diff options
Diffstat (limited to '2930-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 2930-h/2930-h.htm | 1302 |
1 files changed, 1302 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/2930-h/2930-h.htm b/2930-h/2930-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..24e9588 --- /dev/null +++ b/2930-h/2930-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1302 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + Criticisms on 'The Origin of Species', by Thomas H. Huxley + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Criticisms on "The Origin of Species", by +Thomas H. Huxley + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Criticisms on "The Origin of Species" + From 'The Natural History Review', 1864 + +Author: Thomas H. Huxley + +Release Date: January 6, 2009 [EBook #2930] +Last Updated: January 22, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CRITICISMS *** + + + + +Produced by Amy E. Zelmer, and David Widger + + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + CRITICISMS ON <br /> "THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES" + </h1> + <h1> + 'The Natural History Review', 1864 + </h1> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#linknote-1" name="linknoteref-1" id="linknoteref-1"><small>[1]</small></a> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Thomas H. Huxley + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <p> + In the course of the present year several foreign commentaries upon Mr. + Darwin's great work have made their appearance. Those who have perused + that remarkable chapter of the 'Antiquity of Man,' in which Sir Charles + Lyell draws a parallel between the development of species and that of + languages, will be glad to hear that one of the most eminent philologers + of Germany, Professor Schleicher, has, independently, published a most + instructive and philosophical pamphlet (an excellent notice of which is to + be found in the 'Reader', for February 27th of this year) supporting + similar views with all the weight of his special knowledge and established + authority as a linguist. Professor Haeckel, to whom Schleicher addresses + himself, previously took occasion, in his splendid monograph on the + 'Radiolaria' <a href="#linknote-2" name="linknoteref-2" id="linknoteref-2"><small>2</small></a>, + to express his high appreciation of, and general concordance with, Mr. + Darwin's views. + </p> + <p> + But the most elaborate criticisms of the 'Origin of Species' which have + appeared are two works of very widely different merit, the one by + Professor Kolliker, the well-known anatomist and histologist of Wurzburg; + the other by M. Flourens, Perpetual Secretary of the French Academy of + Sciences. + </p> + <p> + Professor Kolliker's critical essay 'Upon the Darwinian Theory' is, like + all that proceeds from the pen of that thoughtful and accomplished writer, + worthy of the most careful consideration. It comprises a brief but clear + sketch of Darwin's views, followed by an enumeration of the leading + difficulties in the way of their acceptance; difficulties which would + appear to be insurmountable to Professor Kolliker, inasmuch as he proposes + to replace Mr. Darwin's Theory by one which he terms the 'Theory of + Heterogeneous Generation.' We shall proceed to consider first the + destructive, and secondly, the constructive portion of the essay. + </p> + <p> + We regret to find ourselves compelled to dissent very widely from many of + Professor Kolliker's remarks; and from none more thoroughly than from + those in which he seeks to define what we may term the philosophical + position of Darwinism. + </p> + <p> + "Darwin," says Professor Kolliker, "is, in the fullest sense of the word, + a Teleologist. He says quite distinctly (First Edition, pp. 199, 200) that + every particular in the structure of an animal has been created for its + benefit, and he regards the whole series of animal forms only from this + point of view." + </p> + <p> + And again: + </p> + <p> + "7. The teleological general conception adopted by Darwin is a mistaken + one. + </p> + <p> + "Varieties arise irrespectively of the notion of purpose, or of utility, + according to general laws of Nature, and may be either useful, or hurtful, + or indifferent. + </p> + <p> + "The assumption that an organism exists only on account of some definite + end in view, and represents something more than the incorporation of a + general idea, or law, implies a one-sided conception of the universe. + Assuredly, every organ has, and every organism fulfils, its end, but its + purpose is not the condition of its existence. Every organism is also + sufficiently perfect for the purpose it serves, and in that, at least, it + is useless to seek for a cause of its improvement." + </p> + <p> + It is singular how differently one and the same book will impress + different minds. That which struck the present writer most forcibly on his + first perusal of the 'Origin of Species' was the conviction that + Teleology, as commonly understood, had received its deathblow at Mr. + Darwin's hands. For the teleological argument runs thus: an organ or + organism (A) is precisely fitted to perform a function or purpose (B); + therefore it was specially constructed to perform that function. In + Paley's famous illustration, the adaptation of all the parts of the watch + to the function, or purpose, of showing the time, is held to be evidence + that the watch was specially contrived to that end; on the ground, that + the only cause we know of, competent to produce such an effect as a watch + which shall keep time, is a contriving intelligence adapting the means + directly to that end. + </p> + <p> + Suppose, however, that any one had been able to show that the watch had + not been made directly by any person, but that it was the result of the + modification of another watch which kept time but poorly; and that this + again had proceeded from a structure which could hardly be called a watch + at all—seeing that it had no figures on the dial and the hands were + rudimentary; and that going back and back in time we came at last to a + revolving barrel as the earliest traceable rudiment of the whole fabric. + And imagine that it had been possible to show that all these changes had + resulted, first, from a tendency of the structure to vary indefinitely; + and secondly, from something in the surrounding world which helped all + variations in the direction of an accurate time-keeper, and checked all + those in other directions; then it is obvious that the force of Paley's + argument would be gone. For it would be demonstrated that an apparatus + thoroughly well adapted to a particular purpose might be the result of a + method of trial and error worked by unintelligent agents, as well as of + the direct application of the means appropriate to that end, by an + intelligent agent. + </p> + <p> + Now it appears to us that what we have here, for illustration's sake, + supposed to be done with the watch, is exactly what the establishment of + Darwin's Theory will do for the organic world. For the notion that every + organism has been created as it is and launched straight at a purpose, Mr. + Darwin substitutes the conception of something which may fairly be termed + a method of trial and error. Organisms vary incessantly; of these + variations the few meet with surrounding conditions which suit them and + thrive; the many are unsuited and become extinguished. + </p> + <p> + According to Teleology, each organism is like a rifle bullet fired + straight at a mark; according to Darwin, organisms are like grapeshot of + which one hits something and the rest fall wide. + </p> + <p> + For the teleologist an organism exists because it was made for the + conditions in which it is found; for the Darwinian an organism exists + because, out of many of its kind, it is the only one which has been able + to persist in the conditions in which it is found. + </p> + <p> + Teleology implies that the organs of every organism are perfect and cannot + be improved; the Darwinian theory simply affirms that they work well + enough to enable the organism to hold its own against such competitors as + it has met with, but admits the possibility of indefinite improvement. But + an example may bring into clearer light the profound opposition between + the ordinary teleological, and the Darwinian, conception. + </p> + <p> + Cats catch mice, small birds and the like, very well. Teleology tells us + that they do so because they were expressly constructed for so doing—that + they are perfect mousing apparatuses, so perfect and so delicately + adjusted that no one of their organs could be altered, without the change + involving the alteration of all the rest. Darwinism affirms on the + contrary, that there was no express construction concerned in the matter; + but that among the multitudinous variations of the Feline stock, many of + which died out from want of power to resist opposing influences, some, the + cats, were better fitted to catch mice than others, whence they throve and + persisted, in proportion to the advantage over their fellows thus offered + to them. + </p> + <p> + Far from imagining that cats exist 'in order' to catch mice well, + Darwinism supposes that cats exist 'because' they catch mice well—mousing + being not the end, but the condition, of their existence. And if the cat + type has long persisted as we know it, the interpretation of the fact upon + Darwinian principles would be, not that the cats have remained invariable, + but that such varieties as have incessantly occurred have been, on the + whole, less fitted to get on in the world than the existing stock. + </p> + <p> + If we apprehend the spirit of the 'Origin of Species' rightly, then, + nothing can be more entirely and absolutely opposed to Teleology, as it is + commonly understood, than the Darwinian Theory. So far from being a + "Teleologist in the fullest sense of the word," we would deny that he is a + Teleologist in the ordinary sense at all; and we should say that, apart + from his merits as a naturalist, he has rendered a most remarkable service + to philosophical thought by enabling the student of Nature to recognise, + to their fullest extent, those adaptations to purpose which are so + striking in the organic world, and which Teleology has done good service + in keeping before our minds, without being false to the fundamental + principles of a scientific conception of the universe. The apparently + diverging teachings of the Teleologist and of the Morphologist are + reconciled by the Darwinian hypothesis. + </p> + <p> + But leaving our own impressions of the 'Origin of Species,' and turning to + those passages especially cited by Professor Kolliker, we cannot admit + that they bear the interpretation he puts upon them. Darwin, if we read + him rightly, does 'not' affirm that every detail in the structure of an + animal has been created for its benefit. His words are (p. 199):— + </p> + <p> + "The foregoing remarks lead me to say a few words on the protest lately + made by some naturalists against the utilitarian doctrine that every + detail of structure has been produced for the good of its possessor. They + believe that very many structures have been created for beauty in the eyes + of man, or for mere variety. This doctrine, if true, would be absolutely + fatal to my theory—yet I fully admit that many structures are of no + direct use to their possessor." + </p> + <p> + And after sundry illustrations and qualifications, he concludes (p. 200):— + </p> + <p> + "Hence every detail of structure in every living creature (making some + little allowance for the direct action of physical conditions) may be + viewed either as having been of special use to some ancestral form, or as + being now of special use to the descendants of this form—either + directly, or indirectly, through the complex laws of growth." + </p> + <p> + But it is one thing to say, Darwinically, that every detail observed in an + animal's structure is of use to it, or has been of use to its ancestors; + and quite another to affirm, teleologically, that every detail of an + animal's structure has been created for its benefit. On the former + hypothesis, for example, the teeth of the foetal Balaena have a meaning; + on the latter, none. So far as we are aware, there is not a phrase in the + 'Origin of Species', inconsistent with Professor Kolliker's position, that + "varieties arise irrespectively of the notion of purpose, or of utility, + according to general laws of Nature, and may be either useful, or hurtful, + or indifferent." + </p> + <p> + On the contrary, Mr. Darwin writes (Summary of Chap. V.):— + </p> + <p> + "Our ignorance of the laws of variation is profound. Not in one case out + of a hundred can we pretend to assign any reason why this or that part + varies more or less from the same part in the parents.... The external + conditions of life, as climate and food, etc., seem to have induced some + slight modifications. Habit, in producing constitutional differences, and + use, in strengthening, and disuse, in weakening and diminishing organs, + seem to have been more potent in their effects." + </p> + <p> + And finally, as if to prevent all possible misconception, Mr. Darwin + concludes his Chapter on Variation with these pregnant words:— + </p> + <p> + "Whatever the cause may be of each slight difference in the offspring from + their parents—and a cause for each must exist—it is the steady + accumulation, through natural selection of such differences, when + beneficial to the individual, that gives rise to all the more important + modifications of structure which the innumerable beings on the face of the + earth are enabled to struggle with each other, and the best adapted to + survive." + </p> + <p> + We have dwelt at length upon this subject, because of its great general + importance, and because we believe that Professor Kolliker's criticisms on + this head are based upon a misapprehension of Mr. Darwin's views—substantially + they appear to us to coincide with his own. The other objections which + Professor Kolliker enumerates and discusses are the following <a + href="#linknote-3" name="linknoteref-3" id="linknoteref-3"><small>3</small></a>:— + </p> + <p> + "1. No transitional forms between existing species are known; and known + varieties, whether selected or spontaneous, never go so far as to + establish new species." + </p> + <p> + To this Professor Kolliker appears to attach some weight. He makes the + suggestion that the short-faced tumbler pigeon may be a pathological + product. + </p> + <p> + "2. No transitional forms of animals are met with among the organic + remains of earlier epochs." + </p> + <p> + Upon this, Professor Kolliker remarks that the absence of transitional + forms in the fossil world, though not necessarily fatal to Darwin's views, + weakens his case. + </p> + <p> + "3. The struggle for existence does not take place." + </p> + <p> + To this objection, urged by Pelzeln, Kolliker, very justly, attaches no + weight. + </p> + <p> + "4. A tendency of organisms to give rise to useful varieties, and a + natural selection, do not exist. + </p> + <p> + "The varieties which are found arise in consequence of manifold external + influences, and it is not obvious why they all, or partially, should be + particularly useful. Each animal suffices for its own ends, is perfect of + its kind, and needs no further development. Should, however, a variety be + useful and even maintain itself, there is no obvious reason why it should + change any further. The whole conception of the imperfection of organisms + and the necessity of their becoming perfected is plainly the weakest side + of Darwin's Theory, and a 'pis aller' (Nothbehelf) because Darwin could + think of no other principle by which to explain the metamorphoses which, + as I also believe, have occurred." + </p> + <p> + Here again we must venture to dissent completely from Professor Kolliker's + conception of Mr. Darwin's hypothesis. It appears to us to be one of the + many peculiar merits of that hypothesis that it involves no belief in a + necessary and continual progress of organisms. + </p> + <p> + Again, Mr. Darwin, if we read him aright, assumes no special tendency of + organisms to give rise to useful varieties, and knows nothing of needs of + development, or necessity of perfection. What he says is, in substance: + All organisms vary. It is in the highest degree improbable that any given + variety should have exactly the same relations to surrounding conditions + as the parent stock. In that case it is either better fitted (when the + variation may be called useful), or worse fitted, to cope with them. If + better, it will tend to supplant the parent stock; if worse, it will tend + to be extinguished by the parent stock. + </p> + <p> + If (as is hardly conceivable) the new variety is so perfectly adapted to + the conditions that no improvement upon it is possible,—it will + persist, because, though it does not cease to vary, the varieties will be + inferior to itself. + </p> + <p> + If, as is more probable, the new variety is by no means perfectly adapted + to its conditions, but only fairly well adapted to them, it will persist, + so long as none of the varieties which it throws off are better adapted + than itself. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, as soon as it varies in a useful way, i.e. when the + variation is such as to adapt it more perfectly to its conditions, the + fresh variety will tend to supplant the former. + </p> + <p> + So far from a gradual progress towards perfection forming any necessary + part of the Darwinian creed, it appears to us that it is perfectly + consistent with indefinite persistence in one estate, or with a gradual + retrogression. Suppose, for example, a return of the glacial epoch and a + spread of polar climatal conditions over the whole globe. The operation of + natural selection under these circumstances would tend, on the whole, to + the weeding out of the higher organisms and the cherishing of the lower + forms of life. Cryptogamic vegetation would have the advantage over + Phanerogamic; Hydrozoa over Corals; Crustacea over Insecta, and Amphipoda + and Isopoda over the higher Crustacea; Cetaceans and Seals over the + Primates; the civilization of the Esquimaux over that of the European. + </p> + <p> + "5. Pelzeln has also objected that if the later organisms have proceeded + from the earlier, the whole developmental series, from the simplest to the + highest, could not now exist; in such a case the simpler organisms must + have disappeared." + </p> + <p> + To this Professor Kolliker replies, with perfect justice, that the + conclusion drawn by Pelzeln does not really follow from Darwin's + premisses, and that, if we take the facts of Palaeontology as they stand, + they rather support than oppose Darwin's theory. + </p> + <p> + "6. Great weight must be attached to the objection brought forward by + Huxley, otherwise a warm supporter of Darwin's hypothesis, that we know of + no varieties which are sterile with one another, as is the rule among + sharply distinguished animal forms. + </p> + <p> + "If Darwin is right, it must be demonstrated that forms may be produced by + selection, which, like the present sharply distinguished animal forms, are + infertile, when coupled with one another, and this has not been done." + </p> + <p> + The weight of this objection is obvious; but our ignorance of the + conditions of fertility and sterility, the want of carefully conducted + experiments extending over long series of years, and the strange anomalies + presented by the results of the cross-fertilization of many plants, should + all, as Mr. Darwin has urged, be taken into account in considering it. + </p> + <p> + The seventh objection is that we have already discussed ('supra', p. 178). + </p> + <p> + The eighth and last stands as follows:— + </p> + <p> + "8. The developmental theory of Darwin is not needed to enable us to + understand the regular harmonious progress of the complete series of + organic forms from the simpler to the more perfect. + </p> + <p> + "The existence of general laws of Nature explains this harmony, even if we + assume that all beings have arisen separately and independent of one + another. Darwin forgets that inorganic nature, in which there can be no + thought of genetic connexion of forms, exhibits the same regular plan, the + same harmony, as the organic world; and that, to cite only one example, + there is as much a natural system of minerals as of plants and animals." + </p> + <p> + We do not feel quite sure that we seize Professor Kolliker's meaning here, + but he appears to suggest that the observation of the general order and + harmony which pervade inorganic nature, would lead us to anticipate a + similar order and harmony in the organic world. And this is no doubt true, + but it by no means follows that the particular order and harmony observed + among them should be that which we see. Surely the stripes of dun horses, + and the teeth of the foetal 'Balaena', are not explained by the "existence + of general laws of Nature." Mr. Darwin endeavours to explain the exact + order of organic nature which exists; not the mere fact that there is some + order. + </p> + <p> + And with regard to the existence of a natural system of minerals; the + obvious reply is that there may be a natural classification of any objects—of + stones on a sea-beach, or of works of art; a natural classification being + simply an assemblage of objects in groups, so as to express their most + important and fundamental resemblances and differences. No doubt Mr. + Darwin believes that those resemblances and differences upon which our + natural systems or classifications of animals and plants are based, are + resemblances and differences which have been produced genetically, but we + can discover no reason for supposing that he denies the existence of + natural classifications of other kinds. + </p> + <p> + And, after all, is it quite so certain that a genetic relation may not + underlie the classification of minerals? The inorganic world has not + always been what we see it. It has certainly had its metamorphoses, and, + very probably, a long "Entwickelungsgeschichte" out of a nebular blastema. + Who knows how far that amount of likeness among sets of minerals, in + virtue of which they are now grouped into families and orders, may not be + the expression of the common conditions to which that particular patch of + nebulous fog, which may have been constituted by their atoms, and of which + they may be, in the strictest sense, the descendants, was subjected? + </p> + <p> + It will be obvious from what has preceded, that we do not agree with + Professor Kolliker in thinking the objections which he brings forward so + weighty as to be fatal to Darwin's view. But even if the case were + otherwise, we should be unable to accept the "Theory of Heterogeneous + Generation" which is offered as a substitute. That theory is thus stated:— + </p> + <p> + "The fundamental conception of this hypothesis is, that, under the + influence of a general law of development, the germs of organisms produce + others different from themselves. This might happen (1) by the fecundated + ova passing, in the course of their development, under particular + circumstances, into higher forms; (2) by the primitive and later organisms + producing other organisms without fecundation, out of germs or eggs + (Parthenogenesis)." + </p> + <p> + In favour of this hypothesis, Professor Kolliker adduces the well-known + facts of Agamogenesis, or "alternate generation"; the extreme + dissimilarity of the males and females of many animals; and of the males, + females, and neuters of those insects which live in colonies: and he + defines its relations to the Darwinian theory as follows:— + </p> + <p> + "It is obvious that my hypothesis is apparently very similar to Darwin's, + inasmuch as I also consider that the various forms of animals have + proceeded directly from one another. My hypothesis of the creation of + organisms by heterogeneous generation, however, is distinguished very + essentially from Darwin's by the entire absence of the principle of useful + variations and their natural selection: and my fundamental conception is + this, that a great plan of development lies at the foundation of the + origin of the whole organic world, impelling the simpler forms to more and + more complex developments. How this law operates, what influences + determine the development of the eggs and germs, and impel them to assume + constantly new forms, I naturally cannot pretend to say; but I can at + least adduce the great analogy of the alternation of generations. If a + 'Bipinnaria', a 'Brachialaria', a 'Pluteus', is competent to produce the + Echinoderm, which is so widely different from it; if a hydroid polype can + produce the higher Medusa; if the vermiform Trematode 'nurse' can develop + within itself the very unlike 'Cercaria', it will not appear impossible + that the egg, or ciliated embryo, of a sponge, for once, under special + conditions, might become a hydroid polype, or the embryo of a Medusa, an + Echinoderm." + </p> + <p> + It is obvious, from these extracts, that Professor Kolliker's hypothesis + is based upon the supposed existence of a close analogy between the + phenomena of Agamogenesis and the production of new species from + pre-existing ones. But is the analogy a real one? We think that it is not, + and, by the hypothesis, cannot be. + </p> + <p> + For what are the phenomena of Agamogenesis, stated generally? An + impregnated egg develops into an asexual form, A; this gives rise, + asexually, to a second form or forms, B, more or less different from A. B + may multiply asexually again; in the simpler cases, however, it does not, + but, acquiring sexual characters, produces impregnated eggs from whence A, + once more, arises. + </p> + <p> + No case of Agamogenesis is known in which, 'when A differs widely from B', + it is itself capable of sexual propagation. No case whatever is known in + which the progeny of B, by sexual generation, is other than a reproduction + of A. + </p> + <p> + But if this be a true statement of the nature of the process of + Agamogenesis, how can it enable us to comprehend the production of new + species from already existing ones? Let us suppose Hyaenas to have + preceded Dogs, and to have produced the latter in this way. Then the Hyena + will represent A, and the Dog, B. The first difficulty that presents + itself is that the Hyena must be asexual, or the process will be wholly + without analogy in the world of Agamogenesis. But passing over this + difficulty, and supposing a male and female Dog to be produced at the same + time from the Hyaena stock, the progeny of the pair, if the analogy of the + simpler kinds of Agamogenesis <a href="#linknote-4" name="linknoteref-4" + id="linknoteref-4"><small>4</small></a> is to be followed, should be a + litter, not of puppies, but of young Hyenas. For the Agamogenetic series + is always, as we have seen, A: B: A: B, etc.; whereas, for the production + of a new species, the series must be A: B: B: B, etc. The production of + new species, or genera, is the extreme permanent divergence from the + primitive stock. All known Agamogenetic processes, on the other hand, end + in a complete return to the primitive stock. How then is the production of + new species to be rendered intelligible by the analogy of Agamogenesis? + </p> + <p> + The other alternative put by Professor Kolliker—the passage of + fecundated ova in the course of their development into higher forms—would, + if it occurred, be merely an extreme case of variation in the Darwinian + sense, greater in degree than, but perfectly similar in kind to, that + which occurred when the well-known Ancon Ram was developed from an + ordinary Ewe's ovum. Indeed we have always thought that Mr. Darwin has + unnecessarily hampered himself by adhering so strictly to his favourite + "Natura non facit saltum." We greatly suspect that she does make + considerable jumps in the way of variation now and then, and that these + saltations give rise to some of the gaps which appear to exist in the + series of known forms. + </p> + <p> + Strongly and freely as we have ventured to disagree with Professor + Kolliker, we have always done so with regret, and we trust without + violating that respect which is due, not only to his scientific eminence + and to the careful study which he has devoted to the subject, but to the + perfect fairness of his argumentation, and the generous appreciation of + the worth of Mr. Darwin's labours which he always displays. It would be + satisfactory to be able to say as much for M. Flourens. + </p> + <p> + But the Perpetual Secretary of the French Academy of Sciences deals with + Mr. Darwin as the first Napoleon would have treated an "ideologue;" and + while displaying a painful weakness of logic and shallowness of + information, assumes a tone of authority, which always touches upon the + ludicrous, and sometimes passes the limits of good breeding. + </p> + <p> + For example (p. 56):— + </p> + <p> + "M. Darwin continue: 'Aucune distinction absolue n'a ete et ne pout etre + etablie entre les especes et les varietes.' Je vous ai deja dit que vous + vous trompiez; une distinction absolue separe les varietes d'avec les + especes." + </p> + <p> + "Je vous ai deja dit; moi, M. le Secretaire perpetuel de l'Academie des + Sciences: et vous + </p> + <p> + 'Qui n'etes rien, Pas meme Academicien;' + </p> + <p> + what do you mean by asserting the contrary?' Being devoid of the blessings + of an Academy in England, we are unaccustomed to see our ablest men + treated in this fashion, even by a "Perpetual Secretary." + </p> + <p> + Or again, considering that if there is any one quality of Mr. Darwin's + work to which friends and foes have alike borne witness, it is his candour + and fairness in admitting and discussing objections, what is to be thought + of M. Flourens' assertion, that + </p> + <p> + "M. Darwin ne cite que les auteurs qui partagent ses opinions." (P. 40.) + </p> + <p> + Once more (p. 65):— + </p> + <p> + "Enfin l'ouvrage de M. Darwin a paru. On ne peut qu'etre frappe du talent + de l'auteur. Mais que d'idees obscures, que d'idees fausses! Quel jargon + metaphysique jete mal a propos dans l'histoire naturelle, qui tombe dans + le galimatias des qu'elle sort des idees claires, des idees justes! Quel + langage pretentieux et vide! Quelles personifications pueriles et + surannees! O lucidite! O solidite de l'esprit Francais, que devenez-vous?" + </p> + <p> + "Obscure ideas," "metaphysical jargon," "pretentious and empty language," + "puerile and superannuated personifications." Mr. Darwin has many and hot + opponents on this side of the Channel and in Germany, but we do not + recollect to have found precisely these sins in the long catalogue of + those hitherto laid to his charge. It is worth while, therefore, to + examine into these discoveries effected solely by the aid of the "lucidity + and solidity" of the mind of M. Flourens. + </p> + <p> + According to M. Flourens, Mr. Darwin's great error is that he has + personified Nature (p. 10), and further that he has + </p> + <p> + "imagined a natural selection: he imagines afterwards that this power of + selection (pouvoir d'lire) which he gives to Nature is similar to the + power of man. These two suppositions admitted, nothing stops him: he plays + with Nature as he likes, and makes her do all he pleases." (P. 6.) + </p> + <p> + And this is the way M. Flourens extinguishes natural selection: + </p> + <p> + "Voyons donc encore une fois, ce qu'il peut y avoir de fonde dans ce qu'on + nomme election naturelle. + </p> + <p> + "L'election naturelle n'est sous un autre nom que la nature. Pour un etre + organise, la nature n'est que l'organisation, ni plus ni moins. + </p> + <p> + "Il faudra donc aussi personnifier l'organisation, et dire que + l'organisation choisit l'organisation. L'election naturelle est cette + forme substantielle dont on jouait autrefois avec tant de facilite. + Aristote disait que 'Si l'art de batir etait dans le bois, cet art agirait + comme la nature.' A la place de l'art de batir M. Darwin met l'election + naturelle, et c'est tout un: l'un n'est pas plus chimerique que l'autre." + (P.31.) + </p> + <p> + And this is really all that M. Flourens can make of Natural Selection. We + have given the original, in fear lest a translation should be regarded as + a travesty; but with the original before the reader, we may try to analyse + the passage. "For an organized being, Nature is only organization, neither + more nor less." + </p> + <p> + Organized beings then have absolutely no relation to inorganic nature: a + plant does not, depend on soil or sunshine, climate, depth in the ocean, + height above it; the quantity of saline matters in water have no influence + upon animal life; the substitution of carbonic acid for oxygen in our + atmosphere would hurt nobody! That these are absurdities no one should + know better than M. Flourens; but they are logical deductions from the + assertion just quoted, and from the further statement that natural + selection means only that "organization chooses and selects organization." + </p> + <p> + For if it be once admitted (what no sane man denies) that the chances of + life of any given organism are increased by certain conditions (A) and + diminished by their opposites (B), then it is mathematically certain that + any change of conditions in the direction of (A) will exercise a selective + influence in favour of that organism, tending to its increase and + multiplication, while any change in the direction of (B) will exercise a + selective influence against that organism, tending to its decrease and + extinction. + </p> + <p> + Or, on the other hand, conditions remaining the same, let a given organism + vary (and no one doubts that they do vary) in two directions: into one + form (a) better fitted to cope with these conditions than the original + stock, and a second (b) less well adapted to them. Then it is no less + certain that the conditions in question must exercise a selective + influence in favour of (a) and against ( b), so that (a) will tend to + predominance, and (b) to extirpation. + </p> + <p> + That M. Flourens should be unable to perceive the logical necessity of + these simple arguments, which lie at the foundation of all Mr. Darwin's + reasoning; that he should confound an irrefragable deduction from the + observed relations of organisms to the conditions which lie around them, + with a metaphysical "forme substantielle," or a chimerical personification + of the powers of Nature, would be incredible, were it not that other + passages of his work leave no room for doubt upon the subject. + </p> + <p> + "On imagine une 'election naturelle' que, pour plus de menagement, on me + dit etre inconsciente, sans s'apercevoir que le contre-sens litteral est + precisement la: 'election inconsciente'." (P. 52.) + </p> + <p> + "J'ai deja dit ce qu'il faut penser de 'l'election naturelle'. Ou + 'l'election naturelle' n'est rien, ou c'est la nature: mais la nature + douee 'd'election', mais la nature personnifiee: derniere erreur du + dernier siecle: Le xixe fait plus de personnifications." (P. 53.) + </p> + <p> + M. Flourens cannot imagine an unconscious selection—it is for him a + contradiction in terms. Did M. Flourens ever visit one of the prettiest + watering-places of "la belle France," the Baie d'Arcachon? If so, he will + probably have passed through the district of the Landes, and will have had + an opportunity of observing the formation of "dunes" on a grand scale. + What are these "dunes"? The winds and waves of the Bay of Biscay have not + much consciousness, and yet they have with great care "selected," from + among an infinity of masses of silex of all shapes and sizes, which have + been submitted to their action, all the grains of sand below a certain + size, and have heaped them by themselves over a great area. This sand has + been "unconsciously selected" from amidst the gravel in which it first lay + with as much precision as if man had "consciously selected" it by the aid + of a sieve. Physical Geology is full of such selections—of the + picking out of the soft from the hard, of the soluble from the insoluble, + of the fusible from the infusible, by natural agencies to which we are + certainly not in the habit of ascribing consciousness. + </p> + <p> + But that which wind and sea are to a sandy beach, the sum of influences, + which we term the "conditions of existence," is to living organisms. The + weak are sifted out from the strong. A frosty night "selects" the hardy + plants in a plantation from among the tender ones as effectually as if it + were the wind, and they, the sand and pebbles, of our illustration; or, on + the other hand, as if the intelligence of a gardener had been operative in + cutting the weaker organisms down. The thistle, which has spread over the + Pampas, to the destruction of native plants, has been more effectually + "selected" by the unconscious operation of natural conditions than if a + thousand agriculturists had spent their time in sowing it. + </p> + <p> + It is one of Mr. Darwin's many great services to Biological science that + he has demonstrated the significance of these facts. He has shown that—given + variation and given change of conditions—the inevitable result is + the exercise of such an influence upon organisms that one is helped and + another is impeded; one tends to predominate, another to disappear; and + thus the living world bears within itself, and is surrounded by, impulses + towards incessant change. + </p> + <p> + But the truths just stated are as certain as any other physical laws, + quite independently of the truth, or falsehood, of the hypothesis which + Mr. Darwin has based upon them; and that M. Flourens, missing the + substance and grasping at a shadow, should be blind to the admirable + exposition of them, which Mr. Darwin has given, and see nothing there but + a "derniere erreur du dernier siecle "—a personification of Nature—leads + us indeed to cry with him: "O lucidite! O solidite de l'esprit Francais, + que devenez-vous?" + </p> + <p> + M. Flourens has, in fact, utterly failed to comprehend the first + principles of the doctrine which he assails so rudely. His objections to + details are of the old sort, so battered and hackneyed on this side of the + Channel, that not even a Quarterly Reviewer could be induced to pick them + up for the purpose of pelting Mr. Darwin over again. We have Cuvier and + the mummies; M. Roulin and the domesticated animals of America; the + difficulties presented by hybridism and by Palaeontology; Darwinism a + 'rifacciamento' of De Maillet and Lamarck; Darwinism a system without a + commencement, and its author bound to believe in M. Pouchet, etc. etc. How + one knows it all by heart, and with what relief one reads at p. 65— + </p> + <p> + "Je laisse M. Darwin!" + </p> + <p> + But we cannot leave M. Flourens without calling our readers' attention to + his wonderful tenth chapter, "De la Preexistence des Germes et de + l'Epigenese," which opens thus:— + </p> + <p> + "Spontaneous generation is only a chimaera. This point established, two + hypotheses remain: that of 'pre-existence' and that of 'epigenesis'. The + one of these hypotheses has as little foundation as the other." (P. 163.) + </p> + <p> + "The doctrine of 'epigenesis' is derived from Harvey: following by ocular + inspection the development of the new being in the Windsor does, he saw + each part appear successively, and taking the moment of 'appearance' for + the moment of 'formation' he imagined 'epigenesis'." (P. 165.) + </p> + <p> + On the contrary, says M. Flourens (p. 167), + </p> + <p> + "The new being is formed at a stroke ('tout d'un coup') as a whole, + instantaneously; it is not formed part by part, and at different times. It + is formed at once at the single 'individual' moment at which the + conjunction of the male and female elements takes place." + </p> + <p> + It will be observed that M. Flourens uses language which cannot be + mistaken. For him, the labours of von Baer, of Rathke, of Coste, and their + contemporaries and successors in Germany, France, and England, are + non-existent: and, as Darwin "imagina" natural selection, so Harvey + "imagina" that doctrine which gives him an even greater claim to the + veneration of posterity than his better known discovery of the circulation + of the blood. + </p> + <p> + Language such as that we have quoted is, in fact, so preposterous, so + utterly incompatible with anything but absolute ignorance of some of the + best established facts, that we should have passed it over in silence had + it not appeared to afford some clue to M. Flourens' unhesitating, 'a + priori', repudiation of all forms of the doctrine of progressive + modification of living beings. He whose mind remains uninfluenced by an + acquaintance with the phenomena of development, must indeed lack one of + the chief motives towards the endeavour to trace a genetic relation + between the different existing forms of life. Those who are ignorant of + Geology, find no difficulty in believing that the world was made as it is; + and the shepherd, untutored in history, sees no reason to regard the green + mounds which indicate the site of a Roman camp, as aught but part and + parcel of the primeval hill-side. So M. Flourens, who believes that + embryos are formed "tout d'un coup," naturally finds no difficulty in + conceiving that species came into existence in the same way. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linknote-1" id="linknote-1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-1">return</a>)<br /> [ The Natural History + Review', 1864. + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1. UEBER DIE DARWIN'SCHE SCH PFUNGSTHEORIE; EIN VORTRAG, VON A. K LLIKER. + Leipzig, 1864. + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2. EXAMINATION DU LIVRE DE M. DARWIN SUR L'ORIGINE DES ESPECES. PAR P. + FLOURENS. Paris, 1864.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2" id="linknote-2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-2">return</a>)<br /> [ 'Die Radiolarien: eine + Monographie', p. 231.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3" id="linknote-3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-3">return</a>)<br /> [ Space will not allow us to + give Professor Kolliker's arguments in detail; our readers will find a + full and accurate version of them in the 'Reader' for August 13th and + 20th, 1864.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4" id="linknote-4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-4">return</a>)<br /> [ If, on the contrary, we + follow the analogy of the more complex forms of Agamogenesis, such as that + exhibited by some 'Trematoda' and by the 'Aphides', the Hyaena must + produce, asexually, a brood of asexual Dogs, from which other sexless Dogs + must proceed. At the end of a certain number of terms of the series, the + Dogs would acquire sexes and generate young; but these young would be, not + Dogs, but Hyaenas. In fact, we have 'demonstrated', in Agamogenetic + phenomena, that inevitable recurrence to the original type, which is + 'asserted' to be true of variations in general, by Mr. Darwin's opponents; + and which, if the assertion could be changed into a demonstration would, + in fact, be fatal to his hypothesis.] + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Criticisms on "The Origin of Species", by +Thomas H. Huxley + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CRITICISMS *** + +***** This file should be named 2930-h.htm or 2930-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/9/3/2930/ + +Produced by Amy E. Zelmer, and David Widger + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + </body> +</html> |