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Huxley + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most +other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of +the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have +to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. + +Title: Time and Life: Mr. Darwin's “Origin of Species” + +Author: Thomas H. Huxley + +Release Date: November, 2001 [EBook #2928] +[Most recently updated: November 19, 2020] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TIME AND LIFE: MR. DARWIN'S “ORIGIN OF SPECIES” *** + + + + +Produced by Amy E. Zelmer. + + + + + + +</pre> + +<h1>Time and Life<a href="#fn-1" name="fnref-1" id="fnref-1"><sup>*</sup></a></h1> + +<h3>MR. DARWIN’S<br />“ORIGIN OF SPECIES”</h3> + +<h2 class="no-break">by Thomas H. Huxley</h2> + +<hr /> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p> +Everyone knows that that superficial film of the earth’s substance, +hardly ten miles thick, which is accessible to human investigation, is composed +for the most part of beds or strata of stone, the consolidated muds and sands +of former seas and lakes, which have been deposited one upon the other, and +hence are the older the deeper they lie. These multitudinous strata present +such resemblances and differences among themselves that they are capable of +classification into groups or formations, and these formations again are +brigaded together into still larger assemblages, called by the older +geologists, primary, secondary, and tertiary; by the moderns, palaeozoic, +mesozoic, and cainozoic: the basis of the former nomenclature being the +relative age of the groups of strata; that of the latter, the kinds of living +forms contained in them. +</p> + +<p> +Though but a film if compared with the total diameter of our planet, the total +series of formations is vast indeed when measured by any human standard, and, +as all action implies time, so are we compelled to regard these mineral masses +as a measure of the time which has elapsed during their accumulation. The +amount of the time which they represent is, of course, in the inverse +proportion of the intensity of the forces which have been in operation. If, in +the ancient world, mud and sand accumulated on sea-bottoms at tenfold their +present rate, it is clear that a bed of mud or sand ten feet thick would have +been formed then in the same time as a stratum of similar materials one foot +thick would be formed now, and <i>vice versa</i>. +</p> + +<p> +At the outset of his studies, therefore, the physical geologist had to choose +between two hypotheses; either, throughout the ages which are represented by +the accumulated strata, and which we may call <i>geologic time</i>, the forces +of nature have operated with much the same average intensity as at present, and +hence the lapse of time which they represent must be something prodigious and +inconceivable, or, in the primeval epochs, the natural powers were infinitely +more intense than now, and hence the time through which they acted to produce +the effects we see was comparatively short. +</p> + +<p> +The earlier geologists adopted the latter view almost with one consent. For +they had little knowledge of the present workings of nature, and they read the +records of geologic time as a child reads the history of Rome or Greece, and +fancies that antiquity was grand, heroic, and unlike the present because it is +unlike his little experience of the present. +</p> + +<p> +Even so the earlier observers were moved with wonder at the seeming contrast +between the ancient and the present order of nature. The elemental forces +seemed to have been grander and more energetic in primeval times. Upheaved and +contorted, rifted and fissured, pierced by dykes of molten matter or worn away +over vast areas by aqueous action, the older rocks appeared to bear witness to +a state of things far different from that exhibited by the peaceful epoch on +which the lot of man has fallen. +</p> + +<p> +But by degrees thoughtful students of geology have been led to perceive that +the earliest efforts of nature have been by no means the grandest. Alps and +Andes are children of yesterday when compared with Snowdon and the Cumberland +hills; and the so-called glacial epoch—that in which perhaps the most +extensive physical changes of which any record remaining occurred—is the +last and the newest of the revolutions of the globe. And in proportion as +physical geography—which is the geology of our own epoch—has grown +into a science, and the present order of nature has been ransacked to find +what, <i>hibernice</i>, we may call precedents for the phenomena of the past, +so the apparent necessity of supposing the past to be widely different from the +present has diminished. +</p> + +<p> +The transporting power of the greatest deluge which can be imagined sinks into +insignificance beside that of the slowly floating, slowly melting iceberg, or +the glacier creeping along at its snail’s pace of a yard a day. The study +of the deltas of the Nile, the Ganges, and the Mississippi has taught us how +slow is the wearing action of water, how vast its effects when time is allowed +for its operation. The reefs of the Pacific, the deep-sea soundings of the +Atlantic, show that it is to the slow-growing coral and to the imperceptible +animalcule, which lives its brief space and then adds its tiny shell to the +muddy cairn left by its brethren and ancestors, that we must look as the agents +in the formation of limestone and chalk, and not to hypothetical oceans +saturated with calcareous salts and suddenly depositing them. +</p> + +<p> +And while the inquirer has thus learnt that existing forces—<i>give them +time</i>—are competent to produce all the physical phenomena we meet with +in the rocks, so, on the other side, the study of the marks left in the ancient +strata by past physical actions shows that these were similar to those which +now obtain. Ancient beaches are met with whose pebbles are like those found on +modern shores; the hardened sea-sands of the oldest epochs show ripple-marks, +such as may now be found on every sandy coast; nay, more, the pits left by +ancient rain-drops prove that even in the very earliest ages, the “bow in +the clouds” must have adorned the palaeozoic firmament. So that if we +could reverse the legend of the Seven Sleepers,—if we could sleep back +through the past, and awake a million ages before our own epoch, in the midst +of the earliest geologic times,—there is no reason to believe that sea, +or sky, or the aspect of the land would warn us of the marvellous +retrospection. +</p> + +<p> +Such are the beliefs which modern physical geologists hold, or, at any rate, +tend towards holding. But, in so doing, it is obvious that they by no means +prejudge the question, as to what the physical condition of the globe may have +been before our chapters of its history begin, in what may be called (with that +licence which is implied in the often-used term “prehistoric +epoch”) “pre-geologic time.” The views indicated, in fact, +are not only quite consistent with the hypothesis, that, in the still earlier +period referred to, the condition of our world was very different; but they may +be held by some to necessitate that hypothesis. The physical philosopher who is +accurately acquainted with the velocity of a cannon-ball, and the precise +character of the line which it traverses for a yard of its course, is +necessitated by what he knows of the laws of nature to conclude that it came +from a certain spot, whence it was impelled by a certain force, and that it has +followed a certain trajectory. In like manner, the student of physical geology, +who fully believes in the uniformity of the general condition of the earth +through geologic time, may feel compelled by what he knows of causation, and by +the general analogy of nature, to suppose that our solar system was once a +nebulous mass; that it gradually condensed, that it broke up into that +wonderful group of harmoniously rolling balls we call planets and satellites, +and that then each of these underwent its appointed metamorphosis, until at +last our own share of the cosmic vapour passed into that condition in which we +first meet with definite records of its state, and in which it has since, with +comparatively little change, remained. +</p> + +<p> +The doctrine of uniformity and the doctrine of progression are, therefore, +perfectly consistent; perhaps, indeed, they might be shown to be necessarily +connected with one another. +</p> + +<p> +If, however, the condition of the world, which has obtained throughout geologic +time, is but the sequel to a vast series of changes which took place in +pre-geologic time, then it seems not unlikely that the duration of this latter +is to that of the former as the vast extent of geologic time is to the length +of the brief epoch we call the historical period; and that even the oldest +rocks are records of an epoch almost infinitely remote from that which could +have witnessed the first shaping of our globe. +</p> + +<p> +It is probable that no modern geologist would hesitate to admit the general +validity of these reasonings when applied to the physics of his subject, whence +it is the more remarkable that the moment the question changes from one of +physics and chemistry to one of natural history, scientific opinions and the +popular prejudices, which reflect them in a distorted form, undergo a sudden +metamorphosis. Geologists and palaeontologists write about the “beginning +of life” and the “first-created forms of living beings,” as +if they were the most familiar things in the world; and even cautious writers +seem to be on quite friendly terms with the “archetype” whereby the +Creator was guided “amidst the crash of falling worlds.” Just as it +used to be imagined that the ancient world was physically opposed to the +present, so it is still widely assumed that the living population of our globe, +whether animal or vegetable, in the older epochs, exhibited forms so strikingly +contrasted with those which we see around us, that there is hardly anything in +common between the two. It is constantly tacitly assumed that we have before us +all the forms of life which have ever existed; and though the progress of +knowledge, yearly and almost monthly, drives the defenders of that position +from their ground, they entrench themselves in the new line of defences as if +nothing had happened, and proclaim that the <i>new</i> beginning is the +<i>real</i> beginning. +</p> + +<p> +Without for an instant denying or endeavouring to soften down the considerable +positive differences (the negative ones are met by another line of argument) +which undoubtedly obtain between the ancient and the modern worlds of life, we +believe they have been vastly overstated and exaggerated, and this belief is +based upon certain facts whose value does not seem to have been fully +appreciated, though they have long been more or less completely known. +</p> + +<p> +The multitudinous kinds of animals and plants, both recent and fossil, are, as +is well known, arranged by zoologists and botanists, in accordance with their +natural relations, into groups which receive the names of sub-kingdoms, +classes, orders, families, genera and species. Now it is a most remarkable +circumstance that, viewed on the great scale, living beings have differed so +little throughout all geologic time that there is no sub-kingdom and no class +wholly extinct or without living representatives. +</p> + +<p> +If we descend to the smaller groups, we find that the number of orders of +plants is about two hundred; and I have it on the best authority that not one +of these is exclusively fossil; so that there is absolutely not a single +extinct ordinal type of vegetable life; and it is not until we descend to the +next group, or the families, that we find types which are wholly extinct. The +number of orders of animals, on the other hand, may be reckoned at a hundred +and twenty, or thereabouts, and of these, eight or nine have no living +representatives. The proportion of extinct ordinal types of animals to the +existing types, therefore, does not exceed seven per cent.—a marvellously +small proportion when we consider the vastness of geologic time. +</p> + +<p> +Another class of considerations—of a different kind, it is true, but +tending in the same direction—seems to have been overlooked. Not only is +it true that the general plan of construction of animals and plants has been +the same in all recorded time as at present, but there are particular kinds of +animals and plants which have existed throughout vast epochs, sometimes through +the whole range of recorded time, with very little change. By reason of this +persistency, the typical form of such a kind might be called a +“persistent type,” in contradistinction to those types which have +appeared for but a short time in the course of the world’s history. +Examples of these persistent types are abundant enough in both the vegetable +and the animal kingdoms. The oldest group of plants with which we are well +acquainted is that of whose remains coal is constituted; and as far as they can +be identified, the carboniferous plants are ferns, or club-mosses, or +Coniferae, in many cases generically identical with those now living! +</p> + +<p> +Among animals, instances of the same kind may be found in every sub-kingdom. +The <i>Globigerina</i> of the Atlantic soundings is identical with that which +occurs in the chalk; and the casts of lower silurian <i>Foraminifera</i>, which +Ehrenberg has recently described, seem to indicate the existence at that remote +period of forms singularly like those which now exist. Among the corals, the +palaeozoic <i>Tabulata</i> are constructed on precisely the same type as the +modern millepores; and if we turn to molluscs, the most competent malacologists +fail to discover any generic distinction between the <i>Craniae</i>, +<i>Lingulae</i> and <i>Discinae</i> of the silurian rocks and those which now +live. Our existing <i>Nautilus</i> has its representative species in every +great formation, from the oldest to the newest; and <i>Loligo</i>, the squid of +modern seas, appears in the lias, or at the bottom of the mesozoic series, in a +form, at most, specifically different from its living congeners. In the great +assemblage of annulose animals, the two highest classes, the insects and spider +tribe, exhibit a wonderful persistency of type. The cockroaches of the +carboniferous epoch are exceedingly similar to those which now run about our +coal-cellars; and its locusts, termites and dragon-flies are closely allied to +the members of the same groups which now chirrup about our fields, undermine +our houses, or sail with swift grace about the banks of our sedgy pools. And, +in like manner, the palaeozoic scorpions can only be distinguished by the eye +of a naturalist from the modern ones. +</p> + +<p> +Finally, with respect to the <i>Vertebrata</i>, the same law holds good: +certain types, such as those of the ganoid and placoid fishes, having persisted +from the palaeozoic epoch to the present time without a greater amount of +deviation from the normal standard than that which is seen within the limits of +the group as it now exists. Even among the <i>Reptilia</i>—the class +which exhibits the largest proportion of entirely extinct forms of any one +type,—that of the <i>Crocodilia</i>, has persisted from at least the +commencement of the mesozoic epoch up to the present time with so much +constancy, that the amount of change which it exhibits may fairly, in relation +to the time which has elapsed, be called insignificant. And the imperfect +knowledge we have of the ancient mammalian population of our earth leads to the +belief that certain of its types, such as that of the <i>Marsupialia</i>, have +persisted with correspondingly little change through a similar range of time. +</p> + +<p> +Thus it would appear to be demonstrable, that, notwithstanding the great change +which is exhibited by the animal population of the world as a whole, certain +types have persisted comparatively without alteration, and the question arises, +What bearing have such facts as these on our notions of the history of life +through geological time? The answer to this question would seem to depend on +the view we take respecting the origin of species in general. If we assume that +every species of animal and of plant was formed by a distinct act of creative +power, and if the species which have incessantly succeeded one another were +placed upon the globe by these separate acts, then the existence of persistent +types is simply an unintelligible irregularity. Such assumption, however, is as +unsupported by tradition or by Revelation as it is opposed by the analogy of +the rest of the operations of nature; and those who imagine that, by adopting +any such hypothesis, they are strengthening the hands of the advocates of the +letter of the Mosaic account, are simply mistaken. If, on the other hand, we +adopt that hypothesis to which alone the study of physiology lends any +support—that hypothesis which, having struggled beyond the reach of those +fatal supporters, the Telliameds and Vestigiarians, who so nearly caused its +suffocation by wind in early infancy, is now winning at least the provisional +assent of all the best thinkers of the day—the hypothesis that the forms +or species of living beings, as we know them, have been produced by the gradual +modification of pre-existing species—then the existence of persistent +types seems to teach us much. Just as a small portion of a great curve appears +straight, the apparent absence of change in direction of the line being the +exponent of the vast extent of the whole, in proportion to the part we see; so, +if it be true that all living species are the result of the modification of +other and simpler forms, the existence of these little altered persistent +types, ranging through all geological time, must indicate that they are but the +final terms of an enormous series of modifications, which had their being in +the great lapse of pregeologic time, and are now perhaps for ever lost. +</p> + +<p> +In other words, when rightly studied, the teachings of palaeontology are at one +with those of physical geology. Our farthest explorations carry us back but a +little way above the mouth of the great river of Life: where it arose, and by +what channels the noble tide has reached the point when it first breaks upon +our view, is hidden from us. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p> +The foregoing pages contain the substance of a lecture delivered before the +Royal Institution of Great Britain many months ago, and of course long before +the appearance of the remarkable work on the “Origin of Species” +just published by Mr. Darwin, who arrives at very similar conclusions. +Although, in one sense, I might fairly say that my own views have been arrived +at independently, I do not know that I can claim any equitable right to +property in them; for it has long been my privilege to enjoy Mr. Darwin’s +friendship, and to profit by corresponding with him, and by, to some extent, +becoming acquainted with the workings of his singularly original and +well-stored mind. It was in consequence of my knowledge of the general tenor of +the researches in which Mr. Darwin had been so long engaged; because I had the +most complete confidence in his perseverance, his knowledge, and, above all +things, his high-minded love of truth; and, moreover, because I found that the +better I became acquainted with the opinions of the best naturalists regarding +the vexed question of species, the less fixed they seemed to be, and the more +inclined they were to the hypothesis of gradual modification, that I ventured +to speak as strongly as I have done in the final paragraphs of my discourse. +</p> + +<p> +Thus, my daw having so many borrowed plumes, I see no impropriety in making a +tail to this brief paper by taking another handful of feathers from Mr. Darwin; +endeavouring to point out in a few words, in fact, what, as I gather from the +perusal of his book, his doctrines really are, and on what sort of basis they +rest. And I do this the more willingly, as I observe that already the hastier +sort of critics have begun, not to review my friend’s book, but to howl +over it in a manner which must tend greatly to distract the public mind. +</p> + +<p> +No one will be better satisfied than I to see Mr. Darwin’s book refuted, +if any person be competent to perform that feat; but I would suggest that +refutation is retarded, not aided, by mere sarcastic misrepresentation. Every +one who has studied cattle-breeding, or turned pigeon-fancier, or +“pomologist,” must have been struck by the extreme modifiability or +plasticity of those kinds of animals and plants which have been subjected to +such artificial conditions as are imposed by domestication. Breeds of dogs are +more different from one another than are the dog and the wolf; and the purely +artificial races of pigeons, if their origin were unknown, would most assuredly +be reckoned by naturalists as distinct species and even genera. +</p> + +<p> +These breeds are always produced in the same way. The breeder selects a pair, +one or other, or both, of which present an indication of the peculiarity he +wishes to perpetuate, and then selects from the offspring of them those which +are most characteristic, rejecting the others. From the selected offspring he +breeds again, and, taking the same precautions as before, repeats the process +until he has obtained the precise degree of divergence from the primitive type +at which he aimed. +</p> + +<p> +If he now breeds from the variety thus established for some generations, taking +care always to keep the stock pure, the tendency to produce this particular +variety becomes more and more strongly hereditary; and it does not appear that +there is any limit to the persistency of the race thus developed. +</p> + +<p> +Men like Lamarck, apprehending these facts, and knowing that varieties +comparable to those produced by the breeder are abundantly found in nature, and +finding it impossible to discriminate in some cases between varieties and true +species, could hardly fail to divine the possibility that species even the most +distinct were, after all, only exceedingly persistent varieties, and that they +had arisen by the modification of some common stock, just as it is with good +reason believed that turnspits and greyhounds, carrier and tumbler pigeons, +have arisen. +</p> + +<p> +But there was a link wanting to complete the parallel. Where in nature was the +analogue of the breeder to be found? How could that operation of selection, +which is his essential function, be carried out by mere natural agencies? +Lamarck did not value this problem; neither did he admit his impotence to solve +it; but he guessed a solution. Now, guessing in science is a very hazardous +proceeding, and Lamarck’s reputation has suffered woefully for the +absurdities into which his baseless suppositions led him. +</p> + +<p> +Lamarck’s conjectures, equipped with a new hat and stick, as Sir Walter +Scott was wont to say of an old story renovated, formed the foundation of the +biological speculations of the “Vestiges,” a work which has done +more harm to the progress of sound thought on these matters than any that could +be named; and, indeed, I mention it here simply for the purpose of denying that +it has anything in common with what essentially characterises Mr. +Darwin’s work. +</p> + +<p> +The peculiar feature of the latter is, in fact, that it professes to tell us +what in nature takes the place of the breeder; what it is that favours the +development of one variety into which a species may run, and checks that of +another; and, finally, shows how this natural selection, as it is termed, may +be the physical cause of the production of species by modification. +</p> + +<p> +That which takes the place of the breeder and selector in nature is Death. In a +most remarkable chapter, “On the Struggle for Existence,” Mr. +Darwin draws attention to the marvellous destruction of life which is +constantly going on in nature. For every species of living thing, as for man, +“<i>Eine Bresche ist ein jeder Tag</i>.”—Every species has +its enemies; every species has to compete with others for the necessaries of +existence; the weakest goes to the wall, and death is the penalty inflicted on +all laggards and stragglers. Every variety to which a species may give rise is +either worse or better adapted to surrounding circumstances than its parent. If +worse, it cannot maintain itself against death, and speedily vanishes again. +But if better adapted, it must, sooner or later, “improve” its +progenitor from the face of the earth, and take its place. If circumstances +change, the victor will be similarly supplanted by its own progeny; and thus, +by the operation of natural causes, unlimited modification may in the lapse of +long ages occur. +</p> + +<p> +For an explanation of what I have here called vaguely “surrounding +circumstances,” and of why they continually change—for ample proof +that the “struggle for existence” is a very great reality, and +assuredly <i>tends</i> to exert the influence ascribed to it—I must refer +to Mr. Darwin’s book. I believe I have stated fairly the position upon +which his whole theory must stand or fall; and it is not my purpose to +anticipate a full review of his work. If it can be proved that the process of +natural selection, operating upon any species, can give rise to varieties of +species so different from one another that none of our tests will distinguish +them from true species, Mr. Darwin’s hypothesis of the origin of species +will take its place among the established theories of science, be its +consequences whatever they may. If, on the other hand, Mr. Darwin has erred, +either in fact or in reasoning, his fellow-workers will soon find out the weak +points in his doctrines, and their extinction by some nearer approximation to +the truth will exemplify his own principle of natural selection. +</p> + +<p> +In either case the question is one to be settled only by the painstaking, +truth-loving investigation of skilled naturalists. It is the duty of the +general public to await the result in patience; and, above all things, to +discourage, as they would any other crimes, the attempt to enlist the +prejudices of the ignorant, or the uncharitableness of the bigoted, on either +side of the controversy. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="footnote"> +<a name="fn-1" id="fn-1"></a> <a href="#fnref-1">*</a> +“Macmillan’s Magazine,” December 1859. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Time and Life: Mr. Darwin's “Origin of Species”, by Thomas H. Huxley + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TIME AND LIFE: MR. DARWIN'S “ORIGIN OF SPECIES” *** + +***** This file should be named 2928-h.htm or 2928-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/9/2/2928/ + +Produced by Amy E. 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