corps was placed. Such, for the two weeks +between September 22, 1914, and October 6, 1914, was the trench warfare +during the second phase of the battle of the Aisne, a condition never +after repeated in the war, for such a feat as the crossing of the Aisne +could scarcely be duplicated. It was gallant, it was magnificent, and it +was costly—the British casualty list for September 12 to October 6, +1914, being, killed, wounded and missing, 561 officers and 12,980 +men—but it was useless, and only served to give the Allies a temporary +base whereby General Foch was successful in checking the German attempt +to capture the Rheims-Verdun railway. It was a victory of bravery, but +not a victory of result.</p> + +<p>During all these operations the Belgian army, now at Antwerp, had +harassed the German troops by frequent sorties. The capture of the city +was at once undertaken by the German Staff, following the stalemate +created by the operations at the Aisne.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page158" name="page158"></a>(p. 158)</span> CHAPTER XXV</h2> + +<p class="title">"THE RACE TO THE SEA"</p> + + +<p>The Germans, having failed in their first enveloping movement, attempted +a second after the battle of the Marne. They tried to repeat their +maneuver of August, endeavoring to overwhelm the French left; while the +French, on their side, tried to overwhelm the German right. Each of +these armies, by a converging movement, gradually drew its forces toward +the west. No sooner did the Germans bring up a new corps on their right +than the French brought up another on their left. Thus the front of the +battle ascended more and more to the west and north until arriving at +the sea it could go no farther. This is what has been called by French +military critics "The Race to the Sea." In this race to the sea the +Germans had a great advantage over the French. A glance at the map is +enough to make it understood. The concave form of the German front made +the lines of transportation shorter; they were within the interior of +the angle, while the French were at the exterior. On the German side +this movement drew into the line more than eighteen army corps, or +twelve active corps, six reserve corps, and four cavalry corps.</p> + +<a id="img013" name="img013"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/img013.jpg" width="400" height="634" alt="" title=""> +<p>These German soldiers are dragging a great siege gun into +position for use in refortifying the city of Antwerp.</p> +</div> + +<p>On the French side it resulted in the posting of the army of Castelnau +on the left of Manoury's army, in the deployment of the army of General +de Maud'huy to the left of the army of Castelnau, in the transference of +the British army to the left of the army of Maud'huy, in the relegation +of the army of Urbal to the left of the British army, the army of Urbal +being later flanked by the Belgian army which came out of Antwerp. In +order to accomplish this new and extended disposition of forces the +French General Staff was compelled to reduce to their extreme limits the +effective strengths of the armies of the east and of the Oise, and as a +result to make the maximum use of the means of transport. In this it +succeeded. When the great battle of Flanders was waged toward the end of +October, the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page159" name="page159"></a>(p. 159)</span> Germans, trying to turn the French left and to +pierce it, found themselves facing considerable French forces, which, +allied with the British and Belgian armies, completely barred the +passage against them.</p> + +<p>From the 15th of September, 1914, it was clear that the Germans were +making a great effort to try and overwhelm the French left. General +Joffre parried the attack, reenforcing at first the army of Manoury by +an army corps, then transferring to the left of the army of Manoury the +entire army of Castelnau that was in Lorraine. A corps of cavalry and +four territorial divisions commanded by General Brugère received the +order to establish itself on both banks of the Somme and protect the +detraining of the army of Castelnau.</p> + +<p>From September 21 to September 26, 1914, all the French forces that had +newly arrived were engaged in the Lassigny-Reye-Péronne region. They +succeeded in withstanding, not without difficulty, the German attack, +but they could not advance. The Germans determinedly and unweariedly +continued to mass new forces on their right. On the left of the army of +Castelnau it was therefore necessary to establish a new army. It was +established on September 30, 1914, under the command of General +Maud'huy. From the first days of October this army waged violent +conflicts in the region of Arras and of Lens. It found facing it two +German cavalry corps, the Guard, four active army corps, and two reserve +corps.</p> + +<p>General Joffre continued without intermission to send new forces to the +left. On October 4, 1914, he called on General Foch in the north and +charged him with the duty of coordinating the action of all the armies +in that region: those of De Castelnau, Maud'huy, and the territorial +divisions. At the beginning of October the British army, which was +posted on the Aisne, was transferred to the left of the French armies +and replaced by the armies of Manoury and d'Espérey. The Belgian army, +issuing from Antwerp on October 9, 1914, effected its retreat, covered +by the British naval forces and 6,000 French marines. It took its place +on the Yser Canal between Nieuport and Dixmude.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page160" name="page160"></a>(p. 160)</span> The Germans continuing their efforts to turn the French left, +it was found necessary again to strengthen that left considerably; and +new French army corps were transferred to Flanders and Belgium. It was a +new French army that was established and the command of it was intrusted +to General d'Urbal. It consisted at first of two divisions of +territorials and four divisions of cavalry of the corps of General de +Mitry, along with a brigade of naval fusiliers. But from October 27 to +November 11, 1914, it received considerable reenforcements.</p> + +<p>During the second week in November the German attack revealing its +purpose more clearly, General Joffre sent four more battalions of +chasseurs and four more brigades of infantry. The reenforcements sent to +the French army of the north totaled as a result five army corps, a +division of cavalry, a territorial division, sixteen cavalry regiments, +and more than sixty pieces of heavy artillery.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XXVI</h2> + +<p class="title">SIEGE AND FALL OF ANTWERP</p> + + +<p>The siege of Antwerp began on September 29, 1914, and in less than two +weeks, October 10, 1914, this historic city, one of the most important +trade centers of the world and one of the strongest fortresses in +Europe, was forced to capitulate, though it had always been believed to +be impregnable.</p> + +<p>During the latter part of September, 1914, the forces of the +belligerents were driving northward in that memorable race for the +Channel in which both sides had the same object; each was trying to be +the first to turn the other's front and crumble his line.</p> + +<p>At the same time the German forces, then in the vicinity of Brussels, +under the command of General von Beseler, pushed toward Antwerp, on +which the Belgian army had fallen back to make its last stand. This move +was necessary in order to cut off all danger of rear attacks which would +menace General <span class="pagenum"><a id="page161" name="page161"></a>(p. 161)</span> von Kluck's drive to the coast, a movement +which had reached Douai on October 1, 1914.</p> + +<p>The German General Staff had decided to take Antwerp at all cost. +General von Beseler on the last day of September, 1914, reached a point +within range of Antwerp's farthest outer forts.</p> + +<p>In order to understand the record of the following successive steps in +the siege of Antwerp, a description of this city's position and the +location of its double circle of forts is necessary. Antwerp was +considered one of the most formidable strongholds in the world. The +elaborate defenses of Antwerp evolved from the original fortifications +of thirty years ago through continual additions. The location of the +city offers very many natural advantages for its defense, and the +engineering genius controlling the work made full use of these +opportunities. From the north Antwerp has access to the sea by the river +Scheldt, of which the arm nearest to the city is narrow, with six strong +forts on each bank, including the citadel.</p> + +<a id="img014" name="img014"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/img014.jpg"> +<img src="images/img014tb.jpg" width="500" height="367" alt="" title=""></a> +<p>Liege Forts, Showing German Attack.</p> +</div> + +<a id="img015" name="img015"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/img015.jpg"> +<img src="images/img015tb.jpg" width="500" height="331" alt="" title=""></a> +<p>Siege and Fall of Antwerp.</p> +</div> + +<p>Any armies approaching from the south must cross the rivers Rupel and +Nethe, which practically, in the shape of a semicircle, swing around the +city to the south at a distance varying from about six to twelve miles. +Within this circle of flowing water, and about two miles from the city, +is another circle, formed by twelve powerful forts. At a point almost +due east from the center of the city and commanding the railroad to +Holland, by way of Turnhout, is located the first of eight forts, +designated by numbers. From there they swing to the south and west, with +fort eight very close to the Scheldt and directly south to the village +of Hoboken. On the other side of the river are Forts de Cruibeke and +Zwyndrecht, the latter commanding the railroad to Ghent. Further north +and right on the banks of the Scheldt are Forts St. Marie, la Perle, and +St. Philip, the first two on the left bank and the last on the right, +all three opposite the new harbor and docks. In the northeast Fort de +Merkem guards the railroad to Rotterdam. Outside of this circle and in +the south, outside of the Nethe-Rupel line, there is another complete +circle of nineteen even stronger forts, at a distance from <span class="pagenum"><a id="page163" name="page163"></a>(p. 163)</span> +the city varying between five and ten miles. Starting again in the +east—due east from fort one—and swinging south, these forts are named: +Oeleghem, Broeckem, Kessel, Lierre, Koningshoyckt, Wavre St. Catherine, +Waelhem—the last two only a few miles north of Malines—Breendonck, +Liezel, Bornem, Rupelmonde, Haesdonck, Doel, Blauwgaren—the last two +guarding the Scheldt at the point of its entrance into Holland, one on +each bank—Stabroek, Ertbrand, Brasschaet, Schooten, and Gravenwezel. +Between these outer forts there were redoubts of considerable strength, +which were armed with 4-inch guns. The forts of the inner ring are +placed at regular intervals of 2,200 yards and at a distance of about +3,500 yards from the enceinte of the city, which itself had powerful +defenses as well.</p> + +<p>Add to these defenses the important fact that the entire district +surrounding Antwerp was subject to inundation to such a depth that all +approach to the city could be made impracticable to an enemy force with +heavy cannon and ammunition. Military authorities held Antwerp to be of +incomparable strength and as nearly impregnable as engineering genius +could make it.</p> + +<p>During the latter part of September, 1914, several of the outer forts +were subjected to bombardment, and many of these had become useless as +defenses.</p> + +<p>General von Beseler's advance was still barred by the river Nethe, upon +the opposite bank of which the defense was concentrated. During the +engagements which now ensued the German aircraft kept the commanders +advised as to conditions behind the enemy's lines, now and then dropping +bombs, apparently doing considerable damage.</p> + +<p>On October 2, 1914, General von Beseler scattered from "Taube" +aeroplanes a number of printed papers over the entire district. These +circulars contained a proclamation to the Belgian soldiers, advising +them to stop fighting for England and Russia and to return home to their +wives and children, as Germany was ready to help and befriend them.</p> + +<p>The Belgian Government, which had established itself in Antwerp after +the occupation of Brussels, decided to leave the city as soon as +possible. Two small steamers were ordered to be <span class="pagenum"><a id="page164" name="page164"></a>(p. 164)</span> held in +readiness. The foreign legations also decided to go with the Government.</p> + +<p>Throughout this day a steady fire was kept up on the nearest outer +forts, but the Belgian soldiers contested every inch of ground against +the German advance. This fighting continued throughout the entire day +following, during which two of the minor outer forts were silenced.</p> + +<p>Rapid progress by the Germans was very difficult owing to the peculiar +conformation of the course of the river Scheldt at the point of attack. +This made especially difficult the laying of concrete foundations for +the heavy guns.</p> + +<p>The first detachment of British troops, numbering about 8,000 marines, +reached Antwerp on October 3, 1914. This buoyed up the spirits of the +Belgian soldiers and redoubled their efforts. Under cover of the +continuous fire of their guns, the Germans made determined efforts to +cross the river Nethe at Waelhem. Desperate fighting, which lasted all +night and until early in the morning of October 4, took place. This +attempt, however, failed. Later in the day the Germans succeeded in +putting a pontoon bridge in place. Troops in solid masses hurried +across; but as they reached the other side some well-directed shots from +the Belgian guns blew the pontoon bridge to pieces, killing many.</p> + +<p>Throughout the night of October 4, 1914, and the day and night of +October 5, the battle raged about Lierre with savage ferocity. The +British marines had by this time relieved the Belgians. The German fire, +however, compelled the defenders to draw back a considerable distance.</p> + +<p>At four o'clock in the morning of October 6, 1914, the Germans succeeded +in crossing the river in force, and now the defenders were obliged to +give way, as the outer forts had ceased to afford them any protection. +Late in the afternoon the members of the Belgian Cabinet and their +official families went aboard one steamer, while the French and British +Legations boarded another, both sailing early on October 7.</p> + +<p>The Belgian troops had begun to withdraw the evening before. All the +defending forces now hastened their retreat. The actual evacuation had +indeed begun. Time was taken, however, to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page165" name="page165"></a>(p. 165)</span> put out of +commission some thirty steamships lying at their docks and to set afire +all the large oil tanks on the west side of the river Scheldt. The +streets in Antwerp presented scenes of almost indescribable confusion. +Even before the bombardment had been long in operation almost the entire +civil population became panic-stricken. Hither and thither, wherever the +crowd drifted, explosions obstructed their paths; fronts of buildings +bent over and fell into the streets, in many cases crushing their +occupants. Although the burgomaster had issued a proclamation advising +the people to remain calm—indoors, if possible—nothing could stop the +stampede.</p> + +<p>The defending troops withdrawing through the city from the firing line +destroyed everything that might possibly be of use to the enemy. The +suburbs of Antwerp seemed to be ablaze in every direction; the village +of Waerloos had been burning for some days; Contich, Duffel, and Lierre +also, and Have, Linth, and Vieux Dieu had been destroyed by shell fire. +Mortsel was practically obliterated by the Belgians clearing the range +for the guns of the inner forts. In the preparation for defense the +Belgians destroyed upward of ten thousand buildings within a radius of +twenty miles.</p> + +<p>The exodus of the civil population began in earnest on October 8, 1914. +Some of the streets in the heart of the city were choked with people, +while other streets in the same vicinity were dead and deserted. The +withdrawal of the troops was well screened from the German guns, but +their retreat to the west had been cut off to a great extent, and +Holland was now the only refuge for many. The Germans did not use their +heaviest guns and high-explosive shells in bombarding the city.</p> + +<p>During this terrible time, in utter darkness and confusion, crowds +amounting to many thousands—men, and women with babies, and children of +all ages—streamed through the streets that led to the quays or to the +turnpike to Holland. All sorts of vehicles, from dogcarts to motor +trucks, the former drawn by dogs, men, and horses, carried the +belongings of the fugitives that could not be carried away in person.</p> + +<p>The bombardment continued with varying severity throughout <span class="pagenum"><a id="page166" name="page166"></a>(p. 166)</span> +October 8, 1914. As the Germans drew nearer to the city all the inner +forts on the south and east sides of the circle took part in replying to +the cannonade. Some of these forts—notably two, three, four, and +five—were badly battered. By afternoon the city seemed +deserted—nothing but débris of fallen buildings and wreckage met the +eyes, and a small remnant of the population was still struggling for +escape.</p> + +<p>Along all the wayside immense crowds of men, women, and children +gathered. The railway stations were choked with struggling humanity. +Their condition was pitiable. These scenes continued all day and +throughout the entire night.</p> + +<p>On the morning of October 9, 1914, the struggle to get away continued. +Long lines formed on the quay where it had been reported that two boats +would leave for Ostend by eleven o'clock, and all those that could pay +struggled to get their passage booked. There were between 35,000 and +40,000 people on the quays, every one buoyed up by the hope that safety +was in sight at last. But the boats failed to sail and a murmur of +disappointment rose from this vast multitude of unfortunates.</p> + +<p>However, there were other means of escape available, such as tugboats, +plying between Flushing, Rotterdam, and other adjacent points in +Holland. These tugs had no great accommodations for passengers and +comparatively few people escaped by this means. No trains were scheduled +to run and in despair the crowds started to cross the bridge and make +for the road to the Dutch frontier. Altogether from 150,000 to 200,000 +of the population of the city escaped by one means or another.</p> + +<p>During a continuous bombardment of twelve hours the cathedral stood +unharmed. The southern part of Antwerp was a desolate waste of ruins. In +some streets all the homes were ablaze, the flames leaping hither and +thither with the wind. The great oil tanks burning fiercely on the +opposite bank of the River Scheldt were fired upon by some well-directed +shots to check the blaze, a huge black volume of thick smoke now rising +from the flames. To add to the difficulties and confusion the water +supply had been cut off during the early stages of the bombardment +through the destruction of the city's waterworks which were located +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page167" name="page167"></a>(p. 167)</span> in one of the suburbs to the south, and the consequences +threatened to become alarming. Everywhere fires were burning.</p> + +<p>This was the tragic scene when the German army entered the conquered +city of Antwerp on October 10, 1914. It is probable that a large part of +the city would have been burned, if the Germans had not entered in time +to check the conflagration. Without loss of time, forces were put to +work fighting the fires and clearing the streets, propping up unsafe +buildings and making order out of chaos, generally with good results. As +soon as the bombardment had ceased proclamations were pasted on walls +and houses throughout the city urging everyone to surrender any arms in +their possession and begging for a calm demeanor when the German troops +pass through the streets.</p> + +<p>About noon on October 10, 1914, a patrol of cyclist-mounted police +escorted the burgomaster to the gate of the city to receive the German +forces. When they entered order was restored without delay. Soldiers +were immediately detached from their special command and formed into +gangs under competent foremen and all put to work at once each according +to his trade, fitness or adaptability. The forts that had been +dismantled were hastily patched up and new guns mounted for emergency +use.</p> + +<p>On October 11, 1914, Field Marshal von der Goltz, the Governor General +of Belgium, came from Brussels and made a tour of inspection of the +double girdle of forts. Upon examination it was found that the actual +damage done to the city by the bombardment was comparatively slight.</p> + +<p>During the last days of Antwerp's reign of terror fully 300,000 +fugitives sought shelter in Bergen-op-Zoom about twenty-five miles +northward across the Dutch frontier. Most of these were in a condition +almost indescribable, ragged, travel-worn, shoeless, and bespattered and +hungry. Few had money; valuables or other resources. All they owned they +carried on their backs or in bundles. The little Dutch town of +Bergen-op-Zoom with but 15,000 inhabitants was swamped; but the +Hollanders did their best to meet this terrible pressure and its +citizens went without bread themselves to feed the refugees. Slowly some +sort of order was organized out of the chaos and when the Dutch +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page168" name="page168"></a>(p. 168)</span> Government was able to establish refugee camps under military +supervision the worst was over. A majority of this vast army was by +degrees distributed in the surrounding territory where tent +accommodations had been completed. The good Hollanders provided for the +children with especial care and sympathy. They supplied milk for the +babies and children generally. Devoted priests comforted many; but +military organization prevailed over all. Among the thousands of these +poor refugees that crossed the frontier at Maastricht and besieged the +doors of the Belgian consul there was no railing or declaiming against +the horror of their situation. The pathos of lonely, staring, apathetic +endurance was tragic beyond expression.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XXVII</h2> + +<p class="title">YSER BATTLES—ATTACK ON YPRES</p> + + +<p>A large part of the Belgian forces with some of the English marines were +forced across the Dutch border, where they were promptly disarmed and +interned, while the remnants of these forces retreated toward the west +by way of St. Nicolas and reached Ostend on October 11 and 12, 1914, +with greatly reduced numbers. Many were cut off and captured by the +German forces, which entered Ghent on October 12, and pressed on to +Ypres in one direction and to Lille in another. Next day, the +thirteenth, they approached Ostend, forcing these Belgians who had +managed to get through, to evacuate.</p> + +<p>Bruges was occupied by the German forces on October 14, 1914, and other +detachments appeared in Thielt, Daume, and Esschen on the same day, thus +getting under their control the entire Kingdom of Belgium, with the +exception of the northwestern corner, north of Ypres, to the coast of +the channel. For Ostend, too, had fallen into their hands by October 15, +after the English and Belgian troops had been taken away by an English +fleet; the Belgians were transported to France where they were <span class="pagenum"><a id="page169" name="page169"></a>(p. 169)</span> +re-formed while the English marines were sent back to England.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the Germans were drawing on reenforcements from the +Vosges and the Champagne districts and every day their numbers +increased. West Flanders was swarming with German cavalry, and about +this time they were as far west as Hazebrouck and Cassel, and only +twenty-five miles distant from Dunkirk.</p> + +<p>By October 20, 1914, the allied line was in position from Albert to the +sea, a little short of 100 miles, eighty as the crow flies. From south +to north the allied front was commanded by General Maud'huy from Albert +to Vermelles; General Smith-Dorrien from Vermelles to Laventie, opposite +Lille; General Poultney, from Laventie to Messines; General Haig from +Messines to Bixschoote; General de Mitry had French and Belgian mixed +troops defending the line from Bixschoote to Nieuport and the sea, +supported by an English and French fleet.</p> + +<p>For days this fleet under the British Admiral Hood had shelled the coast +defenses under General von Beseler's command. As the naval guns had a +far better range than General von Beseler's artillery, it was an easy +matter to hold the coast at Nieuport Bains, and even six miles inland +without subjecting any of the ships to the fire of the German guns.</p> + +<p>On the German side General von Bülow held the front against General +Maud'huy, the Bavarian Crown Prince against General Smith-Dorrien, while +the Duke of Württemberg commanded the forces on the balance of the line +to the sea. It is estimated that upward of thirty army corps covered the +German front.</p> + +<p>Throughout the balance of October, 1914, and well into November, 1914, a +great many different actions and some of the heaviest fighting of this +period took place all along this line. On the 21st the new German +formations pressed forward in great force all along the line. On the +south of the Lys the Germans assaulted Violaines. On the north of the +Lys in the English center a fiercely contested action took place near La +Gheir, which village the Germans captured in the morning. The German +Twenty-sixth Reserve Corps pressed on to Passchendale, where they met +with stout resistance from the English-Belgian forces.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page170" name="page170"></a>(p. 170)</span> On October 22, 1914, the Germans attacked from the La Bassée +region and gained several small villages. Both Allies and Germans +suffered immense losses. Much of the slaughter was due to the +point-blank magazine fire and the intermittent shrapnel explosions from +both sides.</p> + +<p>The most savage fighting was kept up all along the line, but no +advantage accrued to either side until Friday, October 28, 1914, when +the Germans succeeded in crossing the Yser at St. George and forcing +their way two miles to Ramscapelle, retaken on the 30th by General +Grossetti. This was accomplished by General von Beseler's troops, +opposing the mixed troops of the Belgian and French. On that night +fourteen separate attacks were made by the Germans on Dixmude and they +were repulsed each time.</p> + +<p>On October 24, 1914, about 5,000 German troops crossed the canal at +Schoorbakke and next day there were more to come, so for the moment it +looked as though the allied line on the Yser had been broken. The +struggle at this point continued until October 28, during which time the +Allies contested every inch of ground. The kaiser was with the Duke of +Württemberg on this day, expecting every moment that his great design to +break through the lines and drive his forces to Dunkirk and Calais would +be accomplished.</p> + +<p>At the crisis the Belgians broke down the dykes and flooded the country +for miles around. Heavy rains during the last weeks had swelled the +Yser. The Belgians had dammed the lower reaches of the canal; the Yser +lipped over its brim and spread lagoons over the flat meadows. Soon the +German forces on the west bank were floundering in a foot of water, +while their guns were waterlogged and deep in mud. The Germans did not +abandon their efforts. The kaiser called for volunteers to carry +Ramscapelle—two Württemberg brigades responded—and gained the place, +but at terrible loss.</p> + +<p>On the 30th of October, 1914, again the Württembergers advanced to the +attack. They waded through sloppy fields from the bridgeheads at St. +George and Schoorbakke, and by means of table tops, boards, planks and +other devices crossed the deeper dykes. So furious was the attack +pressed home that they won <span class="pagenum"><a id="page171" name="page171"></a>(p. 171)</span> the railway line and held their +ground. They were to do some severe fighting, however, for next day +French-Belgian and African mixed troops fought fiercely to drive the +Germans back but failed.</p> + +<p>Seeing their success in partially flooding the battle field, the +Belgians made more breaches in the dams, and, opening the sluices in the +canal, threw a flood of water greater still over the area occupied by +the Germans. In seething brown waves the water rose up to the high +ground at the railway near Ramscapelle. The Germans were caught in this +tide and scores of them were drowned. Many escaped, some struggled to +land on the Allies front and were made prisoners.</p> + +<p>Sir John French summarized part of the fighting in Flanders, after the +capture of Antwerp, in the following official report: "The Second Corps +under General Smith-Dorrien was opposed by overpowering forces of +Germans, but nevertheless advanced until October 18, 1914, when the +German opposition compelled a reenforcement. Six days later the Lahore +Division of the Indian Army was sent to support the Second Corps. On +October 16, Sir Henry Rawlinson, who had covered the retreat of the +Belgian army from Antwerp, with two divisions of English cavalry and two +divisions of French infantry, was stationed on the line east of Ypres +under orders to operate over a wide front and to keep possession of all +the ground held by the Allies until the First Army Corps could reach +Ypres.</p> + +<p>"General Rawlinson was opposed by superior forces and was unable to +prevent the Germans from getting large reenforcements. With four +divisions holding a much wider front than their size justified he faced +a rather awkward situation, as the enemy was massed from the Lys.</p> + +<p>"The shattered Belgian army and the weary French troops advanced to +check the Germans—but in vain. Sir Douglas Haig with the First Army +Corps was sent to recapture Bruges on October 19, 1914, while the +Belgian army intrenched along the Yser Canal. General Haig failed—owing +to bad roads. October 21 brought the most severe attack made on the +First Corps at Ypres, in the checking of which the Worcestershire +Regiment did <span class="pagenum"><a id="page172" name="page172"></a>(p. 172)</span> good work. This day marked the most critical +period in the battle which resulted in the recapture of the village of +Gheluvelt."</p> + +<p>South of Dixmude is one of the most historic and quaintly attractive +cities of Belgium, Ypres. It is situated on a tributary of the Yser +called the Yperlee, and a railway runs through it from Roulers to the +main Lille—St. Ower line at Hazebrouck and a very important canal runs +from the Yser in the north to the Lys at Comines.</p> + +<p>The allied lines were held by the British First and Third Corps and +several cavalry divisions, at this point all under the chief command of +General Haig, while the Bavarian Crown Prince directed the movements of +the German forces. On October 20, 1914, the allied line stretched—a few +miles to the northeast of Ypres—from Bixschoote to the crossroads a +mile and a half northwest of Zonnebeke. The cavalry only were kept busy +during this day, while the other forces were making elaborate +preparations for the main drive. The great attack was delivered October +21 against the point of the salient between Zonnebeke and Besselaere. +The allied line on the left was so much exposed that the Twenty-second +Brigade was enfiladed by the Germans at the very beginning, and in the +center the Germans pierced the line held by the Royal Scots Fusiliers, +with the Yorkshires on the extreme right. The fierce assaults from both +sides ended in a draw for this day.</p> + +<p>On October 22, 1914, the fighting was most severe all day; but later in +the day the most violent assault of all was made by the Germans upon the +First Brigade on the left. There the trenches were held by the Camerons, +north of Pilkem on the Langemarck—Bixschoote road. Here the Germans +broke the line and succeeded in capturing part of the Camerons—the +famous Red Tartans. Further south, the Royal Scots Fusiliers were +obliged to give way. The Germans pressed hard in the vicinity of +Hollebeke which point opened a clear road to Ypres; but here the allied +forces stood their ground. Still farther south the Essex Regiment and +the Lancashire Fusiliers fought savagely, but were driven back upon +Armentierre when night fell.</p> + +<a id="img016" name="img016"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/img016.jpg"> +<img src="images/img016tb.jpg" width="300" height="438" alt="" title=""></a> +<p>Battle Front in Flanders.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page174" name="page174"></a>(p. 174)</span> Early Friday morning, October 23, 1914, the Allies made a +desperate assault upon the trenches lost by the Camerons on the previous +day. The fighting culminated in a savage bayonet attack which resulted +in the recapture of these trenches by the British composed of the King's +Royal Rifles, the Royal West Surrey Regiment and the Northamptons.</p> + +<p>On October 24, 1914, the Germans advanced upon the allied extreme left; +but were successfully repulsed between Zonnebeke and Poelcapelle. Later +in the day the Germans renewed their attack and compelled the allied +troops to retire some distance.</p> + +<p>The advance on the allied left was continued on Sunday, October 25, +1914. Repeatedly the Germans succeeded in piercing the allied lines; but +at one time, even though they had broken through, a momentary lack of +reserves compelled them to retreat to avoid capture. A savage enveloping +attack was made during the night, north of Zandvoorde, where again the +Germans broke through the allied lines, but were unable to maintain +their advantage through failure of reenforcements to come up in time. +The Leicester Brigade were shelled out of their trenches and were +obliged to fall back to the south of the River Lys.</p> + +<p>During the following three days—October 26, 27, 28, 1914—artillery +fire was resorted to and desultory fighting and skirmishes along the +entire line resulted in no noteworthy advantage to either belligerent.</p> + +<p>Thursday, October 29, 1914, opened with clear and bracing weather which +promised to continue throughout the day. The German attack which had +been preparing for the past three days now broke like an irresistible +wave upon the salient of the Gheluvelt crossroads, where the British +First Corps was stationed. The first division was driven back from its +trenches and after that the line swayed forward and backward for hours, +but by two o'clock in the afternoon the position remained unchanged.</p> + +<p>With the coming of the dawn on October 30, 1914, the fighting was +resumed with even more savage determination on both sides. The hottest +engagement centered about the ridge of Zandvoorde. German artillery fire +cleared the allied trenches, burying many <span class="pagenum"><a id="page175" name="page175"></a>(p. 175)</span> of the British +soldiers alive under mountains of earth and débris. This forced the line +to retreat a full mile to Klein Zillebeke to the north. The kaiser +witnessed this engagement and by his presence cheered the German +soldiers on to the most desperate fighting.</p> + +<p>On the following day October 31, 1914, the crisis came. The fighting +began along the Menin-Ypres road early in the morning and advanced with +great violence upon the village of Gheluvelt. The First and Third +Brigades of the First Division were swept back and the First Coldstream +Guards were wiped out as a unit. The whole division was driven back from +Gheluvelt to the woods between Veldhoek and Hooge. The allied +headquarters at Hooge were shelled. General Lomas was wounded and six of +the staff officers were killed.</p> + +<p>The Royal Fusiliers who desperately stuck to their trenches fighting +savagely were cut off and destroyed. Out of a thousand but seventy +soldiers remained. Between two and three o'clock there occurred the most +desperate fighting seen in the battle of Ypres. At 2:30 o'clock in the +afternoon the Allies recaptured Gheluvelt at the point of the bayonet +and by evening the Allies had regained their position. Ypres had not +been captured by the Germans by this time, but they had secured their +position in all the suburbs of Ypres and had that city at their mercy, +provided allied reenforcements ordered up did not obstruct their path.</p> + +<p>The fighting still continued for part of November, 1914, but for the +month of October no definite result was to be recorded.</p> + +<p>At Ypres, on November 2, 1914, the Germans captured 2,300 English troops +and many machine guns. Dixmude was stormed by the Germans on the 10th of +November, and they crossed the Yser Canal, capturing the Allies position +west of Langemark, also driving them out of St. Eloi. Snow and floods +interfered with the fighting along the battle front. Ypres was bombarded +on several occasions and was repeatedly set on fire.</p> + +<p>November 11, 1914, was another day of severe fighting. At daybreak the +Germans opened fire on the allied trenches to the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page176" name="page176"></a>(p. 176)</span> north and +south of the road from Menin to Ypres. After a furious artillery fire +the Germans drove their men forward in full force. This attack was +carried out by the First and Fourth brigades of the Prussian Guard Corps +which had been especially selected to capture Ypres if possible, since +that task had proved too heavy for the infantry of the line. As the +Germans surged forward they were met by a frontal fire from the allied +lines, and as they were moving diagonally across part of the allied +front, they were also attacked on the flank by the English artillery. +Though the casualties of the Germans were enormous before they reached +the English lines, such was their strength and the momentum of the mass +that, in spite of the splendid resistance of the English troops, the +Germans succeeded in breaking through the allied lines in several places +near the road. They penetrated some distance into the woods behind the +English trenches, where some of the bloodiest fighting of the entire war +took place.</p> + +<p>On November 12, 1914, comparative quiet reigned and with the exception +of artillery duels and some desultory fighting no results were obtained +on either side. The British report makes this comment on this attempt +upon Ypres: "Their (the Prussian Guard Corps') dogged perseverance in +pursuance of their objective claims admiration.</p> + +<p>"The failure of one great attack, heralded as it was by an impassioned +appeal to the troops made in the presence of the emperor himself, but +carried out by partially trained men, has been only the signal for +another desperate effort in which the place of honor was assigned to the +corps d'élite of the German army.</p> + +<p>"It must be admitted that the Guard Corps has retained that reputation +for courage and contempt of death which it earned in 1870, when Emperor +William I, after the battle of Gravelotte, wrote: 'My Guard has formed +its grave in front of St. Privat,' and the swarms of men who came up +bravely to the British rifles in the woods around Ypres repeated the +tactics of forty-four years ago, when their dense columns, toiling up +the slopes of St. Privat, melted away under the fire of the French."</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page177" name="page177"></a>(p. 177)</span> Ypres was now but a name. Nothing but a mass of ruins reminded +the world of its previous quaint splendor. For Ypres had been rich in +historic buildings and monuments of past days.</p> + +<p>With the fall of Antwerp the Germans had made every effort to push +forward strong forces toward the west and had hastened to bring up new +army corps which had been hurriedly organized, their object being to +drive the Allies out of Belgium and break through to Dunkirk and Calais. +Altogether they collected 250,000 fresh men. Eventually the Germans had +north of La Bassée about fourteen corps and eight cavalry divisions, a +force of 750,000 men, with which to attempt to drive the Allies into the +sea. In addition there was immensely powerful armament and heavy siege +artillery, which also had been brought up from around Antwerp. But in +spite of these strong forces it became clearly evident by the middle of +November that the attempt to break through to Calais had failed for the +time being. The flooding of the Yser marks the end of the main struggle +for Calais. The battle fronts had shifted. Between them there was a mile +or two of mud and water. The Belgians had lost a quarter of their +effectives. The Germans had evacuated the west bank of the Yser and were +obliged to return to the point from which they had started.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XXVIII</h2> + +<p class="title">ATTACKS ON LA BASSÉE AND ARRAS</p> + + +<p>While the engagement on the Yser was in progress in October, 1914, +fierce fighting was kept up in the second section of the battle front, +pivoting on Givenchy to the south and running east to the north of the +La Bassée-Lille road. In this section the forces of the Crown Prince of +Bavaria opposed the troops under the command of General Smith-Dorrien.</p> + +<p>From October 1 to 3, 1914, considerable fighting went on in the flats +east of Arras between Lens and the River Scarpe. This resulted <span class="pagenum"><a id="page178" name="page178"></a>(p. 178)</span> +in the retirement of the Allies on the 4th. The Germans began to bombard +Arras, keeping it up until the 6th, when their attempt to take the city +next day was successfully repulsed. On October 8, the Germans, then +holding Douai and Lens, were shelling Lille, then held by the British +territorials. For the next two weeks artillery duels alternated with +trench fighting and skirmishing.</p> + +<p>The main attack at La Bassée covered fully ten days, lasting from +October 22, 1914, to November 2, 1914. The first severe fighting came as +has already been mentioned, on October 22, 1914. The British were driven +out of the village of Violaines, which is situated on the road between +Lorgies and Givenchy, and General Smith-Dorrien was compelled to retreat +to the village of Faugissant, to the south of Lavantie.</p> + +<p>On October 24, 1914, the Germans attacked heavily along the entire line, +and the First Gordon Highlanders were driven out of their trenches. For +three days the most savage fighting continued, resulting in the capture +of Neuve Chapelle by the Germans on October 27, which was defended by +East Indian troops. The fighting was desperate on both sides and became +much confused, as units here and there had succeeded in breaking through +their respective opponents' lines. All of this day and the next, October +28, this struggle continued, but the Germans maintained the ground they +had won, forcing the allied forces to retire in order to re-form their +lines.</p> + +<p>On October 29, 1914, the Germans attacked at Festubert, and gained +several of the allied trenches after a severe struggle lasting +throughout the day. Again the Germans maintained their new position, +compelling the Indian troops to retire to the defense of the La Bassée +gate, where they were joined by several British brigades and the Second +Corps Artillery.</p> + +<p>October 30, 1914, was consumed in continuous artillery duels, which held +the lines while the troops enjoyed much needed rest.</p> + +<p>On October 31, 1914, the Indian forces were again savagely attacked by +the Germans whose machine guns enfiladed them in their trenches. This +attack has become noted for the great loss of British officers +commanding the Hindus.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page179" name="page179"></a>(p. 179)</span> Concurrent with this fighting the Germans also made the most +savage onslaughts further south, with the object of capturing Arras. The +main attack against this important French city began on October 20, +1914, and lasted six days until the evening of October 26. The Germans +in having possession of Lens had a great advantage, as they were thereby +enabled to threaten the allied left center, which was stationed to the +west of Lens; for, just south from the town, ran a railway which +connected with the main line three miles east of Arras, called the +Arras—Douai—Lille line. This gave the Germans a perfect system of +lateral communications.</p> + +<p>The German general, Von Bülow, commanding the Prussian Guard Corps led +the attack on October 24, 1914, when he pushed his forces, fighting for +every inch of the ground, to within gun range of the city of Arras. All +day the most desperate fighting continued and had not General Maud'huy +received the reenforcements which hurriedly came up just when needed the +northern gates of Arras would have been gained by the Germans, who were +held back in a position near enough, however, to subject Arras to +another bombardment and the shell fire from this position rained upon +Arras to the end of the month and some six days into November.</p> + +<p>From the date of the entry of the French into Alsace on August 7, 1914, +the battle front in France extended from the Swiss frontier, north +through western Alsace, thence in a northwesterly direction to a point +where the line met the front of the German forces advancing on Paris.</p> + +<p>On October 1, 1914, this battle front extended in an unbroken line from +Switzerland to the city of Douai in northeastern France. The Crown +Prince of Bavaria commanded in the first section from Alsace to midway +between Nancy and Verdun; the Crown Prince of Prussia directed the +Verdun section reaching from west of Thiaucourt to Montfaucon; the Duke +of Württemberg to Massiges; General von Hausen thence to Bery-au-Bac; +General von Bülow to a point directly north of Soissons; General von +Kluck in a northwesterly direction to a point west of Noyon and onward +to the north and northeast to Douai, which <span class="pagenum"><a id="page180" name="page180"></a>(p. 180)</span> is about fifteen +miles northeast of Arras, from which point north the campaign has been +described. The French army opposing this German front was under the +supreme command of General Joffre. The commanding officers in the +various sectors of this front were being continually changed, making it +difficult to name the commanders in each sector, except when some more +or less noteworthy engagement had taken place along the line. The battle +front here described did not materially change throughout the months of +October, 1914, to February 1, 1915. Continual engagements took place +along this entire front—a gain of a few yards here balanced by a loss +of a like distance elsewhere.</p> + +<p>Both belligerents had securely intrenched themselves. The pickax and +spade were far more in use than the rifle, so that now cold weather +coming on, the soldiers on both sides of the front were able to make the +trenches quite comfortable. In many instances they laid down plank +floors and lined the walls with boards, put up stoves, constructed +sleeping bunks and tables, stools and benches, and even decorated the +rooms thus evolved with anything suitable for the purpose. Pictures and +photographs from home were the favorite decorations. All this was +impossible for their brethren in the north and in Flanders, where the +activities of the conflict subjected the soldiers to continual changes +and removals.</p> + +<p>The main objective of the Germans was the French fortresses Belfort, +Epinal, Toul, and Verdun, for these obstructed the march to Paris. The +continual onslaughts and counterassaults made upon this line left it +practically unchanged during the month of October, 1914, in which time +no engagements worthy of the name "battle" occurred. The fighting in the +north had been so desperate that it completely obscured the activities +on the entire line to the south.</p> + +<p>The net gains during the months of October and November, 1914, for +either belligerent were practically nil. From Belfort in the south to +Arras in the north the advance or retreat in any given section was but a +matter of yards; a ridge, a farm, a hill, or other choice gun position, +the farther bank of a rivulet or stream or canal occupied or +captured—here by the French, there by the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page181" name="page181"></a>(p. 181)</span> Germans—generally +proved to be but temporary possessions and wasted efforts.</p> + +<p>It was incidents such as these that made up the record of events along +this line. During all this time the military aeroplanes were busy +dropping explosives upon the enemy's lines, and extending their +operations far to the rear, circling above the larger towns and cities, +doing considerable damage in many places. But this was not the only +purpose of these daring sky pilots; for the principal object in flying +over the adversary's country was to make observations and report +movements of troops. In this respect the aeroplane had done immense +service throughout the campaign.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XXIX</h2> + +<p class="title">GENERAL MOVEMENTS ON THE FRENCH AND FLANDERS FRONTS</p> + + +<p>We have seen that at the end of November, 1914, Ypres was still in the +Allies' hands, though the Germans were exerting a fierce pressure in +that region, and were gradually, even if very slowly, getting closer and +closer to it.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of December, 1914, the Germans drew their forces close +up to Ypres, so closely in fact that they could bring into play their +small-caliber howitzers, and before many hours Ypres was in flames in +many places. The allied forces fought fiercely to compel the Germans to +withdraw. Hand-to-hand fighting, bayonet charges, and general confusion +was the order of the day. Thousands of men would creep out of their +holes in the ground and crawl, availing themselves of whatever covering +presented itself, to some vantage point and there stand up as one man +and charge directly into the adversary's ranks.</p> + +<p>All this was part of the general scheme worked out miles from the spot +where the conflict was going on. There in some quaint little town +occupying some out-of-the-way house was the General <span class="pagenum"><a id="page182" name="page182"></a>(p. 182)</span> Staff. The +rooms were filled with officers; the walls were hung with large and +small field and detail maps, upon which were plainly marked the name of +every commanding officer and the forces under his command. Every detail +of the armies' strength—names of the commanders, and any other detail +was plainly in view.</p> + +<p>It was here decided to turn the entire command of the allied forces +along the Yser over to the British to avoid confusion. It was well that +this was done just at this time, for on December 3, 1914, the Germans +made a fierce onslaught along the entire front of thirteen miles between +Ypres and Dixmude, bringing into use a great number of stanch rafts +propelled by expert watermen, thus carrying thousands of the German +forces over and along the Ypres River.</p> + +<p>Again the belligerents came to a hand-to-hand conflict, and so well +directed was the allied counterattack that no advantage to the Germans +was obtained. For three days this severe fighting continued. The +struggle was most sharp between Dixmude and the coast at Westende, where +the Germans hoped to break through the allied lines, and thus crumple up +their entire front, making a free passage.</p> + +<p>On December 7, 1914, the French captured Vermelles, a minor village a +few miles southwest of La Bassée. This little village had been the +center of a continuous struggle for mastership for nearly two months. At +last the French occupied this rather commanding point, important to the +Allies, as it afforded an excellent view over a wide stretch of country +occupied by the Germans.</p> + +<p>The German Staff headquarters were removed from Roulers, which is about +twelve miles distant from Ypres, on December 8, 1914, from the vicinity +of Ypres, while their own forces had been concentrated upon Dixmude, +twelve miles to the north. This town had suffered severely before, but +the allied forces using what shelter they could improvise, were doing +considerable damage from this point. Therefore the Germans began to +bombard the place.</p> + +<p>On December 9, 1914, the Germans succeeded in gaining <span class="pagenum"><a id="page183" name="page183"></a>(p. 183)</span> slightly +toward Ypres. Farther north they were by this time also in a position to +take Furnes under fire. This town lies on the frontier between Belgium +and France, in the path of some of the most savage onslaughts on the +part of the Germans to break through the allied lines in order to reach +the channel towns of Dunkirk and Calais.</p> + +<p>On December 10, 1914, the allied forces made an ineffectual attack on +Roulers, which the German General Staff had just left. South of Ypres +the allied forces made a severe attack upon the town of Armentières, +about eight miles from Ypres, but gained no permanent advantage.</p> + +<p>During this time the Germans had also so far succeeded in consolidating +their positions in the neighborhood of Ostend, that they could put their +heavy guns in position near the shores of that famous watering place. +This was a very necessary precaution to meet the attacks of English +gunboats, and even larger cruisers that were patrolling that coast.</p> + +<p>On December 12, 1914, the severest fighting was along the Yser Canal, +which was crossed and recrossed several times.</p> + +<p>On December 13, 1914, the Allies succeeded in repulsing the Germans on +the River Lys, where for three days the Germans had inaugurated a hot +offensive. These engagements were exact counterparts of the fighting at +other points in Flanders, where both opponents were apparently well +matched, and where advantages were won and lost in rapid succession.</p> + +<p>There was severe fighting also on December 14, 1914, extending along the +entire front in Flanders from Nieuport to below Ypres. In the north the +Germans made severe onslaughts, all more or less held up or repulsed by +the Belgians, French, and English. The fighting was hottest near +Nieuport, where the Allies made some small temporary gains. Besides the +three armies participating in the conflict, the British fleet also took +part in bombarding the German coast positions. Three British barges +equipped with naval machine guns entered the River Yser in order to +cooperate in the fighting. These boats took the two villages +Lombaertzyde and St. Georges.</p> + +<p>In this action some of the heaviest fighting was done by the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page184" name="page184"></a>(p. 184)</span> +French marines. Some slight advantages were also gained by the Allies in +the neighborhood of St. Eloi and Klein Zillebeke.</p> + +<p>Following these minor successes, attack was made upon the German lines +on the west side of Wytschaete, a village which the Germans had +succeeded in holding during the great battle of Ypres. To the west of +this village is a wood called the Petit Bois, and to the southwest is +the Maedelsteed spur, an eminence on hilly ground. From both of these +places the Germans covered the village, prepared to hold it against all +comers.</p> + +<p>Major Duncan, commanding the Scots, and Major Baird leading the Royal +Highlanders, attacked the Petit Bois, and in the flare of terrible +machine gun and rifle fire, carried a trench west of the woods, while +the Gordon Highlanders advanced upon the spur, taking the first trench. +They were, however, obliged to fall back to the position from which they +had started, with no advantage gained. This engagement at Wytschaete +gave a good illustration of the difficulty of fighting in heavy, winter +ground, devoid of cover, and so waterlogged that any speed in advance +was next to impossible. Just prior to the battle the ground had thawed, +and the soldiers sank deep into the mud at every step they took.</p> + +<p>On December 15, 1914, the Germans attacked a little to the south of +Ypres, but no definite result was obtained. On the following day the +Allies replied by an onslaught at Dixmude with a similar result. The +Germans attempted to turn and strike at Westende the next day.</p> + +<p>Roulers was temporarily occupied by the Allies on December 18, 1914, and +in another location, about twenty-five miles farther southwest, in the +neighborhood of Givenchy, the Allies' Indian troops were put to the +test. The attack was launched on the morning of the 19th.</p> + +<p>The Lahore and the Meerut divisions both took part. The Meerut division +succeeded in capturing a trench; but a little later on a counterattack, +launched by the Germans, forced the Indians back. The Lahore division, +including the First Highland Light Infantry and the Fourth Gurkhas, took +two lines of the enemy's trenches with hardly any casualties. These +captured trenches <span class="pagenum"><a id="page185" name="page185"></a>(p. 185)</span> were at once occupied, and when they were +full to capacity, the Germans exploded the previously prepared mines, +and blew up the entire Hindu force.</p> + +<p>At daylight on the morning of December 20, 1914, the Germans commenced a +heavy artillery fire along the entire front. This was followed by an +infantry charge along the entire line between Givenchy and La Quinque +Rue to the north. The defense of Givenchy was in the hands of the India +Sirhind Brigade, under General Brunker. At ten o'clock the Sirhinds +became confused and fled, enabling the Germans to capture Givenchy. The +Fifty-seventh Rifles and the Ninth Bhopals were stationed north of La +Bassée Canal and east of Givenchy, and the Connaught Rangers were +waiting at the south of the canal. The Forty-seventh Sikhs were sent to +support the Sirhind Brigade, with the First Manchesters, the Fourth +Suffolks, and two battalions of French Provincials, the entire force +being under command of General Carnegy. All these mixed forces now +essayed a combined counterattack in order to recover the ground lost by +the Sirhind Brigade, but this failed.</p> + +<p>The Allies called up reserves and re-formed the ranks broken by that +day's reverses. With the Seventh Dragoon Guards under the command of +Lieutenant Colonel Lemprière, they began another attack. This, too, +failed. When the Sirhind Brigade fell back, the Seaforth Highlanders +were left entirely exposed. The Fifty-eighth Rifles went to the support +of their left. Throughout the entire afternoon the Seaforths had made +strenuous efforts to capture the German trenches to the right and left +of their position. Upon the arrival of the Fifty-eighth the fighting +redoubled in ferocity, but no advance was made. Finally word was given +to retreat. The Allies lost heavily in killed, wounded, and prisoners.</p> + +<p>The First Brigade was detached, and by midnight it had reached Bethune, +about five miles west of Givenchy. Sir Douglas Haig was ordered to move +also, the entire First Division in support of the exhausted Indian +troops.</p> + +<p>Action was begun on December 20, 1914, early in the afternoon by a +simultaneous attack, and was continued until nightfall <span class="pagenum"><a id="page186" name="page186"></a>(p. 186)</span> without +important results. The next morning General Haig in person took the +command, but little ground was gained.</p> + +<p>While this contest was in progress around Givenchy, the Germans took +possession of the city of Arras, ten miles to the south.</p> + +<p>Between December 23 and 30, 1914, the Belgian army, strongly reenforced +by French troops, began a series of violent attacks upon the German +lines; but the Germans replied by a ceaseless bombardment of Nieuport, +which is about a mile inland. No results of importance were obtained on +either side.</p> + +<p>The last week of December, 1914, bore a relieving holiday aspect, for it +seemed as though by general consent the carnival of blood was to be +considered not consonant with the solemnity of the season. But for all +that the French succeeded in blowing up some German trenches with a new +howitzer they were anxious to try out, and the Belgian-French forces +retook St. Georges in northern Flanders.</p> + +<p>St. Georges had been held by the Germans for some time; the village +stands on the right hand of the Yser, and it was the only position they +retained on that side of the river. It seems from the very ease with +which the village was taken that the Germans felt their position there +untenable, and withdrew to their own side of the river in order to enjoy +a quiet Christmas with their comrades, whose singing of Christmas songs +was forever being wafted over that river of blood. Although the general +action continued on both sides, no serious battles are to be recorded in +Flanders for the balance of the year 1914.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page187" name="page187"></a>(p. 187)</span> CHAPTER XXX</h2> + +<p class="title">OPERATIONS AROUND LA BASSÉE AND GIVENCHY</p> + + +<p>On the whole, the results obtained during the first days of 1915 on the +Belgian battle front favored the Germans. Of this front the Belgians +held but three miles more or less, and the British were defending a line +of about twenty miles, while the French covered the balance of about +twelve miles, all of which included about the entire front in Flanders +from the dunes at Nieuport on the Channel to Armentières in the south, a +line—by no means straight—about thirty-five miles in length.</p> + +<p>Activities along the extended front in the Champagne district having +proved successful for the German forces to a considerable extent, the +General Staff turned its attention now to the La Bassée region.</p> + +<p>There was good tactical reason for this move, because the British were +seriously threatening the position, straddling La Bassée Canal where it +flows between Cuinchy and Givenchy, and there was danger that they might +capture La Bassée, where the Germans held a salient of considerable +strategical importance, as it covered their line of communication to the +south.</p> + +<p>Previous successful operations by the British at Richebourg and +Festubert north of Givenchy, and at Vermelles, south of Cuinchy, +evidently prompted the Germans to attempt a counterattack. Besides it +was desirable for the Germans to test the strength of the Allies at this +point, and to do this with some measure of success the Germans massed a +considerable force for this purpose.</p> + +<p>Beginning about January 14, 1915, the British met with varying and minor +successes and defeats in this region, but no noteworthy action had taken +place for upward of ten days, until January 25, under the eye of the +German Kaiser, the principal attack, which had been carefully planned, +took place.</p> + +<p>On the morning of January 25, 1915, a demonstration along <span class="pagenum"><a id="page188" name="page188"></a>(p. 188)</span> the +front from Festubert to Vermelles and as far north as Ypres and Pervyse +was inaugurated.</p> + +<p>The Germans began to shell Bethune, which was within the allied lines +about eight or nine miles west of La Bassée. An hour later, in the +neighborhood of nine o'clock, following up heavy artillery fire, the +Fifty-sixth Prussian Infantry and the Seventh Pioneers advanced south of +the canal, which runs eastward from Bethune, where the British line +formed a salient from the canal forward to the railway near Cuinchy, and +thence back to the Bethune and La Bassée road where the British joined +the French forces.</p> + +<p>This salient was occupied by the Scots and the Coldstream Guards. The +Germans were obliged to advance by the road, as the fields were too soft +for the passage of the troops; even the roads were in a terrible +condition, deep ruts and thick, sticky mud greatly retarding the onward +march of the German forces. But the Allies fared little better in this +respect. In fact the entire engagement was fought out in a veritable sea +of mud and slush.</p> + +<p>Well-directed artillery fire by the Germans blew up the British trenches +in this salient, and the Germans at once penetrated the unsupported +British line. The Germans also had the advantage of an armored train, +which they ran along the tracks from La Bassée almost into Bethune, +sufficiently close to throw considerable shell fire into this town.</p> + +<p>The Germans advanced in close formation, throwing hand grenades. They +came on so rapidly and with such momentum that the Guards, trying in +vain to stem the tide with the bayonet, were overwhelmed, and the +British, in spite of desperate resistance, were forced back step by +step.</p> + +<p>At some points the distance between the trenches was so small that it +was utterly impossible to stop the onrush from one trench to the other. +The Germans swept and broke through the British lines, treading their +fallen opponents under foot as they advanced. At this point the British +turned and fled, as there was no hope of successful resistance.</p> + +<p>As the great momentum forced the German advance through <span class="pagenum"><a id="page189" name="page189"></a>(p. 189)</span> the +allied lines into the open field beyond and was joined by a heavy +column, which had debouched from the vicinity of Auchy, British guns +opened a murderous fire and inflicted terrible slaughter upon these +ranks.</p> + +<p>The Coldstream and the Scots Guards retreated to their second line of +defense, where they joined others of their command held in reserve +there. Once again they turned to meet the oncoming Germans, and again +were forced to give way, leaving the Germans in possession of all the +ground previously gained. The remnants of the Guards retreated until +they were met by the London-Scottish regiment sent to reenforce them. +Here they halted while a counterattack was being organized by the First +Royal Highlanders, part of the Camerons, and the Second King's Rifle +Corps which also came up.</p> + +<p>At one o'clock on January 25, 1915, and with the cooperation of the +French on their right, this rapidly improvised force moved forward, +making unobstructed progress on their wings by the canal and the road. +For some reason their center was delayed and held back. When they did +finally arrive and pressed forward with a rush to meet the German +forces, who were ready to receive them, the impact was fearful, and the +casualties on both sides enormous; but no gains were made by the Allies, +and the Germans held the ground they had won. At the height of the +battle the Second Royal Sussex rushed into the fray in support of their +hard-pressed comrades, but all to no purpose, for these as the others +were forced back to the rear of their starting point with but a fraction +of their forces remaining to report the events of the day.</p> + +<p>While this terrible slaughter was in progress, the French left on the +other side of La Bassée road, which separated the Allies at this point, +had been attacked by the right of the German line, and driven back to a +considerable distance, but not as far back as the British, so that the +French left was in advance of the British right and badly exposed to +flank attack from the northward.</p> + +<p>This obliged the entire allied forces to retreat some distance farther +to the rear, and as night came on and the severity of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page190" name="page190"></a>(p. 190)</span> +action had ceased, the Allies had an opportunity to realign their +positions and somewhat strengthen the same by the First Guard Brigade +which now came up, showing the terrible suffering to which they had been +subjected. Finally, however, it was found advisable to withdraw the +Guard altogether and replace them by the First Infantry Brigade.</p> + +<p>Now the German tactical idea became clear. It was to force the British +to concentrate on the exposed line between Festubert and Givenchy, north +of the canal, and then to turn the British right by the German forces in +their new position just south of the canal, thus calling for +simultaneous action on both sides of the canal.</p> + +<p>The Germans delivered an equally severe attack upon the allied position +in the village of Givenchy, about a mile north of the canal, which +bounded the scene of the attack just described. As in the other attack, +the Germans opened action by severe artillery fire, using high-explosive +shells, and after due preparation, at about 8.15 in the morning, the +infantry advanced, as is customary with the Germans, in close formation. +The British met this advance by somewhat weak artillery fire, which, it +was afterward explained was due to continued interruption of the +telephonic communications between the observers and the batteries in the +fight. However, as it was, this fire, added to the machine gun and rifle +fire from the trenches, served to turn the German advance from their +original direction, with the result that they crowded together in the +northeast corner of Givenchy after passing over the first-line trenches +of the Allies' front. Their momentum carried the Germans far into the +center of the village, with remarkably few casualties considering the +murderous fire to which they had been subjected throughout their +impetuous advances.</p> + +<p>In the village of Givenchy, however, the Second Welsh Regiment and the +First South Wales Borderers, which had been stationed there and held in +reserve, gave the Germans a warm reception, and when the First Royal +Highlanders came up they delivered a fierce counterattack. In this they +were supported by the fire of the French artillery, which assistance, +however, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page191" name="page191"></a>(p. 191)</span> proved costly to the Allies, as the French fire and +bursting shells killed friend and foe alike. Street fighting became +savage, amid the explosions of shells sent to enliven the occasion by +the French. This concluded the action for the day and when the smoke +cleared away both sides found their position comparatively little +changed and nothing but the thinned ranks of the combatants reminded the +observer that the most severe kind of fighting had taken place for the +best part of a day.</p> + +<p>The following day, January 26, 1915, the action was resumed, and the +attack opened along the Bethune and La Bassée road. This soon died out, +as though by general consent, each side reoccupying their position of +the previous evening.</p> + +<p>But on Friday, January 29, 1915, early in the morning, the Germans again +opened with severe artillery fire which directed its attention +particularly to the British line, where the First Army Corps lay between +La Bassée Canal and the Bethune road near Cutchy. After an hour's +shelling the Germans sent one battalion of the Fourteenth Corps toward +the redoubt, and two battalions of the same corps were sent to the north +and south of this redoubt. Now upon this point and to the north of it +stood the Sussex Regiment and to the south of it the Northamptonshire +Regiment. The attack was severe, but the defense was equal to it and the +net results were summed up in the casualty lists on both sides. An +attack upon the French, south of Bethune, on the same day met with like +results. The great German objective was to open another road to Dunkirk +and Calais, and had they been successful in the engagements of the past +few days it is probable that they would have succeeded.</p> + +<p>To the north in the coast district the Belgians had succeeded in +flooding a vast area, which served for the time to separate the +combatants for a considerable distance, obliging the Germans to resort +to rafts, boats and other floating apparatus to carry on a somewhat +haphazard offensive and resulting in nothing more than a change from +gunfire slaughter to drowning. The immense inconvenience attendant to +this mode of warfare decided the Germans to drain this area and they +succeeded in doing this by the end of January, 1915.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page192" name="page192"></a>(p. 192)</span> On the other hand the Belgians captured two German trenches in +the north on January 17, 1915, and the British sent a force to attack +Lille on January 18. The Belgian trenches were reoccupied by the Germans +and the Lille attack was successfully repulsed.</p> + +<p>Then, for a week, there was nothing of importance until January 23, +1915, when the Germans made a strong attack upon Ypres which was +repulsed. On January 24 the Germans recaptured St. Georges and bombarded +a few of the towns and villages harboring allied troops.</p> + +<p>The Belgians continued in their endeavor to flood the German position +along the Yser, on January 25, 1915, and succeeded in obliging their +opponents to vacate for a time at least, and on the last day of January +allied forces consisting of Zouaves, Gurkhas and other Indian companies +made an attack upon the German trenches upon the dunes at Lombaertzyde, +gaining a temporary advantage at an expense of considerable loss in +casualties.</p> + +<p>In reviewing the activities during the month of January, 1915, the +disagreeable state of the weather must be taken into consideration; this +resulted in terrible suffering, to which the battling forces were +subjected during the actual fighting and even more so while at rest, +either on the open field or in the questionable comfort of an +inhospitable and leaky trench.</p> + +<p>While every effort was made by the respective General Staffs to supply +their fighting troops with such comforts as were absolutely necessary to +keep body and soul together and in trim for the next day's work, little +could be accomplished and it is a marvel how these poor soldiers did +withstand the rigorous weather which blighted the prospect of victory, +so dear to all who wear a uniform.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page193" name="page193"></a>(p. 193)</span> CHAPTER XXXI</h2> + +<p class="title">END OF SIX MONTHS' FIGHTING IN THE WEST</p> + + +<p>There were few military movements on the French battle front during +December, 1914, along the Aisne, the Oise and in the northern Champagne. +The fighting was mostly artillery duels and skirmishes by separate +units. In the Argonne, however, the Crown Prince of Germany was active +and there, as well as along the Moselle and on the heights of the +Vosges, many engagements were fought out resulting in varying advantages +to either opponent. Both sides had been strongly intrenched and the +ground was covered by snow to great depths, making progress impossible +except upon skis and snowshoes.</p> + +<p>On December 3, 1914, the French captured Burnhaupt, a hill east of +Mülhausen in Upper Alsace, only to give up their advantage after a +German counterattack. On December 16 the Germans attacked in the Woevre +region and in Alsace; but were repulsed the following day. On December +31, 1914, the French attacked Steinbach in Alsace, but were driven out +again.</p> + +<p>The New Year of 1915 opened gently along the battle front in France +below Arras. The first large movement in 1915 began on January 8, at +Soissons. This city lies on both banks of the river Aisne and was in the +possession of the French. The French forces attacked during a drenching +rain, pushing up the rising ground to the north with their heavy guns, +regardless of the soft ground which rapidly turned to deep mud and +slush. They succeeded in carrying the first line of German trenches on a +front a mile wide, thus gaining the top of the hill, which gave them an +excellent position for their artillery. The next day the Germans +counterattacked, but failed to dislodge the French.</p> + +<p>Nothing occurred on Sunday, January 10, 1915, but on Monday, about noon, +January 11, the Germans came on with great force. The delay on the part +of the Germans was due to their awaiting reenforcements then on the road +to Soissons. For four <span class="pagenum"><a id="page194" name="page194"></a>(p. 194)</span> days there had been a steady downpour of +rain which had not even stopped at this time. The River Aisne was much +swollen and some of the bridges had been carried away, cutting off all +supplies for the French, who were slowly giving way but fighting +desperately.</p> + +<p>On January 12, 1915, and on the 13th the French were driven down the +slopes in a great rush. This predicament was a terrible one—the +onrushing Germans 500 feet in front of them and the swollen river making +successful retreat impossible, with the ground between almost impassable +with mud and slush. French reserves had improvised a pontoon bridge +across the Aisne at Missy, in the rear of their now precarious position. +This bridge was just strong enough to carry the men and ammunition; but +not the heavy guns. The retreat turned into a rout—a general stampede +for the bridge and river.</p> + +<p>The slaughter was terrible, the river swollen as it was seemed choked +with floating soldiers. The few who safely got across the bridge and +those who were successful in reaching the farther bank of the Aisne +alive, reached Soissons eventually. The German gain in prisoners and +booty was enormous and their gain in ground advanced their line a full +mile, on a front extending five miles to Missy and a little beyond. The +Germans strongly intrenched their new position without loss of time.</p> + +<p>Farther along this front, in the neighborhood of Perthes, a less +important engagement took place. The Germans, under General von Einem, +opposed General Langle de Cary and his French forces. The results of +this engagement were negligible.</p> + +<p>On January 18, 1915, a savage attack by the Germans was successfully +repulsed at Tracy-le-Val and on the 19th the French made an assault upon +the German position at St. Mihiél, in the Verdun section without gaining +any ground. Farther north on this section the French pressed on and +gained a little ground near the German fortress Metz; but the very +vicinity of this fortress counterbalanced this gain.</p> + +<p>On January 21, 1915, the Germans recaptured the Le Prêtre woods near St. +Mihiél, and next day the belligerents fought a fierce engagement in the +Vosges without advantage to either side. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page195" name="page195"></a>(p. 195)</span> Prince Eitel, the +second son of the Kaiser, commanded an attack upon Thann in Alsace on +January 25, 1915, but was repulsed by the French defenders.</p> + +<p>On January 28, 1915, the Germans made some gains in the Vosges and in +Upper Alsace, but in their attempt to cross the River Aisne on the 29th +they were unsuccessful.</p> + +<p>January 30, 1915, brought some successes to the Germans in the Argonne +forest, where throughout the month the most savage fighting was going on +in thick underbrush and from tree tops.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page196" name="page196"></a>(p. 196)</span> PART II—NAVAL OPERATIONS</h2> + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XXXII</h2> + +<p class="title">STRENGTH OF THE RIVAL NAVIES</p> + + +<p>Sea fights, sea raids, and the hourly expectation of a great naval +battle—a struggle for the control of the seas between modern +armadas—held the attention of the world during the first six months of +the Great War. These, with the adventures of the <i>Emden</i> in the waters +of the Far East, the first naval fight off Helgoland, the fight off the +western coast of South America, the sinking of the <i>Lusitania</i>, and the +exploits of the submarines—held the world in constant expectancy and +threatened to involve neutral nations, thus causing a collapse of world +trade and dragging all the peoples of the earth into the maelstrom of +war.</p> + +<p>This chapter will review the navies as they gather for action. It will +follow them through the tense moments on shipboard—the days of +watching and waiting like huge sea dogs tugging at the leash. +Interspersed are heroic adventures which have added new tales of valor +to the epics of the sea.</p> + +<p>The naval history of the great European conflict begins, not with the +first of the series of declarations of war, but with the preliminary +preparations. The appointment of Admiral von Tirpitz as Secretary of +State in Germany in 1898 is the first decisive movement. It was in that +year that the first rival to England as mistress of the world's seas, +since the days of the Spanish Armada, peeped over the horizon. Two years +before the beginning of the present century, Von Tirpitz organized a +campaign, the object of which was to make Germany's <span class="pagenum"><a id="page197" name="page197"></a>(p. 197)</span> navy as +strong as her military arm. A law passed at that time created the +present German fleet; supplementary laws passed in 1900 and 1906 through +the Reichstag by this former plowboy caused the German navy to be taken +seriously, not only by Germans but by the rest of the world. England, +jealous of her sea power, then began her maintenance of two ships for +each one of her rival's. Germany answered by laying more keels, till the +ratio stood three to two, instead of two to one.</p> + +<p>Two years before the firing of the pistol shot at Sarajevo, which +precipitated the Great War, the British admiralty announced that +henceforth the British naval base in the Mediterranean would be +Gibraltar instead of Malta. Conjectures were made as to the significance +of this move; it might have meant that England had found the pace too +great and had deliberately decided to abandon her dominance of the +eastern Mediterranean; or that Gibraltar had been secretly reequipped as +a naval base. What it did mean was learned when the French Minister of +Marine announced in the following September that the entire naval +strength of France would thereafter be concentrated in the +Mediterranean. This was the first concrete action of the <i>entente +cordiale</i>—the British navy, in the event of war, was to guard the +British home waters and the northern ports of France; the French navy +was to guard the Mediterranean, protecting French ports as well as +French and British shipping from "the Gib" to the Suez.</p> + +<p>What was the comparative strength of these naval combinations when the +war started?</p> + +<p>From her latest superdreadnoughts down to her auxiliary ships, such as +those used for hospital purposes, oil carrying and repairing, England +had a total of 674 vessels. Without consideration of ages and types this +total means nothing, and it is therefore necessary to examine her naval +strength in detail. She had nine battleships of 14,000 tons displacement +each, built between 1895 and 1898—the <i>Magnificent</i>, <i>Majestic</i>, +<i>Prince George</i>, <i>Jupiter</i>, <i>Cæsar</i>, <i>Mars</i>, <i>Illustrious</i>, <i>Hannibal</i>, +and <i>Victorious</i>—with engines developing 12,000 horsepower that sent +them through the water at 17.5 knots, protected with from nine <span class="pagenum"><a id="page198" name="page198"></a>(p. 198)</span> +to fourteen inches of armor, and prepared to inflict damage on an enemy +with torpedoes shot from under and above the water, and with four +12-inch guns, twelve 6-inch guns, sixteen 3-inch guns, and twenty guns +of smaller caliber but of quicker firing possibilities.</p> + +<p>Her next class was that of the <i>Canopus</i>—the <i>Goliath</i>, <i>Vengeance</i>, +<i>Ocean</i>, <i>Albion</i>, and <i>Glory</i>—2,000 tons lighter than the first class +named above, but more modern in equipment and construction, having been +built between the years 1900 and 1902. Their motive power was heavier, +being 13,500 horsepower, and their speed was almost a knot faster. +Increase in the power of naval guns had made unnecessary any increase in +the thickness of their armor, and consequently ranged from 6 to 12 +inches in thickness. Their armament was about the same as that of the +older class, but each carried two more torpedo tubes.</p> + +<a id="img017" name="img017"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/img017.jpg"> +<img src="images/img017tb.jpg" width="500" height="314" alt="" title=""></a> +<p>Map of German and English Naval positions.</p> +</div> + +<p>Discussion in naval circles throughout the world turned then to the +question of whether it were better to build heavier ships with heavier +armament, or to build lighter and faster ships designed to "hit and get +away." The British authorities inclined toward the former view, and +between 1901 and 1904 the British navy was augmented with the +<i>Implacable</i>, <i>London</i>, <i>Bulwark</i>, <i>Formidable</i>, <i>Venerable</i>, <i>Queen</i>, +<i>Irresistible</i>, and <i>Prince of Wales</i>—each of the heretofore unheard-of +displacement of 15,000 tons. In spite of their size they were +comparatively fast, having an average speed of 18 knots; they did not +need, and were not equipped with heavier armor, having plates as thin as +3 inches and as thick as 12. They were built to "take punishment," and +therefore they had no greater armament than the vessels previously +named. The naval program of 1908 and 1904 also included the <i>Duncan</i>, +<i>Albemarle</i>, <i>Russell</i>, <i>Cornwallis</i>, and <i>Exmouth</i>, each 1,000 tons +lighter than the ships of the <i>Implacable</i> type, but with the same +equipment, defensive and offensive, and of the same speed. And in the +same program, as if to offset the argument for heavier and stronger +ships, there were included the lighter and faster ships, <i>Swiftsure</i> and +<i>Triumph</i>, displacing only 11,500 tons, but making 19 knots. Their speed +permitted and necessitated lighter armor—10 inches through at the +thickest <span class="pagenum"><a id="page200" name="page200"></a>(p. 200)</span> points—and their armament was also of a lighter +type, for their four largest guns were capable of firing 10-inch shells.</p> + +<p>Germany was becoming a naval rival worthy of notice, and the insular +position of England came to be a matter of serious concern by 1906. +Britain has never considered the building of land forts for her +protection—her strength has always been concentrated in floating war +machines. She now began to build veritable floating forts, ships of +16,350 tons displacement. By the end of 1906 she had ready to give +battle eight ships of this class, the <i>King Edward VII</i>, <i>Commonwealth</i>, +<i>Dominion</i>, <i>Hindustan</i>, <i>Africa</i>, <i>Hibernia</i>, <i>Zealandia</i>, and +<i>Britannia</i>. Speed was not sacrificed to weight, for they were given a +speed of 18.5 knots, developed by engines of 18,000 horsepower. Their +thinnest armor measured 6 inches, and their heavy guns were protected +with plates 12 inches thick. The 12-inch gun was still the heaviest +piece of armament in the British navy, and these eight ships each +carried four of that measurement, as well as four 9.2-inch guns, ten +6-inch guns, fourteen rapid-fire guns of 3 inches, two machine guns, and +four torpedo tubes.</p> + +<p>Now that it was seen that ships of enormous displacement could also be +swift, England committed herself to the building of ships of even +greater size. In 1907 came the first of the modern dreadnoughts, +so-called from the name which was given to the original ship of 17,900 +tons displacement. The <i>Dreadnought</i> made the marvelous speed (for a +ship of that size) of 21 knots, which she was enabled to do with turbine +engines of 23,000 horsepower. Her armor measured from 8 to 11 inches in +thickness, and her great size enabled her to carry as high as ten +12-inch guns. Her minor batteries were strong in proportion.</p> + +<p>Then, as if taking her breath after a stupendous effort, England in the +following year built two ships of 16,000 tons displacement, the <i>Lord +Nelson</i> and the <i>Agamemnon</i>, with speed, armor, and armament much lower +than those of the <i>Dreadnought</i>. But having taken a rest, Britain was +again to make a great effort, launching in 1909 the <i>Temeraire</i>, +<i>Superb</i>, and <i>Bellerophon</i>, monsters displacing 18,600 tons. With +engines of 23,000 horsepower that could drive them through the seas at +21 knots, ready <span class="pagenum"><a id="page201" name="page201"></a>(p. 201)</span> to ward off blows with armor from 8 to 11 +inches thick, firing at the same time volleys from ten 12-inch guns down +to sixteen 4-inch rapid firers.</p> + +<p>Naval architecture had now taken a definite turn, the principal feature +of which was the tremendous size of the destructive floating machines. +England, a leader in this sort of building, in 1910 built the +<i>Vanguard</i>, <i>Collingwood</i>, and <i>St. Vincent</i>, each displacing 19,250 +tons. Nor were they lacking in speed, for they made, on an average, 21 +knots. The 20,000-ton battleship was then a matter of months only, and +it came in the following year, when the <i>Colossus</i>, <i>Hercules</i>, and +<i>Neptune</i> were launched. It was only in the matter of displacement that +these three ships showed any difference from those of the <i>Vanguard</i> +class; there were no great innovations either in armament or armor. But +in the same year, 1911, there were launched the <i>Thunderer</i>, <i>Monarch</i>, +<i>Orion</i>, and <i>Conqueror</i>, each of 22,500 tons, and equipped with armor +from 8 to 12 inches thick, for the days of 3-inch armor on first-class +warships had gone forever. These had a speed of 21 knots, and were the +first British ships to have anything greater than a 12-inch gun. They +carried as a primary battery ten 13.5-inch guns, and sixteen 4-inch +guns, along with six more of small caliber as their secondary battery.</p> + +<p>In 1912 and 1913 there was only one type of warship launched having +23,000 tons displacement with 31,000 horsepower, a half a knot faster +than previous dreadnoughts, and carrying, like the previous class, ten +13.5-inch guns, along with some of smaller caliber. The ships of this +class were the <i>King George V</i>, <i>Ajax</i>, <i>Audacious</i>, and <i>Centurion</i>.</p> + +<p>The year 1914 saw even more terrible machines of death launched. Two +types were put into the water, the first that of the <i>Iron Duke</i> class, +of which the other members were the <i>Benbow</i>, <i>Emperor of India</i>, and +<i>Marlborough</i>. They showed great improvement in every point; their speed +was 22.5 knots, their displacement 25,000 tons, and their torpedo tubes +five. Like their immediate predecessors, they carried a primary battery +of ten 13.5-inch guns, along with the smaller ones, and their armor +measured from 8 to 12 inches in thickness. The second <span class="pagenum"><a id="page202" name="page202"></a>(p. 202)</span> type of +the year was that of the <i>Queen Elizabeth</i> and <i>Warspite</i> class. They +surpassed all the warships when they were built. Their speed for their +size was the greatest—25 knots. They had the largest displacement among +warships—27,500 tons; they had the thickest armor, ranging from 8 to +13.5 inches; they had the most improved form of engines—oil burners, +developing 58,000 horsepower; and most marvelous of all was their +primary battery, which consisted of eight 15-inch guns. The largest gun +yet made had been the 16-inch gun, for use in permanent position in land +forts, and, with the German army, for a mobile force. It now was shown +that the modern warship could carry a gun as heavy as any on land. There +were in the course of construction when the war broke out eight more +such monsters, the <i>Malaya, Valiant</i>, and <i>Barham</i>, sister ships of the +<i>Queen Elizabeth</i>, and the <i>Royal Oak</i>, <i>Resolution</i>, <i>Royal Monarch</i>, +<i>Ramillies</i>, and <i>Renown</i>, each of 29,000 tons displacement, but having +the same armament as the <i>Queen Elizabeth</i>. All of these were hastened +to completion as soon as war was declared.</p> + +<p>At the time of the declaration of war England had, in addition to these +greatest ships, a number of supporting ships such as the ten battle +cruisers, <i>Indomitable</i>, <i>Invincible</i>, <i>Indefatigable</i>, <i>Inflexible</i>, +<i>Australia</i>, <i>New Zealand</i>, <i>Queen Mary</i>, <i>Princess Royal</i>, <i>Lion</i>, and +the <i>Tiger</i>. Their displacements ranged from 17,250 to 28,000 tons, and +their speeds from 25 to 30 knots, the last being that of the <i>Tiger</i>. +Their speed is their greatest feature, for their armament and batteries +are much lighter than those of the first-line ships.</p> + +<p>Next, there were ready thirty-four high-speed cruisers of quite light +armament and armor. There were six of the <i>Cressy</i> type, four of the +<i>Drake</i> type, nine of the same type as the <i>Kent</i>, six of the same class +as the <i>Antrim</i>, six like the <i>Black Prince</i>, three of the same class as +the <i>Shannon</i>, together with seventeen heavily protected cruisers, of +which the <i>Edgar</i> was the prototype. The rest of the British navy needs +no detailed consideration. It consisted at the outbreak of the war of 70 +protected light cruisers, 134 destroyers, and a number of merchant ships +convertible into war vessels, together with submarines and other small +ships.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page203" name="page203"></a>(p. 203)</span> The navy of France stood fourth in the list of those of the +world powers at the time the war started. There were eighteen old +vessels, built between 1894 and 1909, including the <i>Carnot</i> class +(corresponding to the British ship <i>Magnificent</i>), the <i>Charlemagne</i>, +<i>Bouvet</i>, <i>Suffren</i>, <i>République</i>, and <i>Démocratie</i> classes. The most +modern of these types displaced no more than 14,000 tons, made no more +than 18 knots, and carried primary batteries of 12-inch guns.</p> + +<p>Some improvement was made in the six ships of the <i>Danton</i> class which +were built in 1911 and 1912. They displaced 18,000 tons, had armor from +9 to 12 inches thick and carried guns of 12-inch caliber. They +correspond to the British ship <i>Temeraire</i>. In 1913 and 1914 were +launched the <i>Jean Bart</i>, <i>Courbet</i>, <i>Paris</i>, and <i>France</i> of the +dreadnought type, but much slower and not so heavily armed as the +British ships of the same class. In eight ships which were incomplete +when war was declared the matter of speed received greater attention, +and they are consequently faster than the older vessels of the same +type. It is in the nineteen French armored cruisers—France has no +battle cruisers—that the French showed better efforts as builders of +speedy ships, for they made 23 knots or more. In the list of French +fighting ships there are in addition two protected cruisers, the +<i>D'Entrecasteaux</i> and the <i>Guichen</i>, together with ten light cruisers. +But the French "mosquito fleet," consisting of destroyers, torpedo boats +and submarines, is comparatively large. Of these she had 84, 135, and +78, respectively.</p> + +<p>After the Russo-Japanese War the battle fleets of Russia were entirely +dissipated, so that when the present conflict came she had no ships +which might have been accounted worthy aids to the navies of England and +France. In so far as is known, her heaviest ships were the <i>Andrei +Pervozvannyi</i> and the <i>Imperator Pavel I</i>, each displacing only 17,200 +tons, and of the design of 1911.</p> + +<p>Against these fighting naval forces of the allied powers were ranged the +navies of Germany and Austria-Hungary. The former had, at the outbreak +of hostilities, 36 battleships, 5 battle cruisers, 9 armored cruisers, +and 48 cruisers. Instead of giving <span class="pagenum"><a id="page204" name="page204"></a>(p. 204)</span> attention to torpedo boats +she gave it to destroyers, of which she had 130. And of submarines she +had 27.</p> + +<p>In detail her naval forces consisted, first, of the <i>Kaiser Friedrich +III</i>, <i>Kaiser Karl der Grosse</i>, <i>Kaiser Barbarossa</i>, <i>Kaiser Wilhelm +II</i>, and <i>Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse</i>, all built as a result of the first +agitation of Von Tirpitz, between the years 1898 and 1901. They each +displaced 10,614 tons, had a speed of 18 knots, required 13,000 +horsepower, were protected with from 10 to 12 inches of armor, and +carried four 9.4-inch guns, fourteen of 5.9 inches, twelve of +3.4-inches, and twenty of smaller measurement. Roughly they corresponded +to the British ships of the <i>Canopus</i> class, both in design and time of +launching.</p> + +<p>Following this class came that of the <i>Wittelsbach</i>, including also the +<i>Wettin</i>, <i>Zähringen</i>, <i>Mecklenburg</i>, and <i>Schwaben</i>, built between 1901 +and 1903, displacing 11,643 tons, making 18 knots, protected with from 9 +to 10 inches of armor and carrying a primary battery of four 9.4-inch +guns, eighteen 5.9-inch guns, and a large secondary battery. The similar +type in the British navy was the <i>Canopus</i>—for England was far ahead of +Germany, both in the matter of displacement and primary battery. During +the same years England had launched ships of the type of the +<i>Implacable</i>.</p> + +<p>In 1904 came the German ships <i>Hessen</i>, <i>Elsass</i>, and <i>Braunschweig</i>, +and in 1905 and 1906 the <i>Preussen</i> and <i>Lothringen</i>. They were well +behind the English ships of the same years, for they displaced only +12,097 tons, made 18 knots, carried armor of from 9 to 10 inches in +thickness, and a primary battery of four 11-inch guns, fourteen 6.7-inch +guns, and twelve 3.4-inch guns, together with rapid firers and other +guns in a secondary battery. England at this time was putting 12-inch +guns in the primary battery of such ships as the <i>King Edward VII</i>.</p> + +<p>Still Germany kept up the race, and in 1906, 1907, and 1908 launched the +<i>Hannover</i>, <i>Deutschland</i>, <i>Schlesien</i>, <i>Schleswig-Holstein</i>, and +<i>Pommern</i>, with 12,997 tons displacement, 16,000 horsepower, a speed of +18 knots, and only 11-inch guns in the primary batteries. Whereas +England, at the same time, was building ships of the dreadnought type.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page205" name="page205"></a>(p. 205)</span> Next came four ships of the <i>Vanguard</i> class—the <i>Westfälen</i>, +<i>Nassau</i>, <i>Rheinland</i>, and <i>Posen</i>, built in 1909 and 1910. Their +heaviest guns measured 11 inches, while those of the English ships of +the same class measured 12 inches. The displacement of these German +fighting ships was 18,600 tons. In point of speed they showed some +improvement over the older German ships, making 19.5 knots. Germany, +like England, was now committed to the building of larger and larger +ships of the line. The <i>Helgoland</i>, <i>Thüringen</i>, <i>Oldenburg</i>, and +<i>Ostfriesland</i>, which were put into the water in 1911 and 1912, were +consequently of 22,400 tons displacement, with a speed of 20.5 knots and +carrying twelve 12-inch guns, fourteen 5.9-inch rapid-fire guns, +fourteen 3.9-inch rapid-fire guns, a few smaller guns, and as many as +six torpedo tubes.</p> + +<p>While England was maintaining her "two to three" policy, and while the +United States stood committed to the building of two first-class +battleships a year, Germany, in 1913, put five of them into the water. +These were the <i>König Albert</i>, <i>Prinz Regent Luitpold</i>, <i>Kaiserin</i>, +<i>Kaiser</i>, and <i>Friedrich der Grosse</i>, each capable of speeding through +the water at a rate of 21 knots, displacing 23,310 tons and carrying an +armament of ten 12-inch guns, fourteen 5.9-inch guns, and a large number +of rapid-fire guns of smaller measurement. Their armor was quite heavy, +being 13 inches thick on the side and 11 inches thick where protection +for the big guns was needed.</p> + +<p>The largest ships in the German navy which were launched, fitted, and +manned at the time that the war began, were those which were built in +1914 and which had a displacement of 26,575 tons. These ships were the +<i>König</i>, <i>Grosser Kurfürst</i>, and the <i>Markgraf</i>. The corresponding type +in the British navy was that of the <i>Iron Duke</i>, built in the same year. +The British ships of this class were 1,000 tons lighter in displacement, +a bit faster—making 22.5 knots to the 22 knots made by the German +ships—and their armament was not so strong as that of the German type, +for the German ships carried ten 14-inch guns, whereas the English +carried ten 13.5-inch guns.</p> + +<p>In addition to these first-class battleships, Germany had certain +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page206" name="page206"></a>(p. 206)</span> others, individual in type, such as the <i>Von der Tann</i>, +<i>Moltke</i>, <i>Goeben</i>, <i>Seydlitz</i>, <i>Derfflinger</i>, <i>Fürst Bismarck</i>, <i>Prinz +Heinrich</i>, <i>Prinz Adalbert</i>, <i>Roon</i> and <i>Yorck</i>, <i>Scharnhorst</i> and +<i>Gneisenau</i>, <i>Blücher</i>, <i>Magdeburg</i>, <i>Strassburg</i>, <i>Breslau</i>, +<i>Stralsund</i>, <i>Rostock</i>, and <i>Karlsruhe</i>. These may be reckoned as scout +cruisers, for they showed much speed, the fastest making 30 knots and +the slowest 19 knots. The oldest dates from 1900, and the newest from +1914. Germany had, also, thirty-nine more fast protected cruisers which +were designed for scout duty.</p> + +<p>In destroyers she was well equipped, having 143 ready for service when +war was declared. Her twenty-seven submarines were of the most improved +type, and much about their construction and armament she was able to +keep secret from the rest of the world. It is probable that even their +number was greater than the intelligence departments of foreign navies +suspected. The best type had a speed on the surface of 18 knots and +could travel at 12 knots when submerged. The type known as <i>E-21</i>, of +the design of 1914, measured 213 feet 8 inches in length and had a beam +of 20 feet.</p> + +<p>Austria, though not renowned for her naval strength, had certain units +which brought up the power of the Teutonic powers considerably. She had +nine first-class battleships, the <i>Erzherzog Karl</i>, <i>Erzherzog Ferdinand +Max</i>, <i>Erzherzog Friedrich</i>, <i>Zrinyi</i>, <i>Radetzky</i>, <i>Erzherzog Franz +Ferdinand</i>, <i>Teggethoff</i>, <i>Prinz Eugen</i>, and <i>Viribus Unitis</i>. These, at +the time Austria went to war, ranged in age from nine years to one year, +and varied in displacement from 10,000 tons to 20,000 tons. The largest +guns carried by any of them measured 12 inches, and the fastest, the +<i>Prinz Eugen</i>, made 20 knots. Of secondary importance were the +battleships <i>Kaiserin Maria Theresia</i>, <i>Kaiser Karl VI</i>, and <i>St. +Georg</i>. The register of battleships was supplemented with ten light +cruisers of exceptionally light displacement, the highest being only +3,966 tons. Scouting was their chief function. Austria had, also, 18 +destroyers, 63 torpedo boats, and 6 submarines.</p> + +<p>Such were the respective strengths of the opponents on that day in July, +1914, when the Crown Prince of Austria-Hungary <span class="pagenum"><a id="page207" name="page207"></a>(p. 207)</span> lost his life. +For ten years the officers of the navy created by the German Admiral von +Tirpitz had at all dinners come to their feet, waved their wine glasses +and had given the famous toast "Der Tag"—to the day on which the +English and German naval hosts would sally forth to do battle with each +other. "Der Tag" found both forces quite ready, though the British naval +authorities stole a march on their German rivals in the matter of +mobilization.</p> + +<p>It had been the custom for years in the British navy to assemble the +greater part of the British ships during the summer at the port of +Spithead, where, decorated with bunting, with flags flying, with +visitors in holiday spirit, and with officers and men in smart dress, +the vessels were reviewed by the king on the royal yacht.</p> + +<p>But in the eventful year of 1914, perhaps by accident, perhaps by +design, for the truth may never be known, the review had a different +aspect. There was no gaiety. The number of ships assembled this time was +greater than ever before—216 actual fighting ships passed slowly before +the royal yacht—there were no flags, no bunting, no holiday crowds, no +smart dress for officers and men. Instead, the fleet was drawn up ready +for battle, with decks cleared, guns uncovered, steam up, and magazines +replenished. During the tense weeks in which the war clouds gathered +over southern Europe this great fighting force remained in the British +home waters, and when, at fifteen minutes after midnight on August 4, +"Der Tag" had come, this fleet sailed under sealed orders. And +throughout the seven seas there were sundry ships flying the Union Jack +which immediately received orders by cable and by wireless.</p> + +<p>Of the disposition of the naval forces of Germany less was known. Her +greatest strength was concentrated in the North Sea, where the island of +Helgoland, the Gibraltar of the north, and the Kiel Canal with its exits +to the Baltic and North Seas, furnished excellently both as naval bases +and impenetrable protection. Throughout the rest of the watery surface +of the globe were eleven German warships, to which automatically fell +the task of protecting the thousands of ships which, flying the German +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page208" name="page208"></a>(p. 208)</span> red, white, and black, were carrying freight and passengers +from port to port.</p> + +<p>The first naval movements in the Great War occurred on the morning of +August 5, 1914. The British ship <i>Drake</i> cut two cables off the Azores +which connected Germany with North and South America, thus leaving these +eleven German fighting ships without communication with the German +admiralty direct. And the war was not a day old between England and +Germany before the German ship <i>Königin Luise</i> was caught sowing mines +off the eastern English ports by the British destroyer <i>Lance</i>.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XXXIII</h2> + +<p class="title">FIRST BLOOD—BATTLE OF THE BIGHT</p> + + +<p>The Germans had taken heed of the value of mines from lessons learned at +the cost of Russia in the war with Japan, and set about distributing +these engines of destruction throughout the North Sea. The British +admiralty knowing this, sent out a fleet of destroyers to scour home +waters in search of German mine layers.</p> + +<p>About ten o'clock on the morning of August 5, 1914, Captain Fox, on +board the <i>Amphion</i>, came up with a fishing boat which reported that it +had seen a boat "throwing things overboard" along the east coast. A +flotilla, consisting of the <i>Lance</i>, <i>Laurel</i>, <i>Lark</i> and <i>Linnet</i>, set +out in search of the stranger and soon found her. She was the <i>Königin +Luise</i>, and the things she was casting overboard were mines. The <i>Lance</i> +fired a shot across her bow to stop her, but she put on extra speed and +made an attempt to escape. A chase followed; the gunners on the British +ship now fired to hit. The first of these shots carried away the bridge +of the German ship, a second shot missed, and a third and fourth hit her +hull. Six minutes after the firing of the first shot her stern was shot +away, and she went to the bottom, bow up. Fifty of her 130 men were +picked up and brought to the English shore.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page209" name="page209"></a>(p. 209)</span> The first naval blood of the Great War had been drawn by +Britain on August 5, 1914. The <i>Königin Luise's</i> efforts had not been in +vain. She had posthumous revenge on the morning of August 6, when the +<i>Amphion</i>, flagship of the third flotilla of destroyers, hit one of the +mines which the German ship had sowed. It was seen immediately by her +officers that she must sink; three minutes after her crew had left her +there came a second explosion, which, throwing débris aloft, brought +about the death of many of the British sailors in the small boats, as +well as that of a German prisoner from the <i>Königin Luise</i>.</p> + +<p>All the world, with possibly the exception of the men in the German +admiralty, now looked for a great decisive battle "between the giants" +in the North Sea. The British spoke of it as a coming second Trafalgar, +but it was not to take place. For reasons of their own the Germans kept +their larger and heavier ships within the protection of Helgoland and +the Kiel Canal, but their ships of smaller type immediately became +active and left German shores to do what damage they might to the +British navy. It was hoped, perhaps, that the naval forces of the two +powers could be equalized and a battle fought on even terms after the +Germans had cut down British advantage by a policy of attrition.</p> + +<p>A flotilla of German submarines on August 9 attacked a cruiser belonging +to the main British fleet, but was unable to inflict any damage. The +lord mayor of the city of Birmingham received the following telegram the +next morning: "Birmingham will be proud to learn that the first German +submarine destroyed in the war was sunk by H. M. S. <i>Birmingham</i>." Two +shots from the British ship had struck the German <i>U-15</i>, and she sank +immediately.</p> + +<p>The German admiralty, even before England had declared war, suspected +that the greatest use for the German navy in the months to come would be +to fight the British navy, but they ventured to show their naval +strength against Russia beforehand. Early in August they sent the +<i>Augsburg</i> into the Baltic Sea to bombard the Russian port of Libau, but +after doing a good bit of damage the German ship retired. It is probable +that this raid <span class="pagenum"><a id="page210" name="page210"></a>(p. 210)</span> was nothing more than a feint to remind Russia +that she continually faced the danger of invasion from German troops +landed on the Baltic shores under the cover of German ships, and that +she must consequently keep a large force on her northern shores instead +of sending it west to meet the German army on the border.</p> + +<p>Among the German ships which were separated from the main fleet in the +North Sea, and which were left without direct communication with the +German admiralty after the cutting of the cables off the Azores by the +<i>Drake</i>, were the cruisers <i>Goeben</i> and <i>Breslau</i>. When England declared +war these two German ships were off the coast of Algeria. Both were very +fast vessels, having a speed of 28 knots, and they were designed to go +6,000 knots without needing replenishment of their coal bunkers.</p> + +<p>On the morning of August 5, after having bombarded some of the coast +cities of Algeria they found themselves cut off on the east by a French +fleet and on the west by an English fleet, but by a very clever bit of +stratagem they escaped. The band of the <i>Goeben</i> was placed on a raft +and ordered on a given moment to play the German national airs after an +appreciable period. Meanwhile, under the cover of the night's darkness +the two German ships steamed away. After they had a good start the band +on the raft began to play. The British patrols heard the airs and +immediately all British ships were searching for the source of the +music. To find a small raft in mid-sea was an impossible task, and while +the enemy was engaged in it the two Germans headed for Messina, then a +neutral port, which they reached successfully. The Italian authorities +permitted them to remain there only twenty-four hours.</p> + +<p>Before leaving they took a dramatic farewell, which received publicity +in the press of the whole world, and which was designed to lead the +British fleet commanders to believe that the Germans were coming out to +do battle. Instead, they headed for Constantinople. They escaped all the +ships of the British Mediterranean fleet with the exception of the +cruiser <i>Gloucester</i>. With this ship they exchanged shots and were in +turn slightly damaged, but they reached the Porte in seaworthy +condition, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page211" name="page211"></a>(p. 211)</span> were immediately sold to the Turkish +Government, which was then still neutral. The crews were sent to Germany +and were warmly welcomed at Berlin. The officers responsible for their +escape were disciplined by the British authorities.</p> + +<p>Both Germany and England, the former by means of the eleven ships at +large, and the latter by means of her preponderance in the number of +ships, now made great efforts to capture trading ships of the enemy. +When England declared war there was issued a royal proclamation which +stated that up to midnight of August 14 England would permit German +merchantmen in British harbors to sail for home ports, provided Germany +gave British merchantmen the same privilege, but it was specified that +ships of over 5,000 tons would not receive the privilege because they +could be converted into fighting ships afterward. But on the high seas +enemy ships come upon were captured.</p> + +<p>The German admiralty on August 1 had issued orders to German merchantmen +to keep within neutral ports, and by this means such important ships as +the <i>Friedrich der Grosse</i> and the <i>Grosser Kurfürst</i> eluded capture. In +the harbor of New York was the <i>Kronprinzessin Cecilie</i>, a fast steamer +of 23.5 knots. She left New York on July 28 carrying a cargo of +$10,000,000 in gold, and was on the high seas when England declared war. +Naturally she was regarded by the British as a great prize, and the +whole world awaited from day to day the news of her capture, but her +captain, showing great resourcefulness, after nearly reaching the +British Isles, turned her prow westward, darkened all exterior lights, +put canvas over the port holes and succeeded in reaching Bar Harbor, +Me., on the morning of August 5.</p> + +<p>Similarly the <i>Lusitania</i> and the French liner <i>Lorraine</i>, leaving New +York on August 5, were able to elude the German cruiser <i>Dresden</i>, which +was performing the difficult task of trying to intercept merchantmen +belonging to the Allies as they sailed from America, while she was +keeping watch against warships flying the enemies' flags. Still more +important was the sailing from New York of the German liner <i>Kaiser +Wilhelm der Grosse</i>. This ship had a speed of 22.5 knots and a +displacement of 14,349 tons. During the first week of the war she +cleared the port of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page212" name="page212"></a>(p. 212)</span> New York with what was believed to be a +trade cargo, but she so soon afterward began harassing British trading +ships that it was believed that she left port equipped as a vessel of +war or fitted out as one in some other neutral port. The continued story +of the German raids on allied trading ships must form a separate part of +this narrative. It was only a month after the outbreak of hostilities +that the fleets of the allied powers had swept clean the seven seas of +all ships flying German and Austrian flags which were engaged in trade +and not in warlike pursuits.</p> + +<p>The first naval battle of the Great War was fought on August 28, 1914. +"A certain liveliness in the North Sea" was reported through the press +by the British admiralty on the 19th of August. Many of the smaller +vessels of the fleet of Admiral von Ingenohl, the German commander, such +as destroyers, light cruisers, and scouting cruisers, were sighted. +Shots between these and English vessels of the same types were exchanged +at long range, but a pitched battle did not come for still a week. +Meanwhile the British navy had been doing its best to destroy the mine +fields established by the Germans. Trawlers were sent out in pairs, +dragging between them large cables which cut the mines from the +sea-bottom moorings: On being loosened they came to the surface and were +destroyed by shots from the trawlers' decks.</p> + +<p>On the 28th of August came the battle off the Bight of Helgoland. The +island of Helgoland had been a British possession from 1807 till 1890, +when it was transferred to Germany by treaty. It was seen immediately by +the Germans that it formed an excellent natural naval base, lying as it +does, thirty-five miles northwest of Cuxhaven and forty-three miles +north of Wilhelmshaven. They at once began to augment the natural +protection it afforded with their own devices. Two Zeppelin sheds were +erected, concrete forts were built and 12-inch guns were installed. The +scene of the battle which took place here was the Bight of Helgoland, +which formed a channel eighteen miles wide some seven miles north of the +island and near which lay the line of travel for ships leaving the ports +of the Elbe.</p> + +<p>British submarines which had been doing reconnaissance work <span class="pagenum"><a id="page213" name="page213"></a>(p. 213)</span> on +the German coast since August 24 reported to the British commander, +Admiral Jellicoe, that a large force of German light cruisers and +smaller craft were lying under the protection of the Helgoland guns, and +he immediately arranged plans for leading this force away from that +protection in order to give it battle. Briefly the plans made provided +that three submarines were to proceed on the surface of the water to +within sight of the German ships and when chased by the latter were to +head westward. The light cruisers <i>Arethusa</i> and <i>Fearless</i> were +detailed to run in behind any light German craft which were to follow +the British submarines, endeavoring to cut them off from the German +coast, and these two vessels were backed by a squadron of light cruisers +held in readiness should the first two need assistance. Squadrons of +cruisers and battle cruisers were detailed to stay in the rear, still +further to the northwest, to engage any German ships of their own class +which might get that far.</p> + +<p>It was at midnight on August 26 that Commodore Keyes moved toward +Helgoland with eight submarines accompanied by two destroyers. During +the next day—August 27—this force did nothing more than keep watch for +German submarines and scouting craft, and then took up its allotted +position for the main action. The morning of the 28th broke misty and +calm. Under half steam three of the British submarines, the <i>E-6</i>, +<i>E-7</i>, and <i>E-8</i> steamed toward the island fortress, showing their hulls +above water and followed by the two detailed destroyers.</p> + +<p>The mist thickened. Still more slowly and cautiously went the British +submersibles, and while they went above water, five of their sister +craft traveled under the surface. Here was the bait for the German ships +under Helgoland's guns. Would they bite?</p> + +<p>The Germans soon gave the answer. First there crept out a German +destroyer which took a good look at the situation and then gave wireless +signals to some twenty more of her type, which soon came out to join +her. The twenty-one little and speedy German boats bravely came out and +chased the two British destroyers and three submarines, while a German +seaplane slowly circled upward to see if the surrounding regions +harbored enemies. Presumably the airman found what he <span class="pagenum"><a id="page214" name="page214"></a>(p. 214)</span> sought +for he soon flew back to report to Helgoland. The peaceful aspect of the +waters to the east of the island immediately changed, as a squadron of +light cruisers weighed anchor and put out after the retiring Britishers.</p> + +<p>Before a description of the fighting can be given it is necessary to +understand the plan of the fight as a whole. Assuming that the page on +which these words are printed represents a map of the North Sea and that +the points of the compass are as they would be on an ordinary chart, we +have the island of Helgoland, half an inch long and a quarter of an inch +wide, situated in the lower right-hand corner of this page, with about +half an inch separating its eastern side from the right edge of the page +and the same distance separating it from the bottom. The lower edge of +the page may represent the adjoining coasts of Germany and Holland, and +the right-hand edge may represent the coast of the German province of +Schleswig and the coast of Denmark.</p> + +<p>At seven o'clock on the morning of August 28 the positions of the +fighting forces were as follows: The decoy British submarines were +making a track from Helgoland to the northwest, pursued by a flotilla of +German submarines, destroyers, and torpedo boats, and a fleet of light +cruisers. On the west—the left edge of the page, halfway up—there were +the British cruisers <i>Arethusa</i> and <i>Fearless</i> accompanied by flotillas, +and steaming eastward at a rate that brought them to the rear of the +German squadron of light cruisers, thus cutting off the latter from the +fortress. In the southwest—the lower left-hand corner of the +page—there was stationed a squadron of British cruisers, ready to close +in when needed; in the northwest—the upper left-hand corner of the +page—there were stationed a squadron of British light cruisers and +another of battle cruisers, and it was toward these last two units that +the decoys were leading the German fleets.</p> + +<p>The <i>Arethusa</i> and <i>Fearless</i> felt the first shock of battle, on the +side of the British. The German cruiser <i>Ariadne</i> closed with the +former, while the latter soon found itself very busy with the German +cruiser <i>Strassburg</i>. For thirty-five minutes—before the <i>Fearless</i> +drew the fire of the <i>Strassburg</i>—the two German vessels poured a +telling fire into the <i>Arethusa</i>, and the latter was soon in <span class="pagenum"><a id="page215" name="page215"></a>(p. 215)</span> +bad condition, but she managed to hold out till succored by the +<i>Fearless</i>, and then planted a shell against the <i>Ariadne</i> which carried +away her forebridge and killed her captain. The scouting which had been +done by the smaller craft of the German fleets showed their commanders +that there were other British ships in the neighborhood besides the two +they had first engaged, and it was thought wiser to withdraw in face of +possible reenforcement of the British, consequently the <i>Strassburg</i> and +<i>Ariadne</i> turned eastward to seek the protection of the fortress. The +<i>Arethusa</i>, a boat that had been in commission but a week when the +battle was fought, was in a bad way; all but one of her guns were out of +action, her water tank had been punctured and fire was raging on her +main deck amidships. The <i>Fearless</i> passed her a cable at nine o'clock +and towed her westward, away from the scene of action, while her crew +made what repairs they could.</p> + +<p>The flotillas of both sides had meanwhile been busy. At the head of the +squadron of German destroyers that came out of the waters behind +Helgoland was the <i>V-187</i>. Without slacking speed she steamed straight +for the British destroyers, her small guns spitting rapidly, but she was +outnumbered by British destroyers, which poured such an amount of steel +into her thin sides that she went under, her guns firing till their +muzzles touched the water and her crew cheering as they went to their +deaths. A few managed to keep afloat on wreckage, and during a lull in +the fighting, which lasted from nine o'clock till ten, boats were +lowered from the British destroyers <i>Goshawk</i> and <i>Defender</i> to pick up +these stranded German sailors.</p> + +<p>The commanders of the German fleet, perceiving these small boats from +afar, thought that the British were resorting to the old principle of +boarding, and the German light cruiser <i>Mainz</i> came out to fire upon +them. Two of the British small boats had to be abandoned as their mother +ships made off before the oncoming German. They were in a perilous +position, right beneath the guns of the fortress. But now a daring and +unique rescue took place. The commander of the British submarine <i>E-4</i> +had been watching the fighting through the periscope of his craft, and +seeing the helpless position of the two small boats, he submerged, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page216" name="page216"></a>(p. 216)</span> made toward them, and then, to the great surprise of the men +in them, came up right between them and took their occupants aboard his +boat.</p> + +<p>Repairs had been made on the <i>Arethusa</i> which enabled her to go into +action again by ten o'clock. Accompanied again by two light cruisers of +ten four-inch guns and the <i>Fearless</i>, she turned westward in answer to +calls for assistance from the destroyers <i>Lurcher</i> and <i>Firedrake</i>, +which accompanied the submarines and which reported that they were being +chased by fast German cruisers. Suddenly the light cruiser <i>Strassburg</i> +again came out of the mist and bore down on the British cruisers. Her +larger guns were too heavy and had too long a range for those of the +British craft, and the latter immediately sent out calls which brought +into action for the first time certain ships belonging to the squadron +of British light cruisers, which had been stationed to the +northwest—the upper left-hand corner of the page.</p> + +<p>The vessels which answered the calls were the light cruisers <i>Falmouth</i> +and <i>Nottingham</i> with eight eight-inch and nine six-inch guns +respectively, but before arriving the <i>Strassburg</i> still had time to +inflict more damage on the <i>Arethusa</i>. The cruisers <i>Köln</i> and <i>Mainz</i> +joined the <i>Strassburg</i>, and the British vessels were having a bad time +of it when their commander ordered the <i>Fearless</i> to concentrate all +fire on the <i>Strassburg</i>. This, and a concentrated fire from the +destroyers, proved too strong for her and she turned eastward, +disappearing in the mist off Helgoland. The <i>Mainz</i> then received the +attention of all available British guns, including the battle cruiser +<i>Lion</i>, and soon fire broke out within her hold. Next her foremast, +slowly tottering and then inclining more and more, crashed down upon her +deck, a distorted mass. Following that came down one of her funnels. The +fire which was raging aboard her was hampering her machinery, and her +speed slackened; the moment to strike with a torpedo had come, and one +of these "steel fishes" was sent against her hull below water. In the +explosion which followed one of her boilers came out through her deck, +ascended some fifty feet and dropped down near her bow; her engines +stopped, and she began to settle slowly, her bow going down first.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page217" name="page217"></a>(p. 217)</span> It was now noon. From behind the veil of the surrounding mist +came the <i>Falmouth</i> and <i>Nottingham</i>, which with the guns in their +turrets completely finished the hapless <i>Mainz</i>, and their sailors +openly admired the bravery of her crew, which, while she sank, +maintained perfect order and sang the German national air.</p> + +<p>There was yet the <i>Köln</i> with which the <i>Arethusa</i> had to do battle. But +by now the heavy British battle cruisers <i>Lion</i> and <i>Queen Mary</i> had +also come down from the northwest to take part in the fighting, and +letting the <i>Arethusa</i> escape from the range of the light cruiser +<i>Köln</i>, they went for the German, which, overpowered, fled toward +Helgoland. While the chase was on the <i>Ariadne</i> again made her +appearance and came to the aid of the <i>Köln</i>, but the light cruiser +<i>Ariadne</i> carried no gun as effective in destructive power as the +13.5-inch guns of the <i>Lion</i>, and she, too, had to seek safety in +flight. The British ships then finished the <i>Köln</i>; so badly was she hit +that when the British small boats sought the spot where she quickly sank +they found not a man of her crew afloat. Every man of the 370 of her +crew perished.</p> + +<p>The afternoon came, and with its advent the mist, which had kept the +guns of Helgoland's forts out of action, had cleared off the calm waters +of the North Sea. By the time the sun had set only floating wreckage +gave evidence that here brave men had fought and died. By evening the +respective forces were in their home ports, being treated for their +hurts. The Germans had lost the <i>Mainz</i>, <i>Köln</i>, and <i>Ariadne</i>, and the +<i>Strassburg</i> had limped home. The loss in destroyers and other small +craft in addition to that of the <i>V-187</i> was not known. The loss on the +British side had not entailed that of a large ship, but the <i>Arethusa</i> +when she returned to her home port was far from being in good condition, +and some of the smaller boats were in the same circumstances.</p> + +<p>Admiral von Ingenohl was committed more strongly than ever, as a result +of this engagement, to the belief that the best policy for his command +would be to keep his squadrons within the protection afforded by +Helgoland and that the most damage could be done to the enemy by picking +off her larger ships one by one. In other words, he again turned to the +policy of attrition. He immediately put it into force.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page218" name="page218"></a>(p. 218)</span> On the 3d of September the British gunboat <i>Speedy</i> struck a +mine in the North Sea and went down. It was only two days later that the +light cruiser <i>Pathfinder</i> was made the true target of a torpedo fired +by a German submarine off the British eastern coast, and she, too, went +to the bottom. But the British immediately retaliated, for the submarine +<i>E-9</i> sighted the German light cruiser <i>Hela</i> weathering a bad storm on +September 13 between Helgoland and the Frisian coast. A torpedo was +launched and found its mark, and the <i>Hela</i> joined the <i>Köln</i> and +<i>Mainz</i>. Up to this point the results of attrition were even, but the +Germans scored heavily during the following week.</p> + +<p>On September 22 the three slow British cruisers <i>Cressy</i>, <i>Hogue</i>, and +<i>Aboukir</i> were patrolling the waters off the Dutch coast, unaccompanied +by small craft of any kind, when suddenly, at half past six in the +morning, the <i>Aboukir</i> crumpled and sank, the victim of another +submarine attack. But the commander of the <i>Hogue</i> thought she had been +sunk by hitting a mine, and innocently approached the spot of the +disaster to rescue such of the crew of the <i>Aboukir</i> as were afloat. The +work of mercy was never completed, for the <i>Hogue</i> itself was hit by two +torpedoes in the next few moments, and she joined her sister ship. The +commander of the <i>Cressy</i>, failing to take a lesson from what he had +witnessed, now approached, and his ship was also hit by two torpedoes, +making the third victim of the German policy of attrition within an +hour, and Captain Lieutenant von Weddigen, commander of the <i>U-9</i>, which +had done this work, immediately became a German hero.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page219" name="page219"></a>(p. 219)</span> CHAPTER XXXIV</h2> + +<p class="title">BATTLES ON THREE SEAS</p> + + +<p>So stood the score in the naval warfare in the North Sea at the end of +the second month of the Great War. But while these events were taking +place in the waters of Europe, others of equal import had been taking +place in the waters of Asia. On August 23, 1914, Japan declared war on +Germany and immediately set about scouring the East for German craft of +all kinds.</p> + +<p>Japan brought to the naval strength of the Allied powers no mean unit. +Hers was the only navy in the world which had seen the ultramodern +battleships in action; the Russian navy which had had the same +experience was no more. Eight of her first-class battleships were, at +the time of her entrance into the Great War, veterans of the war with +Russia. The <i>Fugi</i>, <i>Asahi</i>, <i>Kikasa</i>, and <i>Shikishima</i> had gone into +the former war as Japanese ships, and the remaining four had gone into +it as Russian ships, but had been captured by the Japanese. These were +the <i>Hizen</i>, <i>Sagami</i>, <i>Suwo</i>, and <i>Iwami</i>. Their value was not great, +for the <i>Fugi</i> had been launched as far back as 1896. Nevertheless she +carried 12-inch guns and displaced 12,300 tons. But her speed was only +17 knots at the most. She had been built in England as had the <i>Asahi</i> +and <i>Shikishima</i>, which were launched in 1900 and 1901. They also +carried 12-inch guns and had a speed of 18.5 knots. Their tonnage was +15,000. Admiral Togo's former flagship, the <i>Mikasa</i>, was also of the +predreadnought type, having been built in 1900, and carrying a main +battery of 12-inch guns. Her speed was 18.5 knots.</p> + +<p>Of the former Russian ships the rechristened <i>Iwami</i> was of French +build, protected with Krupp steel armor to the thickness of 7.5 inches. +Her displacement was 13,600 tons, and her speed 18 knots. Like the other +ships of this class in the Japanese navy, she carried a main battery of +12-inch guns. The <i>Hizen</i> was an American product, having been built by +Cramps in 1902. Her displacement was 12,700 tons, made a speed of 18.5 +knots, was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page220" name="page220"></a>(p. 220)</span> also protected with Krupp steel and carried four +10-inch guns. She was a real veteran, for she had undergone repairs +necessitated by having been torpedoed off Port Arthur and had been +refloated after being sunk in later action there. The <i>Sagami</i> and the +<i>Suwo</i> had been built in 1901 and 1902. They displaced 13,500 tons, had +a speed of 18.5 knots, and carried as their heaviest armament 10-inch +guns.</p> + +<p>In addition to these eight ships Japan had also nine protected cruisers, +all of the same type and all veterans of the war with Russia. They were +of such strength and endurance that the Japanese admiralty rated them +capable of taking places in the first line of battle. These were the +<i>Nisshin</i> and <i>Kasuga</i>, purchased from Italy and built in 1904, +displacing 7,700 tons, and making a speed of 22 knots; the <i>Aso</i>, French +built and captured from the Russians, and of the same design and +measurements as the other two; and the protected cruisers <i>Yakumo</i>, +<i>Asama</i>, <i>Idzumo</i>, <i>Tokiwa</i>, <i>Aguma</i>, and <i>Iwate</i>, built before the war +with Russia, slightly heavier than their sister ships but not as fast. +None of this type has been added to the Japanese navy since 1907. Japan +has, instead, given attention to scouting cruisers, with the result that +she possessed three excellent vessels of this class, the <i>Yahagi</i>, +<i>Chikuma</i>, and <i>Hirato</i>, with the good speed of 26 knots and displacing +5,000 tons. They were built in 1912. And not so efficient were the other +ships of similar design, the <i>Soya</i>, built in America, <i>Tone</i> and +<i>Tsugaru</i>.</p> + +<p>The veteran Japanese navy was supplemented with 52 destroyers and 15 +submarines, all built since the war with Russia, and a number of heavier +vessels. Among the latter were the first-class battleships <i>Kashima</i> and +<i>Katori</i>, completed in 1906, and displacing 16,400 tons. Their heavy +guns measured 12 inches, and they made a speed of 19.5 knots. There were +also the vessels <i>Ikoma</i> and <i>Tsukuba</i>, individual in type, with +corresponding kinds in no other navy, and which might be called a cross +between an armored cruiser and battle cruiser. Though displacing no more +than 13,766 tons, they carried four 12-inch guns, and made the +comparatively low speed of 20.5 knots. In 1909 and 1910 the Japanese +added two more ships of this kind <span class="pagenum"><a id="page221" name="page221"></a>(p. 221)</span> to their navy, the <i>Ibuki</i> +and <i>Kurama</i>, slightly heavier and faster and with the same armament.</p> + +<p>The dreadnought <i>Satsuma</i> also came in 1910—a vessel displacing 19,400 +tons, but making a speed of only 18.2 knots, and with an extraordinarily +heavy main battery consisting of four 12-inch guns and twelve 10-inch +guns. The <i>Aki</i>, launched in 1911, was 400 tons heavier than the +<i>Satsuma</i>, and was more than 2 knots faster, and her main battery was +equally strong. The dreadnoughts <i>Settsu</i> and <i>Kawachi</i>, completed in +1913 and 1912 respectively, displaced 21,420 tons, but were able to make +not more than 20 knots. At this time the Japanese admiralty, perhaps on +account of lessons learned in the war with Russia, was building +dreadnoughts with less speed than those in the other navies, but with +much heavier main batteries. These two vessels carried a unique main +battery of twelve 12-inch guns, along with others of smaller +measurement. What the dreadnoughts lacked in speed was made up in that +of four battle cruisers launched after 1912. These were the <i>Kirishima</i>, +<i>Kongo</i>, <i>Hi-Yei</i>, and <i>Haruna</i>, with the good speed of 28 knots. Their +displacement was 27,500 tons, and they carried in their primary +batteries eight 14-inch guns and sixteen 6-inch guns.</p> + +<p>At the time Japan entered the war she had in building four +superdreadnoughts with the tremendous displacement of 30,600 tons. These +vessels, the <i>Mitsubishi</i>, <i>Yukosaka</i>, <i>Kure</i>, and <i>Kawasaki</i>, had been +designed to carry a main battery of the strength of the U.S.S. +<i>Pennsylvania</i>, and to have a speed of 22.5 knots.</p> + +<p>The first move of the Japanese navy in the Great War was to cooperate +with the army in besieging the German town of Kiaochaw on the Shantung +Peninsula in China, but the operation was soon more military than naval. +Japanese warships captured Bonham Island in the group known as the +Marshall Islands, and, having cleared eastern waters of German warships, +scoured the Pacific in such a manner as to chase those which escaped +into the regions patrolled by the British navy.</p> + +<p>The German vessels which made their escape were among the eleven which +were separated from the rest of Germany's navy in the North Sea at the +outbreak of hostilities. They were, with <span class="pagenum"><a id="page222" name="page222"></a>(p. 222)</span> the exception of the +<i>Dresden</i>, the <i>Leipzig</i>, <i>Nürnberg</i>, <i>Scharnhorst</i>, and <i>Gneisenau</i>. It +was weeks before they were first reported—on September 22 at the harbor +of Papeete, where they destroyed the French gunboat <i>Zelie</i>, and after +putting again to sea their location was once more a mystery.</p> + +<p>On the evening of November 1 a British squadron consisting of the +vessels <i>Good Hope</i>, <i>Otranto</i>, <i>Glasgow</i>, and <i>Monmouth</i>, all except +the <i>Good Hope</i> coming through the straits, sighted the enemy. The +British ships lined up abreast and proceeded in a northeasterly +direction. The Germans took up the same alignment eight miles to the +westward of the British ships and proceeded southward at full speed. +Both forces opened fire at a distance of 12,000 yards shortly after six +o'clock off Coronel near the coast of Chile. The <i>Gneisenau</i> was struck +by a 9.2-inch shot from the <i>Good Hope</i>. The <i>Scharnhorst</i> and +<i>Gneisenau</i> picked the <i>Good Hope</i> as their first target, but finding +that they could do no damage at that range and that they were safe from +the fire of the British ship, they came to within 6,000 yards of her. +Her fire in reply was augmented by that of the <i>Monmouth</i>. Excellent aim +on the part of the Germans soon had the <i>Good Hope</i> out of action, and +fire broke out aboard her. Soon after general action her magazine +exploded.</p> + +<p>The <i>Monmouth</i> then received the brunt of the fire from the German +ships, and came in for more than her share of the destructive fire, +being put virtually out of action, and at the same time there occurred +an explosion on board the <i>Good Hope</i> and she sank immediately, carrying +Admiral Cradock to his death.</p> + +<p>There remained of the British force only the <i>Otranto</i>—a converted +liner and not really a battleship of the line—the <i>Glasgow</i> and the +hopelessly disabled <i>Monmouth</i> to continue the fight with an efficient +German force. The British commander ordered the former two to get away +by making speed, but the officer in charge of the <i>Glasgow</i>, paying no +heed to the order, kept in the fight.</p> + +<a id="img018" name="img018"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/img018.jpg" width="600" height="354" alt="" title=""> +<p>The famous German raider "Emden" beached on one of the +Cocos Islands after being wrecked by the "Sydney's" shells.</p> +</div> + +<p>Dusk was then coming on and the <i>Glasgow</i> sought to take advantage of it +by getting between the German ships and the limping <i>Monmouth</i>, +concealing the latter from them with her smoke. But the Germans had now +come to within 4,500 yards. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page223" name="page223"></a>(p. 223)</span> To escape possible attack from +torpedoes the German ships spread out their line, but perceiving that +such a danger was not present, they again closed in to finish the +crippled British ships. All of the German ships now went for the +<i>Glasgow</i>, and she had to desert the <i>Monmouth</i>, which first sailed +northward, in bad condition, and later made an attempt to run ashore at +Santa Maria, but was unable to do so.</p> + +<p>The inevitable "if" played its part in the battle. When the British +fleet first went after the Germans it had as one of its units the +battleship <i>Canopus</i>. But her speed was not up to that of the other +ships, and she fell far to their stern. By the time the action was on +she was too distant to take part in it. No attempt was made to go +together owing to the slowness of the battleship. The <i>Canopus</i> was +never in the action at all, being 150 miles astern. Had Cradock not +desired to he need not have taken on the action but retired in the +<i>Canopus</i>. The setting of the sun also played its part; if daylight had +continued some hours more the British squadron might have held out till +the <i>Canopus</i> brought up, for the almost horizontal rays of the sun were +in the eyes of the German gunners. But as it dropped below the watery +horizon it left the British ships silhouetted against a clear outline. +The <i>Canopus</i> did not get into the fight, and the greatest concern of +the <i>Glasgow</i> as she steamed off was to warn the British battleship to +keep off, for of less speed than the German ships, and outnumbered by +them, her appearance meant her destruction. The <i>Glasgow</i>, later joined +by the <i>Canopus</i>, arrived in battered condition at the Falkland Islands. +The <i>Monmouth</i>, after the main action was over, was found and finished +by the German squadron and went down. Seventy shots were fired at her +when she lay sinking, on fire and helpless, and unable to fire her guns. +Germany had evened the score in the second battle between fleets.</p> + +<p>The <i>Dresden</i> after the Falkland action took refuge in Fiordes of Terra +del Fuego and after being there for a couple of months proceeded to the +head of the Island of Juan Fernandez where she was found by the +<i>Glasgow</i>, <i>Kent</i> and auxiliary cruiser <i>Orama</i> and was destroyed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page224" name="page224"></a>(p. 224)</span> Most remarkable had been the career of the German third-class +cruiser <i>Nürnberg</i>, which had joined the other German ships that went to +make up the German squadron which fought in this battle off Coronel. +This vessel, on the day after Germany and England went to war, was lying +near Yap, an island in the Pacific, that had been, until captured by the +Japanese, the wireless station of most importance to the Germans in the +Pacific Ocean. She immediately, after being apprised that she was part +of a navy engaged in a war, set sail and was not reported again until +the 7th of September, when she appeared at Fanning Island, a cable +station maintained by Britain, and from which cables run to Vancouver to +the east and Australia to the west. Here she hid her identity by +entering the harbor flying the tricolor of France and appearing as +though she was making a friendly visit. Officials on the island, happy +to think they would have such a visitor, saw two cutters leave the +warship.</p> + +<p>Great was the surprise of those watching events from the shore when they +saw the French flag lowered from the masthead of the visitor and in its +place the German naval ensign run up. The cutters were just about +reaching knee-deep water at the shore when this surprise came, and it +was augmented when, with the protection of the guns of the vessel, the +men in these cutters showed themselves to be a hostile landing party.</p> + +<p>Her presence was not reported to the rest of the world for the good +reason that she cut all cables leading from the island. All the British +men there were put under guard, and after damaging all cable instruments +she could find, the <i>Nürnberg</i>, accompanied by a collier that had come +with her, again took to the high seas.</p> + +<p>She next turned up at the island of St. Felix, 300 miles west of the +Chilean coast, but did not come to the harbor. During the night of +October 14 the inhabitants of that island saw the flash and heard the +roar of an explosion miles out to sea, and for a number of days later +they picked up on their beach the wreckage of what must have been a +collier. As has been related in preceding paragraphs, the <i>Nürnberg</i> +took part in that fight. The end of her career came in the battle off +the Falkland Islands, which will be dealt with later.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page225" name="page225"></a>(p. 225)</span> CHAPTER XXXV</h2> + +<p class="title">THE GERMAN SEA RAIDERS</p> + + +<p>While British men-o'-war were capturing German merchantmen and taking +them to British ports, the German raiders which were abroad were earning +terrifying reputations for themselves because the enemy merchantmen with +which they came upon had to be destroyed on the high seas, for there +were no ports to which they could be taken. Prominent among these was +the <i>Königsberg</i>, a third-class cruiser. When the war came she was in +Asiatic waters and immediately made the east coast of Africa her "beat." +While patrolling it she came upon two British merchant ships, and after +taking from their stores such supplies as were needed she sent them to +the bottom. On September 20, 1914, she made a dash into the harbor of +Zanzibar and found there the British cruiser <i>Pegasus</i>, which on account +of her age was undergoing a complete overhauling. She was easy prey for +the German ship, for besides the fact that she was stationary her guns +were of shorter range than those of her adversary. Shell after shell +tore into her till she was battered beyond all resemblance to a fighting +craft. But her flag flew till the end, for though it was shot down from +the masthead, two marines held it aloft, one of them losing his life. +And when the <i>Königsberg</i>, her task of destruction complete, sailed off, +the lone marine still held up the Union Jack. The British ships in those +waters made a systematic hunt for her and located her at last, on the +30th of October. She was hiding in her favorite rendezvous, some miles +up the Rufigi River in German East Africa. The ship which found her was +the <i>Chatham</i>, a second-class cruiser, with a draft much heavier than +that of the <i>Königsberg</i>, and the difference gave the latter a good +advantage, for she ran up the river and her enemy could not follow. Nor +could the English ship use her guns with much effect, for the gunners +could not make out the hull of the German ship through the tropical +vegetation along the river banks. All that the British ship could do +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page226" name="page226"></a>(p. 226)</span> was to fire shells in her general direction and then guess +what effect they had. But to prevent her escape, colliers were sunk at +the mouth of the river. She had come to as inglorious an end as her +victim, the <i>Pegasus</i>.</p> + +<p>The account of another raider, the <i>Kronprinz Wilhelm</i>, which left New +York on the evening that England declared war, with her bunkers loaded +with coal and other supplies for warships, has already been related. The +mystery concerning this sailing was cleared up when she was caught +coaling the <i>Karlsruhe</i> in the Atlantic. Both ships made off in safety +that time, and soon after a British cruiser reported that she had been +heard in wireless communication with the <i>Dresden</i>. Thereafter the fate +of this ship remained a mystery till she put in at Hampton Roads on +April 11, 1915.</p> + +<p>Most spectacular was the career of the <i>Emden</i>, a third-class cruiser, +which sailed from Japanese waters at the same time as the <i>Königsberg</i>. +Through the ability of her commander, Captain Karl von Müller, she +earned the soubriquet "Terror of the East," for by using a clever system +of supply ships she was able to raid eastern waters for ten weeks +without making a port or otherwise running the risk of leaving a clue by +which British ships might find her. Her favorite occupation was that of +stopping enemy merchantmen which she sank. But her captain always +allowed one—the last one—of her prizes to remain afloat, and in this +he sent to the nearest port the officers, passengers, and crews of those +that were destroyed. At times he used prizes as colliers, putting them +under command of his petty officers.</p> + +<p>By way of diversion, Captain von Müller steamed into the harbor of +Madras in the Bay of Bengal and opened with his guns on the suburbs of +the town, setting on fire two huge oil tanks there. The fort there +returned the fire, but the <i>Emden</i> after half an hour sailed away +unharmed. She had been enabled to come near the British guns on shore by +flying the French flag, which she continued to display until her guns +began to boom. She then left the waters of Bengal Bay, but not before +she had ended the journey of $30,000,000 worth of exports to India, and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page227" name="page227"></a>(p. 227)</span> had sent to the bottom of the sea some $15,000,000 worth of +imports. Twenty-one steamers had been her victims, their total value +having been about $3,250,000, and their cargoes were worth at least +$15,000,000. Very expensive the British found her, and they were willing +to go to any length to end her career. They curtailed her activities +somewhat when the <i>Yarmouth</i> captured the converted liner <i>Markomannia</i>, +which was one of her colliers, and recaptured the Greek freighter +<i>Pontoporos</i>, which had been doing the same duty. This took place off +the coast of Sumatra.</p> + +<p>But Von Müller was undaunted, even though his coal problem was becoming +serious. He knew that the <i>Yarmouth</i> had sailed from Penang near Malacca +and that she was not at that base, since she was searching for his own +vessel. He therefore conceived the daring exploit of making a visit to +Penang while the <i>Yarmouth</i> was still away. He came within ten miles of +the harbor on the 28th of October, and disguised his ship by erecting a +false funnel made of canvas upheld by a wooden frame, much like +theatrical scenery. This gave the <i>Emden</i> four funnels, such as the +<i>Yarmouth</i> carried. Coming into the harbor in the twilight of the dawn, +she was taken by those on shore to be the British ship, not a hostile +gun ready for her.</p> + +<p>Lying in the harbor was the Russian cruiser <i>Jemchug</i> and three French +destroyers and a gunboat. The watch on the Russian ship questioned her, +and was told by the wireless operator on the <i>Emden</i> that she was the +<i>Yarmouth</i> returning to anchor. By this ruse the German ship was enabled +to come within 600 yards of the Russian ship before the false funnel was +discovered. Fire immediately spurted from the Russian guns, but a +torpedo from the <i>Emden</i> struck the <i>Jemchug's</i> engine room and made it +impossible for her crew to get ammunition to her guns. Von Müller poured +steel into her from a distance of 250 yards with terrible effect. The +Russian ship's list put many of her guns out of action, and she was +unable to deliver an effective reply. Another torpedo from the <i>Emden</i> +exploded her magazine. Fifteen minutes after the firing of the first +shot the Russian had gone to the bottom.</p> + +<p>Von Müller now put the prow of the <i>Emden</i> to sea again, for <span class="pagenum"><a id="page228" name="page228"></a>(p. 228)</span> +he feared that both the <i>Yarmouth</i> and the French cruiser <i>Dupleix</i> had +by then been summoned by wireless. Luck was with him. Half an hour after +leaving the harbor he sighted a ship flying a red flag, which showed him +at once that she was carrying a cargo of powder. He badly needed the +ammunition, and he prepared to capture her. But this operation was +interrupted by a mirage, which caused the small French destroyer +<i>Mosquet</i> to appear like a huge battleship. When he discovered the +truth, Von Müller closed with the Frenchman, who came to the rescue of +the <i>Glenturret</i>, the powder ship. Destroyer and cruiser closed for a +fight, the former trying to get close enough to make work with torpedoes +possible, but the long range of the <i>Emden's</i> guns prevented this, and +the <i>Mosquet</i> was badly damaged by having her engine room hit. Soon she +was in a bad way, and Von Müller ordered his guns silenced, thinking the +destroyer would now give up the fight. But the Frenchman was valiant and +refused to do so; he let go with two torpedoes which did not find their +mark, and was immediately subjected to a withering fire, which caused +his ship to sink, bow first.</p> + +<p>One of the destroyers which had been in the harbor now came out to take +issue with the <i>Emden</i>, but it was the business of the latter to +continue destroying merchant ships and not to run the risk of having her +career ended by a warship, so she immediately put off for the Indian +Ocean. A storm which then came up permitted her to make a better escape.</p> + +<p>It was not until the 9th of November that the world at large heard more +of her, and it proved to be the last day of her reign of terror. There +was a British wireless and cable station on the Cocos (Keeling) Isles, +southwest of Java, and Von Müller had determined to interrupt the +communication maintained there connecting India, Australia, and South +Africa. Forty men and three officers, with three machine guns, were +detailed by him as a landing party to destroy instruments and cut the +cables. But such a thing had been partially forestalled by the British +authorities, who had set up false cable ends. These were destroyed by +the deceived Germans. When the <i>Emden</i> had first made her appearance the +news had been sent out by the wireless <span class="pagenum"><a id="page229" name="page229"></a>(p. 229)</span> operator on shore, not +knowing what ships would pick up his calls.</p> + +<p>This time luck was against Von Müller, for it so happened that a convoy +of troop ships from Australia was passing within one hundred miles. They +were accompanied by the Australian cruisers <i>Melbourne</i> and <i>Sydney</i>. +The latter was dispatched to go to the Cocos Islands, and by getting up +a speed of 26 knots she reached them in less than three hours. Von +Müller knew that escape by flight was impossible, for his ship had been +weeks at sea; her boilers were crusted, her machinery badly in need of +repair, and she had not too much coal. He therefore decided to give +battle, and went straight for the <i>Sydney</i> at full speed. His object was +to meet her on even terms, for her advantage was that her guns had much +greater range than those of the <i>Emden</i>. If he could get close enough he +might be able to use his torpedo tubes. But Captain Glossop of the +<i>Sydney</i> saw through this maneuver and maintained good distance between +the two ships. About the first shot from the <i>Emden</i> killed the man at +the range finder on the fore bridge of the <i>Sydney</i>. Captain Glossop was +standing within a few feet of him at the time.</p> + +<p>The replies from the Australian ship were fatal. The foremost funnel of +the <i>Emden</i> crumpled and fell; her fire almost ceased, and then she +began to burn; the second funnel and the third fell also; there was +nothing left but to beach her, which Von Müller did, just before noon. +While she lay there helpless the <i>Sydney</i> shot more steel into her, +leaving her quite helpless, and then went off to chase a merchant ship +which had been sighted during the fighting and which, when caught, +proved to be the British ship <i>Buresk</i>, now manned by Germans and doing +duty as collier to the <i>Emden</i>. Returning to the latter, Captain Glossop +saw that she still flew the German flag at her masthead. He signaled +her, asking whether she would surrender, but receiving no reply after +waiting five minutes he let her have a few more salvos. The German flag +came down and the white flag went up in its place. The <i>Jemchug</i> had +been avenged, and the terribly costly career of the <i>Emden</i> brought to +an end. Von <span class="pagenum"><a id="page230" name="page230"></a>(p. 230)</span> Müller was taken prisoner, and on account of his +valor was permitted to keep his sword. But the landing party, which had +cut the false cables, was still at large. The adventures of these three +officers and forty men form a separate story, which will be narrated +later.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XXXVI</h2> + +<p class="title">BATTLE OFF THE FALKLANDS</p> + + +<p>The defeat of the British squadron back in the first week of November +had sorely tried the patience of the British public, and the admiralty +felt the necessity of retrieving faith in the navy. Von Spee was still +master of the waters near the Horn, and till his ships had again been +met the British could not boast of being rulers of the waves. +Consequently Admiral Fisher detailed the two battle cruisers +<i>Invincible</i> and <i>Inflexible</i> to go to the Falkland Islands. They left +England November 11, 1914, and on the outward journey met with and took +along the light cruisers <i>Carnarvon</i>, <i>Kent</i>, and <i>Cornwall</i>, the +second-class cruiser <i>Bristol</i>, and the converted liner <i>Macedonia</i>. The +<i>Canopus</i> and the <i>Glasgow</i>, now repaired, all joined the squadron, +which was commanded by Admiral Sturdee. The vessels coaled at Stanley, +Falkland Islands, and while so engaged on December 8 were warned by a +civilian volunteer watcher on a near-by hill that two strange vessels +had made their appearance in the distance. British naval officers +identified them and other vessels which were coming into view as the +ships of Von Spee's squadron, the one which had been victorious off +Coronel.</p> + +<p>During the interval that had elapsed since that engagement these German +ships had not been idle. Von Spee knew that the <i>Glasgow</i> had gone to +the Falklands and that there were important wireless stations there, but +he put off going after those prizes and picked up others. The <i>Nürnberg</i> +had cut communication between Banfield and Fanning Islands. Two British +trading ships had fallen victims to the <i>Dresden</i>, and four more had +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page231" name="page231"></a>(p. 231)</span> met the same end at the hands of the <i>Leipzig</i>. For coal and +other supplies Von Spee had been relying on the Chilean ports, but now +came trouble between him and the port authorities, for England was +accusing the South American nation of acting without regard to +neutrality. It was for this reason that Von Spee turned southward to +take the Falkland Islands. The world at large, and of course Von Spee, +had no knowledge of the ships which had set out from Plymouth for the +Falklands on the eleventh of the month, so he approached in full +expectation of making not only a raid but for occupation. He knew that +he would have to exchange shots with the <i>Glasgow</i> and perhaps some +small ships, and he believed the islands weakly defended by forts, but +there was nothing in that to defer his attack. The result—the lookout +near Stanley had reported the oncoming warships <i>Gneisenau</i> and +<i>Scharnhorst</i>, followed by the rest of the German squadron. German guns +were trained on the wireless station, and great was the surprise of the +unfortunate Von Spee and his officers when there was heard the booming +of guns which they knew immediately must be mounted on warships larger +than their own. Their scouting had been defective, and the presence of +the <i>Inflexible</i> and <i>Invincible</i> had till then not been discovered. +They then reasoned that these were the guns of the <i>Canopus</i>—a critical +and fatal error.</p> + +<p>The <i>Canopus</i> from behind the hills fired on the German ships in an +endeavor to protect the wireless station. Beyond the range of her guns +hovered the lighter German cruisers <i>Dresden</i>, <i>Leipzig</i>, and <i>Nürnberg</i> +to await the outcoming of the <i>Glasgow</i>. Both the <i>Gneisenau</i> and +<i>Scharnhorst</i> concentrated their fire on the <i>Canopus</i>, and when the +<i>Glasgow</i>, accompanied by the <i>Carnarvon</i>, <i>Cornwall</i>, and <i>Kent</i>, made +her appearance it did not change the battle formation of the Germans, +for the <i>Canopus</i> was still the only large vessel they were aware of. +Now the <i>Leipzig</i> came nearer in order to take up the fight with the +lighter British ships. By nine in the morning the German ships were +drawn out in single file, running parallel with the shore in a +northeasterly direction. At the head of the line was the <i>Gneisenau</i>, +followed by the <i>Dresden</i>, <i>Scharnhorst</i>, <i>Nürnberg</i>, and <i>Leipzig</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page232" name="page232"></a>(p. 232)</span> in that order. They thought that this would entice what they +believed to be the whole of the British force present into coming out +for a running fight, and in which the old <i>Canopus</i> would be left behind +to be finished after the lighter vessels were done for. But all this +time the <i>Invincible</i> and <i>Inflexible</i> were silent with their guns, +though there was bustle enough aboard them while their coaling was being +hurried.</p> + +<p>By ten o'clock these two larger ships were ready with steam up and decks +cleared, and they came out from behind the hill. Von Spee saw that +discretion was the better part of valor and gave orders for his ships to +make off at full speed. For a time the two squadrons kept parallel to +each other at a distance of twelve miles, with the British squadron—the +<i>Invincible</i> and <i>Inflexible</i> leading—north of the German ships. The +<i>Baden</i> and <i>Santa Isabel</i>, two transports that had been part of the +German squadron, were unable to keep up with the others and headed +south, pursued by the <i>Bristol</i> and <i>Macedonia</i>. The two British battle +cruisers were faster than any other ships in either squadron, and while +pulling up on the German ships were in danger of pulling away from their +own ships. To avoid the latter, Admiral Sturdee kept down their speed +and was content with taking a little longer to get within gun range of +Von Spee's ships. By two o'clock the distance between them was about +16,000 yards; the <i>Invincible</i> and <i>Inflexible</i> had now left the rest of +the British squadron far behind and took issue with the <i>Scharnhorst</i> +and <i>Gneisenau</i> respectively. The remaining British ships, with the +exception of the <i>Carnarvon</i>, gave attention to the three lighter German +cruisers and the <i>Eitel Friedrich</i>, which had broken from the first +formation and were now pointing southeast.</p> + +<p>Von Spee ordered the <i>Scharnhorst</i> and <i>Gneisenau</i> to turn broadside to +the enemy. Shells were falling upon the German ships with fair accuracy, +but their return fire could do little damage to the British ships, +because the range was a little too great for the German 8.2-inch guns. +Those of the <i>Inflexible</i> and <i>Invincible</i> were of the 12-inch type.</p> + +<p>All four ships were belching forth heavy black smoke that hung low over +the water after it left the funnels. A moderate breeze <span class="pagenum"><a id="page233" name="page233"></a>(p. 233)</span> carried +it northward, and Von Spee moved his ships this way and that till his +smoke blew straight against the guns of the British ships, making it +almost impossible for the British gunners to take aim and note effect. +But the superior speed of the two British battle cruisers stood them in +good stead, and their commanders brought them up south of the enemy—on +their other side. It was now the German gunners who found the smoke in +their faces, and the advantage was with the British.</p> + +<p>By three o'clock in the afternoon fire had broken out on the +<i>Scharnhorst</i> and Von Spee replied to Sturdee's inquiry that he would +not quit fighting, though some of his guns were out of action and those +which still replied to the Britisher did now only at intervals. There +was evidently something wrong with the machinery that brought shells and +ammunition to her guns from out of her hold, the fire probably +interfering with it. A 12-inch shell cut right through her third funnel +and carried it completely off the ship. She turned so that she could +bring her starboard guns into action, and they did so feebly. The fire +on board her grew worse and worse, and it could be seen blood-red +through holes made by the shells from the <i>Invincible</i> whenever her hull +showed through the dense clouds of escaping steam that enveloped her. +Just at four o'clock she began to list to port, thus having her +starboard guns put out of action, for they pointed toward the sky, and +the shells which came from them described parabolas, dropping into the +water at safe distance from the English ship. More and more she listed, +till her port beam ends were in the cold waters of the South Atlantic, +and while in that position she sank some fifteen minutes later.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the duel between the <i>Gneisenau</i> and <i>Inflexible</i> had been +going on. A 12-inch shell from one of the British cruisers struck one of +the after gun turrets of the <i>Gneisenau</i> and swept it overboard. The +German ship used the sinking <i>Scharnhorst</i> as a screen and tried to take +on both British ships. Still she was able to plant some effective shells +against the <i>Invincible</i> as a final reply. By half-past five she was +listing heavily to starboard and her engines had stopped. The British +ship, thinking she was surely done for, ceased firing at her and watched +her for ten minutes, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page234" name="page234"></a>(p. 234)</span> while a single gun on board of her fired +at intervals. The three ships <i>Carnarvon</i>, <i>Inflexible</i>, and +<i>Invincible</i> now closed in on her and punished her till the flag at her +stern was hauled down. But the ensign at her peak continued to fly. Just +at six o'clock, with this color still in position, she suddenly heeled +to starboard, while the men of her crew made hastily up her slanting +decks and then climbed over on to the exposed part of her upturned port +side. Many of these unfortunate men had time to jump into the sea, but +others were caught when she suddenly disappeared beneath the surface.</p> + +<p>There remained the task of picking up her survivors, but they were not +numerous, for the shock of the cold water killed a large number. Having +picked up those whom they could, the three British ships signaled the +news of their victories to the distant cruisers which were fighting it +out with the <i>Dresden</i>, <i>Leipzig</i>, <i>Nürnberg</i>, and <i>Eitel Friedrich</i>.</p> + +<p>These lighter German cruisers had left the line of battle and had turned +southward at just about the time that the action between the +<i>Scharnhorst</i> and <i>Gneisenau</i> and <i>Inflexible</i> and <i>Invincible</i> began. +They started off with the <i>Dresden</i> at the foremost point of a triangle +and with the other two at the two remaining points. The <i>Glasgow</i>, +<i>Cornwall</i>, and <i>Kent</i> went after them, while the <i>Carnarvon</i>, because +her speed was not high enough to accompany them, remained with the +battle cruisers. The <i>Glasgow</i> drew up with the German ships first, and +at three o'clock began to fire on the <i>Leipzig</i> at a distance of 12,000 +yards. As in the other action of that afternoon, the British ship took +advantage of the fact that her guns had longer range, and she drew back +from the German ships so that their guns could not reach her, though her +own shells began to fall upon their decks. It was her object to keep +them busy until she could be joined by her accompanying ships.</p> + +<a id="img019" name="img019"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/img019.jpg"> +<img src="images/img019tb.jpg" width="500" height="359" alt="" title=""></a> +<p>Plan—Vice Admiral Sir Doveton Surdee's Action off the +Falkland Islands. Dec 8, 1914.</p> +</div> + +<p>The <i>Cornwall</i> by four o'clock was also near enough to the <i>Leipzig</i> to +open fire on her, and three hours later the German cruiser was having a +time of it with a large fire in her hold. British faith in heavy +armament with long range had again been vindicated. There was something +of human interest in this duel <span class="pagenum"><a id="page235" name="page235"></a>(p. 235)</span> between the <i>Glasgow</i> and the +<i>Leipzig</i>. In their previous meeting, off Coronel, the German ship had +had all the better of it and now the men of the British ship were out +for revenge. Consequently the <i>Glasgow</i> signaled to the other British +ships: "Stand off—I can manage this myself!" By eight o'clock in the +evening the <i>Glasgow</i> had her in bad condition, and the <i>Carnarvon</i> came +up to assist in raking her till there was nothing left but a mass of +wreckage on her decks. But her flag was still flying and the British +ships kept circling around her, thinking she still wished to fight, but +not coming near enough to permit the use of her torpedo tubes. Miserable +was the plight of the <i>Leipzig's</i> crew, for the two hundred men who were +still alive were unable to get to her flag on account of the fire aboard +her, and they had to remain inactive while the <i>Carnarvon</i> and <i>Glasgow</i> +poured round after round into their ship. Only twelve remained alive at +nine o'clock, when she began to list to port. Slowly more and more of +the under-water part of her hull showed above the sea, and she continued +to heel until her keel was right side up. In this position she sank, a +large bubble marking the spot.</p> + +<p>When the <i>Nürnberg</i> left the line of German ships at one o'clock, it was +the British cruiser <i>Kent</i> that went after her, a vessel more heavily +armed than the German ship, yet about a knot slower. But by hard work on +the part of the engineers and stokers of the <i>Kent</i> she was able, by +five o'clock, to get within firing distance of the <i>Nürnberg</i>. By a +strange trick of fate the <i>Kent</i> was sister ship to the <i>Monmouth</i> which +had fallen victim to one of the <i>Nürnberg's</i> torpedoes in the battle off +Coronel. Here, too, was a duel with human interest in it. In their +desire for revenge, the men of the <i>Kent</i> made fuel of even her +furniture in order to speed up her engines. Her 6-inch guns now began to +strike the German ship, and soon a fire broke out aboard her. She could +have ended the German vessel by keeping a fire upon her while remaining +too distant to be within range of the <i>Nürnberg's</i> 4-inch guns, but dusk +was gathering and an evening mist was settling down upon the water. +Consequently the <i>Kent</i> drew nearer to her adversary. The firing of the +<i>Nürnberg</i> was then effective and more than twenty of her shells took +good effect on <span class="pagenum"><a id="page236" name="page236"></a>(p. 236)</span> the British ship. It was only through prompt +action on the part of her crew that her magazine was kept from +exploding, for a shell set fire to the passage leading to it.</p> + +<p>By seven o'clock in the evening the <i>Nürnberg</i> was practically "blind," +for the flames from the fire that was raging on her had reached her +conning tower. A member of her crew hauled down her flag, and the +<i>Kent</i>, thinking that the fight was over, came close to her. While +within a few hundred yards of her, however, she was greeted with new +firing from the German cruiser. But this ceased under a raking from the +<i>Kent's</i> starboard guns, and once again the flag of the <i>Nürnberg</i>, +which had been run up on resumption of shooting, was hauled down. +Members of her crew then had to jump into the sea to escape death from +burning—the fire was quenched only when she went down at half past +seven. The overworked engineers and stokers of the <i>Kent</i> were rewarded +for their hard work by being permitted to come on deck to watch the +<i>Nürnberg</i> go down, and all were soon engaged in helping to save the +lives of the German sailors in the water. Just as the red glow of the +sinking <i>Nürnberg</i> was dying down a large four-masted sailing ship, with +all sails set, came out of the mist, her canvas tinged red by the +flames' rays. Silently she went by, disappearing again into the mist, a +weird addition to an uncanny scene.</p> + +<p>Chasing the various units of the broken line of German ships had taken +the British ships miles from each other, but after ten o'clock they +began to reach each other by wireless signals and all made again for +Stanley. It was not until the afternoon of the next day, however, that +word came from the <i>Kent</i>, for her pursuit had taken her farther than +any of the other British ships.</p> + +<p>The <i>Bristol</i> and <i>Macedonia</i> had made good in their pursuit of the +<i>Santa Isabel</i> and <i>Baden</i>, but in going after the <i>Dresden</i> the +<i>Bristol</i> was not successful; the German ship got away in the rainstorm +which came up during the evening, and the <i>Bristol</i>, which had hurried +out of the harbor at Stanley not quite ready for battle, was unable to +keep on her trail. The fast <i>Eitel Friedrich</i>, which as a merchant ship +converted into a man-o'-warsman had <span class="pagenum"><a id="page237" name="page237"></a>(p. 237)</span> greater speed than any of +the ships on either side, was able to get away also. These two German +ships now took up their parts as raiders of allied commerce, and were +not accounted for till months later. There was now on the high seas no +German squadron.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XXXVII</h2> + +<p class="title">SEA FIGHTS OF THE OCEAN PATROL</p> + + +<p>There were some minor naval operations in the waters of Europe which +have been neglected while larger actions elsewhere were recorded. During +the month of September, 1914, the British admiralty established a +blockade of the mouth of the River Elbe with submarines, and the German +boats of the same type were showing their worth also. On August 28,1914, +the day after the raid on Libau by the German cruiser <i>Augsburg</i>, the +date of the battle of the Bight of Helgoland, the two Russian protected +cruisers <i>Pallada</i> and <i>Bayan</i>, while patrolling the Russian coast in +the Baltic Sea, were attacked by German submarines. Surrounded by these +small craft, which made poor targets, the two Russian ships sought to +escape by putting on full speed, but the former was hit by a torpedo and +sank. The other got away.</p> + +<p>All of the Allies, with the exception of France, had by the beginning of +September, 1914, suffered losses in their navies. The navy of the +republic was engaged in assisting a British fleet in maintaining +supremacy in the Mediterranean, and kept the Austrian fleet bottled up +in the Adriatic Sea. French warships bombarded Cattaro on September 10, +1914, to assist the military operations of the Montenegrin Government. +These ships then proceeded to the island of Lissa and there destroyed +the wireless station maintained by Austria. The Austrian navy made no +appearance while the allied fleets scoured the lower coast of Dalmatia, +bringing down lighthouses, destroying wireless stations, and bombarding +the islands of Pelagosa and Lesina. On <span class="pagenum"><a id="page238" name="page238"></a>(p. 238)</span> the 19th of September, +1914, they returned to Lissa and landed a force which took possession of +it, thus establishing a new naval base against the Central Powers' +navies.</p> + +<p>Duels between pairs of ships took place in various seas. The career of +the raider <i>Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse</i>, a fast converted liner, was +ended by the British ship <i>Highflyer</i>, a cruiser, near the Cape Verde +Islands, on August 27, 1914, after the former had sunk the merchantman +<i>Hyades</i> and had stopped the mail steamer <i>Galician</i>. The greater speed +of the German vessel was of no advantage to her, for she had been caught +in the act of coaling. What then transpired was not a fight, for in +armament the two were quite unequal. She soon sank under the +<i>Highflyer</i>'s fire, her crew having been rescued by her colliers.</p> + +<p>The next duel took place between the <i>Carmania</i> and <i>Cap Trafalgar</i>, +British and German converted liners, respectively. They met on September +14,1914, in the Atlantic off South America. In view of the fact that at +the beginning of the war these two ships had been merchantmen and had +been armed and commissioned after the outbreak of hostilities, this +engagement was something of the nature of those between privateersmen in +the old days. In speed, size, and armament they were about equal. For +nearly two hours they exchanged shots between 3,000 and 9,000 yards, and +markmanship was to determine the victory. The shots from the <i>Carmania</i> +struck the hull of the other ship near the water line repeatedly, and +the British commander was wise enough to present his stern and bow ends +more often than the length of the <i>Carmania</i>'s sides. At the end of the +fight the German ship was afire and sank. Her crew got off safely in her +colliers, and the British ship made off because her wireless operator +heard a German cruiser, with which the <i>Cap Trafalgar</i> had been in +communication, signaling that she was hastening to the liner's aid.</p> + +<p>Only two days before this the British cruiser <i>Berwick</i> captured the +converted liner <i>Spreewald</i> in the North Atlantic, where she had been +trying to interrupt allied commercial vessels.</p> + +<p>Germany kept up her policy of attrition by clever use of submarines and +mines. The British battleship <i>Audacious</i>, while on patrol duty off the +coast of Ireland in the early days of the war, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page239" name="page239"></a>(p. 239)</span> met with a +disaster of some sort and was brought to her home port in a sinking +condition. The rigors of the British censorship almost kept the news of +this out of the British papers and from the correspondents of foreign +papers. It was reported that she had struck a mine, that she had been +torpedoed, and that she had been made the victim of either a spy or a +traitor who caused an internal explosion. The truth was never made +clear. Rumors that she had gone down were denied by the British +admiralty some months later, when they reported her repaired and again +doing duty, but this was counteracted by a report that one of the ships +that was completed after the start of hostilities had been given the +same name.</p> + +<p>About the sinking of the <i>Hawke</i> there was less conjecture. This vessel +had gained notoriety in times of peace by having collided with the +<i>Olympic</i> as the latter left port on her maiden voyage to New York. On +the 15th of October, 1914, while patrolling the northern British home +waters she was made the target of the torpedo of a German submarine and +went down, but the <i>Theseus</i>, which had been attacked at the same time, +escaped.</p> + +<p>Four German destroyers were to be the next victims of the war in +European waters. On October 17,1914, the <i>S-115</i>, <i>S-117</i>, <i>S-118</i>, and +<i>S-119</i> while doing patrol duty off the coast of the Netherlands, came +up with a British squadron consisting of the cruiser <i>Undaunted</i> and the +destroyers <i>Legion</i>, <i>Lance</i>, and <i>Loyal</i>. An engagement followed, in +which damage was done to the British small boats and the four German +destroyers were sunk. Captain Fox, senior British officer, had been on +the <i>Amphion</i> when she sank the <i>Königin Luise</i> and had been rescued +after being knocked insensible by the explosion of the mine that sent +the <i>Amphion</i> to the bottom.</p> + +<p>The exploit of Lieutenant Commander Horton in the British submarine +<i>E-9</i> when he sank the <i>Hela</i> has already been narrated. The same +commander, with the same craft, during the first week of October, 1914, +proceeded to the harbor of the German port of Emden, whence had sailed +many dangerous German submarines and destroyers that preyed on British +ships. He lay submerged there for a long period, keeping his men amused +with <span class="pagenum"><a id="page240" name="page240"></a>(p. 240)</span> a phonograph, and then carefully came to the surface. +Through the periscope he saw very near him a German destroyer, but he +feared that the explosion of a torpedo sent against her would damage his +own craft, so he allowed her to steam off, and when she was 600 yards +away he let go with two torpedoes. The second found its mark, and the +<i>S-126</i> was no more. He immediately went beneath the surface and escaped +the cordon of destroyers which immediately searched for him. By October +7 the <i>E-9</i> was back in Harwich, its home port.</p> + +<p>On the 31st of October, 1914, the cross-channel steamer <i>Invicta</i> +received the S. O. S. signal and went to rescue the crew of the old +British cruiser <i>Hermes</i>, which had been struck by two torpedoes from a +German submarine near Dunkirk. All but forty-four of her men were saved.</p> + +<p>The next victim of a German submarine was the gunboat <i>Niger</i>, which, in +the presence of thousands of persons on the shore at Deal, foundered +without loss of life on November 11, 1914. But one of the German +submarines was to go to the bottom in retaliation. On the 23d of +November the <i>U-18</i> was seen and rammed off the Scotch coast, and some +hours later was again seen near by. This time she was floating on the +surface and carrying a white flag. The British destroyer <i>Garry</i> brought +up alongside of her and took off her crew, just as she foundered.</p> + +<p>Three days later the <i>Bulwark</i>, a British battleship of 15,000 tons and +carrying a crew of 750 officers and men, was blown up in the Thames +while at anchor at Sheerness. It was never discovered whether she was a +victim of a torpedo, a mine, or an internal explosion. It is possible +that a spy had placed a heavy charge of explosives within her hull. Only +fourteen men of her entire complement survived the disaster.</p> + +<p>It was in November, 1914, also, that the sometime German cruisers +<i>Goeben</i> and <i>Breslau</i>, now flying the Turkish flag, became active +again. As units in a Turkish fleet they bombarded unfortified ports on +the Black Sea on the first day of the month. Retaliation for this was +made by the Allies two days later when a combined fleet of French and +English battleships bombarded the Dardanelles forts, inflicting a +certain amount of damage.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page241" name="page241"></a>(p. 241)</span> On the 18th of November, 1914, the <i>Goeben</i> and <i>Breslau</i> +engaged a Russian fleet off Sebastopol. The composition of this Russian +fleet was never made public by the Russian admiralty, but it is known +that the Russian battleship <i>Evstafi</i> was the flagship. She came up on +the starboard side of the two German ships and opened fire on the +nearer, the <i>Goeben</i>, at a distance of 8,000 yards. The latter, hit by +the Russian 12-inch guns was at first unable to reply because the first +shots set her afire in several places, but she finally let go with her +own guns and after a fourteen-minute engagement she sailed off into a +fog. Her sister ship the <i>Breslau</i> took no part in the exchange of +shots, and also made off. The damage done to the <i>Goeben</i> was not enough +to put her out of commission; the <i>Evstafi</i> suffered slight damage and +had twenty-four of her crew killed.</p> + +<p>The British submarine commander, Holbrook, with the <i>B-11</i> upheld the +prestige of this sort of craft in the British navy. He entered the +waters of the Dardanelles on the 13th of December, 1914, and submerging, +traveled safely through five lines of Turkish mines and sent a torpedo +against the hull of the Turkish battleship <i>Messudiyeh</i>. The <i>B-11</i> +slowly came to the surface to see what had been the result of her +exploit, and her commander, through the periscope saw her going down by +the stern. It was claimed later by the British that she had sunk, a +claim which was officially denied by the Turks. Her loss to Turkey, if +it did occur, was not serious, for she was too old to move about, and +her only service was to guard the mine fields. The <i>B-11</i> after being +pursued by destroyers again submerged for nine hours and came +successfully from the scene of the exploit.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page242" name="page242"></a>(p. 242)</span> CHAPTER XXXVIII</h2> + +<p class="title">WAR ON GERMAN TRADE AND POSSESSIONS</p> + + +<p>With the exceptions of the deeds done by the German sea raiders the +remaining naval history of the first six months of the war had to do for +the most part with British victories. When Von Spee's squadron, with the +exception of the light cruiser <i>Dresden</i>, which was afterward sunk at +the Island of Juan Fernandez, was dispersed off the Falkland Islands +there was no more possibility of there being a pitched fight between +German and British fleets other than in the North Sea.</p> + +<p>England began then to hit at the outlying parts of the German Empire +with her navy. The cruiser <i>Pegasus</i>, before being destroyed by the +<i>Königsberg</i> at Zanzibar on September 20, 1914, had destroyed a floating +dock and the wireless station at Dar-es-Salaam, and the <i>Yarmouth</i>, +before she went on her unsuccessful hunt for the <i>Emden</i>, captured three +German merchantmen.</p> + +<p>As far back as the middle of August, 1914, the capture of German Samoa +had been planned and directed from New Zealand. On the 15th of that +month an expedition sailed from Wellington, and in order to escape the +<i>Gneisenau</i> and <i>Scharnhorst</i>, went first to French New Caledonia, where +the British cruisers <i>Psyche</i>, <i>Philomel</i>, and <i>Pyramus</i> were met with. +On the 23d of the month, this force, which was augmented by the French +cruiser <i>Montcalm</i> and the Australian battleships <i>Australia</i> and +<i>Melbourne</i>, sailed first for the Fiji Islands and then to Apia on Upolu +Island off Samoa. They reached there on the 30th. There was, of course, +no force on the island to withstand that of the enemy, and arrangements +for surrender of the place were made by signal. Marines were sent +ashore; the public buildings were occupied, the telegraph and telephone +wires cut, the wireless station destroyed and the German flag hauled +down, to be replaced by the Union Jack. The Germans taken prisoners were +rewarded for the kind treatment they had accorded British residents +before the appearance of this British force, and were sent to New +Zealand.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page243" name="page243"></a>(p. 243)</span> The next German possession to be taken was that in the Bismarck +Archipelago. It was known that there was a powerful wireless station at +Herbertshöhen, the island known as New Pomerania. A small landing party +was put ashore on the island in the early morning of September 11, 1914, +and made its way, without being discovered, to the town. The surprised +inhabitants were too frightened to do anything until this party left to +go further on to the wireless station. By that time it met with some +resistance, but overcame it. A few days later another landing party had +captured the members of the staff of the governor of New Pomerania, +together with the governor himself, at Bougainville, Solomon Islands, +whence they had fled. The wireless stations on the island of Yap, in the +Carolines, and on Pleasant Island were destroyed during the following +month.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the strangest operations of naval character ever performed were +the inland "sea" fights in Africa. The great Nyassa Lake in Africa was +the scene of this fighting. With its entire western shore in British +possession and with a goodly part of its waters within the territory of +German East Africa, it was not unnatural that fighting should take place +there. Both countries maintained small armed vessels on the lake. The +British ship <i>Gwendolen</i>, a 350-ton craft, had been built on the Clyde +and had been sent to Nyassa Lake in sections and there assembled and +launched in 1898. During August she fought with a German ship and +captured it. The fighting on the lake could not, however, determine the +success of the military operations taking place in those regions.</p> + +<p>The preponderance of British naval strength was beginning to tell +severely upon German trade by the end of 1914, and her boast that +through her navy she would starve out Germany aroused the German +Government greatly. In answer to these British threats, Grand Admiral +von Tirpitz, German Secretary of Marine, in an interview given to an +American newspaper correspondent, hinted that Germany's retaliation +would be a war on British merchant ships by German submarines.</p> + +<p>The interview at the time aroused but mild comment; the idea <span class="pagenum"><a id="page244" name="page244"></a>(p. 244)</span> +was a new one, and the question immediately arose as to whether such +action would be within the limits of international law. For the time +being, however, Von Tirpitz's words remained nothing more than a threat. +It was not until months later that the threat was made good, and the +consequences must form a separate part of this narrative.</p> + +<p>The seaplane, the newest naval machine at the time, and as yet an +untried factor, was to see maiden service first at the hands of the +British, when on the 25th of December a raid on Cuxhaven was made. Seven +naval seaplanes attacked a fleet of German cruisers and destroyers lying +off Schilling Roads near the German port. The men who thus made history +in aviation were Francis E. T. Hewlett, son of the famous novelist, +accompanied by seven pilots. A naval force consisting of a light +cruiser, a flotilla of destroyers and another of submarines brought up +near Helgoland during the morning. When this naval force was first +discovered by the lookouts on Helgoland, there immediately appeared +approaching from the German base two Zeppelins and a number of German +seaplanes, together with some submarines. Meanwhile, from the decks of +the British craft there went up the seven British seaplanes.</p> + +<p>In order to give them a place for landing after they returned from their +raid, it was necessary for the British ships to remain in the vicinity +for three hours. The <i>Undaunted</i> and <i>Arethusa</i>, with the rest of the +British force, had to "dance" about, dodging the submarines which were +attacking them from beneath the surface of the water and the aircraft +hovering over them. Bombs dropped from the latter failed to find their +targets, and by swift maneuvering the torpedoes shot at them were also +caused to go far wide of the mark.</p> + +<p>The British airmen dropped their bombs on points of military importance +at Cuxhaven, but their effect was kept secret by the German authorities. +Six of the seven returned to the squadron and were picked up by +submarines. Three of the seaplanes were wrecked and had to be abandoned. +Fog not only prevented the British airmen from doing their best work, +but it kept the marksmen on the German aircraft also from hitting the +ships on the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page245" name="page245"></a>(p. 245)</span> waters beneath them. This raid had been made in +answer to a great outcry that had gone up from the British public after +German warships had raided the eastern coast of England.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XXXIX</h2> + +<p class="title">RAIDS ON THE ENGLISH COAST</p> + + +<p>During the first days of November, 1914, the Germans planned and carried +out a general surprise for the British navy. After the battle in the +Bight of Helgoland, back in August, the British thought that Germany +would continue to keep her navy within the protection of her coast +defenses, perhaps forever. But such was not her intention.</p> + +<p>On the afternoon of November 2, 1914, there gathered off some part of +Germany's northern shore a squadron consisting of the battle cruisers +<i>Von der Tann</i>, <i>Seydlitz</i>, and <i>Moltke</i>, the protected cruisers +<i>Kolberg</i>, <i>Strassburg</i>, and <i>Graudenz</i>, the armored cruisers <i>Yorck</i> +and <i>Blücher</i>, together with some destroyers. The slowest of these +vessels could make a speed of 25 knots, and the fastest, the <i>Graudenz</i> +and <i>Moltke</i>, could make 28 knots. The guns of the <i>Blücher</i> were the +heaviest in the squadron, those of her primary battery being 12-inch +cannon. Ten-inch guns were on the decks of the other ships.</p> + +<p>The first that the rest of the world knew of the gathered force was at +evening, November 2, 1914, when a fleet of British fishermen hailed them +with friendly signs, thinking them British ships, not far from Lowestoft +some time after six o'clock. The fishermen started at once for their +home ports in order to apprise the British authorities, but they had not +gone far when the news was flashed to the British admiralty office from +the wireless room of the British gunboat <i>Halcyon</i>. But only the first +few words of the warning were able to get through, for the wireless +operators on the German ships "jammed" their keys, and a few shots from +the German guns were sufficient to bring down the wireless apparatus +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page246" name="page246"></a>(p. 246)</span> of the gunboat as well as one of her funnels. She turned off +and made for her home port to report the news some hours later.</p> + +<p>It was only ten miles from the British shores that the <i>Halcyon</i> had +sighted the German ships, but they were able, nevertheless, to elude all +British warships in those regions and proceeded to Yarmouth, firing at +the wireless station, the naval yards, and the town itself. Fearing +mines near the coast, the German commander did not attempt to come in +too close, with the result that many of the German shots fell short, +and, in spite of the fact that the bombardment lasted for nearly half an +hour, the damage done by them was not great.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants of the towns of Lowestoft and Yarmouth were asleep in +the early hours of the morning when they first heard the booming of the +German guns. In the darkness of the British winter they hurriedly went +down to the water front, where, far out at sea, they could make out +faintly the hull of but one vessel, but the red flashes from the booming +guns showed that other ships were present. The crowds on the shore +watched two British destroyers and two submarines, which had been lying +in the harbor, put out after the German force. The latter by that time +had started off, dropping in its wake a number of floating mines. This +strategy resulted in the loss of the submarine <i>D-5</i>, which hit one of +the mines and sank immediately. The German cruiser <i>Yorck</i> was claimed +by the British to have hit a mine also, with the result that she sank +and carried down with her some 300 of her crew. This was denied later by +the German admiralty, and like all such controversies must remain a +secret with the officials of both Governments.</p> + +<p>Judged by material effects, this raid was a failure. But in view of the +fact that the Germans had shown that a squadron could actually elude the +large number of British warships patrolling the North Sea, and was +actually able to strike at the British coast, it was a moral victory for +Germany.</p> + +<p>"We must see clearly that in order to fight with success we must fight +ruthlessly, in the proper meaning of the word." These were the words of +Count Reventlow, when he heard the news of the defeat of the German +squadron commanded by Von Spee off <span class="pagenum"><a id="page247" name="page247"></a>(p. 247)</span> the Falkland Islands. As a +result, and in revenge for this defeat, the German admiralty planned a +second raid on the coast towns of England. The towns chosen for attack +this time were Hartlepool, Scarborough, and Whitby. The first of these +was a city of 100,000 persons, and its principal business was +shipbuilding. Scarborough was nothing more than a seaside resort, to +which each summer and at Christmas were attracted thousands of +Englishmen who sought to spend their vacations near the water. Whitby, +though it had some attractions for holiday crowds, such as a quaint +cathedral, was at most nothing more than a home port for a number of +fishing boats.</p> + +<p>It was brazenly claimed later by the Germans that these three towns, +according to definitions in international law, were fortified ports, and +consequently open to attack by hostile forces. In reply the British +claimed that there was nothing in any of the three which could bring +them into that category. This controversy is still another which the war +developed. There is, however, the fact that the information which the +German Government had obtained about them, and which it made public, +must necessarily have been less comprehensive than that supplied to the +world at large by the British authorities. Guidebooks, as well as +tourists who have visited the place, reported that an old castle stood +in Scarborough which in past centuries had been a fort, but which at the +outbreak of the war was nothing more than a show place. The only gun in +place at the castle was an obsolete piece that had seen service in the +Crimean War. Whitby, in times of peace, at least, had not even such +"armament."</p> + +<p>It was on the 16th of December, 1914, that this second raid took place. +Over the North Sea there hung a light mist. The German admiralty did not +afterward make public the names of the cruisers which participated in +this expedition, but they are believed to have been the <i>Derfflinger</i>, +<i>Blücher</i>, <i>Von der Tann</i>, <i>Seydlitz</i>, and <i>Graudenz</i>. It was at eight +o'clock in the morning that the residents of the three English towns +first heard the booming of the German guns, and coast guards near by +were able, with the aid of very strong glasses, to make out the hulls of +the attacking cruisers some miles out to sea. It was not thought +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page248" name="page248"></a>(p. 248)</span> possible that the Germans could again elude the British ships +on patrol in these waters, and the guards therefore thought that the +firing came from ships flying the Union Jack and tried to signal to +them. But they came to realize the truth when they received no answering +signals.</p> + +<p>As it was not known but that the Germans would make an attempt to land, +the guards in the obsolete fort at Hartlepool took their positions and +two small patrol boats in the harbor made ready to give what resistance +they could. These, the <i>Doon</i> and the <i>Hardy</i>, drew the fire of the +German guns, and, seeing it was impossible to withstand the German fire, +they made off and escaped. This time the Germans were better informed +about the conditions they dealt with, and evidently had no fear of +mines, for they came to within two miles of the shore. The forts on +shore were bombarded and private houses near by were hit by German +shells, killing two women who lived in one of them. The forts tried to +reply to the German guns, but those of the English battery were by no +means modern, and firing them only served to further convince the +Germans that the place was fortified; they inflicted no damage on the +German ships.</p> + +<p>The lighthouse was the next target chosen by the Germans, one of their +shells going right through it, but leaving it standing. Within fifty +minutes 1,500 German shells were fired into the town and harbor. While +two of the three cruisers which were engaged in bombarding drew off +further to sea and fired at Hartlepool, the third remained to finish the +battery on shore, but in spite of the fact that it was subjected to long +and heavy firing, it was not so terribly damaged. Many of the shells +from the other two ships went over the towns entirely and buried +themselves in the countryside that heretofore had been turned up only by +the peaceful plow. Other shells did havoc in the business and +residential sections of Hartlepool and West Hartlepool, bringing down +buildings and killing civilians in them as well as on the streets.</p> + +<p>At about the same hour the coast guards near Scarborough reported the +approach of foreign ships off the coast, and then telephoned that the +strangers were German cruisers and that <span class="pagenum"><a id="page249" name="page249"></a>(p. 249)</span> they had begun to +bombard the town. A German shell destroyed the shed from which the +telephone message had come and the warnings from it ceased. It was seen +by those on shore that the attack here was being made by four ships, two +of them cruisers and two of them mine layers, only 800 yards out in the +water. This time they were not handicapped by the fact that they had to +stand out so far from shore, and it was a surprise to the natives to see +ships of such draft come so close to land—a fact which convinced the +British authorities that spies had been at work since the first raid, +sending to the German admiralty either charts or detailed descriptions +of the region.</p> + +<p>The castle was badly damaged by their fire; the town itself came next, +the Grand Hotel coming in for its share of destruction. They did little +injury to a wireless station in the suburbs, but hit quite a number of +residences, the gas and water works.</p> + +<p>Half an hour afterward the two cruisers which had fired upon Scarborough +appeared off Whitby and began to fire at the signal station there. In +the ten minutes that the bombardment of Whitby lasted some 200 shells +fell into the place. This time the fact that the German ships came close +to the shore worked against them, for there are high cliffs close to the +water at the spot and it was necessary for the German gunners to use a +high angle, which did not give them much chance to be accurate. The +German ships next turned seaward and made for their home ports.</p> + +<p>The scenes enacted in the three towns during the bombardment and +afterwards were tragic. Considering the fact, however, that the persons +under fire were civilians, many of them women and children, their +coolness was remarkable. They did not know what should be done, for the +thought of bombardment was the last thing that had come into the minds +of the authorities when England went to war, and as a result no +instructions for such an emergency had been issued by the authorities. +Some thought it best to stay within doors, some thought it best to go +into the streets. In Hartlepool a large crowd gathered in the railway +station, some fully dressed, some only in night clothes.</p> + +<p>Many of the women carried babies in their arms and were followed by +older children who clung to their skirts. Policemen <span class="pagenum"><a id="page250" name="page250"></a>(p. 250)</span> led this +crowd out of the station and started them along a street which would +bring them out into the country, but while they were passing the library +they were showered by the stone work as it fell when hit by the German +shells. One shell, striking the street itself, killed three of the six +children who were fleeing along it in company with their mother. Many +other persons met deaths as tragic either within their own homes or on +the streets. St. Mary's Catholic Church as well as the Church of St. +Hilda were damaged, as were the shipyards and the office of the local +newspaper. The destruction of the gas works left the town in almost +complete darkness for many nights afterward. The authorities issued a +proclamation ordering all citizens to remain indoors for a time, and +then began to count the number of dead and injured. The first estimate +gave the former as 22 and the latter as 50, but subsequent reckoning +showed that both figures were too low.</p> + +<p>In Scarborough most of the inhabitants were still in bed when the +bombardment started and for a few minutes did not become excited, +thinking the booming of the guns was the sound of thunder. But when the +shells began to drop on their houses they knew better. Many were killed +or wounded while they hastily got into their clothes. One shell hit St. +Martin's Church while communion was being held. Here, too, the railway +station was made the objective of many refugees, and the police did what +they could to send the women and children out of range of fire by +putting them on trains of extra length. As in all such scenes there were +humorous sides to it. One old workman, while hurrying along a street was +heard to say: "This is what comes of having a Liberal Government." In +all, about 6,000 people left the town immediately and did not return for +some days.</p> + +<p>Similar were the scenes enacted in Whitby when the turn of that town +came. Only two persons were killed in that town, while thirteen +casualties were reported from Scarborough.</p> + +<p>The raid immediately became the subject for discussion in the newspapers +of every country on the globe. In England it was bitterly denounced, and +the term "baby killers" was applied to the men of the German navy. In +Germany it was justified on the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page251" name="page251"></a>(p. 251)</span> ground that the German +admiralty had information and proof that the bombarded cities were +fortified, and therefore, under international law, subject to +bombardment. Nor did the German journalists lose the opportunity to +declare that Great Britain no longer ruled the waves nor to show pride +over the fact that their fleet had successfully left the German coast +and had successfully returned to its home port. The war, they said, had +been brought to England's door.</p> + +<p>The year 1914 ended gloomily for the British public; nothing could have +disappointed them more than the failure to catch the Germans. Nor did +the new year open brightly for Britain, for on the first day of January, +1915, there came the news of disaster to the <i>Formidable</i>, sister ship +to the <i>Bulwark</i>. The lesson of the <i>Hogue</i>, <i>Cressy</i>, and <i>Aboukir</i> had +not been learned, for this ship went down under the same circumstances. +While patrolling near Torbay during a night on which there was a bright +moon and a calm sea, this ship, in company with seven other large ships +unaccompanied by a "screen" of destroyers, was hit by a torpedo fired +from a German submarine. Most of her crew were asleep when the torpedo +struck and damaged the engine room so much that no lights could be +turned on. In the darkness they hurried to the deck, which was slanting +from her list. In obedience to orders issued by the admiralty after the +sinking of the <i>Cressy</i> and the ships with her, the rest of the fleet +immediately sailed away from the scene, so that no more of them would be +hit. Only a light cruiser stood by the sinking <i>Formidable</i>. A second +torpedo struck her and this had the effect of letting water into her +hold on the side which was slowly coming out of the water. She took a +position with even keel after that, and this fact enabled most of her +crew to get off safely before she sank.</p> + +<p>Once more the Germans were to attempt a raid on the coast cities of +England. The date of this third attempt was January 24, 1915. This time +the British were a bit better prepared, for a squadron of battle +cruisers, consisting of the <i>Lion</i>, <i>Tiger</i>, <i>Princess Royal</i>, <i>New +Zealand</i>, and <i>Indomitable</i>, put out from a port in the north of England +at about the same time that the Germans left their base. All of these +ships, with the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page252" name="page252"></a>(p. 252)</span> exception of the last named, were quite fast, +having speeds of from 25 to 28.5 knots; they were at the same time +carrying heavy armament—13.5-inch guns in the main batteries. In +company with them went four cruisers of what is known in England as the +"town class"; these were the <i>Nottingham</i>, <i>Birmingham</i>, <i>Lowestoft</i>, +and <i>Southampton</i>, together with the three light cruisers <i>Arethusa</i>, +<i>Aurora</i>, and <i>Undaunted</i>, and a squadron of destroyers. The German +fleet which was engaged in this raid consisted of the <i>Seydlitz</i>, +<i>Moltke</i>, <i>Derfflinger</i>, and <i>Blücher</i>, in company with a fleet of +destroyers. The German ships were not quite as fast as the English +ships, nor did they carry guns of such range or destructive power as +their British opponents.</p> + +<p>Early in the first hours of January 24, these two forces, unknown to +each other were steaming head on, the Germans taking a course leading +northwest and the English a course leading southeast. At twenty minutes +past seven in the morning the <i>Aurora</i> first sighted the enemy and +engaged him immediately with her two 6-inch guns, sending at the same +time word of her discovery to Admiral Beatty. Admiral Hipper, the German +commander, as soon as he knew the enemy had sighted him, turned about +and started to steam in a southeasterly direction.</p> + +<p>In view of the results of this battle, it is best to go into the matter +of the tactics involved. Tactics may be of two kinds—spontaneous or +premeditated. When two hostile fleets meet on the high sea far from the +base of either, the object of each is the complete destruction of the +other, and the tactics employed are spontaneous. Such an action was that +off Coronel. But on a closed sea such as the North Sea spontaneous +tactics can rarely be used, for the reason that naval bases are too +near, and from these there may slyly come reenforcements to one or the +other or to both of the fighting fleets, making the arrangement of traps +an easy matter. This is particularly true of the North Sea, on which it +is possible for a fleet to leave Cuxhaven early in the evening and to be +at Scarborough early the following morning. In addition, sailing is +restricted because an unusually large portion of its waters is too +shallow to permit of the passage of large ships.</p> + +<p>The Germans on this occasion had arranged a trap. They <span class="pagenum"><a id="page253" name="page253"></a>(p. 253)</span> knew +that after making two successful raids on the English coast the British +would keep even a closer watch for them. When they sailed from their +base, it was with the expectation of meeting a hostile force, as was +undoubtedly their expectation on the first two raids. But they did not +intend to fight matters out on high waters. What they wanted to do was +to get the British involved in a good running engagement, steering a +southeasterly course the while and luring the British ships within +striking force of a waiting fleet of superdreadnoughts and perhaps land +guns and mines. This explains why Admiral Hipper turned stern as soon as +he got into touch with the enemy.</p> + +<p>There was a distance of fourteen miles between the two fleets when the +<i>Lion</i> got her heavy guns into action. The German line was off her port +(left) bow. At the head of that line was the <i>Moltke</i>, and following her +came the <i>Seydlitz</i>, <i>Derfflinger</i>, <i>Blücher</i>, and the destroyers in the +order given. At the head of the British line was the <i>Lion</i>, followed by +the <i>Tiger</i>, <i>Princess Royal</i>, <i>New Zealand</i>, and <i>Indomitable</i> in the +order named. The other cruisers and the destroyers of the British fleet +brought up the rear. In the chase which followed the Germans were +handicapped by the fact that the <i>Blücher</i> was far too slow to be +brought into action, which meant that either the other ships must leave +her behind to certain destruction or that they must slow down to keep +with her. They chose the latter course, while her stokers did their best +to increase her speed. In the English fleet there was the same trouble +with the <i>Indomitable</i>, but inasmuch as the British were the pursuers +and had a preponderance in ships and in the range of their guns, this +did not matter so much to them. But the stokers of the <i>Indomitable</i> +worked as hard, if not harder, than those of the <i>Blücher</i>.</p> + +<p>By half past nine the two forces were seven miles apart and the battle +was on. It is necessary here to give certain facts about gunnery on a +large modern battleship. Firing at a range of seven miles means a test +of mathematics rather than of the mere matter of pointing guns. At that +distance the target—the ship to be hit—is barely visible on the sky +line on the clearest and calmest sea. If a hole the size of the head of +a pin be made <span class="pagenum"><a id="page254" name="page254"></a>(p. 254)</span> in a piece of cardboard and the latter be held +about a foot and a half from the eye, the distant ship will just about +fill the hole.</p> + +<p>The guns on the modern battleships are not "laid"; that is, they are not +aimed as were the cannon of past days or the rifle of to-day. It is set +toward its target by two factors. The first is known as "traverse," +which means how far to the left or right it must be pointed in a +horizontal plane. The second factor is "elevation"—how far up or down +it must be pointed in a vertical plane. The latter factor determines how +far it will throw its projectile, and up to a certain point the higher +the gun is pointed the further will go the shell. A certain paradox +seems to enter here. It is a fact that a distant ship presents a target +more easily hit if its bow or stern is toward the gunner. If it presents +a broadside there is the danger that the shells will go either beyond +the ship or will fall short of it, for the greatest beam on a warship is +not much more than 90 feet. If the bow or stern is toward the gunner he +has a chance of landing a shell on any part of the 600 or more feet of +the ship's length. The first firing in a battle at a distance is known +as "straddling," by which is meant that a number of shots are sent +simultaneously, some falling short, some falling beyond the target, and +some hitting it.</p> + +<a id="img020" name="img020"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/img020.jpg" width="600" height="353" alt="" title=""> +<p>The german cruiser "Blücher" turning on her side as she +sank in the North Sea battle of January 24. 1915. The other vessels of +the German squadron escaped.</p> +</div> + +<p>The man who really "aims" the gun never sees what he is shooting at. At +some point of vantage on his ship one of the officers observes the enemy +and reports to the chief gunner the distance, the direction, and the +effect of the first shots. The gunnery officer then makes certain +calculations, taking into consideration the speed of his own ship and +the speed of the enemy ship. He knows that at a given moment his target +will be at a given point. He knows also just how fast his shells will +travel and makes calculations that enable him to place a shell at that +point at just the right second. In this battle the shells of the British +ship took about twenty seconds to go from the mouths of the guns to the +German hulls. And they made a curve at the highest point of which they +reached a distance of more than two miles; and most wonderful of all was +the fact that at the beginning of the firing a man standing on the deck +of one of the German <span class="pagenum"><a id="page255" name="page255"></a>(p. 255)</span> ships could not even see the ship which +was firing the shells at her, though the weather was very clear.</p> + +<p>By a quarter to ten o'clock the <i>Lion</i> had come up with and had passed +the slow <i>Blücher</i>, firing broadsides into her as she went by. The +<i>Tiger</i> then passed the unfortunate German ship, also letting her have a +heavy fire, and then the <i>Princess Royal</i> did likewise. Finally the <i>New +Zealand</i> was able to engage her and later even the slow <i>Indomitable</i> +got near enough to do so. By that time the <i>Blücher</i> was afire and one +of her gun turrets, with its crew and gun, had been swept off bodily by +a British shell.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the <i>Lion</i>, <i>Tiger</i>, and <i>Princess Royal</i> kept straight ahead +till they were able to "straddle" even the leading ship of the enemy's +line. The <i>Tiger</i> and <i>Lion</i> poured shells into the <i>Seydlitz</i>, but were +unable to do much damage to the <i>Moltke</i>. While they were thus engaged +the <i>Princess Royal</i> singled out the <i>Derfflinger</i> for her target. The +light British cruiser <i>Aurora</i>, <i>Arethusa</i>, and <i>Undaunted</i> were far +ahead of the rest of the British fleet and were firing at the <i>Moltke</i>, +but thick black smoke which poured from their funnels as their engines +were speeded up got between the gunners of the <i>Lion</i> and their target, +the <i>Moltke</i>, completely obscuring the latter. As a result the three +light British cruisers were ordered to slow down and to take positions +to the rear.</p> + +<p>By eleven o'clock there were fires raging on both the <i>Seydlitz</i> and the +<i>Derfflinger</i>, and Admiral Hipper decided to try to save his larger +ships by sacrificing the destroyers that accompanied them. Consequently +the German destroyers put their bows right toward the large British +ships and charged, but the fire which they drew was too much for them +and they gave up this maneuver.</p> + +<p>The British destroyer <i>Meteor</i>, which had been maintaining a perilous +position between the battleships, then attempted to torpedo the +<i>Blücher</i>, which had fallen far to the rearward to be abandoned by the +rest of the German fleet. Badly damaged as the <i>Blücher</i> was, the crew +of one of her guns managed to get in some final shots, one of them +nearly ending the career of the British destroyer. The <i>Arethusa</i> had +also come up and prepared <span class="pagenum"><a id="page256" name="page256"></a>(p. 256)</span> to launch a torpedo. Cruiser and +destroyer torpedoed her at about the same moment, and later, while +within 200 yards of the sinking German ship the <i>Arethusa</i> sent another +torpedo at her. She now began to list, although not greatly damaged, on +her port side till her keel showed. Her crew showed remarkable bravery.</p> + +<p>The men lined up as though at a review and began to sing the German +national airs, intending to go to their deaths in that formation. But an +officer on the <i>Arethusa</i> shouted to them through a megaphone to jump +while they could to save their lives. This had a psychological effect, +and as the starboard side of her hull slowly came up her men were seen +scrambling on it from behind her taffrail and creeping down toward her +keel. Some of them almost walked into the water while she was in that +position. Her guns were pointing toward the sky, one of them slowly +revolving. Finally, when she was completely upside down she went under. +Many of her crew were picked up by British small boats, and her captain, +who was one of them, was taken to England, where he died later from the +results of this experience and was buried with full naval honors.</p> + +<p>The German destroyers had meanwhile come between their own cruisers and +those of the enemy and emitted volumes of heavy smoke, which they hoped +would form an effective screen between the former and the gunners on the +latter. Admiral Hipper then ordered all of his ships to turn northward, +in the hope of getting away behind this screen, but the British admiral +anticipated this maneuver and changed the course of his ships so that he +again had the German ships in view after both fleets had driven through +the smoke.</p> + +<p>The <i>Lion</i> of the British fleet was chosen as the target for the German +ships, and by keeping a concentrated fire upon her were able to do +considerable damage. One shell penetrated the bow of the <i>Lion</i> as it +was partly lifted out of the water on account of the great speed she was +making; this shot hit her water tank and made it impossible for her to +use her port engine from that time on. She slowed down. When she fell +out of the line it was necessary for Admiral Beatty to leave her, and he +transferred his flag to the destroyer <i>Attack</i>. But all of this took +time and it was quite <span class="pagenum"><a id="page257" name="page257"></a>(p. 257)</span> long before he was able to rejoin his +leading ships. By twenty minutes past twelve he had got aboard the +<i>Princess Royal</i>.</p> + +<p>Rear Admiral Moore automatically took up command of the British fleet +while his senior officer was making these changes. It is not known what +Admiral Moore's orders had been, but it is known that he suddenly +ordered all ships to cease firing and allowed the German warships to +proceed without further engaging them. By the time that Admiral Beatty +was again on a battle cruiser the action was virtually over. The +<i>Indomitable</i> passed a cable to the crippled <i>Lion</i> and towed the latter +home, the rest of the British fleet keeping to the rearward to be ready +for possible resumption of fighting.</p> + +<p>Much criticism was made by the British press and by laymen on account of +the sudden termination of the fight, and there was great complaint in +England because the career of all the raiding German ships had not been +brought to an end. But when the engagement ended the opposing fleets +were within seventy miles of Helgoland, and the German admiralty had +ready a fleet of dreadnoughts and another of battle cruisers to engage +the British ships when they got within striking distance. By ending the +fight when he did the British commander chose not to be led into this +trap. Nor was there dissatisfaction in England alone. In Germany the +complaint was that the ruse had not worked, and not long afterward +Admiral von Ingenohl was replaced as commander of the High Sea Fleet by +Admiral von Pohl. None of the blame for the failure was laid at the door +of the officer who had actually been engaged in the fighting—Admiral +Hipper—which showed that his senior officers had considered the +engagement as part of a larger action.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page258" name="page258"></a>(p. 258)</span> CHAPTER XL</h2> + +<p class="title">RESULTS OF SIX MONTHS' NAVAL OPERATIONS</p> + + +<p>The first six months of naval operations in the Great War came to a +close without battle between the main fleets of the navies of the +warring nations. The British navy had kept open communication with the +Continent, allowing the Expeditionary Force, as well as later military +contingents, to get to the trenches in Flanders and France. It had, in +addition, made possible the transportation of troops from Canada and +Australia. The ports of France were open for commerce with America, +which permitted the importation of arms and munitions, and the same +privilege had been won for the ports in the British Isles.</p> + +<p>The northern ports of the Central Powers were closed to commerce with +all but the Scandinavian countries, and the oversea German possessions, +where they were accessible to naval attack, had been taken from her. The +German and Austrian flags had been swept from the seven seas, with the +exception of those on three or four German cruisers that now and then +showed themselves capable of sinking a merchantman.</p> + +<p>In the four engagements of importance which had been fought by the end +of January, 1915, the British had been the victors in three—the battles +of the Bight of Helgoland, the Falkland Islands, and the third German +raid of January 24, 1915—the Germans had been victors in one—the fight +off Coronel.</p> + +<p>British and other allied ships were unable to inflict damage on the +coast defenses of Germany, but the latter in two successful raids had +been able to bombard British coast towns, offsetting in a way the loss +of oversea dominions.</p> + +<p>Great Britain, after six months of naval warfare had lost three +battleships, the <i>Bulwark</i>, <i>Formidable</i>, and <i>Audacious</i>;<a id="footnotetag1" name="footnotetag1"></a><a href="#footnote1" title="Go to footnote 1"><span class="smaller">[1]</span></a> the five +armored cruisers <i>Aboukir</i>, <i>Cressy</i>, <i>Hogue</i>, <i>Monmouth</i>, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page259" name="page259"></a>(p. 259)</span> +<i>Good Hope</i>; the second-class cruisers <i>Hawke</i> and <i>Hermes</i>; the two +third-class cruisers <i>Amphion</i> and <i>Pegasus</i>; the protected scout +<i>Pathfinder</i> and the converted liner <i>Oceanic</i>; losses in destroyers and +other small vessels were negligible.</p> + +<p>Germany had lost no first-class battleships, but in third-class cruisers +her loss was great, those that went down being the eleven ships +<i>Ariadne</i>, <i>Augsburg</i>, <i>Emden</i>, <i>Graudenz</i>, <i>Hela</i>, <i>Köln</i>, +<i>Königsberg</i>, <i>Leipzig</i>, <i>Nürnberg</i>, <i>Magdeburg</i>, <i>Mainz</i>, and the +<i>Dresden</i>; she lost, also, the four armored cruisers <i>Blücher</i>, +<i>Scharnhorst</i>, <i>Gneisenau</i>, and <i>Yorck</i>; the old cruiser <i>Geier</i> +(interned); the three converted liners <i>Spreewald</i>, <i>Cap Trafalgar</i>, and +<i>Kaiser Wilhelm</i>; and the mine layer <i>Königin Luise</i>.</p> + +<p>The German policy of attrition had not taken off as many ships as had +been lost by Germany herself, and, as England's ships so far outnumbered +her own, it may well be said that the "whittling" policy was not +successful. She made up for this by having still at large the cruiser +<i>Karlsruhe</i> which damaged a great amount of commerce, and by the +exploits of her submarines, far outshining those of the Allies.</p> + +<p>Russia had lost the armored cruiser <i>Pallada</i>, and the <i>Jemchug</i>, a +third-class cruiser, and the losses of the French and Austrian navies +were not worth accounting. With regard to interned vessels both sides +had losses. While the Germans were unable to use the great modern +merchantmen which lay in American and other ports, and had to do without +them either as converted cruisers or transports, the Allies were forced +to detail warships to keep guard at the entrance of the various ports +where these interned German liners might at any moment take to the high +seas.</p> + +<p>In naval warfare the number of ships lost is no determining factor in +figuring the actual victory—the important thing being the existence or +nonexistence of the grand fleets of the combatants after the fighting is +finished. Viewed from such an angle, the fact that the Allies had left +no German ships at large other than those in the North Sea, cannot +entitle them to victory at the end of the first six months of war. So +long as a German fleet remained intact and interned in neutral ports, +naval <span class="pagenum"><a id="page260" name="page260"></a>(p. 260)</span> victory for the Allies had not come, though naval +supremacy was indicated.</p> + +<p>The fact was apparent, moreover, that while the Central Powers were +being deprived of all their trade on the seas, the world's commerce +endangered only by submarines was remaining wide open to the Allies.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page261" name="page261"></a>(p. 261)</span> PART III—THE WAR ON THE EASTERN FRONT</h2> + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XLI</h2> + +<p class="title">GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE THEATRE OF WARFARE</p> + + +<p>World war—the prophecy of the ages—now threatened the foundations of +civilization. Whether or not the modern era was to fall under the sword, +as did the democracy of Greece and the mighty Roman Empire, was again to +be decided on battle grounds that for seventy centuries have devoured +the generations. The mountain passes were once more to reverberate with +the battle cry—the roar of guns, the clank of artillery, the tramp of +soldiery. The rivers were to run crimson with the blood of men; cities +were to fall before the invaders; ruin and death were to consume +nations. It was as though Xerxes, and Darius, and Alexander the Great, +and Hannibal, and all the warriors of old were to return to earth to +lead again gigantic armies over the ancient battle fields.</p> + +<p>While the war was gaining momentum on the western battle grounds of +Europe, gigantic armies were gathering in the East—there to wage mighty +campaigns that were to hold in the balance the destiny of the great +Russian Empire, the empire of Austria, the Balkan kingdoms—Serbia, +Montenegro, Rumania, Bulgaria. The Turks were again to enter upon a war +of invasion. Greece once more was to tremble under the sword. Even Egypt +and Persia and Jerusalem itself, the battle grounds of the Assyrians, +the Babylonians, and the Trojans, the bloody fields of paganism +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page262" name="page262"></a>(p. 262)</span> and early Christianity, were all to be awakened by the modern +trumpets of war.</p> + +<p>Before we enter upon these campaigns in the East it is well to survey +the countries to be invaded, to review the battle lines and travel in +these pages over the fighting ground.</p> + +<p>The eastern theatre in the first six months of the war, from August 4, +1914, to February 1, 1915, includes the scenes of the fighting in the +historic Balkans and in the Caucasus. But the eastern front proper is +really that region where the Teutonic allies and the Russians opposed +each other, forming a fighting line almost a thousand miles long. It +stretches from rugged old Riga on the shores of the Baltic Sea in the +far north, down through Poland to the Carpathian Mountains, touching the +warm, sunlit hills on the Rumanian frontier. When the total losses of +the Great War are finally counted it will probably be found that here +the heaviest fighting has occurred.</p> + +<p>This is the longest battle line in the world's history. Partly on +account of its great length, and partly because of the nature of the +country, we see the two gigantic forces in this region locked together +in their deadly struggle, swaying back and forth, first one giving way, +then the other. This was especially the case in the northern section, +along the German-Russian frontier.</p> + +<a id="img021" name="img021"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/img021.jpg"> +<img src="images/img021tb.jpg" width="300" height="415" alt="" title=""></a> +<p>The War in the East—The Relation of the Eastern +Countries to Germany.</p> +</div> + +<p>As we view the armies marshaling along this upper section, along the +Baltic shore, southward, including part of East Prussia as well as +Baltic Russia, we look upon the ancient abode of the Lithuanians, +supposed to be the first of the Slavic tribes to appear in Europe. +Hardly any part of Europe has a more forbidding aspect than this region. +There the armies must pass over a flat, undulating country, almost as +low in level as the Baltic, and therefore occupied in large part by +marshes and lagoons through which they must struggle. In all parts the +soil is unproductive. At one time it was a universal forest: thick, +dark, and dank. A century ago, however, Catherine the Great distributed +large areas of this comparatively worthless land among her favorites and +courtiers. In this way a certain percentage was reclaimed, and with the +incoming of the sunlight <span class="pagenum"><a id="page264" name="page264"></a>(p. 264)</span> more favorable conditions for human +life were established. Yet even now it is very thinly settled.</p> + +<p>Through this region the armies must cross big rivers: the Oder, Dvina, +Warthe, Vistula, Pregel, and Niemen, northward and northeastward. Just +above or eastward of that point, where the German-Russian frontier +touches the shore, the Baltic curls into a dent, 100 miles deep, forming +the Gulf of Riga. Near the southern extremity of this gulf, eight miles +from the mouth of the Dvina, is the city of Riga, ranking second only to +Petrograd in commercial importance as a seaport, and with a population +of about 300,000.</p> + +<p>As the armies move across the frontier they come to a vast domain +projecting into this marsh country, like a great, broad tongue licking +the shore of the Baltic; this wide strip of German territory is East +Prussia—a country to be beleaguered. Not far below the tip of this +tongue, about five miles from the mouth of the Pregel River in the +Frische Haff, and about twenty-five miles from the seacoast, is situated +another embattled stronghold—the city of Königsberg which, since 1843, +has been a fortress of the first rank. These two cities in the following +pages will be the immediate objectives of the enemy forces operating on +this section of the eastern front.</p> + +<p>It will be obvious why the lines of battle were less permanently fixed +here than in the more solid and mountainous sections of northern France. +Railroads and fairly well-laid highways do indeed traverse these swamps +in various parts, especially in German territory, but trenches could not +be dug in yielding mire. In yet another feature were the military +operations hampered by the nature of the terrain here; the use of heavy +artillery.</p> + +<p>We have seen that one of the chief causes of success attending German +attacks in the other theatres of the war has been their use of heavy +guns. But in the fighting before Riga, we shall see when the Germans +seemed on the point of taking that city their heavy artillery was so +handicapped that it was rendered practically useless. Being restricted +by the marshes to an attack over a comparatively narrow front, they were +compelled to leave their heavy guns behind on firmer soil. The guns +which they could <span class="pagenum"><a id="page265" name="page265"></a>(p. 265)</span> take with them were matched by the Russians; +the fighting was, therefore, almost entirely limited to infantry +engagements, in which the Russians were not inferior to the Germans. +Thus, we shall find the German advance on Riga was stopped before it +could attain its object.</p> + +<p>In studying the fighting in this part of the eastern front, it will be +seen why the Germans were more successful below Riga, and why the +Russians were compelled to evacuate Vilna. Here is a broad rise, +something like the back of a half-submerged submarine, which seems to +cross the country, where the land becomes more solid. The armies must +move, instead of through marshes, along innumerable small lakes, most of +the lakes being long and narrow and running north and south, with a +fairly thick growth of timber among them, mostly pine and spruce and +fir. In character this section is rather similar to parts of Minnesota. +There are two cities to be conquered in this drier region, Dvinsk, and, +further south, Vilna, once the chief city or capital of the Lithuanians. +We shall see the Russians thrust back from Königsberg, and the heavy +fighting shifted over to this section; yet even here, where the huge +guns of the Germans could find footing, the terrain was not suited to +trench warfare, and every arrival of reenforcements on either side would +swing the lines back or forth.</p> + +<p>In studying the military movements in a country of this character, +special attention must be paid to the railway lines. Railways, and more +especially those running parallel to the fronts, are absolutely +necessary to success. In looking, therefore, for a key to the object of +any particular movement, the first step must be a close study of this +railroad situation.</p> + +<p>We find from Riga to the fortress of Rovno there is a continuous line of +railroad, running generally north and south and passing through Dvinsk, +Vilna, Lida, Rovno, and thence down through Poland to Lemberg. Every +effort of the Russian armies in the succeeding chapters will be made to +keep to the westward of and parallel to this line, and for a very good +reason.</p> + +<p>Feeding into this great north and south artery are the branch lines from +Petrograd to Dvinsk; from Moscow to the junction at <span class="pagenum"><a id="page266" name="page266"></a>(p. 266)</span> +Baranovitschi; from Kiev to Sarny. Aside from these three important +branch lines, there are a few other single-track off-shoots, but from a +military point of view they are of no importance.</p> + +<p>This line was the main objective (short of capturing Riga itself) of the +German operations. This line proves especially vital to the Russians, +for nowhere east of it is there another such line which could be used +for the same purpose.</p> + +<p>If, in the campaigns to be described, this railroad falls into Russian +hands, it gives every facility for strengthening or reenforcing any part +of the Russian front where German pressure becomes excessive. It is, in +addition, a solution to the difficult problem of transportation of +supplies. To use a military term, it gives the Russian army a mobility +not possessed by the enemy because of a lack of similar facilities.</p> + +<p>But should this railroad be taken by the Germans, the advantage would +immediately be reversed. And if once the Russian lines were driven back +beyond the railroad, a division of their forces would be forced upon +them; their armies would be obliged to group themselves beside the three +east and west branches already mentioned, for only by these three +systems could their forces be supplied, lateral communications being +absolutely lacking. And this is the key to the fighting, not only in the +northern section of the front, but all along the line, down to Galicia. +Naturally, only the Russian railroads need be considered, for in the +first months of the war the Germans are the invaders in the northern +half of the eastern front, except for a few short periods in the +beginning. Compared to the German railway lines near the frontier, the +Russian lines are very few.</p> + +<p>There are two distinct railway lines running from Germany into East +Prussia, with innumerable branches leading to all points of the Russian +frontier, laid especially for military purposes. It was along these that +we shall witness the German forces rushed from Belgium to drive back the +first Russian advance. But, of course, the moment the Germans enter +Russian territory they have no advantage over the Russians, since even +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page267" name="page267"></a>(p. 267)</span> their wonderful efficiency does not enable them to build +railroads as fast as an army can advance. Hence, we observe their +efforts to gain possession of the Russian railroads.</p> + +<p>We come now to the central part of the eastern front. Here, just below +East Prussia, Russian Poland projects into German territory in a great +salient, about 200 miles wide and 250 long, resembling a huge bite in +shape.</p> + +<p>This land is a monotonous, wind-swept plain, slightly undulating, its +higher parts not even 500 feet above sea level. To the northward and +eastward it descends gradually into the still lower lands of East +Prussia and White Russia, but in the south it lifts into the foothills +of the Carpathian Mountains.</p> + +<p>Gigantic armies are to move over this plateau, timbered in parts with +oak, beech, and lime, and in some sections deeply cut by small rivers +and streams forming fissures, some narrow and craggy, others broad and +sloping with marshy bottoms. Toward the south the soldiers must cross +narrow ravines in all directions, often covered with wild, thick +undergrowth. The chief river is the Vistula, which enters by the +southern boundary and flows first north, then northwest, skirting the +plateau region at a height of 700 feet, finally making its exit near +Thorn, thence on to the Baltic through East Prussia. Its valley divides +the hilly tracts into two parts: Lublin heights in the east and the +Sedomierz heights to the westward. Picture in your mind the great armies +approaching these ridges, the most notable of which is the Holy Cross +Mountains, rising peaks almost 2,000 feet above sea level.</p> + +<p>The fighting forces in the northeast, where the plain slopes gradually +into the Suwalki Province, must pass over a country dotted with lakes +and lagoons, which farther on take on the character of marshes, stagnant +ponds, peat bogs, with small streams flowing lazily from one to the +other. Here and there are patches of stunted pine forests, with +occasional stretches of fertile, cultivated soil. Throughout this +section many rivers flow along broad, level valleys, separating into +various branches which form many islands and, during the rainy seasons, +flood the surrounding country.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page268" name="page268"></a>(p. 268)</span> Farther west the armies pass through broad valleys or basins, +once the beds of great lakes, whose rich, alluvial soil give forth +abundant crops of cereals. Here, too, flows the Niemen, 500 miles in +length, watering a basin 40,000 square miles in area and separating +Poland from Lithuania. It advances northward in a great, winding +pathway, between limestone hills covered with loam or amid forests, its +banks rising to high eminences in places, past ruined castles built in +the Middle Ages. In the yellowish soil along its banks grow rich crops +of oats, buckwheat, corn, and some rye. Naturally such a section would +be thickly populated, not only on account of the fertile soil, but +because the Niemen, like the Vistula, is one of the country's means of +communication and transportation. As many as 90,000 men earn their +livelihoods in navigating the steamers and freight barges passing up and +down this great waterway. At Yurburg the Niemen enters East Prussia on +its way to the Baltic.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XLII</h2> + +<p class="title">THE STRATEGIC VALUE OF RUSSIAN POLAND</p> + + +<p>It is in the southern part of Russian Poland, among the foothills of the +Carpathians, that the armies come into possession of its mineral +resources, a fact which will have some influence on the German military +movements in this region. Up in the Kielce hills copper has been mined +for 400 years, though the value of these mines has decreased on account +of the much greater quantity found in America. A hundred years ago the +Kielce mines produced nearly 4,000 tons of copper a year. Brown iron ore +is also found here in deposits 40 per cent pure, while there are also +veins of zinc sometimes 50 feet thick, yielding ore of 25 per cent +purity. Sulphur, one of the ingredients for the manufacture of +explosives, is found at Czarkowa in the district of Pinczow. In the +southwest, in Bedzin and Olkuz, there are <span class="pagenum"><a id="page269" name="page269"></a>(p. 269)</span> coal deposits about +200 square miles in area. In the southern districts wheat is also grown +in some abundance.</p> + +<p>The military value of this country is further enhanced by political +conditions. Like the greater part of Galicia to the southward, it is +peopled by the Poles, who form one of the important branches of the +great Slavic family. At one time Poland was a kingdom whose territory +and possessions spread from the Carpathians up to the Baltic and far +into the center of Russia, ruling its subject peoples with quite as much +rigor as the Poles have themselves been ruled by Russia and Germany.</p> + +<p>Poland is a seat of conquest in the Great War. For not much over a +hundred years ago what remained of this old kingdom was divided among +the three great powers: Prussia, Austria, and Russia. Austria, on the +whole, has been much the best master. Germany tried in various ways to +Germanize her subjects in German Poland, thereby rousing their bitter +hatred. Russia was no less autocratic in attempting to extinguish the +spirit of nationality among the Poles under her rule. But, naturally, +the fact remains that between the Poles and the Russians there are still +ties of blood. In moving westward, by this route Russia would be moving +among a race who, in spite of all they had suffered at the hands of the +Czar, still would naturally prefer Slav to Teuton.</p> + +<p>We shall soon stand with the invading armies in the center of Russian +Poland, and enter the great city of Warsaw. This conquered citadel with +more than 400,000 inhabitants, is situated on the Vistula. It was, next +to Paris, the most brilliant city of Europe in the early part of last +century. But under Russian influence it became a provincial town in +spirit, if not in size. It once had the character of prodigal splendor; +within late years it became a forlorn, neglected city, not the least +effort being made by the Russian authorities to modernize its appearance +and improvement. From a sanitary point of view it became one of the +least progressive cities of Europe. And yet, as the armies march into +the capital, there are still signs of the city's past glory: over thirty +palaces rear their lofty turrets above the tile roofs of the houses, +among them the palace of the long-dead Polish kings.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page270" name="page270"></a>(p. 270)</span> However, from a military point of view, Warsaw maintained great +importance in the Great War. It is at this time one of the strongest +citadels of Europe, and around it lies the group of fortresses called +the Polish Triangle. The southern apex is Ivangorod on the Vistula; the +eastern, Brest-Litovsk; the northern being Warsaw itself. To the +northwest lies the advanced fort of Novo Georgievsk. This triangle is a +fortified region with three fronts: two toward Germany and one toward +Austria, and the various forts are fully connected by means of +railroads.</p> + +<p>It would appear, therefore, that Russian Poland would offer excellent +conditions for an army on the defensive. And this is quite true, the +Vistula, especially, serving as a screen against the attacking armies +from the west. As a matter of fact, it would have been extremely +difficult to take Warsaw by a frontal attack. Warsaw's weakness lay in +the north in the swamp regions.</p> + +<p>One of the greatest dangers in all wars, against which a military +commander has to guard his army, is that of being flanked. The road or +roads leading from the rear to the base of supplies, along which not +only food supplies for the soldiers, but, quite as important, +ammunition, is brought up, either in wagons, automobiles, or in railroad +trains, are the most sensitive part of an army's situation. Unless they +are very short—that is, unless an army is very close to its base of +supplies—it is impossible to guard these lines of communication +adequately. Therefore, if the enemy is able to break through on either +side of the front, there is great danger that he may swing his forces +around and cut these lines of communication. The army that is thus +deprived of its sources of supply has nothing left then but to +surrender, sometimes even to inferior forces. Sometimes, of course, if +the army is within the walls of a fortified city and is well supplied +with food and ammunition, it may hold out and allow itself to be +besieged. This may even be worth while, for the sake of diminishing the +enemy's strength to the extent of the forces required for besieging, +usually many times larger than the besieged force. But in the case of +Warsaw we shall see that that would not have been a wise plan; hardly +any food supply that could have been laid by would have maintained the +large civil population, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page271" name="page271"></a>(p. 271)</span> the big guns of the Germans would +soon have battered down the city's defenses.</p> + +<p>This the Russians realized from the very beginning. As is well known +now, Russia had never intended to hold Poland against the Teutons. Her +real line of defense was laid much farther back. It was only on account +of the protest of France, when the two Governments entered into their +alliance, that any fortifications at all were thrown up in Poland. A +real line of defense must be more or less a straight line, with no +break. And the marshes in the north, as well as the tongue of East +Prussia projecting in along the shores of the Baltic toward Riga made +that impossible. Russia's real line of defense was farther east, along +the borders of Russia proper and along the line of railroad already +referred to. By studying this territory east of Poland it will become +obvious why Russia should prefer this as her main line of defense +against a German invasion.</p> + +<p>As we witness the armies moving along what was once the frontier between +Poland and Russia proper we shall find the plain of Poland dips into a +region which apparently was once a vast lake which drained into the +Dnieper, but the outlet becoming choked, this stagnant water formed into +those immense morasses known as the Pripet Marshes, forming over +two-fifths of the whole province of Minsk and covering an area of over +600 square miles. Even when more than 6,000,000 acres have been +reclaimed by drainage, the armies found some of these marshes extending +continuously for over 200 miles. In the upper Pripet basin the woods +were everywhere full of countless little channels which creep through a +wilderness of sedge. Along the right bank of the Pripet River the land +rises above the level of the water and is fairly thickly populated. +Elsewhere extends a great intricate network of streams with endless +fields of bulrushes and stunted woods. Over these bogs hang unhealthy +vapors, and among the rank reeds there is no fly, nor mosquito, nor +living soul or sound in the autumn.</p> + +<p>Not even infantry could pass over this region—not to consider cavalry +or artillery, save in the depth of a cold winter when the water and mire +is frozen. Even then it would be impossible to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page272" name="page272"></a>(p. 272)</span> venture over +the ice with heavy guns. An invading army must, therefore, split in two +parts and pass around the sides, and nothing is more dangerous than +splitting an army in the face of the enemy. It is behind these vast +marshes that we shall find the Russians planned to make their first +determined stand.</p> + +<p>Here, too, the Russians expected to have the advantage of being +surrounded by their own people, for this is the country of the White +Russians, so called on account of their costumes. Here the purest Slavic +type is preserved; they have not blended with other stocks, as the Great +Russians with the Finns and the Little Russians, farther south, with the +Mongols. For a while this territory was subject to the kings of Poland, +who oppressed its inhabitants most barbarously, from the effects of +which they have not even fully recovered. To-day White Russia is one of +the poorest and most backward parts of the empire. And even yet the +great bulk of the landlords are Poles.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XLIII</h2> + +<p class="title">AUSTRIAN POLAND, GALICIA AND BUKOWINA</p> + + +<p>Let us now pass ahead of the armies into the southern section of the +eastern front. Here we have to consider only Austrian Poland, Galicia +and Bukowina, for here there is much less swaying back and forth, the +Russians maintaining their lines much more steadily than farther north. +This section is an undulating terrace which slopes down to the Vistula +and the Dniester; behind rise the Carpathian ranges, forming the natural +frontier between the broad, fertile plains of Hungary and Russia. Here +the population is quite dense, there being 240 inhabitants to the square +mile. Nearly half of the total area is in farm lands, about one-fourth +woodland, and the rest mostly meadow and pasture, less than a quarter of +one per cent being lake or swamp. Rich crops of barley, oats, rye, +wheat, and corn are grown here, while <span class="pagenum"><a id="page273" name="page273"></a>(p. 273)</span> the mineral resources +include coal, salt, and petroleum, the latter especially being important +in modern warfare on account of the great quantities of fuel necessary +for motor carriages.</p> + +<p>Here, in Galicia, we shall witness the conquests of the important city +of Lemberg—with its 160,000 population—fourth in size of all Austrian +cities, only Vienna, Prague, and Triest being larger. Further in toward +the mountains we shall see the storming of the strongly fortified city +of Przemysl (pronounced Prshemisel), also important as the junction of +the network of railroads that the Austrians had built throughout the +country, including several lines passing over the Carpathians into +Hungary. And farther west still we shall look upon the invasion of the +old Polish city of Cracow, also strongly fortified. This section is +especially rich in industries, mines, and agriculture.</p> + +<p>Here, too, are staged many of the battles of the rivers—parallel with +the mountain ranges flows the Dniester in a southeasterly direction, +into which, flowing down from the north and running parallel with each +other, empty the Gnila Lipa, the Zlota Lipa, and the Stripa, all of +which figure prominently in the war movements, for each of these is +crossed several times by both armies engaged at bloody costs.</p> + +<p>As will be noted by reading the chapters on the fighting on the eastern +front, here, as in East Prussia, the Russians make a determined advance +and actually succeed in conquering this territory from the Austrians. At +one time we find them even in possession of all except one of the chief +passes in the Carpathians and threatening to overrun the plains of +Hungary. To hold Russian Poland it was necessary that they should have a +firm grip of East Prussia and Austrian Poland, thus protecting the +flanks of their center. Had they been able to hold their grip, then they +could have straightened out their entire line from north to south, and +Warsaw would have been safe. But we shall see both their extremities +driven back; therefore Warsaw was in danger, in spite of its +fortifications.</p> + +<p>That the Austrians should have allowed themselves to be thrust back over +the Carpathians is one of the surprises of the early stages of the war. +For these mountains are only second in <span class="pagenum"><a id="page274" name="page274"></a>(p. 274)</span> size in all Europe to +the Alps themselves, forming the eastern wing of the great European +mountain system. They are about 800 miles long and nearly 250 miles wide +in parts. Some of the higher peaks reach 8,000 feet above sea level.</p> + +<p>Imagine the vision of an army marching along the roads from the +foothills to the mountains leading through mysterious, shadowy spruce +forests, where the soil is covered with rich carpets of moss. Foaming +streams ripple in among the moss-covered bowlders. Then the paths emerge +on the cheerful, emerald-green pastures of the slopes, alive with the +flocks of goats, sheep and cattle, attended by their shepherds. A little +farther and the whole scenery changes, and the armies approach +tremendous mountains of solid granite, ominously dark, shining like +hammered iron, rising abruptly from the stone débris and black patches +of mountain fir, and towering bluffs and crags seem to pierce the sky +with their sharp peaks, bastions and jagged ridges, like gigantic +fortresses. Clouds of white mist, driven and torn by gusts of wind, +cling to the precipitous walls, and masses of eternal snow lie in the +many fissures and depressions, forming large, sharply outlined streaks +and patches.</p> + +<p>The Magyars inhabit the great central plains of Hungary which +constitutes ethnologically a vast island of Magyars in a sea of Slavs. +The Carpathian slopes on the Hungarian side of the ranges, including the +mounts of the Tatra—with the exception of the Zips district, which is +peopled with German-Saxon colonists—are inhabited, in their western +parts, by two million Slovaks, in the eastern parts by half a million +Ruthenians or Little Russians, and on the Transylvanian side by nearly +three million Rumanians. The border lines between these Rumanians and +the Magyars and between the Hungaro-Slav groups (Slovaks and Ruthenians) +and the Magyars lie far down within the borders of the great central +Hungarian plains. This line at one point extends to within a few miles +of the Hungarian capital of Budapest.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page275" name="page275"></a>(p. 275)</span> CHAPTER XLIV</h2> + +<p class="title">THE BALKANS—COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES</p> + + +<p>This survey of the fighting ground in eastern Europe brings us now to +the "cockpit of the war." From a military point of view, as well as from +the political, the Balkan theatre is of equal importance with other big +fronts in Europe. It is the gateway to the Orient for central Europe. +Here the armies engaged are numbered only by the hundred thousands, none +reach a million. But from the point of view of human interest and +political intrigue it is by far the most picturesque. Here the hatred +between the combatants is most bitter; indeed so bitter that when it +burst into flame a mad whirlwind of passion swept over half the world. +For here the great conflagration began.</p> + +<p>A map of the Balkan Peninsula is almost, on the face of it, a full +explanation of the causes of the war. The military campaigns, studied in +connection with their physical environment, explain all the diplomatic +intrigues of the past fifty years, for they are the intrigues themselves +translated into action.</p> + +<p>Geographically speaking, the Balkan nations are those situated in the +big peninsula of southern Europe which lies below the Danube River and +the northern border of Montenegro. Some authorities, however, include +Rumania, and others even bring in Austria's Slavic provinces, Bosnia and +Herzegovina.</p> + +<p>The most noticeable feature of this vast war-ridden region is its +mountains. Those same Carpathian Mountains, which form the natural +boundary between the land of the Magyars and the Russian plains, take a +sudden turn westward at the Rumanian frontier, then sweep around in a +great semicircle, forming a shape resembling a scythe, the handle of +which reaches up into Poland, the blade curling around within the Balkan +Peninsula. Behind the handle, and above the upper part of the blade, +stretch the broad plains of Hungary, through which flows the great +Danube, the largest river in Europe next to the Russian Volga—a river +which flowed with blood during the Great <span class="pagenum"><a id="page276" name="page276"></a>(p. 276)</span> War. Just in the +middle of the back of the blade this great river bursts through the +mountain chain, swirling through the famous Iron Gate into the great +basin within the curved blade. On the south of its farther course to the +Black Sea lie the plains of northern Bulgaria.</p> + +<p>The curving chain of mountains below the Iron Gate is the Balkan Range. +But excepting for the plains of Thrace, lying south of the Balkans, over +toward the Black Sea and above Constantinople, the rest of the peninsula +is almost entirely one confused tangle of craggy mountains, interspersed +throughout with small, fertile valleys and plateaus. This roughness of +surface becomes especially aggravated as one passes westward, and over +toward the Adriatic coast, from Greece up into the Austrian province of +Dalmatia, the country is almost inaccessible to ordinary travelers.</p> + +<p>What is the political value of this beleaguered domain? The broad, +significant fact is that any road from western Europe to the Orient must +pass through the Balkan Peninsula, and that these mountains almost block +that road. From north to south there is just one highway, so narrow that +it is really a defile.</p> + +<p>This road stretches from the seat of the war at Belgrade on the Danube +down a narrow valley, the Morava, thence through the highlands of +Macedonia into the Vardar Valley to Saloniki, on the Ægean Sea. At Nish, +above Macedonia, another road branches off into Bulgaria across the +plains of Thrace and into Constantinople. This was the road by which the +Crusaders swarmed down to conquer the Holy Land. This was the road by +which, hundreds of years later, the Moslems swarmed up into the plains +of Hungary and overran the south of Europe, until they were finally +checked outside the gates of Vienna. Nothing is more significant of the +terror that these marching hosts inspired than the fact that, with the +exception of a few larger towns, the villages hid themselves away from +this highway in the hills.</p> + +<p>Bear clearly in mind that in the existence of this narrow way to the +Orient lies the key not only to the causes of the war, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page277" name="page277"></a>(p. 277)</span> but to +the military campaigns that we shall follow in this region. For it is +the Teutons who would in the Great War, like the Crusaders of old, pass +down this highway and again conquer the East, though in this case their +object is trade, and not the Holy Sepulcher.</p> + +<p>To secure the pathway through this strategic country it also is +necessary to have control of the territory on all sides, and this is +quite as true in a political as in a military sense. To secure their +pathway up into Europe the Turks once conquered all the peoples in the +Balkans, except those inhabiting the mountains over on the Adriatic: the +Montenegrins and a small city called Ragusa, just above Montenegro in +Dalmatia. It is not at all peculiar that just here, in almost the same +locality, the Teutons should meet with the first and strongest +resistance.</p> + +<p>A study of the territory in which the first fighting of the war occurred +will explain the foregoing calculations. It will be observed that +Austrian territory runs down past the eastward turn in the Danube, along +the frontier of Montenegro, until it narrows gradually into a tip at +Cattaro, just below Cettinje, the Montenegrin capital. This land is +composed of the three provinces of Bosnia, Herzegovina and Dalmatia. All +this territory is inhabited by the same race that peoples Serbia and +Montenegro—the Serbs. In fact, the Slavic population reaches up all +along the coast to Trieste, and even a little beyond. For this reason it +is in this direction that we shall see the Serbians and the Montenegrins +invade Austrian territory, after their initial success in repulsing the +Austrian invasion.</p> + +<p>The objectives of the brief campaign soon to be considered were +Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia, and Ragusa, the famous little seaport +on the Adriatic. Ragusa is of especial interest on account of its +remarkable history. In the Middle Ages it was the most important seaport +in that part of the world. Its ships sailed over all the Mediterranean +and from them is derived the word "argosy," signifying a ship laden with +wealth. Again and again the Turks attempted to conquer this little +state, which was at that time a republic, but always the Ragusans beat +off the enemy. For the country about is so rocky, so rough, that +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page278" name="page278"></a>(p. 278)</span> the city was easily defended, especially in that time when +nearly all fighting was hand to hand.</p> + +<p>The first and foremost word in the Great War—the key word—is Sarajevo. +Here is the scene of the assassination of the Crown Prince of Austria, +which was at least the final cause of the war. As we enter it we find a +population of about forty thousand, half of which are Mohammedans. It is +a large, straggling town, situated in a narrowing valley overtopped by +steep hills on either side, which close in a narrow gorge in the east +and broaden into a plain on the west. It was to the eastward, however, +that we shall find the heavy fighting along the Austro-Serbian frontier.</p> + +<p>The armies along the Danube will soon command our attention. As they +follow the river toward Belgrade, the capital of Serbia, it is no longer +the "Blue Danube" of the famous German song. Here, in fact, it is a +broad, mud-colored river, dotted with a number of low islands along its +center. Belgrade, where the first shots of the war were fired, is +located on rather high ground, backed by a semicircle of low hills in +its rear. But opposite all is flat and, in places, marshy. Modern guns +could, of course, keep up an effective fire across the river at this +point, as in fact they did before the actual invasion of Serbia began, +but the conditions for a crossing are not favorable. It was from the +west, from the Bosnian side, that the actual attack was made.</p> + +<p>Just below Belgrade the river Save, shallower and narrower, empties into +the Danube, forming the frontier westward, past Shabatz, to Ratcha, +where the Drina, flowing down from the Macedonian highlands northward, +joins it, forming the western frontier between Bosnia and Serbia.</p> + +<p>The Drina, where much fighting occurs, is no ordinary waterway, no mere +mountain stream, though it lies in a mountainous country. Before +reaching its junction with the Save it is fed by many important +tributaries. Ever swift, often torrential, it has washed out a bed of +imposing width, and by a constant cutting out of new courses has created +a series of deltas. It was one of the largest of these islands, that of +Kuriachista, between Losnitza and Leschnitza, that the Austrians chose +as a base <span class="pagenum"><a id="page279" name="page279"></a>(p. 279)</span> for their first invasion. From this point up and +around to Shabatz lies the bloody field of the Austro-Serbian battles.</p> + +<p>A description of this section, in brief at least, is necessary to an +understanding of the three Austrian invasions made here, and all three +of which failed disastrously. North and west of Shabatz lies the great +plain of Matchva, bounded on its east and north by the Save and by the +Drina on the west. It is a rich, fertile land, but much broken up by +woodland. To the southeast a rolling valley is divided by the River +Dobrava, while due south the Tzer Mountains rise like a camel's back out +of the plain and stretch right across from the Drina to the Dobrava. The +southern slopes of Tzer are less abrupt than those on the north and +descend gradually into the Leschnitza Valley, out of which rise the +lesser heights of the Iverak Mountains. Both these ranges are largely +covered by prune orchards, intersected with some sparse timber.</p> + +<p>This is a region of natural fortifications. Descending southward again, +the foothills of Iverak are lost in a chain of summits, which flank the +right bank of the Jadar River, that tributary of the Drina River from +which the first big battle takes its name.</p> + +<p>From the left bank of the Jadar, from its junction with the Drina to +Jarebitze, a great rolling level stretches south until the high Guchevo +Mountains, stretching in southeasterly direction, rise abruptly and hide +the Bosnian hills from view. From there, southward, the country is +extremely mountainous, even the highways being blasted out of the sides +of the precipitous mountains along the innumerable ravines through which +run watercourses which, though almost dry in summer, burst into +torrential streams after the snows begin to melt in the higher +altitudes.</p> + +<p>Naturally in such a country roads are of prime importance in military +operations. A few built and maintained by the state are in excellent +condition and practicable in all sorts of weather. But for the rest +communications consist of bridle paths and trails over the mountains.</p> + +<p>As has been stated, the great highway from Belgrade to Saloniki is the +key to all military operations in the Balkans; nor is this case any +exception. A study of the map will show how <span class="pagenum"><a id="page280" name="page280"></a>(p. 280)</span> this big, +underlying fact entered into the plans of the first three attempts at +invading Serbia. Naturally, had facilities been convenient at Belgrade, +that would have been the point from which to advance. The next possible +point was over the Drina, because it was not so wide or so deep.</p> + +<p>Bosnia and Herzegovina at the beginning of the war were sparsely served +by railroads. But for the purpose of an invasion of Serbia the lines +running to Tuzla in the north and to Vishegrade and Uvatz in the south +were of much strategic importance. Moreover, unlike the Hungarian plain +opposite Belgrade, the country is so mountainous and well wooded that +great bodies of troops could be moved about without being observed. We +now come to the main reason why this point was chosen, next to Belgrade. +Though we shall see that they did not reach it at their first attempt, +there is no doubt that the main objective of the Austrians was the +little town of Valievo, lying some distance back from the Jadar and the +field of battle. For at Valievo is the terminus of a light railway which +joins with the main line running from Belgrade down to Saloniki. The +Teutons were in a hurry to open this highway, for it meant opening a +means of communication with the Turks, who were to become, and later did +become, their active allies. These are political matters of significance +here insomuch as they explain the special importance of the railway from +Belgrade south along the ancient highway of the Crusaders.</p> + +<p>Before following this route farther south, a few words should be devoted +to Montenegro. Between Serbia and Montenegro lies the Sanjak of +Novibazar. This small territory nominally belonged to Turkey before the +Balkan War, but it was in fact garrisoned by Austrian troops, the civil +administration being left to the Turks. Austria had gone to special +trouble to establish this arrangement, so that it might have a wedge +between the territories of the two little Serb nations. Anticipating +this war long ago, Austria had counted on having a large enough force in +Novibazar to prevent a union of the two armies. But, when it actually +came, she was in no position to prevent it, so much of her strength +being required to meet the Russians.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page281" name="page281"></a>(p. 281)</span> Montenegro is the natural refuge of the Serbs. Whenever in the +past they were especially hard pressed by the Turks, they would flee to +the mountain fastnesses of Tzherna Gora, the Black Mountain, for here +military operations, even in this day of modern artillery, are +absolutely impossible, and when it came to mountain guerrilla fighting, +the Turks were no match for the Serbs. Thus it was that the Serbs were +able to preserve their old traditions, their language and the best blood +of their race. And it may be said that to a slightly lesser extent +Ragusa served the same purpose.</p> + +<p>The Montenegrins are born fighters and die fighters. From one end to the +other Montenegro is one wilderness of mountain crags and towering +precipices, traversed only by foot trails. Here and there a shelf of +level soil may be found, just enough to enable people to grow their own +necessities. The capital of this rocky domain, high up among the crags +and overlooking the Adriatic, is Cettinje, which was to be stormed and +conquered by the Teutons. The main street, about 150 yards long, +comprising two-thirds of the town, is so broad that three or four +carriages may be driven abreast down the length of it. It is composed +entirely of one and two story cottages. A few short streets branch off +at right angles, and in these is all of Cettinje that is not comprised +in the main street. The king inhabited a modest-looking, brown edifice +with a small garden attached. Overlooking the capital is Mt. Lovcen, on +top of which the Montenegrins planted guns to defend any attack that +might be made against them.</p> + +<p>South of Montenegro and north of Greece lies another country of +instinctive fighters. It is similar in physical aspect, but very +different in its population. This is the land of the Albanians, whom the +Turks conquered by force of arms, like all the rest of the Balkan +peninsula. They are a distinct race by themselves; it is supposed that +they are the descendants of the ancient Illyrians, those wild tribes of +whom the ancient Greeks wrote. Nor is this unlikely, for in such a +country as theirs the inhabitants are most likely to remain pure from +generation to generation.</p> + +<p>Returning for a few moments to Belgrade, we now may resume <span class="pagenum"><a id="page282" name="page282"></a>(p. 282)</span> our +course down the ancient highway toward Saloniki. Down the Morava Valley +passes the railroad, after which it passes within a few miles of the +Bulgarian frontier, near Kustendil; dangerously near the frontier of a +possible enemy, but especially perilous in this war in which the +Serbians would naturally endeavor to retreat toward her ally, Greece.</p> + +<p>Just below Vranya the railroad enters what was, before the two Balkan +Wars, the Turkish territory of Macedonia. This region down to within +sixty miles of Saloniki was reconquered from the Turks by the Serbs, +having been Serb inhabited since early in the Christian era as shown by +historical record. As early as 950 Constantin Porphyrogenitus writes of +its inhabitants as Serbs, from whom, he says, the town of Serbia on the +Bistritza River near Saloniki took its name. Throughout this region +there are so many mountain ranges that it would be impossible to name +them all. Nowhere has blood been more continuously shed than here, and +nowhere in Europe is the scenery more beautiful.</p> + +<p>Especially impressive is that section around Monastir, toward the +frontier of Albania and away from the main line of the railroad. Here, +not more than a day's walk from the city of Monastir, or Bitolia, as its +Slavic inhabitants call it, is Lake Prespa, a small sheet of +crystal-clear water in which are reflected the peaks and the rugged +crags of the surrounding mountains. Through a subterranean passage the +waters of this mountain lake pass under the range that separates it from +the much larger lake, Ochrida, the source of the bloody Drina.</p> + +<p>The people of these mountains are Serbs, almost to Saloniki. Uskub, +whose ancient Serb name is Skoplya, was the old Serb capital, and there +the Serb ruler Doushan was crowned emperor in 1346.</p> + +<p>For the past five hundred years these Macedonians have been used to all +the ways of guerrilla fighting. Roaming through their mountains in small +bands they have harassed the Turkish soldiers continuously.</p> + +<p>The Bulgarian ruler Ferdinand had through many years by means of +committees and church jugglery striven to Bulgarize this population, +preparatory to the contemplated seizure of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page283" name="page283"></a>(p. 283)</span> territory which +he has now been able with the help of the Germanic powers to accomplish. +But in reality the Bulgar population in what was European Turkey was +found only eastward of the Struma in Thracia including Adrianople. Those +regions formed the ample and legitimate field of ambition for the +unification of the Bulgars.</p> + +<p>When hostilities broke out in 1914, when Serbia was defending herself +against the Austrians, King Ferdinand of Bulgaria, the secret ally by +treaty of Austria, did everything possible to forward his designs +against the Serbs and sent armed Bulgar bands into Serb Macedonia.</p> + +<p>Shortly below the city of Monastir in the west begins the Greek +frontier, running over eastward to Doiran, where it touches the +Bulgarian frontier. Here the railroad, coming down along the Vardar +River, emerges into the swamp lands and over them passes into the city +of Saloniki.</p> + +<p>Here is the old territory of Philip of Macedon, the father of the +conqueror. For some forty or fifty miles these swamps stretch out from +Saloniki, overshadowed by Mt. Olympus on their southern edge. While not +quite so extensive as the Pinsk Swamps, they are quite as impassable, +from a military point of view. In the center of this region of bulrushes +and stunted forests is an open sheet of shallow water, Lake Enedjee.</p> + +<p>Nearly all this swamp land is submerged, but here and there are small +islands. For some years the Turkish soldiers garrisoned these islands +during the mild winter months, living on them in rush huts. In the +summer they would withdraw into the near-by foothills. But one summer +several hundred Comitajis descended into the swamps and took possession.</p> + +<p>The stunted forests and the bulrushes here are traversed by a maze of +narrow waterways, just wide enough for a punt to pass along. When the +soldiers returned in the fall, they started out for their islands in +strings of punts. Presently they were met by volleys of bullets that +seemed to come from all directions out of the bulrushes. Some, in their +panic, leaped out into the shallow water and sunk in the mire. The rest +retired.</p> + +<p>For years the Turkish soldiers attempted to drive the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page284" name="page284"></a>(p. 284)</span> +Comitajis out of the swamp. First they surrounded it, watching all +possible landing places, but the outlaws had supplies smuggled in to +them by the peasants. Then the Turks began bombarding with heavy cannon, +which, of course, was futile, since they could not distinguish the +points at which they were firing. And finally they gave up molesting the +Comitajis, who continued making the swamps their headquarters until the +Young Turks came into power. Then, believing that a constitutional +Macedonia was finally to be granted them, all the Comitajis laid down +their arms.</p> + +<p>It is a peculiar fact that Saloniki, one of the largest cities on the +peninsula, with a population considerably over a hundred thousand, +should represent none of the national elements of the country. For +though Bulgars, Turks, Greeks, and Serbs may be found there, an +overwhelming majority, nearly 90,000 of the people, are Spanish Jews.</p> + +<p>Walking along the streets, it would be easy to imagine oneself in Spain +or in Mexico; on all sides the shouts of peddlers, the cries of cabmen, +the conversation of pedestrians, are in Spanish. With a knowledge of +that language the stranger may make his way about as easily as in his +own native country. These are the descendants of the Jews who were +driven out of Spain by Torquemada and his Spanish Inquisition and were +so hospitably received by the Sultan of Turkey.</p> + +<p>Saloniki, where we shall witness severe battles, is situated at the head +of the gulf by the same name, an inlet of the Ægean Sea. It is a +well-fortified city, built on the water's edge, but surrounding it is +high land commanding the surrounding country. Added to that, the swamp +region is another protection from an enemy coming from inland. Its +seaward forts, however, are, or were, obsolete and would probably +crumble before the fire of modern naval guns.</p> + +<p>Stretching down the eastern shore of the Gulf is a peninsula on which is +the famous Mt. Athos, that very peculiar community of celibate monks. +Here, in the Holy Mountain, as the Slavs call it, there are monasteries +representing all the various denominations of the Greek Orthodox Church: +Greek, Bulgarian, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page285" name="page285"></a>(p. 285)</span> Serbian, and Russian, each swarming with +hundreds of monks, who pass their time in idleness. Not only are women +forbidden to enter this domain, but even female dogs or cats are kept +out.</p> + +<p>Across this upper end of the Ægean, from Mt. Athos, is the Bulgarian +port, Dedeagatch, to which runs a branch of the main railway from Sofia +to Constantinople. The country here is low and swampy, the port itself +being little more than a boat landing.</p> + +<p>Just below this point, across the Gulf of Saros, is the peninsula of +Gallipoli, where a critical phase of the war was fought. It is somewhat +like the blade of a scimitar, covering the entrance to the Sea of +Marmora. Between this strip of land and the coast of Asia Minor is a +narrow strait, the outer mouth of which is called the Dardanelles, the +inner gateway being the famous Hellespont. Here it was that Xerxes +crossed over on a bridge of boats at the head of his Persian army to +invade Greece, only to meet disaster at Thermopylæ, and here Alexander +of Macedonia crossed over to begin his march of conquest which was to +extend his power as far as India. And about this narrow strait is +centered the ancient Greek myth about Hero and Leander, which inspired +Byron to swim across from Asia to Europe.</p> + +<p>How well the Turks have fortified this approach to their capital is well +enough indicated in the story of the operations of the allied fleets in +their attempt to force the passage.</p> + +<p>From the Hellespont to Constantinople is a sail of forty miles, along a +coast steep and rugged, destitute of any harbor or even a beach where a +boat might land. Nor is there a more beautiful sight than that which is +presented on approaching the Turkish capital from this direction, +especially of an early morning. Against the dawn in the East are +silhouetted the minarets and domes and the palace roofs of the city; +then, as the light increases, the white buildings are distinguished more +clearly through a purple mist that rises from the waters, until the ship +enters the Bosphorus, gliding past the shipping and the boat traffic +along the shore of the harbor. The beauties of the Bosphorus have been +described in every book of travel that has ever included this section of +the world in its descriptions: it is undoubtedly <span class="pagenum"><a id="page286" name="page286"></a>(p. 286)</span> the most +beautiful waterway that may be found in any country.</p> + +<p>Emerging into the Black Sea from the Bosphorus, one strikes the +Bulgarian coast not far above that neck of land on which Constantinople +is built. Along this stretch of coast up to the mouth of the Danube +there are two harbors, Varna and Burgas. Each is terminus of a branch +railroad leading off from the Nish-Sofia-Constantinople line. Behind +Burgas lie the level tracts of Eastern Rumelia, or Thrace, as that part +of the country is still called. But Varna is above the point where the +Balkan Range strikes the coast, all of which is steep and rocky.</p> + +<p>Above Varna begins the Delta of the Danube, up which steamers and +heavily laden barges sail continuously, but here also begins the neutral +territory of Rumania, the Dobruja, the richest section of the Danube +basin, which was ceded to Rumania by Bulgaria after the Second Balkan +War.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XLV</h2> + +<p class="title">THE CAUCASUS—THE BARRED DOOR</p> + + +<p>We now come to that section of the eastern theatre of the war which +received the least extended notice in printed reports—the barred +doorway between Europe and Asia,—the Caucasus. Not because the fighting +there was less furious, but because the region was less accessible to +war correspondents. The struggle was in fact quite as bloody and even +more savage and barbarous here than elsewhere, for on this front Russ +meets Turk, Christian meets Moslem, and where they grapple the veneer of +chivalry blisters off.</p> + +<p>Here again, as in Galicia, we come to a natural frontier, not only +between two races, but between two continents. For here, crossing the +isthmus between the Black Sea and the Caspian, stretches a mountain +range over seven hundred miles in length, rising abruptly out of the +plains on either side. These are the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page287" name="page287"></a>(p. 287)</span> Caucasus Mountains, +forming the boundary between Europe and Asia.</p> + +<p>The higher and central part of the range (which averages only from sixty +to seventy miles in width) is formed of parallel ridges, not separated +by deep and wide valleys, but remarkably connected by elevated plateaus, +which are traversed by narrow fissures of extreme depth. The highest +peaks are in the most central chain; Mt. Elburz, attaining an elevation +of 18,000 feet above the sea, while Mt. Kasbeck reaches a height of more +than 16,000 feet, and several other peaks rise above the line of +perpetual snow. The outlying spurs and foothills of this chain of lofty +mountains are of less extent and importance than those of almost any +other mountain range of similar magnitude, subsiding, as they do, until +they are only 200 feet high along the shores of the Black Sea. Some +parts are almost entirely bare, but other parts are densely wooded and +the secondary ranges near the Black Sea are covered by magnificent +forests of oak, beech, ash, maple, and walnut.</p> + +<p>This range is an almost impassable wall across the narrow isthmus which +joins Europe and Asia, and the Gorge of Dariel is the gateway in this +wall through which have come almost all the migrating races that have +peopled the continent of Europe. As is well known, the white peoples of +Europe have been classified as the Caucasian race, because they were all +supposed to have passed through this gateway originally. Apparently each +of these oncoming waves of barbaric humanity, bursting through the great +gateway, must have left behind some few remnants of their volume, for +nowhere in the world, in so limited an area, is there such a diversity +and mixture of peoples. In the words of one writer, who speaks with +authority on this region, the Caucasus is "an ethnological museum where +the invaders of Europe, as they traveled westward to be manufactured +into nations, left behind samples of themselves in their raw condition."</p> + +<p>Here may be found the Georgians, who so long championed the Cross +against the Crescent, the wild Lesghians from the highlands of +Daghestan; the Circassians, famed for the beauty of their women; +Suanetians, Ossets, Abkhasians, Mingrelians, not <span class="pagenum"><a id="page288" name="page288"></a>(p. 288)</span> to enumerate +dozens of other tribes and races, each speaking its own tongue. It is +said that over a hundred languages are spoken throughout this region; +seventy in the city of Tiflis alone.</p> + +<p>The scenery of the mountains themselves is unparalleled in grandeur +except by the Himalayas and offers many a virgin peak to the ambitious +mountain climber. Here may be found the ibex, the stag, the wild boar, +the wild bull and an infinite variety of feathered game. The animal life +of the mountains has, in fact, become more abundant of late years on +account of the high charges for hunting licenses fixed by the Russian +Government. Wolves are so plentiful that in severe winters they descend +to the lowlands in great packs and rob the flocks before the very eyes +of the shepherds.</p> + +<p>The most important mineral resources of the region are the oil wells; +here, in fact, around Batum, are situated some of the most important oil +fields in the world. Of manganese ore, an essential of the steel +industry, the Caucasus furnishes half of the world's supply, which is +exported from the two ports of Poti and Batum. Its mineral wealth seems +to be practically unlimited, copper, zinc, iron, tin, and many other +metals being found throughout the region, in most cases in exceedingly +rich deposits. The agricultural resources are not so important, +especially from a military point of view, though vast quantities of +sheep are raised in the highlands in the spring and summer, the flocks +being driven down into the plains to the south in winter.</p> + +<p>One of the outstanding features of Russian occupation is the great +Georgian military road which has been built across the mountains of +recent years and maintained by the Government. Its engineering is +masterly; here and there it passes close to or under vast overhanging +lumps of mountainside. Everywhere the greatest care has been taken of +this most important military highway, Russia's avenue into that country +she coveted and fought for so long. Beginning at Vladikavkaz, it runs +through Balta, Lars, thence through the famous Gorge of Dariel, the +"Circassian Gates," the dark and awful defile between Europe and Asia. +The gorge is what the geologists call a "fault," for it is not really a +pass over the mountain chain, but a rent clear across <span class="pagenum"><a id="page289" name="page289"></a>(p. 289)</span> it. +Seventy years ago it was almost impassable for avalanches or the sudden +outbursts of pent-up glacial streams swept it from end to end, but the +Russians have spent over $20,000,000 on it and made it safe. In 1877, +during the Russo-Turkish War, nearly all the troops and stores for +carrying the war into Turkey and Asia came by this road.</p> + +<p>Its importance has since been lessened to a certain degree, for there is +now direct railway communication from Moscow to Baku, at one end of the +Trans-Caucasian Railway, and therefore to Kars itself, via Tiflis; and +equally from Batum to Kars at the other end to which military steamers +can bring troops and supplies from Odessa and Novorossik in the Black +Sea.</p> + +<p>The most important city in this region is Tiflis, the "city of seventy +languages." It may, indeed, be called the modern Babel. As seen from the +mountains, it lies at the bottom of a brown, treeless valley, between +steep hills, on either side of the River Kura.</p> + +<p>It is a point of great importance to modern Russia. It forms, to begin +with, the end of the great military road across the mountains which, in +spite of the railways, is still the quickest way to Europe for an army +as well as for travelers, and all the mails come over it by express +coaches. From Tiflis a railway runs to Kars, a strong frontier on the +Persian frontier.</p> + +<p>Tiflis has been much developed under the Russian Government. In the +modern section of the city the streets are wide and paved and lighted by +electricity and the stores are large and handsome while electric +railways run in all directions. In the older parts of the city, however, +the houses remain as they were built centuries ago, divided out into the +many quarters devoted to the residences of the many races and +nationalities that compose the population of Tiflis. Between most of +them is bitter enmity and prejudice, even among those of the two great +religious faiths, Christians and Mohammedans. It is this diversity of +interests, which extends throughout all the section down into Persia, +which has so complicated the situation on this front. For not only are +the two military forces fighting here, but wherever governmental +authority is momentarily relaxed, there these mutual animosities +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page290" name="page290"></a>(p. 290)</span> flare up into active expression and the most barbarous +features of warfare take place, such as the massacres of the Armenians +by the Mohammedans. Neither Turkey nor Russia has been especially eager +to suppress these bitter feuds, even in time of peace. In time of war +there is nothing to restrain them, and the whole region is swept by +carnage infinitely more hideous than legitimate warfare.</p> + +<p>We have now passed over the entire theatre of the battles on the Eastern +frontiers of the war in Europe. The battle grounds are familiar to us. +In the succeeding chapters we will follow the armies over this +war-ridden dominion and watch the battle lines as they move through the +war to its decisive conclusion.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page291" name="page291"></a>(p. 291)</span> PART IV—THE AUSTRO-SERBIAN CAMPAIGN</h2> + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XLVI</h2> + +<p class="title">SERBIA'S SITUATION AND RESOURCES</p> + + +<p>The first great campaign on the southeastern battle grounds of the Great +War began on July 27, 1914, when the Austrian troops undertook their +first invasion of Serbia. They crossed the Serbian border at Mitrovitza, +about fifty miles northwest of Belgrade, driving the Serbians before +them. The first real hostilities of the war opened with the bombardment +of Belgrade by the Austrians on July 29, 1914—six days before the +beginning of the campaigns on the western battle fields.</p> + +<p>We are now familiar with the theatre of war as described in the +preceding chapters, and will now follow the first Austrian armies into +Serbia.</p> + +<p>A stubborn fight excites the admiration of all observers, regardless of +the moral qualities of the combatants. So, wherever our sympathies may +lie, considering the war as a whole, there can be no doubt that the +defense which the Serbians made against the first efforts of the +Austrians to invade their country will stand out in the early history of +the war as one of the most brilliant episodes of that period of the +general struggle. Like a mighty tidal wave from the ocean the Austrian +hosts swept over the Serbian frontier in three furious successive +onslaughts, only to be beaten back each time. Naturally, there were +material and moral causes, aside from the mere valor of the Serbians, +which combined to create this disaster for the Austrian forces, but +enough of the human element enters into the military <span class="pagenum"><a id="page292" name="page292"></a>(p. 292)</span> +activities of these campaigns to make them easily the most picturesque +of the early period of the war.</p> + +<p>Before entering into a description of the actual events in 1914, it is +well to consider the forces engaged. From a material point of view the +Serbians entered into these campaigns greatly handicapped. They had +lately been through two wars. In the First Balkan War they had not, it +is true, been severely tested; the weight of the fighting had been borne +by the Bulgarians in Thrace. The real test, and the great losses, came +only with the second war, when the Serbian army threw every fiber of its +strength against the Bulgarians in the Battle of the Bregalnitza, one of +the most stubborn struggles in military history. The result was a +Serbian victory, but it was very far from being a decisive and +conclusive victory. The Bulgarians were forced back some fifteen miles +into their own territory, but had it not been for the intervention of +Rumania there can be no doubt that the Serbs would have entered Sofia. +Here it was that the Serbians lost 7,000 killed and 30,000 wounded of +their best men, as against 5,000 killed and 18,000 wounded in the whole +war with Turkey; a total loss that was bound to be felt a few months +later when the struggle was to be against so powerful an adversary as +Austria-Hungary. The two previous wars had, without exaggeration, +deprived the Serbian fighting forces of one-tenth their number—a tenth +that was of the very best of first-line troops.</p> + +<a id="img022" name="img022"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/img022.jpg"> +<img src="images/img022tb.jpg" width="500" height="319" alt="" title=""></a> +<p>Pictorial Map of the Balkans.</p> +</div> + +<p>Added to this was another serious handicap, possibly even more serious. +Serbia had, indeed, emerged victorious from the two wars, with a large +stretch of conquered territory at her backdoor. But this acquired +territory, practically all of Macedonia that had not gone to Greece, was +peopled by Serbs. For twenty-five years these Macedonians had been +organized into revolutionary fighting bands, the "Macedonian Committee" +for the liberation of Macedonia and Albania from the Turks, and had +struggled, not only against the Turks, but against foreign armed bands +of propagandists. Some eight years subsequently to the foundation of the +Macedonian Committee of native origin, the Bulgars founded in 1893 their +committee which was called the Macedo-Adrianople <span class="pagenum"><a id="page294" name="page294"></a>(p. 294)</span> Committee. +During the First Balkan War these experienced guerrilla fighters were +valuable allies to the Serbian forces operating against the Turks.</p> + +<p>But even before the First Balkan War the Serbians had very distinctly +given the Macedonians to understand that they were to remain Serbian +subjects. This action on their part had had not a little to do with +rousing the Bulgarians to precipitate the Second Balkan War. And when +finally Serbia conquered all this territory, confirmed to her down to +Doiran by the treaty of Bucharest, King Ferdinand of Bulgaria began at +once a fiery anti-Serb propaganda throughout the world, and took +measures through provocatory agents and Bulgar bands crossing from +Bulgaria into Macedonia to create disturbances.</p> + +<p>When the Great War broke out in July, 1914, this Bulgarian activity in +Serb Macedonia grew more intense. Thus it was that when the Austrians +attacked the Serbians on their front the Serbians had still to detach +enough of their forces to guard the Serbo-Bulgar border to prevent the +crossing into Serb Macedonia of Bulgar bands. And added to this was the +danger from Bulgaria herself. The Serbians knew that the opportune +moment had only to come and Bulgaria, too, would hurl herself on the +Serbian eastern flank. Thus another large percentage of the Serbian +fighting forces had also to be stationed along the Bulgarian frontier to +guard against possible attack from that quarter.</p> + +<p>Offsetting these handicaps, however, and more than equalizing them, was +the moral strength of the Serbian fighting units. They had just emerged +through two victorious wars; they had triumphed so completely that there +was small wonder if the Serbian farmers had come to believe themselves +invincible and their leaders infallible. Practically every man in the +Serbian army was a seasoned veteran; he had had not only his baptism of +fire, but he had been through some of the bloodiest battles of modern +times. He had got over his first fright; he was in that state of mind +where danger and bloodshed no longer inspired either fear or horror. And +even the warlike savage trembles on entering his first battle. Finally, +he was now defending <span class="pagenum"><a id="page295" name="page295"></a>(p. 295)</span> his country, his home, his very fireside +and his family against foreign invasion. And it is generally admitted +that a man fighting in that situation is equal to two invaders, all +other things being equal.</p> + +<p>The Serb army opposing the Austrian invasions was composed of ten +divisions of the First Ban and five divisions of the Second Ban. Five of +the divisions of the First Ban and the five of the Second came from the +kingdom as it was prior to the two Balkan wars, but the second five +divisions of the First Ban were new creations recruited from Serb +Macedonia.</p> + +<p>The principles on which the organization of the Serbian army was based +were very simple. The former kingdom was divided into five territorial +divisional districts—Nish, Valievo, Belgrade, Kragujevatz, and +Zaitchar. Each of these territorial divisional districts was subdivided +into four regimental recruiting districts, each of which provided one +infantry regiment of four battalions and one depot battalion. The +battalion numbered about a thousand men, so that the war strength of the +divisional infantry amounted to, about 16,000 men. Attached to each +division was a regiment of artillery, consisting of three groups of +three 6-gun batteries; in all, 54 guns. The divisional cavalry, existing +only in war time, consisted of a regiment of four squadrons, from men +and horses previously registered. To each division was also attached its +own technical and administrative units, engineers, and supply column, +and its total strength amounted to 23,000 officers and men of first-line +troops.</p> + +<p>In addition to these five divisions of the First Ban, there was also a +regiment of mountain artillery, made up of six batteries, six howitzer +batteries and two battalions of fortress artillery. Then there was a +separate cavalry division composed of two brigades, each of two +regiments. Its war strength was 80 officers and 3,200 men. Attached to +the cavalry division were two horse artillery batteries, of eight guns +each. All told, this first-line army numbered about 200,000, with about +5,200 sabers and 330 guns.</p> + +<a id="img023" name="img023"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/img023.jpg"> +<img src="images/img023tb.jpg" width="500" height="320" alt="" title=""></a> +<p>Serbian and Austrian Invasions.</p> +</div> + +<p>The Second Ban, or reserve, much inferior in armament to the first line, +brought the strength up to about 280,000 men. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page297" name="page297"></a>(p. 297)</span> But this figure +is probably an underestimate. Volunteers were enrolled in immense +numbers. Some of them were men who had been exempted in the first +conscription; others were Serbs from Austrian territory. The United +States sent back thousands of Austrian and Macedonian Serbs who had +emigrated there. It is probable, therefore, that the total strength of +the Serbian forces shortly after the war broke out was at least 280,000, +if not a trifle more. To this must be added the Montenegrin army which, +though operating in a separate field, contributed its share in driving +the Austrians back; another 40,000 men of first-class fighting ability +and experience.</p> + +<p>Finally, there was the third reserve, another 50,000 men, but they could +be used for fighting only in the gravest emergency.</p> + +<p>The infantry of the First Ban was armed with excellent Mauser rifles, +caliber 7 mm., model 1899. The Second Ban carried a Mauser, the old +single loader, to which a magazine was fitted in the Serbian arsenals; +while the Third Ban had the old single-loader Berdan rifle. The machine +gun carried was the Maxim, of the same caliber as the new Mauser.</p> + +<p>In artillery the Serbians were perhaps not so well off. Their cannons +had seen a great deal of service in the Balkan wars, and the larger a +piece of artillery the more limited is the number of rounds it can fire. +It is extremely doubtful that there had been time to replace many of +these worn-out pieces.</p> + +<p>The field gun was of French make; it was a 3-inch quick firer with a +maximum range for shrapnel of 6,000 yards, a little over 3-½ miles. +The Second Ban was armed with old De Bange guns of 8 cm. caliber. The +heavy guns, which had done much service outside Adrianople, were of +Creuzot make, and included 24 howitzers of 15 cm. and some mortars of 24 +cm. As for the aviation wing, there was none.</p> + +<p>The Serbian army was under the superior command of the Chief of the +General Staff, Voivode (Field Marshal) Putnik. Unlike his younger +colleagues, his military education was entirely a home product; he had +never studied abroad. His father was one of those Serbs born on Austrian +soil; he had emigrated from Hungary to Serbia in the early forties where +he had followed <span class="pagenum"><a id="page298" name="page298"></a>(p. 298)</span> the vocation of school-teacher. In 1847 the +future general was born. After passing through the elementary schools, +young Putnik entered the military academy at Belgrade. He had already +attained a commission when the war of 1876 with Turkey broke out, +through which he served as a captain of infantry. His next experience +was in the unfortunate war with Bulgaria, in 1885, in which the Serbians +were beaten after a three days' battle. At the outbreak of the war with +Turkey, in 1912, General Putnik was made head of the army and received +the grade of voivode (field marshal), being the first Serbian to enjoy +that distinction. The grade of field marshal was created in the Serbian +army during the First Balkan War.</p> + +<p>With him worked Colonel Pavlovitch, the son of a farmer, who had won a +series of scholarships, enabling him to study in Berlin. He had directed +the military operations in the field against Turkey and Bulgaria, and he +was to do the same thing under his old chief against the Austrians.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XLVII</h2> + +<p class="title">AUSTRIA'S STRENGTH AND STRATEGY</p> + + +<p>Let us now review the Austrian forces that participated in the invasions +of Serbia. In number they were practically unlimited, at least they far +outnumbered the Serbian forces that met them in the field. Their +armament was of the best and their equipment as complete as boundless +resources could make it. They were, however, partly made up of the +peoples of the Slavic provinces of Austria—Bohemians, Croatians, +Dalmatians, and Bosnians. Naturally there could be but little enthusiasm +in their attacks on their brother Slavs, and while there are many mutual +animosities between these various branches of the Slavic race, such +feelings are, at any rate, secondary to the general dislike of the +"Schwabs," as the German-Austrians are called, and the Magyars. Possibly +this had much to do with the Austrian <span class="pagenum"><a id="page299" name="page299"></a>(p. 299)</span> defeats. The Hungarian, +or Magyar, regiments were probably in the majority. But the Magyars from +the interior of Hungary have no special reason to hate the Serbians, +and, aside from that, they were attacking on foreign soil.</p> + +<p>At the head of the Austrian campaigns against Serbia was General +Potiorek, generally described as a textbook strategist. But just how +much his failures were due to his own inefficiency and how much to the +inefficiency of those under him will probably never be determined; he +had in the end to suffer for both.</p> + +<p>These were the two great contending forces that were set in motion by +the departure of Baron Giesl, the Austro-Hungarian Minister, from +Belgrade, on July 25, 1914. On the same day the Prince Regent Alexander +signed a decree ordering the general mobilization of the Serbian army. +Three days later, on July 28, 1914, Austria declared war. By that time +Serbia was in the midst of her mobilization.</p> + +<p>That the Austrians, who had the advantage of having taken the +initiative, and who had presumably chosen their own time for the opening +of hostilities, did not immediately take full advantage of their +favorable situation has caused much surprise among impartial military +critics. On the same day that they declared war they had the opportunity +to hurl their troops across the Danube and take Belgrade with +practically no opposition. Apparently they were not ready; from that +moment the difficulties that would have attended such a movement +increased hourly.</p> + +<p>A force of 20,000 men was raised almost immediately for the defense of +Belgrade. To meet this opposition the Austrians had, on the evening of +the day war was declared, July 18, 1914, only one division concentrated +between Semlin and Pancsova, opposite Belgrade—a force that was hardly +sufficient to take the Serbian capital. Two days later an army corps +would have been needed for the enterprise, for by this time the Serbian +army had begun concentrating considerable numbers within striking +distance of the capital. Thus the first opportunity was lost by the +tardiness of the Austrians to act.</p> + +<p>It is presumed that the reader has already studied the description +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page300" name="page300"></a>(p. 300)</span> of this theatre of the war presented elsewhere in this work. +Aside from that, the movements that follow should only be traced with +the aid of a map. Written words are inadequate to give a concrete +picture of the field of operations.</p> + +<p>The Austrian General Staff realized the difficulties of crossing the +Danube. Its general plan, probably prepared long before, contemplated a +main attack that should begin from another quarter.</p> + +<p>The Austro-Serbian frontier, almost 340 miles in extent, is formed on +the north by the Save as well as by the Danube, and on the east and +southeast by the Drina River. These two smaller streams abound in +convenient fords, especially in summer. To many of these points on the +northeastern frontier Austria had already constructed strategic +railways. Moreover, the Austrian territory throughout this section is so +mountainous and well timbered that large forces of troops could be well +screened from observation, whereas the country opposite Belgrade is flat +and bare.</p> + +<p>It was from this direction that the Serbian General Staff expected the +first advance of the enemy. And yet there were dozens of other points +where an attack in force was possible. Each must be covered with a force +at least strong enough to hold the enemy back long enough to enable the +forces stationed at the other points to come up to support. Here was the +great advantage that the Austrians had to begin with; an advantage which +the attacking army always enjoys. The attacking general alone knows +where the first battle shall be fought.</p> + +<p>The Serbians, therefore, could not count on meeting the Austrians in +full force before they could enter Serbian territory. They realized that +they must give way at the first contact; that the Austrians would +undoubtedly advance quite some distance within Serbian territory before +enough Serbian forces could be brought up against them to make the +opposition effective.</p> + +<p>Realizing this, it was decided to place fairly strong advance guards at +all probable points of invasion with orders to resist as long as +possible; until, in fact, defensive tactics could be <span class="pagenum"><a id="page301" name="page301"></a>(p. 301)</span> adapted +to the situation and the main Serbian army could be brought up to offer +battle.</p> + +<p>However, two points stood out as the most probable. These were the two +already mentioned; the north, along the line from Obrenovatz to Belgrade +and to Semendria; or, the front Obrenovatz-Ratza-Losnitza-Liubovia. The +first possibility had the advantage to the Austrians of offering the +shortest route to the center of the country—the Morava Valley, their +natural objective. But it also necessitated a difficult crossing of the +Danube, which would have had to be preceded by the building of pontoon +bridges. This would have given the Serbians time to move up their main +forces. The second alternative, an invasion from the east, would have +entailed a longer journey, but the advantage of natural covering and +easy crossing made it a sounder plan.</p> + +<p>On July 28, 1914, the Serbians concentrated their forces in anticipation +of either event. The outpost forces were stationed at or near Losnitza, +Shabatz, Obrenovatz, Belgrade, Semendria, Pozarevatz and Gradishte. But +their principal armies were centrally grouped along the line +Palanka-Arangelovatz-Lazarevatz, while weaker, though important, +detachments were stationed in the vicinity of Valievo, a branch railroad +terminus, and Uzitze. This narrowed the field down to such limits that +it was possible to march the troops from point to point, while the few +railway facilities available were utilized for food and ammunition +supplies.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XLVIII</h2> + +<p class="title">AUSTRIAN SUCCESSES</p> + + +<p>On the morning of July 29, 1914, the day after war had been declared, +the residents of Belgrade were startled by a deep roar, followed by the +whistling shriek of a huge body, hurtling through the air, and a shell +burst over the battlements of the old Turkish citadel, doing no damage. +Immediately there came another deep shock; the Serbian guns were +responding. Thence on <span class="pagenum"><a id="page302" name="page302"></a>(p. 302)</span> the cannonading along the Danube front +continued for week after week, with only now and then a lull.</p> + +<p>The Austrian batteries bombarded not only Belgrade, but Semendria, +Gradishte and a number of other points along the river bank. Next they +were seen building a pontoon bridge out to one of the little islands in +the river, opposite the city and barges were towed alongside the +landings on the opposite shore, presently to be crowded with black +masses of Austrian troops. Naturally, the Serbian gunners made these +objects the targets of their fire. But these were mere bluffs, such +feints as the skilled boxer makes when he wants to get behind the guard +of his opponent. If anything, these demonstrations only served to deepen +the conviction of General Putnik that the real danger was not from this +quarter.</p> + +<p>But where was the first great blow to strike? Naturally, not only the +General Staff, but the whole army and population waited in deep anxiety. +This tension lasted over the last days of July, into the first week of +August, 1914.</p> + +<p>Then, on August 6, 1914, some Bosnian peasants, Serbs, appeared and +reported that they had seen great bodies of soldiers moving along the +mountain roads toward Syrmia, in northeastern Bosnia. Two days later, +early in the morning, two Austrian aeroplanes whirred over the River +Save and circled over Krupanie, Shabatz and Valievo. The last doubts +were then dispelled; the attack was coming from the east.</p> + +<p>And finally, on August 12, 1914, the message flashed over the wires that +the outposts had seen boats in movement, full of soldiers, behind an +island on the Drina, opposite Loznitza. Near that town, and in fact +along the whole lower course of the Drina, the river has frequently +changed its channel, thus cutting out numerous small islands, which +would serve as a screen to the movements of troops contemplating a +crossing. Pontoon bridges could be built on the farther side of almost +any of these islands without being observed from the other shore. This +was exactly what the Austrians were doing.</p> + +<a id="img024" name="img024"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/img024.jpg" width="300" height="481" alt="" title=""> +<p>Serbian Infantrymen on their Way to the Front.</p> +</div> + +<p>Suddenly, on August 12, 1914, there came a burst of rifle fire and the +boom of heavy field guns, and a fleet of barges, under cover <span class="pagenum"><a id="page303" name="page303"></a>(p. 303)</span> +of this fire, emerged from around both ends of one of these islands and +made for the Serbian shore. The two battalions of Third Reserve +Serbians, stationed there as an outpost, trained their old De Bange +field guns, of which they had two batteries, on the oncoming swarms and +began firing. But the Austrian fire became heavier and heavier; a blast +of steel pellets and shells swept through the cornfields and the plum +orchards, tearing through the streets of the village and crumpling up +the houses. The breastworks of the small Serbian detachment were +literally the center of a continuous explosion of shells.</p> + +<p>When a full tenth of their number lay dead or disabled, the Serbians +began retiring across the cornfields and up the slopes leading to the +heights behind Losnitza. There, on higher ground, which offered more +effective shelter, they made a determined stand and continued their fire +on the Austrian masses.</p> + +<p>Having crossed the river, the Austrians threw up defensive breastworks +and dug elaborate trenches, thus fortifying their crossing. Next they +built a pontoon bridge, and then the main Austrian army poured across; a +whole army corps and two divisions of a second.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, on the same day, August 12, 1914, a similar event was +happening at Shabatz, on the Save, where that river takes a sharp +southward turn and then swings up again before joining the Danube at +Belgrade. Here the country is a level plain, really the southern limit +of the great plain which stretches up to the Danube, past Belgrade and +so into Hungary. Here, too, the Austrians screened themselves behind an +island in the river, then hurled their forces across, driving the feeble +detachment of Third Reserve Serbian troops back across the plain up into +the hills lying to the southeast of Shabatz. Then the advance guard of +the Austrian Fourth Army occupied the town, strongly fortified it and +built a pontoon bridge across the river from their railroad terminus at +Klenak.</p> + +<p>Further passages of a similar nature were forced that day, August 12, +1914, at other points by smaller forces; one at Zvornik and another at +Liubovia. In addition the Austrians also threw bridges across the river +at Amajlia and Branjevo. Thus <span class="pagenum"><a id="page304" name="page304"></a>(p. 304)</span> it will be seen that the +invasion covered a front of considerably over a hundred miles and that +six strong columns of the enemy had crossed, all of which naturally +converged on Valievo. For Valievo was the terminus of a small, single +track railroad which joined the main line at Mladenovatz. Thus the +Austrians would have a convenient side door open into the heart of +Serbia which was, of course, their main objective. To this Belgrade was +merely incidental. With this line of transport and communication in +Austrian hands, Belgrade would fall of itself.</p> + +<p>From Losnitza, where the main column of Austrians crossed the Drina to +Valievo, runs the River Jadar, along a level valley, which narrows as it +nears Valievo. On the left-hand side of the Jadar Valley rise the +southern slopes of the Tzer Mountains, covered with cornfields, prune +orchards, with here and there a stretch of thick timber. Continuing +southward, slightly to the eastward, up the Jadar Valley another range +rises, slightly smaller than the Tzer Mountains, forming a smaller +valley which branches off eastward. Along this runs the River Leshnitza, +parallel with the Jadar until it makes an independent junction with the +Drina. Still farther up the valley the foothills of the Iverak ridges +are lost in a series of fairly important summits which closely flank the +Jadar River.</p> + +<p>To the south of the Jadar River the valley stretches into a rolling +plain, which rises abruptly into the giant Guchevo Mountains. It is this +range, converging with the Tzer and Iverak Mountains toward Valievo, and +forming the plain of the Jadar Valley, which was presently to become the +center of the first great battle between the Serbians and Austrians.</p> + +<p>A military movement against Valievo, therefore, demanded complete +possession of these two ridges, which overlooked the line of march. This +the Austrians knew well enough, even before the first of their troops +had crossed the Drina. As is well known, the best maps, not only of +Serbia but of all the Balkan countries, have been made by Austrian +engineers. There was probably not a spur, not a fissure, certainly not a +trail, of these mountains that had not been carefully surveyed and +measured by engineers of the Austrian staff.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page305" name="page305"></a>(p. 305)</span> The Austrians knew the country they were invading quite as well +as did the native Serbians. All through it may be said that it was not +through want of accurate knowledge that the Austrians finally met +disaster. Rather was it because they misjudged the relative values of +their facts. And one of their first mistakes was in overestimating the +effects of the two Balkan Wars on the efficiency of the Serbian army. +First of all, as was obvious from the leisureliness with which they +proceeded to occupy the two mountain chains in question, that they +vastly misjudged the capacity of the Serbian troops to make rapid +movements. Even as the first shots were being fired across the Drina at +Losnitza, the Serbian forces were on the move, westward. Two army corps +were at once rushed toward the Valley of the Jadar; part of a third was +sent to block the advance of the Austrians from Shabatz. Meanwhile the +Austrians took their time. For two days they busied themselves +fortifying the bridge at Losnitza.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER XLIX</h2> + +<p class="title">THE GREAT BATTLES BEGIN</p> + + +<p>On August 14, 1914, began the first battle of the Serbian campaign. The +Austrians proceeded to storm the heights from which the small outpost +detachments had all the time been bombarding them with its old-fashioned +guns. The Serbians, though few in number, made a desperate resistance. +It was their business to hold back the enemy as long as possible, even +until the reenforcements should arrive.</p> + +<p>Early in the morning of August 14, 1914, the Austrians advanced in a +great mass, then charged up the hillsides toward the Serbian position. +The Serbians waited until they were well up the steep slopes and the +rush of the enemy had subsided to a more toilsome climb. Then they sent +down volley after volley from every available weapon.</p> + +<p>The Austrian soldiers, who had until then never experienced <span class="pagenum"><a id="page306" name="page306"></a>(p. 306)</span> +anything more warlike than field maneuvers, lost their nerves; the first +line broke and ran at the first fire. However, that was likely to happen +to any troops under fire for the first time. Down in the plain they +formed again, and again they swept up the slopes. This time they did not +turn at the first volley. On they came, with fixed bayonets. And +presently the first line reached the top of the heights, and the +fighting was hand-to-hand. For a moment the Serbians, overwhelmed by +numbers, were on the point of fleeing. But these same men had been +through many a hand-to-hand encounter with both Turks and Bulgars; that +experience stood them in good stead. And again they swept back the +attacking masses of Austria-Hungary.</p> + +<p>By evening, August 14, 1914, the Austrians had not yet taken the +heights. But the Serbians, most of them middle-aged and old men, had +spent their vitality. As the dark night lowered over the scene, they +fell back, until, at Jarebitze, they met the first advance guards of the +oncoming Serbian main army. And here they halted, and the united forces +proceeded to dig a trench on a ten-mile front, extending from north to +south, through the town and clear across the Jadar Valley. Nor did the +Austrians then attempt to follow up this first success. Thus the +Serbians were allowed to intrench themselves unmolested until, next day, +August 15, 1914, they were joined by the balance of their forces.</p> + +<p>Now, by studying the map, it will be seen at a glance that it was only +the Tzer Mountains which separated the Austrian column crossing the +Drina at Losnitza and the column which had crossed the Save and had +occupied Shabatz. Should the Austrians from over the Drina get +possession of the Tzer ridges, they would thus effect a junction with +the forces in Shabatz, and so form a line that would cut off a large +portion of northwestern Serbia. Aside from that, they would have a solid +front. But should the Serbians possess themselves of the Tzer ridges +first, then they would have driven a wedge in between their two main +forces. This would make it difficult for either to advance, for then +they would be exposing a flank to the enemy, who would also have a great +advantage in position. Moreover, the Serbians would be in a position to +turn immediately toward <span class="pagenum"><a id="page307" name="page307"></a>(p. 307)</span> either of the Austrians' columns, +whichever might need most attention.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, the Serbian cavalry had made a reconnaissance toward Shabatz. +They immediately sent back reports of overwhelming forces occupying the +town. It was out of the question to make any attack there for the +present.</p> + +<p>It was now learned, for the first time, that another of the enemy's +columns had crossed the Drina far down in the south, and was marching on +Krupanie, just below the Guchevo Mountains and on the way to the upper +part of the Jadar Valley. However, as the first report seemed to +indicate that this was only a minor force, a small force of third +reserve men was detached to hold this force back and prevent its +entrance into the main field of operations.</p> + +<p>During the day and night of August 15,1914, the two opposing forces were +moving into position for battle: setting the pawns for the game of +strategy that was to be played. The Austrians at Losnitza were advancing +up the mountain slopes and took possession of the Tzer and Iverak +ridges, straddling the Leshnitza Valley.</p> + +<p>Up in Shabatz, Austrian troops were pouring across the pontoon bridges. +A flanking column, coming from the Drina, had arrived at Slepehevitch. +Another force was stationed with its left and center on Krupanie, its +right spread out into the mountains north of Liubovia.</p> + +<p>On the Serbian side the right wing of the Second Army, screened by the +cavalry division, were preparing to cut off the Austrian forces in the +north from their juncture with those advancing along the Tzer ridges; +the center and left was marching on the enemy on the Iverak ridges, in +conjunction with the right of the Third Army, then north of Jarebitze. +The center of the Third held the positions south of Jarebitze, while its +left, split into small detachments, had been directed to oppose the +invasion toward Krupanie and the advance from Liubovia.</p> + +<p>Such were the positions of the various forces as dawn broke brightly on +the morning of August 16, 1914. As the growing light made objects +visible, the extreme right division of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page308" name="page308"></a>(p. 308)</span> Serbian front, +which was creeping northward to cut off Shabatz, discovered a strong +Austrian column moving along the lower spurs of the Tzer Mountains. +Obviously this body was clearing the ground for a general descent of the +forces up along the ridges; a whole army corps. This movement threatened +to become a serious obstacle to the Serbian plan of separating the +Austrians in Shabatz from those farther south. But the situation was +saved by one of those incidents which sometimes stand out above the +savagery of warfare and give to it a touch of grandeur.</p> + +<p>A young artillery officer, Major Djukitch, of the Fourth Artillery +Regiment, asked permission to go out and meet this body of advancing +Austrians with but a single cannon. He would create a diversion which +would give the Serbians time to adapt themselves to the changed +conditions, though the chances were very largely in favor of his losing +his life on this mission. Permission was granted. Calling on volunteers +from his command, he advanced with his single cannon and took up a +position in the path of the approaching enemy. The moment he opened fire +the Austrians, naturally not realizing that only one cannon was opposing +them, and believing that a large Serbian force had surprised them, broke +into a panic. Half an hour after he had opened fire, the Serbian field +commander sent a messenger to Major Djukitch, ordering him to retire. In +reply he sent a message to the commander, describing the confusion he +had created in the Austrian ranks, and instead of retiring, he asked for +reenforcements. The balance of his own battery, a detachment of +infantry, and a cavalry division was sent him. The result was that the +Austrian column was temporarily driven back into the mountains. Hastily +re-forming, the Austrians now massed along a line extending from +Belikamen to Radlovatz, while the Serbians deployed along a front +running from Slatina through Metkovitch to Gusingrob.</p> + +<p>At 11 a. m., August 16, 1914, the two opposing forces opened fire in +earnest, up and down the line. All day the cannon roared and the rifles +and machine guns crackled; now and again the Austrians would shoot forth +from their line a sharp infantry <span class="pagenum"><a id="page309" name="page309"></a>(p. 309)</span> attack, but these were +repulsed, with more and more difficulty as the day advanced, for the +Serbians were much inferior in numbers. Toward evening their situation +became very critical. Yet every part of the line held out desperately, +knowing that reenforcements were being hurried forward from the rear as +fast as men could move.</p> + +<p>And just before dark, along the roads from the eastward, came the +distant cheers from the advancing columns. An officer dashed up on +horseback shouting encouragement to the battered men in the trenches. A +cheer arose, which rolled up and down the line. Again it rose, then, +even before it had died out, with wild yells the Serbians sprang over +their breastworks and swept madly across the intervening space to the +Austrian lines; smashing through cornfields, over rocks, through the +tall grass of orchards. At their heels followed the reenforcing +soldiers, though they had that day marched nearly sixty miles. Over the +Austrian breastworks they surged, like an angry wave from the sea, their +bayonets gleaming in the sunset glow. It was the kind of fighting they +knew best; the kind that both Serbians and Bulgars know best, the kind +they had practiced most.</p> + +<p>Small wonder if the inexperienced peasants from the plains of Hungary, +unused till then to any sight more bloody than a brawl in the village +inn, trembled before this onslaught. Their officers shouted +encouragement and oaths, barely audible above the mad yells of the +Serbians. Nevertheless, they gave way before the gleaming line of +bayonet blades before them. Some few rose to fight, stirred by some +long-submerged instinct generated in the days of Genghis Khan. But the +majority turned and fled, helter-skelter, down the sides of the +mountains toward the valleys, leaving behind guns, ammunition, and +cannon. One regiment, the Hundred and Second, stood its ground and +fought. As a result it was almost completely annihilated. The same fate +befell the Ninety-fourth Regiment. But the majority sought and found +safety in flight. By dark the whole Austrian center was beaten back, +leaving behind great quantities of war material.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page310" name="page310"></a>(p. 310)</span> CHAPTER L</h2> + +<p class="title">FIRST VICTORY OF THE SERBIANS</p> + + +<p>The Serbians had made their first move successfully on that day of +August 16, 1914. More important than this mere preliminary defeat of the +enemy was the fact that the Austrians in Shabatz were now definitely cut +off from any possible juncture with the Austrians in the south. For the +present they were debarred from entering the main field of operations. +This freed the Serbian cavalry for action elsewhere. Meanwhile a portion +of the right wing of the Serbian line was detached to keep the Austrians +inside Shabatz.</p> + +<p>Farther to the south the Serbians were not so decidedly successful. The +center of the Serbian Second Army, that directed against the southern +slopes of the Tzer Mountains and the Iverak ridges, had arrived at +Tekerish at midnight.</p> + +<p>As dawn broke on August 16, 1914, they perceived a strong Austrian +column descending from above, coming in the same direction. +Unfortunately the Serbians were in the midst of bald, rolling foothills, +while the Austrians were up among the tall timber which clothes the +mountain slopes at this point. The Serbians deployed, extending their +line from Bornololye through Parlok to Lisena, centering their artillery +at Kik. The Austrians made the best of their superior position.</p> + +<p>For some hours there was furious firing, then, at about eight o'clock +the Austrian gunners got the range of the Serbian left flank with their +field pieces, which was compelled to fall back. But just then timely +reenforcements arrived from the rear, and the Serbians dug themselves +in. By evening the Serbians had lost over a thousand men, though they +had succeeded in taking 300 prisoners and several machine guns from the +Austrians.</p> + +<p>The left wing of the Second Army had, in the meantime, arrived against +Iverak. That this division was able to arrive at such a timely juncture +was due to its having made a forced march of fifty-two miles over the +mountain roads during the previous day. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page311" name="page311"></a>(p. 311)</span> Yet before dawn on the +morning of August 16, 1914, it was ready to continue its march to +Poporparlok. But then came the news that the Austrians had driven back +the left wing of the Third Army from that position and had occupied it.</p> + +<p>The situation in which this division found itself was by no means clear. +Nothing had been heard from Shabatz. The division operating along the +Tzer ridges had been badly hammered. The Third Army had lost +Poporparlok. The commander decided to stay where he was and simply hold +the ground against any advance of the enemy from Iverak. This division +was, therefore, intrenched along a line from Begluk to Kik, and a strong +advance was thrown out toward Kugovitchi. During the morning this +advance guard made a strong attack against Kugovitchi, drove the +Austrians out, and established themselves there.</p> + +<p>At dawn, August 16, 1914, the left flank of this division, at Begluk, +was shelled by the Austrian artillery, which was followed by infantry +attacks. These were easily repulsed during the day. But then the enemy +was reenforced, and late that night they came on again in great masses. +The Serbians allowed them to almost reach their trenches: then, emptying +the magazines of their rifles at them, they piled themselves over their +breastworks and into them with bayonets and hand bombs. This was too +much for the Austrians; they fled in wild disorder.</p> + +<p>Least encouraging was the experience of the Serbian Third Army, which +was defending the territory south of the Iverak Mountains. Here the +Austrians developed a vigorous and persistent offensive, hoping to turn +the Serbian left and thus capture the road to Valievo.</p> + +<p>The attack on the positions at Jarebitze commenced at daybreak on August +16, 1914. Here the Serbians held good ground: rocky summits, but so +limited in extent that there was room only for a few companies at a +time. On the other hand the ground before them was broken up into +hollows screened by growing corn. This enabled the Austrians to deploy +their lines beyond the Serbian flanks unseen. They did execute just such +a movement, and attempted to circle around toward the Serbian rear.</p> + +<p>At the same time the Serbians here were attacked from in <span class="pagenum"><a id="page312" name="page312"></a>(p. 312)</span> front +by another hostile column which had come from across the plain on the +south side of the Jadar valley, where hollows, sunken roads, and fields +of corn again formed ample screening. However, in spite of all these +movements, the Serbians were able to hold their own. The Austrian +attacks were all beaten back. Their position might have been held +indefinitely, but developments to the south were taking on a threatening +form.</p> + +<p>It will be remembered that an Austrian force had been reported +approaching from the south, moving on Krupanie, and that it had seemed +so insignificant that a small detachment of third reserve troops had +been sent to hold it back. But this enemy force now developed into three +mountain brigades.</p> + +<p>Reenforcements of infantry and mountain artillery were hurried down to +support the retaining force, but the Austrians were able to force their +way on toward Zavlaka. Seeing Valievo thus threatened, the Serbians +retired from their position at Jarebitze and took up a new position +along a line from Marianovitche to Schumer, thus enabling them to face +both the enemy columns. This retreat was fortunately not interfered with +by the Austrians, though in executing it the Serbian artillery, which +had been in position on the right bank of the Jadar, was obliged to pass +along the Austrian front in single file, in order to gain the main road.</p> + +<p>Early the next morning, August 17, 1914, the Serbians were in position +and had extended their line to Soldatovitcha, whence the detachment from +Krupanie had retired. Summing up the day's fighting, and considering it +as a whole, it will be seen that the Austrians had pretty well held +their own, except on their extreme left, where they had failed to get in +touch with their forces in Shabatz.</p> + +<p>After the defeat of the Austrians at Belikamen on August 16, 1914, the +cavalry division was reenforced by some infantry and artillery, then +sent on the delicate mission of driving a wedge in between the Austrians +in Shabatz and those along the Drina. Spreading out across the Matchva +plain, its left wing up against the slopes of the Tzer Mountains, and +its right wing within reach of Shabatz, it advanced as far as Dublje in +the north. At the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page313" name="page313"></a>(p. 313)</span> same time it was able to assist the column +advancing along the Tzer ridges by playing its artillery on the Austrian +position in the mountains at Troyan. Throughout all the fighting this +cavalry division rendered notable service by its dismounted action.</p> + +<p>On the morning of August 17, 1914, the extreme right of the Serbian +front now turned toward Shabatz. Though only half the number of the +forces they were proceeding to engage, they continued onward. But on +closer approach it became apparent that they could do nothing more than +hold the Austrians inside the town. So well and so thoroughly had the +Austrians fortified themselves that it was hopeless for so small a force +to attempt an attack. Thus this section of the Serbian front settled +down to wait for reenforcements.</p> + +<p>The center and left of the Second Army now prepared to advance along the +Tzer and Iverak ridges. The Austrians in this section, who had suffered +so severely the day before at Belikamen, were now concentrated around +Troyan, the most easterly and the second highest peak of the chain.</p> + +<p>At dawn on August 17, 1914, the Serbians located the Austrians. +Immediately they began a heavy artillery fire on this position, then +proceeded to infantry attack. Two regiments hurled themselves up the +slopes, and with bayonets and hand bombs drove the Austrians back. After +that no further progress was possible that day, the Serbians having to +wait for their artillery to come up. The Austrians now began intrenching +themselves on the heights of Kosaningrad, the loftiest portion of the +Tzer range.</p> + +<p>Along the Iverak ridges the Austrians made a determined advance. The +situation of the Serbian troops in this section, the left wing of the +Second Army, was extremely dangerous, for their left flank was becoming +exposed by the continued retreat of the Third Army. The only hopeful +aspect of their situation was that the Austrians were also having their +left flank exposed by the retreat of the Austrians along the Tzer +ridges. Evidently the opposing forces realized this fact, for they made +a fierce attempt to drive back the Serbians opposing them, so that their +danger from the north might be lessened. Half an hour later <span class="pagenum"><a id="page314" name="page314"></a>(p. 314)</span> +they were severely repulsed. But heavy reenforcements came up to the +Austrians just then, and again they attacked, this time more +successfully.</p> + +<p>By noon, August 17, 1914, the Austrians had extended their line over to +the Serbian right wing.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately, at about that time the Third Army again called for +assistance, and this hard-pressed division was compelled to send it. The +result was that it was compelled to withdraw gradually to the heights of +Kalem. The retirement was executed in good order, and the Austrians +satisfied themselves with occupying Kugovitchi. Intrenching themselves +in their new position, the Serbians awaited further attacks. Only an +ineffectual artillery fire was maintained by the enemy. Meanwhile came +the good news of the success of the Serbians along the Tzer ridges, so +preparations were made for another advance on the following day, August +18, 1914.</p> + +<p>As has already been stated, the extreme south wing of the Serbian front, +the Third Army, had retreated the day before so that it could present a +solid front against not only the forces opposing it, but also another +column coming up from the south, whose advance had been inadequately +covered by third reserve men. Here the Austrians attempted to pierce the +Serbian line in the extreme south and come out at Oseshina. But though +vastly outnumbered, the Serbians held their ground stoutly until late +afternoon, when, as already shown, they were compelled to ask the +division operating along Iverak for assistance. When this help came they +were able to resume their defense.</p> + +<p>Thus ended the second day of the general battle. On the whole the +Austrians had suffered most, but the general situation was still +somewhat in their favor. The Austrian center, along the Tzer ridges, had +been pushed back. To retrieve this setback the logical course for the +Austrian commander in chief was to curl his wings in around the Serbian +flanks. That he appreciated this necessity was obvious, to judge from +the furious onslaughts against the Serbian Third Army in the extreme +south. But to weaken the Serbian center by these tactics it was also +necessary to free the Austrians in Shabatz, or, at least, it was +necessary <span class="pagenum"><a id="page315" name="page315"></a>(p. 315)</span> that they should assume a strong offensive against +the extreme right of the Serbians, and, if possible, flank them.</p> + +<p>But the Serbians anticipated the plans of the Austrians. Additional +reenforcements were sent to the extreme right with orders to spare no +sacrifice that would keep the Austrians inclosed within their +fortifications around Shabatz.</p> + +<p>And true enough, next morning, August 18,1914, shortly after the hot +summer sun had risen over the eastern ridges, the Austrians emerged from +Shabatz and attacked the Serbians. The Austrian onslaught was furious, +so furious that, step by step, the Serbians, in spite of their +reenforcements, were driven back. Fortunately toward evening the +Austrian offensive began losing its strength, and that night the +Serbians were able to intrench along a line from Leskovitz to Mihana.</p> + +<p>This obliged the cavalry division, which had been cooperating with the +Serbian center and was driving the Austrians toward Leshnitza, to retire +along a line from Metkovitch to Brestovatz. Naturally the advance of the +Austrians from Shabatz was endangering its right flank. Moreover, a +reenforced column of Austrians also appeared before it. But this +opposing force did not press its advance.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, on the same day, August 18, 1914, the Austrians were +reenforcing their position on the Tzer ridges. They had also strongly +fortified the height of Rashulatcha, which lay between the heights of +Tzer and Iverak, whence they could direct an artillery fire to either +field of activities.</p> + +<p>But the difficulties which the Serbians operating along the Iverak +ridges were meeting also hampered the Serbians who were attempting to +sweep the Austrians back along the Tzer ridges. If they advanced too far +they would expose their flank to the Austrians over on Iverak. As a +general rule, it is always dangerous for any body of troops to advance +any distance beyond the general line of the whole front, and this case +was no exception. However, though delayed, this division did advance. +Oxen were employed in dragging the heavy field pieces along the trails +over the rocky ridges.</p> + +<p>With savage yells the Serbian soldiers leaped over the rocks, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page316" name="page316"></a>(p. 316)</span> +up the jagged slopes of Kosaningrad. Again they had fallen back on their +favorite weapons, bayonets and hand bombs. The Austrians put up a stout +resistance, but finally their gray lines broke, then scattered down the +slopes, followed by the pursuing Serbians. Having gained possession of +Kosaningrad Peak, the Serbian commander next turned his attention to +Rashulatcha, which, in conjunction with the Serbians over on Iverak, +could now be raked by a cross artillery fire. He had previously left a +reserve force behind at Troyan. This he now ordered to reenforce his +left, which had been advancing along the southern slopes of the Tzer +range. This force he now directed against the heights, but the movement +was not vigorously followed up.</p> + +<p>Over on Iverak the Serbians had succeeded in making some headway. +Forming into two columns, this wing marched out and attacked the +Austrians at Yugovitchi and succeeded in driving them from their +trenches. But immediately the Austrian artillery on Reingrob opened fire +on them, and they were compelled to dig themselves in. And late that +night, August 18,1914, the Austrians delivered a fierce counterattack. +But night fighting is especially a matter of experience, and here the +Serbians with their two Balkan campaigns behind them, proved immensely +superior. They drove the Austrians back with their bayonets.</p> + +<p>During that same day, August 18, 1914, the Austrians had renewed their +pressure on the Third Army and the Third Ban men. Soldatovitcha was +their first objective. During the day reenforcements arrived and the +commanding general was able to hold his own, retaking Soldatovitcha +after it had once been lost. Thus ended the day of August 18, 1914, the +third day of the battle.</p> + +<p>Early next morning, on August 19, 1914, the Austrians in Shabatz renewed +their efforts to penetrate the Serbian lines to the southward. So +determined was their effort that finally the Serbians in this sector +were driven back over on to the right bank of the River Dobrava. All day +the fighting continued, the Serbians barely holding their position, +strong as it was.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page317" name="page317"></a>(p. 317)</span> This success of the Austrians hampered the cavalry division, +which had not only to secure its flank, but had also to keep between the +Shabatz Austrians and the Serbians operating on Tzer, whom they might +have attacked from the rear.</p> + +<p>Along the Tzer ridges, however, things were going well for the Serbians. +At noon they had taken Rashulatcha, which left the column free to +continue its pursuit of the fleeing Austrians along the ridges. From the +heights above the Serbian guns fired into the retreating Austrians down +along the Leshnitza River, turning the retreat into a mad panic. By +evening the advance guard of this division had arrived at Jadranska +Leshnitza.</p> + +<p>In the early morning, August 19,1914, the Serbians over on the Iverak +ridges had attacked in deadly earnest. Naturally the huge success and +rapid advance of the Serbians over on the Tzer ridges were of great +importance to them. Here the Austrians were put to rout too. At 11 a. m. +the Serbians stormed Velika Glava and took it, but here their progress +was checked by a strong artillery fire from the west of Rashulatcha. +Then rifle firing broke out along the whole line from Velika Glava to +Kik. Near Kik the Austrians were massing in strong force, and the Third +Army was reported to be again in danger, this time from a hostile +turning movement. Fortunately general headquarters was able to come to +the rescue with reenforcements. This lessened the danger from Kik. +Whereupon the advance along Iverak was continued. By the middle of the +afternoon, when the Austrians were driven out of Reingrob, the Serbians +controlled the situation. The defeat of the Austrians was complete.</p> + +<p>The Third Army was again in trouble during this day, August 19,1914. Its +left flank continued its advance from Soldatovitcha, but the Austrians +attempted to pierce their center. But finally this sorely tried section +of the Serbian front emerged triumphant. Before evening the Austrians +were driven back in scattered disorder, leaving behind them three +hospitals filled with wounded, much material, and 500 prisoners.</p> + +<p>Here ended the fourth day of the bloody struggle—August 19, 1914. In +the north around Shabatz the Austrians had made some advance, but all +along the rest of the line they had suffered complete <span class="pagenum"><a id="page318" name="page318"></a>(p. 318)</span> +disaster. The two important mountain ridges, Tzer and Iverak, which +dominated the whole theatre of operations, were definitely in the hands +of the Serbians. And finally, the Third Army had at last broken down the +opposition against it.</p> + +<p>Next morning, August 20, 1914, dawned on a situation that was thoroughly +hopeless for the Austrians. Even up around Shabatz, where they had been +successful the day before, the Austrians, realizing that all was lost to +the southward, made only a feeble attack on the Serbians, who were +consequently able to recross the Dobrava River and establish themselves +on the right bank.</p> + +<p>The cavalry division, whose left flank was not freed by the clearing of +the Tzer ridges, hurled itself against the Austrians in the plains +before it and threw them into wild disorder. First they shelled them, +then charged. The panic-stricken Magyars fled through the villages, +across the corn fields, through the orchards.</p> + +<p>"Where is the Drina? Where is the Drina?" they shouted, whenever they +saw a peasant. A burning, tropical sun sweltered over the plain. Many of +the fleeing soldiers dropped from exhaustion and were afterward taken +prisoners. Others lost themselves in the marshy hollows and only emerged +days later, while still others, wounded, laid down and died where they +fell.</p> + +<p>In the Leshnitza similar scenes were taking place. From the ridges above +the Serbian guns roared and poured hurtling steel messages of death down +into the throngs of retreating Austrians. Some few regiments, not so +demoralized as the others, did indeed make several attempts to fight +rear-guard actions, to protect their fleeing comrades, but they again +were overwhelmed by the disorganized masses in the rear pouring over +them.</p> + +<p>In the Jadar valley another disorganized mob of Austrians was fleeing +before the Serbians up on the Iverak ridges, who also were pouring a hot +artillery fire into their midst. Presently the Third Army joined in the +mad chase. And now the whole Austrian army was wildly fleeing for the +Drina River.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page319" name="page319"></a>(p. 319)</span> There remained only one exception during the early part of the +day, August 20, 1914. This was the Austrian forces on Kik, to the +northwest of Zavlaka. The Serbian reenforcements which, it will be +remembered, had originally been directed toward Marianovitche, had been +afterward sent westward, and at dawn on August 20 they approached Kik in +two columns. The left column occupied Osoye without resistance, but in +descending from that position, the Austrian artillery opened fire on it.</p> + +<p>An hour later the right column came up and opened an artillery fire, and +under cover of this bombardment a Serbian regiment reached the foot of +the mountain. As was afterward learned, the Austrians at this point had +had their machine guns destroyed by the Serbian artillery fire, and by +this time their own artillery had been sent back, in preparation for the +retreat. Consequently they were only able to receive the Serbian attack +with rifle fire.</p> + +<p>At the height of this skirmish the extreme left of the Serbians on +Iverak, which had remained to guard against attack from this quarter, +moved over against the Austrians. The cross-fire was too much for them; +they turned and fled, leaving behind over six hundred dead, the Serbians +in this affair losing only seven killed. Jarebitze was now occupied; the +rest of the Serbians joined in the general pursuit.</p> + +<p>That night, August 20, 1914, the Austrians swarmed across the Drina, +fleeing for their lives. By the next day the whole river bank was +cleared of them. Serbian soldiers lined the whole length of the frontier +in this section. There remained now only the Austrians in Shabatz to +deal with. The whole Serbian army was now able to concentrate on this +remaining force of the enemy left in Serbian territory.</p> + +<p>Early on August 21, 1914, the attack began, and the Austrians here +fought stoutly. Indeed, all that day they held the Serbians off from +behind their intrenchments. On August 22, 1914, the Serbians made a +general assault. Fortunately they found a weakness in the fortifications +on the western side of the town. To create a diversion, the Austrians +delivered a counterattack along the road toward Varna.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page320" name="page320"></a>(p. 320)</span> By the morning of August 24, 1914, the Serbians had brought up +a number of heavy siege guns. But when the general bombardment had +already commenced, it was found that the Austrians had evacuated the +town during the night, and retreated across the river. And so the first +Austrian invasion of Serbia came to its disastrous end.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page321" name="page321"></a>(p. 321)</span> PART V—THE AUSTRO-SERBIAN CAMPAIGN</h2> + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LI</h2> + +<p class="title">RESULTS OF FIRST BATTLES</p> + + +<p>Though described as a punitive expedition in the Vienna press, this +campaign cost the Austrians very dear, not only in material and in +lives, but in prestige. Just what the Austrian casualties were cannot be +definitely stated at this time, but at least 6,000 were killed outright +on the field of battle, while at least 35,000 were wounded. And another +4,000 fell into the hands of the Serbians as prisoners. In material the +Serbians report that they captured 46 cannon, 30 machine guns, 140 +ammunition wagons, and a great mass of rifles, hospital paraphernalia, +ammunition, stores, and other incidentals.</p> + +<p>The Serbian losses were heavy: 3,000 dead and 15,000 wounded. That they +were so much less is not extraordinary, for not only were they on the +defensive, but an army in flight, as were the Austrian, always loses +heavily.</p> + +<p>The first onslaught of the Austrians in August, 1914, had been driven +back. A disorganized mob, the soldiers of Franz Josef had fled back +across the Drina and the Save, leaving thousands of dead and prisoners +behind. And for over a week the little Serbian army lay panting.</p> + +<p>Military science says that a victory should always be followed up +closely, for a beaten army is almost as helpless as a herd of cattle. +But military science must also take into account the limitations of +human muscles and nerves. The Serbian reserve forces had been moving +back and forth along the fighting front, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page322" name="page322"></a>(p. 322)</span> strengthening a +defense here, supporting an attack there, and some of them had covered +from fifty to sixty miles a day. There were no fresh troops to pursue +the Austrians. The Serbians needed rest. And so the Austro-Hungarian +soldiers were allowed to continue their northward flight unmolested.</p> + +<p>Thus for twelve days after the Battle of Shabatz, or from August 23, +1914, there was quiet along the Austrian and Serbian frontier. The +remnants of the Austrians had definitely retired northward. And at about +that time the Russians were driving hard at the Galician front. The +Austrians were being beaten there, too. Altogether the situation looked +extremely serious for Austria at that time. But, finally, encouraged by +the Allies, the Serbian General Staff decided to send an expedition over +into Austrian territory.</p> + +<p>Not much over twenty miles north of Shabatz is a range of mountains, +called the Frushkagora. A fairly strong force holding these rocky ridges +would be in a position to prevent the Austrian general from reenforcing +his armies in Bosnia and Herzegovina from the east. It would also afford +a better protection to the northern frontier of Serbia than would a +force of the same size stationed within Serbian territory along the Save +River. The chief thought of the Serbian general was, however, to gain +control of this natural position and hold it while another Serbian force +was invading Bosnia, in conjunction with the Montenegrin troops. What +made this first objective the more tempting was the known fact that +between the frontier and the Frushkagora range the Austrian forces +amounted only to about a dozen regiments.</p> + +<p>To the First Army, General Putnik assigned the execution of this +expedition. That was now composed of two divisions, and the cavalry +division, which had rendered such excellent service on the Matchva Plain +during the first invasion. The left wing of this expeditionary force was +to be supported by a division in Matchva, while the "Detachment of +Belgrade" was to operate on the right. A second reserve division was to +hold Obrenovatz.</p> + +<p>Another glance at the map will show that, almost halfway between Shabatz +and Belgrade, the Save takes a peculiar little <span class="pagenum"><a id="page323" name="page323"></a>(p. 323)</span> loop into +Serbian territory, forming a narrow strip of Austrian territory +projecting into Serbia. Naturally, this little tongue could be commanded +by the Serbian guns without first crossing the river, since the +Austrians could only operate here by marching down in a narrow column +between the two sides of the loop formed by the river. Such a force, +however, could be immediately flanked by the Serbians from their side of +the river. This peculiar peninsula, known as the Kupinski Kut, was +chosen as the point at which the first crossing should be made.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LII</h2> + +<p class="title">SERBIAN ATTEMPT TO INVADE AUSTRIAN TERRITORY</p> + + +<p>It was the night of September 5, 1914. So secretly was this movement +planned and begun that the Serbian field officers did not themselves +know what was to be undertaken when their forces arrived on the banks of +the river at the Kut on the nights of September 5 and 6. The marches +were made at night, to hide the movement as long as possible from the +Austrian aeroplanes, which occasionally whirred their flight over +Serbian territory.</p> + +<p>At one o'clock in the morning of September 6, 1914, the first troops of +the invading expedition embarked on the barges lined up along the river +bank. A screening force having been ferried across, to protect the ford +against possible attack, the construction of a pontoon bridge was begun +at Novoselo, while farther up some flour mill floats were utilized for a +second bridge.</p> + +<p>It was an ideal place for a crossing. Farther up, at the neck of the +isthmus, was an old river bed, where the Save had once cut a straight +channel. This was now full of stagnant water, while between it and the +ford the ground was covered with thick timber. The stagnant water, while +not very deep, afforded somewhat the same protection that a wire +entanglement would, and the woods served as a screen to the advance +guard of the Serbians <span class="pagenum"><a id="page324" name="page324"></a>(p. 324)</span> stationed there to guard the crossing. +Not far distant, farther up in Austrian territory, was a small town, +Obrez.</p> + +<p>After the Serbian army had crossed safely, it set to work clearing the +timber away, it being no longer necessary to screen themselves from +view, and a strong line of trenches was thrown across the neck of the +isthmus, thus effectually protecting the ford for retreat, should that +be necessary.</p> + +<p>At this moment two regiments of infantry and a battery of artillery of +the enemy appeared and attempted to oppose the further advance of the +Serbians, but when the Serbian guns began shelling the forest opposite, +this force fled in the direction of Obrez. Then the left of the Serbian +force worked its way around toward the town itself and, after firing +some dozens of shells, entered it and drove the Austrians still farther +on.</p> + +<p>The cavalry division now came up to secure possession of the town. The +two divisions then set to work to intrench themselves. Meanwhile the +Serbian right, advancing toward the northeast, encountered another force +of the enemy, consisting of one regiment and two batteries, and, after a +short skirmish, drove it back and occupied the two villages, Kupinovo +and Progar. Thus the Serbian operations in this section fared well.</p> + +<p>But at another point, on the extreme left, at Mitrovitza, they did not +encounter such good fortune. The division operating here was to occupy +and fortify Mitrovitza and with it a bridge, after which it was to +advance and worry the enemy's flank. The actual point chosen for the +construction of the bridge was a customs station at Jasenova Grada, +between Mitrovitza and Jarak.</p> + +<p>The column here had arrived at the river bank at midnight of September +5, 1914, and at early dawn had begun building the pontoon bridge. +Meanwhile a steady artillery and rifle fire was kept up, sweeping the +opposite bank, to keep back the enemy. The Serbian commander of this +force had received instructions to the effect that as soon as he had +moved his troops across safely, he was to send two regiments forward: +one to the right, the other to the left, and the whole line was to +advance and cover the territory between Mangjeloskabara and Shashinshi, +the object being to push back any movement of the Austrians from Jarak.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page325" name="page325"></a>(p. 325)</span> As at Novoselo, an advance guard crossed in barges before the +bridge had been thrown across. Immediately a heavy fire began from the +enemy, hidden in the opposite forest. Many of the Serbians threw +themselves into the river, and either swam or waded the rest of their +way across.</p> + +<p>Finally three barge loads had effected a crossing. While waiting for the +rest to follow, sixty of the Serbians threw themselves over against the +Austrians and, by their very boldness, drove them out of their trenches +and took twenty prisoners.</p> + +<p>Some delay in the building of the bridge followed, but more barge loads +of soldiers were sent across, and the fighting with the Austrians was +pushed vigorously. But meanwhile the enemy was also being reenforced, +more rapidly for not having a river behind him. By evening the Serbians, +who had crossed, found themselves tremendously outnumbered and fighting +on the defensive. At that time, one of the Serbian Regiments, which had +advanced as far as Shashinshi, found itself isolated, with both flanks +exposed.</p> + +<p>After two hours of stubborn fighting the regiment managed to draw back +to the river bank, carrying with them a mass of wounded comrades, hoping +there to find the support of the main body of their army. But the +pontoon bridge had not yet been completed. Of the 400 yards across the +river, only twenty remained unbridged. Seeing their advantage, the +pursuing Austrians redoubled their attack furiously. The Serbian +regiment, with half its men down, and only 60 feet of water between +itself and the main corps, turned, with its back to the river, and +fought back with equal fury.</p> + +<p>With frantic haste, the Serbian engineers attempted to finish the +building of their bridge, so that the main body of the troops might rush +across and relieve the situation of the regiment defending itself +against overwhelming numbers on the opposite bank. But before this could +be accomplished, the wounded began throwing themselves into the pontoon +nearest their side of the river. The mooring lines parted and the barge +drifted away from the end of the bridge, down the river, loaded with +wounded soldiers. The same happened to the next barge. To add to the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page326" name="page326"></a>(p. 326)</span> disaster, the barges were old and leaky, and soon one of them +filled with water and began sinking. Presently it sank, throwing the +wounded into the river, where most of them were speedily drowned.</p> + +<p>The Serbians on the Austrian shore, now seeing their last hope of +support or escape cut off, continued fighting desperately until all +their ammunition was gone. Then the handful of survivors surrendered. By +this time it was already dark. The only one to escape across the river +was the regimental surgeon who, carrying the regimental flag between his +teeth, swam across the river and reached the main body of his countrymen +safely.</p> + +<p>Fortunately, the recklessness which led this attempted crossing to +disaster did not characterize the movements of the main body which had +crossed at Novoselo. The advance continued under carefully thrown out +screens of cavalry, and was kept up until the trenches at the landing +could be abandoned and a wider circle of defensive works could be thrown +up, including within their line the villages already mentioned. Thus the +three Serbian bases were strongly protected by a semicircle of field +works, radiating from Kupinovo. Having secured this position, General +Boyovitch, the Serbian field commander, advanced his cavalry in fanlike +formation to the north and west. One division followed the cavalry on +the right; another took a northeasterly direction.</p> + +<p>By the evening of September 7, 1914, the enemy had been driven back to a +line reaching from Detch to Nikintzi. No serious encounters occurred for +some days, the Austrians evidently not desiring to make any serious +opposition until they should have sufficient backing. But on the morning +of September 9, 1914, the Serbian right came in contact with strongly +intrenched Austrians at Detch and Surchin. During the first invasion the +fighting had been under a tropical sun. Now the weather was cooler, +almost cold at nights, which rendered the enthusiasm and the fighting of +the men on both sides correspondingly more spirited. It was, therefore, +with some vim that the Serbians threw themselves into an attack against +Detch. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page327" name="page327"></a>(p. 327)</span> After a determined resistance, the Austrians were +forced out. Next Surchin became the center of battle, but here the +Austrians held out stoutly, driving back the Serbian charges again and +again.</p> + +<p>All that day of September 9, 1914, the Serbian advance was checked, but +the following morning, being reenforced, they charged into Surchin again +and finally drove the Austrians out at the point of the bayonet. The +Serbians then turned north and captured Dobranovtsi. And at this +junction the Serbians stationed at Belgrade crossed the river there and +advanced on Semlin.</p> + +<p>On September 11, 1914, General Boyovitch moved his whole front forward, +with the object of driving all of the enemy westward into the +Frushkagora Mountains and gaining full possession of the plain. This +would have left the two divisions and the cavalry free to advance +against the mountain range itself. Having once gained that stronghold, +the Serbians would then have under their control the whole district of +Syrmia with its friendly population of Serbs.</p> + +<p>The Serbians were now extended along a front from Hrtkovtsi to Pazova +Nova while the Austrians were intrenched along a line from Jarak to +Pazova Stara. The following morning the Serbian left occupied Pechintsi +and advanced north to the Romer Canal, where they met a heavy fire and +were compelled to intrench themselves. Farther west, however, the +Serbians rushed the town of Jarak and took it by means of bayonets and +hand bombs.</p> + +<p>Such was the situation on September 12, 1914, when a bright, clear +morning had dawned and a cool breeze swept over the plain. Off in the +distance rose the blue ridges of the Frushkagora Mountains, streaked +with the green of vegetation along their lower spurs. With tingling +blood and renewed vitality the Serbians looked forward to the word of +command which should send them onward, driving the Austrians before +them.</p> + +<p>But that word of command seemed long delayed. Finally, indeed, it came, +but only to the cavalry. The horsemen were sent ahead, up and down the +line, screening the men in the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page328" name="page328"></a>(p. 328)</span> trenches. And then suddenly +came the word to the men in the trenches.</p> + +<p>"March!"</p> + +<p>They did fall in and begin to march. But not forward. The heads of the +columns turned toward the rear, back toward Serbia. Presently the whole +Serbian army, just as further victories seemed all but won, was on the +retreat. Behind them they heard the fire of their own cavalry, +protecting their rear. The retreat was orderly and the river was +recrossed without loss or confusion. Even more concerned and +disappointed were the Serb peasants of the villages through which they +passed, for these simple folk had thought the Magyars permanently beaten +and that King Peter's men were now moving onward to take Vienna. They +had, therefore, shown unmeasured enthusiasm and had showered gifts of +chicken, milk, eggs and other rural dainties on their brother Serbs from +Serbia, to the full extent of their slender resources. A few days later +they had to pay dearly for this manifestation of their sympathies. When +again the Magyars came down into their territory they became so +oppressive toward these poor villagers that a Croatian regiment, whose +members were racially akin to the Serbs, broke into open revolt and +attacked the Magyars, the result being a pitched battle in which not +only rifles, but machine guns and cannon were employed. Presently word +was passed back and forth among the rank and file of the Serbian army +explaining the disappointing retreat.</p> + +<p>"The Austrians are swarming across the Drina again," their officers +whispered. "There will be plenty of fighting yet, but it will be the +same old battle ground."</p> + +<p>Thus ended Serbia's brief invasion of Austrian soil.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page329" name="page329"></a>(p. 329)</span> CHAPTER LIII</h2> + +<p class="title">AUSTRIA'S SECOND INVASION</p> + + +<p>The second Austrian invasion of Serbia began September 7, 1914. Had the +Serbian General Staff known what mighty efforts the Austrians were to +put forth at this second attempt to invade the country, it would never +have undertaken the expedition into Syrmia. After the failure of the +first invasion the Austrian staff placed at General Potiorek's +disposition a force of 300,000 men, with a reserve of another 150,000 to +draw upon, should the necessity become strong enough. Fortunately for +the Serbians the Russian pressure in Galicia became so strong, later on, +that this reserve force was sent through the Carpathians, and when the +critical moment did arrive, General Potiorek was unable to avail himself +of its assistance.</p> + +<p>It may be well to know how the Austrian forces were disposed just before +the second invasion. There were five whole army corps; one was stretched +out from Klenak to Bosut; another from Bosut to Bijeljina; another from +Janja to Kosluk and another from Kosluk to Zvornik. Aside from this +force there was part of another corps lined up from Zvornik to Liubovia +and one and a half divisions held the front from Semlin to Weisskirchen. +Four battalions were kept busy by the Montenegrins.</p> + +<p>It will be remembered that when the expedition into Syrmia began the +bulk of the Serbian army was sent to the western frontier along the +Drina, to be ready to invade Bosnia when the success of the Syrmia +expedition should be assured. But so well is Bosnia wooded in this +section that the Serbians had not been able to observe the concentration +of troops that was going on before them across the Drina.</p> + +<p>Suddenly, on the morning of September 7, 1914, the whole frontier along +the Drina, from Jarak south, became alive with Austrian soldiers. North +of Loznitza the fighting took on a very bloody and deadly character. All +day the battle line swayed back and forth with a succession of attacks +and counterattacks. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page330" name="page330"></a>(p. 330)</span> Several times the Austrians almost broke +through, but in the end their whole line was driven back across the +river. In the Matchva district, however, they succeeded in holding a +triangular patch of swamp land, bounded by Ravjne, Tolich and Jarak. But +even here they were checked along a line from Ravjne to Tolich, where +both sides intrenched and came to a deadlock for the time being. Here +the two opposing lines continued their trench warfare without much +spectacular demonstration, but with a tremendous loss of life to both +sides and an expenditure of ammunition which the Serbians could little +afford.</p> + +<p>Along the line south of Loznitza the fighting was not so favorable to +the Serbians. The forces stationed here had been weakened in the Syrmia +expedition. And then, too, the country being extremely mountainous, they +had overestimated the strength of their positions.</p> + +<p>Here, on the morning of September 8, 1914, the Austrians began a general +advance, beginning at Liubovia. At first they were successfully held +back, but when they came on again with greatly augmented numbers, the +Serbians were finally compelled to retire to a line of hills running +from Guchevo, through Jagodina and Proslop to Rozani, where they +intrenched themselves and prepared to resist any further advance.</p> + +<p>The Austrians, however, continued to attack. Around Krupanie below +Loznitza, the Serbians made a stubborn defense and succeeded in holding +the heights of Kostainik. But their southern, or left, wing continued to +be driven back.</p> + +<p>By September 11, 1914, the Austrians had advanced as far as a line drawn +from Shanatz to Petska. At this critical moment, however, one of the +divisions of the force that had been recalled from Syrmia arrived and +the combined forces were ordered to advance against the Sokolska +Mountains, whose ridges were occupied by the Austrians.</p> + +<p>The Serbians rushed the heights with their customary élan. The Austrians +resisted stubbornly. They, in their turn, had been tasting the first +draughts of victory, and were not so prepared to give in as on previous +occasions. For a long time the fighting was hand to hand. The men even +hurled big rocks at <span class="pagenum"><a id="page331" name="page331"></a>(p. 331)</span> each other, grappled together in each +other's arms and fought with knives and teeth. But finally some of the +Austrians broke and scattered and presently all of them fled. Their +trenches and ground on both sides of them, however, were covered with +dead, Serbians and Austrians promiscuously mingling together.</p> + +<p>So complete was the Serbian victory that their troops were now able to +advance and form a new line from Shanatz to Brodjanska Glavitza, with +the cavalry patrolling clear down to the Drina at Liubovia.</p> + +<p>Further north, however, the Austrians were still in possession of +Matchko Kamen (Cat Rock). Here the fighting had been most terrific, the +heights having been taken and retaken no less than eight times. This +position dominated all the country around within artillery range. By +taking this strategic point the Serbians would have had complete +possession of a chain of heights which begin with Guchevo on the north, +and would have constituted a natural frontier which could have been held +with a minimum force of troops and expenditure of ammunition. But this +move was not carried out. Both sides were literally tired out. The +Serbians were unable to advance any farther, while the Austrians were +content with not being driven back any farther. They were, also, no +doubt worried by the fact that down in the southern section the Serbians +had succeeded in not only driving the Austrians across the river, but +had even advanced some distance into the Bosnian hills.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LIV</h2> + +<p class="title">END OF SECOND INVASION—BEGINNING OF THIRD</p> + + +<p>Thus the second Austrian invasion was checked. The strategy was, +perhaps, not so spectacular as in the first invasion, but the losses to +both sides had been much heavier. In killed, wounded and prisoners the +Austrians lost fully 30,000 of their men. There <span class="pagenum"><a id="page332" name="page332"></a>(p. 332)</span> now followed a +situation somewhat similar to that up in northern France; both sides +were deeply intrenched and in some parts faced each other over only a +few yards of neutral ground. Again and again the Austrians delivered +attacks, attempting to break through the Serbian positions. All the arts +of trench warfare were employed by the Austrians to overcome the Serbian +resistance, but the Serbian engineers showed themselves at least their +equals in such maneuvers. At one time they successfully mined over a +hundred yards of Austrian trenches and blew 250 of its defenders into +the air.</p> + +<p>As for the Serbians, their attempts to break through the Austrian +positions were fatally hampered by a shortage of ammunition. At one +point they did, in fact, succeed in breaking through and then suddenly +the ammunition supply came to an end and the Serbians had to retire +again, leaving the Austrians to return to the trenches from which they +had just been ejected.</p> + +<p>Up in the northwest the Austrians also held a narrow strip of Serbian +territory, along the Drina from Kuriachista up, but with this small +exception they were confined to their side of the river until the +triangular tract in the northeast of the Matchva Plain was reached, +previously mentioned.</p> + +<p>Along the Save from Parashnitza to Shabatz they had also attempted a +southward movement, where they were supported by five river monitors. +During the period of comparatively little activity which now followed +the Serbians were much worried by these monitors, which patrolled up and +down the river at night, throwing their searchlights on and exposing the +Serbian trenches. Then, too, they could hurl bombs into the Serbian +positions with almost absolute impunity, for whenever the Serbian shells +struck the heavy armor of these river fortresses they rolled off +harmlessly.</p> + +<p>On the night of October 22, 1914, the Serbians sent some mines floating +down the river, one of which struck a monitor and sank it in deep water.</p> + +<p>For nearly six weeks through November, 1914, this deadlock continued. +But during all this time, the Austrian General Staff was quietly +preparing for another grand drive through Serbia. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page333" name="page333"></a>(p. 333)</span> It was then +that the 150,000 reserve, previously mentioned, was assigned to General +Potiorek's disposal, while his first line was also materially +strengthened.</p> + +<p>Nor did the third invasion begin with any dramatic effort. The pressure +was applied gradually, little by little, until the Serbs were finally +face to face with the necessity of shortening their lines, if they were +not to be broken through. Other causes besides the increasing pressure +from the Austrians contributed to the general causes.</p> + +<p>Winter was coming on in earnest now. The low bottom lands in the Matchva +Plain were becoming waterlogged; it was impossible to keep the trenches +from filling. The Serbians had, in the first place, made a mistake in +attempting to hold these Matchva levels. On such battle grounds, the +Magyars, from their own level plains, were too nearly their equals. On +level ground, too, the defenders have less the advantage, unless they +are in equal number, and the Serbians were everywhere in smaller number. +This inferiority, too, made it less possible for the Serbian soldiers to +obtain periods of rest away from the constant vigilance necessary in the +first line trenches. The result was that they were under a more severe +strain. They were subjected to all the drawbacks of trench warfare at +its worst, without the respite that is usually accorded to men under +these conditions on other fronts. The nerve-racking strain thus imposed +became finally more than ordinary human beings could endure. Small +wonder that the correspondents with the Serbian army reported many cases +of insanity among the men in the trenches.</p> + +<p>Finally the order came to withdraw from the Matchva Plain, to the +foothills of the Tzer Mountains and the heights along the right bank of +the Dobrava River. This retreat, made in the face of no specially strong +attack, did not a little to depress the Serbian rank and file. It was +beginning to feel that its strength was sapping away.</p> + +<p>It was soon obvious that a more general retirement would now become +necessary. Complete command of the Tzer Mountains could not be attained +without the expenditure of more energy and ammunition than the Serbians +could afford at this <span class="pagenum"><a id="page334" name="page334"></a>(p. 334)</span> time. So a general withdrawal was +ordered, along the whole line. The Austrians, many of them fresh troops, +unused to defeat, followed up in the footsteps of the retreating +Serbians with enthusiastic vigor, from Shabatz to Liubovia. And +presently Valievo, the railroad terminus and the first objective of the +Austrians, became untenable.</p> + +<p>On November 11, 1914, the Serbians were compelled to evacuate this city. +Its capture was the first step in the progress of the Austrians toward +Kragujevatz, Nish and a junction with the Turks near Constantinople. +Still, as later events will show, the Serbians were by no means the +beaten rabble described by the Vienna press. The score or more of cannon +which the Serbians were compelled to abandon on account of the bad +condition of the mountain roads were hailed as evidence of a hardly won +campaign, and the stragglers captured were accepted as signs of a +demoralization which had as yet not set in.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, whether this first success was real or not, it did +serve to inspire the Austrian troops with an enthusiasm which they had +hitherto not possessed.</p> + +<p>The Serbians had not yet been driven back on the line along which they +had originally intended to make their first stand against the invaders. +During the period between the first mobilization and the beginning of +the first invasion on August 12, 1914, what are referred to as the +Kolubara and Lyg positions had been strongly intrenched. But it had not +proven necessary to fall back on these positions; the Austrians had been +driven back at once. But now, after the fall of Valievo, the Serbians +decided to make no further resistance to the Austrian advance until this +line was reached.</p> + +<p>The Kolubara River itself is not of sufficient width to hold back an +advancing army long, but in places its banks rise so high and steep that +it serves very much the same purpose as a moat before a castle. In such +places comparatively few men could hold back a large number of the +enemy. A little south of Lazarevatz the line of intrenchments left the +Kolubara and followed the Lyg River, where the country was even more +rugged. From the source of the Lyg the Serbians had fortified the Jeljak +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page335" name="page335"></a>(p. 335)</span> and Maljen ridges, which control practically all the roads +leading to Kragujevatz and, proceeding in a southwesterly direction, +they threw up earthworks on the Bukovi, Varda, Jelova, Bukovic, +Miloshevatz and Leska Gora ranges, which defended an advance toward the +Western Morava Valley.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LV</h2> + +<p class="title">PRELIMINARY AUSTRIAN SUCCESSES</p> + + +<p>It was along this line that in November, 1914, the Serbians determined +the decisive battle of the campaign should be fought. At Obrenovatz was +stationed a strong brigade, known as the "Detachment of Obrenovatz." +Further south, at Konatiche, on the Kolubara River, the cavalry division +cooperated with the Second Army, which held the line from Volujak to +Cooka and the ridges farther to the left. The Third Army occupied the +right bank of the Lyg River from Barzilovitza to Ivanovchi. The First +Army stretched itself out from Gukoshi to Ruda and along the Jeljak +ridges to Maljen. And finally the "Army of Uzitsha," which had fought so +brilliantly before in the southern section and penetrated into Bosnia, +was assigned the protection of the base at Uzitsha and the Western +Morava; it intrenched itself from a point southwest of Yasenovatz, +through Prishedo, along the Jelova crests, after which it crossed over +to the heights of the Leska Gora to Shanatz.</p> + +<p>This new line, much shorter than that previously held, enabled the +Serbians to contract. Moreover, all the country was favorable to +defense. Nowhere was it so screened that an approaching enemy could +surprise them. Here, certainly, one defender was equal to two invaders.</p> + +<p>Apparently the Austrian commanders realized that they had genuine +obstacles to overcome, for they did not proceed with any impetuous +haste. It was six weeks before they had advanced so far as to come into +real contact with the new Serbian line. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page336" name="page336"></a>(p. 336)</span> During that interval +they had been preparing for this kind of mountain warfare, by bringing +up special mountain artillery and men who had had experience in just +such a country on the Italian front.</p> + +<p>It was mid-November, 1914, before the Austrians were ready to deliver +their first assaults. Almost every garrison in the town of Bosnia had +been drawn on to swell their numbers and the troops brought up from the +Italian front amounted to a whole army corps. All in all, there were +about 250 battalions of infantry, in addition to cavalry, artillery and +engineer corps.</p> + +<p>One feature of this third invasion, which had not attended the first and +second, was the vast number of refugees who now came fleeing through the +Serbian lines. Their ox carts and their flocks blocked the roads, old +men and women and children thronged the trails in their mad haste to get +away from the advancing Austrians. Their reports of the vast numbers of +the enemy that they had seen may not have helped to encourage the +Serbian soldiers, but, on the other hand, they gave reports, somewhat +exaggerated, perhaps, of such hideous atrocities committed by the +Magyars that henceforth the Serbians were to fight with an added +bitterness and hatred.</p> + +<p>Allowing for a certain amount of exaggeration, there still seems to be +solid foundation for the reports of atrocities committed by the +Austrians in Serbia. But this seems to be a circumstance inseparable +from any war. And, naturally, the invaders are necessarily always the +guilty ones. The Serbians did not commit atrocities for the very simple +reason that they never had the opportunity to come in among the enemy's +villages. Had they invaded the Hungarian plains there would undoubtedly +have been atrocities committed on both sides. An army like the Austrian, +composed of so many different nationalities and races, would naturally +be more susceptible to such excesses.</p> + +<p>Whatever their reasons for waiting so long before their next general +attack, the Austrians had, at any rate, played into the hands of their +enemy to the extent that they had allowed him <span class="pagenum"><a id="page337" name="page337"></a>(p. 337)</span> to accumulate a +plentiful supply of ammunition. Moreover, more was coming, sent by the +Allies and this had a cheering effect on the men.</p> + +<p>On the morning of November 15, 1914, the Austrians began their first +attack. It developed principally against the Second Army, south of +Lazarevatz, and against the Uzitsha detachment in the direction of +Kosjerichi. For five days the Austrians sent successive waves dashing +against the Serbian walls, but each was repelled, hurled back, with +comparatively little effort. How determined the Austrians were may be +judged from the fact that the Serbians now took more prisoners than they +had during all the previous operations.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the Austrians were also making a determined effort to take +Belgrade; an effort, as will be described later, which was also to have +an initial success. But, considering the unfamiliarity of even the best +informed with the Serbian country, it will, perhaps, be wiser to take +each theatre by itself. The operations before Belgrade, anyhow, were not +closely connected with those in the interior of the country.</p> + +<p>It seemed as though during those first five days of fighting the +Austrians were merely testing the relative strength of the various +sections of the Serbian line. On November 20, 1914, a powerful force of +Austrians advanced and took possession of Milovatz, in close contact +with the right flank of the First Army. Another column drove at its +center at Ruda and successfully stormed the heights of Strazhara. The +next day these movements developed into a mighty assault on the Serbian +positions in this section. All day the Serbians held their ground, but +toward evening the center weakened, then caved in, collapsed. The result +was that the whole First Army was beaten back with heavy loss, until it +was finally able to make another stand along the line from Babina Glava +to Rajac.</p> + +<p>The fire of the renewed attack flared up and down the front. The Third +Army of the Serbians succeeded in holding its ground. Between the +Uzitsha detachment and the Austrians the fighting was especially bloody, +but neither side gained any distinct advantage.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page338" name="page338"></a>(p. 338)</span> But the retirement of the First Army from its strong position +from Ruda to Gukoshi was disastrous, not only from a purely military +aspect, but also in that it sent a wave of depression up and down the +whole line of Serbians. This loss might be retrieved by an effective +artillery support, but again the Serbians were feeling a shortage of +ammunition. Armed Bulgarian bands entering Serbia from Bulgaria had +finally succeeded in interrupting railroad traffic, and the supply of +ammunition had been abruptly broken off.</p> + +<p>Fortunately for the Serbians, the Austrians showed their usual +disinclination of following up their success immediately. Their center +rested while their mountain brigades delivered a rather feeble attack on +the Serbian extreme left, on the line from Varda to Gruda.</p> + +<p>It was November 24, 1914, before the Austrians came on in force again. +This time the Second Serbian Army was forced back; to a line running +from Galvitza to Smyrdlykovatz and the heights of Cooka were taken. The +Uzitsha army was also forced to retire, on to the Goinjagora Mountains, +at the head of the Western Morava Valley. The Austrians now also +attempted to outflank the extreme left of the Serbian line. With this +object in view they shot their mountain brigades down along their right, +until the threatened Serbian flank was compelled to swing back to +protect itself from an enveloping movement.</p> + +<p>Finally, on November 28, 1914, the Uzitsha Army was able to make a +determined stand along the heights from Kita to Markovitza.</p> + +<p>In the south the Serbians had suffered a serious setback. Counterattacks +were of little avail. How desperately the Serbians resisted may be +judged from the fact during one of their counterattacks, made at +Salinatz, they took prisoner seven officers and 1,580 men. In general, +however, they were forced back, step by step. One by one, each +succeeding ridge fell into the hands of the invaders. And finally the +dominating ridges of the Suvobor Mountains were in complete possession +of the Austrians.</p> + +<p>In the north the Serbians had made a better showing. Along the Kolubara +River the fighting had been especially heavy. One Austrian <span class="pagenum"><a id="page339" name="page339"></a>(p. 339)</span> +division had even succeeded in penetrating as far as Progon, on November +24, 1914, but it was finally driven back by the cavalry division with +heavy loss.</p> + +<p>The result of this stage of the fighting was that the Serbians had again +been compelled to lengthen their lines; their front now extended from +Tchatchak to Belgrade, almost seventy miles.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LVI</h2> + +<p class="title">CRISIS OF THE CAMPAIGN—AUSTRIAN DEFEAT</p> + + +<p>We have now arrived at the critical point, not only of the third +Austrian invasion, but of all the military operations in the Serbian +theatre. If the Austrians should now again be driven back, it would be +practically impossible for them to make another invasion unaided, at +least so long as they were engaged with Russia. And, on the other hand, +if the Serbians lost now, the whole country was lost. The climax was at +hand. For this reason it may be well to define again the position and +the strength of the two opposing lines.</p> + +<p>On November 28, 1914, the Serbian units were disposed as follows: The +Second Army, from Vechani to Vagan; the Third Army, from Kalanjevchi to +Kelja; the First Army, from Silopaj to Galich; the Uzitsha Army, from +Kita to Markovitza.</p> + +<p>The Austrians had four mountain brigades in the direction of the Western +Morava Valley; about one and a half army corps on the road along Valievo +to Milanovatz; an entire corps against Lazarevatz and two corps moving +eastward against the Serbian line from Belgrade to Mladenovatz.</p> + +<p>On the night of November 29, 1914, to shorten this long line the +Serbians decided to withdraw from Belgrade. A redistribution of the +Serbian forces was then made as follows: the troops from the Kolubara +retired to the heights about Sibnitza and the Belgrade detachment was +thrown astride the Belgrade-Nish Railroad <span class="pagenum"><a id="page340" name="page340"></a>(p. 340)</span> along the summits of +Varoonitza in the east and Kosmai in the west. Elsewhere the positions +remained practically the same as before. Apparently General Putnik felt +that the retreat of the First Army, which had caused the general +retirement of the Serbian front, had not been absolutely necessary, for +the commander of that force was now relieved and in his place was +appointed General Mishitch, a member of the General Staff. How wise this +change was may be judged from the later behavior of the First Army, +which was destined yet to retrieve itself.</p> + +<p>To the trained military observer, the strategic plan of the Austrians +would by this time have become apparent. With the Suvobor Mountains as a +central pivot, they had strengthened their wings and attempted to swing +around in the north by Mladenovatz and south down the Western Morava +Valley. Had this movement been safely accomplished the mass of the +Serbian army, together with their arsenal at Kragujevatz, would have +been rounded up, after which the new Serbian capital, Nish, would have +followed easily and Serbia would have been completely in Austrian hands.</p> + +<p>On December 2, 1914, this was the plan which the Austrians were putting +into execution, in rather a leisurely way, when the Serbians, having +drawn in their breath for a final effort, began their great +counterattack. Nor can there be any doubt that the Austrians were +completely surprised by this sudden renewal of the Serbian strength. It +is only necessary to read the press dispatches from Vienna, issued +during the few days previous, to be convinced that General Potiorek had +reported the Serbians as completely defeated. Not only the Austrians, +but the whole world was surprised by the startling change that now took +place in the Serbian theatre.</p> + +<p>Under the command of General Mishitch, the First Army hurled itself +against Suvobor and, after a bloody three days' struggle, took the +heights and pushed in the Austrian center, driving its forces in this +section in a disorganized flight toward Valievo. The days that ended the +first invasion were renewed. Nor was this flight a mere sudden panic; it +had, in fact, risen in a crescendo, from a small beginning, until it +developed into a veritable débâcle.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page341" name="page341"></a>(p. 341)</span> At first the Austrians had attempted an orderly withdrawal, as +testified by their effort to take with them all their heavy artillery. +The scene that occurred near Gorni Toplitza will serve to illustrate the +whole retreat. Here, where the road winds around a commanding bluff, +which overlooks a valley, the Austrians had planted a battery of field +guns, right on the edge of the cliff. In the road leading up to this +height were placed a score of ammunition wagons from which little +two-wheeled carts were employed to carry the ammunition up to the guns. +Deployed on the flank of this position, the Serbian gunners had suddenly +covered it with a terrible enfilading fire and men, horses, carts, and +wagons lay in a mangled heap. There were dead horses in the shafts of +the carts, whose bridles were still clutched by the hands of dead men. +Some few had tried to escape the avalanche of flying steel and as they +ran they hurled from them caps, ammunition, haversacks and rifles only +to be raked down before they could reach the shelter of a neighboring +ravine. And this was merely one little corner of the general scene. All +along the road to Valievo the ground was strewn with material, even to +the rations of the soldiers, jolted out of the knapsacks as they were +cast down by their fleeing owners.</p> + +<p>During that first day of fighting the First Army captured twelve +officers, 1,500 men, five mountain howitzers and four machine guns, then +advanced, until by nightfall it was able to take up a position along a +line from Kostuniche to Vranovicha. During this time the Uzitsha Army +was fiercely attacked in its position on both sides of the Western +Morava Valley, but it succeeded in driving back the assaults. The Third +Army had also advanced slowly toward Lipet, taking over 500 prisoners +and two machine guns. The Second Army met desperate opposition, but +finally began surging ahead and soon sent in its share of captured war +material and prisoners.</p> + +<p>In the north an important force of the Austrians was making toward +Belgrade, to lead a triumphal entry. Reconnoitering parties, sent out +from the flank of this body, were seen in the direction of Slatina and +Popovitch.</p> + +<p>The decided successes of this first day's fighting acted <span class="pagenum"><a id="page342" name="page342"></a>(p. 342)</span> as a +powerful stimulant on the previously depressed Serbian rank and file, +though they still realized that there was many a hard fought attack to +be driven into the vitals of the ponderous body of the enemy before he +could be finally hurled back across the frontier. The Austrians still +remained in possession of mountain positions of great natural strength, +which could only be taken at the point of the bayonet. But the Serbians +had recovered their <i>morale</i>; again they were fighting with that energy +and vigor which had characterized their assaults during the first and +second invasions. And they were amply rewarded.</p> + +<p>By December 5, 1914, the First Army had retaken the dominating heights +of the Suvobor Mountains and the summit of Rajatz. The Third Army, after +buckling back a stubborn resistance, advanced as far as Vrlaja during +the day. During that same night the Austrians were driven from Lipet, +leaving 2,000 of their own number behind as prisoners. The Second Army, +on its part, had pushed steadily on and by night it reached Kremenitza +and Barosnevatz. The Uzitsha Army, opposed by greater numbers, was +unable to participate in the general forward movement, but, on the other +hand, it held its own during the day's fighting. During that night it +hurled itself at the enemy, and by morning he was retreating toward +Zelenibreg.</p> + +<p>There was now no longer any doubt that the chances of success for this +third invasion of Serbia were beginning to assume very slender +proportions. The three army corps in the Austrian center and right had +been completely broken and were now retreating in mad, disorganized +flight toward Valievo and Rogatitza. Even should the Serbians fail to +follow up this section of the enemy's forces with full vigor; even +should it have a few days for re-forming, the loss of so much war +material made such a possibility very difficult. There would hardly be +time, under any circumstance, to draw fresh supplies from over the +frontier before the Serbians could come up with them.</p> + +<p>On December 7, 1914, the Uzitsha Army reached Pozega. The First Army, +after storming and taking the heights of Maljen, advanced and formed a +line between Maljen and Toplitza. The <span class="pagenum"><a id="page343" name="page343"></a>(p. 343)</span> Third Army made a strong +push forward and reached the line from Milovatz to Dubovitza, making a +great haul of guns and prisoners. Only the Second Army failed to make +any headway. Obviously, the Austrian field commander realized that the +situation in the center was lost; this would account for his attempted +diversion in the north. Here two Austrian corps held their ground +successfully and they not only were able to check the advance of the +Second Army, but they advanced to an attack against the detachment of +Belgrade at Kosmai and Varoonitza.</p> + +<p>On the whole, however, the fortunes of war had, during that day, rested +decidedly with the Serbians. They had captured 29 officers, 6,472 men, +27 field guns, 1 mountain gun, 15 gun carriages, 56 wagons loaded with +artillery ammunition and between 500 and 600 ordinary transport wagons. +Above all, the situation in the south, where it had at first seemed most +hopeless, was now retrieved beyond question and the Austrians in that +section were fleeing helter-skelter before a lively Serbian advance, led +by the Serbian Generals Yourishich and Mishitch.</p> + +<p>The next day, December 8, 1914, began with hard fighting around Uzitsha, +but the division here (the Uzitsha detachment), was not to be pressed +back on its very own home soil; the Austrian lines wavered, broke, then +scattered, the soldiers fleeing for the frontier. The First Army +continued triumphantly, as it had done the day before, advancing and +sweeping all in its way before it. It ended the day by storming and +entering Valievo.</p> + +<p>The Austrians holding Valievo had carefully prepared for its defense, +for this town they were reluctant to give up. The approach by the main +road had been heavily intrenched and the guns were in position. But the +main force of the Serbians circled around in the hills and flanked the +position of the Austrians, taking them completely by surprise. They +broke and ran, and while the fugitives hurried off toward Loznitza and +Shabatz, a rear guard of Hungarians on the hills to the northwest put up +a rather indifferent fight before they, too, fled in mad disorder. The +last of them were caught by the Serbian artillery and, while running +over a stretch of rising ground, over a hundred were shot to pieces by +shrapnel. When the Serbians arrived the ground was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page344" name="page344"></a>(p. 344)</span> literally +covered with mangled forms; here and there sat a few wounded.</p> + +<p>The Third Army likewise shared in the general triumph. It reached the +Kolubara, at its junction with the Lyg. Throwing out one of its +divisions eastward, it threatened the right flank of the enemy on Cooka, +then permitted the Second Army to carry that position. By this movement +the Serbians succeeded in driving in a wedge and completely cut off the +three beaten and fleeing corps in the south from the two in the north, +which were still showing some disposition to hold their ground.</p> + +<p>The operations in the west and northwest now resolved themselves into a +wild, scrambling foot race for the frontier. The worst of the fighting +was now over; indeed, the Austrians now fought only when cornered. Most +of them were by this time unarmed, thinking of nothing but how to reach +the frontier before the first of the pursuing Serbians.</p> + +<p>Only a powerful literary pen could paint such a picture as was now +spread over the land of Serbia. Wounded warriors, now resolving +themselves into helpless, suffering farmers, simple tillers of the soil, +save for the tatters of their blue and gray uniforms which alone +indicated what they had been, lay by the roadsides and along mountain +trails, abandoned by their comrades. Others lay mangled, their forms +beaten out of all recognition. Scattered over all, wherever road or +trail passed, lay guns and cartridges, sometimes in heaps, where they +had been dumped out of the fleeing wagons. And further on lay the wagons +themselves, some thrown over on their sides, where the drivers had cut +the traces and continued their flight on the backs of their horses.</p> + +<p>Later in the day, December 8, 1914, the scenes along the highways took +on a different character. The main columns of the pursuing Serbians had +passed on, but straggling files of those too tired or too weak to be in +the fore of the chase still continued onward. More slowly followed a +steady stream of returning refugees, their oxen, in various stages of +life and death, yoked up to every conceivable manner of springless +vehicle, piled high with odds and ends of furniture and bedding which +had been snatched <span class="pagenum"><a id="page345" name="page345"></a>(p. 345)</span> up in the mad hurry of flight. On top of the +bundles lay sick and starving children, wan with want and exposure. +Beside the wagon walked weary women or old men, urging their animals on +with weird cries and curses, returning to the devastated remains of what +had once been their homes.</p> + +<p>Later still, from opposite directions, came processions of Austrian +prisoners, sometimes thousands of them, guarded by a handful of Third +Ban Serbian soldiers, still wearing their peasant costumes. Among the +prisoners were smooth-faced youths and old men, some in the uniforms of +soldiers, or of Landwehr, or Landsturm. All types of that hodge-podge of +nationalities and races which the flag of Austria-Hungary represents +were there; Germans, Magyars, Croats, Czechs, Moravians, Slovaks, +Rumanians, Lithuanians, and Bosnian Musselmans.</p> + +<p>In between the convoys straggled men of the Serbian army who had fallen +out of the chase by the way, most of them Third Ban men, too advanced in +years to keep up the pace set by the younger men. Nowhere moved anything +but suffering, bleeding humanity.</p> + +<p>On this scene the sun, a glowing disc of copper, finally set, and the +struggling figures merged into the deepening dusk, and presently only +black, halting shadows were creeping along the dark trails and roads.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LVII</h2> + +<p class="title">THE FATE OF BELGRADE</p> + + +<p>During all this time a separate drama was being enacted in and around +Belgrade, the Serbian capital. Unfortified and not especially adapted +for defense, except for the breadth of the Danube flowing along its low +front, it was the cause of a general, world-wide wonder that it should +not have fallen almost immediately into Austrian hands. Quite aside from +military values, the capture of an enemy's capital always makes a +strong, moral impression, on both sides.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page346" name="page346"></a>(p. 346)</span> Beginning with the early morning of July 29, 1914, when a +detachment of Serbian irregulars beat off a river steamer and two troop +laden barges which were attempting to approach the shore just below +Belgrade, there followed a period during which the citizens of the city +had their full share in experiencing the horrors of warfare. The booming +of heavy siege artillery and the screaming of shells at first startled +them, then became so commonplace as barely to attract their attention. +The attacks and counterattacks on mid-river islands became incidents of +daily occurrence. Ruined buildings, wrecked houses and dead bodies in +the streets became an unmarked portion of their everyday life.</p> + +<p>For the greater part of this period Austrian cannon, planted across the +river, poured shell, shrapnel, and incendiary bombs into the city, with +intent to batter down its modern buildings and to terrorize the +inhabitants. Over 700 buildings were struck by bombs, shells, or +shrapnel, and of these sixty were the property of the state, including +the university, the museum, foreign legations, hospitals, and factories. +The foundries, bakeries and all the factories along the Serbian shore of +the river were razed to the ground. Austrian howitzer shells dropped +through the roof of the king's palace and wrecked all of the gorgeous +interior. The university was riddled until the building, with its +classrooms, laboratories, library, and workshops, was entirely +demolished. Even the cellars were destroyed by great shells, which broke +down the walls, pierced their way into the very bowels of the earth and +there exploded. As the result of a steady fire to destroy the state +bank, one street, running up from the water's edge, was ripped up from +curb to curb. Missiles pierced the wood paving and its concrete +foundations by small holes, passed along underground for some distance, +then exploded, throwing particles of the roadway to all sides.</p> + +<p>Many of these shells were fired from the Austrian batteries stationed +over near Semlin, but presently there also appeared a fleet of river +monitors, so heavily armored that no Serbian shell could pierce their +sides. These would parade up and down the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page347" name="page347"></a>(p. 347)</span> river channel with +impunity, adding their share to the general destruction.</p> + +<p>Finally, in the beginning of November, 1914, there arrived in Belgrade +two big 14-centimeter cannon, sent by the French Government by way of +the Adriatic, together with French gunners and 20,000 rounds of +ammunition. These were put into position above the city and on November +8, 1914, the French gunners sent their first message over into Hungary. +The damage inflicted so impressed the monitors that they did not again +venture into range. Moreover, spies, of whom there were probably a +number in Belgrade, had doubtless notified the Austrians that measures, +were now being taken to mine the river effectively. In fact, many +measures for a more effective offensive were being undertaken when the +trend of operations in the interior forced the Serbian General Staff to +order the evacuation of the capital.</p> + +<p>It will be remembered that the Serbians had been beaten back from their +main line of defense and that a rearrangement of the Serbian forces had +thereby become necessary, in order that the line might be shortened.</p> + +<p>This included the abandonment of Belgrade on November 29, 1914. The +order was carried out during the night. But before retiring, the French +gunners, who saw that they were going to lose their two big guns, +determined to bid the enemy across the river a hearty good-by. In the +early morning they fired off their stock of 240 rounds of ammunition and +in a little more than half an hour deposited some twelve tons of +melinite on the enemy's forts at Bezania, with such terrifying effect +that the garrison abandoned it. Thus it came to pass that the two +strongholds, having snarled and barked at each other across the dividing +waters for nearly five months, were both evacuated at the same time.</p> + +<p>As will be remembered, the right wing of the Serbian lines, now joined +by the garrison of Belgrade, swung back and stretched across the +Belgrade-Nish railroad, along the ridges of Varoonitza in the east and +Kosmai in the west. The Austrian left, composed of two army corps, +immediately covered the ceded territory and, of course, entered +Belgrade. Then followed the strong <span class="pagenum"><a id="page348" name="page348"></a>(p. 348)</span> Serbian counterattack +against the Austrian center along the Suvobor ridges and the complete +demoralization of the Austrian forces from the center south.</p> + +<p>The northern wing of the Austrians, however, which held the country +around Belgrade succeeded in holding its own, though it was presently +cut off from the rest of the Austrian forces. But this was all according +to the plans of General Putnik. Being much outnumbered he could not +spare the forces necessary to rout the enemy's strong northern force. +Having broken the center of Potiorek's front, the Serbian commander gave +his chief attention to capturing the Austrian southern wing, operating +in the Western Morava Valley.</p> + +<p>On December 8 and 9, 1914, the Serbian right wing had been hard pressed +along the line from Kosmai to Varoonitza, but the completeness of the +Austrian defeat in the other theatres enabled General Putnik to +rearrange his troops. He therefore dispatched the left wing of the Third +Army against Obrenovatz, attached the rest of the Third Army and the +cavalry division to the Second Army and placed this new combination of +forces, together with the garrison of Belgrade, under the command of +Voivode Stepanovitch, he who had made so brilliant a record at the first +battle on the Tzer ridges.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LVIII</h2> + +<p class="title">ATTEMPTS TO RETAKE BELGRADE</p> + + +<p>On December 10, 1914, General Stepanovitch immediately began a movement +against Belgrade which had now been in the hands of the Austrians since +the first of the month. At this time the Third Army was pressing on +toward Obrenovatz, the cavalry division held the left bank of the +Beljanitza River, the Second Army was holding a line from Volujak to +Neminikuchir, the Belgrade detachment still maintained the ridges along +Kosmai and Varoonitza and a detachment, which had come up from +Semendria, occupied Pudarchi. The troops thus formed a crescent, with +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page349" name="page349"></a>(p. 349)</span> one horn touching the Save and the other the Danube, Belgrade +being the star in the middle.</p> + +<p>The Austrian main positions stretched from Obrenovatz up the right bank +of the Kolubara to Konatitche and then across to Grooka through Boran, +Vlashko and Krajkova Bara.</p> + +<p>There now followed what was probably the most stubborn fighting of the +third invasion: either the Austrian soldiers composing this northern +army were better material, or the Austrian commanders were especially +animated with the necessity of holding Belgrade.</p> + +<p>On the morning of December 11, 1914, the Serbian advance began. As +possession of the railroad was of first importance, the center pushed +rapidly ahead until it reached Vlashko heights. Again and again the +Serbians charged up the slopes of this eminence, only to be beaten back. +But finally, toward evening, the Austrians fell back and the summit was +taken, thereby giving the Serbians control of the railroad at Ralia; the +terminus of the line, in fact, for a tunnel several miles farther north +had been blown up by the Serbians on the day they had evacuated +Belgrade.</p> + +<p>Early the next day, December 12, 1914, the advance was continued and the +left wing of the Third Army reached Obrenovatz and its right occupied a +line from Konatitche to Boshdarevatz. The Second Army occupied the +summits designated as Hills 418 and 287 and the Belgrade detachment +advanced to a front from Koviona to Krajkova Bara.</p> + +<p>Thus, with astonishing swiftness, and in spite of the stubborn +resistance, the crescent was contracting and the Austrians were being +squeezed back into Belgrade. But they continued their desperate +resistance, fighting over every foot of ground before surrendering it. +By December 13, 1914, the enemy had been routed from all the territory +lying between the Save and the Drina, but with such desperation did the +Austrians cling to Belgrade that they delivered repeated counterattacks +upon the Serbian positions at Koviona and Krajkovo Bara before they +finally retired north.</p> + +<p>The triumphant Serbians, though they had suffered severely, followed up +the retreat vigorously, pressing along the banks of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page350" name="page350"></a>(p. 350)</span> the +Topchiderska River on the left and up the main road on the right. The +left wing had advanced up the Kolubara River toward its junction with +the Save, which was eight miles behind the Austrian front. The enemy had +to draw back for fear of being suddenly taken in the rear. Two monitors +were sent up the river to check the Serbian cavalry division, which was +trying to work its way around the marshes and thus cut off the Austrian +force entirely. But this movement of the left wing was merely a feint; +it was intended simply to make the Austrian line waver. While the +Austrians were maneuvering in answer to this feint, the Serbian center +was pushing its advance.</p> + +<p>The Austrians had attempted to check the Serbian advance by intrenching +heavy rear-guard forces in several strong positions, the nature of the +country being especially suited to such tactics. The hills along the +road north of Ralia are, indeed, strategic points of immense military +value. But the Serbians, their capital now almost in view, pressed on +with frantic vigor.</p> + +<p>The Austrians fought manfully, giving them one of the best fights they +had yet been through. Instead of merely clinging to their hill +intrenchments, they made fierce and determined efforts to pierce the +Serbian line. It was in one of these counterattacks, near the central +height, where the railroad entered a tunnel, that the resistance of the +Austrians was broken. After the Serbian riflemen, with their machine +guns, had thrown back the enemy, the Serbian artillery caught the +retiring masses of blue and gray clad soldiers of the Dual Empire.</p> + +<p>This produced a panic in the densely packed retreating column, whereupon +the Serbian infantrymen leaped out of their trenches and dashed forward +in pursuit, forming two pursuing columns, one on either flank of the +fleeing Austrians, like wolves worrying a wounded buffalo. And as these +streams of Serbians ran uphill more rapidly than the blue-gray flood +moved, the Austrian rear guards, composed of heavy forces, turned to +check the pursuit.</p> + +<p>On the morning of December 14, 1914, the Serbians approached the +southern defenses of Belgrade, where the Austrians must make their last +stand; along a line from Ekmekluk to Banovobrodo. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page351" name="page351"></a>(p. 351)</span> Here General +Potiorek had constructed a system of earthworks, consisting of deep +trenches with shrapnel cover and well-concealed gun positions, with +numerous heavy howitzers and fieldpieces. Evidently he hoped to +withstand an indefinite siege on this fragment of Serbian territory, +holding Belgrade as a bridgehead for another advance toward the main +Morava Valley, when the next effort to invade Serbia should be made. He +would, at the same time, preserve at least a semblance of his prestige +from all the calamities that had befallen his armies, enabling him to +represent the campaign as a reconnaissance in force, similar to +Hindenburg's first advance against Warsaw.</p> + +<p>But his troops had been so terribly punished that they could not +garrison the siege defenses. The Serbians, now drunk with their many +victories, and absolutely reckless of death, as they drove on toward +their capital, with their old king, grandson of Black George, moving +through their foremost ranks, charged up into the ring of hills.</p> + +<p>The last fight, on December 14, 1914, which definitely broke the back of +the last effort of the Austrians to maintain a footing on Serbian soil, +took place on the central height, Torlak. Two battalions of Magyars were +defending this point. And just as the sun was setting over in the +Matchva swamps in a glow of fiery clouds, the foremost Serbians leaped +up to the attack.</p> + +<p>Long before the fight was over darkness set in. The Serbians, driven +back again and again, came back like bounding rubber balls. Finally they +gained the trenches, and one general, horrible mêlée of struggling, +shouting, furious combatants set in. The shooting had died down; they +were fighting with bayonets and knives now. Finally the tumult died +down. But nearly every Austrian on that height died. Few escaped and not +very many were taken prisoners. Then, under cover of the night, the +Serbians spread over the other heights and captured the whole line of +defense works.</p> + +<p>No Serbian slept that night. They tugged and dragged at their heavy guns +through all the dark hours, up toward the city, and placed them on +heights commanding the pontoon bridges that had been thrown over the +Save from Semlin.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page352" name="page352"></a>(p. 352)</span> When dawn broke on December 15, 1914, a heavy mist hung over +the river, but the Serbians knew with accuracy the location of the +pontoon bridge. All during the previous day and during the night the +retreating Austrians had been crowding over this bridge to escape into +Austrian territory. At first the retirement had been orderly, but later +in the day, as the news from the front became more serious, as the low, +distant roar of rifle and machine gun rolled nearer, the movement +increased in intensity, and, during the night, developed into a hurried +scamper. Cannon were unlimbered and thrown into the river, and troops +fought among themselves over the right of way along the narrow plank +walk. In the midst of this confusion, while yet thousands of the +invaders were still on the Serbian side of the river, just as dawn was +breaking, there came a deep report, the hissing of a flying steel +missile, and a shell dropped in the middle of one of the pontoon +supports, hurling timber and human beings up into the air. The confusion +now became a wild panic. Some tried to return to the Serbian shore, +others fought on. Dozens of the struggling figures rolled over the side +of the bridge into the eddying currents of the waters.</p> + +<p>Again came the dull, heavy report, then another and another, followed by +the screeching overhead. Shells dropped into the water on all sides. And +then another bomb burst on the pontoon where the first shell had landed.</p> + +<p>Even the roar of the shouting soldiers could not be heard above the +crashing of timbers, the snapping of mooring chains. The bridge swayed, +then caved in, where the pontoon had been struck and was sinking. +Between the two broken-off ends, still crowded with struggling humanity, +rushed the turbid current of the river. The last road to safety had been +cut.</p> + +<p>Presently the fog lifted and revealed a long line of retreating +Austrians, reaching down the road toward Obrenovatz, still heading +desperately for the bridge, as unconscious of its destruction as a line +of ants whose hill has been trampled in by a cow's hoof. But they were +not long to remain unconscious of the fact that they were now prisoners +of war.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page353" name="page353"></a>(p. 353)</span> CHAPTER LIX</h2> + +<p class="title">SERBIANS RETAKE THE CITY—END OF THIRD INVASION</p> + + +<p>As the sun rose on December 15, 1914, the Serbian cavalry, accompanied +by King Peter, swept down from the heights of Torlak and entered the +streets of the capital. A volley from the remnant of a Hungarian +regiment met them. The cavalrymen dismounted and began driving the +Magyars down the streets, from one square to another. And while this +fight, an armed riot rather than a military action, was going on, +finally to end in the practical slaughter of all the Hungarians who +would not surrender, the king entered the cathedral of his capital to +celebrate a Mass of thanksgiving for the deliverance of his kingdom from +the hands of the enemy. And even as the Mass ended, stray shots echoed +through the streets of the city still.</p> + +<p>Two hours later the Crown Prince Alexander, accompanied by his brother, +Prince George, a strong cavalry escort, and the British military +attaché, approached Belgrade. They were met on the outskirts by a crowd +of women and children who, with a few exceptions, were all of the +inhabitants that remained, the Austrians having carried the others off +with them the day before. They had collected masses of flowers, and with +these they bombarded and decorated the incoming soldiers. The girls +brought the embroidered scarfs and sashes, which they had worked in +preparation for marriage, and these they hung about the cavalrymen's +necks until they looked as though they were celebrating at a village +wedding. Huge tricolor streamers now hung from the houses and buildings, +while bits of dirty bunting fluttered from the cottages.</p> + +<p>In the streets of Belgrade the Austrians left 5 cannon, 8 ammunition +wagons, 440 transport wagons, and 1,000 horses. Some 150 junior officers +and 10,000 men also found their retreat suddenly cut off; among them +were few officers of high rank. In one of the officers' headquarters the +evening meal <span class="pagenum"><a id="page354" name="page354"></a>(p. 354)</span> was still spread on the table, the soup half +consumed, the wine half drunk.</p> + +<p>So ended the third Austrian invasion of Serbia. Of the army of 300,000 +men who had crossed the Drina and Save rivers, not over 200,000 +returned. During the last thirteen days of the operations the Serbians +had captured 41,538 prisoners, including 323 officers, and enormous +quantities of war material; 133 cannon, 71 machine guns, 29 gun +carriages, 386 ammunition wagons, 45 portable ovens, 3,350 transport +wagons, 2,243 horses, and 1,078 oxen. The Austrian killed and wounded +numbered not far from 60,000.</p> + +<p>The Austrian occupation of Belgrade had lasted just fourteen days. The +invaders had evidently not counted on the disaster that was so soon to +come to them. Under the guidance of their late military attaché in +Serbia they had established themselves in the best available buildings, +began to repair the streets, which they themselves had ripped open by +shell fire, and set up the semblance of a city administration. But it +was still evident that no central authority from above had as yet been +able to assert itself. The personality of each commander, was +represented by the marks left behind in his district. The buildings +occupied by one military authority remained cleanly and intact, even the +king's photograph being left undamaged. In others, furniture was +destroyed and the royal image shot and slashed to pieces. Entire +sections of the town escaped pillage. Other quarters were plundered from +end to end. While the cathedral and other churches were not seriously +damaged, the General Post Office was completely wrecked. The furniture +in the Sobranje, the house of the national assembly, was destroyed and +broken, and the Royal Palace was stripped from floor to ceiling, the +contents being carted off to Hungary in furniture vans, brought +especially from Semlin for that purpose.</p> + +<p>With the army of occupation came 800 wounded soldiers from the other +theatres of operations. Most of them were immediately turned over to the +American Red Cross unit established in Belgrade, already caring for +1,200 wounded Serbians. As the fighting continued in the interior these +numbers were constantly <span class="pagenum"><a id="page355" name="page355"></a>(p. 355)</span> augmented, until the American hospital +sheltered nearly 3,000 wounded men.</p> + +<p>When the evacuation began the Austrians left their own wounded, but took +with them the Serbian patients, to swell the number of their prisoners +of war. Several hundred of the non-combatant citizens were also taken +into captivity.</p> + +<p>In the importance of its influence on the war as a whole, the +achievement of the Serbians in repelling the three Austrian invasions +will probably be found, when the later history of the war is finally +written, to take very high rank. For had Serbia fallen, the Teutonic +Empires would have been united with little delay to their Turkish +allies. Austria might then have been able to hold off the Russians by +herself, while the Germans would thereby have been so much stronger for +pressing their campaigns in Belgium and East Prussia; with what results +can only be guessed. The Austrians themselves were astounded by the +extraordinary power of little Serbia. Their last disaster, indeed, so +roused their anger that they began preparing again for another attempt +to conquer this stubborn little nation.</p> + +<p>Calling the Germans to their aid, they began in January, 1915, to +collect a new army, 400,000 strong, which was ranged along the Serbian +frontier. But the pressure from the Russians on the Carpathian front +presently became so heavy that this body of troops was needed there, and +so Serbia was left in peace for the time being.</p> + +<p>Thenceforward only insignificant fighting took place between the +belligerents on each side of the river, such fighting being mostly in +the nature of artillery actions. Belgrade was not again, during that +period at least, subjected to bombardment. An arrangement was made +between the Serbian and Austrian commanders whereby the Serbians +refrained from firing on Semlin, and the Austrians spared Belgrade.</p> + +<p>There was, however, some activity on the river itself. Belgrade was now +garrisoned by a mixed force of Serbians, British, and French, the +British being mostly gunners, who had been detached, together with some +big naval guns, from the British navy. For some time before they arrived +the Austrian monitors and picket <span class="pagenum"><a id="page356" name="page356"></a>(p. 356)</span> boats had again been +patrolling the Danube and annoying the Serbians, but the Belgrade +garrison put an end to the activities of these vessels with their big +guns. The British sailors especially rendered good service by means of a +small picket boat commanded by Lieutenant Commander Kerr. Though armed +with only a single machine gun, this small boat was so persistently +troublesome to the enemy that it earned for itself the name "Terror of +the Danube." Of dark nights it would poke its way into creeks and +passages, alarming the Austrians constantly and causing them no little +loss. Once it even succeeded in persuading one of the monitors to pursue +it into a carefully prepared mine field, over against the Serbian shore, +with the result that the monitor was permanently put out of action. But +these operations were of minor importance just then. For now Serbia was +called on to face a new enemy, in some of its aspects much more terrible +than the Austrians, for it demanded a sort of fighting in which the +Serbians were not so well trained. The Austrians had, indeed, left +behind them an ally that was to accomplish as much mischief almost as +they themselves had caused the Serbians.</p> + +<p>Not long after the final defeat of the third invasion an epidemic of +typhus appeared among the Serbian soldiers. Run down physically, as they +must have been, their vitality sapped by the hardships of the campaigns +they had just passed through, they fell victims to this scourge by the +thousands. Not knowing how to attack or to defend itself against such an +enemy, the little kingdom sent forth a cry for help, which was heard and +responded to by the United States, Great Britain, France, and even +Russia. Organizations were formed with the purpose of assisting Serbia +in this extremity, and private persons also came forward with offers of +money and service. The Red Cross also did what it could under the +emergency, but its resources were already being taxed to their full +extent by demands in all the battle fields of Europe. Sir Thomas Lipton +sailed his yacht, the <i>Erin</i>, to Saloniki, loaded with supplies of +medical stores, and carrying a full passenger list of doctors and +nurses. Lady Paget, Lady Wimborne, and other women of rank in Great +Britain also devoted their whole energies to the cause. A society of +women physicians, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page357" name="page357"></a>(p. 357)</span> an offspring of the Scottish Federation of +the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, did noble work in +Serbia. After sending two hospital units to France, this women's +organization dispatched a third to the Balkans, where it was received +with the deepest gratitude, Serbia agreeing with enthusiasm to pay the +salaries of its members and the cost of its maintenance. It was +stationed at Kragujevatz, where it was given a hospital of 250 beds.</p> + +<p>But meanwhile the epidemic had spread over the country. There were +thousands of serious cases; men, women, and children were dying +everywhere, unattended and under the most distressing circumstances. +Hardly had the first of the foreign aid arrived when the immensity of +the task required was recognized, and telegrams and cables were sent all +over the world calling for further assistance. To this second appeal no +country responded more nobly than the United States.</p> + +<p>Owing to the virulent character of the disease that raged in every +district the mortality was frightful. In many localities the death rate +was over 50 per cent. All during the spring and summer of 1915 the need +of Serbia was extreme. In July there were in the country 420 British +doctors alone, aside from the French, Russian and American medical men, +all working at the highest pressure and doing with very little sleep, +yet unable to cover the ground. Many were the stricken patients who must +be satisfied with floors instead of beds; many more who could not even +be admitted into the hospitals. Nor were the Serbians the only +sufferers; from among the foreigners who had so nobly come to help the +Serbians in their distress there were not a few who succumbed to the +fatal disease.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page358" name="page358"></a>(p. 358)</span> CHAPTER LX</h2> + +<p class="title">MONTENEGRO IN THE WAR</p> + + +<p>The military operations on the Montenegrin front should really be +considered as a part, though a detached part, of the Serbian campaigns. +Up to the first Balkan War Serbia and Montenegro, or Tzernagora, as it +is called by its own people, were separated by the sanjak of Novibazar, +a territory which Turkey was allowed to retain after the Treaty of +Berlin at the instigation of Austria, so that the two countries should +have no opportunity to unite. By blood the two peoples are closely akin, +though the isolation of the Montenegrins has been the cause of their not +adopting so many of the outward tokens of civilization as the Serbians.</p> + +<p>Already on July 25, 1913, before Austria had officially declared war +against Serbia, the Montenegrin Government, at the capital, Cettinje, +announced that it would support Serbia should there be an outbreak of +hostilities with their common hereditary enemy, Austria. Montenegro had, +indeed, even more reason than Serbia for hating the great empire to the +northward, for its territory stretched down the coast from Dalmatia, and +literally fenced her in from the Adriatic, whose blue waters are visible +from the Montenegrin towns and villages perched up on the mountains +above the shore. In the Balkan war the army of Montenegro had captured, +at a terrible sacrifice of blood, the town of Scutari from the Turks, +which dominates the only fertile section among the crags of the little +mountain kingdom. It was Austria, at the London Conference, who had +forced her to relinquish this dearly paid for prize, though so +reluctantly was it given up that the Powers were on the point of +intervening.</p> + +<p>The value of the Montenegrin army in such a great war as was now begun +was slight, however, for in numbers it did not amount even to a full +army corps. Nor would it be very efficient outside of its own territory, +for the Montenegrins, whose manner of life is quite as primitive as that +of the Albanians, are <span class="pagenum"><a id="page359" name="page359"></a>(p. 359)</span> essentially guerrilla fighters, who +cannot well adapt themselves to army discipline.</p> + +<p>On a war footing the army is composed of four divisions, the first three +of three brigades each, while one is composed only of two brigades. +Altogether there are fifty-five battalions, or about 40,000 men. Each +brigade also includes one detachment of mounted scouts, one mountain +battery, one group of rapid-fire guns, one section of telegraphists and +one section of engineers. Each division has, in addition, attached to it +a detachment of mounted scouts, a section of engineers, a field battery +and a heavy battery. Then there is a reserve of eleven battalions, +usually assigned to garrison or guard duty. Altogether the total +armament amounts to 40,000 rifles, 104 guns and forty-four +mitrailleuses.</p> + +<p>Of the actual operations along the Montenegrin front not so much +detailed information is available as there is of the other sections of +the theatre of war. War correspondents were not allowed to accompany +either army in this field and the only reports so far given out, +covering this period, are from the few official bulletins issued by the +two respective governments and from other more indirect sources.</p> + +<p>On August 3, when the Austrians had already begun bombarding Belgrade, +King Nicholas signed an order for the mobilization of his forces, and +four days later, on August 7, he declared war against Austria. But +already the Austrians had detached an army corps under General Ermoly to +prevent any possible juncture between the Serbian and Montenegrin +forces. For the time being, therefore, until the Serbians had driven +back the first Austrian invasion, the Montenegrins facing this division +of the Austrian army acted on the defensive.</p> + +<p>This, however, with the advantageous nature of the country, did not +require the full strength of the Montenegrin army; part of it, +therefore, was employed in an attack on the Austrian towns situated on +the narrow strip of Austrian territory running along the sea coast. The +chief of these, Cattaro, was subjected to a hot bombardment from the +heavy guns on Mt. Lovcen, commanding that section of the coast. A few +days later, on August <span class="pagenum"><a id="page360" name="page360"></a>(p. 360)</span> 10, the Montenegrin infantry descended +from the surrounding heights and delivered a strong assault on Spizza +and Budua. The activity of Austrian warships, which bombarded Antivari, +where Montenegro touched the coast, made it impossible for the +Montenegrins to hold what they had taken. Another force, however, turned +toward Scutari and occupied that town. Mt. Lovcen continued, not only +then, but at intervals for the next year, to pour a heavy artillery fire +on Cattaro, and its environs.</p> + +<p>In Bosnia, over toward the Serbian operations, fighting had already +begun and continued until the Serbians drove the main Austrian army +back. On August 20, just as the Serbians were delivering their last +attack on Shabatz and the Austrians were stampeding across the Drina, +the Montenegrins delivered a heavy attack along their whole front, +causing the Austrians to retire in that section as well. The following +day the Austrians, in trying to recover their lost ground, brought up +more mountain artillery, then advanced their infantry up against the +Montenegrin entrenchments. Here occurred the first hand-to-hand +fighting, the Austrians charging with their bayonets again and again, +but they were finally repulsed again with heavy loss.</p> + +<p>From now on the Montenegrins, under the command of General Vukotitch, +who had so distinguished himself in the Balkan War, gradually assumed an +offensive and advanced into Bosnia. On September 2 he again encountered +the Austrians at Bilek, and succeeded in defeating them after a heavy +fight, in which a comparatively large number of prisoners were taken.</p> + +<p>The Montenegrins, comprising practically all of their army, continued +advancing in three columns. On September 9 there was another hot fight +at Foca, south of Sarajevo.</p> + +<p>At this juncture the Serbians sent a column into Bosnia, from Visegrad, +whose purpose was to effect a connection with General Vukotitch, that +the two combined forces might advance on and take Sarajevo, a movement +which was to be carried on simultaneously with the Serbian advance into +Austrian territory from the Save.</p> + +<p>But, although the two allied armies almost reached the vicinity of the +Bosnian capital, the Austrians were now, toward the latter <span class="pagenum"><a id="page361" name="page361"></a>(p. 361)</span> +part of September, returning to this region in great force, to begin the +second invasion of Serbia. The Montenegrin army was, in consequence, +obliged to retire before vastly superior forces and, during the rest of +the year, as did the Serbians, the Montenegrins were satisfied merely +with keeping the enemy out of their home territory. What fighting +occurred after that moment was of more or less a desultory nature and +entirely defensive.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page362" name="page362"></a>(p. 362)</span> PART VI—AUSTRO-RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN</h2> + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LXI</h2> + +<p class="title">STRENGTH AND EQUIPMENT OF THE ANTAGONISTS</p> + + +<p>The first campaign between the Austrian army and the Russian legions +began on August 6, 1914, when Austria declared war on Russia. We have +witnessed in the preceding chapters the German invasion of Belgium and +France, and the Austrian invasion of Serbia; we will now view the +fighting of the Russians and the Austrians on to the frontier, as it +progressed simultaneously with the Russian and German campaigns to be +described in subsequent chapters.</p> + +<p>For some days before war was declared, as noted in Volume I of this +work, Austria-Hungary and Russia understood each other thoroughly. +Russia was satisfied that Austria intended to force war on Serbia, and +Russia was pledged to protect and uphold the little nation, which was +really her ward and over which she had announced a protectorate.</p> + +<p>A review of the situation at this time shows that while mobilization was +being hastened, Russia had joined the Slav kingdom in asking for a delay +on the ultimatum that Serbia had received from Austria on July 24, 1914. +On July 27 Russia notified Austria that she could not permit Serbia to +be invaded. On July 29 an imperial ukase issued by the czar called all +reservists to the colors.</p> + +<p>On July 31, 1914, M. Goremykin, President of the Council of the Russian +Empire, issued a manifesto which read: "Russia is determined not to +allow Serbia to be crushed, and will fulfill its <span class="pagenum"><a id="page363" name="page363"></a>(p. 363)</span> duty in +regard to that small kingdom, which has already suffered so much at +Austria's hands."</p> + +<p>Germany on July 30, 1914, had asked Russia to stop its mobilization, and +had demanded a reply within twenty-four hours. Russia had ignored the +ultimatum, and on August 1 the German Ambassador had handed a +declaration of war to the Russian Foreign Minister. On August 6, 1914, +Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia, and the Austrian Ambassador left +St. Petersburg. In such wise was the eastern arena cleared for action.</p> + +<p>Before describing in detail the Austro-Russian campaign, it is necessary +to bear in mind the conditions in the opposing armies. The strength of +the Austrian army is discussed in the chapter on the Austro-Serbian +campaigns, while the fighting forces of Russia are discussed in the +chapter on the Russian and German campaigns.</p> + +<p>Much has been said, and justly, in criticism of Russia's army at the +outbreak of the war and afterward, but there is no disputing the fact +that it had been improved wonderfully as the direct result of the war +with Japan. In the strenuous years that followed that war, with +revolution an ever-present menace, the establishment of a constitutional +monarchy, and the granting of religious toleration to the many creeds +and sects which helped to make up the population, awakened its diverse +people to a new unity, inspired the people with hopefulness and +activity, and the <i>morale</i> of the Russian army improved accordingly.</p> + +<p>The army, at the outbreak of the Great War in 1914, on a peace basis +included about 50,000 officers and more than 1,200,000 men, which +included about 1,000,000 actual combatants. In recent years preceding, +the annual contingent had been about 430,000. At the end of July, 1914, +the ukase, which proclaimed a general mobilization, summoned to the +colors five classes, or about two million men. The total number was +increased by other reservists and volunteers to 4,100,000.</p> + +<a id="img025" name="img025"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/img025.jpg"> +<img src="images/img025tb.jpg" width="500" height="363" alt="" title=""></a> +<p>Pictorial Map of Russia.</p> +</div> + +<p>There had been a wave of reform in every branch of the military service. +The men who were conscripted to form the main strength of the army were +young and possessed more initiative <span class="pagenum"><a id="page365" name="page365"></a>(p. 365)</span> than had the recruits of +years before. Every effort was made to encourage this initiative under +the new field service regulations.</p> + +<p>In creating a new army with real fighting spirit, cohesion, and ability, +Grand Duke Nicholas, who was made Generalissimo, was conspicuous. Each +year the progress made under his direction has been displayed at the +autumn maneuvers. Another member of the imperial family, Grand Duke +Sergius, was largely responsible for the excellent showing made by the +Russian guns and gunners after war began.</p> + +<p>For purposes of administration all of European Russia was divided into +eight military districts—the Caucasus, Kazan, Kiev, Moscow, Odessa, +Petrograd, Warsaw, and Vilna. There were also four Siberian districts, +making twelve in all. To each district were assigned two or more army +corps. In war, these were grouped in varying numbers from three to five +to constitute an army or army group.</p> + +<p>The equipment of the Russian infantry soldier comprised at the outbreak +of the Great War a rifle, a 299-mm. weapon with a quadrangular +bayonet—which also was carried by noncommissioned officers—a waistbelt +supporting a pouch for thirty rounds on each side of the clasp, an +intrenching tool, a bandolier holding another thirty rounds carried over +the left shoulder under the rolled greatcoat, and a reserve pouch also +holding thirty rounds, which completed the full load of 120 rounds for +each man, suspended by a strap over the right shoulder.</p> + +<p>As the Russian soldiers moved to the Austrian frontier, there was slung +over the right shoulder kits containing food and clothing and cooking +utensils, and over the left shoulder one-sixth part of a shelter tent. +The total weight borne by the regular Russian infantryman was nearly +58-¼ pounds.</p> + +<p>When the war started, the Russian army, in its invasion of Austria, had +its full complement of officers, and because of the great capacity of +its military schools, it was as well able as other nations engaged to +make up for losses in battle. One sweeping and beneficial change that +had been made was that promotion no longer went by seniority but +entirely by merit: the higher the position the more rigid the tests. +Incidentally, it was Russia's <span class="pagenum"><a id="page366" name="page366"></a>(p. 366)</span> good fortune that the war came +at a time when the noncommissioned ranks were full and it was possible +to promote many of these men to fill vacancies in the commissioned +service.</p> + +<p>The use of Russian infantry on the battle fields, as we shall soon see, +differed in no essential way from that common to other nations of +Europe. An advance under fire was almost identical with that of other +nations. A single company in attack would dispatch two platoons as a +firing line, retaining two in reserve, each of the platoons in front +providing its own protection for skirmishing, according to the nature of +the ground.</p> + +<p>If the cover was adequate, a few rifles were enough to locate the enemy, +and either they could be reenforced or the front could be extended. If +the ground were quite open, the two leading platoons were extended at +once, so as to oppose the enemy with an equal extent of fire, and then +advanced by rushes, each section covering the rush of the other by +alternate firing. The two reserve platoons could be used either to +outflank the enemy, if the nature of the ground permitted, or for direct +reenforcement in any formation required.</p> + +<p>As has been said, all the nations engaged in the great conflict pursued +similar tactics in this respect, and the only advantage possessed by +Russia in their use was that both her infantry and artillery possessed a +much larger number of officers, who had been trained to understand how, +against a powerful opponent, to carry out efficiently in practice and in +times of great stress the theory which all nations held in common.</p> + +<p>The observer of the battles in the Russo-Austrian campaigns will see +that the Russian cavalry was inadequate, because its horses were too +small, of inferior strain, and lacking the stamina needed in modern +warfare. They were valuable, however, because of their large numbers, +and the fact that during the winter months, being acclimated and to the +country born, they were able to pick up a living in the snow when other +horses would starve.</p> + +<p>As regards field batteries, near the western Russian frontier and in +Asia, nearly all of them had, when war was declared, eight guns. In most +of the batteries in Asia the number of men maintained in peace was the +same as in war.</p> + +<a id="img026" name="img026"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/img026.jpg"> +<img src="images/img026tb.jpg" width="500" height="306" alt="" title=""></a> +<p>Russian Invasion of Galicia.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page368" name="page368"></a>(p. 368)</span> The Russian army moved forward with adequate aerial corps. The +keenest interest in military aviation had been taken in Russia during +two years before the war. Grand Duke Alexander was one of the founders +of the aviation school at Sebastopol, where two-thirds of the Russian +aviation officers obtained their training. In the spring of 1914 the air +fleet consisted of 16 dirigibles and 360 aeroplanes, while orders for +1,000 aircraft of different descriptions had been placed with various +firms in Russia.</p> + +<p>The army of Austria-Hungary which faced the Russians was composed of men +from a country where universal military service prevailed. In theory +only the physically unfit were exempt from service, and the liability +extended from the beginning of the nineteenth year to the close of the +forty-second. Actual service in the ranks and with the reserve was +twelve years. After the men had served ten years with the army and in +its reserve they were included in the Landwehr for another two years. It +is likely that Austria had at the outbreak of war from 1,200,000 to +1,300,000 men at her disposal. During the three years preceding she had +greatly strengthened her equipment.</p> + +<p>The infantry of the joint Austrian army, which had to fight the +campaigns against the Russians on the east, and against the Serbians on +the south, comprised 102 regiments of infantry, 27 battalions of +Jaegers, 4 regiments of Tyrolese Jaegers, and 4 regiments of +Bosnia-Herzegovina infantry. Every infantry regiment had four field +battalions and a depot battalion. The duty of the latter was to fill up +the ranks of the others. Each infantry regiment had at least two +machine-gun detachments of two guns each, and in many there were two +guns per battalion. In Bosnia and Herzegovina every battalion had four, +and this also was true of every Jaeger battalion.</p> + +<p>The Austrian infantrymen, as they met their Russian antagonists, carried +a small-bore magazine rifle, in use in the army since 1895, and known +after its inventor as the Männlicher. It had a caliber of .315 inch and +fired a pointed bullet. It was loaded by means of a charger which +contained five cartridges, and it was equipped with a bayonet. The +cavalry carbine was shorter but took the same bullet. One hundred and +twenty rounds were carried <span class="pagenum"><a id="page369" name="page369"></a>(p. 369)</span> by the infantry soldier, and there +were forty rounds in the company ammunition wagon, and 160 in the +infantry ammunition columns, in addition. The machine gun in use was of +the same caliber and took the same ammunition as the infantry rifle. It +was composed of few parts, and was a simple and highly effective +instrument.</p> + +<p>On these first days of August, 1914, the cavalry of Austria—the +hussars, uhlans, and dragoons, but really all of one type—light +cavalry—was equipped uniformly with saber and carbine. The +noncommissioned officers and others who did not carry a carbine rode +forth equipped with an automatic pistol. There were forty-two cavalry +regiments in the entire Austrian army, consisting of six squadrons, each +of which had a fighting strength of 150 sabers, not counting the pioneer +troops. Every cavalry regiment had four machine guns with 40,000 rounds +of ammunition. The pioneer troops of the cavalry, which first were +introduced in Austria, were composed of an officer and twenty-five men, +equipped with tools and explosives needed by an advance force to clear +obstacles, destroy railways, etc. Besides the pioneer troops, eight men +in each squadron were equipped with similar tools. The telegraph +section, consisting of eight men, carried about seven miles of light +wire.</p> + +<p>The artillery of Austria-Hungary had been greatly modified in recent +years. The gun used for horse and field batteries was known as M5—that +is, the pattern of 1905. It was of 3-inch caliber, a quick firer, +throwing a shrapnel shell which weighed 14.7 pounds. High-explosive +shells also were carried in the proportion of two to five of shrapnel. +The gun had a long recoil on its carriage, which absorbed the shock and +the gun returned to its place. This made rapid fire possible.</p> + +<p>Like the other powers, Austria-Hungary had adopted a howitzer for its +heavy batteries. It fired a shell of 38.132 pounds. There was also a +heavy gun in use, a 10.5 centimeter, corresponding to a 4.1-inch gun. +The ammunition was like that of a howitzer—a shell weighing 38.132 +pounds, which contained a high-explosive bursting charge and shrapnel +with 700 bullets, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page370" name="page370"></a>(p. 370)</span> fifty to the pound. On the march the +carriage was separated from the gun, and each was drawn by six horses.</p> + +<p>The mountain regions on all the frontiers of the Dual Monarchy resounded +on these August days of 1914 with the mountain artillery. The +10.5-centimeter guns and 4.1-inch howitzer quick firers threw a shell of +thirty-two pounds. This howitzer had a range of more than 6,000 yards, +and was a powerful weapon. The 30.5-centimeter mortars fired a shell of +858 pounds with a bursting charge of 56 pounds of ecrasite. The extreme +range of this mortar was about six miles. Ten rounds could be fired each +hour. Two guns and their ammunition lorries were drawn by three large +tractors. An hour was required to get one of these guns ready for +action.</p> + +<p>Let us enter the headquarters of the Austrian army at the beginning of +the Russian campaign. There we meet the engineer staff, which built and +besieged fortresses, and a military works department, which built and +maintained buildings that were not immediately connected with +fortifications. Austria-Hungary had only a few fortresses of modern +construction. The intrenched camps in Galicia, Cracow, and Przemysl were +soon to be besieged, and between them was a fortress known as Jaroslav, +of insignificant value, like that of Huy between Liege and Namur in +Belgium.</p> + +<p>The Austrian army had not made as much progress in aeronautics as those +of other nations. There was a depot for dirigibles at Fischamend, about +eleven miles southeast of Vienna, but only a few dirigibles were ready +for service. These were of the Parsefal type. There were a number of +captive balloons. The number of aeroplanes available was very small. A +school for teaching aviation had been established at Vienna-Neustadt.</p> + +<p>The faces of the soldiers of the Austria-Hungarian army on the Russian +frontier denoted many races, but it possessed considerable solidarity. +Officers and soldiers recognized alike that they were all under a single +head—the emperor. The officers were drawn from all classes of society, +and this was also a unifying influence. They were on more intimate +relations with their men <span class="pagenum"><a id="page371" name="page371"></a>(p. 371)</span> than the Prussian leaders, and "led" +instead of "drove" them. Commands for the whole army were given in +German, but otherwise the language varied according to the composition +of the various regiments as regarded races. The use of the German +language for commands undoubtedly aided in unifying the army.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LXII</h2> + +<p class="title">GENERAL STRATEGY OF THE CAMPAIGN</p> + + +<p>The Austrian army faced the Russians on August 11, 1914, with a +well-organized strategical plan. Austria, realizing the importance of +unity, cohesion, and harmony in her own forces, proposed at the outset +of the war to dissipate the strength of her enemy, Russia, by causing an +uprising in Poland. The vanguard of Austria's advance along the Vistula +consisted of the Galician army corps, made up of Polish soldiers. Along +the border, arms and ammunition had been collected for the anticipated +insurrection. A proclamation was sent by the Polish associations of +Galicia and Posen to their "brethren of Russian Poland." In this, the +Poles of Russia were urged to prepare for a rising, but not to attempt +it until the Austrian vanguard had arrived and won a first battle. Then +arms would be provided for them.</p> + +<p>Russian strategy checkmated this plan. The czar issued a proclamation +promising home rule to Poland as soon as Germany and Austria had been +repulsed. With this home rule he also offered self-government and +freedom of law and religion, and the reconstitution of the old Polish +territory by means of the annexation of Posen and Galicia. This move +divided the Polish leaders and stifled the incipient revolution.</p> + +<p>The spy system won and lost the first strategical battles before a shot +was fired. There is no doubt that the Austrians before the war knew +almost as much about Russia's preparations as did the Russians +themselves. The Austrian system of espionage was elaborate and accurate, +and the Austrians profited by that of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page372" name="page372"></a>(p. 372)</span> Germany also. +Nevertheless, Russia surprised her foes and allies alike by the rapidity +with which she got her troops into action on the offensive once war was +on.</p> + +<p>The Russian army was handicapped by lack of railroad facilities, but she +made the most of them. Her total mileage was about 25,000, her system +being inferior to that of Germany or Austria. Germany's was by far the +best of the three. Many of the Russian roads had but one line of track, +their construction was inferior, stations were farther apart, and the +speed of trains was comparatively slow. They could not carry as much +traffic as those of either of her two adversaries. The gauge of the +Russian roads was 5 feet, so that the rolling stock could not be used on +German and Austrian roads, which had a uniform gauge of 4 feet 8-½ +inches. The management of Russian railroads was too complicated for army +purposes. But Sukhomlinoff simplified it and instituted schools in which +army officers were instructed in putting soldiers on cars rapidly and +routing trains to the best possible advantage. This and other activities +of Sukhomlinoff, along the line of reform and improvement, were in no +small measure responsible for the rapidity with which Galicia was +invaded.</p> + +<p>Austria's military problem was a difficult one from the start. Her ally, +Germany, could not extend much military assistance until a decisive blow +had been struck in the western theatre of war, but Austria, having a +million men in readiness and being strong in artillery, was expected to +assume the offensive from the start and attack the imperfectly mobilized +Russian forces in western Poland. An immediate offensive was required, +because she must hold Galicia at all cost.</p> + +<p>There were three places where Russia might cross the frontier of +Galicia—west of the point where the waters of the San empty into the +Vistula, between the Upper Bug and the San, or along the line of the +River Sereth on the east. There was great danger in a combined movement +by Russia against the first and third sections of the frontier which +would cut off and surround the forces of Austria which were based on +Przemysl and Lemberg. In order to avoid this peril, apparently the +safest as well as boldest plan was to proceed northward against the +fortresses of Warsaw. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page373" name="page373"></a>(p. 373)</span> Such an advance would in all probability +prevent the armies of Russia from crossing the Vistula and postpone any +attack against the Sereth from the east.</p> + +<p>Austria was staking the success of such tactics on the incompleteness of +mobilization by the Russians, and therein she proved to be in error. +Indeed, the quickness of Russia's military movements amazed the entire +world, with the exception of her Generalissimo, Grand Duke Nicholas, and +his aides and advisors.</p> + +<p>At the outbreak of the Great War, Nicholas was in command of the St. +Petersburg military district. Under him was a Corps of Guards, and the +First and Eighteenth Army Corps from 120,000 to 150,000 men. He was a +soldier of the first rank and an able strategist. He had familiarized +himself with the armies of other European nations. He long had planned +for the emergency that now confronted him.</p> + +<p>In the rapid movement of the Russian forces, he was aided chiefly by +General Vladimir Sukhomlinoff. The latter saw that one of the chief +defects in the Russian army, as disclosed by the Japanese War, was the +slowness of her railroad operations, and some time before war was +declared he had set himself to improving conditions. He established a +school of railroading for officers where the rapid loading of troops on +cars and the general speeding up of transportation were studied +scientifically. The good results of such work were apparent at the very +outset of hostilities.</p> + +<p>As we have seen, France was saved in the first campaign in the west by +the sturdy resistance of little Belgium to the advance of the Germans +through her territory, so Russia now helped to save France a second time +by the rapidity of her campaign. While German troops still were +investing Liege in Belgium, the Russian troops were registering their +first triumph at Eydtkuhnen, and upon the very day that Ghent fell into +the hands of the Germans, Russia began her strong offensive in East +Prussia. By such means were a large part of the German forces, intent on +taking Paris, diverted from attack on the western war arena to protect +the eastern frontier from Russian menace. The relief which Russia thus +gave her Allies was invaluable. The battle of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page374" name="page374"></a>(p. 374)</span> Mons was over in +Belgium and the retreat to the Marne in France had begun, and the +Germans were almost in sight of the French capital, when, save for +Russia's timely blow on the Polish frontier, the Germans, many war +critics believe, would have reached Paris.</p> + +<p>When the Germans in the west were striving toward Calais on the English +Channel as their goal, it was the Russian offensive in Galicia that +forced Germany to transfer more army corps to the eastern front in order +to stop the tide that threatened to overflow Austria. Thus the French +and British were able to stop the advance that threatened to engulf them +on the western front and given time to organize themselves for a +strenuous contest.</p> + +<p>The strategic problem which confronted Russia was much more complicated +than that which had to be solved either by Germany or Austria. It was +quite evident to her General Staff that at least during the first few +months of hostilities Germany would devote her whole time and attention +to attack in the western arena, the French being at the time her most +dangerous enemy. Except for a small part of the Austrian forces left to +oppose the Serbians and Montenegrins, the whole army of Austria was +depended upon to oppose the Russian advance.</p> + +<p>The important strategic condition that confronted Russia was this: Her +most dangerous enemy was Germany, but in order to attack Germany it was +necessary that Austria's army should first be destroyed.</p> + +<p>The eastern theatre of the war has been described in a preceding chapter +and it will be recalled that for about two hundred miles from east to +west Russian Poland is inclosed on the north by East Prussia and on the +south by Austria. Moreover, the Sudetic Mountains on the Austrian +frontier and the huge forests of Poland protect the position of German +Silesia southeast of Breslau. Passing through it are the chief lines of +railway connecting eastern and western Europe, including the routes +between Poland, Galicia, Moravia, and Bohemia. At varying distances from +her Russian frontier Austria has a line of mountains of great defensive +strength. This is the Carpathian, which, extending inside the +Austrian-Russian border line, is joined by the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page375" name="page375"></a>(p. 375)</span> Transylvanian +Alps and continues to form the south frontier of Austria.</p> + +<p>It would not be possible for the Russian invaders to menace Austria +seriously until these mountains had been crossed. Russia, however, was +menaced by the configuration of the German-Austrian frontier, with +Poland open to invasion from three sides. Also, Austria and Germany had +many strongly intrenched positions at strategical points covering all +the chief lines of approach on their frontiers where the latter faced +Russian territory. Besides being defended by artificial works, the +frontier had natural defenses, such as lakes, swamps, and forests. All +along the Russian-Austrian frontier, in fact, there exist such natural +defenses against invasion. On the southern boundary of Poland the +Russian army was held off by great bogs which cover from east to west a +distance of about 250 miles. The only crossing was a single line of +railroad, the one extending from Kiev to Brest-Litovsk. From a military +viewpoint, these marshes divided the line in two parts, imperiling the +situation of any fighting in front of them in case of defeat. They would +offer no kind of sustenance to troops driven within them.</p> + +<p>Russia was not prepared to put into the field an army large enough to +hold the entire line from the Baltic to the Rumanian frontier, +approximately 1,000 miles, and there was no time, if part of the German +forces were to be diverted from the western front, to raise such forces +and equip them.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of hostilities on August 11, 1914, the chief offensive +against Russia was intrusted to the First Austrian Army under General +Dankl. This was composed of about seven army corps, having various +additional units, or amounting in all to about 350,000 men. This army +had its base on Przemysl and Jaroslav, and the work which had been +assigned to it was to advance upward between the Vistula on the left +side and the Bug on the right, on to Lublin and Kholm. There it was to +sever and hold the Warsaw-Kiev railroad so the line would be exposed in +the direction of Brest-Litovsk and the chief communications in the rear +of Warsaw. The First Austrian Army, while it advanced to this position, +would have as protection from attack on its <span class="pagenum"><a id="page376" name="page376"></a>(p. 376)</span> right and rear +from the east and south the Second Army under General von Auffenberg. +This army, advancing northeast from Lemberg, would control eastern +Galicia from the Bug to the Sereth and the Dniester.</p> + +<p>The numerical strength of Von Auffenberg's army at the start probably +was about 300,000, and consisted of five army corps with five divisions +of cavalry. This, however, was only its initial strength. As hostilities +developed Von Auffenberg added to his strength until he is reported to +have had no less than six corps and additional cavalry. At first this +increase came from the Third or Reserve Army, over which Archduke Joseph +Ferdinand had command. While General Dankl was advancing toward Lublin +on August 28, 1914, being protected on his right flank by Von +Auffenberg, the army of the Archduke appears to have been pushed out in +a similar manner on the left.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LXIII</h2> + +<p class="title">AUSTRIA TAKES THE OFFENSIVE</p> + + +<p>The Austrians crossed the Polish border on August 29, 1914, and moved on +as far as Kielce and toward Radom without encountering serious +opposition. That may have been as far as it was intended to proceed. In +all three of the armies of Austria there were about 1,000,000 men, and +against these forces were arrayed three Russian armies—a small force on +the Bug, which may be called the First Russian Army; a Second Russian +Army under General Russky, which was moving on Sokal from the Lutsk and +Dubno fortresses; and a Third Army under General Brussilov, which was +proceeding against the Sereth. There were about 300,000 men in each of +the two latter armies.</p> + +<p>Now the Russian strategy on September 1, 1914, was this: It was intended +that their First Army should retire before Dankl, the Second Army to +menace Lemberg from the northeast and put its right wing between Dankl +and Von Auffenberg, and the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page377" name="page377"></a>(p. 377)</span> Third Army to advance from the +Sereth to the town of Halicz on the Dniester, and so finish the +investment of Lemberg on the south and east.</p> + +<p>It may have been, though this is not certain, that the General Staff of +the Austrians did not see the close connection between the movements of +Russky and Brussilov. It may be that they believed they had only +Brussilov to face at Lemberg, since Russky would be obliged to proceed +to the aid of the First Russian Army on the Bug.</p> + +<p>Russky was famed as a highly scientific soldier, being a professor in +the Russian War Academy. In the war with Japan, he had been chief of +staff to General Kaulbars, the commander of the Second Manchurian Army. +Afterward, he had been closely associated with General Sukhomlinoff in +the reorganization of the Russian forces. Brussilov, whose army +consisted of men of southern Russia, was a cavalry general and had seen +service under Skobelev in the Turkish War of 1877. General Ewarts, in +charge of the Third Army, the smallest of the three, whose duty was to +fight a holding battle, was a corps commander.</p> + +<p>No serious resistance was made by the Russians against the main Austrian +advance under General Dankl, and it proceeded almost to Lublin. At one +time it was within eleven miles of that place.</p> + +<p>On August 10, 1914, the Austrians who had crossed the frontier had a +front of about eleven miles wide to the west of Tarnogrod. The Russian +frontier posts had a brush with the advance cavalry of the Austrians and +then fell back. There was a second skirmish at Goraj and a more serious +meeting at Krasnik, and the Russians still retreated. The Austrians were +jubilant over their victory at Krasnik and at the few delays they +encountered at the hands of the enemy. The Russians in their retreat +proceeded toward the fortified position of Zamosc or toward Lublin and +Kholm.</p> + +<p>In the meantime Russia had been gathering an army on the line from +Lublin to Kholm. There the Russians had the railroad behind them, in one +direction to Warsaw, and in the other to Kiev and Odessa. Each day as +the Austrians advanced the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page378" name="page378"></a>(p. 378)</span> strength of the Russian army was +improving. In the early days of September, 1914, it probably amounted to +400,000 men.</p> + +<p>When the Austrians were within fifteen miles of Lublin they first +encountered heavy resistance. They were checked and then delayed, but +the Russians were not ready to do more than hold their antagonists. They +were waiting for developments farther to the southeast.</p> + +<p>On August 17,1914, the Russian offensive had its definite start. General +Dankl was finding himself with the First Austrian Army; when he stopped +in his advance toward Lublin, General Russky began a powerful attack +against Von Auffenberg. Cooperating with Russky, as we have noted, and +on his left was Brussilov, the total forces of these two commanders +being at first double those with which Von Auffenberg was equipped to +oppose them. As soon, however, as Von Auffenberg became aware of the +numerical superiority of his opponents, he drew for reenforcements on +the Third, or Reserve Army, which had advanced into Poland as far as +Kielce.</p> + +<p>The latter troops hurried to join Von Auffenberg, crossing the Vistula +by means of bridge boats at Josefow. When the issue really was joined, +the troops of the Third Austrian Army, under the Archduke Joseph +Ferdinand, were ready to act in close cooperation with those of Von +Auffenberg. Thus, in the armies on both sides there were, in all, about +1,200,000 men, with the advantage in favor of the Russians. Having this +superiority in numbers, Russky felt that he was safe in attempting to +envelop the Austrian forces on both flanks. With the larger army—the +Second—he hurled his troops at the Austrian left and center, advancing +along the railway.</p> + +<p>On August 22, 1914, the Russians crossed the frontier and on the +following day, Russky occupied Brody, with small opposition. On the same +day, Brussilov, on his left, also crossed the frontier at Woloczysk, +which is the frontier station on the Lemberg-Odessa railway. At this +point the rolling stock used by the Russians on their own railway in +their advance was no longer available, as the gauge of the Russian and +Austrian lines differs. The Austrians had retired with their own rolling +stock in the direction <span class="pagenum"><a id="page379" name="page379"></a>(p. 379)</span> of Lemberg, destroying what they did +not take away, and so the Russian advance from that point was continued +wholly, perforce, on foot. There was a good wagon road which ran +parallel to the railroad toward Lemberg, and along this Brussilov's +cavalry hurried.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LXIV</h2> + +<p class="title">CAUTIOUS RUSSIAN ADVANCE—RUSSIAN SUCCESSES—CAPTURE OF LEMBERG</p> + + +<p>On August 23, 1914, the Russians were almost on the heels of the +retreating Austrians. After three hours' fighting, they drove them out +of Tarnopol. Thereupon they retreated along the line of the Zlota Lipa, +which is an affluent of the Dniester and runs almost directly southward.</p> + +<p>On August 25 and 26, 1914, there was some heavy fighting along this +river, especially at Brzezany. Heretofore, the army under Brussilov had +not met with any important resistance, having encountered chiefly +frontier posts, skirmishers, and small detachments of Austrians. It +seems that no great body of Austrians had penetrated much beyond the +Zlota Lipa. On the eastern side of this river was a line of low hills, +offering a fine defensive position; the Austrians hastily began to make +use of them. They were still constructing trenches when the Cossack +cavalry appeared, driving the skirmishers of the Austrians before them.</p> + +<p>A fight began on August 24, 1914, which lasted ten days. The Russian +cavalry was not strong enough to attempt to take the Austrians' +intrenched position, and therefore waited for the main body of the +Russian forces to come up. The fight extended over twenty miles of +front, stubbornly contested by the Austrians. Finally, by direct +assault, the Russians took the position and the Austrians fell back, in +good order, toward Halicz, where the Gnita Lipa joins the Dniester.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, while Russky was thus pounding at Von Auffenberg's +right, Brussilov was attacking his right and center. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page380" name="page380"></a>(p. 380)</span> Having +crossed the frontier between Brody and Sokal, Russky extended his forces +on a wide front. While the center advanced straight for Busk and Krasne +in a direct line toward Lemberg, the right, proceeding almost due west, +was attempting to penetrate between the army of Von Auffenberg and that +of Dankl on the north, and was pushing powerfully on Von Auffenberg's +left. Gallantly resisting, the Austrians were forced back in all +directions, slowly but firmly. The fighting on Russky's right and center +was especially fierce and severe and resulted in great losses on both +sides.</p> + +<p>By the time Brussilov had taken the position on the Zlota Lipa, his +right was in touch with Russky's left, and the first stage of the +campaign was over. That Russia had been able to proceed so far with her +plans would seem to indicate that the Austrians had underestimated the +rapidity with which she could complete her preparations. It was the fall +of Tarnopol that made possible a junction of the Russian armies and +enabled them to advance in a united line upon Lemberg.</p> + +<p>General Brussilov had to move to the attack without attracting +attention. This was accomplished by both Russky and himself throwing out +a screen of Cossacks all along the frontier of Eastern Galicia. For an +extent of one hundred and fifty miles, the Cossacks skirmished at every +border road or bridge between the Bug and the Dniester rivers. They +started this immediately after war was declared and soon, so +inconsequential did such activity appear, that the Austrians, it seems, +came to regard it as lacking any real purpose. After the third week in +August, however, the commander at Lemberg sent a force of 2,000 men to +make a reconnaissance in Podolia.</p> + +<p>These troops arrived at Gorodok, a small town across the border. Their +presence there was most inconvenient for the Russians, for General +Brussilov was at that time advancing with a big army through Gorodok on +toward Galicia. It was imperative that the Austrian reconnoitering +troops should be stopped and the only force available for this purpose +was nine hundred Cossacks stationed at Gorodok to screen the main army. +It was necessary for these Cossacks to repulse the Austrian +reconnoitering <span class="pagenum"><a id="page381" name="page381"></a>(p. 381)</span> force, without calling for large +reenforcements. If the latter were done, it would excite the suspicions +of fugitives from the fight.</p> + +<p>Therefore, the Cossacks lined out in the woods far beyond the village +and then thirty of them went forward from cover to cover until they came +upon the Austrians. Simulating surprise, they fled in apparent panic. +The Austrians entered upon a swift pursuit and were led into ambush. +Thousands of them were cut down by a cross-fire of rifles and machine +guns. The rest were pursued by Cossacks over the border and the invasion +of Galicia was begun by the Russian main force.</p> + +<p>Then began the perilous part of the enterprise. The army of Russky was +advancing on Lemberg from the north and the army of Brussilov was +converging on the Galician capital from the east. After they had been +united, they would assuredly outnumber the Austrian force which was +guarding Lemberg, but in the meantime either Russky or Brussilov was too +weak to escape defeat. Each might be met singly and overwhelmed. The +skill with which their combined operations were carried out was such, +however, that General Brussilov was able to steal into Galicia and +occupy a large part of the country before battle actually was joined.</p> + +<p>The secrecy with which his great movement was executed was +extraordinary. It was executed in daylight, covering a period of +thirteen days, from August 19 to August 31, 1915. It was performed in +spite of the fact that the Austrians had many spies, a large force of +trained cavalry, and scouts in aeroplanes darting over the frontier. Yet +not until it was too late did the Austrians discover the real nature of +the Russian turning movement in Eastern Galicia.</p> + +<p>In part, this was attributable to the fact that the territory in which +Brussilov was operating was an ancient Russian duchy which had been +wrested from the ancestors of the czar. Eastern Galicia might be +compared to Alsace-Lorraine, which had been torn from France. Peopled by +a Slav race, Eastern Galicia had the same language, religion, and +customs as the soldiers in Brussilov's army.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page382" name="page382"></a>(p. 382)</span> When at the beginning of operations, Russia first assumed a +general offensive on August 17, the Grand Duke Nicholas issued the +following proclamation addressed to Russian inhabitants of Galicia:</p> + +<p>"Brothers—A judgment of God is being wrought. With Christian patience +and self-annihilation, the Russian people of Galicia languished for +centuries under a foreign yoke, but neither flattery nor persecution +could break in it the hope of liberty. As the tempestuous torrent breaks +the rocks to join the sea, so there exists no force which can arrest the +Russian people in its onrush toward unification.</p> + +<p>"Let there no longer be a subjugated Russia. Let the country which forms +the heritage of Saint Vladimir throw off the foreign yoke and raise the +banner of united Russia, an indivisible land. May the providence of God, +who has blessed the work of the great uniters of the Russian lands, be +made manifest. May God aid his anointed, the Emperor Nicholas of All the +Russians, to complete the work begun by the Grand Duke Ivan Kalita.</p> + +<p>"Rise, fraternal Galician Russia, who have suffered so much, to meet the +Russian army for you and your brethren, who will be delivered. Room will +be found for you in the bosom of our mother Russia without offending +peaceable people of whatever nationality. Raise your sword against the +enemy and your hearts toward God with a prayer for Russia and the +Russian Czar!"</p> + +<p>This proclamation was received in Galicia with acclaim. When the Russian +soldiers came, priests and people came out from the villages with +flowers and banners to meet their "little brothers." Flowers were thrown +on their heads from the upper balconies of houses, as they marched +through the streets. Whatever could be done by pretended ignorance or +silence to mislead the Austrians regarding the Russian advance was done +by peasants.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, General Brussilov was making the most of his opportunities. +He passed over the tributaries of the Dniester and without revealing his +strength pushed back the Austrian cavalry screen. For this work he used +large bodies of Cossacks, with all necessary infantry and artillery +support.</p> + +<a id="img027" name="img027"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/img027.jpg" width="300" height="471" alt="" title=""> +<p>Field Marshal von Hindenburg</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page383" name="page383"></a>(p. 383)</span> While appearing to be merely a border raider, the Cossack had +to veil his main army and clear its path through bridgeheads, forts, and +blockhouses, and he was well suited to this kind of work. Moving at the +rate of eight miles a day in advance of the infantry and the big guns, +he maintained a continual skirmish with cavalry scouts, infantrymen, and +gunners in places that had been fortified, and even armored trains.</p> + +<p>In all, the Cossack in the Galician campaign, proved himself not only a +most efficient soldier but well behaved. Previously, his reputation had +been an evil one. Naturally, there were reports of brutality and +savagery, but none were proved. In fact, neither on the part of the +Russians nor the Austrians was there manifest any of the "frightfulness" +attributed, rightly or wrongly, to combatants in the western theatre of +war.</p> + +<p>It was, of course, not to the interest of the Russians to mistreat the +people of Galicia. They came, in their own estimation at least, as +deliverers, not as despoilers. As for the Austrians, they were in their +own country when in Galicia. When they penetrated north into Russia, it +appears that they did little wanton damage. On their return, it is +true, they laid waste a large part of the province of Volhynia, burning +villages and farmsteads as they proceeded. But this was dictated by +military exigencies, in order to delay and inconvenience their pursuers.</p> + +<p>There was an occasion when it might have been supposed there would have +been excesses. This was when after an Austrian defeat, the Russian van, +composed of three divisions of Cossack cavalry, pushed through Halicz in +pursuit of the enemy. The victorious troops swept through a country, +full of Jews, and utterly undefended. It was a garden of plenty, a rich +and fertile country. Instead of presenting a picture of desolation and +ruin after the Russian army had passed, its cattle still grazed in the +fields, the fields were full of shocks of grain, and chickens, ducks, +and swine wandered about the streets of the town.</p> + +<p>There was not a single wrecked house in the town itself, only a few +buildings, such as warehouses near the railway station, having been +demolished by the Russians in order to hasten the departure of the +enemy.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page384" name="page384"></a>(p. 384)</span> There was another significant incident at the neighboring town +of Botszonce. Here the retiring Austrians attempted to make a stand, but +were shelled out by the Russians with their heavy guns. There were only +three buildings in the city which were not reduced to ruins. These were +two churches and the Town Hall, which, having a church-like spire, the +Russians evidently took for a church of worship, also. In this +connection, we may quote here a second proclamation which the Grand Duke +Nicholas, as Commander in Chief of the Russian forces, distributed in +the districts of Austria captured by the Russians. It was designed to +prevent ill feeling between the people and the invaders. It was dated +September 17, and read:</p> + +<p>"To the inhabitants of Austria-Hungary:</p> + +<p>"The Government of Austria declared war against Russia because the great +empire, ever faithful to its historical traditions, could not forsake +inoffensive Serbia, nor acknowledge its enslavement.</p> + +<p>"On entering the Austro-Hungarian territory, I declare to you in the +name of the great Emperor, that Russia, which has spent its blood many +times for the emancipation of nations from the yoke of foreigners, only +seeks the rehabilitation of right and justice.</p> + +<p>"Russia also brings liberty and the realization of your national views. +For many centuries the Austro-Hungarian Government planted among you +discord and enmity, for it knew that as a result of this strife its +dominion over you would continue.</p> + +<p>"On the contrary, my sole aim is that each and every one of you may grow +and prosper and keep at the same time the precious inheritance of +language and faith of your fathers.</p> + +<p>"Let every one of you, united to his brothers, live in peace and harmony +with his neighbors, respecting their national rights. Being convinced +that you will cooperate with all your strength to realize this, I call +upon you to welcome the Russian troops as faithful friends who are +fighting for the realization of your greatest ambitions."</p> + +<p>Now, to return to the campaign which had been waged by Von Auffenberg:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page385" name="page385"></a>(p. 385)</span> While he may be said to have lost this preliminary campaign, +his army was unbeaten. Immediately it fell back into the powerful and +carefully built line of defenses in front of Lemberg, extending over a +front of seventy or eighty miles, from the vicinity of Busk on the north +to Halicz on the Dniester, on the south. An irregular extent of volcanic +hills, some containing extinct craters, extended along the greater part +of its length, and ended on the south in a ridge parallel to the Gnita +Lipa as far as the Dniester. The northern end of this territory was +skirted by the railway running due east of Lemberg. The Austrian left +rested north of the railroad on the River Bug and the lake district +around Krasne. Artificial fortifications improved these natural +defenses. There were many miles of trenches with barbed-wire +entanglements, and at different points massive fortifications of +concrete and steel. The position was difficult to take at any point.</p> + +<p>On August 26 and 27, 1914, after the forces of Russky and Brussilov had +been joined, the Russians immediately began their attack along the +entire front. The days that followed were replete with furious charges. +Positions were taken only to be surrendered. Bayonet fighting figured +largely in the clashes. After two days, though the Austrian lines were +still intact, the Russians claimed a victory. Events came about in this +way: After he had forced the crossing of the Zlota Lipa on August 26, +and his right wing had connected with Russky on the north, Brussilov had +extended his left, by forced march through a country almost devoid of +roads, as far to the south as the valley of the Dniester. On August 31, +1914, the main body of this flanking body arrived in front of Halicz. On +the day following, September 1, 1914, a furious attack began. More guns +were brought up and a fierce attack was concentrated near the little +village of Botszonce, where the enemy had taken a position. Afterward, +the condition of the field, which had been literally plowed up with +shell fire and strewn with the débris of cannonading and accouterments, +showed how terrific the conflict had been. The final assault was made by +the Russian Ninth and Fifty-ninth Infantry under cover of a heavy shell +fire. Enormous losses were sustained, but <span class="pagenum"><a id="page386" name="page386"></a>(p. 386)</span> the Russians were +enabled to make a breach some kilometers wide in the Austrian line.</p> + +<p>Then the entire Austrian line began to give way. A desperate stand was +made as a last resort in the village of Botszonce itself, but this was +turned into a useless sacrifice when the Russians, pushing forward heavy +guns, unlimbered them on the same hills where the Austrians had fought +so determinedly and quickly reduced the town to ruins.</p> + +<p>On September 3, 1914, the Austrian retreat began in earnest. Where the +fighting had been hottest around Botszonce and Halicz, the Russians +claim they buried 4,800 Austrian dead and captured thirty-two guns, some +of which had been mounted by the Austrians but taken before they could +be brought into use. The Austrian reports deny such figures, while +claiming heavy losses by the Russians.</p> + +<p>There was a fine steel bridge across the river Dniester at Halicz, and +the extreme right of the retiring Austrian army crossed this, with, the +Russian cavalry pursuing. The bridge was destroyed and also the only +other bridge in that region of the Dniester at Chodorow. In such wise +was the pursuit southward delayed until pontoons could be thrown across +the stream by Russian engineers.</p> + +<p>This was done on the following day, whereupon Cossack cavalry to the +strength, it was reported, of three divisions, crossed the river and +came up with the retiring enemy. Behind the cavalry at a short distance +came several divisions of Brussilov's infantry, which rapidly pushed +across the south of Lemberg toward Stryj.</p> + +<p>After the extreme right of the Austrian line had been shattered and +Russky had been victorious in his attack on the other extreme, the whole +line fell apart quickly and while the entire front was exposed to +attack, the Austrian left was being enveloped from the direction of +Kamionka by a flanking movement. One end of the Austrian line was being +broken and the other bent back. The Russians increased the fury of their +attack and it was not long before the entire Austrian army was in +retreat.</p> + +<p>On September 2, 1914, Lemberg was in the hands of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page387" name="page387"></a>(p. 387)</span> the +Russians. This city, otherwise known as Lwow or Löwenberg, was first +known as Leopolis, being founded in 1259 by the Ruthenian Prince Daniel +for his son Leo. His history had been a checkered and stormy one. In +1340 it had been captured by Casimir the Great; it had been besieged by +the Cossacks in 1648 and 1655, and by the Turks in 1672; it had been +captured by Charles XII of Sweden in 1704, and bombarded in 1848. As +capital of the crownland of Galicia, it had come to be a handsome city, +of many parks, wide boulevards, three cathedrals, many churches, and a +great number of important public monuments. It was the seat of a +university which contained a highly valuable library of books and +manuscripts and a great many treasures of historic and antiquarian +interest. Its population was about 200,000.</p> + +<p>The Austrians declared that Lemberg had been evacuated in order to save +all these treasures from destruction. It is certain that the civil +population of the town was strongly opposed to its being defended. It +was cosmopolitan and contained elements, doubtless in the minority, who +sympathized with Russia and who welcomed the Russian troops with great +enthusiasm. Whatever other reasons may be given for its abandonment, +however, the fact remains that any attempt to hold it would have been +futile.</p> + +<p>After the Russians had taken possession of Lemberg, tranquillity again +prevailed. Although it was crowded for a considerable time thereafter +with Russian soldiery, there was no violence, disorder, or confusion. On +every hand were seen Russian soldiers of all branches of the service +fraternizing with the people of the place. If a soldier even jostled a +civilian accidentally he saluted and apologized. No drunkenness was +permitted. A considerable number of Austrian policemen continued to +patrol the streets, with a Russian badge on their arms, however.</p> + +<p>Austrian surgeons and nurses, left in the town when the Austrian troops +retreated, continued to help care for Austrian wounded, also left there, +and received the same pay for their services as their Russian associates +of the same rank. Austrian <span class="pagenum"><a id="page388" name="page388"></a>(p. 388)</span> Red Cross attendants were allowed +to walk about the streets at will, unmolested.</p> + +<p>After its occupation by the Russians, Lemberg at once became a huge +hospital base. For the care of wounded that daily came in from the +front, there were forty-two immense institutions.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants of Lemberg welcomed the Russians as deliverers. A +deputation came to General Russky and requested him to make known to the +czar the readiness of the whole Slav population of the city to be loyal +"sons of Russia." In surrendering the government to Count Bobrinsky, +whom the czar appointed Governor General of Galicia, M. Rutovsky, Mayor +of Lemberg, said:</p> + +<p>"Not without our cooperation have the Austro-Hungarian troops left +Lemberg, without firing a shot. There was no struggle here, thanks to +our efforts. We believe your excellency has been informed that your +troops found here cooperation and a cordial reception.</p> + +<p>"In proffering the government of this capital, allow me to express my +gratitude to the former military governor, who lessened our hardships."</p> + +<p>In his reply, Bobrinsky outlined the principles of his policy:</p> + +<p>"I consider Lemberg and East Galicia the real origin of Great Russia," +he said, "since the original population was Russian. The reorganization +will be based on Russian ideals. We will immediately introduce the +Russian language and Russian customs. These steps will be taken with the +necessary care.</p> + +<p>"We shall at first limit this to the appointment of Russian governors +and other officials. Many of the present officials will not be replaced. +We shall forbid the convocation of your Legislature during the war. All +social and political organizations must be discontinued, and may resume +their activities only by permission. These precepts obtain only in East +Galicia; West Galicia will be treated differently."</p> + +<p>The Russians considered Lemberg to be of great strategical importance. +Railroad lines radiated from it in all directions giving its captors +direct communication with Kiev and Odessa, with their fortified +positions at Dubno and Rovno and thence <span class="pagenum"><a id="page389" name="page389"></a>(p. 389)</span> to Petrograd, with +Brest-Litovsk and Warsaw—save only for the inconvenience of changing +the gauge at the frontier. Soon after crossing the frontier, the +Russians had changed the gauge of many of their engines and cars to fit +the Austrian gauge. They found at Lemberg thirty locomotives and a large +number of railway cars left there by the Austrians.</p> + +<p>When on September 3, 1914, the Russians entered Lemberg, the official +Russian announcement of its taking was as follows:</p> + +<p>"Seven days of the most stubborn fighting in Eastern Galicia have +resulted in a complete victory for the Russians. Five Austrian Corps +were completely routed, and in retreating in disorder westward, +abandoned their arms and baggage.</p> + +<p>"Besides an enormous number of killed, the Austrians lost not less than +40,000 prisoners, including many generals. The roads of retreat of the +Austrians are so encumbered with carts, guns, and impedimenta that the +pursuing troops are unable to use the roads. Panic is spreading among +the Austrian troops. During the seven days the Russians have taken over +200 guns, several colors, and about 70,000 prisoners. Lwow (Lemberg) is +in our hands."</p> + +<p>Russia received this report with great joy. The news of the occupation +of the town was conveyed by Grand Duke Nicholas to the czar. The Fourth +Class of the Order of St. George was bestowed on General Russky for "his +services in the preceding battles." The Third Class was given him for +the capture of Lemberg. The Fourth Class of the same Order was bestowed +on General Brussilov. Throughout the empire, Thanksgiving Services were +held to celebrate "the reunion with Galicia." General Count Bobrinsky +was appointed Governor General of the province.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page390" name="page390"></a>(p. 390)</span> CHAPTER LXV</h2> + +<p class="title">DANKL'S OFFENSIVE AND RETREAT</p> + + +<p>Let us now turn our attention to the scene of operations further north. +There, it will be recalled, was taking place the principal Austrian +offensive by the First Army commanded by General Dankl. In the middle of +August, he was being held up by the armies of Generals Ewerts and +Plehve, who barred his way toward Lublin and Kholm. A strong offensive +was not attempted then by the Russians against him, as they were +gathering strength and waiting until Dankl's army should be cut off from +reenforcements. It was desired that their advance take place at the same +time as the completion of the advance on Lemberg of Russky and +Brussilov. Finally, on September 4, 1914, the brief official +announcement was made by Russia:</p> + +<p>"Our armies on September 4 assumed the offensive along a front between +the Vistula and the Bug."</p> + +<p>Coming as it did, when the Russian people were rejoicing over the taking +of Lemberg, this news was greeted with great enthusiasm.</p> + +<p>It will be recalled that when Russky's army advanced, a portion of the +Austrian Reserve Army, commanded by Archduke Joseph Ferdinand, was +hurriedly withdrawn from the position it held in Poland on the left of +the Vistula, across the rear of Dankl's army, to assist General von +Auffenberg.</p> + +<p>This was referred to as an "advance," in a "communiqué" published by the +Austrian General Staff on September 3, 1914. It is probable that at that +very early date some German troops also were being brought up for the +same purpose. Some of the Austrian reenforcements had been joined with +Von Auffenberg's army and had shared in its reverses. Some had remained +to screen Dankl on the right.</p> + +<p>After Von Auffenberg's army began to encounter difficulties and its +progress was stopped, the gap between its left and Dankl's right and +rear grew too large for safety, so that there <span class="pagenum"><a id="page391" name="page391"></a>(p. 391)</span> was a hurrying +of forces from the left bank of the Vistula to fill the gap. Later, as +the Russian strength grew, an entirely new Austrian army was assembled, +consisting, it seems, of portions of the Third or Reserve Army under +Archduke Joseph Ferdinand, which was augmented by two corps withdrawn +from the Serbian frontier, and also some German troops.</p> + +<p>The "Fourth" Army, under the command of the Archduke, was referred to +thereafter in official announcements by Russia as the "Tomaszow Army." +To strengthen Dankl's left, which lay upon the Vistula at Opolie, German +troops from Breslau also were brought up.</p> + +<p>In the last part of August and the first part of September, 1914, there +was considerable confused fighting between detached forces on both sides +in the frontier country between Zamosc and Sokal. Both sides claimed +successes. The Russians claimed that their wedge was driven through +successfully to Tomaszow and that there a severe defeat was administered +to the Austrians.</p> + +<p>From there the latter retired to the swampy land about Bilgoraj and upon +Tarnograd. The tactics of the Russians had put a last barrier between +the two principal sections of the Austrians. Interest thereafter +centered in Dankl's First Army.</p> + +<p>Fighting on the Lublin-Kholm front, having been purely defensive on the +part of the Russians, at first, had grown fiercer as days passed, until +there was continuous battle along the entire line. When Von Auffenberg +had been defeated and his right and rear threatened, the condition of +the northern army seemed so critical that General Dankl decided to force +the issue. He might fall back or break through the Russian defense. He +decided to attempt to pierce the line between Lublin and Kholm. On +September 2, 1914, the Tenth Austrian Army Corps led the assault against +the weaker part of the Russian line and reached within eleven miles of +Lublin. There it was halted, and so the Austrian offensive seems to have +spent itself.</p> + +<p>As we have seen, the Russian offensive began definitely on September 4, +1914. According to the Russian official announcement, two days later, +"the enemy's center, lying in the region West of Krasnostaw (this being +almost due north of Zamosc, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page392" name="page392"></a>(p. 392)</span> about halfway to the center of a +line drawn from Lublin to Kholm) was particularly disorganized. The +Forty-fifth Austrian Regiment including the colonel, forty-four +officers, and 1,600 men were surrounded, and surrendered." The same +announcement stated that "a German division, coming to the aid of the +Austrians, was attacked on the left bank of the Vistula." Presumably, +the Russian troops there had come from Ivangorod.</p> + +<p>After the Austrian First Army began to retire, it was followed by the +Russian forces along its line. And this line, at first, was +approximately eighty miles. As it retired, the left wing being hemmed in +by the River Vistula, and the right feeling steady pressure from Russian +forces on the right, where direct retreat was prevented by the swampy +nature of the country, the front was contracted until it was less than +forty miles.</p> + +<p>This had been accomplished by the time the army reached the San, where +it was necessary to effect a crossing by four or five bridges at +different points. Dankl was highly praised for the manner in which he +handled his army during this retreat, and saved it from destruction. In +Russia, it had been assumed that the retreat would degenerate into a +panic and the fate of the First Army was regarded there as practically +sealed. Russian strategists themselves speak in high terms of the way +Dankl handled his army in this crisis.</p> + +<p>The Austrian advance on this front had its high mark on a line drawn +from Opolie on the Vistula, through Krasnostaw to Grabiowiec, whence the +line curved southward toward Tyszowce. And it was in the region of the +latter place that the Austrians claimed a big success, though this was +denied by Petrograd.</p> + +<p>After the Russian advance on this front from Lublin and Kholm, as we +have seen, had begun with the "disorganization" of the Austrian center +at Krasnostaw, the next attempt was to strike at the Austrian left, +starting at Opolie and developing thence along the entire line as far as +Turobin.</p> + +<p>It was on this wing of the Russian army that the chief strength had been +assembled, the other parts of the line being left comparatively weak. +Reasoning that even if the Austrians were able to break through the +front, where it was weaker, it would <span class="pagenum"><a id="page393" name="page393"></a>(p. 393)</span> only make more certain +their being surrounded finally, all new troops that arrived were shifted +over to the right wing.</p> + +<p>On September 5 and 6, 1914, the Russians attacked the Austrian army at +Tomaszow, situated northeast of Krubessiow and southeast of Rawa-Russka. +The Austrian army retired.</p> + +<p>Near Frempol, the Russian cavalry rushed big convoys of the enemy in the +direction of Lublin. Troops and convoys which were moving in the +direction of the road leading from Josefow to Annopol were dispersed by +Russian artillery on the left bank of the Vistula.</p> + +<p>Detachments of the Fourteenth Austrian Army Corps attempted an attack +near Rawa-Russka, during the night of September 7, but were repulsed. +Near Tomaszow the Russians took an enemy aeroplane.</p> + +<p>Aerial battles were not infrequent. Captain Nesteroff, one of the most +daring of Russian aviators, sacrificed his life in a successful attempt +to destroy an Austrian aeroplane. He was returning from the front after +an aerial reconnaissance when he saw an Austrian aeroplane hovering over +the Russian forces with the intention of dropping bombs.</p> + +<p>The Russian aviator immediately headed straight for the Austrian machine +at full speed and dashed into it. The force of the impact caused the +collapse of both machines, which plunged to earth, both aviators meeting +instant death.</p> + +<p>The fortress of Nikolaieff, twenty miles south of Lemberg, was taken by +the Russians after severe fighting. The fortress was one of the most +modern military strongholds in Austria, being supplied with all the +newest forms of defense and offensive weapons. It had steel cupolas, +masked ranges of earthworks, and guns of modern type and heavy caliber.</p> + +<p>The Nikolaieff fortress commanded the passage of the River Dniester. At +the fortress forty guns of the heaviest type and stores of all kinds +were captured. Like Lemberg, the fortresses had been well stocked with +provisions, which fell into the Russians' hands.</p> + +<p>After occupying Nikolaieff the Russians undertook, after allowing their +soldiers only two hours of rest, a night march for <span class="pagenum"><a id="page394" name="page394"></a>(p. 394)</span> the purpose +of attacking new positions occupied by the enemy. A Russian battery, +placed on the Vistula River, engaged with success an Austrian steamboat +armed with rapid-fire guns.</p> + +<p>About the same time troops were sent by train from the east of Lemberg +to near Chelm, and put in action against Austrian infantry intrenched on +a long line, which included the village of Michailowka. The Russians +entered the village the same night, the Austrians having fallen back to +a half circle of small, steep hills which overlooked the town. Some +houses had been set afire, but the flames had been extinguished by the +villagers themselves.</p> + +<p>At three o'clock the following morning the attack on the hills began. +The Austrians occupying them numbered 15,000, of which a large number +were in a deeply wooded gorge. The Russian artillery swept the crest of +the hill and shelled the gorge with shrapnel. The Austrians replied +strongly.</p> + +<p>At noon the position was stormed. The Russians, at the word of command, +rose with cheers and rushed the hill. Austrian guns to the left cut them +down badly. Later, after a desperate, brave fight, the position was +taken. The gorge was full of dead men lying in heaps. Officers said they +had never seen so many dead lying in a single place. The troops gave the +place the name of "The Valley of Death."</p> + +<p>It was reported that the Austrian general commanding the defense watched +some of his men being disarmed after the battle. Presently the Austrian +standards were brought up from the gorge. At this sight, it was said, +the Austrian general drew his revolver and shot himself dead.</p> + +<p>On September 5, 1914, Austrian troops which had been stationed behind +the Grodek Lake district passed the railway lines of Rawa-Russka and +Horynier, and on the next day advanced to Kurniki. On the following day +a heavy battle began between these forces and a strong Russian force +advancing northward. Two days later the Austrians opened their offensive +on a forty-mile front, having the better of the conflict until September +11, especially on the southern wing near Lemberg.</p> + +<p>The Austrians then retired because of the necessity which had arisen for +a new grouping of their forces, the north wing of their <span class="pagenum"><a id="page395" name="page395"></a>(p. 395)</span> army +near Rawa-Russka being threatened by superior Russian forces near +Krasnik and between Krasnik and the battle fields of Lemberg.</p> + +<p>The attack by the Russians on the Opolie-Turobin section of the line +seems to have been a powerful one and the Austrians retired southward, +paralleling the course of the Vistula. For nineteen miles the Russian +cavalry was engaged with the rear guard of the retreating forces. There +was particularly fierce fighting at Suchodola and also at Krasnik. At +Frampol, there was a strong Russian cavalry charge. From this point, the +Austrians were forced back on the left into the morasses about Bilgoraj +and the right and the center were crowded together as they drew near the +San. By that time, Russia claimed to have sent 10,000 prisoners back to +Lublin. These movements were all the first days of September, 1914.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LXVI</h2> + +<p class="title">BATTLE OF RAWA-RUSSKA</p> + + +<p>During the time that Auffenberg's army had been retaining the position +before Lemberg, a new line of defense had been instituted in his rear. +This line ran from Grodek to Rawa-Russka, and thence along the railroad +line toward Narol. As the Russian forces between the armies at Tomaszow +had not as yet gotten as far as Tarnograd, the far left of Von +Auffenberg's troops, or those of the Archduke, which were a continuation +of Von Auffenberg's army at this point, were for a brief time almost in +touch with the fringe of Dankl's army on its way to the San. But there +was no combined and determined stand at any time. The entire army fell +back, set upon getting across the river.</p> + +<p>It is probable that on the line from Grodek to Rawa-Russka there were +more than 1,250,000 men in the armies on both sides. The line was more +than sixty miles long, but the struggle was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page396" name="page396"></a>(p. 396)</span> concentrated on +certain points and fighting elsewhere was not important. The most +critical points were at Grodek on the far south, where a position of +considerable strength was occupied by the Austrians, and at Rawa-Russka.</p> + +<p>One advantage which accrued to the Austrians was that they occupied +positions which had been well fortified before the battle of Lemberg, +probably in anticipation of a retreat. Nature, itself, protected their +right at Grodek against a turning movement. They had excellent railway +facilities in their rear. The advantages possessed by the Russians were +those of numbers and the fact that they were encouraged by victory.</p> + +<p>The battle had its beginning about September 8, 1914, round the position +at Grodek, where the Austrians had retreated after the capture of +Lemberg. It was on the extreme north of the line, however, that they +first began to give ground. There they were not able to make any +extended stand because the enemy, besides attacking them fiercely from +in front, began to envelop their left.</p> + +<p>The fighting went on over a large extent of ground. At several places +large numbers of Austrian prisoners were taken. The upper part of the +Austrian line was forced steadily back, not without desperate fighting, +and finally the entire line became doubled back on itself at a sharp +angle from Rawa-Russka. Here the fighting was terrific.</p> + +<p>Rawa-Russka was a small Galician city, inhabited chiefly by Jews. The +greater part of the town was old, but there was a modern settlement near +the railway station, the town being one of the chief railway centers in +that part of Galicia. There, two lines cross, one a branch of the main +line to Cracow, from a point near Jaroslav to the frontier at Sokal, and +the other extending northwesterly from Lemberg to the Polish frontier at +Narol. There were at Rawa-Russka large railroad works, roundhouses, +sidings, and storage yards.</p> + +<p>As the big battle began to develop on September 8, 1914, it was seen +that Rawa-Russka was the place where it probably would be decided and +the best efforts of both sides were exerted there. The defenses on the +point of the angle of the Austrian line, just <span class="pagenum"><a id="page397" name="page397"></a>(p. 397)</span> behind which was +the town, were in extent no longer than six, or at most eight, miles. +Nevertheless, during eight days, there were as many as 250,000 or +300,000 men engaged here in night and day fighting.</p> + +<p>After the first two days, the Russians concentrated their attack on the +very apex of the Austrian angle, atop the bluffs at the edge of the +ten-acre battle field. During eight days, the Russians stormed this +point repeatedly. In a single mile the Austrians made no less than eight +distinct stands.</p> + +<p>Some points before being evacuated were taken and surrendered several +times, and then retreat was only for a short distance, followed by just +as determined resistance. The courage and determination of both armies +was equally admirable.</p> + +<p>One position held by Austrians for hours was in a stubble field. It was +necessary to hold this point while a better position was being dug a few +hundred yards behind in a slight dip in the ground. The rain of shrapnel +was so heavy about this place that later it was not possible to pick up +a handful of dirt from it without finding therein pieces of lead. For a +mile across the field where the Austrians had lain, bloody bandages and +pieces of equipment were strewn thickly.</p> + +<p>Behind this line, two or three hundred yards, was another line just +beyond a small ground swell, where the Austrians placed themselves in +fairly deep trenches. The Russians took this trench, but being unable to +advance farther, dug themselves in on their side. The next day they were +driven out by the Austrians. Afterward the trench presented the strange +appearance of a ridge of earth with a trench on each side—with Austrian +relics on one side and Russian relics on the other.</p> + +<p>Day by day the Russians drove the Austrians back farther, until at last, +the Austrians were holding a deep trench on the slope of the crest of +the last ridge of hills defending the town itself. Immediately over the +ridge the Austrian batteries were concentrated. The last trench was not +more than four hundred yards in front of the Russian guns.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, the Russians were unable to make any advance against this +position until they brought up and put into position <span class="pagenum"><a id="page398" name="page398"></a>(p. 398)</span> a +considerable number of heavy howitzers. Then slowly they began to +crumble the Austrian defenses. Notwithstanding this bombardment, the +Austrians held on for more than a day. Then the Russians stormed the +entire top of the hill and seized the few guns which they had not +already put out of commission. The hill was taken at the point of the +bayonet. This was the decisive moment in the whole conflict.</p> + +<p>From the center of the field where this action was taking place the +Russian wedge extended to the north and south. The Austrian center was +broken when night fell and the Russians were dropping shells into the +outskirts of Rawa-Russka. Attacks by the Russians followed, making it +impossible for the Austrians to hold the town and it was abandoned by +the Austrian forces. In any event it soon would have been enveloped in +the rear, considering the way events were shaping themselves on the +southerly end of the line, and the defense would have been costly.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LXVII</h2> + +<p class="title">RUSSIAN VICTORIES—BATTLES OF THE SAN</p> + + +<p>Early in September, 1914, the Russians attacked strongly fortified +positions at Grodek. This was during the time when the Russian northern +army was busy driving back the enemy from Frampol to Biloraj. The +defenses of Grodek, which included the position at Sadowa-Wisznia, were +protected by a chain of six lakes and considerable ground cut up by +dikes.</p> + +<p>The Russians were commanded by General Brussilov, who duplicated here +the tactics of continuous and heavy attack with which he had overcome +the resistance of the Austrians at Halicz.</p> + +<p>The Austrians had taken stand on a group of heavily wooded hills. In +order to reach this, the Russians were obliged to cross a plain about +three miles wide, in a series of parallels, while subjected to fire from +machine guns and rifles.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page399" name="page399"></a>(p. 399)</span> It was not until three days later that they were able to gain a +position where their guns could reach effectively the trenches of the +Russians. When the assault was made with bayonets, the trenches were +found heaped with bodies. According to the Russians, the prisoners they +took said they had been without regular food for many days and had +subsisted on raw potatoes and wild pears. Continually harassed by the +Russians, they had not time to bury their dead and so the living had +fought on while the remains of their fallen comrades decayed beside +them.</p> + +<p>A brief account of the affair from the Russian viewpoint is contained in +the announcement from the Russian Headquarters Staff, made September 14, +1914:</p> + +<p>"The army of General Brussilov, against whom the Austrians made their +last desperate onslaught has, on taking the offensive, captured many +guns, prisoners, and artillery parks, the numbers of which are now being +reckoned. General Brussilov testifies that his troops displayed the +highest energy, stanchness, and gallantry. The corps commanders calmly +and resolutely directed their troops and frequently wrested the victory +at critical moments. General Brussilov specially mentions the +distinguished services of General Radko Dmitrieff."</p> + +<p>There is no doubt that the engagement here referred to was one of the +most bitterly and desperately contested of the war. But the conflict on +many fields was being conducted on a scale so huge that it loses much of +its importance in a general survey. On the day following the +announcement just quoted, the Grand Duke Nicholas briefly announced that +"the Russians, after occupying Grodek, reached Mocziska, and are now +within one day's march of Przemysl."</p> + +<p>While Brussilov's center was moving on to Mocziska, which is about forty +miles west of Lemberg, his left was advancing southwesterly along the +railroad line to Sambor, and on to Chyrow. The latter place, however, +was not taken until September 24, 1914. The fortress of Przemysl was +thus cut off from the south.</p> + +<p>When Grodek fell, Brussilov's soldiers had been marching and fighting +without pause for longer than three weeks. The feats <span class="pagenum"><a id="page400" name="page400"></a>(p. 400)</span> of +endurance they had performed were extraordinary but without delay they +pursued the Austrians from Grodek with the same alertness that they had +shown in following them from Halicz.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, as we have noted, Rawa-Russka had been taken. Like +Brussilov, Russky was not inclined to give an enemy he had bested any +chance to recuperate, and while Brussilov was pursuing the Austrian +right from Grodek to Chyrow on the south of Przemysl, Russky was +following up his success with equal vigor, driving toward Sieniawa the +shattered forces which had opposed him.</p> + +<p>Sieniawa was occupied on September 18, 1914, the same day that Brussilov +took Sambor. Jaroslav was captured by assault on September 21. There was +hard fighting on the way there, around Javorow, fifteen miles east of +Przemysl, where the Russians claimed to have taken 5,000 prisoners and +thirty guns. In such wise was Przemysl cut off on the north, east, and +south. Behind its defenses, what was left of Von Auffenberg's army took +refuge.</p> + +<p>The Austrians also had met with reverses where Dankl's army had been +falling back before the troops of Generals Ewarts and Plehve. It has +been shown that the continuity of the Austrian defenses had not been +effective in the region northwest of Rawa-Russka, though it extended +beyond the frontier between Tomaszow and Tarnograd. After the conflict +at Tomaszow, the line of the Archduke Joseph Ferdinand above Rawa-Russka +to that place had been bent back on the Rawa-Russka-Jaroslav railroad, +while the main body of Dankl's troops fell back on the line of the San.</p> + +<p>Never was the Russian pressure on its rear relaxed. The pressure was +especially strong from the Russian right which had fought the battle of +Krasnik, after clearing the Opolie-Truobin district. The larger portion +of the Austrian troops crossed the San near its junction with the +Vistula. Probably they hoped that while they might place themselves, on +the other side, in touch with the Austrian railroads, the river would be +a barrier behind them against the Russians.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page401" name="page401"></a>(p. 401)</span> It appears that General Dankl, anticipating the necessity of +falling back across the San, had been sending his transports back in +advance of his retreat, almost from the time the retreat began. In fact, +some of the transport trains had been sighted and subjected to shell +fire as early as September 9, 1914, from the left bank of the Vistula. +Not until September 12 did the army itself reach the banks of the San.</p> + +<p>Two heavy rear guards, to north and east, were left to hold back the +oncoming Russians, while the main body and the baggage were crossing the +river on September 12. The Vistula protected the left of one of these +rear guards, the San protected the right of the other. Thus the two +formed an arch between the two streams.</p> + +<p>Marshy ground made difficult the attack on their front, but, +nevertheless, they seem to have been unable to prevent the Russians from +piercing the screen before the crossing of the river had been completed. +There was great slaughter. The Russians claimed that they took 30,000 +prisoners. The artillery of the Russians was highly effective in +shelling the bridges while the Austrians were passing over them in solid +masses. Beside the large number of those killed by shell fire many were +reported to have been forced into the water and to have drowned.</p> + +<p>Neither was there respite for the Austrians on the other side of the +river, although, in theory, the forcing of the passage of the San by an +invading army was considered an impossible task. Enormous sums had been +spent by the Austrians in an attempt to make it impregnable.</p> + +<p>Along the upper or southern part of its extent it was protected by the +powerful position of Przemysl and by Jaroslav. From there a light +railroad, which had been built solely for strategic purposes, ran +parallel and close to its left bank almost to the point where it joined +with the Vistula.</p> + +<p>As they retired, the Austrians destroyed bridges behind them. But they +were not able to destroy all, otherwise a few days' rest might have been +vouchsafed the First Army. By quick work the Russians seized and +maintained a hold on the bridge at Kreszov, on the frontier a few miles +west of Tarnograd. As <span class="pagenum"><a id="page402" name="page402"></a>(p. 402)</span> an official communiqué from Petrograd +put it: "The Russians leaped across the river on the very shoulders of +the retreating enemy."</p> + +<p>The victory on the San, September 12-19, 1914, may well be considered +one of the most important of the campaign. There is no way of estimating +the Austrian losses, over and above the 30,000 prisoners the Russians +say they took, but they probably were heavy. Still more important was +the fact that the Russians had broken down the barrier which the +Austrians had sought to put between themselves and the invaders. Save +for the fact that the Austrians were now in touch with their railroads, +and for the moment within reach of security, being under the shelter of +Cracow, their position within the triangle formed by the Vistula was no +more safe than it had been when they were above it.</p> + +<p>The Russians reported that within that triangle they seized an enormous +amount of supplies of every kind. Moreover, with the advance on +Krzeszov, the last of the invading Austrians had been forced from +Russian soil. No longer was an enemy left in the provinces of Podolia or +Volhynia.</p> + +<p>It must be recalled also that Russian troops which were based on +Ivangorod also had intercepted German reenforcements on the left of the +Vistula as they hastened across Poland to the aid of Austria. The guns +of the Russians also had shelled the transports of the Austrians as they +retired along the right bank. The Russian right, pressed on the retiring +Austrians, had been able to spare a large number of troops, and these it +had thrown across the Vistula at Josefow. These, acting as +reenforcements of the Russian troops already on that side of the river, +had hurried southward, paralleling the advance of the main army on the +right bank and brushing aside whatever forces of the enemy they met.</p> + +<p>In this way they were able to prevent any help from that quarter coming +to the Austrians. Also, when their comrades were delivering a final blow +to the Austrians at the crossing of the San, they were busy on the +opposite side of the Vistula driving back a large Austrian force and +occupying the important place of Sandomierz. They encountered and +overcame near Sandomierz <span class="pagenum"><a id="page403" name="page403"></a>(p. 403)</span> the Second German Landwehr Corps +under General Woyrsch. In the neighborhood of and at the town they +reported that they had taken 3,000 prisoners and 10 guns.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LXVIII</h2> + +<p class="title">SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS OF SEPTEMBER, 1914</p> + + +<p>Let us now briefly summarize the Russian strategy during this month of +portentous development, September, 1914, which concluded with the +advance down the left bank of the Vistula and the occupation of +Sandomierz.</p> + +<p>It will be recalled that, being more or less prepared, Russia had found +herself invaded by armies operating in three different directions over +an extended front. These armies contained in all about a million men. +The weakness of this advance, the Russians saw, consisted in this: that +the farther two armies of invaders, advancing in divergent lines, +proceed, the farther they become separated. Thus it is more difficult +for them to act in harmony or for either to protect the flanks of the +other.</p> + +<p>For this reason the Russians were satisfied to allow the First or +northern Army of the Austrians to advance almost without resistance +until it came within artillery range of its first main objective—that +is Lublin and the railway line to Ivangorod and Warsaw.</p> + +<p>Then the Russians delivered a blow with force at the weak Point between +the two invading armies in the vicinity of Tomaszow. The Austrians, to +meet this attack, were obliged to withdraw their reserve forces from the +far left across the rear of the First Army. When these forces proved +inadequate, the organization of a new army began, and this was thrown +into the gap.</p> + +<p>If it had been advanced immediately and simultaneously with the other +two armies, the new army might have served its purpose, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page404" name="page404"></a>(p. 404)</span> but +the campaign, it seems, was already too far advanced. The strength of +the Russians had been augmented, and after they had driven the wedge in +at Tomaszow they retained it in place, and were able to widen the break +by means of the operations which followed in the vicinity of Bilgoraj, +and by driving back the Austrian forces above Rawa-Russka. In this way +the First Austrian Army was left dangling at the extreme of its advance.</p> + +<p>In the meantime Brussilov had made his well-planned turning movement +along the Dniester on the far south, and had delivered his blow on +Halicz. Russky at the same time was hammering at the Austrian front and +left, penning in Von Auffenberg's army on an ever-contracting front, and +throwing it back on its successive lines of defense on the Zlota Lipa +before Lemberg, and from Grodek to Rawa-Russka.</p> + +<p>The Austrians, pushed back from each of these, and with Cossack cavalry +on their right, ranging over a considerable extent in southern Galicia, +were forced to fall back, guarding as best they might their rear, +westward toward Cracow.</p> + +<p>When Von Auffenberg's army had been put in a tight place, busy taking +care of its own safety, the Russians were able to devote their attention +to the army Dankl had in the north. There was no chance of aid reaching +it now, and it was weakened from efforts to force the barriers that had +been put across its path.</p> + +<p>The chief strength of the Russians was massed against the left of this +army, for if that wing was broken the entire army would find itself +hemmed in and must retreat in order to avoid being surrounded. And so, +forced from Opolie along the Vistula, attacked constantly on its entire +front and right flank from Tomaszow and Tarnograd, Dankl's army was +forced down to and across the San and beyond it.</p> + +<p>The movements of the Russians had been executed with great harmony. By +September 23, 1914, Dankl's army had been driven by Ewarts and Plehve to +the line of the Wisloka. Jaroslav was taken by Russky on September 21. +Chyrow was possessed by Brussilov on September 24. Brussilov had entered +Galicia at Woloczysk on the same day—August 22—that Russky had crossed +the frontier and occupied Brody.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page405" name="page405"></a>(p. 405)</span> The Austrian losses, since the taking of Lemberg, according to +an official statement made by the Russians on September 17, 1914, were +250,000 killed and wounded, and 100,000 prisoners with 400 guns, many +colors, and a vast quantity of stores. We are not obliged to accept +these figures. They are given here for what significance and merit they +may have, but as coming from Russia. It was also reported by Russia that +the rifles taken numbered almost half a million. The enemy's total +losses were put by Russia at from 35 to 50 per cent. Even the small +estimate is said by Austria to be an exaggeration.</p> + +<p>The Russians now held all eastern Galicia, and were masters of Lemberg, +Jaroslav, Brody, Busk, Tarnopol, Grodek, Brzezany, Sambor, and other +towns of no little importance, and also of the railroads between these +towns. They also were in control of the oil fields of Galicia, of +considerable importance to them at this time, and of the valuable +agricultural resources of Galicia, or of such part of it as they +occupied. Przemysl alone held out. Russian cavalry was already trying +the approach to the Carpathians from the Dukla Pass to the Bukowina.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LXIX</h2> + +<p class="title">INVESTITURE OF PRZEMYSL</p> + + +<p>Many fortresses lost a reputation of long standing for strength during +the Austro-Russian campaign. Grodek and Rawa-Russka, with fine natural +defenses and excellent works, were carried by assault after gallant +resistance. Lemberg's defenses were reputed to be powerful, but no +attempt was made to utilize them. The fall of Jaroslav has never been +explained. It was considered generally to be stronger than Namur or +Liege, and a prolonged resistance was anticipated there. It withstood +attack for only two days. When heavy guns were brought to bear on it by +the Russians the garrison withdrew. Przemysl seems, alone of all the +Austrian defenses, to have justified its reputation.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page406" name="page406"></a>(p. 406)</span> Przemysl was not only a strongly fortified place but a +beautiful city as well, surrounded with flower gardens and orchards. Its +history, like that of Lemberg, had been a stormy one. Its population in +1914, including residents of its suburbs, was about 50,000, principally +Poles and Ruthenes, who lived together in amity and great religious +toleration. In September of that year, when the Russians made their +whirlwind advance, there was, according to official reports from Vienna, +an army of 80,000 based on the city, under the leadership of General +Boroyevich.</p> + +<p>With a large part of this army, Boroyevich was reported to have moved to +the line of the Wisloka to give aid to Dankl's hard-pushed troops as +they made their stand on that river. It was understood that many of Von +Auffenberg's soldiers, as they fell back, were employed as a garrison +for the fortress. At the time of its investment it was said to contain +about 100,000 men, with its defense in charge of General Kusmanek. +Afterward the strength of the garrison was increased.</p> + +<p>It has been indicated previously how the railway communications had been +broken on the east and south by the advance of the Russians after the +fall of Grodek and the taking of Mocsiska. The isolation of the fortress +of Przemysl was completed by the fall of Jaroslav and the occupation of +Radymno, a town on the main Cracow railway on the left bank of the San, +about eight miles east of Jaroslav and fifteen miles north of the +fortress. And so it remained isolated, save for a short period when the +tide of invasion was driven back. During this time it was again in +communication with Cracow.</p> + +<p>The Russians took it as a matter of course that the fortress would soon +fall to them. Its fate was predicted in the newspapers of the Allies; +but, in preparation for defense, stores of all kinds had been hurried +into it, and plans had been laid for stout resistance. It had a +determined commander in General Kusmanek.</p> + +<p>The first shots were fired on September 18, 1914. The city was +surrounded on September 20, and an unbroken bombardment with many +desperate sorties ensued until October 2, when the Russians sent out a +white flag to the city and demanded its <span class="pagenum"><a id="page407" name="page407"></a>(p. 407)</span> surrender. General +Kusmanek's reply was that he would not discuss surrender until he had +exhausted all powers of resistance. The attack reached its height on +October 5, 1914. The Russians stormed again and again, hills of corpses +outside the works testifying to furious attacks they made. They +succeeded in carrying temporarily one of the outer works, eleven +battalions having succeeded in approaching these defenses undetected, +because of damage to an Austrian searchlight.</p> + +<p>Suddenly they stormed the walls. The garrison retreated to the +casemates, from which they defended themselves with rifles and machine +guns. The Russians forced their way to the casements and a hand-to-hand +struggle with bayonets, gun butts, and hand grenades followed. When +Austrian reenforcements, hastily telephoned for, arrived, the attacking +party was already retiring, leaving their dead and wounded in the +casemates and on the wall. Rockets and light shells illuminated their +retreat. There was desultory fighting during several days thereafter, +and then the Russian army settled down to a routine investment, biding +the time when their heavy siege guns could be brought up and the way +made ready for an effective assault. On October 18, 1914, there was a +battle to the east of Chyrow and Przemysl, which was successful for the +Austrians. The fighting near Mizynico was especially severe. The Magiera +Heights, which had been in the possession of the Russians, were occupied +by the Austrians after a formidable bombardment by their artillery. At +the same time Russian attacks on the east of Przemysl to Medyka Heights, +on the southern wing of the battle field, which were especially directed +against the heights to the southeast of Stryj and Sambor, were repulsed. +A fresh attack of the Russians on the east bank of the river near +Jaroslav also was repulsed.</p> + +<p>The addition of reserves and the opportunity to reorganize their army, +gave new fighting force to the Austrians about this time. Wherever the +Russians retired they followed them closely and by reconnaissances were +able to develop weak points in the Russian positions. On October 20, +1914, the Austrians had gained ground in several spots in a heavy, +stubborn attack on the fortified positions of the Russians from Plotzyn +to the highroad east <span class="pagenum"><a id="page408" name="page408"></a>(p. 408)</span> of Medyka, while a Russian counterattack +was unable to make headway.</p> + +<p>On the heights north of Nizankowice, Austrian troops scored another +victory and took also the villages situated against the heights. In the +southern wing the battle was carried on mainly by artillery. The modern +field fortification system being liberally used by the Austrians, the +battles had largely the nature of fortress warfare. On the same day the +Austrians captured in the Carpathians the last point, Jablonki Pass, +held by the Russians.</p> + +<p>Thus we now see the Austrian army, which had been described as routed +and destroyed in battles in Galicia, seemingly taking on a new lease of +life, although appearing to have found an impenetrable barrier at the +River San north of Jaroslav. On October 22, 1914, the Austrians retook +Czernowitz, capital of the crownland of Bukowina, which had been in the +possession of the Russians since early in the war. They also captured +two field fortifications, situated one behind the other, to the +southeast of Sambor.</p> + +<p>For eight days a terrific fight was waged between the Russians and the +Austrians on the line from Sambor, along the River San to Przemysl and +Jaroslav, and then to the southward. The battle extended over a front of +about sixty-five miles. The cannonading was uninterrupted. The Austrians +had started the attack at Sambor, but were thrown back by vigorous +Russian counterattacks. A concentration of Austrian corps then attempted +an advance against Lemberg, with the intention of bisecting the Russian +line. This attack was defeated with losses.</p> + +<p>On October 31, 1914, the Austrians defeated a mixed Russian column near +the Galician-Bukowinian frontier, north of Kuty. In middle Galicia by +that date they had occupied Russian positions northeast of Turka, near +Stryj, Sambor, east of Przemysl, and on the lower San. Several Russian +attacks around Lisko were repulsed. At Lisko, Stryj, Sambor, and other +points the Austrians took many prisoners. Near Stryj and Sambor the +Austrians blew up a Russian ammunition depot.</p> + +<p>On November 1, 1914, the Austrians claimed that they then had interned +in Austria-Hungary, 649 Russian officers and 73,179 <span class="pagenum"><a id="page409" name="page409"></a>(p. 409)</span> Russian +soldiers, not including the prisoners they had taken in the fighting in +the district northeast of Turka and south of the Stryj-Sambor line. The +fighting in this locality was renewed with greater intensity by both +sides early in the month, fortune favoring first one and then the other. +On November 2, 1914, two infantry divisions and a rifle brigade of +Russians were dislodged from a strongly intrenched position.</p> + +<p>About this time the czar's forces began concentrating their main attack +northeast of Kielce in an effort to repeat the tactics by which they won +important victories over the Austrians in the first days of the war. It +was their plan, provided they were able to break through at this point, +to turn southward against the rear of the Austrian army in Galicia, just +as they did two months before, after the battle of Rawa-Russka.</p> + +<p>The line of battle in the southeast now became more definitely outlined, +extending from Turka through Nadworna and Kolomea to the Russian border +just east of Czernowitz in Bukowina. The renewal of Russian attacks +followed the bringing up of a new levy of reserves.</p> + +<p>The Russians now advanced with fair success along the whole Vistula +front. They secured Piotrkow and other places in such positions as to +suggest that the Austrians were running the risk of being cut off from +Cracow, their ultimate goal of retreat. A rear-guard defense was +attempted by the Austrians at Opatow but without success, and the +Russians took several hundred prisoners and six Maxims with a supply +train.</p> + +<p>On the San River, where the fighting had been severe for a fortnight, +the Russians adopted the method of deliberately sapping their opponents' +trenches, precisely as a besieging force saps its way toward a fortress. +This proved a success. When the Russian sap burst in the trenches the +Austrians retreated, and the Russians, taking advantage of the +confusion, stormed the fortifications in the neighborhood and took them, +capturing 5 officers, 500 men, and all the Maxims.</p> + +<p>An Austrian column which had descended the north slope of the +Carpathians in the direction of Narvoda, where it had intrenched itself, +was attacked and driven back. This operation, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page410" name="page410"></a>(p. 410)</span> being removed by +more than one hundred miles from the nearest point to the great +struggle, indicated that the Austrians, confident of victory, sent +forces across the Carpathians to catch the Russians in the rear when the +proper moment came.</p> + +<p>This moment, it seems, failed to arrive, and the Russians, having the +support of the native inhabitants, had little difficulty in dealing +successfully with successive isolated attempts of the considerable +Hungarian reserve bodies sent across the Carpathians at various points.</p> + +<p>There was some activity about this time before Przemysl, which several +times had been reported, incorrectly, as having been taken by the +Russians. An attempt was made by the garrison at a sortie. The Russians +allowed it to proceed until they could cut in behind, when the force was +surrounded. When it found it was impossible to cut a way through either +forward or backward, it surrendered. The Russians took about 2,000 +prisoners.</p> + +<p>On the Austrian retiring line from Kielce to Sandomierz the Russians +succeeded on November 5, 1914, in breaking down the defenses of the +enemy, and in stimulating a more or less orderly retreat into a hasty +flight. Sandomierz, itself, an exceedingly important strategic point, +which had played a vital part since the early days of the war, fell into +the hands of the Russians. In fighting with the Austrian rear guard +southward of Kielce the Russians took within a week 200 officers and +15,000 men prisoners, with scores of guns and Maxims.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LXX</h2> + +<p class="title">AUSTRIAN RETREAT BEGINS</p> + + +<p>At this time the Russians were strongly established on the six-mile +front of the left bank of the San River, between Nizko and Rudnik. The +Austrian opposition there had been long and determined, but was finally +broken early in November, 1914. The Austrians began a retreat along this +front.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page411" name="page411"></a>(p. 411)</span> This retreat was such as to indicate less a general defeat than +a general obedience to orders to withdraw. It is true that the Russians +had been pressing with great energy upon the upper Vistula and San +fronts, especially since the settlement of the main fight farther north +against the Germans and mixed forces, but the Austrians were in +possession of strong fortified positions which still were giving trouble +to the Russians, in spite of their constantly increasing numbers.</p> + +<p>It was now plain that the Russians had left the Galician front until the +Vistula front had been cleared, when a proportion of the troops released +there could proceed to add to the fighting force in Galicia, thereby +causing the retreat of the Austrians along the whole front.</p> + +<p>On November 5, 1914, the Russians achieved what the General Staff +characterized as "the greatest victory since the beginning of the war." +This was the recapture of Jaroslav. It was announced to the Allies by +Grand Duke Nicholas in a formal message, which also stated:</p> + +<p>"Following our successes upon the Vistula, a complete victory has just +been gained by our troops along the whole of the front in Galicia. Our +strategical maneuver has thus been crowned by what is incontestably the +greatest success gained on our side since the beginning of the war. I am +most confident of the speedy and entire accomplishment of our common +task, persuaded as I am that decisive success will be gained by the +allied armies." In the capture of Jaroslav the Russians took 5,000 +Austrian prisoners.</p> + +<p>During several days before the general Austrian retreat along the +Vistula front began, they were engaged in furious attack, their +artillery fire being especially severe. It was evidently a supreme +effort. The last engagement was over an extended front, enormous forces +striving to prevent the Russians crossing the San at a point near +Monastryzek. It was reported that reenforcements pushing over the +Carpathians in an attempt to aid them were delayed in the snow-filled +mountain passes.</p> + +<p>We will have a better understanding of Russian tactics as worked out in +the activities just referred to, if we consider here <span class="pagenum"><a id="page412" name="page412"></a>(p. 412)</span> an +official statement issued by the General Staff about this time +concerning them. It read:</p> + +<p>"Fierce combats on the River San and south of Przemysl, which have been +going on for more than three weeks, resulted on September 5 in the +general retreat of the Austrians.</p> + +<p>"On the preceding night the Austrians made a last effort to repulse our +troops who were crossing the San. Until a late hour the enemy attacked +on an extended front, taking the offensive in dense, successive lines, +but everywhere they suffered enormous losses and were repulsed.</p> + +<p>"On November 5,1914, the enemy's columns commenced to move from the San +in the direction of Dukla Pass across the Carpathians and south of +Przemysl, seeking everywhere to leave the battle front. We pursued them +energetically all along the line.</p> + +<p>"The abandonment by the main Austrian forces of the line of the San is +the result of the victorious battle fought at the end of September, the +original purpose of which was to block the offensive of the +Austro-German armies against Warsaw and Ivangorod.</p> + +<p>"At the beginning of October our troops were engaged along a front +extending for 330 miles and passing through Warsaw, Kozienica, Przemysl, +and Czernowitz. Toward October 20 we succeeded in gaining a decisive +victory on the left bank of the Vistula in the region of Warsaw.</p> + +<p>"Following up our successes during the last eighteen days, on a front of +380 miles, we broke the resistance of the enemy who is now in full +retreat. This victory enables our troops to proceed to a realization of +further tasks to inaugurate a new period of the war."</p> + +<p>This announcement is embodied here, not only for such information as it +contains which coincide with established facts, but that the Russian +viewpoint toward such events and the purpose behind Russian activities +may be manifest.</p> + +<p>To the south of Przemysl on November 7, 1914, the Russians, having +increased their activities in the region considerably, took 1,000 +prisoners. Warfare about the fortress now seemed to be entering a new +phase, which the Russians initiated with great <span class="pagenum"><a id="page413" name="page413"></a>(p. 413)</span> artillery +activity and an advance against Medyka. The Austrians responded with a +closer concentration, with the fortress as their center. After the first +attack on Przemysl, all damage to the fortress had been repaired and the +outer forts strengthened by field fortifications, of a very strong +character, and covered by battery positions.</p> + +<p>A new railroad bridge was built at Nizankowice and communications with +Chyrow, about twenty-five miles to the south, restored. Numerous trains +had been used to transport wounded soldiers and useless Przemysl +civilians southward and to bring back flour, Zwieback, and other +supplies to the fortress. The arrival of many carloads of beer caused +particular rejoicing.</p> + +<p>On November 11, 1914, the Russians, advancing on Cracow from the +direction of Jaroslav, occupied Miechow and Dynow. The forces operating +farther south seized Lisko. It now seemed to the Russians that the enemy +would not be able to make an effective stand east of Tarnow and the +Dunajec River and so the Russians would find themselves once more on the +lines they had been forced to abandon hastily six weeks previously, when +the Germans first made their rapid advance to the Vistula. It was as a +result of this campaign and the course of the Russians in conceding +smaller successes in order to concentrate their forces at the most +important point that the Austrians found themselves driven back now at +every point, while the Russians advanced for the possession of the +western part of Galicia. It was the hope of the Russians that their +advance in Galicia would soon set free their Cossack divisions for a new +invasion of Hungary.</p> + +<p>On November 12, 1914, the Russians sustained a defeat near Czernowitz, +capital of the Austrian province of Bukowina. The Austrians made an +unexpected movement, crossing the Pruth, a few kilometers north of +Czernowitz and suddenly attacking the Russian right wing. The Russians +were completely surprised and after a short resistance decided to fall +back upon their base, which seemed free. However, they were then taken +under fire by Austrian artillery, which caused great losses among the +Russian detachments. The battle field was strewn with corpses. Russian +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page414" name="page414"></a>(p. 414)</span> forces in the Stryj valley also were forced to retire with +heavy losses by a surprise attack from an Austrian armored train and +Austrian cavalry.</p> + +<p>The Russian offensive in Galicia toward Dounaietz nowhere encountered +resistance. The Russians occupied Krosno and inflicted heavy losses on +the Austrian rear guard.</p> + +<p>It should be noted that during the middle of November, 1914, the +campaign on which the Russians were concentrating their attention was +against the Austrians. The Russian campaigns had consistently adhered to +the principle that in military operations important results are obtained +by bringing every force to bear upon a single point until the desired +end is accomplished. The Russians still followed this policy.</p> + +<p>The operations in East Prussia and in western Poland were for the time +being made secondary while all energy was devoted to pushing forward the +campaign against Cracow. When they were now within fifteen miles of it, +an appeal was sent by the city to the Germans for reenforcements. The +civilians of the place removed themselves from the fortified area and +the inhabitants generally fled the locality. The German colony left for +Berlin and Bavaria.</p> + +<p>Cracow was surrounded by a triple line of fortifications of which the +outer line contained fifteen forts, eleven on the north, and four on the +south bank of the Vistula. The defenses on the north were much stronger +than those on the East, where the San River and the fortresses of +Jaroslav and Przemysl were once regarded as a secure barrier against +Russian advance. The Russians already had broken down that barrier and +only two small streams lay between their eastern army and the last +stronghold of Galicia.</p> + +<p>On November 15, 1914, the Austrians defending Przemysl again attempted a +sortie, this time with greater success than before. It forced back the +Russians on the north side of the fortress to the heights of Rokietnica, +with small Austrian losses. A second sortie was repulsed by Russian +artillery and cavalry and heavy losses inflicted on the Austrians.</p> + +<p>In Galicia we now find the Austrians west of the Donajec <span class="pagenum"><a id="page415" name="page415"></a>(p. 415)</span> +River, along the front from Tarnow to the Vistula. The Austrian line +then followed the Biala River for a few miles until it cut across to +take advantage of the Wisloka, north and south of Jaslo. From there east +the Austrians were retreating into the passes of the Carpathians.</p> + +<p>These latter troops were relatively small bodies, whose main object was +to prevent the Russian cavalry from making raids into Hungary. Opposite +Tarnow the Austrians were prepared to put up a most stubborn resistance, +for they regarded the holding of this part of their line as essential. +Unless they could hold back the Russians there, they reasoned, the +latter would have a chance to break through and cut off the Austrian +army that was retreating from Sanok and Jaslo. A Russian advance north +of Cracow, they figured, would tend to cut off the entire Austrian army +from its German ally. This was an object for which the Russians were +striving.</p> + +<p>Abandonment by the Austrians of Central Galicia and the gathering of +their armies toward Cracow soon began to show results in the stiffening +of their resistance to Russian advance. As the Austrians retreated +westward their front decreased in length with consequent strengthening +of their line. It was their desire that this strengthening should enable +them to extend northward along the Warthe River, thus freeing some of +the German troops for service in the army that was advancing from Thorn.</p> + +<p>By the Russians a German advance in considerable force along the narrow +battle front on the west bank of the river Vistula was regarded as a +feint at the city of Warsaw, the intention of which was to draw Russian +troops from their advance upon Cracow and distract attention from +efforts to establish a strongly fortified defensive line from Kalisz to +Cracow.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page416" name="page416"></a>(p. 416)</span> CHAPTER LXXI</h2> + +<p class="title">FIGHTING AT CRACOW</p> + + +<p>On November 20, 1914, the Russians were before the outer line of +defenses of Cracow, with strong opposition to their further advancement. +Meanwhile they were pushing forward minor columns of Cossacks into the +passes of the Carpathian Mountains, intending that these should emerge, +if possible, upon the Hungarian plains in raids similar to those which +were made in the first Russian advance in September.</p> + +<p>During the next few days following November 20, 1914, there was constant +and hard fighting in the vicinity of Cracow, the Austrians reporting +that they had taken three battalions of Russians prisoners. All reports +showed a stiffening of the Austrian line, while the energy of Russian +attacks was reduced by the diversion of troops to stem the Austrian +invasion by way of the Vistula.</p> + +<p>The Austrians were obliged, however, a few days later, to evacuate Neu +Sandec, fifty miles southeast of Cracow, and an important railroad +junction of the River Dunajec and the main line to Cracow. The Russians +reported they took 3,000 prisoners and some machine guns. The capture of +Neu Sandec revealed a new Russian advance, threatening the right flank +of the Austrian army along the Carpathian Mountains. By this capture the +Austrians were deprived of an important railway into Hungary. In order +to stop this turning move it was necessary for them to weaken their +campaign north of Cracow.</p> + +<p>In the Cracow region the Austrians advanced on the north to Pilica, +Wolbrom, and Miechow, about twenty miles from the Galician border. To +the east the Russians advanced to within twelve miles of the fortress. +In the fighting at Pilica and Wolbrom the Austrians claimed the capture +of 29,000 Russians.</p> + +<p>In the latter part of November, 1914, the Russians were successful in +attack in Galicia along a line from thirty to sixty miles <span class="pagenum"><a id="page417" name="page417"></a>(p. 417)</span> +southeast of Cracow, taking more than 7,000 prisoners, thirty cannon, +and twenty machine guns in one engagement. On November 29, 1914, the +Austrians also scored a victory on the front extending from Proszowicz +to Onszreniawa, fourteen miles northeast of Cracow, southward through +Brzesko on the Vistula to Bochnia and Adsniez.</p> + +<p>General Radko Dmitrieff's cavalry kept in close touch with the +retreating Austrians, who were attempting to shake off contact with, the +Russians and gain time to re-form their ranks back of Cracow. Part of +the Austrian troops defeated on the San had retired beyond the +Carpathians to recuperate while the Russians attacked the Austrian force +southeast of Cracow.</p> + +<p>At this stage of hostilities, the Russians estimated that the +Austro-Hungarian casualties had amounted to 19,000 officers and 900,000 +men. At the same time, it was estimated by the Austrians that the total +Russian losses had been 760,000 in dead, wounded, deserters, and +prisoners. Of these, 420,000 were attributed to the various battles +against the Austro-Hungarian forces, and 340,000 to battles against the +Germans.</p> + +<p>The losses of the Russians in the campaigns against Austria-Hungary, as +estimated for the various engagements, were as follows: Early raids, +skirmishes, and frontier fighting, 15,000; Krasnik, Niedzfica Duza, +Lublin, 45,000; Zamosz, Komarow, Tyszowce, 40,000; first battle of +Lemberg, 45,000; second battle of Lemberg, 30,000; Rawa-Russka, +Magierow, 30,000; offensive against middle Galicia, 15,000; offensive +around Przemysl, 40,000; raising siege of Przemysl, 15,000; Carpathian +invasions, 30,000; battles on the San beyond Przemysl, to date, 25,000; +Medyka-Stari, Sambor, 40,000; outposts in the Carpathians, 15,000; last +battles of the Vistula from Sandomierz to Ivangorod, 35,000.</p> + +<p>On December 1, 1914, the Austrians had been driven from all their +positions over a front about thirty-three miles long, which defended the +Carpathian passes from Konecha Village, twelve miles north of Bartfield +eastward—that is, on all roads leading through the Dukla Pass over the +Carpathians. This was the lowest pass anywhere available across the +mountain range and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page418" name="page418"></a>(p. 418)</span> being also the widest, is in all respects +best suited for military purposes. All armies that previously had +invaded the present area of Hungary from time immemorial, via the +Carpathian Mountains, had used the Dukla Pass.</p> + +<p>A number of points along the line mentioned, where the Austrians had +established defensive positions, were taken by the Russians, the most +easterly being south of Mezolaborez. All were taken by assault. Many +guns, Maxims, and prisoners were captured. An energetic Russian advance +continued to push the Austrians back toward Cracow. The Austrians +evacuated one position after another with large losses.</p> + +<p>The Russian advance toward Bartfeld and Hammona, on the south slope of +the Carpathians in Hungary, indicated an attempt to push forward a +turning force around the south flank of the Austrian position, as it +stood at that time. The damage caused by this raiding expedition was +calculated to force the Austrians to meet it and so divert them from the +main fighting line at Cracow. Evidence of this shift was shown in a +reverse which the Austrians administered to the Russians at Hammona.</p> + +<p>Early in December, 1914, Russia replied to reports that she was +suffering from a shortage of recruits by declaring she could put two +corps against every one that Germany brought into Poland and still have +enough to carry on the campaign against Cracow as originally planned. +Her two armies operating against that important objective point had +linked flanks. Investment of the city was daily feared.</p> + +<p>The southern army, which moved directly west on the Tarnow-Cracow line, +had fought its way over every inch of the ground, making a record of +forty-five battles in forty-five days. At least, according to old +measures, these fights would be classed as battles. Under the stupendous +conditions which surrounded this modern cataclysm, they probably range +as little more than reconnaissances in force.</p> + +<p>Back to the banks of the River Raba, the advancing Russians pushed the +Austrian foe. Here in a position of considerable defensive value, the +enemy made a determined resistance. But the Russians swept on. The +Austrians made a stand soon afterward, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page419" name="page419"></a>(p. 419)</span> outside the protecting +radius of the fortress guns, in the angle made by the Raba and +Schreniawa.</p> + +<p>Przemysl about this time was reported to be in dire straits. Monsignor +Joseph Sebastian Felczar, Archbishop of Przemysl, said, December 3, +1914, after he had left the city for the Vatican:</p> + +<p>"Would to God my cathedral city might be spared the horrors of invasion +but I feel I can hope no longer. Our garrison has resisted with stubborn +heroism but the Russians outnumber them two to one. I got away only +after long hours of wearisome wanderings across the Russian lines; the +Muscovites had then already captured several of the outer ring of forts, +besides other important vantage ground, and had hemmed round the whole +fortress in a circle of steel.</p> + +<p>"When I left Przemysl, indescribable desolation reigned there. The +houses, palaces, and public buildings were reduced to dust heaps. +Despite severe measures taken by the authorities brigand bands prowled +among the ruins and pillaged such of the civil population as still +remained. A never-ending procession of caravans traversed the streets, +which were chock full of wounded and dying. The hospitals were +overcrowded and the injured laid out in rows in the churches."</p> + +<p>On December 4, 1914, the Russians, by the capture of Wieliczka, gained +another step in their campaign for the possession of the broad passes to +the south and west of Cracow. Wieliczka is a small town, about nine +miles southwest of Cracow and three miles from the line of forts. It is +built over salt mines, a short railway bearing the product thereof to +the larger city.</p> + +<p>On the northwestern side, the Russians were only a few miles from the +city. It was only the Austro-German army, sitting in trenches and making +occasional attacks on the Czenstochowa-Oilusz-Cracow line that prevented +the complete encirclement of the place. The contest between these forces +was mostly a slow artillery duel from day to day.</p> + +<p>It was now the turn of the Germans to relieve the Austrians, if they +could, from a critical position. For months before, the Austrians had +been sacrificed in the interest of the German plan <span class="pagenum"><a id="page420" name="page420"></a>(p. 420)</span> of winning +a crushing victory in France, and during the retreat from Warsaw it was +the Austrians who bore the brunt of the fighting as a rear guard. Again, +when the Germans found themselves hard pressed between the Warthe and +the Vistula, they flung the Austrian reenforcements to fresh defeat at +Wienun.</p> + +<p>It was the contention of Austrian military writer that in order to +maintain an effective resistance to the Russians at this time and +afterward, the Germans should continue to withdraw troops from the +western front.</p> + +<p>The Russians seemed to feel secure at this time in holding back the +German forces in Poland and so were passing forward their campaign in +Galicia, in an effort to interpose a wedge between the forces of the +opposing nations.</p> + +<p>Russia also had a special motive for exerting every effort to inflict +some signal disaster upon the Austrians. It was only by such means that +she could relieve the pressure on Serbia and thus save the smaller Slav +state from being overrun by the victorious Austrians.</p> + +<p>The Russian campaign against Cracow had been little effected by the +fighting going on at Lodz. The Russian forces in the region of Cracow +had a clear line of retreat, if retreat should be necessary, and were +not needed for strengthening the resistance being made by the Russians +at Warsaw, as troops from Central Russia could be moved to that +threatened district by the available railroads, much more rapidly than +armies could be sent overland from Cracow. The Russian forces in the +vicinity of Cracow could best help in the defense of Warsaw, the Russian +General Staff believed, by pressing their attack energetically and so +keeping busy in that field a large force of Austrians and Germans.</p> + +<p>On December 6, 1914, the defense of Cracow was stiffened by the arrival +of a large body of German troops. All the magnificent trees which +surrounded the place were cut down to afford space for the artillery and +various new lines of fortifications and barbed-wire entanglements were +constructed.</p> + +<p>The Russians perceived a turning movement on the part of the enemy, +south of Cracow, directed against the Russian left <span class="pagenum"><a id="page421" name="page421"></a>(p. 421)</span> wing. +Russian reenforcements which arrived found that the bridge over the +Dunajec, near Kourove, had been destroyed, and that the heights on the +left bank of the river were occupied by the enemy. Under a sustained +fire by Germans, one of the Russian regiments crossed the Dunajec at a +ford. They made their way through ice water up to their necks, and +coming out on the other side, captured the heights by a vigorous +assault. This assured and made safe the passage of the river by the +other Russian troops.</p> + +<p>On the following day, December 7, 1914, the Austro-Germans made an +effort to counteract the advance of the Russians to Wieliczka, southeast +of Cracow. By a dash toward Neu Sandek, on the headwaters of the Dunajec +River, the Austrians attempted to outflank the Russians and thus force +them to retreat from their advance position.</p> + +<p>The Austro-German forces occupied the valley of the stream Lososzyna, +and the fighting front extended from near Wieliczka southeastward to the +Dunajec, about fifty miles in length. The Russian attack was successful, +the losses inflicted upon the enemy, especially the German Twenty-fourth +Corps, being very heavy. Several German heavy guns were knocked out, +five field batteries were reduced to silence, guns and prisoners taken, +and the Russians continued their attack.</p> + +<p>In the next few days in December, 1914, events favored the Austrians. In +West Galicia the south wing of the Russian army was defeated at Limanovo +and compelled to retreat. The Austrians engaged in hot pursuit and took +many prisoners. Austrian forces took Neu Sandec and again entered +Grybow, Gorlice, and Zmigrod. The Austrians reported that the Russians +had completely evacuated the Zemplin country.</p> + +<p>A third incursion of Germans into Galicia was arrested by Russians on +the very border of the province. Some maneuvering on the part of General +Dmitrieff's corps sufficed to check the invading columns, although they +crossed the Carpathians on a wide front extending between Wieliczka and +the headwaters of the San River.</p> + +<p>During the same week, the garrison of Przemysl made a series <span class="pagenum"><a id="page422" name="page422"></a>(p. 422)</span> +of attempts at sorties, but each time were driven back with heavy loss. +The Russians captured several hundred prisoners and ten Maxims. It was +learned later that increasing scarcity of provisions complicated by +sickness was responsible for these tentative efforts to lift the siege. +An unsuccessful attempt also was made by a force from the garrison to +open the railway in the direction of Biercza, on the southwest.</p> + +<p>It was asserted at Austrian headquarters that the total number of +Russians captured by the Austro-Hungarians in Galicia within three days +in the middle of December, 1914, was 33,000. After a battle at Limanowa, +it was said, 26,000 were captured. The number of Russians killed was +very large, according to report, 1,200 dead being found at Limanowa +alone.</p> + +<p>The problem of caring for prisoners had by this time become acute both +for Austria and for Russia. According to the Russian Department of the +Interior, which had charge of the maintenance of prisoners, there were +then in Russia, exclusive of the Germans reported captured in operations +under way in North Poland, 350,000 Austrian and German prisoners of war. +Of this number only 100,000 were Germans, the rest being Austrians +captured during the campaign in Galicia.</p> + +<p>At Semipalatinek, on the Irtish River, near the borders of Western +Mongolia, one small escort of Russian soldiers was serving as guard for +100,000 Austrian and German prisoners, whose prison walls consisted of +four thousand miles of frozen steppes, separating them from the borders +of their own countries.</p> + +<p>The prisoners were brought by rail to Omsk, where they were embarked on +steamboats for the thousand mile trip down the Irtish River to +Semipalatinek. Here quarters were found for them in the big barracks +erected for the mobilization of the Russian army and unoccupied since +its departure for the front.</p> + +<p>Every morning at eight o'clock the prisoners were released from the +barracks and permitted to wander about at will. When they departed in +the morning, they were told that unless they reported at the barracks by +nightfall they would be locked out. At that time of the year, in such a +bleak country, this would mean death, as there was practically no place +where they could <span class="pagenum"><a id="page423" name="page423"></a>(p. 423)</span> obtain shelter. The freedom of the prisoners +during the day was absolute, even to the extent of accepting employment +from local mining companies.</p> + +<p>In the thick of its fighting in Galicia, Russia had another problem to +deal with, which was the Russianization of the country. In the middle of +December, 1914, arrangements were made under the auspices of a member of +the Duma charged with national education in Galicia, for a large number +of elementary school teachers in the native schools of Galicia, to +attend at certain centers a series of lectures on Russian language and +literature. Lember, Sambor, Tarnopol, Stanislavoff, and Chernovtsi were +the first towns chosen for the opening of these courses. Besides this +measure, Russia, in the following month, opened ten model elementary +schools where all teaching was given in the Russian language. These were +in small towns and villages.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LXXII</h2> + +<p class="title">AUSTRIANS AGAIN ASSUME THE OFFENSIVE</p> + + +<p>On December 14, 1914, the Russian General Staff announced that it had +"discovered the enemy trying again to assume the offensive in Galicia." +Two days later, Austro-German columns were pouring over the Dukla. It +was understood that three new German army corps had been sent to the +eastern front, making nine new corps since the beginning of hostilities, +and that three Austrian corps were withdrawn from Serbia. The number of +troops entering Galicia through the mountain passes was estimated at +175,000 men.</p> + +<p>This movement compelled the Russians to withdraw the raiding parties +which had invaded Hungary. It is unlikely, however, that Russia had +planned to invade Hungary in force, so long as Przemysl and Cracow stood +firm. As the situation then was, it would have been a perilous feat to +send an army any distance across the mountains. Before such an invasion +could be attempted, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page424" name="page424"></a>(p. 424)</span> it was first necessary that the positions +of the Russians in western Galicia and Poland should be greatly +strengthened.</p> + +<p>When the new Austro-German reenforcements arrived in Galicia over the +Dukla, the extreme southern end of the Russian line below Cracow was +pushed back from advanced positions west of the Raba to and over the +Dunajec. But the Russians did not regard the menace from this quarter as +a grave one. Announcement was made by General Sukhomlinoff, the Russian +Minister of War, on December 23,1914, that it had been stopped +"absolutely." We have said before that it was at the Austrians, rather +than the Germans, that the Russians wished at this time to strike a +telling blow.</p> + +<p>On December 28, 1914, General Dankl's army sought to help the main +German forces by passing over the Nida near its junction with the upper +Vistula above Tarnow. The Russians suddenly were reenforced at this +point by troops who swam the ice-filled stream, attacked the Austrians +on their flank, drove them back, and took 10,000 prisoners.</p> + +<p>It was about this time, when Radko Dmitrieff was operating so +successfully in the neighborhood of Tarnow, that General Brussilov +resumed the offensive in Galicia. He was able to feed and munition his +army from Kiev. Practically all the railroad system of Galicia could be +utilized by him for maneuvering troops and distributing supplies. His +troops numbered only about 250,000, but their strength was increased by +railway facilities. General Brussilov could afford to send a large force +under General Selivanoff to help invest Przemysl.</p> + +<p>To the Russians, however, Przemysl was not of immediate importance. The +fortress commanded the railroad leading past Tarnow to Cracow, and would +have been badly needed, it is true, if the army of Dmitrieff at Tarnow +had been attacking Cracow. But the army of General Ivanoff had been +forced by this time to retire about fifty miles north of Cracow. +Therefore, the smaller force commanded by Dmitrieff was unable to do +anything against Cracow from the east; and so it withdrew from the upper +course of the Dunajec River and became intrenched along the more +westerly tributary of the Dunajec, the Biala.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page425" name="page425"></a>(p. 425)</span> The Russian line extended from the Biala to the Dukla Pass in +the Carpathians. Still farther eastward, all along the lower valleys of +the Carpathians, the army of General Brussilov was holding out against a +large Austro-Hungarian force. This was under the command of General +Ermolli.</p> + +<p>The chief offensive movement of Ermolli in December, 1914, was directed +toward the relief of Przemysl. As has been indicated, his lines ran +through Grybov, Krosno, Sanok, and Lisko, thereby putting a wedge +between the army of Brussilov and that of Dmitrieff. He attacked +Dmitrieff from the east along the line of the Biala and the Dunajec. In +Christmas week Dmitrieff administered a heavy defeat to him, and took +nearly thirty thousand prisoners and many guns. In this way he helped +prepare for new plans which Grand Duke Nicholas and his staff had +prepared for the Russian army in Galicia for the new year.</p> + +<p>Cracow had successfully resisted assault, and seemed likely to hold out +against the best efforts of the Russians. The gateway to Silesia had +been closed. Hindenburg had achieved one of his chief objects in forcing +the central Russian forces back. He had paid a huge price in men in +order to establish a deadlock of warfare in trenches, about midway in +the big bend of the Vistula. Nevertheless, from the German viewpoint, +the result achieved was worth it.</p> + +<p>If the battle for Silesia had been won in November, 1914, by General +Russky and General Ivanoff on the field in front of Cracow, Italy and +Rumania might have been brought into the fight by their continued +advancing movement. Austria and Hungary thus might have been attacked +and overcome by huge forces from three sides. If Austria-Hungary fell, +the overthrow of Germany might have been threatened. Hindenburg's +strategy had put this out of the range of possibility.</p> + +<p>It was such developments as have been mentioned that caused the Russian +commander in chief to decide on Hungary as the next object of attack. He +planned to bring direct pressure upon Vienna and Budapest and so force +first the Hungarians and then the Austrians to ask for terms of peace. +If they did not, he <span class="pagenum"><a id="page426" name="page426"></a>(p. 426)</span> counted on Italy and Rumania entering the +war and assuring victory for the Allies.</p> + +<p>On Christmas Day, 1914, under such conditions, began the great battles +of the Carpathians, which continued for many months to be a crisis of +the war. The Russians were outnumbered, but their position was +favorable. On December 25 they advanced on the Dukla Pass. Meanwhile +fierce fighting continued at various points in Galicia. In the +neighborhood of Tuchow, south of Tarnow, the Russians, on observing the +advance of the Twenty-sixth Austrian Brigade, slipped past on parallel +roads and surprised the Austrian rear. The Russians opened fire with +machine guns and virtually annihilated the whole brigade. In two days' +fighting in southern Galicia, near the Carpathians, the Russians +captured more than 4,000 prisoners, including a major of the General +Staff and five other officers, besides three heavy guns and two machine +guns. In this region the Russians were moving small detachments through +the mountain passes.</p> + +<p>Many spectacular engagements took place during the development of the +Russian offensive among the mountain spurs of the Carpathians. On +Christmas Day, 1914, two Russian infantry regiments, under a murderous +fire and wading waist deep in the icy water of the River Jasiolka, +dislodged by bayonet charges the Austrians from their line and took as +prisoners four officers and 150 men. On the same day an inferior force +of Austrians surprised a Russian detachment and took 4,000 prisoners.</p> + +<p>In another engagement south of the Vistula, in the region of Tarnow, the +Russians drove back the Austrians from the Tuchnow-Olpiny line. The +enemy abandoned ten rapid firers and the Russians took prisoner 43 +officers and more than 2,500 men. The next day, December 2, 1914, +continuing the pursuit of the Austrians, the Russians captured 8 machine +guns and about 1,000 prisoners. The Russians occupied the heights near +Siedfizka, on the left bank of the Biala River. This gave them +possession of a twenty-mile strip of territory separating the two +Austrian forces.</p> + +<p>Late in December, 1914, all attacks by the Austrians in the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page427" name="page427"></a>(p. 427)</span> +territory between the Pilica and the upper reaches of the Vistula ceased +and the Russians assumed the active offensive in this region. They +cleared the left or easterly bank of the Nida River by the capture of an +obstinately defended Austrian position which was taken by storm.</p> + +<p>South of the Vistula, or astride it on the front from Opatow across the +Biala River to Biecz, the Russians took prisoners 200 officers and +15,000 men in their sweeping process. A retreat of Austrians in Galicia +along the Lisko-Sanok-Dulka-Zmigrod front was precipitate, the nature of +the country favoring them, the corridor-like valleys and passes +preventing the Russians from pursuing them over parallel roads or +harassing their flanks. Only six roads cross the Carpathians, two of +which are little more than mountain trails. Owing to the unbroken +character of this region, the Russian cavalry was able to do little +scouting, while the extreme cold interfered with the work of aeroplanes.</p> + +<p>In western Galicia the Russians made progress in spite of the almost +impassable condition of the country due to mud, driving the enemy from +the front of Stromnik-Gorlice-Jasliska, taking guns and a large number +of machine guns.</p> + +<p>The year of 1914 closed with the Russian troops advancing in western +Galicia, having stormed several fortified works of the enemy, east of +Zakliczyn, making prisoners of 44 officers and 1,500 soldiers, and +capturing 8 machine guns.</p> + +<p>Southwest of Dukla Pass the Russians had dislodged the Austrians from +positions they had strongly fortified. They had also realized an +important success south of Lisko and had repulsed counterattacks by the +enemy in the Carpathians at Uzsok Pass and renewed sorties by the +garrison at Przemysl.</p> + +<p>Early in January, 1915, the Russians developed great activity in +Bukowina and the Carpathians, without making much impression on Austrian +positions which they attacked on the Sucwaza River, in the Upper +Csermosz territory, and also further west, on the ridges of the +Carpathians. In the district of Gorlice and to the northwest of +Zakliczyn determined Russian attacks were repulsed. During the fighting +at Gorlice the Austrians stormed and captured a height south of there.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page428" name="page428"></a>(p. 428)</span> During the second week in January, 1915, heavy rains put a stop +temporarily to the Russian offensive southward in the direction of Neu +Sandek, and at the same time to the Austrian offensive in Russian +Poland. A thaw following rain converted the whole country into a vast +morass. It was physically impossible for the Austrians to bring up heavy +artillery, without which the Russian position along the Nida River could +not be forced.</p> + +<p>The Russian lines on the east bank of the Nida followed the heights, +which were admirably suited for intrenchments and well covered with +positions for the Russian artillery fire. There was little firing, +however, except an occasional artillery duel when the fog permitted and +sporadic local infantry firing. Conditions were similar east of Cracow, +the adversaries being well intrenched on opposite sides of the Dunajec +River.</p> + +<p>During this time another determined sortie was made by the garrison at +Przemysl, preceded by extensive cavalry reconnaissance. The Austrian +infantry then advanced in force in the direction of a wood near the +city. The Russians opened fire, but the Austrians rushed forward and +gained the cover of the woods. They continued to push forward and the +Russians permitted them to advance close to their position before making +a serious attempt to halt them.</p> + +<p>With the fighting thus at close range, the Russians opened a terrific +fire from rifles and machine guns. The battle raged for several hours, +with heavy losses on both sides. The Austrians then retired to the +fortress.</p> + +<p>From the middle to the end of January, 1915, fierce snowstorms and +bitter cold interfered with the activity of both Russians and Austrians. +There were few engagements. Toward the end of the month, concentration +of Austrian troops in Bukowina became stronger. On January 21, 1914, an +Austrian force, including an infantry division with artillery, attacked +the Russian front in the region of Kirlibaba, but was repulsed.</p> + +<p>On the night of January 27, 1914, the Russians were driven back in the +Upper Ung Valley from their positions on both sides of Uzsok Pass. This +was one of the most important of the Carpathian passes, for the +possession of which many important <span class="pagenum"><a id="page429" name="page429"></a>(p. 429)</span> engagements had been fought +since the beginning of the war. It was strongly intrenched and +stubbornly defended in several good positions, one behind the other. It +fell into the hands of the Austrians after three days of hard fighting. +West of the Uzsok Pass, Russian attacks were repulsed with heavy losses. +Near Vezeralles and Volovco battles ended with the Russians being driven +from the heights of the pass. The Austrians took 400 prisoners.</p> + +<p>During the latter part of January, 1915, there were no developments of +importance in Galicia.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page430" name="page430"></a>(p. 430)</span> PART VII—RUSSO-GERMAN CAMPAIGN</h2> + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LXXIII</h2> + +<p class="title">FIRST CLASH ON PRUSSIAN FRONTIER</p> + + +<p>The first clash of arms between the Russian and German armies occurred +on August 6, 1914, near Soldau, East Prussia. In this chapter we will +follow the events which were taking place on this frontier, +simultaneously with the movements of the German invasions of Belgium and +France, the Austro-Serbian campaigns, the Russian invasion of Austria, +and the campaigns in the other parts of the world. The general causes +preceding the outbreak of the war have been fully narrated in Volume I, +while the theatre of the following campaign is clearly described in the +chapter on that subject. It is necessary at this time, however, to +review the fighting lines before we bring the mighty German army and the +Russian hosts into combat on their first battle ground.</p> + +<p>We have seen that for many years previous to the outbreak of the great +European War all the countries involved had been forced by political, +economic, and social conditions to work, each country in its own way, +toward the same main object—military preparedness. Many factors, of +course, determined not only the means for achieving this result, but +also the degree to which it was finally accomplished. At this time we +are interested only in the results so far as they affected Russia and +Germany at the beginning of the war.</p> + +<p>When the armies gathered on the Russo-German frontier, both of these +countries had reached a high degree of military efficiency. Germany, +which for decades had been the acknowledged leader <span class="pagenum"><a id="page431" name="page431"></a>(p. 431)</span> among the +great powers as far as army development was concerned, had practically +concluded the increases and improvements for the accomplishment of which +its people had only recently submitted to a special scheme of very +extensive taxation, the "Wehrbeitrag." By the results of this move, we +find that the western defenses against France and indirectly against +England profited much more than those in the east against Russia.</p> + +<p>Russia, as its army stood ready to strike its first blow at Germany, had +drawn to the fullest extent the obvious conclusions impressed upon it by +its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War. Graft, which had played such great +havoc during its last war, had been stamped out. The artillery equipment +had been brought up to date and the troops in charge of it had increased +vastly their skill in its use. Everywhere formations had been +rearranged, increased and improved, and this rearrangement had affected +especially the distribution of the empire's forces. Never before in its +history had Russia concentrated so many troops in its eastern and +central provinces.</p> + +<p>In setting its armies into action, Germany faced by far the easier +problem. Its territory was much more compact, its means of communication +were vastly greater and superior, and racial differences between its +various parts were practically nonexistent. With a total area of 208,825 +square miles, the German Empire possessed 39,532 miles of railroad, +whereas the Russian Empire in Europe, with 2,100,000 square miles had +only 35,447 miles of railroad. The Germans had the further advantage of +having brought all their means of transportation to the very acme of +perfection, while the Russians were lacking in equipment as well as in +organization.</p> + +<p>The remarkable quickness and effectiveness with which the Russian army +operated at the moment of war indicates not only an unexpectedly high +state of preparedness, but also a remarkably high degree of leadership +on the part of its generals.</p> + +<p>The general staffs of both Russia and Germany were as well prepared to +meet on the battle ground as far as it had been within human power and +foresight. Each side had collected all available information concerning +the other. The German genius for <span class="pagenum"><a id="page432" name="page432"></a>(p. 432)</span> organization had proved +itself especially valuable and fertile in this direction. On the basis +of this knowledge, well-defined plans of campaign had been worked out, +and the leaders of both sides had many opportunities to exercise their +strategic abilities, not only by solving problems created by these plans +theoretically across the tables in their respective war colleges, but +also practically during the annual periods of maneuvers.</p> + +<p>As the armies faced each other in the first week of August, 1914, the +strategy of both sides was determined chiefly by three factors: (1) by +the obstacles and defenses which nature itself had placed in the +localities in which the fighting was likely to take place; (2) by the +means of defense and offense which were available; (3) by political +conditions.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the war all but the last were absolutely known +quantities, and as far as Russia and Germany were concerned this last +factor could be figured out comparatively easily. For it was clear that +if Germany would become involved in a war with Russia, Austria would be +found fighting by its ally's side and <i>vice versa</i>. It was also fairly +reasonable to assume, and had immediately become a fact, that under such +conditions Germany would find itself involved with France too, which +would mean that Germany's available fighting strength would have to be +divided into two parts at least. It was, of course, a matter of fairly +common knowledge that Germany's concentration was much more powerful on +its western border than on its eastern, so that Russia could count with +reasonable certainty on a comparative weak, even if well organized, +resistance on the part of Germany at the beginning of war.</p> + +<p>Germany's strategy in the east was influenced chiefly by its plan for +the western campaign, which we have already considered in the preceding +chapters. The fight against France seemed to be of greater importance +and urgency to Germany than that against Russia. Why German strategy +reached this conclusion does not concern us here. In passing, however, +it may be well to remember that the German provinces adjoining France +directly, or indirectly behind Belgium and Luxemburg, were of much +greater importance and value to the Germans than their <span class="pagenum"><a id="page433" name="page433"></a>(p. 433)</span> +provinces adjoining Russia, and that even the temporary loss of these +would probably have spelled disaster to Germany. Then, too, it was on +the western side that England's influence was being felt; and, +furthermore, the French army, though much less numerous than the +Russian, was a more formidable adversary on account of its greater +effectiveness, as well as of the certainty of its much quicker +movements.</p> + +<p>Russia had a preponderantly large advantage in numbers over Germany. The +result of this fact, from a strategic point of view, was that Russia +could dare much more than her adversaries. She could strike stronger, +quicker, and with greater frequency in more directions, and could risk +to extend her operations much farther. The fact that means of +transportation, as has been pointed out, were much better developed in +the German frontier provinces than in those of Russia, was a +disadvantage only as long as Russia fought on its own territory, though +even then, necessarily, the invading enemy would be hampered at least +equally by the lack of transportation facilities.</p> + +<p>Russia's natural advantage of greater numbers pointed clearly to an +immediate offensive which would bring with it the promise of more +advantages, while both German and Austrian conditions indicated with +equal clearness as the safest and sanest strategy a policy of "watchful +waiting," at least until such time when large enough forces could be +spared from the western front or concentrated from available reserve +sources to promise to a more aggressive policy a fair chance of success.</p> + +<p>Thus Russia decided to strike immediately against Germany as well as +against Austria. With the latter campaign we are not concerned here. How +she devoted herself to this twofold task with all the power and means at +her command we shall see in the following narrative.</p> + +<p>The hosts of Russia were standing on the German frontier. In the four +provinces adjoining Austria-Hungary a total of sixteen army corps, or +one-half of all the Russian army in European Russia, were available. By +July 31, 1914, the czar had ordered the general mobilization of army and +navy. The German Ambassador in Petrograd was instructed to notify the +Russian Government <span class="pagenum"><a id="page434" name="page434"></a>(p. 434)</span> that unless this order was countermanded +within twelve hours, Germany would immediately respond by mobilization +of her army and navy. As the Russian mobilization had continued, Germany +officially took the same step in the late afternoon of August 1, 1914, +after a state of war had already been proclaimed for the entire empire +on July 31, 1914.</p> + +<p>The fighting forces on the German side at the beginning of the war on or +near the east front included the First Army Corps at Königsberg, the +Twentieth at Allenstein, the Seventeenth at Danzig, the Fifth at Posen, +and the Sixth at Breslau. These mustered a total of forty-four infantry, +twenty-one cavalry, and twenty-five artillery regiments, augmented by +four battalions of rifles (Jaeger), and twelve formations of technical +troops. The entire peace effectiveness of these formations was about +150,000 men, which at full war strength undoubtedly meant at least not +less than 500,000 men, of whom about one-half were of the first line, +the balance being made up of reserves and Landwehr troops.</p> + +<p>The Russians drew up, in the face of the Germans, two armies: the Army +of Poland and the Army of the Niemen. The latter in peace time centered +in Vilna and consisted of five army corps; the former used Warsaw as its +base and consisted of at least as many army corps. It now held a wide +front from the Narev in the north to the valley of the Bug River. These +two armies together had an effectiveness of almost twice as many men as +the German forces, supported as they were by a series of well-garrisoned +fortresses: Grodno, Osowiec, and Bialistock in the north; Lomza, Novo +Georgievsk, and Warsaw in the center; and Ivangorod and Brest-Litovsk in +the south. In its entirety the mobilization of these forces was +completed about the third week of August, 1914, but by the end of the +first week the Army of the Niemen had completed its mobilization, and it +was from there that the first blow was struck.</p> + +<p>This army was commanded by General Rennenkampf, one of the few Russian +generals who had succeeded in coming through the Russo-Japanese War, not +only with an untarnished, but even with an enhanced reputation. Its task +was to invade the northern part of East Prussia, striking directly at +Königsberg.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page435" name="page435"></a>(p. 435)</span> Small engagements, of course, took place all along the +Russo-German border between the advance guards of the two armies from +the day war had been declared.</p> + +<p>On August 6, 1914, a Russian cavalry division crossed over into the +enemy's country south of Eydtkuhnen. The next ten days saw many isolated +advances of this nature, all of them initiated by the Russians, and most +of them accomplishing their respective objects. One small force ventured +as far north as the immediate proximity of Tilsit of Napoleonic memory.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LXXIV</h2> + +<p class="title">ADVANCE OF RUSSIANS AGAINST THE GERMANS</p> + + +<p>On August 16, 1914, within seventeen days after the official beginning +of the Russian mobilization, everything was in readiness for the general +advance. The next day immediately developed the first strong German +resistance. At Stallupoehnen the German First Corps from Königsberg, +under General von François, supported by two reserve corps, attempted to +stem the Russian flood. Though they succeeded in taking 3,000 prisoners +and some machine guns, they had to fall back upon Gumbinnen. The +pressure of the superior Russian numbers—four active and two reserve +corps—proved too strong. The battle front now was about thirty-five +miles long, extending from Pillkallen on the north to Goldap on the +south, with Gumbinnen in the center.</p> + +<p>On August 20, 1914, the first real battle on the eastern front was +fought before this pretty country town, which was founded in the +beginning of the eighteenth century, and had gradually acquired about +15,000 people. General Rennenkampf used his numerical superiority for a +powerful onslaught against the enemy's center. Fourteen hours of the +most stubborn fighting—beginning at dawn and ending only with the +coming of night—resulted in the final withdrawal of the German center. +Though <span class="pagenum"><a id="page436" name="page436"></a>(p. 436)</span> artillery did some preparatory work, it was the +slashing thrust of glittering bayonets in massed formations and the +tearing devastation of hand grenades that carried the day. The German +wings kept up their resistance for the next day, but finally joined the +main army which had withdrawn through Gumbinnen to Insterburg. The +losses on both sides probably were about even, amounting to at least +5,000.</p> + +<p>The certainty of the Russian numerical superiority undoubtedly was +responsible for Von François's continuation of his retreat to his main +base, Königsberg. The Russians lost no time in following and reached +Insterburg on August 23, 1914. Practically without further opposition +all of northern East Prussia as far as the river Memel was in General +Rennenkampf's hands, Tilsit, Labiau, Tapiau, Gerdauen, Korschen, +Rastenburg, Angerburg, and Goldap indicate the limits of his conquest. +With it went four of the six railroads centering in Königsberg, leaving +open only the two lines running to Allenstein and Danzig, which, of +course, meant serious danger to this important German fortress.</p> + +<p>The Russian Army of the Narew had, in the meantime, pushed its advance +with equal rapidity and success from the south. Its commander, General +Samsonoff, had won laurels in Manchuria, and had acquired considerable +military reputation as a commander in Turkestan and as a member of the +general staff. He had approximately as many men at his disposal as his +colleague—about 250,000. His task, however, was more difficult. For his +entire front would face, almost immediately after crossing the border, +the treacherous lake district in the south of East Prussia. For his +advance he used the two railroads from Warsaw into East Prussia, on the +west through Mlawa and Soldau, and on the east through Osowiec and Lyck. +From the latter town he pushed his right wing forward in a northwesterly +direction, and sent his center toward the southwest to Johannisburg.</p> + +<p>On August 23 and 24, 1914, to meet this advance, the Germans had +available only one active army corps, centered in Allenstein, the +Twentieth. Local Landwehr formations found the task <span class="pagenum"><a id="page437" name="page437"></a>(p. 437)</span> of +delaying the Russians far beyond their power. In quick succession +Samsonoff took Soldau, Neidenburg, Ortelsburg, and finally Allenstein. +At Frankenau, just west of the Mazurian Lakes, his right wing connected +with the Twentieth German Corps, which, supported by strongly prepared +intrenchments, managed to hold up the Russian advance, but finally had +to give way and fall back on Allenstein and Osterode. This gave to the +Russians command of one more railroad to Königsberg, that from +Allenstein. Though the two Russian armies had not yet formed a solid +connection, they were in touch with each other through their cavalry, +and the Russian front was in the form of a doubly broken line running +from Friedland through Gerdauen to Angerburg (Niemen Army) and from +there through Frankenau and Allenstein to Soldau (Narew Army). The +former, facing southwest, in connection with the latter, now threatened +not only Königsberg, but the defensive line of the Vistula from Thorn to +Danzig. The greater part of East Prussia seemed securely in the +possession of more than 500,000 Russian soldiers, chiefly of the first +line, and under apparently very able leadership.</p> + +<p>The occupied territory suffered severely. Bombardment and fire had laid +waste, at least partially, some of the towns and a great many of the +villages. Requisitions for the support of the invading army necessarily +brought great hardships and losses to the unfortunate inhabitants. The +avalanche-like success of the Russian arms, the clearly displayed +weakness of German numbers and the rapid retreat of their forces +naturally added to the terror of the peasants who make up the largest +part of East Prussia's population. By thousands they fled from their +villages and hamlets, carrying on their slow oxcarts or on their +shoulders whatever they had gathered as their most precious possessions +in their first hours of fear and terror. To them the word "Cossack" +still called up pictures of the wild hordes that had overrun their +country during the Seven Years' War, and later again in the Napoleonic +wars. The large, strongly fortified cities of Königsberg and Danzig +seemed to hold out the only hope for life and security, and toward these +they flocked in ever-increasing masses. Even Berlin itself had brought +home to it some of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page438" name="page438"></a>(p. 438)</span> more refined cruelties of war by the +arrival of East Prussian refugees.</p> + +<p>We have already seen that at the outbreak of the war only five active +German corps were left on the eastern front. Two, the First and the +Twentieth, had, so far, had to bear the brunt of the Russian advance; +one other, the Sixth, had been sent from Breslau to detract, as much as +possible, the Russian onslaught against the Austrian forces in Galicia; +and the other two, the Fifth and Seventeenth, stationed in Danzig and +Posen, were too far back to be immediately available.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LXXV</h2> + +<p class="title">BATTLE OF TANNENBERG AND RUSSIAN RETREAT</p> + + +<p>When on August 22, 1914, the full strength of the Russian attack became +evident, the German General Staff decided on heroic measures. An +immediate increase of the German forces to the point where they would +match the Russian seemed out of the question, and the solution of the +problem, therefore, clearly lay in the ability of the general staff to +find a general who could, with the forces on hand, meet the requirements +of the situation—free East Prussia of the invader.</p> + +<p>Fortunately for Germany, its hour of need on the eastern front brought +forth this man. There had been living for a number of years in the west +German city of Hanover a general who had been retired in 1911 as +commander of an army corps. His name was Paul von Hindenburg. He was at +that time in his sixty-seventh year, but having been an army officer +since his youth, he was "hard as nails," and from a military point of +view still in the prime of his years as a leader.</p> + +<p>It was well known in military circles that Von Hindenburg had acquired +the most thorough knowledge of the difficult lake district south of +Königsberg. He had devoted his time and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page439" name="page439"></a>(p. 439)</span> energies for years to +a most exhaustive study and investigation of the Mazurian lakes and +swamps. Again and again he had tramped through them on foot, picked his +way along their treacherous paths on horseback, and finally put their +few roads to the supreme test of the motor car. He knew their every +shortcoming and advantage. His topographical information included +fording places for men and guns, and quicksands.</p> + +<p>Much of this knowledge he passed on to younger officers to whom he +lectured at the General Staff College in Berlin, and when, only some +years ago, practically all arrangements had been concluded by powerful +financial interests to drain and cultivate his beloved lakes and swamps +for agricultural purposes, he succeeded in overthrowing these plans at +the last moment. It is said that so powerful were these interests that +Von Hindenburg succeeded only by going, at last, to the emperor himself, +and convincing him that the natural defensive possibilities outweighed +in value any amount of increased acreage of reclaimed land.</p> + +<p>We have already shown the problem which faced Von Hindenburg. To drive +the Russians out of East Prussia he had to defeat two armies composed of +at least 500,000 men, whose offensive momentum had been raised to a very +high power by a highly successful advance of more than a week's +duration. He, himself, could count only on far inferior numbers, not +more than the equivalent of four army corps. These he had to assemble +without loss of time and with as much artillery equipment as could be +spared from all directions. From Königsberg came the biggest part of the +beaten First Corps and its reserves. What was left of the Twentieth +Corps, of course, was right on the ground. Undoubtedly the fortresses of +Danzig, Graudenz, Thorn, and Posen had to yield parts of their +garrisons. However, most of these were troops of the second line.</p> + +<p>On August 23, 1914, Von Hindenburg arrived at Marienburg, about seventy +miles southwest from Königsberg and almost as far to the northwest from +Allenstein, and assumed command of the East Prussian forces. Only three +days later, on August 26, 1914, he was ready to put in execution the +plans on which he had worked for almost a lifetime.</p> + +<a id="img028" name="img028"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="images/img028.jpg"> +<img src="images/img028tb.jpg" width="500" height="306" alt="" title=""></a> +<p>Battle of Tannenberg.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page441" name="page441"></a>(p. 441)</span> Hindenburg's general strategical plan was as simple as the +carrying out of it, considering the means at his command was difficult. +Facing him were two armies still out of contact with each other, or at +least only very loosely connected. Each alone outnumbered him at least +by 50,000; combined they were more than three times as powerful as all +his forces. His only hope, therefore, was in attacking them separately. +Thus he chose to strike first at Samsonoff's army which was much farther +spread out than Rennenkampf's, and would find it much more difficult +than the latter to keep open its main line of retreat and supply. Its +left rested on Soldau, its right on Frankenau, while its center had been +pushed forward to Allenstein through Soldau, and southeast from it ran +the only direct railroad to his Polish base by way of Mlawa. Three other +lines centered there, one in the west from Thorn, one in the northwest +from Eylau (connecting with Danzig and Königsberg), and one in the east +from Neidenburg, which from there run north to Allenstein and northeast +to Johannisburg and Lyck. Apparently centering his efforts on pushing +his advance, Samsonoff had neglected to secure the former two roads.</p> + +<p>On August 26, 1914, Von Hindenburg occupied both and took Soldau +Junction. The shortest line of retreat had now been cut off to the +Russians, whose forces were scattered over a considerable territory, and +on account of lack of railroads could not be concentrated quickly or +efficiently at any one point. Though a determined effort was made on +August 27, 1914, to retake Soldau, it was foredoomed to failure. +Samsonoff's left was thrown back on Neidenburg, making his front even +more unwieldly than before.</p> + +<p>At this time the German front was very short, its left being at +Hohenstein, about halfway between Soldau and Allenstein and slightly +northeast of Tannenberg. But it made up in activity what it lacked in +length. In vain the Russians tried to break the German ranks and open up +a road to the northwest. Much blood was spilled on both, sides during +three days' fighting, but the German line held. In the meantime the +Russians had evacuated Allenstein, feeling the imperative need of +shortening their front. This gave Von Hindenburg the railroad that ran +almost parallel to the Russian front as well as the splendid main +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page442" name="page442"></a>(p. 442)</span> road that runs alongside of it. Commandeering every available +motor vehicle from the entire surrounding countryside, he immediately +extended his line and swung around the Russian right as previously he +had swung around their left. Almost every road, rail or otherwise, that +was of any importance was now in the hands of the Germans and along them +could be sent men and guns with overwhelming rapidity. With relentless +energy Von Hindenburg now used his intimate knowledge of the territory +in which he was fighting. Wherever he knew the most hopeless territory +to be, there he drove the Russians. Mazurian swamps and lakes did all +that he had ever claimed they would do and more. They swallowed up his +enemy by the thousand, they engulfed his guns and sucked in his horses.</p> + +<p>Within a week after Von Hindenburg had reached East Prussia the problem +of the Narew Army had changed from how to extend its advance most +quickly to how to escape from this bottomless pit along the few +inadequate lines of escape that were left. The morale of this Russian +army was broken. For even the most stolid Russian peasant soldier, whom +neither the roar of guns nor the flash of bayonets could move, quaked at +seeing whole companies and batteries disappear, in less time that it +takes to tell about it, in the morasses of a country without firm roads +and a minimum of solid ground.</p> + +<p>On the last day of August, 1914, thousands of Russians had laid down +their arms and were sent back into central Germany. Of Russian armies of +more than a quarter of a million nearly a hundred thousand fell into +German hands. Almost half as many more were killed or wounded. The +Russian commander in chief was killed on August 31, 1914. Only one corps +escaped by way of Ortelsburg and Johannisburg, while scattered fragments +of varying size fought their way out, some into north Poland and some +into the protecting arms of the Niemen Army. Most of the guns of +Samsonoff's army were either captured by the Germans or lost in the +swamps. This one week's battle among the Mazurian lakes is known now as +the Battle of Tannenberg, so named after a small town west of and +halfway between Soldau and Allenstein.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page443" name="page443"></a>(p. 443)</span> Without giving his troops any rest Von Hindenburg now turned +against Rennenkampf's forces. But, in spite of the rapidity of movement, +the German commander could not accomplish all that he had set out to do. +Apparently his plan was now to strike north past Angerburg and Goldap to +Gumbinnen, or possibly even to Eydtkuhnen in order to cut off the +retreat of the army of the Niemen and drive them in a southerly +direction to their destruction in the Mazurian lakes, just as he had +done in his easterly drive against the Narew Army. But Rennenkampf was +too quick. He recognized the danger that threatened him through the +defeat of Samsonoff's forces and he began his retreat as soon as it +became evident that the other army's cause was lost. He was in a much +more advantageous position than his colleague had been. For not only did +the territory through which he had to fall back offer no particular +difficulties when once he had escaped Hindenburg's attempt to push him +up against the Mazurian lakes, but he had also a fairly efficient +network of railroads at his command centering in Insterburg.</p> + +<p>Long before he evacuated this city on September 11, 1914, he had drawn +in most of his outlying formations in the north and west and had sent +them back safely across the border and behind the protection of the +Niemen and its shield of fortresses—Kovno, Olita, and Grodno. In this +he was also materially assisted by the stubborn resistance which Von +Hindenburg encountered at Lyck at the hands of a small army that had +been sent out from Grodno to aid him, and the nucleus of which consisted +of an entirely new Finnish, and an equally complete, Siberian Corps. In +spite of this, however, the pressure of the victorious Germans was +strong and rapid enough to force him to a generally hurried retreat. The +losses in killed and wounded were comparatively small, for almost all +the fighting was rear-guard action. But the Germans succeeded in +gathering in about 30,000 more prisoners, chiefly detachments that had +been unsuccessful in connecting in time with the main army. Much more +serious was the loss of some 150 guns and vast quantities of war +material for the removal of which both time and means had been lacking.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page444" name="page444"></a>(p. 444)</span> On September 15, 1914, Von Hindenberg could announce that the +last of the invaders had either been captured or driven back and that +not an acre of German soil was in the possession of the Russian forces. +On that date, moreover, he had already advanced far enough into Russian +territory to occupy the seat of government of the Russian province of +Suwalki, almost 150 miles in direct line east of Tannenberg, though less +than 20 from the German border. From that point on he intrusted the +further conduct of these operations to Lieutenant General von Morgen, +who had been one of his division commanders at Tannenberg.</p> + +<p>By September 23, 1914, Rennenkampf had completed his retreat behind the +Niemen. The fighting which took place during the ensuing week is +commonly designated as the "Battle of Augustovo," though it covered a +much larger area. Augustovo itself is a small town about ten miles from +the German frontier, about twenty miles south of Suwalki, and forty +miles northwest from Grodno.</p> + +<p>The German advance clearly suggested an attempt on their part to force a +crossing of the Niemen. This in itself was a very difficult undertaking. +The river is more than 600 feet wide, too deep to ford, and naturally +none of the few bridges over it were available for the Germans. +Furthermore its right bank, which was held by the Russians, is very +high, commanding absolutely and practically everywhere the low left bank +which in many places is almost as swampy as the worst parts of the +Mazurian lakes. West of the Niemen and between it and the frontier the +country is full of lakes, much as in the Mazurian region. The Germans, +of course, were under the same disadvantages there as the Russians had +suffered from in East Prussia. Of railroads there were none except one, +running in the shape of a semicircle from Grodno through Augustovo and +Suwalki to Olita.</p> + +<p>On September 25, 1914, in spite of these conditions and disregarding the +weakened state of their forces, the Germans attempted to cross the +Niemen simultaneously at two places. About thirty miles north of Grodno +they had constructed a <span class="pagenum"><a id="page445" name="page445"></a>(p. 445)</span> pontoon bridge and began to send across +their infantry. It was only then that the Russians opened up their +murderous fire from well-protected positions. Against it the Germans +were practically helpless. In spite of large numbers of guns that they +brought up, and in spite of repeated efforts of crossing in massed +formations, the result was the same: immense losses on the part of the +Germans and comparatively slight ones on the part of the Russians. +Indeed, the last attempt was not only frustrated, but the Russians even +forced back the Germans some miles.</p> + +<p>Somewhat farther south the other attempt met with a similar fate. There +not only had the Russians posted their heavy guns on the right bank, but +infantry had been strongly intrenched on the left. Their combined +opposition forced back the Germans under heavy losses after they had +fought all day and all night. During the last week of September, 1914, +the Germans were gradually forced back along their entire front. Much of +the fighting was done in the dense forests east of Augustovo and was +hand-to-hand fighting. In the afternoon of October 1, 1914, the Russians +recaptured Augustovo after the Germans had made a determined stand, +yielding only when heavy guns bombarded their positions from the west +and northwest. On the next day the Germans had to retreat from Suwalki +and withdraw the lines that they had extended northward, and fall back +behind their frontier. This meant the end of the German attempt to cross +the Niemen and the beginning of the second invasion of East Prussia.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page446" name="page446"></a>(p. 446)</span> CHAPTER LXXVI</h2> + +<p class="title">SECOND RUSSIAN INVASION OF EAST PRUSSIA</p> + + +<p>Wonderful as had been Von Hindenburg's accomplishment in defeating the +Russians and practically destroying one of their first-line armies, the +latter's recuperative power was almost as surprising. Deprived of the +prize of three weeks' fighting, defeated, and driven by the enemy on +their entire front for a depth of fifty miles into their own country, +they were nevertheless ready in a few days for a new offensive. +Undoubtedly this was partly due to the talent of their new commander, +General Russky, who had been sent up from Galicia, where he had gathered +experience as well as honors. But more so was it due to the protecting +defenses of the Niemen and the opportunities they offered for +reorganization, rest, and the collection of new forces.</p> + +<p>The situation which was faced on the first week of October, 1914, was +perilous to all the armies engaged. Russia's fortresses on its eastern +front were concerned for a twofold purpose. In the first place, they +were to lend increased power of resistance to whatever means of defense +nature had provided, and this function, of course, determined their +location. Wherever rivers or other natural obstacles would offer +themselves to an invading enemy, there Russia had added especially +strong artificial defenses.</p> + +<p>Any army invading Russia from East Prussia in a southerly direction +would have to cross the Narew River and its principal tributary on the +right, the Bober. These two run, roughly speaking, parallel to the +Russo-German border at a distance of about thirty to thirty-five miles, +and no army attempting an invasion east of the Vistula and south of the +Niemen could advance farther than this short distance without first +crossing the Narew and Bober.</p> + +<p>The group of fortresses along this natural line of defense <span class="pagenum"><a id="page447" name="page447"></a>(p. 447)</span> +begins opposite the southwestern corner of East Prussia with Osowiec, +situated on the railroad that runs from Lyck Bialistock. Thence it +stretches in a southwesterly direction through Lomsha, Ostrolenka, +Rozan, Pultusk to Novo Georgievsk, which latter is the most important of +these, commanding as it does the conflux of the Narew, Wkra, and Vistula +rivers.</p> + +<p>This series of fortified places forms the center of the system of +fortifications against Germany. In a southeasterly direction from it the +Vistula offers another strong natural line of defense strengthened still +more by the two big fortresses of Warsaw and Ivangorod, behind which, on +a bend of the Bug River and almost equally distant from both, +Brest-Litovsk, at the very western end of the vast Pripet swamps, +defends the entrance to central Russia, to Smolensk and Moscow.</p> + +<p>Adjoining Osowiec on the north and making even more formidable and +naturally very strong defensive line of the River Niemen are Grodno, +Olita, and Kovno.</p> + +<p>The second purpose of all these fortified places is to protect the rear +of an offensive army advancing toward Germany and to offer a haven of +refuge if it should become necessary for such an army to fall back. At +the same time they serve as powerful bases and screens behind which an +army of defense could quickly be changed into one of offense. Not only +had they served well this last purpose at the time of mobilization, but +again and again later on weakened Russian armies succeeded in retreating +behind these protecting shields, from which they emerged again a little +later, bent on new attacks, after they had been strengthened by +reenforcements from Russia's inexhaustible resources of men.</p> + +<p>It was thus that the Russian armies saved themselves after Von +Hindenburg's smashing victory at Tannenburg. Out of about 650,000 men, +forming the Army of the Narew, and the Vilna Army, more than 300,000 had +succeeded in reaching the shelter of their fortresses.</p> + +<p>At that time the German forces, sadly in need of rest, were much too +small and too weak to attempt an energetic general attack against either +the Niemen or the Narew-Bug lines of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page448" name="page448"></a>(p. 448)</span> defenses. However, in +order to prevent another invasion of East Prussia something had to be +done. They therefore advanced a goodly distance into the province of +Suwalki, occupying even the seat of its government, a town of the same +name. Farther south Osowiec represented a continuous danger to East +Prussia, being very close to the border and on the direct railroad to +Lyck. Though the Germans were in no condition to undertake a siege, they +determined to attempt at least to close the crossing of the Bober at +this most advantageous point.</p> + +<p>September 18, 1914, saw the beginning of this movement and ten days +later heavy artillery in limited force was thundering against the gates +of the small but strong fortress.</p> + +<p>The suffering on both sides during this period was very great. Keeping +continuously moving, fighting day and night under conditions the natural +difficulties of which had been increased still more by unending +rainstorms, resulting in long delays for food and other supplies, +Russians as well as Germans displayed wonderful energy and perseverance. +And in spite of these difficulties, in spite of roads ankle deep in mud, +the Germans advanced and the Russians re-formed their forces.</p> + +<p>On October 2, 1914, the Russian advance started from Grodno as a base. +The Third Siberian and parts of the Twenty-second Finnish Army Corps, +forming the left wing, met the enemy at Augustovo. For two days the +battle lasted, and though it involved only comparatively small numbers +it was one of the most sanguinary engagements of this period. Both sides +lost thousands of men and large quantities of war equipment. The Germans +having received reenforcements, attempted a flanking movement against +the right wing, undoubtedly with the intention of attacking the Russians +from the rear. They succeeded in getting a small force around the +Russian right, which, however, had to be withdrawn very soon. For the +balance of October the fighting raged along the entire front from the +Niemen in the north to Lomsha in the south, a distance of about 150 +miles. Neither side was able to gain any decisive advantage, for both +the offensive and the defensive was fought with equal stubbornness. One +day fortune would smile on Russia's masses, only <span class="pagenum"><a id="page449" name="page449"></a>(p. 449)</span> to turn its +back against them during the next twenty-four hours. The lack of success +of the German flanking movement around the Russian right brought to the +latter greater freedom of movement. It advanced toward Wirballen with +the object of gaining the road to Eydtkuhnen and Stallupoehnen, which +would enable them to strike once more for the important junction at +Insterburg. This attempt resulted in another minor but very sanguinary +engagement north of Vysztyt Lake. Again no decision had been reached, +though the Russians were getting closer and closer to East Prussia. A +Russian attempt to outflank the German left at Schirwindt, a few miles +north of Eydtkuhnen and right across the line in East Prussia, was not +any more successful than the previous German attempt, and weakened the +Russian right, just as a similar failure on the other side had weakened +the German left. Again honors, hardships, and losses were fairly even.</p> + +<p>In the center the Russian advance covered an extensive plain, known as +the Romintener Heide. There, too, continuous fighting, a great deal of +which was carried on at night, involved usually only comparatively small +formations and the result was equally indecisive.</p> + +<p>The Russian left wing had been more successful. It had fought its way +across the border and taken Wargrabova. The Germans, however, succeeded +in retaking this place as early as October 9, 1914, pursuing the +Russians and finally stormed their strong intrenchments a week later. +The country here is slightly elevated and the Russians had dug +themselves in rather elaborately. Manyfold rows of trenches, in some +places six and eight deep, had been thrown up around the small village +of Vielitzken which suffered severely during the German onrush.</p> + +<p>In the meantime another attempt to take Lyck had succeeded. The direct +road through Osowiec was not available on account of the German force +located there. So the Russians sent a division forward from Lomsha +which, taking Bialla, reached Lyck on October 8, 1914. The Germans, +lacking sufficient forces for a successful defense, withdrew not only +from Lyck, but also from before Osowiec.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page450" name="page450"></a>(p. 450)</span> But by October 13,1914, the Niemen Army's advance into East +Prussia had been either forced back or delayed to such an extent that +this comparatively weak Russian advance in the extreme south was out of +touch with the main forces of the Niemen Army, and therefore in turn was +withdrawn.</p> + +<p>This practically finished the second Russian invasion of East Prussia. +The German forces gradually cleared all of their country of the enemy +and followed him even into his own territory. But although continuous +fighting went on during the last week of October, again chiefly around +Augustovo and Bakalartshev, the Russians for the time being contented +themselves with a defensive policy, just as the Germans were satisfied +with their success in preventing the Russian advance without going over +to a clean offensive.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LXXVII</h2> + +<p class="title">FIRST GERMAN DRIVE AGAINST WARSAW</p> + + +<p>We have already spoken of the strategic position of Russian Poland, of +its vulnerability, exposed as it is to attack from the Central Powers on +three sides, and finally what Russia had done to strengthen Poland's +natural line of defense, the Vistula River, by building fortresses on +its most important points. It may be well to recall here that the lower +part of this river flows through West Prussia, from Thorn to the Gulf of +Danzig. For almost a hundred miles, from Thorn to Novo Georgievsk, it +cannot actually be considered of defensive value to Russia; flowing +slightly northwest from the latter fortress to the border it is open to +German use on either side. But at that point, about twenty miles +northwest of Warsaw, any army coming along its valley would have to take +first this important fortress before it could continue farther into +central Poland. Should it fail in this it would have to withdraw its +forces from the right bank and then force a crossing at some point +between Novo Georgievsk and the point where the Vistula enters Russian +Poland from Austrian Poland, a few <span class="pagenum"><a id="page451" name="page451"></a>(p. 451)</span> miles east of Cracow. It is +at this point also that the Vistula is swelled by its most important +contributary, the Bug River, which, roughly speaking, flows parallel to +the Vistula at a distance of about seventy miles from the Galician +border to a point on the Vilna-Warsaw railroad, about fifty miles east +of Warsaw, where it bends toward the west to join the Vistula. The Bug +River thus forms a strong secondary natural line of defense. In the +north the Narew—a tributary of the Bug—forms an equally strong barrier +against an army advancing from East Prussia.</p> + +<p>There cannot be much doubt that the plan of the Central Powers +originally was to take Poland without having to overcome these very +formidable obstacles. If Von Hindenburg had succeeded after the battle +of Tannenberg in crossing the Niemen, and if, at about the same time the +Austro-Hungarians had also succeeded in defeating their Russian +adversaries in Galicia, described in another chapter, this object could +have been accomplished very easily by a concerted advance of both along +the east bank of the Bug, with Brest-Litovsk as the most likely point of +junction. The result would have been twofold: in the first place all of +Poland would have been in the hands of the Central Powers; for Russia +either would have had to withdraw its forces from there before their +three main lines of retreat—the railroads from Warsaw to Petrograd, +Moscow, Kiev—had been cut by the invaders, or else the latter would +have been in a position to destroy them leisurely, having surrounded +them completely. In the second place it would have meant the shortening +of the eastern front by hundreds of miles, making it practically a +straight line from the Baltic Sea to some point on the Russo-Galician +frontier.</p> + +<p>In the preceding chapters, however, we have seen that up to the +beginning of October, 1914, neither the Germans nor the Austrians had +accomplished this object. The former had to satisfy themselves with +having cleared their own soil in East Prussia of the Russian invaders +and with keeping it free from further invasions, while the latter were +being pressed harder and harder every day and had to figure with a +possible invasion of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page452" name="page452"></a>(p. 452)</span> Hungary. It was then that the Central +Powers decided to invade Poland from the west, and thus gradually drove +out the Russians. Why they persisted in their efforts to gain possession +of Russian Poland is clear enough. For in addition to the +above-mentioned advantage of shortening and straightening their front, +they would also deprive Russia of one of its most important and populous +centers of industry, in which the czar's domain was not overrich, and it +would remove forever this dangerous indentation in the back of the +German Empire.</p> + +<p>Before we consider in detail the first German drive for Warsaw, it is +also necessary to consider briefly political conditions in Russian +Poland.</p> + +<p>Ever since the partition of the old Kingdom of Poland among Germany, +Austria, and Russia, the Polish provinces created thereby for these +three empires had been a continuous source of trouble and worry to each. +The Poles are well known for their intense patriotism, which perhaps is +only a particular manifestation of one of their general racial +characteristics—temperament. At any rate the true Pole has never +forgotten the splendid past of his race, nor has he ever given up hope +for a reestablishment of its unity and independence. It is a rather +difficult question to answer whether Russia, Germany, or Austria have +sinned most against their Polish subjects. The fact remains, however, +that all three most ruthlessly suppressed all Polish attempts to realize +their national ideals. It is equally true that Russia went further along +that line than either Germany or Austria, and on the other hand did less +for its Polish subjects than the other two countries. Both in Germany +and Austria there existed therefore a more or less well-defined idea +that the Russian Poles would welcome German and Austrian troops with +open arms as their saviors from the Russian yoke. In Russia a certain +amount of anxiety existed about what the Poles would do. The latter, in +a way, at the beginning of the war found themselves facing a most +difficult alternative. That their country would at some time or other +become a battling ground of the contending armies was quite evident. +Whether Russia or the Central Powers would emerge as the final victor +was at least open to dispute. Whatever side the Poles <span class="pagenum"><a id="page453" name="page453"></a>(p. 453)</span> chose, +might be the wrong side and bring to them the most horrible +consequences. It was undoubtedly with this danger in view that the +"Gazeta Warzawska" printed on August 15, 1914, an editorial which in +part read as follows:</p> + +<div class="quote"> +<p>"Remain passive, watchful, insensible to temptation.</p> + +<p>"During the coming struggle the Kingdom of Poland will be the + marching ground of various armies; we shall see temporary victors + assuming lordship for a while; but change of authority will + follow, and inevitable retaliation; this several times, perhaps, + in the course of the campaign. Therefore every improvident step + will meet with terrible revenge. By holding firm through the + present conflict you best can serve the Polish cause. In the name + of the love you bear your country, of your solicitude for the + nation's future, we entreat you, fellow countrymen, to remain + deaf to evil inspirations, unshakable in your determination not + to expose our land to yet greater calamities, and Poland's whole + future to incalculable perils."</p> +</div> + +<p>This, of course, was far from being a rousing appeal to support Russia's +cause, but it was even further from being a suggestion to support that +of the Central Powers and revolt against Russia. Polish newspapers of +the next day printed a proclamation signed by the Commander in Chief +Grand Duke Nicholas prophesying the fulfillment of the Polish dream of +unity, at least, even if under the Russian scepter, and promising a +rebirth of Poland "free in faith, in language, in self-government."</p> + +<p>On August 17, 1914, four of the Polish political parties published a +manifesto in which they welcomed this proclamation and expressed their +belief in the ultimate fulfillment of the promises made. The net result +of the sudden three-cornered bid for Polish friendship and support, +then, seems to have been that the leaders of Polish nationalism had +decided to abstain from embarrassing Russia, even though their +resistance against Germany and Austria with both of which other Poles +were fighting was not always very deep-seated.</p> + +<p>During the first month of the war practically nothing of importance +happened in the Polish territory. German detachments <span class="pagenum"><a id="page454" name="page454"></a>(p. 454)</span> occupied +some of the towns right across the border, in many instances for a short +time only. Mlawa, Kalish, and Czestochowa were the most important places +involved.</p> + +<p>On August 31, 1914, however, the occupation of Radom, about 130 miles +from the German frontier, was reported, and a few days later that of +Lodz, next to Warsaw the biggest city of Russian Poland and an important +manufacturing center. At about the same time all of the places along two +of the railroads running from Germany to Warsaw, Thorn to Warsaw, and +Kalish to Warsaw, as far as Lowitz, where they meet, were occupied. In +this territory the Germans immediately proceeded to repair the railroad +bridges destroyed by the retreating Russians, who, apparently, had +decided to fall back to their defenses on the Vistula. The Germans must +have felt themselves fairly secure in their possession of this +territory, for on September 15, 1914, Count Meerveldt, then governor of +the Prussian Province of Münster, was appointed its civil governor. A +day later the commanding general (Von Morgen) published a proclamation, +addressed to the inhabitants of the two provinces of Lomza and Warsaw. +In it he announced the defeat of the Russian Narew Army and +Rennenkampf's retreat and stated that larger forces were following his +own army corps, which latter considered them as its friends and had been +ordered to treat them accordingly. He called upon them to rise against +their Russian oppressors and to assist him in driving them out of +beautiful Poland which afterward was to receive at the hands of the +German Emperor political and religious liberty.</p> + +<p>About ten days later the "additional stronger forces," which General von +Morgen had prophesied, put in an appearance. They consisted of four +separate armies, one advancing along the Thorn-Warsaw railroad, another +along the Kalish-Warsaw line, a third along the +Breslau-Czestochowa-Kielce-Radom-Ivangorod railroad, and the fourth from +Cracow in the same direction. Just how large these four armies were is +not absolutely known. Estimates range all the way from 500,000 to +1,500,000 which makes it most likely that the real strength was about +1,000,000. Of these all but the Fourth Army were made up of German +soldiers, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page455" name="page455"></a>(p. 455)</span> whereas the Cracow Army consisted of Austrians, +forming the left wing of their main forces which about that time had +been rearranged in western Galicia.</p> + +<p>By the time all of these armies were ready to advance, the victor of +Tannenberg, Von Hindenburg—who meanwhile had been raised to the rank of +field marshal—had been put in supreme command of the combined German +and Austro-Hungarian armies in Poland. Though he was fighting now on +territory concerning which he had at least no superior knowledge than +his adversaries, his energy made itself felt immediately. He pushed the +advance of his four armies at an overpowering rate of speed and forced +the Russians, who apparently were not any too sure, either about the +strength of the opposing forces or their ultimate plans, to fall back +everywhere. By October 5 the Russians, attempting to make a desperate +stand near Radom, had been forced back almost as far as Ivangorod, and +within the week following the Austro-German army, still further south, +had reached the Vistula between the Galician border and Ivangorod. The +advance of the Germans as well as the retreat of the Russians took place +under terrific difficulties, caused by torrential rains which poured +down incessantly. Some interesting details may be learned from a letter +written about that time by a German officer in charge of a heavy +munition train: "From Czestochowa we advanced in forced marches. During +the first two days roads were passable, but after that they became +terrible, as it rained every day. In some places there were no roads +left, nothing but mud and swamps. Once it took us a full hour to move +one wagon, loaded with munitions and drawn by fifteen horses, a distance +of only fifteen yards.... Horses sank into the mud up to their bodies +and wagons up to their axles.... One night we reached a spot which was +absolutely impassable. The only way to get around it was through a dense +forest, but before we could get through there it was necessary to cut an +opening through the trees. For the next few hours we felled trees for a +distance of over five hundred yards.... For the past eight days we have +been on the go almost every night, and once I stayed in my saddle for +thirty consecutive hours. During <span class="pagenum"><a id="page456" name="page456"></a>(p. 456)</span> all that time we had no real +rest. Either we did not reach our quarters until early in the morning or +late at night. What a bed feels like we've forgotten long ago. We +consider ourselves lucky if we have one room and straw on the floor for +the seven of us. For ten days I have not been out of my clothes. And +when we do get a little sleep it is almost invariably necessary to start +off again at once.... Even our food supplies have become more scarce day +by day. Long ago we saw the last of butter, sausage, or similar +delicacies. We are glad if we have bread and some lard. Only once in a +great while are we fortunate enough to buy some cattle. But then a great +feast is prepared.... Tea is practically all that we have to drink.... +The hardships, as you can see, are somewhat plentiful; but in spite of +this fact I am in tiptop condition and feeling wonderfully well. +Sometimes I am astonished myself what one can stand."</p> + +<p>Early in October, 1914, the Germans came closer and closer to Warsaw. At +the end of it they were in the south, within twenty miles of the old +Polish capital—at Grojec. At that time only a comparatively small +force, not more than three army corps, was available, under General +Scheidemann's command, for its defense. These, however—all of them made +up of tried Siberian troops—fought heroically for forty-four hours, +especially around the strongly fortified little town of Blonie, about +ten miles west of Warsaw. The commander in chief of all the Russian +armies, Grand Duke Nicholas, had retired with his staff to Grodno, and +Warsaw expected as confidently a German occupation as the Germans +themselves. But suddenly the Russians, who up to that time seem to have +underestimated the strength of the Germans, awoke to the desperate needs +of the situation. By a supreme effort they contrived to concentrate vast +reenforcements to the east of Warsaw within a few days and to change the +proportion of numbers before Warsaw from five to three in favor of the +Germans to about three to one in their own favor.</p> + +<p>On October 10, 1914, panic reigned supreme in Warsaw. Although the +Government tried to dispel the fears of the populace <span class="pagenum"><a id="page457" name="page457"></a>(p. 457)</span> by +encouraging proclamations, the thunder of the cannons, which could be +heard incessantly, and the very evident lack of strong Russian forces, +spoke more loudly. Whoever could afford to flee and was fortunate enough +to get official sanction to leave, did so. The panic was still more +intensified when German aeroplanes and dirigibles began to appear in the +sky. For fully ten days the fighting lasted around the immediate +neighborhood of the city. Day and night, bombs thrown by the German air +fleet exploded in all parts of the city, doing great damage to property +and killing and wounding hundreds of innocent noncombatants. Day and +night could be heard the roar of the artillery fire, and nightfall +brought the additional terror of the fiery reflection from bursting +shrapnel. The peasants from the villages to the west and south streamed +into the city in vast numbers. Thousands of wounded coming from all +directions added still more to the horror and excitement.</p> + +<p>The hardest fighting around Blonie occurred from October 13 to 17, 1914. +On the 13th the Germans were forced to evacuate Blonie, and on October +14 Pruszkow, a little farther south and still nearer to Warsaw. On +October 15 the Russians made a wonderful and successful bayonet attack +on another near-by village, Nadarzyn. The next day, the 16th, saw almost +all of this territory again in the hands of the Germans, and on the 17th +they succeeded even in crossing the Vistula over a pontoon bridge +slightly south of Warsaw. However, even then the arrival of Russian +reenforcements made itself felt, for after a short stay on the right +bank of the Vistula the Germans were thrown back by superior Russian +forces. All that day the fighting went on most furiously and lasted deep +into the night. The next day at last the Russian armies had all been +assembled.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page458" name="page458"></a>(p. 458)</span> CHAPTER LXXVIII</h2> + +<p class="title">GERMAN RETREAT FROM RUSSIAN POLAND</p> + +<p>On October 19, 1914, the Germans, who apparently had accurate +information concerning the immense numbers which they now faced, gave up +the attack and began their retreat. The retreat was carried out with as +much speed and success as the advance. By October 20 the Germans had +gone back so far that the Russian advance formations could not keep up +with them and lost track of them. Without losing a gun, the First German +Army managed to escape the pursuing Russians as well as to evade two +attempts—one from the south and one from the north—to outflank them +and cut off their retreat.</p> + +<p>During the fighting before Warsaw the total front on which the Russian +armies were battling against the German and Austrian invaders of Poland +was about 160 miles long, stretching from Novo Georgievsk in the north, +along the Vistula, through Warsaw and Ivangorod to Sandomir at the +Galician border in the south. All along this line continuous fighting +went on, and the heaviest of it, besides that directly before Warsaw, +took place around the fortress of Ivangorod. Two attempts of the +Russians to get back to the left side of the Vistula on October 12 and +14, 1914, were frustrated under heavy losses on both sides. A German +soldier states in a letter written home during the actual fighting +before Ivangorod that at the end of one day, out of his company of 250, +only 85 were left—the other 66 per cent having been killed or wounded.</p> + +<p>Just as the Russians had succeeded in assembling sufficient +reenforcements at Warsaw, to make it inevitable for the German forces to +retreat, they had brought equally large numbers to the rescue of +Ivangorod. However, these did not make themselves really felt there +until October 27, 1914. Previous to that date the Germans and Austrians +captured over 50,000 Russians and thirty-five guns. When, on October 23 +and 24, 1904, aeroplane <span class="pagenum"><a id="page459" name="page459"></a>(p. 459)</span> scouts discovered the approaching vast +reenforcements, and similar reports were received from the First Army +fighting around Warsaw, the German and Austrian forces were all +withdrawn. The retreat of these groups of armies was accomplished much +in the same way as of that in the north, except that it began later and +brought with it more frequent and more desperate rear-guard actions. The +Russians, who were trying desperately to inflict as much damage as +possible to the retreating enemy, showed wonderful courage and heroic +disregard of death. In some places, however, the Germans had prepared +strong, even if temporary, intrenchments, sometimes three or more lines +deep, and the storming of these cost their opponents dearly.</p> + +<p>By October 24, 1914, the invaders had been forced back in the south as +far as Radom and in the north to Skierniewice; by October 28 Radom as +well as Lodz had been evacuated and were again in Russian hands. The +lines of retreat were the same as those of advance had been, namely, the +railroads from Warsaw to Thorn, Kalish, and Cracow. Much damage was done +to these roads by the Germans in order to delay as much as possible the +pursuit of the Russians. Considerable fighting occurred, however, +whenever one of the rivers along the line of retreat was reached; so +along the Pilitza, the Rawka, the Bzura, and finally the Warta. By the +end of the first week of November the German-Austrian armies had been +thrown back across their frontiers, and all of Russian Poland was once +more in the undisputed possession of Russia.</p> + +<p>In a measure Von Hindenburg followed the example of his Russian +adversaries when he withdrew his forces from Poland into Upper Silesia +in November, 1914, after the unsuccessful first drive against Warsaw, of +which we have just read the details. His reasons for taking this step +were evident enough. When it had been established definitely that the +reenforcements which Russia had been able to gather made futile any +further hope of taking Warsaw with the forces at his command, only two +possibilities remained to the German general: To make a stand to the +west of the Vistula until reenforcements could be brought up, or to fall +back to his bases and there concentrate enough additional <span class="pagenum"><a id="page460" name="page460"></a>(p. 460)</span> +forces to make a new drive for Poland. He chose the latter, undoubtedly +because it was the safer and less costly in lives.</p> + +<p>How quickly the German retreat was accomplished we have already seen. In +spite of their rapidity, however, the Germans found time to hold up the +Russians, not only by severe rear-guard actions, but also by destroying +in the most thorough manner the few railroad lines that led out of +Poland. In this connection they proved themselves to be as much past +masters in the art of disorganization as they had hitherto shown +themselves to be capable of the highest forms of organization.</p> + +<p>About November 10, 1914, Von Hindenburg had completed his regrouping. +The line along which the Russians were massed against him stretched from +the point where the Niemen enters East Prussia, slightly east of Tilsit, +along the eastern and southern border of East Prussia to the Vistula at +Wloclawek, from there to the Warta at Kola, where it turns to the west, +along and slightly to the east of this river through +Uniejow-Zdouska-Wola to Novo Radowsk. From there it passed to the north +of Cracow in a curve toward Galicia, where strong Russian armies were +forcing back the Austrians on and beyond the Carpathians. Along this +vast front—considerably over 500 miles long—the Russians had drawn up +forces which must have amounted very nearly to forty-five army corps, or +over 2,000,000 men. These were distributed as follows: The Tenth Army +faced the eastern border of East Prussia west of the Niemen; the First +Army the southern border of this province, north of the Narew and both +north and south of the Vistula; the Second, Fourth, Fifth, and Ninth +Armies, forming the main forces of the Russians, fronted along the Warta +against lower Posen and Upper Silesia, while the balance of the Russian +armies had been thrown against the Austro-Hungarian forces in Galicia.</p> + +<p>Against these Von Hindenburg had three distinct armies which were +available for offensive purposes. The central army under General von +Mackensen was concentrated between Thorn and the Warta River; a southern +army had been formed north of Cracow and along the Upper Silesian +border, and was made up chiefly of Austro-Hungarian forces with a +comparatively slight <span class="pagenum"><a id="page461" name="page461"></a>(p. 461)</span> mingling of German troops. North of the +Vistula, between Thorn and Soldau, a third and weaker army had been +collected for the protection of West Prussia. In Galicia, of course, +stood the main body of the Austro-Hungarian forces, and in East Prussia +defenses had been prepared which made it possible to leave there weaker +formations for defensive purposes only.</p> + +<p>The Germans fully appreciated the danger of the Russian numerical +superiority. If these mighty forces were once allowed to get fully under +way and develop a general offensive along the entire front, the German +cause would be as good as lost. The main object of Von Hindenburg, +therefore, was to break this vast offensive power, and he decided to do +so by an offensive of his own which, if possible, was to set in ahead of +that of the Russians. Though the latter most likely had at least +one-third more men at their disposal than he, he had one advantage over +them, a wonderfully developed network of railroads, running practically +parallel to this entire line. The Russians, on the other hand, had +nothing but roads running from east to west or from north to south, +which could be used as feeders only from a central point to a number of +points along their semicircular line. Troops having once been +concentrated could be thrown to another point if it was at any distance +at all only by sending them back to the central point and then sending +them out again on another feeder, or else by long and difficult marches +which practically almost took too much time to be of any value. Von +Hindenburg could, if need be, concentrate any number of his forces at a +given point, deliver there an attack in force and then concentrate again +at another point for a similar purpose, almost before his adversary +could suspect his purpose. His plan was to attack with his strongest +forces under Von Mackensen the weakest point of the Russian line between +the Vistula and the Warta, beat them there and then march from the north +against the right wing of the main forces of the Russians, which latter +was to be kept from advancing too far by the mixed Austrian and German +army. On his two outmost flanks, in East Prussia and East Galicia, +nothing but defensive actions were contemplated.</p> + +<p>The Russian plan was somewhat similar, except that their <span class="pagenum"><a id="page462" name="page462"></a>(p. 462)</span> main +attack apparently was to be directed in the south against Cracow, and +from there against the immensely important industrial center of Silesia. +At the same time, they intended to press as hard as possible their +attacks in East Prussia and Galicia in order to force a weakening of the +German center.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LXXIX</h2> + +<p class="title">WINTER BATTLES OF THE POLISH CAMPAIGN</p> + + +<p>During November and December, 1914, and January, 1915, much of the +fighting which took place on this immense front consisted of engagements +between comparatively small formations, and is very difficult to follow +in detail. For convenience we shall consider first the fighting in +Poland, and then separately that in East Prussia, although, of course, +they were carried on concurrently.</p> + +<p>On November 10, 1914, the Germans had reached Komn on the Warta, where +it met a small Russian force, of which it captured 500 men and machine +guns. Two days later, November 12, the Russians crossed the Warta, and +their advance troops, chiefly cavalry, had almost reached Kalish on the +East Prussian border. On that day, however, they were forced back again +a short distance. Similar engagements took place at various points along +the entire line, chiefly for the purpose of testing their respective +strength.</p> + +<p>November 14, 1914, however, saw the first more extensive fighting. Von +Mackensen's group had reached by that time Wloclawek on the western bank +of the Vistula and slightly east of the Thorn-Lowitz railroad, about +thirty miles from Thorn. One of the Russian army corps of General +Russky's group made a determined stand. However, it was forced to fall +back and lost 1,500 prisoners and some ten machine guns. The Germans +followed up this gain by pressing with all their power against the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page463" name="page463"></a>(p. 463)</span> right wing of the Russian center army. For two or three days +the battle raged along a front running from Wloclawek south to Kutno, a +distance of about thirty miles. Both of these country towns are situated +on the strategically very important railroad from Thorn to Warsaw by way +of Lowitz. The Russians had two or three army corps in this sector, +including the one that had been forced back from Wloclawek. The Germans +undoubtedly were in superior force at this particular point, and were +therefore able to press their attack to great advantage. The final +result was a falling back of the entire Russian right to the Bzura River +after both sides had lost thousands in killed and wounded, and the +Russians were obliged to leave over 20,000 men, 70 machine guns, and +some larger guns in the hands of the Germans. Von Mackensen was rewarded +for this victory by being raised to the rank of "general oberst," which +in the German army is only one remove from field marshal.</p> + +<p>In a measure separate battles in this Polish campaign sink, at this +time, into insignificance. For the total number of men involved, the +extent of the battle ground, the frequency of engagements which under +any other circumstances would, without any doubt, have been considered +battles of the first magnitude, stamped them at this time as "minor +actions." The fighting, however, was as furious as at any time, the +hardships as severe as anywhere, and the valor on both sides as great as +ever. Again the wonderful mobility of the German army organization was +one of the strongest features. A French critic says of the fighting in +Poland at this time that "it was the most stirring since Napoleonic +times. It forced generals to make movements and to change and improvise +plans to an extent which war history never before had registered." Dr. +Boehm, the war correspondent of the "Berliner Tageblatt," says that the +advance was so fast that the infantry frequently had no time to lay down +before firing, but had to do so standing or kneeling. Artillery most of +the time moved on to a new position after having fired only a few shots. +He also mentions the many cadavers of horses that could be seen +everywhere. Some of these, of course, were the victims of rifle or gun +fire. But more had a small round hole in their forehead <span class="pagenum"><a id="page464" name="page464"></a>(p. 464)</span> where +the shot of mercy out of their own master's revolver had put them out of +their misery. For the condition of the roads was such that, chiefly on +account of the rapidity of the advance, large numbers of horses would +fall down, weakened and often with broken legs.</p> + +<p>Among one of the minor results of the battle of Kutno, necessitating the +hurried withdrawal of the Russians, was the capture of the governor of +Warsaw, General von Korff. He was surprised in his automobile by a troop +of German cavalry toward which he was driving apparently in the belief +that they were Russians.</p> + +<p>During this period the Russians made an attack against the Germans +between Soldau and Thorn. The left wing of this group was advancing +along the right bank of the Vistula against Thorn, but was successfully +stopped by the Germans at Lipno and thrown back in the direction of +Plock. By November 16, 1914, the Russians had lost in that sector a +total of about 5,000 prisoners with a proportionate number of machine +guns. In general throughout the entire fighting in this territory the +Russian losses by capture were astonishingly high. Of course, the +Germans, too, lost men in this manner; but being in the offensive they +suffered less, while the Russians, continually forced to fall back, +often found it impossible to withdraw advanced formations in time. +Further to the north the Russians had reached the border along the +Warsaw-Danzig railroad. An attempt to cross and take Soldau, however, +miscarried, and on November 18 they fell back for the time being on +Mlawa.</p> + +<p>By this time the Russian defense had stiffened. Von Mackensen was now +well fifty miles within Russian territory. But for the next few weeks +the Bzura was used with great success as a natural line of defense by +the Russians.</p> + +<p>From the 18th to the 30th of November, 1914, the fighting continued +without pause along the entire line. In the north of the central group +it centered around Plock, in the center of the same group around the +important railroad junction Lowitz, and in the south once more around +Lodz. One day would bring some advantages to the Russians, the next day +to the Germans. Much of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page465" name="page465"></a>(p. 465)</span> this fighting assumed the character of +trench warfare, though, naturally, not to the extent that this had taken +place on the western front. By December 1, 1914, the troops under Von +Mackensen fighting around Lodz and Lowitz claimed to have captured a +total of 80,000 men, 70 guns, 160 munition wagons, and 150 machine guns. +Still further down south the Austro-German group had much the same kind +of work to do. The fighting there centered first around Czestechowa, and +later around Novo Radowsk.</p> + +<p>About the end of November, 1914, it looked for a time as if the Russians +were gaining the upper hand. After they had fallen back to the Bzura, +Von Hindenburg directed, with part of his left wing, an attack against +Lodz from the north. Success of this move would mean grave danger to the +entire central group of the Russians, the Warta Army. It threatened not +only its right wing, but would also bring German forces in the back of +its center and cut off its retreat to Warsaw. The Russian commander +recognized the danger, and immediately began to throw strong +reenforcements toward Lodz from Warsaw. To meet these Von Hindenburg +formed a line from Lowitz through Strykow to Brzeziny. A Russian success +would mean immediate withdrawal of these forces from their attack +against Lodz, and possibly have even more important results. At the last +moment the Russians brought up reenforcements from the south, and with +them almost surrounded one of the German army corps which had advanced +about ten miles to the southeast of Brzeziny to Karpin. For three days +it looked as if this corps would either be annihilated or captured, but +at last it succeeded in breaking through by way of Galkow to Brzeziny +not only with comparatively small losses of its own, but with a few +thousand of captured Russians.</p> + +<p>For eighteen days the fighting lasted before Lodz. The Russians resisted +this time most stubbornly. They had thrown up strong fortifications +around the entire town, which they used as a base for continuous +counterattacks.</p> + +<p>As late as December 5, 1914, fighting was still going on, but finally +that night the Russians made good their withdrawal, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page466" name="page466"></a>(p. 466)</span> on the +6th the Germans were once more in Lodz. This was partly the result of an +unsuccessful attempt on the part of the Russians to relieve Lodz from +the south. Between the battle ground around Lodz and that on which the +most southern Austro-German group under the Austrian General, +Boehm-Ermolli, was fighting there was a slight gap. Through this—just +west of Piotrkow—an attack could be made against the right wing of Von +Mackensen's army. To meet this stroke a small separate army was formed +under the command of the Austrian cavalry general, Von Tersztyansky, +consisting of one German brigade, one Austro-Hungarian brigade, and a +cavalry division. This shows the close cooperation which existed at that +time between the forces of the Central Powers. This new army group took +in the first days of December 19, 1914, some of the smaller places west +and south of Piotrkow.</p> + +<p>From then on until December 15, 1914, fighting went on day and night. +One small village—Augustijnow—changed hands three times within one +day—December 8, 1914—remaining finally in the possession of the +Austro-Germans. In the evening of the 15th Piotrkow was finally taken by +storm. This not only prevented any further attack against Von +Mackensen's right, but also gave the Austro-Germans possession of the +railroad from Cracow to Warsaw as far as Piotrkow, and secured to them +the most important crossings over the Pilitza.</p> + +<p>This long-continued fighting, lasting almost the entire twenty-four +hours of every day and being accompanied by very severe artillery duels, +spelled ruin to very many of the towns and villages involved; especially +a large number of the latter in the immediate vicinity of Lodz suffered +terribly. In many of them not a single house or hut was left standing, +and thousands of Polish peasants, who even at the best had no +superfluity of riches, were deprived of everything they possessed. Fire +added to the terror; for most of the houses were covered with straw, and +the destruction of one was usually quickly followed by the burning of +all others within reach.</p> + +<p>The losses of the Russians were not only very heavy in prisoners, but +also in wounded and killed, although in the latter respect <span class="pagenum"><a id="page467" name="page467"></a>(p. 467)</span> the +invading armies suffered almost as severely. Generals Scheidemann and +Welitschko, both corps commanders, lost their lives, while it was +reported that General Rennenkampf, who failed to come to the rescue of +Lodz in time, was placed before a court-martial.</p> + +<p>After Lodz had been occupied on December 6, 1914, Von Mackensen's army +followed the retreating Russians. The latter offered the most stubborn +resistance and a great deal of very close fighting took place. In many +instances the Russian rear guard dug itself in wherever the ground +offered possibilities to do so quickly and then frequently protected its +positions with barbed wire. The storming of these of course caused the +Germans heavy losses and delayed them sufficiently to allow the Russians +to withdraw in good order.</p> + +<p>For the possession of Lowitz, one of the most important railroad +junctions west of Warsaw, the battle raged more than two weeks. It began +as early as November 25, 1914, but it was not until about December 15, +1914, that the Russians gave up this point. They had thrown up very +strong fortifications on all sides of the town and the Germans under +General von Morgen had to bring up a strong force of artillery before +they could reduce the place. The result was that this little town which +had been in the thick of the fighting so many times was finally almost +entirely destroyed and the outlying countryside became a scene of the +most complete and terrible devastation.</p> + +<p>Some of the most violent fighting before Warsaw occurred at this time +along the upper Bzura and its southern tributary, the Rawka. The Russian +line ran now almost straight from the influx of the Bzura into the +Vistula, along the east bank of the former through Sochaczev, then along +the east bank of Rawka through Skierniewice and Rawa, from there along +some hills to the river Pilitza, crossing it at Inovolodz, through +Opoczno and along the River Nida to the Vistula and beyond it through +Tarnow into Galicia. In spite of their strong intrenchments and their +heroic fighting the Russians were gradually, though very slowly, forced +back. A great deal of this fighting was trench warfare of the most +stubborn type. This necessarily <span class="pagenum"><a id="page468" name="page468"></a>(p. 468)</span> meant that for weeks the line +wavered. One day the Germans would force a passage across one, or +perhaps all, of the rivers at one or more points, only to be thrown back +the next day and to have the Russians follow their example with an +offensive excursion on the west bank. These continually changing +"victories" and "defeats" make it next to impossible to follow in full +all the developments along this line. By December 25, 1914, the Germans +held Skierniewice; by December 27, 1914, Inovolodz; by January 3, 1915, +Rawa; by January 5, 1915, Bolimow.</p> + +<p>Throughout the entire month of January, 1915, the most ferocious +fighting continued around all these places, and many of them changed +hands two or three times. Both sides very freely used the protecting +darkness of night to make attacks, and this naturally added a great deal +to the hardships which the troops had to suffer. It must also not be +forgotten that by this time winter had set in in earnest. Snow covered +the ground and a very low temperature called for the most heroic +endurance on the part of everybody.</p> + +<p>One of the American war correspondents, who at this time was with the +Russian forces before Warsaw, gives a very vivid description of a night +cannonade in the neighborhood of Blouie: "The fire of the German cannons +is unbearable. Night grows darker and darker. Everywhere, in a great +circle, the country is lighted up by camp fires which send their flames +toward heaven in a cloud of smoke. These little red spots throw +everywhere a fiery glow over the snow, and down upon this wonderful +color symphony the moon pours its weak, ghostlike light through a +curtain of clouds so that people seem to float away as in a dream. In +the foggy twilight three battalions march to the front.... The noise of +the gunfire penetrates to us in separate, spasmodic outbreaks. Flashes +of fire flare up on the horizon.... Gradually we come closer and closer +to the firing line. Now we are only two or three miles away from the +firing batteries. We turn toward the west and there a magnificent battle +panorama lies before our eyes. The moon sheds just enough light through +the clouds to make it possible to recognize the shadows on the snow. The +flat, white field is lined with a seam of black trees. Behind these thin +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page469" name="page469"></a>(p. 469)</span> woods stand the cannons. They stretch out in a long line, as +far as the eye reaches, and their irregular positions are shown by the +red tongues of fire which flare up again and again. The noise of the +battle, which had sounded all around us, has now swollen into the +roaring thunder of cannons. At a short distance, where the sky seems to +touch the field, other flashes flare up, these are the German cannons. +Sometimes as many as four of these flashes break forth at one time and +tear the dull twilight with their glaring brightness. For a moment all +the surrounding country with its phantastic shadows and its darting +lights is submerged in blinding brilliancy; then another glittering +light captures the eye. It is a bursting rocket which breaks up into +thousands of little stars and illuminates the vast field of snow +everywhere so that it glitters and glares.</p> + +<p>"But again another light appears in the dusky sky. A spray of gold! That +is an exploding shrapnel, and almost at the same point three more of +these missiles burst into their reddish golden glow. Then the giant arm +of a searchlight is thrust out into the midst of the foggy, swelling +atmosphere and shows houses, fences and paths with an unsparing +clearness. Irresolutely the mighty finger of light wanders across the +plain as if it were searching for something and could not find it. At +last it throws its coldling, shining ray on a defile and rests there. +And suddenly out of the darkness there flares up a multitude of little +flashes which look from the distance as if innumerable matches were +struck and gave off sparks. The sparks run in a straight line, and these +bounding lights show the position of the trenches. Another line of +sparks puts in appearance, seemingly only a short distance away. That is +formed by the battalions of the advancing, attacking enemy. Then +suddenly a ribbon of flame cuts through the shadows, and the sharp echo +of machine guns bites into the night air. But so immensely far spreads +the battle panorama that the eye is able to fix only small sections at a +time...."</p> + +<p>Among the many small villages and towns in this small sector between +Warsaw and Lowitz, Bolimow saw the most furious fighting. Almost step by +step the Russians fought here <span class="pagenum"><a id="page470" name="page470"></a>(p. 470)</span> the German advance, and when +finally they gave way for a mile or less after days and nights of +grueling fighting, they did so only to throw up immediately new defenses +and force the invaders to repeat their onslaught again and again. At any +other time of the year this part of the country would have yielded +little ground for fighting; for it is covered extensively with swamps. +But now the bitter cold of midwinter had covered these with ice solid +enough to bear men and even guns. On January 28, 1915, the Germans at +last threw the Russians out of their strong intrenchments at Bolimow. +But others had already been prepared a short distance to the east, at a +small village, Humin.</p> + +<p>The attack on this particular position began in the morning of the last +day of January, 1915. For three days the battle raged until, late in the +afternoon of February 2, 1915, the Germans took Humin by storm. At times +it is difficult to decide whether battles involving vast fronts and +equally vast numbers, or those fought in a small space and by +comparatively small numbers are the more heroic and ferocious. In the +latter case, of course, individual valor becomes not only much more +noticeable, but also much more important and details that are swallowed +up by the great objects for which great battles are usually fought stand +out much more clearly. It will, therefore, be interesting to hear from +an eyewitness, the war correspondent of one of the greatest German +dailies, the "Kölnische Zeitung," what happened during the three days' +battle of Humin:</p> + +<p>"It was seven o'clock in the morning of January 31, 1915. Punctually, in +accordance the orders given out the previous evening, the first shot +rang out into the snowy air of the gray morning at this hour from a +battery drawn up some distance back. Like a call of awakening it roared +along, and fifteen minutes later when it had called everyone to the +guns—exactly to the minute the time decided on by general orders—the +battle day of January 31, 1915, began with a monstrous tumult. With +truly a hellish din the concert of battle started. A huge number of +batteries had been drawn up and sent their iron "blessing" into the +ranks of the Russians. Field batteries, 15-centimeter <span class="pagenum"><a id="page471" name="page471"></a>(p. 471)</span> +howitzers, 10-centimeter guns, 21-centimeter mortars, and, to complete +the wealth of variety, 30-centimeter mortars of the allied Austrians +joyfully shouted the morning song of artillery. A dull noise roared +around Bolimow, for in back of the town, before it, to the right and to +the left, stood the various guns in groups of batteries, and through the +air passed a shrill whistle. But it was not only their hellish din which +made one tremble and start up, but even more so the dismal, powerfully +exciting howl of the gigantic missile of the great mortars, chasing up +and 'way into the air almost perpendicular. It sounded each time as if a +giant risen from out of the very bowels of the earth sent up great sobs. +Like a wild chase of unbridled, unchained elements the powerful missile +shot up high from the gun barrel.</p> + +<p>"A shriek of the most horrible kind, a trembling and shaking started in +the wildly torn air, a continual pounding, hissing whirlwind shot up +like a hurricane, lasted for seconds and disappeared in the distance +like some monstrous mystery. Surrounded by a glare of fire, encircled by +blinding light, licked by sheaves of flames, the short barrel of the +mortar drew back at the moment of firing. Clouds of dust rose; they +mixed gray with brown, with the smoke of gunpowder which hid from sight +for a few moments the entire gun, and then it rained down from the air, +for whole minutes, the tiny pieces into which the cover of the charge +had been torn. After every shot of the big mortars, the heavy howitzers +and the 21-centimeter mortars—which usually are the loud talkers in an +artillery battle—could hardly make themselves heard. An entire battery +of them could not drown the noise of <i>one</i> shot from an Austrian mortar. +It sounded like a hoarse but weak bark as compared with this gigantic +instrument of death and destruction.</p> + +<p>"During the morning the sky cleared; this enabled the observers to sight +more accurately. Orders were sent over the telephone; the telescope +controlled the effect of the gunfire, and one could see plainly how, in +a distance of a few miles, the hail of shot descended on the enemy's +trenches. 'Way up towered the geysers of earth when the shot struck +home. Above the Russian trenches lay a long white cloud of powder +forming a great wall of waves. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page472" name="page472"></a>(p. 472)</span> The dull thunder of the guns +was tremendous. It whistled and howled, it cried and moaned, it roared +like the surf of the ocean, like the terrifying growl of a thunderstorm, +and then it threw back a hundredfold clear echo. In between came the +dull crack of the Russian shrapnel. They broke in the broad, swampy +lowlands of the Rawka; they pierced the cover of ice which broke with a +tremendous noise while dark fountains of bog water gushed up from the +ground. In front and in back of the German batteries one could see the +craters made by the Russian hits; they were dark holes where the hard +frozen ground had been broken up into thick, slaglike pieces weighing +tons and all over the white cover of snow had been strewn, dark brown +and as fine as dust, the torn-up soil.</p> + +<p>"Then the storm of the trenches set in. At a given hour the roar of the +guns stopped suddenly. A few minutes later the masses of infantry, held +in readiness, arose. They came up from their trenches, climbed over +their walls, sought cover wherever it could be found, and were promptly +received by rifle and machine-gun fire from the Russians. That, however, +lasted only a moment; then they advanced in a jump; the attacking line +thinned out, stretched itself out and, continually seeking cover, tried +to advance. A few minutes only and the first Russian trench line was +reached. In storm, with bayonet and rifle butt, they came on and broke +into the trenches. They were fighting now man for man. Then the +artillery fire set in again. Again in the afternoon the infantry +advanced in storm formation against the head of the village and the +trenches flanking it. From them roared rifle and machine-gun fire +against the storming lines. Nothing could avail against these +intrenchments. Again artillery was called upon to support the attack.</p> + +<p>"It was now five o'clock in the afternoon on January 31, 1915, and the +artillery fire still roared over the white plain. Here and there were a +few scattered farms, deeply snowed in. In the distance stood forests, +darkly silhouetted against the sky, covered with heavy, low-hanging snow +clouds. In between were yawning depths, and farther up other curtains of +clouds glowing <span class="pagenum"><a id="page473" name="page473"></a>(p. 473)</span> in the full purple light of the setting sun. A +wonderful majesty lay on the heavens at that hour. But down on the +earth, across the white plain, the fighting German troops still crowded +against the enemy. Again infantry fire started and became the livelier +the nearer twilight approached and the deeper evening shadows prepared +the coming night.</p> + +<p>"The 1st of February, 1915, the second day of battle, broke damp and +cloudy. Once more artillery fire set in. Later in the morning, just as +on the first day, the infantry again attacked. While the roar of the +battle went on, some of the men prepared the last resting place for +their comrades who had fallen on the previous day. Silently this work +was done. Here there were single graves, and then again places where +larger numbers were to be put to rest together. One such grave was dug +close to the wall of the cemetery and in it were bedded the dead heroes +so that their closed eyes were turned westward—toward home. A chaplain +found wonderful words at the open grave, blessing the rest of those who +had fallen on the field of honor and speaking to their comrades of the +joys of battle and of its sorrows while they said farewell to the dead +with bared heads.</p> + +<p>"The guns still roared; then they were silent and then roared on again. +A remarkable tension was in the air. In a discord of feelings the day +drew to its end, and after that the third day of battle, the 2d of +February, dawned with renewed fighting. It was noon. We were sitting at +division headquarters, lunching, when the telephone rang loudly. With a +jump a staff officer was before it. 'General, the Russian lines are +giving way.' Quickly the general issued his orders. Once more the +fighting set in with all the available strength and vigor. The thunder +of the guns was renewed, and so the third day of battle ended with the +storming of the strong Russian positions in Humin and with the +occupation of the entire village by the German troops."</p> + +<p>After the storming of Humin the Germans took the heights near Borzimow, +which commanded the road Bolimow-Warsaw. Here, too, the fighting was +very hard. South of Humin, near Wola-Szydlowieca, the Russian lines +again were broken on February 3, 1915, after a combined artillery and +infantry attack, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page474" name="page474"></a>(p. 474)</span> which began early on February 2, 1915, and +lasted for more than twenty-four hours. The next ten days brought +continuous fighting at many points, some of it almost as ferocious as +that of which we have just spoken, but none of it yielding any important +results to either side. With the middle of February a lull set in in +this sector of the front. Of course the fighting did not stop entirely. +But the Germans did not advance farther, and the Russians were unable to +break their lines or to force them back anywhere to any appreciable +extent.</p> + +<p>Of course all this fighting took place near enough to Warsaw to be heard +there and to fill its inhabitants with terror and fear of a possible +siege or attack on the city proper. Although a great many people had +fled to the interior, thousands of others had flocked to the city, +especially from those outlying districts that had been overrun by the +invaders. Most of these were practically destitute and without means or +opportunity to earn any money. The Russian Government did its best to +help them, and provided nineteen asylums and thirteen people's kitchens +which, it is reported, distributed each day 40,000 portions. Wood, coal, +and oil gradually became more and more scarce and advanced to very high +prices, causing a great deal of suffering, especially among the poorer +classes.</p> + +<p>Again reports of various neutral war correspondents, located at that +time in Warsaw, are of great interest. Says one: "The thunder of the +cannons has started up once more. Only the forts of the belt line of +fortresses are still silent. The railroad to Wilanow has been closed. No +one is allowed to go beyond Mokotow. In front of the two railroad +stations silent crowds of people are standing, their features showing +their terror. They stand there like they would at a fire to which the +firemen are rushing with their engines and ladders. One's feet are like +lumps of ice, one's head feels foolish and empty. Doors and windows in +the big new houses in Marshalkowska Street have been boarded up in +expectation of the rifle fire. It reminds one of a boat when, before the +breaking of the storm, hatches are closed up and sails are trimmed. +Omnibuses come in loaded with wounded, likewise butcher wagons with +similar loads. Many of the lighter <span class="pagenum"><a id="page475" name="page475"></a>(p. 475)</span> wounded soldiers limp on +foot. With nightfall the entire city falls into darkness—strange, +ghostlike. People creep along the walls with bowed heads. The silence of +the night only intensifies the roar of the untiring guns, and they seem +then to come closer."</p> + +<p>During all this time the German dirigibles and aeroplanes were very +active, too, throwing bombs. Granville Fortescue pictures the terror +spread by them most realistically. "Warsaw's inhabitants know now well +the meaning of an aeroplane, and whenever they see one approach they run +in wild terror into their houses and cellars. Before every open door +pushing, shouting crowds mass themselves, and serious panics are caused +when the sharp crack of the exploding bomb shakes and rattles all the +windows. As soon as the danger is passed the curious collect, first with +hesitation, then bolder and bolder, around the spot where the bomb fell +and gape with terror at the powerful results produced by the explosion. +Here a stretch of the railroad has been destroyed; the walls of the +near-by houses are covered with innumerable holes looking like smallpox +scars; others, of the splinters from the bomb, have dug themselves deep +into the ground and not a single window in the vicinity is unbroken."</p> + +<p>A winter of the most bitter misery has closed in on the unfortunate +city; miserable-looking shapes by the thousands, without home or food, +crowd the narrow, crooked streets. As sand flows through an hourglass, +so regiment after regiment, from every part of the vast empire of the +czar, streams through the streets which now are black with people. From +far-distant Siberia and from the borderlands of Turkestan these +gray-clad soldiers pour through Warsaw to the plains of Poland. In their +dull features no trace can be discovered of what they feel or think. One +can study the faces of these Tartars, Mongols, and Caucasians as much as +one pleases, there remains always the same mystery. Tramp, tramp, +tramp—they march from the Kalish station along the railroad until they +disappear together with the horizon in a single gray mass—who knows +whither, who knows whence? It is at such times that one realizes the +magnitude of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page476" name="page476"></a>(p. 476)</span> Russia if one considers that many of them have +traveled all the way from the Ural Mountains.</p> + +<p>Quietness and gloominess now reign in Warsaw's hospitals, in which +formerly there was so much life and activity. The patients have been +sent, as far as their condition permitted, into central Russia to +recuperate, and at this time only slightly wounded men are brought in. +This is a bad sign, for the doctors figure correctly that it indicates +that those seriously wounded are left on the battle fields and perish +there. The hotels, on the other hand, are full of life. There officers +have settled down; every rank and every branch of the service is +represented here, from the grizzly general down to the beardless +lieutenant; every province of the immense empire seems to have sent a +representative. You may see there the most fantastic figures: Caucasian +colonels with enormous caps, huge mustaches, and black boots, figures +which look still exactly like the Muscovian warriors from the days of +Napoleon. It strikes one as very strange to hear so many German names +borne by these Russian officers. And while the poor inhabitants of +Warsaw await their fate with fear and trembling, the officers are the +only ones full of joy, for war is their element and a promising +opportunity for thousands of enticing possibilities which peace never +brought them.</p> + +<p>During November and December, 1914, both in north and south Poland, +continuous fighting went on along the lines. In south Poland the field +of action was at first north of Cracow, between the Rivers Warta and +Pilitza, and later between the latter and the River Nida. But although +the result of this fighting—which mainly was in favor of the +German-Austrian forces—to a certain extent influenced the result in the +central sector to the west of Warsaw, the details of it do not properly +call for consideration at this time and place. For it was directed much +more by the Austrian General Staff than by that of the German armies, +the forces involved were preponderantly Austro-Hungarian, and it was +more closely connected with the Russian attack on Galicia and the +Carpathians than with Von Hindenburg's attack on the Russian center. It +will find its proper consideration in another place in connection with +the Galician campaign. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page477" name="page477"></a>(p. 477)</span> Suffice it to say here that the +Austro-Hungarian forces under Boehm-Ermolli, supported by the German +division under General van Woyrsch, carried successfully that part of +Von Hindenburg's general plan which had been assigned to it—the +protection of the right wing of his central group of troops and the +shielding of Cracow from a direct Russian attack.</p> + +<p>To the north of the central group—north of the Vistula and between it +and the Narew—the Germans had assembled, as we have already stated, +another group which had as its bases Soldau and Thorn. Their chief task +was to protect the German provinces of West and East Prussia from a +Russian attack from Novo Georgievsk and Warsaw.</p> + +<p>During November, 1914, these forces restricted themselves entirely to +defensive fighting along the border. With the beginning of December, +however, when the Russians had temporarily weakened their forces +fighting north of the Vistula in order to send additional support to the +defenders of Warsaw, the Germans attempted an advance which for a short +time was successful.</p> + +<p>On December 10, 1914, Przasnysz, about twenty-five miles southeast of +Mlawa, was stormed after the latter place had been occupied some time +before. By December 15, 1914, however, the Russians had again stronger +forces at their command for this part of the front, and with them they +not only threw the Germans again out of Przasnysz, but forced them to +evacuate Mlawa and retire behind their border. A week later, about +December 22, 1914, the Germans again advanced from Soldau and +Neidenburg, and by December 24, 1914, Mlawa once more was in their +hands. Although the fighting in this sector practically went on without +intermission from the beginning of November, 1914, to the end of +February, 1915, comparatively small forces were involved on both sides. +This, of course, excluded any possibility of a decisive result on either +side, and we can therefore dismiss this end of the campaign with the +statement that, although the Germans north of the Vistula were more +successful in keeping the Russians off German soil than the Russians +were in keeping the Germans out of Poland, the latter <span class="pagenum"><a id="page478" name="page478"></a>(p. 478)</span> did not +make here any appreciable headway in the direction of Warsaw, and +accomplished no more than to keep a goodly number of Russian regiments +tied up in the protection of Novo Georgievsk and the northern approach +to Warsaw instead of permitting them to participate in the repulse of +the main attack against the Polish capital, where they would have been +very useful indeed.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LXXX</h2> + +<p class="title">WINTER BATTLES IN EAST PRUSSIA</p> + + +<p>The most northern part of the eastern front is now the only one left for +our consideration. We have already learned that when the German General +Staff planned its second drive against Warsaw, it had been decided to +restrict the German forces collected in East Prussia south of the Niemen +and east and south of the Mazurian Lakes to defensive measures. At that +time—the beginning of November, 1914—and until about the beginning of +February, 1915, they consisted of two army corps under the command of +General von Bülow, who at the outbreak of the war and for a few years +previous to it had been in command of a division with headquarters at +Insterburg, and who was therefore well qualified for his task through +his intimate knowledge of the territory. About 50 per cent of his forces +belonged to the Landwehr, about 25 per cent to the Landsturm and only +about 25 per cent were of the first line. These faced a numerically very +superior force variously estimated at five to seven army corps. The +Germans therefore found it necessary to equalize this overpowering +difference by withdrawing behind a strong natural line of defense. This +they found once more behind the greater Mazurian Lakes to the south and +behind the River Angerapp which flows out of the lakes at Angerburg to +the north until it joins the river Pissa slightly to the east of +Insterburg.</p> + +<a id="img029" name="img029"></a> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/img029.jpg" width="600" height="354" alt="" title=""> +<p>The town of Gerdauen, East Prussia was burned during the +Russian invasion, when for a time East Prussia suffered like Belgium and +Poland.</p> +</div> + +<p>These positions apparently were prepared during the early part of +November, 1914. For as late as November 15, 1914, fighting <span class="pagenum"><a id="page479" name="page479"></a>(p. 479)</span> +took place at Stallupoehnen on the Kovno-Königsberg railroad and some +ten miles east of the Angerapp. A few days earlier, on November 9, 1914, +a Russian attack, still farther east, north of the Wysztiter Lake, had +resulted in considerable losses to the Russians. North of the Pissa +River the Germans managed to stick closer to their border, along which +there flows a small tributary of the Niemen offering natural protection. +Considerable fighting took place in this territory around the town of +Pillkallen, but the German line held.</p> + +<p>On November 30, 1914, the Russians had again occupied that part of East +Prussia located between the border and the Mazurian Lake-Angerapp line. +On that day the first of a long series of attacks against this very +strong line was made east of Darkehmen, but was as unsuccessful as all +its successors. The German Emperor saw some of this fighting during a +short visit to the East Prussian defenders. All through December, 1914, +the Russians made repeated attacks against the German lines, always +without accomplishing their object of breaking through it and advancing +again against Königsberg. Of course, they inflicted severe losses on +their adversaries, though their own, both in disabled and captured, were +much more severe, due to the disadvantages which the difficult territory +heaped upon the attacking side. By the beginning of January winter had +set in in full earnest and the weather became so severe that no fighting +of any importance took place throughout the entire month. The only +exceptions were Russian attacks about January 15, 1915, against Loetzen, +the German fortress on the eastern shore of the northernmost group of +the lakes, which, however, brought no results. At the same time +Gumbinnen was once more the center of considerable fighting.</p> + +<p>Later in the month, January 26, 28, and 29, 1915, this town again and +again had to pay dearly in additional destruction of what little of it +that was still left of its former prosperity for the advantage of being +located on the Königsberg road. On January 30, 1915, the Russians +attempted to break through a little further south at Darkehmen—but +still the German lines held.</p> + +<p>In the meanwhile new troops had been prepared and collected <span class="pagenum"><a id="page480" name="page480"></a>(p. 480)</span> +and were being rushed to that part of the east front for the purpose of +clearing all of East Prussia of its invaders. These reenforcements were +sent to the right and left wings of the Mazurian Lakes-Angerapp line, +and the former began its attack in February. A few days before an +exceptionally heavy snowfall, accompanied by very high winds and very +low temperatures, had set in. This not only added to the hardships of +the troops, but increased immensely the difficulties with which the +leaders on both sides had to contend. On account of the weather the +roads became impassable for motor cars and the railroads were hardly in +better condition. At no time could a general count with any amount of +certainty on the prompt execution of movements. Trains were delayed for +hours and regiments appeared in their allotted positions hours late.</p> + +<p>The right wing of the German front was sent around the southern end of +the lake chain by way of Johannisburg. There the Russians had thrown up +very strong fortifications in connection with the dense forests +surrounding this town. To the southeast the river Pisseck forms the +outlet for one of the lakes and flows toward the Narew. This line, too, +was held by the Russians, who had considerable forces, both in +Johannisburg and to the east in Bialla. In the late afternoon and during +the night of February 8, 1915 a crossing over the Pisseck was forced and +Johannisburg was stormed. Russian reenforcements from the +south—Kolno—arrived too late and were thrown back with considerable +losses in men and guns. In spite of the bitter cold the Germans pressed +on immediately. They took Bialla on February 9, 1915, and then +immediately pushed on to Lyck with part of their forces. This town, like +so many other East Prussian towns, had suffered cruelly, having been in +the thick of the fighting almost from the beginning of the war. Now the +Russians again made a most determined stand in its vicinity, induced, no +doubt, chiefly by the defensive advantages which the territory offered +here. To the west of Lyck, beyond the Lyck Lake, they had built up very +strong intrenchments which resisted all German attacks for days, and it +was not until the middle of February, 1915, that they gave up these +positions. But even then they continued <span class="pagenum"><a id="page481" name="page481"></a>(p. 481)</span> to hold Lyck itself, +and it was not taken until after the middle of the month. The other part +of the right wing in the meantime had forced the Russians out of the +southeast corner of East Prussia and was advancing against Grajeko and +Augustovo.</p> + +<p>In the north the German left wing had pushed its advance simultaneously, +starting from around Tilsit and the Niemen line. The Russians fell back +on strongly prepared intrenchments along the line +Pillkallen-Stallupoehnen, but by February 10, 1915, they had to give up +this line and withdraw still farther south and east toward Eydtkuhnen, +Kibarty, and Wirballen, all places of which we heard considerable during +the previous battling in East Prussia. It was snowing furiously and the +Russians apparently counted with too much certainty on this as a means +of keeping the Germans from following closely. They procured quarters in +these three towns and were going to enjoy a much needed rest for one +night. But during that night the Germans, overcoming all difficulties of +snowdrifts and impassible roads, attacked and stormed Eydtkuhnen as well +as Wirballen and killed, wounded, or made prisoners almost all the +Russian forces located there, amounting to about 10,000 men with +considerable artillery and even greater quantities of supplies. +Gumbinnen also was retaken by the Germans and by February 12, 1915, they +were on Russian territory and advancing once more against Suwalki.</p> + +<p>By the middle of February the last Russian had been driven out of +Germany. This series of battles, known commonly as the "Winter Battle of +the Mazurian Lakes" not only freed East Prussia, but yielded +comparatively large results in the numbers of prisoners taken. In nine +days' fighting about 50,000 men, 40 guns, and 60 machine guns were +captured. Both sides, of course, suffered also heavy losses in killed +and wounded. These great battles here briefly summarized to round out +the account of the operations of the first six months are described in +greater detail in Volume III.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page482" name="page482"></a>(p. 482)</span> CHAPTER LXXXI</h2> + +<p class="title">RESULTS OF FIRST SIX MONTHS OF RUSSO-GERMAN CAMPAIGN</p> + + +<p>This brings us approximately to the end of the first six months' +fighting at the eastern front. It will be well now to pause for a short +space of time and to sum up the results of the tremendous conflict which +has been narrated. However, before we consider these results from a +military point of view and strike the balance of successes achieved and +failures suffered, let us see how they affected those who were the +actors in this terrible tragedy of mankind—the men who fought these +battles and their leaders, and the poor, unfortunate men, women, and +children whose habitations had been thrown by an unkind fate into the +path of this vortex of death and destruction.</p> + +<p>In determining the total losses which the Russian and German forces +suffered during the first six months of the war, it is next to +impossible to arrive at this time at absolutely correct figures. This is +especially true in regard to the German troops. In a way this sounds +strange, for the German war organization made itself felt in this +respect, just as much as along other lines, and in none of the countries +involved were the official lists of losses published as rapidly, +frequently, and accurately as in Germany, especially in the early stages +of the conflict. However, these lists included the German losses on all +fronts as well as on the seas, and therefore are available for our +purposes only as a basis for a computation of average losses. But by +taking these totals and comparing them with other figures from various +sources—newspapers, official Russian reports, English and French +computations (non-official), statistics of the International Red Cross, +etc.—it is possible to determine a total per month of German losses of +all kinds—killed, wounded, missing, and captured—for all fronts on +which German forces were fighting during the first six and a half months +of the war. This total is 145,000 men per month. Assuming that all in +all the losses were about evenly divided <span class="pagenum"><a id="page483" name="page483"></a>(p. 483)</span> on the western and +eastern fronts, and disregarding the comparatively small losses of the +navy, we get a monthly average of German losses at the eastern front of +72,500 men, or a total for the entire period of 471,250 men. This does +not include those wounded who after a varying period of time were again +able to return to the fighting, and whose number of course was very +large, but represents the number of those whose services had been lost +to the German forces for all time.</p> + +<p>In the case of the Russian losses it is somewhat easier to arrive at +fairly accurate figures, at least as far as their losses through capture +are concerned. For the official German figures in this respect go into +great detail and undoubtedly may be accepted as generally correct. +During the early part of the war when the Russians were fighting along +the border and on East Prussian territory they lost 15,000 officers and +men by capture, at Tannenberg 90,000, and immediately afterward in the +Lake district 30,000 more. In October, 1914, fighting in the province of +Suwalki, during Hindenburg's advance to the Niemen and his retreat, he +captured 10,000, and by November 1, 1914, there were according to the +official German count 3,121 officers and 186,797 men in German prison +camps. By January 1, 1915, this number had increased to 3,575 and +306,294 respectively, and by the middle of February the total in round +numbers must have been at least 400,000. That this is approximately +correct is proven by the statement of the Geneva Red Cross published in +the "Journal de Genève," which gives the total of Russian prisoners in +the hands of the Central Powers by the end of February as 769,500. +According to the same source the Russians had lost by that time in +killed 743,000 and in totally disabled 421,500, while their slightly +wounded—those who finally returned again to the active forces—reached +the huge total of 1,490,000. These figures again are for the entire +Russian forces, those fighting against German as well as +Austro-Hungarian forces. Just what proportion should be assigned to the +Russian forces fighting against the Germans is rather problematical. For +while these were fighting on a much larger front than those who had been +thrown against Galicia and the Bukowina, the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page484" name="page484"></a>(p. 484)</span> latter were +comparatively much more numerous and, therefore, probably suffered +proportionately larger losses. Some of the losses also occurred in the +fighting against Turkey. However, we will be fairly safe—most likely +shooting below rather than above the mark—in estimating one-half of all +these losses as having been incurred on the Russo-German front. This, +then, would give us for the period of August 1, 1914, to February 15, +1915, the following total Russian losses in their fighting against the +German forces: Killed, 371,500; totally disabled, 210,750; captured, +384,750, a grand total of 967,000, or about twice as much as the German +losses.</p> + +<p>Even these figures, without any further comment, are sufficient to +indicate the terrible carnage and suffering that was inflicted on the +manhood of the countries involved. But if we consider that every man +killed, wounded or captured, after all, was only a small part of a very +large circle made up of his family—in most cases dependent on him for +support—and of his friends, even the most vivid imagination fails to +give proper expression in words of the sum total of unfathomable misery, +broken hearts, spoiled lives, and destroyed hopes that are represented +in these cold figures.</p> + +<p>At various points in this history we have had occasion to speak of the +various generals, both Russian and German, who were directing these vast +armies, the greatest numerically and the most advanced technically which +mankind has ever seen assembled in its entire history. To go into +details concerning the hundreds of military geniuses which found +occasion to display the fruits of their training and talent would be +impossible. But on each side there was among all these leaders one +supreme leader on whose ability and decision depended not only the +results of certain battles, but the lives of their millions of +soldiers—yes, even the fate of millions upon millions of men, women and +children. The Russians had intrusted their destiny to a member of their +reigning family, an uncle of the czar, Grand Duke Nicholas, while the +Germans had found their savior in the person of a retired general, +practically unknown previous to the outbreak of the war, Paul von +Hindenburg. Each had <span class="pagenum"><a id="page485" name="page485"></a>(p. 485)</span> been put in supreme command, although the +former's burden was even greater than that of the latter, including not +only the Russian forces fighting against the Germans, but also those +fighting against the Austro-Hungarians. On both, however, depended so +much that it will be well worth while to devote a short space of time to +gain a more intimate knowledge of their appearance, character and +surroundings. We will spend, therefore, a day each at the headquarters +of these two men by following the observations which some well-known war +correspondents made during their visits at these places.</p> + +<p>The war correspondent of the London "Times" had occasion during his +travels with the Russian armies to make the following observations: +"Modern war has lost all romance. The picturesque sights, formerly so +dear to the heart of the journalist, have disappeared. War now has +become an immense business enterprise, and the guiding genius is not to +be found on the firing line, any more than the president of a great +railroad would put on overalls and take his place in an engine cab. Here +in Russia the greatest army which ever met on a battle field has been +assembled under the command of one individual, and the entire +complicated mechanism of this huge organization has its center in a +hidden spot on the plains of West Russia. It is a lovely region which +shows few signs of war. In a small forest of poplars and pines a number +of tracks has been laid which connect with the main line, and here live +quietly and peacefully some hundreds of men who form the Russian General +Staff. A few throbbing autos rushing hither and thither and a troop of +about 100 Cossacks are apparently the only features which do not belong +to the everyday life of the small village which is the nearest regular +railroad station. Many hundreds of miles away from this picture of +tranquillity is stretched out the tremendous chain of the Russian front, +each point of which is connected with this string of railroad cars by +telegraph. Here, separated from the chaos of battle, uninfluenced by the +confusion of armed masses, the brain of the army is able to gain a clear +and free view of the entire theatre of war which would only be obscured +by closer proximity."</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page486" name="page486"></a>(p. 486)</span> Another, a French correspondent, says: "Whatever happens +anywhere, from the Baltic Sea to the Carpathian Mountains, is known +immediately in the big blue railroad cars whose walls are covered with +maps. Telegraph and telephone report the most minute occurrence. Should +the commander in chief desire to inspect a position or to consult +personally with one of the commanding generals there is always an engine +ready with steam up. Headquarters suddenly rolls off; and, after two or +three days, it returns noiselessly, with its archives, its general +staff, its restaurant, and its electric plant. The Grand Duke rules with +an iron fist. Champagne and liquor is taboo throughout the war zone, and +even the officers of the general staff get nothing except a little red +wine. Woe to anyone who sins against this order, here or anywhere else +at the front. The iron fist of the Grand Duke hits, if necessary, even +the greatest, the most famous. At a near-by table I recognize an officer +in plain khaki, Grand Duke Cyril. The proud face and the powerful figure +of the commander in chief, Grand Duke Nicholas, is sometimes to be seen +in this severe room. Shyly one approaches the chief commander upon whose +shoulders rests all the responsibility; and the attitude of the man who +has been chosen to lead the Russian armies to victory does not encourage +familiarity. Next to him I notice Janushkewitch, the Chief of the Great +General Staff, with the gentle, almost youthful face of a thinker. But +everything is ruled by the personality of the Grand Duke, which, with +its mixture of will power and of gracious majesty, is most captivating."</p> + +<p>Let us now rush across space and follow still another war correspondent, +this time a representative of the German press, to the headquarters of +the German armies: "Field Marshal von Hindenburg has an impressive +appearance. With his erect, truly military carriage he makes a picture +of strength and health. With him appears a very young-looking general +who cannot be older than fifty years. A high forehead, clear blue eyes, +a powerful aquiline nose, an energetic mouth, a face—in one word—which +would be striking even if the man, to whom it belongs, would not be +wearing a general's uniform and the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page487" name="page487"></a>(p. 487)</span> insignia of the order +'Pour le mérite'—one knows that one is face to face with the chief of +the General Staff, Ludendorff. The Field Marshal greets his guest with +charming friendliness, leads the way to the table and offers him the +seat to his right. During the simple evening meal he rises and offers +the toast: 'The German Fatherland!' Around the table are about ten +officers, among them Captain Fleischmann von Theissruck of the Austrian +army, who represents the Austrian General Staff. The Field Marshal +mentions a letter which he received from some one entirely unknown to +him in which the writer reproaches him most severely because some +Cossacks had entered some small town on the border. 'That will happen +again and again,' he says, 'and cannot be avoided. I cannot draw up my +troops along the entire border, man by man, like a quarantine guard. To +gather forces quickly again and again and to beat the Russians again and +again, that is the best way to make them disgusted with their stay at +the German border.' Then he relates some details about the battle of +Tannenberg. He does not tire of entertaining his guest with interesting +details about the fighting. He mentions the vast number of presents +which have been sent to him by his numerous admirers. 'It is touching +how good people are to me. A great many of their gifts are very +welcome—but what shall I do with framed pictures while I am in the +field? What shall I do after the war is over? Nothing. I'll go back to +Hanover. There are lots of younger men [pointing to Ludendorff and the +others] who want their chance, too. With my years, there is nothing more +beautiful than to retire after one's work has been done and to make room +for the younger generation.'"</p> + +<p>Apparently the men at the "helm of the ship" lead a life of comparative +ease and security. But if we consider the fearful responsibilities that +they have to carry and the tremendous mental strain under which they are +continuously, we can readily see that their lot is not to be envied. Of +course, their rewards are equally great if they are successful. But what +if they fail? At any rate they, as well as the troops who fight under +them, have the glamour of fighting, the promise of glory, the sense +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page488" name="page488"></a>(p. 488)</span> of duty well done, to sustain them. But what of those others, +equally or even more numerous, on whose fields and forests, in whose +streets and market places, around whose houses and churches the battles +rage and the guns roar? What of the women and children, the sick and +the old, whose fathers, husbands and sons are doing the fighting or, +perhaps, have already laid down their lives upon the altar of +patriotism? What is there left for them to do when they see their houses +go up in flames, their few belongings reduced to ashes, their crops +destroyed and even their very lives threatened with death and +sometimes—worse yet—with dishonor?</p> + +<p>All this and more, millions upon millions of Russians and Germans, rich +and poor alike, had to suffer most cruelly. And on the eastern front +this suffering in a way, perhaps, was even more severe than in the west. +For there the actual fighting, while extending over an equally long +front, was much more concentrated, and after the first few months did +not move forward and backward; and existence, except in the immediate +vicinity of the firing line, was at least possible, even if dangerous +and precarious. But in the east thousands upon thousands of square miles +in East Prussia, in West Russia, and especially in Poland, the fighting +passed in ever advancing and retreating waves as the surf rolls along +the beach, and soon gunfire and marching millions of armed men had +leveled the country almost as smoothly as the waves of the ocean grind +the sand.</p> + +<p>In East Prussia the devastation wrought by the Russians, some through +wanton lust for destruction and in unreasoning hate for the enemy, but +mostly through the pressure of military necessity, was terrible, +especially east of the Mazurian Lakes and south of the Niemen. But +there, at least, the poor inhabitants had the consolation of being able +to return to their destroyed homes after the Russians had been finally +driven out and to begin to build up again what war had destroyed, and in +this they had the help and support of their highly organized government +and their more fortunate compatriots from the interior.</p> + +<p>In Poland, however, especially in the rural districts, even that +consolation was lacking. For after German and Russian armies <span class="pagenum"><a id="page489" name="page489"></a>(p. 489)</span> +alike had passed over the country again and again, not only destroying +values that it had taken centuries to build up, but on account of the +huge masses concerned frequently denuding the entire countryside of +absolutely every means of sustenance, the final result was occupation by +the enemy. And even if that enemy, true to his inherent love of order +and to his talent for organization, immediately proceeded to establish a +well-regulated temporary government, at the best his efforts would have +to be restricted; for he had not much to spare, neither in men to do the +work needed, nor in means to finance it, nor even in food to give +sustenance to those who had lost everything.</p> + +<p>And the worst of it was that for years previous to the outbreak of the +war the two principal races inhabiting Poland—the Poles and the +Jews—had been fighting each other, with the Russian sympathies strongly +on the side of the Poles. Now when war overtook this unfortunate +country, both the Poles and the Russians threw themselves like hungry +wolves upon the unfortunate Jews. They were driven out from their +villages, often the entire population irrespective of age, sex, or +condition. They were made to wander from one place to another, like so +many herds of cattle, except that no herd of cattle had ever been +treated as cruelly as these poor helpless droves of women, children, and +old and sick people whose men folk were fighting for their country while +this very country did its best to kill their families. This is not the +place or time to go into this horrible catastrophe, beyond stating this +fact: In July, 1914, Poland had been inhabited by millions of +hard-toiling people who, though neither overly blessed with wealth or +opportunities, nor enjoying conditions of life that were particularly +conducive to happiness, were at least able to found and raise families +and to sustain an existence which was bearable chiefly because of the +hope for something better to come. Six months later—January, +1915—these millions had stopped toil, for their fields were devastated, +their cattle had been killed or driven away, their houses had been +burned down. Hundreds of thousands of them had been forced to flee to +the interior, other hundreds of thousands had died, some through want +and illness, some during the fighting around their homes, some <span class="pagenum"><a id="page490" name="page490"></a>(p. 490)</span> +through murder and worse. Families had been broken up and others wiped +out entirely, and thousands of mothers had been separated from their +children, perhaps never to see them again. Even if, in isolated cases, +destruction, and even death, was merited or made inevitably necessary, +in the greatest number of cases the suffering was as undeserved as it +was severe.</p> + +<p>From a military point of view the net result of the fighting during the +first six months of the war most decidedly was in favor of the Germans. +February, 1915, found them conquerors along the entire extent of the +Russo-German front, and the Russians those who had been conquered. In +spite of the successful campaigns which German arms had won, however, +they had fallen far short of what they had apparently set out to do, and +in that wider sense their successes came dangerously near to being +failures. But even at that they were still ahead of their adversaries; +for though they had not gained the two objects for which they had +striven most furiously—the possession of Warsaw and the final +destruction of the offensive power of the Russian armies—they held +large and important sections of the Russian Empire, they had driven the +Russians completely out of Germany and forced them to do their further +fighting on their own ground, and they had reduced the effectiveness of +their armies by vast numbers, killing, disabling, or capturing, at a +most conservative estimate, at least twice as many men as they +themselves had lost.</p> + +<p>During the first three weeks of August, 1914, the Russian armies had +invaded East Prussia and laid waste a large section of it. Then came the +débâcle at Tannenberg, and by the middle of September, Germany was freed +of the invader, who had lost tens of thousands in his attempt to force +his way into the heart of the German Empire. Not satisfied with these +results, the Germans on their part now attempted an invasion of large +sections of West Russia, pursuing their defeated foes until they reached +the Niemen and its chain of fortresses which they found insurmountable +obstacles. It was once more the turn of the Russians, who now not only +drove back the invading Germans to the border, but who by the beginning +of October, 1914, faced again an invasion of their East Prussian +province. However, less than <span class="pagenum"><a id="page491" name="page491"></a>(p. 491)</span> two weeks sufficed this time to +clear German soil once more, and by October 15, 1914, the Russians had +again been forced back across the border. By this time the German +Commander in Chief, Von Hindenburg, had learned the lesson of the +Niemen. Instead of battering in vain against this iron line of natural +defenses, he threw the majority of his forces against Poland, and +especially against its choicest prize—historic Warsaw. October 11, +1914, may be considered the approximate beginning of the first drive +against the Polish capital. During about two weeks of fighting the +German armies advanced to the very gates of Warsaw, which then seemed to +be theirs for the mere taking. But suddenly the Russian bear recovered +his self-control, and with renewed vigor and replenished strength he +turned once again against the threatening foe. By October 28, 1914, the +Germans in North and Central Poland and the Austro-Hungarians in South +Poland had to retreat.</p> + +<p>November 7, 1914, became the starting date for the third Russian +invasion of East Prussia. The Germans now changed their tactics. Instead +of meeting the enemy's challenge and attempting to repeat their previous +performances of throwing him back and then invading his territory, they +restricted themselves, for the time being, to defensive measures in East +Prussia, and launched a powerful drive of their own against Russian +territory. For the second time Warsaw was made their goal. By this time, +to a certain extent at least, the offensive momentum of both sides had +been reduced in speed. Where it had taken days in the earlier campaigns +to accomplish a given object, it now took weeks. Of course the rigors of +the eastern winter which had set in by then played an important part in +this slowing-up process, which, however, affected the speed only of the +armies, but not the furor of their battling. December 6, 1914, brought +the possession of Lodz to the Germans, and on the next day the Russians +were taught the same lesson before the Mazurian Lakes that they had +taught to the Germans a few months before when they faced the Niemen. +East Prussia up to the Lakes was in the hands of Russia, but beyond that +impregnable line of lakes and swamps and rivers they could not go.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page492" name="page492"></a>(p. 492)</span> In the meanwhile the drive against Warsaw was making small +progress in spite of the most furious onslaughts. There, too, a series +of rivers and swamps—less formidable, it is true, than in East Prussia, +but hardly less effective—stemmed the tide of the invaders. For more +than two weeks, beginning about December 20 and lasting well into +January, the Russians made a most stubborn stand along the Bzura and +Rawka line, and successfully, though with terrible losses, kept the +Germans from taking Warsaw. However, in order to accomplish this they +had to weaken their line at other points and thus bring about the +collapse of their drive against Cracow, by means of which they expected +to gain from the south the road into Germany which had been denied to +them again and again in the north.</p> + +<p>The end of January, 1915, found the Germans practically as far in Poland +as the beginning of the month. It is true that they had made little +progress in four weeks, but it is also true that they had given up none +of the ground they had gained. And with the coming of February, 1915, +they reduced their offensive activities at that part of the front and +turned their attention once more to East Prussia. The second week of +February, 1915, brought to the Russians their second great defeat on the +shores of the Mazurian Lakes. By February 15 East Prussia again had been +cleared of the enemy, and parts of the Russian provinces between the +border and the Niemen were in the hands of the Germans who apparently +had made up their minds that they were not going to permit any further +Russian invasions of East Prussia if they could help it. They now held a +quarter of Poland and a small part of West Russia, while the Russians +held nothing except a long battle front, stretching almost from the +Baltic to the Carpathian Mountains and threatened everywhere by an enemy +who daily seemed to grow stronger rather than weaker.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page493" name="page493"></a>(p. 493)</span> PART VIII—TURKEY AND THE DARDANELLES</h2> + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LXXXII</h2> + +<p class="title">FIRST MOVES OF TURKEY</p> + + +<p>The entrance of Turkey, the seat of the ancient Ottoman Empire, into the +Great War in 1914, with its vast dominions in Europe, Asia, and Africa, +created a situation which it was appalling to contemplate. The flames of +world war were now creeping not only into the Holy Land, the birthplace +of Christian civilization, but to the very gates of Mecca, the "holiest +city of Islam." Would the terrible economic struggle in Europe, the war +for world trade, now develop into a holy war that would bring the +religious faiths of the earth on to a great decisive battle ground?</p> + +<p>The seething flames of economic supremacy that were consuming Europe had +threatened from the beginning of the war to creep into the Occident, as +we shall see in the chapter on "Japan and the Far East." Moreover, as +described in "Naval Operations," it was in the waters of the Near East +that the first big incident of the war on the sea took place.</p> + +<p>Despite the fact that the public had been looking forward to an +immediate clash of the dreadnought squadrons of the two countries +somewhere between the east coast of Scotland and the Dutch shore, +nothing of the kind happened. Instead, both grand fleets ran to safety +in the landlocked harbors of their respective countries.</p> + +<p>In was to the Mediterranean in the first week of August, 1914, that the +attention of the world was first drawn by events. Two German warships, +the <i>Goeben</i> and the <i>Breslau</i>, were off the coast of Algeria. The first +was one of the finest ships of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page494" name="page494"></a>(p. 494)</span> German navy, a +superdreadnought battleship cruiser of 23,000 tons, capable of making +more than 28 knots an hour. Her main battery consisted of ten 11-inch +guns, and in addition she mounted twelve 5.9-inch guns and twelve 21 +pounders. She was capable therefore of meeting on equal terms any enemy +vessel in the Mediterranean, and more than capable of outrunning any of +the heavier vessels of the French or British navy stationed in those +waters. The <i>Breslau</i> was capable of a similar speed, but was a much +weaker vessel, being a light cruiser of only 4,478 tons. Both of these +vessels had enormous coal capacities, the <i>Breslau</i>, in particular, +being able to travel more than 6,000 miles without refilling her +bunkers.</p> + +<p>The speed and the coal capacity of these vessels were to prove of vital +importance in the events of the next few days. For their rôle was to be +one of flight, not to battle. England alone and, in an overwhelming +degree, England and France combined hopelessly outnumbered and outgunned +the two German warships in the Mediterranean. Realizing this, the German +commander, after firing a few shots into the Algerian coast towns of +Bone and Philippville, steamed northwest with the intention either of +outwitting the English and French squadron commanders, or of running +through Gibraltar and so on to the broad Atlantic to wage war upon the +British mercantile marine. The British, however, were alive to this +danger and headed off the two German warships. Whereupon they turned +northeast.</p> + +<p>Early on the morning of Wednesday, August 5, 1914, these ships were +discovered steaming into the harbor of Messina, Italy. The English and +French fleets, close upon the heels of the enemy, immediately took up +positions at either end of the Straits of Messina, confident that they +had successfully bottled up the Germans.</p> + +<p>Then quickly there developed one of the most dramatic incidents in the +history of naval warfare. It is described in this chapter as well as in +the narrative on "Naval Operations" because of its direct bearing on +Turkish politics and policies. The captain and officers of the <i>Goeben</i> +and the <i>Breslau</i> went ashore at Messina, made their wills and deposited +their valuables with the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page495" name="page495"></a>(p. 495)</span> German consul. The decks of the +apparently doomed vessels were cleared for action, flags run up to the +resounding cheers of the sailors and with the brass bands of the boats +playing "Heil dir im Siegerkranz" they steamed swiftly out of Messina +harbor to what seemed like certain destruction.</p> + +<p>A blood-red sun was quickly setting in the perfect Italian sky. The +bands were hushed aboard the German warships, every light was dimmed, +and the sailors were ordered to their posts. In tense whispers they +discussed the coming fight. The ships were already at top speed plowing +through the waters of the Mediterranean as fast as the throbbing engines +could urge them. A sharp lookout was kept for the enemy, but as one +hour, two hours, three hours passed and none was seen it became apparent +that for the time at least they had evaded detection. Rounding the +southern coast of Italy, they turned due east and the course laid for +Constantinople.</p> + +<p>Morning came and still, at 28 knots an hour, the German warships were +speeding toward the Turkish capital—and safety. To the rear, too far to +reveal their funnels, the pursuing French and English squadron followed, +thin lazy strips of smoke attested their presence to the men aboard the +<i>Breslau</i> and the <i>Goeben</i>.</p> + +<p>Suddenly far to the southeast the masts of a single vessel were seen on +the horizon. Then the smokestacks of the British light cruiser +<i>Gloucester</i> poked their tops above the skyline and daringly she opened +fire on the mighty <i>Goeben</i>. Tempting, however, as the opportunity was +for the German commander with an overwhelming force at his heels he +dared waste no time nor run the risk of a chance shot disabling his +vessel. He sheered off sharply to the northeast and in a few hours lost +the plucky <i>Gloucester</i> to view.</p> + +<p>At the end of this week in August the <i>Goeben</i> and the <i>Breslau</i>, their +engines hot from constant steaming at forced speed, but with flags +flying and bands playing, steamed through the narrow channel of the +Dardanelles, through the sea of Marmora, and cast anchor off the +gloriously beautiful city of Constantinople. As quickly as the +formalities would permit the two German warships were transferred to +Turkish sovereignty, and to all intents <span class="pagenum"><a id="page496" name="page496"></a>(p. 496)</span> and purposes, as +future events proved, the Ottoman Empire entered the war as an ally of +Germany and Austria.</p> + +<p>Turkey's attitude in these early days of the crisis of August, 1914, was +conditioned by several major causes easily discernible. For almost a +generation, Germany has been sedulously cultivating Turkish friendship. +With that single-minded purposefulness so conspicuous in her diplomacy, +Germany found it easy, especially under the régime of the former Sultan +Abdul Hamid II to outmaneuver the easy-going diplomacy of France, +Russia, and England. Indeed, she found a real rival only in England, +who, starting with the initial advantage of long political friendship +with the Turkish people and the good will that grew out of the Crimean +War, successfully opposed many of the chess moves of her German rival.</p> + +<p>However, with the coming to Constantinople as German Ambassador of the +late Marshal von Bieberstein, German prestige became supreme. Easily the +best German diplomatist of the present generation, Von Bieberstein +dominated the diplomatic corps at Constantinople and practically +dictated the foreign policy of Turkey. Through him, the Deutsche Bank +secured the great Bagdad railway concession and completed the commercial +subjugation of the country by Berlin.</p> + +<p>These disquieting developments had been watched with anxiety in London. +But it was not until Von Bieberstein sprang the Bagdad railway surprise +that England fully awoke to the situation. Then she stepped in and +prevented any extension of the line to the Persian Gulf, an area which +British political and commercial circles regarded as peculiarly their +own.</p> + +<p>At the same time an effort was made to reclaim the position Great +Britain had lost in Turkey. With the fall of Abdul Hamid and the coming +of the Young Turks there seemed a chance to do this, especially as +Germany was looked upon by the members of the Committee of Union and +Progress as the chief support of the deposed sultan. Kaiser William, +however, played his cards with consummate skill. The German policy was +quickly adapted to the new situation. Von Bieberstein was eventually +shifted to London and the leaders of the Young Turks, such as the +youthful <span class="pagenum"><a id="page497" name="page497"></a>(p. 497)</span> and popular Enver Bey, were invited to Berlin to come +under the influence of the German army chiefs. The British Government, +then in the midst of negotiations with Russia and unwilling or unable to +enter into any outside arrangement that seemed to oppose the +satisfaction of the Russian dream of Constantinople refused to accept +the Young Turks' invitation to guarantee the integrity of the Turkish +Empire for a limited period in return for commercial and political +concessions. On the other hand, Emperor William reaffirmed to the new +sultan his guardianship of Islam and his interest in the welfare of the +Mohammedans wherever found.</p> + +<p>But perhaps the deciding factor in the inclination of the Turks toward +Germany and her ally was to be found in the situation of the Mohammedan +world. Turkey had never reconciled herself to the English control of +Egypt and India and saw in the present war a possibility such as had +never occurred before and possibly would never occur again of wresting +from the British the far-flung lands peopled by the followers of +Mohammed. With powerful allies, and on more even terms than they had +ever dreamed of, they could now do battle with the enemy that held their +race in subjugation and with Russia, whose avowed object through +generations had been the capture of Constantinople, the possession and +perhaps desecration of the holy places of their religion and the +dismembering of the last self-governing state of Mohammedanism.</p> + +<p>These, then, were the major considerations that weighed with the Turkish +people, no less than with the Turkish Government, in coming to a +decision. So tremendous were the stakes at issue, so widespread, almost +world-wide, were the interests involved, that Turkey, situated as it was +guarding practically the sole gateway leading from Europe to Russia, +could not hope to remain neutral. For better or for worse a decision +between the two warring factions must be made.</p> + +<p>England, France, and Russia protested vigorously against the action of +the Turkish Government in taking over the <i>Goeben</i> and the <i>Breslau</i>. +Turkey replied by drawing attention to an incident that had seriously +inflamed public opinion in the Ottoman <span class="pagenum"><a id="page498" name="page498"></a>(p. 498)</span> Empire. When the war +started two first-class battleships, the <i>Sultan Osman</i> and the +<i>Reshadie</i>, were nearing completion for Turkey in English yards. Without +any diplomatic preliminaries the British admiralty confiscated the two +ships on the grounds of naval necessity. Whatever may have been the +English motive, the Turkish people regarded this as an attempt on the +part of England to weaken the Ottoman Empire and to make it impossible +for it to safeguard its national interests in the troublesome days that +were surely to come to neutrals as well as to belligerents.</p> + +<p>But the Entente Powers hesitated to force a break on the <i>Goeben</i> and +<i>Breslau</i> question and the diplomatic correspondence of the period shows +that they had strong hope, not only at that moment, but up to the moment +of the final severance of relations of keeping the Turkish nation in a +state of neutrality at least. Signs were multiplying, however, that such +was not the intention of those in control at Constantinople.</p> + +<p>In August and September, 1914, great activity prevailed throughout the +country. Arms and ammunition, especially heavy artillery in which the +Turkish army was notoriously weak, constantly arrived from Germany and +Austria. Every train from the central countries brought German army +officers and a sprinkling of German noncommissioned officers with which +to stiffen the Ottoman troops. The army was mobilized and General Liman +von Sanders, a distinguished German officer, was appointed inspector +general of the Turkish army. Immense stores of food and munitions were +concentrated at Damascus, Constantinople, Bagdad, and on the +Trans-Caucasus frontier, while a holy war against the infidel was openly +preached.</p> + +<p>German vessels lying off Constantinople seem to have been given more or +less of a free hand and frequently searched Russian and British vessels +for contraband. The Turkish authorities appear to have gone as far as +they dared in preventing Russian supplies getting through to the Black +Sea. Russia protested and at times, along the shores of the Black Sea, +used methods closely bordering upon open warfare. Both sides, however, +seemed reluctant to take definite steps toward an open break.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page499" name="page499"></a>(p. 499)</span> In so far as Turkey was concerned this was probably due to a +disagreement among the members of the Government and others of powerful +influence outside official life. It was said that the sultan, the grand +vizier, and Djavid Bey, Minister of Finance, as well as a majority of +the cabinet, were opposed to war. However that may be, the issue was +soon decided by a small but immensely powerful clique headed by Enver +Bey and Talaat Bey, two of the more prominent and forceful of the Young +Turk leaders of the Committee of Union and Progress.</p> + +<p>Of all the figures in Turkish life during the first months of the Great +War, the most picturesque and probably the most influential in the +events that led up to the outbreak of hostilities in Turkey was that of +the youthful Enver Pasha. He was one of the heroes of the remarkable +rebellion that resulted in the downfall of Abdul Hamid, and since then +he had ever played a leading part in the constantly shifting drama in +Constantinople. Dapper, alert intelligent, and approachable, modest +almost to the point of shyness, Enver was almost a venerated figure +among the Turkish people. As he passed on horseback, his slim figure +erect and stiff in its military pose, he attracted more attention and +interest than did the sultan himself.</p> + +<p>He formed the chief and perhaps the strongest link between +Constantinople and Berlin. Honored in an unprecedented manner by the +sultan, Enver's influence in Constantinople was almost supreme. It is +through him that the various negotiations with Berlin were conducted. +Soon after the triumph of the Young Turk movement Enver went to Berlin +as military attaché to the Turkish Embassy, and thoroughly imbibed the +Prussian military spirit. He returned to the Turkish capital an +enthusiastic admirer of the German army system and became a willing ally +of General Liman von Sanders in the latter's attempt to repair the +weaknesses of the Turkish army revealed by the Balkan War.</p> + +<p>Second only to Enver Pasha in those critical days was Talaat Bey, an old +and more experienced member of the inner council of the Committee of +Union and Progress and also a prominent figure in the revolution against +Abdul Hamid. He was described by Sir Louis Mallet, British Ambassador to +Constantinople, as the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page500" name="page500"></a>(p. 500)</span> most powerful civilian in the cabinet +and also as the most conspicuous of the leaders of the Committee of +Union and Progress. He was troubled by no such personal modesty and +shyness as was Enver. He was, however, a much harder man to judge. Enver +was openly pro-German in the weeks that preceded the actual break with +the Entente Powers, but for a long time the real intentions of Talaat +Bey were in doubt—at least they were to the British, French, and +Russian Ambassadors.</p> + +<p>Djemel Pasha, Minister of Marine, while pro-German in his sentiments, is +believed to have hesitated in advising an open break, largely because of +the condition of the Turkish navy and the state of Turkish finance. The +arrival of the <i>Goeben</i> and the <i>Breslau</i>, the importation of hundreds +of German sailors to stiffen the Turkish marine, and, during October, +the receipt of about $20,000,000 in gold from Berlin, won him over. In +the end Djemel Pasha stood with Enver and Talaat.</p> + +<p>Other members of the Turkish Cabinet made a demonstration of attempting +to hold their country to an uneasy neutrality. Whether their efforts +were sincere or designed to prevent an open rupture until the +psychological moment had arrived it is impossible to say. Sir Louis +Mallet, in his private dispatches to his Government, expresses his firm +conviction that the sultan, the heir apparent, the grand vizier, Prince +Said Halim, Djavid Bey, the Minister of Finance and a clear majority of +the cabinet were determined not to allow Turkey to be drawn into the +war. Up to the very last minute the British Ambassador did not despair +of the success of this peace party. Events were too strong for these +advocates of neutrality—events and the control of the all-important +army and navy by Enver and his associates. By the sword the Ottoman +Empire was reared and by the sword it has been ruled ever since.</p> + +<p>During the months of September, 1914, and October, 1914, there were many +plain signs that Enver Pasha and Talaat Bey were heading straight for a +break. On September 9, 1914, the Porte gave notice of the proposed +abolition of the capitulations by which the various powers enjoyed +extraterritorial rights. At the same time what amounted to a final +demand was made upon <span class="pagenum"><a id="page501" name="page501"></a>(p. 501)</span> the British Government to return the two +Turkish battleships seized at the outbreak of the war.</p> + +<p>Extraordinary efforts were made by all the Entente Powers to keep Turkey +neutral. They proposed to agree to the abolition of the capitulations as +soon as a modern judicial system could be set up in Turkey; they agreed +to guarantee the independence and integrity of the country for a limited +but extended term of years; they declared that Turkey would not suffer +by any changes of national frontiers growing out of the war; and England +even promised to return the two superdreadnoughts upon the conclusion of +the war, claiming that their retention meanwhile was absolutely +necessary for her protection.</p> + +<p>The main stipulations made by the Entente Powers in return for these +concessions were that the German crews of the <i>Goeben</i> and the <i>Breslau</i> +be sent out of Turkey and that General Liman von Sanders and the other +members of the German military mission be dismissed. With these demands +Turkey refused to comply, after hesitating over the first. Indeed, the +strength of the German stiffening in Turkey was constantly becoming +greater: by the middle of September there were no less than 4,000 German +officers and noncommissioned officers in Constantinople alone and every +train from the north brought others. This situation of tension between +Turkey and the Entente Powers continued all through September and +October. The outside world momentarily expected an open rupture.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1">CHAPTER LXXXIII</h2> + +<p class="title">THE FIRST BLOW AGAINST THE ALLIES</p> + + +<p>On October 29, 1914, came news of a Bedouin invasion of the Sinai +peninsula and an occupation of the important Wells of Magdala on the +road to the Suez Canal. England became alarmed, and her composure was +not restored by the news that came a few hours later. Claiming that +Russia had taken aggressive <span class="pagenum"><a id="page502" name="page502"></a>(p. 502)</span> action in the Black Sea, three +Turkish torpedo boats sailed into Odessa Harbor, shelled the town, sank +a Russian guardship, and did other considerable damage.</p> + +<p>On the following day, October 30, 1914, the Russian Ambassador at +Constantinople asked for his passports and the British and French +representatives with evident reluctance soon followed suit. On November +1 Turkey was definitely and irretrievably at war with the Entente Powers +and an ally of Germany and Austria.</p> + +<p>The war from the point of view of the Turkish people was a matter of +four frontiers. There was the Dardanelles to guard; there was Egypt and +the Suez Canal to be threatened and perhaps captured; there was the +Caucasus, where across towering mountains and deep gorges the Ottoman +faced the Russian, his hereditary and most feared enemy; and finally +there was Mesopotamia. All of these theatres of possible warfare +presented military problems, and one of them naval problems among the +most intricate and interesting of those facing the nations involved in +this unprecedented war. In the Caucasus the mountains and the scarcity +of broad passes and good roads, the almost entire lack of railway +facilities and the whole nature of the country rendered offensive +operations as difficult as on the northeast frontier of Italy or in the +Carpathians. In Syria and on the road to the Suez Canal, the waterless +desert, the entire absence of railways, the paucity and inadequacy of +roads and the nature of the obstacles to be crossed before an invasion +of Egypt was possible made the task one of terrible difficulty. In the +Dardanelles the peninsula of Gallipoli, strong as it was in natural +advantages, was open to naval attack from two and perhaps three sides +and its defense must prove not only a costly affair but one the issue of +which must be constantly open to doubt. Lastly in Mesopotamia the task +for the Turks was a comparatively easy one, for an invading army must +meet with constant difficulties through lack of water, excessive heat, +absence of roads and railways and distance from real base of supplies.</p> + +<p>At the time of Turkey's entry into the war, military opinion all over +the world was divided on the question of the relative <span class="pagenum"><a id="page503" name="page503"></a>(p. 503)</span> +efficiency of her army. All agreed, however, that as an individual +fighting animal the Turk had few if any equals. Centuries of warfare had +established his reputation, and the wonderful defense of Plevna had set +the seal upon it. On the defensive, it was believed by many, he was +unbeatable, conditions of supply and equipment being equal.</p> + +<p>The Balkan War, however, had been a severe blow to his prestige. It was +widely felt that his defeat by the Bulgars, the Serbians, and the Greeks +had revealed serious, even vital, weaknesses in the Ottoman army. +Consequently the test of Turkey in the Great War was anxiously awaited +by both allies and foes. Tremendous issues were at stake, and the +failure or success of the soldiers of the Crescent in standing before +the troops of Russia, France, and Great Britain was bound to have an +important, perhaps decisive, influence on the outcome of the struggle as +a whole.</p> + +<p>It is doubtful if the general staff of any of the warring countries had +any accurate or dependable figures of the Turkish army. Especially was +this so of the army on a war footing. At one time only Mohammedans were +permitted to serve with the colors, the citizens of other religious +beliefs being called upon to pay a yearly tax in lieu of service. Of +recent years, however, that law was altered, and in the Balkan War +Mohammedan and Christian served side by side and fought with equal ardor +for their country. Just how large a proportion of the Christian +population had been incorporated into the army at the time of the +outbreak of hostilities few experts were in any position to estimate.</p> + +<p>Germany, because of her painstaking investigations in Turkey as well as +in every other country, probably was in possession of more accurate data +than any other nation, not even excepting the Turks themselves. The best +neutral authorities speak of 1,125,000 as the total war-time strength of +the Ottoman forces, but that estimate was made prior to the war and +before the world had learned that nations under modern conditions are +able to place a much larger proportion of their available manhood in the +field than was ever thought possible. Probably the Turkish war strength +was underestimated. The chief difficulty was not in <span class="pagenum"><a id="page504" name="page504"></a>(p. 504)</span> finding +the men, but in providing quickly equipment, and at the outset that was +evidently a very real obstacle in Turkey.</p> + +<p>The Turkish army was essentially a German creation, and largely the +personal accomplishment of that very able military organizer and student +of war, Field Marshal von der Goltz. Von der Goltz spent a decade with +the Turkish army, and returned to Germany only to reorganize the eastern +defenses of his country in preparation for the Great War. When Turkey +entered the struggle he returned to Constantinople at Enver Bey's +personal request.</p> + +<p>The Turk does not become subject to military duty until he reaches the +age of twenty. Then, however, for the next two decades he belongs to the +army, either actually or potentially. The first nine years are spent in +the Nizam or first line, first with the colors and then in immediate +reserve. Then come nine years in the Redif or Landwehr, and, finally, +two years in the Mustaph'-phiz or Landsturm.</p> + +<p>All branches of the Turkish army were not equally good. Cavalry and +infantry were probably the equal of corresponding troops in the armies +of any other country, but the inefficiency of the artillery was blamed +for the débâcle of the Balkan War. Many of the thousands of German +troops poured into Turkey before and after she entered the war were +trained gunners sent with the object of stiffening the weakest arm of +the Turkish army.</p> + +<p>The Turkish army has always suffered, as have the armies of many other +countries, from a shortage of properly trained officers. Since the +advent of the Young Turks, and especially since Enver Pasha, with his +German training, succeeded to the position of Minister of War and +Commander in Chief, the personnel of the officers' corps has been vastly +improved. But it takes years—yes, generations—to create an adequate +supply of officers and noncommissioned officers for an army of the +proportions of Turkey's, and the assistance of the German stiffening +must have been of inestimable advantage to the Ottoman command.</p> + +<p>At the outbreak of the war the Turkish army was disposed in four +regional groups. The number of men actually with the colors, according +to the best estimates, was 500,000, with another <span class="pagenum"><a id="page505" name="page505"></a>(p. 505)</span> 250,000 +trained men in immediate reserve awaiting equipment. In or near +Constantinople were about 200,000 troops, including the First, Third, +and Fifth Corps, a part of the Sixth, and four cavalry brigades. In +Thrace, watching the uncertain Bulgars and Greeks, were the Second and +most of the Sixth Corps with cavalry regiments and frontier guards. In +Palestine, menacing the Suez Canal, were the 40,000 troops of the Eighth +Corps, besides unnumbered irregular Arab forces, who could not, however, +be depended upon. In the Caucasus the Ninth, Tenth, and Eleventh Corps +and three brigades of cavalry were facing the Russian forces across the +winding frontier. At Bagdad the Thirteenth Corps, and at Mosul the +Twelfth, stood guard over Mesopotamia.</p> + +<p>For centuries England had had a very genuine and active interest in the +Persian Gulf, recognizing its strategic and potential commercial +importance with that foresight which has distinguished her statesmen and +traders for generations. Russia had been regarded as the most likely +nation to contest England's predominance in that quarter of the world, +and her every move was watched and checkmated in Downing Street.</p> + +<p>At the outbreak of the war, however, and for a decade before, Germany +had given many signs that she had to be reckoned with in any +arrangements in the waters washing the shores of Mesopotamia. And it +soon became apparent that the domination of that part of Turkey was to +be one of the chief spoils of victory. Much has been written about +Germany's territorial ambitions. Much of it is based upon pure +speculation, but publicists in Germany make no disguise of the +Fatherland's desire to win and make a political and economic unit of the +countries now embraced in Germany, Austria-Hungary, Servia, perhaps +Rumania, Bulgaria, and Turkey in Europe and Asia. One has but to take up +the map and outline this aggregation of states and turn to a table of +statistics to realize the enormous advantages and powers of such a unit. +Politically and economically, it would dominate Europe as has no other +power for many generations. Economically and financially, it would be +absolutely independent of the rest of the world, but even if it were +not, no nation or combination of nations could afford to attempt to +isolate it.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<h2 class="b1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="page506" name="page506"></a>(p. 506)</span> CHAPTER LXXXIV</h2> + +<p class="title">BRITISH CAMPAIGN IN MESOPOTAMIA</p> + + +<p>It was some such considerations as these working in the minds of the +members of the British Government that impelled them to undertake an +offensive in Mesopotamia almost immediately after the break of relations +with Turkey. But in addition there were two other reasons. Russia feared +a Turkish attack in force in the Caucasus and called to England and +France for a diversion. The Mesopotamia campaign working on the right +flank of the Turkish forces, as a whole, was an ideal operation intended +to draw troops from the Russian frontier. Secondly, the moral effect of +any considerable British success in Mesopotamia, and especially the +capture of Bagdad, was bound to be very great. Bulgaria, Greece, and +Rumania were believed to be waiting for a cue to enter the struggle, and +perhaps turn the scales in the Balkans, while the attitude of the +Mohammedans in the French and British possessions was largely dependent +upon the prestige of those two countries.</p> + +<p>Finally, in considering the relative importance of particular campaigns, +observers are likely to lose sight of the tremendous importance of +possession. In law possession is said to constitute nine points. In +warfare, and in diplomacy, which must eventually follow, possession is +even more important. When the plenipotentiaries of the warring nations +gather around the peace table to arrive at a basis of settlement and the +cards are laid on the table, that nation in possession of disputed +territory, whatever may be her military and financial condition, is in a +position to largely influence the terms. Only by the concession of +equivalent advantages or considerations will it be possible to oust her.</p> + +<p>How widely this is recognized will be evidenced by the scramble that is +made by each of the warring nations to secure possession of the land +regarded as its particular sphere of influence. This is true of +Mesopotamia, as of many other parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page507" name="page507"></a>(p. 507)</span> It is evident that the Turkish military authorities were taken +somewhat by surprise by the rapidity with which the British Government +in India perfected their arrangements for an attack upon Mesopotamia. +Knowing that the total British army was extremely limited, it was +thought that France, and possibly Egypt, would absorb British military +activity for some months to come. There was every reason, however, why +the British should not delay the attack upon the shores of Mesopotamia +washed by the Persian Gulf. Running down to the left bank of the +Shat-el-Arab to a point (Abadam) almost directly opposite the Turkish +village of Sanijeh was the enormously important pipe line of the +Anglo-Persian Oil Company. Now this pipe line was one of the main +supplies of the British navy which, with the launching of the newer +superdreadnoughts, was becoming increasingly dependent upon oil instead +of coal. So much was this so that the British admiralty some time before +the war bought a controlling interest in this same Anglo-Persian Oil +Company. It was, then, primarily to protect this fuel supply from a +Turkish raid that an early descent upon the Mesopotamian coast was +planned.</p> + +<p>On November 7, 1914, the Poona Brigade, composed of white and Indian +troops, under command of Brigadier General W. S. Delamain, appeared off +the Turkish village of Fao, where an antiquated Turkish fort lies amid a +grove of palm trees. Against Persian Gulf pirates it could have put up a +valiant fight, but it was a poor match for the guns of the British +gunboat <i>Odin</i>. The defenders fled and the British force sailed up the +Shat-el-Arab. At Sanijeh they effected a landing, intrenched, and +awaited the coming of two additional brigades.</p> + +<p>It soon became apparent that the Turks, either because they were not +prepared or because they preferred to make their real stand nearer their +base of supplies, did not intend to offer any serious opposition to the +British advance. They adopted tactics designed to harass and delay the +invaders, however, and on the 11th of November a small force moved out +of Basra and engaged the Indian troops attached to General Delamain's +command. After a sharp action the Turks retired. No further opportunity +was given them to attack in small force, for two days later Lieutenant +<span class="pagenum"><a id="page508" name="page508"></a>(p. 508)</span> General Sir Arthur Barrett arrived at Sanijeh with the +Armednagar and the Belgaum Brigades, both made up of Indian troops with +a stiffening of British regiments.</p> + +<p>By November 16, 1914, the whole of the British forces were ashore, and +on the following day at daybreak General Barrett ordered an advance. The +main Turkish forces were located at Sahil, about halfway between Sanijeh +and Basra. The battle was opened by an artillery duel. The British had a +great advantage in the possession of gunboats, upon which had been +mounted guns of considerable caliber. The Turks had selected their +positions with great skill and knowledge, and despite the heavy +artillery preparation, the British troops, when they did advance, were +badly punished. Recent rains had made the ground heavy, almost marshy, +and the entire absence of vegetation gave the Turkish riflemen and +machine-gun crews an excellent chance to work. Slowly the Turks were +forced out of their advance positions, but just as the invaders were +about to take advantage of the retreat of the enemy a curious phenomenon +occurred. Between the advancing British and the retiring Turks a mirage +interposed and effectually screened the movements of the latter. Because +of this and the heavy ground no pursuit was possible.</p> + +<p>This action, resulting in the loss of 353 of the British force and an +even larger number of the Turkish troops (estimated by the British at +1,500, but which is almost certainly an exaggeration), decided the fate +of Basra. Some opposition was made to the passage of the British river +expedition, and at one point an unsuccessful attempt was made to block +the passage of the Shat-el-Arab by the sinking of three steamers.</p> + +<p>About ten o'clock in the morning of November 22, 1914, the British river +force, after silencing a battery that had been hurriedly erected by the +Turks just below the town, reached Basra, and General Barrett hoisted +the British flag on the German Consulate, the customhouse having been +fired by the retreating Turks. Some time was spent by the invaders at +Basra in preparing a base.</p> + +<p>It was not until December 3, 1914, that Lieutenant Colonel Frazer of +General Barrett's force with Indian troops and some <span class="pagenum"><a id="page509" name="page509"></a>(p. 509)</span> of the +Second Norfolks advanced on Kurna, fifty miles above Basra, at a point +where the Tigris empties into the old channel of the Euphrates. +Lieutenant Colonel Frazer's force was accompanied by three gunboats, an +armed yacht, and a couple of armed launches. The troops landed four +miles below the town and intrenched, while the river force moved up and +shelled Kurna. When the troops advanced, it immediately became apparent +that the strength of the Turks had been underestimated and that +Lieutenant Colonel Frazer's force was much too small to dislodge them. +After losing heavily, Frazer ordered a retreat to the intrenchments four +miles down the river, and sent word to Basra for reenforcements.</p> + +<p>On December 6, 1914, General Fry appeared with additional troops, and +plans were laid for attacking Kurna on the flank. Just as the scheme was +nearing completion, however, Turkish officers appeared at the English +camp and asked for terms. Conditions were refused, and finally the Turks +laid down their arms.</p> + +<p>With the capture of Kurna the British secured control of the delta of +the Euphrates, made impossible any raid upon the Persian Gulf and its +oil supply except in great force, and laid the foundations of an +ambitious campaign against the strategic points of the whole of +Mesopotamia. Elaborate intrenched camps were built at Kurna, and near-by +at Mezera, to await the coming of larger forces and supplies.<a href="#toc"><span class="small">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p> + + +<p class="p4"><a id="footnote1" name="footnote1"></a> +<b>Footnote 1:</b> The British admiralty did not clear up the mystery of her +disaster.<a href="#footnotetag1"><span class="small">[Back to Main Text]</span></a></p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Story of the Great War, Volume II +(of VIII), by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF THE GREAT WAR *** + +***** This file should be named 29270-h.htm or 29270-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/9/2/7/29270/ + +Produced by Merv McConnel, Christine P. 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