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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Criticisms on "The Origin of Species", by 
+Thomas H. Huxley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Criticisms on "The Origin of Species"
+       From 'The Natural History Review', 1864
+
+Author: Thomas H. Huxley
+
+Posting Date: January 6, 2009 [EBook #2930]
+Release Date: November, 2001
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CRITICISMS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Amy E. Zelmer
+
+
+
+
+
+CRITICISMS ON "THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES"
+
+'The Natural History Review', 1864
+
+[1]
+
+By Thomas H. Huxley
+
+
+In the course of the present year several foreign commentaries upon Mr.
+Darwin's great work have made their appearance. Those who have perused
+that remarkable chapter of the 'Antiquity of Man,' in which Sir Charles
+Lyell draws a parallel between the development of species and that of
+languages, will be glad to hear that one of the most eminent philologers
+of Germany, Professor Schleicher, has, independently, published a most
+instructive and philosophical pamphlet (an excellent notice of which is
+to be found in the 'Reader', for February 27th of this year) supporting
+similar views with all the weight of his special knowledge and
+established authority as a linguist. Professor Haeckel, to whom
+Schleicher addresses himself, previously took occasion, in his splendid
+monograph on the 'Radiolaria' [2], to express his high appreciation of,
+and general concordance with, Mr. Darwin's views.
+
+But the most elaborate criticisms of the 'Origin of Species' which
+have appeared are two works of very widely different merit, the one
+by Professor Kolliker, the well-known anatomist and histologist of
+Wurzburg; the other by M. Flourens, Perpetual Secretary of the French
+Academy of Sciences.
+
+Professor Kolliker's critical essay 'Upon the Darwinian Theory' is,
+like all that proceeds from the pen of that thoughtful and accomplished
+writer, worthy of the most careful consideration. It comprises a brief
+but clear sketch of Darwin's views, followed by an enumeration of the
+leading difficulties in the way of their acceptance; difficulties which
+would appear to be insurmountable to Professor Kolliker, inasmuch as
+he proposes to replace Mr. Darwin's Theory by one which he terms the
+'Theory of Heterogeneous Generation.' We shall proceed to consider first
+the destructive, and secondly, the constructive portion of the essay.
+
+We regret to find ourselves compelled to dissent very widely from many
+of Professor Kolliker's remarks; and from none more thoroughly than from
+those in which he seeks to define what we may term the philosophical
+position of Darwinism.
+
+"Darwin," says Professor Kolliker, "is, in the fullest sense of the
+word, a Teleologist. He says quite distinctly (First Edition, pp.
+199, 200) that every particular in the structure of an animal has been
+created for its benefit, and he regards the whole series of animal forms
+only from this point of view."
+
+And again:
+
+"7. The teleological general conception adopted by Darwin is a mistaken
+one.
+
+"Varieties arise irrespectively of the notion of purpose, or of utility,
+according to general laws of Nature, and may be either useful, or
+hurtful, or indifferent.
+
+"The assumption that an organism exists only on account of some definite
+end in view, and represents something more than the incorporation of a
+general idea, or law, implies a one-sided conception of the universe.
+Assuredly, every organ has, and every organism fulfils, its end, but its
+purpose is not the condition of its existence. Every organism is also
+sufficiently perfect for the purpose it serves, and in that, at least,
+it is useless to seek for a cause of its improvement."
+
+It is singular how differently one and the same book will impress
+different minds. That which struck the present writer most forcibly on
+his first perusal of the 'Origin of Species' was the conviction that
+Teleology, as commonly understood, had received its deathblow at Mr.
+Darwin's hands. For the teleological argument runs thus: an organ or
+organism (A) is precisely fitted to perform a function or purpose (B);
+therefore it was specially constructed to perform that function. In
+Paley's famous illustration, the adaptation of all the parts of the
+watch to the function, or purpose, of showing the time, is held to be
+evidence that the watch was specially contrived to that end; on the
+ground, that the only cause we know of, competent to produce such an
+effect as a watch which shall keep time, is a contriving intelligence
+adapting the means directly to that end.
+
+Suppose, however, that any one had been able to show that the watch had
+not been made directly by any person, but that it was the result of the
+modification of another watch which kept time but poorly; and that this
+again had proceeded from a structure which could hardly be called a
+watch at all--seeing that it had no figures on the dial and the hands
+were rudimentary; and that going back and back in time we came at last
+to a revolving barrel as the earliest traceable rudiment of the whole
+fabric. And imagine that it had been possible to show that all these
+changes had resulted, first, from a tendency of the structure to vary
+indefinitely; and secondly, from something in the surrounding world
+which helped all variations in the direction of an accurate time-keeper,
+and checked all those in other directions; then it is obvious that the
+force of Paley's argument would be gone. For it would be demonstrated
+that an apparatus thoroughly well adapted to a particular purpose might
+be the result of a method of trial and error worked by unintelligent
+agents, as well as of the direct application of the means appropriate to
+that end, by an intelligent agent.
+
+Now it appears to us that what we have here, for illustration's sake,
+supposed to be done with the watch, is exactly what the establishment of
+Darwin's Theory will do for the organic world. For the notion that every
+organism has been created as it is and launched straight at a purpose,
+Mr. Darwin substitutes the conception of something which may fairly be
+termed a method of trial and error. Organisms vary incessantly; of these
+variations the few meet with surrounding conditions which suit them and
+thrive; the many are unsuited and become extinguished.
+
+According to Teleology, each organism is like a rifle bullet fired
+straight at a mark; according to Darwin, organisms are like grapeshot of
+which one hits something and the rest fall wide.
+
+For the teleologist an organism exists because it was made for the
+conditions in which it is found; for the Darwinian an organism exists
+because, out of many of its kind, it is the only one which has been able
+to persist in the conditions in which it is found.
+
+Teleology implies that the organs of every organism are perfect and
+cannot be improved; the Darwinian theory simply affirms that they
+work well enough to enable the organism to hold its own against such
+competitors as it has met with, but admits the possibility of indefinite
+improvement. But an example may bring into clearer light the profound
+opposition between the ordinary teleological, and the Darwinian,
+conception.
+
+Cats catch mice, small birds and the like, very well. Teleology tells
+us that they do so because they were expressly constructed for so
+doing--that they are perfect mousing apparatuses, so perfect and so
+delicately adjusted that no one of their organs could be altered,
+without the change involving the alteration of all the rest. Darwinism
+affirms on the contrary, that there was no express construction
+concerned in the matter; but that among the multitudinous variations of
+the Feline stock, many of which died out from want of power to resist
+opposing influences, some, the cats, were better fitted to catch mice
+than others, whence they throve and persisted, in proportion to the
+advantage over their fellows thus offered to them.
+
+Far from imagining that cats exist 'in order' to catch mice well,
+Darwinism supposes that cats exist 'because' they catch mice
+well--mousing being not the end, but the condition, of their existence.
+And if the cat type has long persisted as we know it, the interpretation
+of the fact upon Darwinian principles would be, not that the cats
+have remained invariable, but that such varieties as have incessantly
+occurred have been, on the whole, less fitted to get on in the world
+than the existing stock.
+
+If we apprehend the spirit of the 'Origin of Species' rightly, then,
+nothing can be more entirely and absolutely opposed to Teleology, as it
+is commonly understood, than the Darwinian Theory. So far from being a
+"Teleologist in the fullest sense of the word," we would deny that he
+is a Teleologist in the ordinary sense at all; and we should say that,
+apart from his merits as a naturalist, he has rendered a most remarkable
+service to philosophical thought by enabling the student of Nature to
+recognise, to their fullest extent, those adaptations to purpose which
+are so striking in the organic world, and which Teleology has done
+good service in keeping before our minds, without being false to the
+fundamental principles of a scientific conception of the universe.
+The apparently diverging teachings of the Teleologist and of the
+Morphologist are reconciled by the Darwinian hypothesis.
+
+But leaving our own impressions of the 'Origin of Species,' and turning
+to those passages especially cited by Professor Kolliker, we cannot
+admit that they bear the interpretation he puts upon them. Darwin, if we
+read him rightly, does 'not' affirm that every detail in the structure
+of an animal has been created for its benefit. His words are (p. 199):--
+
+"The foregoing remarks lead me to say a few words on the protest lately
+made by some naturalists against the utilitarian doctrine that every
+detail of structure has been produced for the good of its possessor.
+They believe that very many structures have been created for beauty in
+the eyes of man, or for mere variety. This doctrine, if true, would be
+absolutely fatal to my theory--yet I fully admit that many structures
+are of no direct use to their possessor."
+
+And after sundry illustrations and qualifications, he concludes (p.
+200):--
+
+"Hence every detail of structure in every living creature (making some
+little allowance for the direct action of physical conditions) may be
+viewed either as having been of special use to some ancestral form,
+or as being now of special use to the descendants of this form--either
+directly, or indirectly, through the complex laws of growth."
+
+But it is one thing to say, Darwinically, that every detail observed
+in an animal's structure is of use to it, or has been of use to its
+ancestors; and quite another to affirm, teleologically, that every
+detail of an animal's structure has been created for its benefit. On the
+former hypothesis, for example, the teeth of the foetal Balaena have
+a meaning; on the latter, none. So far as we are aware, there is not
+a phrase in the 'Origin of Species', inconsistent with Professor
+Kolliker's position, that "varieties arise irrespectively of the notion
+of purpose, or of utility, according to general laws of Nature, and may
+be either useful, or hurtful, or indifferent."
+
+On the contrary, Mr. Darwin writes (Summary of Chap. V.):--
+
+"Our ignorance of the laws of variation is profound. Not in one case out
+of a hundred can we pretend to assign any reason why this or that part
+varies more or less from the same part in the parents.... The external
+conditions of life, as climate and food, etc., seem to have induced some
+slight modifications. Habit, in producing constitutional differences,
+and use, in strengthening, and disuse, in weakening and diminishing
+organs, seem to have been more potent in their effects."
+
+And finally, as if to prevent all possible misconception, Mr. Darwin
+concludes his Chapter on Variation with these pregnant words:--
+
+"Whatever the cause may be of each slight difference in the offspring
+from their parents--and a cause for each must exist--it is the steady
+accumulation, through natural selection of such differences, when
+beneficial to the individual, that gives rise to all the more important
+modifications of structure which the innumerable beings on the face of
+the earth are enabled to struggle with each other, and the best adapted
+to survive."
+
+We have dwelt at length upon this subject, because of its great general
+importance, and because we believe that Professor Kolliker's criticisms
+on this head are based upon a misapprehension of Mr. Darwin's
+views--substantially they appear to us to coincide with his own. The
+other objections which Professor Kolliker enumerates and discusses are
+the following [3]:--
+
+"1. No transitional forms between existing species are known; and
+known varieties, whether selected or spontaneous, never go so far as to
+establish new species."
+
+To this Professor Kolliker appears to attach some weight. He makes the
+suggestion that the short-faced tumbler pigeon may be a pathological
+product.
+
+"2. No transitional forms of animals are met with among the organic
+remains of earlier epochs."
+
+Upon this, Professor Kolliker remarks that the absence of transitional
+forms in the fossil world, though not necessarily fatal to Darwin's
+views, weakens his case.
+
+"3. The struggle for existence does not take place."
+
+To this objection, urged by Pelzeln, Kolliker, very justly, attaches no
+weight.
+
+"4. A tendency of organisms to give rise to useful varieties, and a
+natural selection, do not exist.
+
+"The varieties which are found arise in consequence of manifold external
+influences, and it is not obvious why they all, or partially, should be
+particularly useful. Each animal suffices for its own ends, is perfect
+of its kind, and needs no further development. Should, however, a
+variety be useful and even maintain itself, there is no obvious
+reason why it should change any further. The whole conception of the
+imperfection of organisms and the necessity of their becoming perfected
+is plainly the weakest side of Darwin's Theory, and a 'pis aller'
+(Nothbehelf) because Darwin could think of no other principle by which
+to explain the metamorphoses which, as I also believe, have occurred."
+
+Here again we must venture to dissent completely from Professor
+Kolliker's conception of Mr. Darwin's hypothesis. It appears to us to be
+one of the many peculiar merits of that hypothesis that it involves no
+belief in a necessary and continual progress of organisms.
+
+Again, Mr. Darwin, if we read him aright, assumes no special tendency of
+organisms to give rise to useful varieties, and knows nothing of
+needs of development, or necessity of perfection. What he says is, in
+substance: All organisms vary. It is in the highest degree improbable
+that any given variety should have exactly the same relations to
+surrounding conditions as the parent stock. In that case it is either
+better fitted (when the variation may be called useful), or worse
+fitted, to cope with them. If better, it will tend to supplant the
+parent stock; if worse, it will tend to be extinguished by the parent
+stock.
+
+If (as is hardly conceivable) the new variety is so perfectly adapted
+to the conditions that no improvement upon it is possible,--it will
+persist, because, though it does not cease to vary, the varieties will
+be inferior to itself.
+
+If, as is more probable, the new variety is by no means perfectly
+adapted to its conditions, but only fairly well adapted to them, it will
+persist, so long as none of the varieties which it throws off are better
+adapted than itself.
+
+On the other hand, as soon as it varies in a useful way, i.e. when the
+variation is such as to adapt it more perfectly to its conditions, the
+fresh variety will tend to supplant the former.
+
+So far from a gradual progress towards perfection forming any necessary
+part of the Darwinian creed, it appears to us that it is perfectly
+consistent with indefinite persistence in one estate, or with a gradual
+retrogression. Suppose, for example, a return of the glacial epoch and a
+spread of polar climatal conditions over the whole globe. The operation
+of natural selection under these circumstances would tend, on the whole,
+to the weeding out of the higher organisms and the cherishing of the
+lower forms of life. Cryptogamic vegetation would have the advantage
+over Phanerogamic; Hydrozoa over Corals; Crustacea over Insecta, and
+Amphipoda and Isopoda over the higher Crustacea; Cetaceans and Seals
+over the Primates; the civilization of the Esquimaux over that of the
+European.
+
+"5. Pelzeln has also objected that if the later organisms have proceeded
+from the earlier, the whole developmental series, from the simplest to
+the highest, could not now exist; in such a case the simpler organisms
+must have disappeared."
+
+To this Professor Kolliker replies, with perfect justice, that the
+conclusion drawn by Pelzeln does not really follow from Darwin's
+premisses, and that, if we take the facts of Palaeontology as they
+stand, they rather support than oppose Darwin's theory.
+
+"6. Great weight must be attached to the objection brought forward by
+Huxley, otherwise a warm supporter of Darwin's hypothesis, that we know
+of no varieties which are sterile with one another, as is the rule among
+sharply distinguished animal forms.
+
+"If Darwin is right, it must be demonstrated that forms may be produced
+by selection, which, like the present sharply distinguished animal
+forms, are infertile, when coupled with one another, and this has not
+been done."
+
+The weight of this objection is obvious; but our ignorance of the
+conditions of fertility and sterility, the want of carefully conducted
+experiments extending over long series of years, and the strange
+anomalies presented by the results of the cross-fertilization of many
+plants, should all, as Mr. Darwin has urged, be taken into account in
+considering it.
+
+The seventh objection is that we have already discussed ('supra', p.
+178).
+
+The eighth and last stands as follows:--
+
+"8. The developmental theory of Darwin is not needed to enable us to
+understand the regular harmonious progress of the complete series of
+organic forms from the simpler to the more perfect.
+
+"The existence of general laws of Nature explains this harmony, even if
+we assume that all beings have arisen separately and independent of one
+another. Darwin forgets that inorganic nature, in which there can be no
+thought of genetic connexion of forms, exhibits the same regular plan,
+the same harmony, as the organic world; and that, to cite only one
+example, there is as much a natural system of minerals as of plants and
+animals."
+
+We do not feel quite sure that we seize Professor Kolliker's meaning
+here, but he appears to suggest that the observation of the general
+order and harmony which pervade inorganic nature, would lead us to
+anticipate a similar order and harmony in the organic world. And this is
+no doubt true, but it by no means follows that the particular order
+and harmony observed among them should be that which we see. Surely the
+stripes of dun horses, and the teeth of the foetal 'Balaena', are not
+explained by the "existence of general laws of Nature." Mr. Darwin
+endeavours to explain the exact order of organic nature which exists;
+not the mere fact that there is some order.
+
+And with regard to the existence of a natural system of minerals; the
+obvious reply is that there may be a natural classification of any
+objects--of stones on a sea-beach, or of works of art; a natural
+classification being simply an assemblage of objects in groups, so as
+to express their most important and fundamental resemblances and
+differences. No doubt Mr. Darwin believes that those resemblances and
+differences upon which our natural systems or classifications of animals
+and plants are based, are resemblances and differences which have been
+produced genetically, but we can discover no reason for supposing that
+he denies the existence of natural classifications of other kinds.
+
+And, after all, is it quite so certain that a genetic relation may not
+underlie the classification of minerals? The inorganic world has not
+always been what we see it. It has certainly had its metamorphoses,
+and, very probably, a long "Entwickelungsgeschichte" out of a nebular
+blastema. Who knows how far that amount of likeness among sets of
+minerals, in virtue of which they are now grouped into families and
+orders, may not be the expression of the common conditions to which that
+particular patch of nebulous fog, which may have been constituted by
+their atoms, and of which they may be, in the strictest sense, the
+descendants, was subjected?
+
+It will be obvious from what has preceded, that we do not agree with
+Professor Kolliker in thinking the objections which he brings forward
+so weighty as to be fatal to Darwin's view. But even if the case were
+otherwise, we should be unable to accept the "Theory of Heterogeneous
+Generation" which is offered as a substitute. That theory is thus
+stated:--
+
+"The fundamental conception of this hypothesis is, that, under the
+influence of a general law of development, the germs of organisms
+produce others different from themselves. This might happen (1) by
+the fecundated ova passing, in the course of their development, under
+particular circumstances, into higher forms; (2) by the primitive and
+later organisms producing other organisms without fecundation, out of
+germs or eggs (Parthenogenesis)."
+
+In favour of this hypothesis, Professor Kolliker adduces the well-known
+facts of Agamogenesis, or "alternate generation"; the extreme
+dissimilarity of the males and females of many animals; and of the
+males, females, and neuters of those insects which live in colonies: and
+he defines its relations to the Darwinian theory as follows:--
+
+"It is obvious that my hypothesis is apparently very similar to
+Darwin's, inasmuch as I also consider that the various forms of animals
+have proceeded directly from one another. My hypothesis of the creation
+of organisms by heterogeneous generation, however, is distinguished
+very essentially from Darwin's by the entire absence of the principle
+of useful variations and their natural selection: and my fundamental
+conception is this, that a great plan of development lies at the
+foundation of the origin of the whole organic world, impelling the
+simpler forms to more and more complex developments. How this law
+operates, what influences determine the development of the eggs and
+germs, and impel them to assume constantly new forms, I naturally cannot
+pretend to say; but I can at least adduce the great analogy of the
+alternation of generations. If a 'Bipinnaria', a 'Brachialaria', a
+'Pluteus', is competent to produce the Echinoderm, which is so widely
+different from it; if a hydroid polype can produce the higher Medusa;
+if the vermiform Trematode 'nurse' can develop within itself the very
+unlike 'Cercaria', it will not appear impossible that the egg, or
+ciliated embryo, of a sponge, for once, under special conditions, might
+become a hydroid polype, or the embryo of a Medusa, an Echinoderm."
+
+It is obvious, from these extracts, that Professor Kolliker's hypothesis
+is based upon the supposed existence of a close analogy between the
+phenomena of Agamogenesis and the production of new species from
+pre-existing ones. But is the analogy a real one? We think that it is
+not, and, by the hypothesis, cannot be.
+
+For what are the phenomena of Agamogenesis, stated generally? An
+impregnated egg develops into an asexual form, A; this gives rise,
+asexually, to a second form or forms, B, more or less different from A.
+B may multiply asexually again; in the simpler cases, however, it does
+not, but, acquiring sexual characters, produces impregnated eggs from
+whence A, once more, arises.
+
+No case of Agamogenesis is known in which, 'when A differs widely from
+B', it is itself capable of sexual propagation. No case whatever is
+known in which the progeny of B, by sexual generation, is other than a
+reproduction of A.
+
+But if this be a true statement of the nature of the process of
+Agamogenesis, how can it enable us to comprehend the production of
+new species from already existing ones? Let us suppose Hyaenas to have
+preceded Dogs, and to have produced the latter in this way. Then the
+Hyena will represent A, and the Dog, B. The first difficulty that
+presents itself is that the Hyena must be asexual, or the process will
+be wholly without analogy in the world of Agamogenesis. But passing over
+this difficulty, and supposing a male and female Dog to be produced at
+the same time from the Hyaena stock, the progeny of the pair, if the
+analogy of the simpler kinds of Agamogenesis [4] is to be followed,
+should be a litter, not of puppies, but of young Hyenas. For the
+Agamogenetic series is always, as we have seen, A: B: A: B, etc.;
+whereas, for the production of a new species, the series must be A:
+B: B: B, etc. The production of new species, or genera, is the extreme
+permanent divergence from the primitive stock. All known Agamogenetic
+processes, on the other hand, end in a complete return to the primitive
+stock. How then is the production of new species to be rendered
+intelligible by the analogy of Agamogenesis?
+
+The other alternative put by Professor Kolliker--the passage of
+fecundated ova in the course of their development into higher
+forms--would, if it occurred, be merely an extreme case of variation in
+the Darwinian sense, greater in degree than, but perfectly similar in
+kind to, that which occurred when the well-known Ancon Ram was developed
+from an ordinary Ewe's ovum. Indeed we have always thought that Mr.
+Darwin has unnecessarily hampered himself by adhering so strictly to his
+favourite "Natura non facit saltum." We greatly suspect that she does
+make considerable jumps in the way of variation now and then, and that
+these saltations give rise to some of the gaps which appear to exist in
+the series of known forms.
+
+Strongly and freely as we have ventured to disagree with Professor
+Kolliker, we have always done so with regret, and we trust without
+violating that respect which is due, not only to his scientific eminence
+and to the careful study which he has devoted to the subject, but to the
+perfect fairness of his argumentation, and the generous appreciation of
+the worth of Mr. Darwin's labours which he always displays. It would be
+satisfactory to be able to say as much for M. Flourens.
+
+But the Perpetual Secretary of the French Academy of Sciences deals with
+Mr. Darwin as the first Napoleon would have treated an "ideologue;"
+and while displaying a painful weakness of logic and shallowness of
+information, assumes a tone of authority, which always touches upon the
+ludicrous, and sometimes passes the limits of good breeding.
+
+For example (p. 56):--
+
+"M. Darwin continue: 'Aucune distinction absolue n'a ete et ne pout etre
+etablie entre les especes et les varietes.' Je vous ai deja dit que vous
+vous trompiez; une distinction absolue separe les varietes d'avec les
+especes."
+
+"Je vous ai deja dit; moi, M. le Secretaire perpetuel de l'Academie des
+Sciences: et vous
+
+'Qui n'etes rien, Pas meme Academicien;'
+
+what do you mean by asserting the contrary?' Being devoid of the
+blessings of an Academy in England, we are unaccustomed to see our
+ablest men treated in this fashion, even by a "Perpetual Secretary."
+
+Or again, considering that if there is any one quality of Mr. Darwin's
+work to which friends and foes have alike borne witness, it is his
+candour and fairness in admitting and discussing objections, what is to
+be thought of M. Flourens' assertion, that
+
+"M. Darwin ne cite que les auteurs qui partagent ses opinions." (P. 40.)
+
+Once more (p. 65):--
+
+"Enfin l'ouvrage de M. Darwin a paru. On ne peut qu'etre frappe du
+talent de l'auteur. Mais que d'idees obscures, que d'idees fausses! Quel
+jargon metaphysique jete mal a propos dans l'histoire naturelle, qui
+tombe dans le galimatias des qu'elle sort des idees claires, des idees
+justes! Quel langage pretentieux et vide! Quelles personifications
+pueriles et surannees! O lucidite! O solidite de l'esprit Francais, que
+devenez-vous?"
+
+"Obscure ideas," "metaphysical jargon," "pretentious and empty
+language," "puerile and superannuated personifications." Mr. Darwin has
+many and hot opponents on this side of the Channel and in Germany,
+but we do not recollect to have found precisely these sins in the long
+catalogue of those hitherto laid to his charge. It is worth while,
+therefore, to examine into these discoveries effected solely by the aid
+of the "lucidity and solidity" of the mind of M. Flourens.
+
+According to M. Flourens, Mr. Darwin's great error is that he has
+personified Nature (p. 10), and further that he has
+
+"imagined a natural selection: he imagines afterwards that this power of
+selection (pouvoir d'lire) which he gives to Nature is similar to the
+power of man. These two suppositions admitted, nothing stops him: he
+plays with Nature as he likes, and makes her do all he pleases." (P. 6.)
+
+And this is the way M. Flourens extinguishes natural selection:
+
+"Voyons donc encore une fois, ce qu'il peut y avoir de fonde dans ce
+qu'on nomme election naturelle.
+
+"L'election naturelle n'est sous un autre nom que la nature. Pour un
+etre organise, la nature n'est que l'organisation, ni plus ni moins.
+
+"Il faudra donc aussi personnifier l'organisation, et dire que
+l'organisation choisit l'organisation. L'election naturelle est cette
+forme substantielle dont on jouait autrefois avec tant de facilite.
+Aristote disait que 'Si l'art de batir etait dans le bois, cet art
+agirait comme la nature.' A la place de l'art de batir M. Darwin met
+l'election naturelle, et c'est tout un: l'un n'est pas plus chimerique
+que l'autre." (P.31.)
+
+And this is really all that M. Flourens can make of Natural Selection.
+We have given the original, in fear lest a translation should be
+regarded as a travesty; but with the original before the reader, we
+may try to analyse the passage. "For an organized being, Nature is only
+organization, neither more nor less."
+
+Organized beings then have absolutely no relation to inorganic nature: a
+plant does not, depend on soil or sunshine, climate, depth in the
+ocean, height above it; the quantity of saline matters in water have no
+influence upon animal life; the substitution of carbonic acid for oxygen
+in our atmosphere would hurt nobody! That these are absurdities no one
+should know better than M. Flourens; but they are logical deductions
+from the assertion just quoted, and from the further statement that
+natural selection means only that "organization chooses and selects
+organization."
+
+For if it be once admitted (what no sane man denies) that the chances of
+life of any given organism are increased by certain conditions (A) and
+diminished by their opposites (B), then it is mathematically certain
+that any change of conditions in the direction of (A) will exercise a
+selective influence in favour of that organism, tending to its increase
+and multiplication, while any change in the direction of (B) will
+exercise a selective influence against that organism, tending to its
+decrease and extinction.
+
+Or, on the other hand, conditions remaining the same, let a given
+organism vary (and no one doubts that they do vary) in two directions:
+into one form (a) better fitted to cope with these conditions than the
+original stock, and a second (b) less well adapted to them. Then it
+is no less certain that the conditions in question must exercise a
+selective influence in favour of (a) and against ( b), so that (a) will
+tend to predominance, and (b) to extirpation.
+
+That M. Flourens should be unable to perceive the logical necessity of
+these simple arguments, which lie at the foundation of all Mr. Darwin's
+reasoning; that he should confound an irrefragable deduction from the
+observed relations of organisms to the conditions which lie around
+them, with a metaphysical "forme substantielle," or a chimerical
+personification of the powers of Nature, would be incredible, were it
+not that other passages of his work leave no room for doubt upon the
+subject.
+
+"On imagine une 'election naturelle' que, pour plus de menagement, on me
+dit etre inconsciente, sans s'apercevoir que le contre-sens litteral est
+precisement la: 'election inconsciente'." (P. 52.)
+
+"J'ai deja dit ce qu'il faut penser de 'l'election naturelle'. Ou
+'l'election naturelle' n'est rien, ou c'est la nature: mais la nature
+douee 'd'election', mais la nature personnifiee: derniere erreur du
+dernier siecle: Le xixe fait plus de personnifications." (P. 53.)
+
+M. Flourens cannot imagine an unconscious selection--it is for him a
+contradiction in terms. Did M. Flourens ever visit one of the prettiest
+watering-places of "la belle France," the Baie d'Arcachon? If so, he
+will probably have passed through the district of the Landes, and will
+have had an opportunity of observing the formation of "dunes" on a grand
+scale. What are these "dunes"? The winds and waves of the Bay of
+Biscay have not much consciousness, and yet they have with great care
+"selected," from among an infinity of masses of silex of all shapes and
+sizes, which have been submitted to their action, all the grains of sand
+below a certain size, and have heaped them by themselves over a great
+area. This sand has been "unconsciously selected" from amidst the gravel
+in which it first lay with as much precision as if man had "consciously
+selected" it by the aid of a sieve. Physical Geology is full of such
+selections--of the picking out of the soft from the hard, of the soluble
+from the insoluble, of the fusible from the infusible, by natural
+agencies to which we are certainly not in the habit of ascribing
+consciousness.
+
+But that which wind and sea are to a sandy beach, the sum of influences,
+which we term the "conditions of existence," is to living organisms. The
+weak are sifted out from the strong. A frosty night "selects" the hardy
+plants in a plantation from among the tender ones as effectually as if
+it were the wind, and they, the sand and pebbles, of our illustration;
+or, on the other hand, as if the intelligence of a gardener had been
+operative in cutting the weaker organisms down. The thistle, which has
+spread over the Pampas, to the destruction of native plants, has been
+more effectually "selected" by the unconscious operation of natural
+conditions than if a thousand agriculturists had spent their time in
+sowing it.
+
+It is one of Mr. Darwin's many great services to Biological science
+that he has demonstrated the significance of these facts. He has shown
+that--given variation and given change of conditions--the inevitable
+result is the exercise of such an influence upon organisms that one
+is helped and another is impeded; one tends to predominate, another
+to disappear; and thus the living world bears within itself, and is
+surrounded by, impulses towards incessant change.
+
+But the truths just stated are as certain as any other physical laws,
+quite independently of the truth, or falsehood, of the hypothesis
+which Mr. Darwin has based upon them; and that M. Flourens, missing the
+substance and grasping at a shadow, should be blind to the admirable
+exposition of them, which Mr. Darwin has given, and see nothing there
+but a "derniere erreur du dernier siecle "--a personification of
+Nature--leads us indeed to cry with him: "O lucidite! O solidite de
+l'esprit Francais, que devenez-vous?"
+
+M. Flourens has, in fact, utterly failed to comprehend the first
+principles of the doctrine which he assails so rudely. His objections to
+details are of the old sort, so battered and hackneyed on this side of
+the Channel, that not even a Quarterly Reviewer could be induced to pick
+them up for the purpose of pelting Mr. Darwin over again. We have Cuvier
+and the mummies; M. Roulin and the domesticated animals of America; the
+difficulties presented by hybridism and by Palaeontology; Darwinism a
+'rifacciamento' of De Maillet and Lamarck; Darwinism a system without a
+commencement, and its author bound to believe in M. Pouchet, etc. etc.
+How one knows it all by heart, and with what relief one reads at p. 65--
+
+"Je laisse M. Darwin!"
+
+But we cannot leave M. Flourens without calling our readers' attention
+to his wonderful tenth chapter, "De la Preexistence des Germes et de
+l'Epigenese," which opens thus:--
+
+"Spontaneous generation is only a chimaera. This point established, two
+hypotheses remain: that of 'pre-existence' and that of 'epigenesis'.
+The one of these hypotheses has as little foundation as the other." (P.
+163.)
+
+"The doctrine of 'epigenesis' is derived from Harvey: following by
+ocular inspection the development of the new being in the Windsor
+does, he saw each part appear successively, and taking the moment of
+'appearance' for the moment of 'formation' he imagined 'epigenesis'."
+(P. 165.)
+
+On the contrary, says M. Flourens (p. 167),
+
+"The new being is formed at a stroke ('tout d'un coup') as a whole,
+instantaneously; it is not formed part by part, and at different times.
+It is formed at once at the single 'individual' moment at which the
+conjunction of the male and female elements takes place."
+
+It will be observed that M. Flourens uses language which cannot be
+mistaken. For him, the labours of von Baer, of Rathke, of Coste, and
+their contemporaries and successors in Germany, France, and England, are
+non-existent: and, as Darwin "imagina" natural selection, so Harvey
+"imagina" that doctrine which gives him an even greater claim to
+the veneration of posterity than his better known discovery of the
+circulation of the blood.
+
+Language such as that we have quoted is, in fact, so preposterous, so
+utterly incompatible with anything but absolute ignorance of some of the
+best established facts, that we should have passed it over in silence
+had it not appeared to afford some clue to M. Flourens' unhesitating,
+'a priori', repudiation of all forms of the doctrine of progressive
+modification of living beings. He whose mind remains uninfluenced by an
+acquaintance with the phenomena of development, must indeed lack one
+of the chief motives towards the endeavour to trace a genetic relation
+between the different existing forms of life. Those who are ignorant of
+Geology, find no difficulty in believing that the world was made as it
+is; and the shepherd, untutored in history, sees no reason to regard the
+green mounds which indicate the site of a Roman camp, as aught but part
+and parcel of the primeval hill-side. So M. Flourens, who believes that
+embryos are formed "tout d'un coup," naturally finds no difficulty in
+conceiving that species came into existence in the same way.
+
+
+
+[Footnote 1: The Natural History Review', 1864.
+1. UEBER DIE DARWIN'SCHE SCH PFUNGSTHEORIE; EIN VORTRAG, VON A. K
+LLIKER. Leipzig, 1864.
+2. EXAMINATION DU LIVRE DE M. DARWIN SUR L'ORIGINE DES ESPECES. PAR P.
+FLOURENS. Paris, 1864.]
+
+[Footnote 2: 'Die Radiolarien: eine Monographie', p. 231.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Space will not allow us to give Professor Kolliker's
+arguments in detail; our readers will find a full and accurate version
+of them in the 'Reader' for August 13th and 20th, 1864.]
+
+[Footnote 4: If, on the contrary, we follow the analogy of the
+more complex forms of Agamogenesis, such as that exhibited by some
+'Trematoda' and by the 'Aphides', the Hyaena must produce, asexually,
+a brood of asexual Dogs, from which other sexless Dogs must proceed.
+At the end of a certain number of terms of the series, the Dogs would
+acquire sexes and generate young; but these young would be, not Dogs,
+but Hyaenas. In fact, we have 'demonstrated', in Agamogenetic phenomena,
+that inevitable recurrence to the original type, which is 'asserted' to
+be true of variations in general, by Mr. Darwin's opponents; and which,
+if the assertion could be changed into a demonstration would, in fact,
+be fatal to his hypothesis.]
+
+
+
+
+
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