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+Project Gutenberg Etext On the Study of Zoology, by T. H. Huxley
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+Title:  On the Study of Zoology
+
+Author:  Thomas H. Huxley
+
+Release Date:  November, 2001  [Etext #2935]
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+Project Gutenberg Etext On the Study of Zoology, by T. H. Huxley
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+
+ON THE STUDY OF ZOOLOGY*
+
+by Thomas H. Huxley
+
+
+
+
+    [footnote] *A Lecture delivered at the South Kensington
+    Museum in 1861.
+
+NATURAL HISTORY is the name familiarly applied to the study of the
+properties of such natural bodies as minerals, plants, and animals; the
+sciences which embody the knowledge man has acquired upon these
+subjects are commonly termed Natural Sciences, in contradistinction to
+other so-called "physical" sciences; and those who devote themselves
+especially to the pursuit of such sciences have been and are commonly
+termed "Naturalists."
+
+Linnaeus was a naturalist in this wide sense, and his 'Systema Naturae'
+was a work upon natural history, in the broadest acceptation of the
+term; in it, that great methodising spirit embodied all that was known
+in his time of the distinctive characters of minerals, animals, and
+plants.  But the enormous stimulus which Linnaeus gave to the
+investigation of nature soon rendered it impossible that any one man
+should write another 'Systema Naturae,' and extremely difficult for any
+one to become even a naturalist such as Linnaeus was.
+
+Great as have been the advances made by all the three branches of
+science, of old included under the title of natural history, there can
+be no doubt that zoology and botany have grown in an enormously greater
+ratio than mineralogy; and hence, as I suppose, the name of "natural
+history" has gradually become more and more definitely attached to these
+prominent divisions of the subject, and by "naturalist" people have
+meant more and more distinctly to imply a student of the structure and
+function of living beings.
+
+However this may be, it is certain that the advance of knowledge has
+gradually widened the distance between mineralogy and its old
+associates, while it has drawn zoology and botany closer together; so
+that of late years it has been found convenient (and indeed necessary)
+to associate the sciences which deal with vitality and all its
+phenomena under the common head of "biology"; and the biologists have
+come to repudiate any blood-relationship with their foster-brothers,
+the mineralogists.
+
+Certain broad laws have a general application throughout both the animal
+and the vegetable worlds, but the ground common to these kingdoms of
+nature is not of very wide extent, and the multiplicity of details is
+so great, that the student of living beings finds himself obliged to
+devote his attention exclusively either to the one or the other.  If he
+elects to study plants, under any aspect, we know at once what to call
+him.  He is a botanist, and his science is botany.  But if the
+investigation of animal life be his choice, the name generally applied
+to him will vary according to the kind of animals he studies, or the
+particular phenomena of animal life to which he confines his
+attention.  If the study of man is his object, he is called an
+anatomist, or a physiologist, or an ethnologist; but if he dissects
+animals, or examines into the mode in which their functions are
+performed, he is a comparative anatomist or comparative physiologist.
+If he turns his attention to fossil animals, he is a palaeontologist.
+If his mind is more particularly directed to the specific description,
+discrimination, classification, and distribution of animals, he is
+termed a zoologist.
+
+For the purpose of the present discourse, however, I shall recognise
+none of these titles save the last, which I shall employ as the
+equivalent of botanist, and I shall use the term zoology as denoting
+the whole doctrine of animal life, in contradistinction to botany, which
+signifies the whole doctrine of vegetable life.
+
+Employed in this sense, zoology, like botany, is divisible into three
+great but subordinate sciences, morphology, physiology, and
+distribution, each of which may, to a very great extent, be studied
+independently of the other.
+
+Zoological morphology is the doctrine of animal form or structure.
+Anatomy is one of its branches; development is another; while
+classification is the expression of the relations which different
+animals bear to one another, in respect of their anatomy and their
+development.
+
+Zoological distribution is the study of animals in relation to the
+terrestrial conditions which obtain now, or have obtained at any
+previous epoch of the earth's history.
+
+Zoological physiology, lastly, is the doctrine of the functions or
+actions of animals.  It regards animal bodies as machines impelled by
+certain forces, and performing an amount of work which can be expressed
+in terms of the ordinary forces of nature.  The final object of
+physiology is to deduce the facts of morphology, on the one hand, and
+those of distribution on the other, from the laws of the molecular
+forces of matter.
+
+Such is the scope of zoology.  But if I were to content myself with the
+enunciation of these dry definitions, I should ill exemplify that
+method of teaching this branch of physical science, which it is my
+chief business to-night to recommend.  Let us turn away then from
+abstract definitions.  Let us take some concrete living thing, some
+animal, the commoner the better, and let us see how the application of
+common sense and common logic to the obvious facts it presents,
+inevitably leads us into all these branches of zoological science.
+
+I have before me a lobster.  When I examine it, what appears to be the
+most striking character it presents?  Why, I observe that this part
+which we call the tail of the lobster, is made up of six distinct hard
+rings and a seventh terminal piece.  If I separate one of the middle
+rings, say the third, I find it carries upon its under surface a pair
+of limbs or appendages, each of which consists of a stalk and two
+terminal pieces.  So that I can represent a transverse section of the
+ring and its appendages upon the diagram board in this way.
+
+If I now take the fourth ring, I find it has the same structure, and so
+have the fifth and the second; so that, in each of these divisions of
+the tail, I find parts which correspond with one another, a ring and
+two appendages; and in each appendage a stalk and two end pieces.
+These corresponding parts are called, in the technical language of
+anatomy, "homologous parts." The ring of the third division is the
+"homologue" of the ring of the fifth, the appendage of the former is
+the homologue of the appendage of the latter.  And, as each division
+exhibits corresponding parts in corresponding places, we say that all
+the divisions are constructed upon the same plan.  But now let us
+consider the sixth division.  It is similar to, and yet different from,
+the others.  The ring is essentially the same as in the other divisions;
+but the appendages look at first as if they were very different; and
+yet when we regard them closely, what do we find?  A stalk and two
+terminal divisions, exactly as in the others, but the stalk is very
+short and very thick, the terminal divisions are very broad and flat,
+and one of them is divided into two pieces.
+
+I may say, therefore, that the sixth segment is like the others in plan,
+but that it is modified in its details.
+
+The first segment is like the others, so far as its ring is concerned,
+and though its appendages differ from any of those yet examined in the
+simplicity of their structure, parts corresponding with the stem and
+one of the divisions of the appendages of the other segments can be
+readily discerned in them.
+
+Thus it appears that the lobster's tail is composed of a series of
+segments which are fundamentally similar, though each presents peculiar
+modifications of the plan common to all. But when I turn to the
+forepart of the body I see, at first, nothing but a great shield-like
+shell, called technically the "carapace," ending in front in a sharp
+spine, on either side of which are the curious compound eyes, set upon
+the ends of stout movable stalks.  Behind these, on the under side of
+the body, are two pairs of long feelers, or antennae, followed by six
+pairs of jaws folded against one another over the mouth, and five pairs
+of legs, the foremost of these being the great pinchers, or claws, of
+the lobster.
+
+It looks, at first, a little hopeless to attempt to find in this complex
+mass a series of rings, each with its pair of appendages, such as I
+have shown you in the abdomen, and yet it is not difficult to
+demonstrate their existence.  Strip off the legs, and you will find that
+each pair is attached to a very definite segment of the under wall of
+the body; but these segments, instead of being the lower parts of free
+rings, as in the tail, are such parts of rings which are all solidly
+united and bound together; and the like is true of the jaws, the
+feelers, and the eye-stalks, every pair of which is borne upon its own
+special segment.  Thus the conclusion is gradually forced upon us, that
+the body of the lobster is composed of as many rings as there are pairs
+of appendages, namely, twenty in all, but that the six hindmost rings
+remain free and movable, while the fourteen front rings become firmly
+soldered together, their backs forming one continuous shield--the
+carapace.
+
+Unity of plan, diversity in execution, is the lesson taught by the study
+of the rings of the body, and the same instruction is given still more
+emphatically by the appendages.  If I examine the outermost jaw I find
+it consists of three distinct portions, an inner, a middle, and an
+outer, mounted upon a common stem; and if I compare this jaw with the
+legs behind it, or the jaws in front of it, I find it quite easy to
+see, that, in the legs, it is the part of the appendage which
+corresponds with the inner division, which becomes modified into what we
+know familiarly as the "leg," while the middle division disappears, and
+the outer division is hidden under the carapace.  Nor is it more
+difficult to discern that, in the appendages of the tail, the middle
+division appears again and the outer vanishes; while, on the other hand,
+in the foremost jaw, the so-called mandible, the inner division only is
+left; and, in the same way, the parts of the feelers and of the
+eye-stalks can be identified with those of the legs and jaws.
+
+But whither does all this tend?  To the very remarkable conclusion that
+a unity of plan, of the same kind as that discoverable in the tail or
+abdomen of the lobster, pervades the whole organization of its
+skeleton, so that I can return to the diagram representing any one of
+the rings of the tail, which I drew upon the board, and by adding a
+third division to each appendage, I can use it as a sort of scheme or
+plan of any ring of the body.  I can give names to all the parts of
+that figure, and then if I take any segment of the body of the lobster,
+I can point out to you exactly, what modification the general plan has
+undergone in that particular segment; what part has remained movable,
+and what has become fixed to another; what has been excessively
+developed and metamorphosed and what has been suppressed.
+
+But I imagine I hear the question, How is all this to be tested?  No
+doubt it is a pretty and ingenious way of looking at the structure of
+any animal; but is it anything more?  Does Nature acknowledge, in any
+deeper way, this unity of plan we seem to trace?
+
+The objection suggested by these questions is a very valid and important
+one, and morphology was in an unsound state so long as it rested upon
+the mere perception of the analogies which obtain between fully formed
+parts.  The unchecked ingenuity of speculative anatomists proved itself
+fully competent to spin any number of contradictory hypotheses out of
+the same facts, and endless morphological dreams threatened to supplant
+scientific theory.
+
+Happily, however, there is a criterion of morphological truth, and a
+sure test of all homologies. Our lobster has not always been what we
+see it; it was once an egg, a semifluid mass of yolk, not so big as a
+pin's head, contained in a transparent membrane, and exhibiting not the
+least trace of any one of those organs, whose multiplicity and
+complexity, in the adult, are so surprising.  After a time a delicate
+patch of cellular membrane appeared upon one face of this yolk, and
+that patch was the foundation of the whole creature, the clay out of
+which it would be moulded.  Gradually investing the yolk, it became
+subdivided by transverse constrictions into segments, the forerunners
+of the rings of the body.  Upon the ventral surface of each of the
+rings thus sketched out, a pair of bud-like prominences made their
+appearance--the rudiments of the appendages of the ring.  At first, all
+the appendages were alike, but, as they grew, most of them became
+distinguished into a stem and two terminal divisions, to which in the
+middle part of the body, was added a third outer division; and it was
+only at a later period, that by the modification, or absorption, of
+certain of these primitive constituents, the limbs acquired their
+perfect form.
+
+Thus the study of development proves that the doctrine of unity of plan
+is not merely a fancy, that it is not merely one way of looking at the
+matter, but that it is the expression of deep-seated natural facts. The
+legs and jaws of the lobster may not merely be regarded as
+modifications of a common type,--in fact and in nature they are so,--the
+leg and the jaw of the young animal being, at first, indistinguishable.
+
+These are wonderful truths, the more so because the zoologist finds them
+to be of universal application.  The investigation of a polype, of a
+snail, of a fish, of a horse, or of a man, would have led us, though by
+a less easy path, perhaps, to exactly the same point.  Unity of plan
+everywhere lies hidden under the mask of diversity of structure--the
+complex is everywhere evolved out of the simple.  Every animal has at
+first the form of an egg, and every animal and every organic part, in
+reaching its adult state, passes through conditions common to other
+animals and other adult parts; and this leads me to another point.  I
+have hitherto spoken as if the lobster were alone in the world, but, as
+I need hardly remind you, there are myriads of other animal organisms.
+Of these, some, such as men, horses, birds, fishes, snails, slugs,
+oysters, corals, and sponges, are not in the least like the lobster.
+But other animals, though they may differ a good deal from the lobster,
+are yet either very like it, or are like something that is like it. The
+cray fish, the rock lobster, and the prawn, and the shrimp, for
+example, however different, are yet so like lobsters, that a child
+would group them as of the lobster kind, in contradistinction to snails
+and slugs; and these last again would form a kind by themselves, in
+contradistinction to cows, horses, and sheep, the cattle kind.
+
+But this spontaneous grouping into "kinds" is the first essay of the
+human mind at classification, or the calling by a common name of those
+things that are alike, and the arranging them in such a manner as best
+to suggest the sum of their likenesses and unlikenesses to other
+things.
+
+Those kinds which include no other subdivisions than the sexes, or
+various breeds, are called, in technical language, species.  The
+English lobster is a species, our cray fish is another, our prawn is
+another.  In other countries, however, there are lobsters, cray fish,
+and prawns, very like ours, and yet presenting sufficient differences
+to deserve distinction.  Naturalists, therefore, express this
+resemblance and this diversity by grouping them as distinct species of
+the same "genus."  But the lobster and the cray fish, though belonging
+to distinct genera, have many features in common, and hence are grouped
+together in an assemblage which is called a family.  More distant
+resemblances connect the lobster with the prawn and the crab, which are
+expressed by putting all these into the same order.  Again, more remote,
+but still very definite, resemblances unite the lobster with the
+woodlouse, the king crab, the water flea, and the barnacle, and
+separate them from all other animals; whence they collectively
+constitute the larger group, or class, 'Crustacea'.  But the
+'Crustacea' exhibit many peculiar features in common with insects,
+spiders, and centipedes, so that these are grouped into the still
+larger assemblage or "province" 'Articulata'; and, finally, the
+relations which these have to worms and other lower animals, are
+expressed by combining the whole vast aggregate into the sub-kingdom of
+'Annulosa'.
+
+If I had worked my way from a sponge instead of a lobster, I should have
+found it associated, by like ties, with a great number of other animals
+into the sub-kingdom 'Protozoa'; if I had selected a fresh-water polype
+or a coral, the members of what naturalists term the sub-kingdom
+'Coelenterata', would have grouped themselves around my type; had a
+snail been chosen, the inhabitants of all univalve and bivalve, land
+and water, shells, the lamp shells, the squids, and the sea-mat would
+have gradually linked themselves on to it as members of the same
+sub-kingdom of 'Mollusca'; and finally, starting from man, I should have
+been compelled to admit first, the ape, the rat, the horse, the dog,
+into the same class; and then the bird, the crocodile, the turtle, the
+frog, and the fish, into the same sub-kingdom of 'Vertebrata'.
+
+And if I had followed out all these various lines of classification
+fully, I should discover in the end that there was no animal, either
+recent or fossil, which did not at once fall into one or other of these
+sub-kingdoms.  In other words, every animal is organized upon one or
+other of the five, or more, plans, whose existence renders our
+classification possible.  And so definitely and precisely marked is the
+structure of each animal, that, in the present state of our knowledge,
+there is not the least evidence to prove that a form, in the slightest
+degree transitional between any of the two groups 'Vertebrata',
+'Annulosa', 'Mollusca', and 'Coelenterata', either exists, or has
+existed, during that period of the earth's history which is recorded by
+the geologist.  Nevertheless, you must not for a moment suppose, because
+no such transitional forms are known, that the members of the
+sub-kingdoms are disconnected from, or independent of, one another.  On
+the contrary, in their earliest condition they are all alike, and the
+primordial germs of a man, a dog, a bird, a fish, a beetle, a snail, and
+a polype are, in no essential structural respects, distinguishable.
+
+In this broad sense, it may with truth be said, that all living animals,
+and all those dead creations which geology reveals, are bound together
+by an all-pervading unity of organization, of the same character,
+though not equal in degree, to that which enables us to discern one and
+the same plan amidst the twenty different segments of a lobster's body.
+Truly it has been said, that to a clear eye the smallest fact is a
+window through which the Infinite may be seen.
+
+Turning from these purely morphological considerations, let us now
+examine into the manner in which the attentive study of the lobster
+impels us into other lines of research.
+
+Lobsters are found in all the European seas; but on the opposite shores
+of the Atlantic and in the seas of the southern hemisphere they do not
+exist.  They are, however, represented in these regions by very closely
+allied, but distinct forms--the 'Homarus Americanus' and the 'Homarus
+Capensis': so that we may say that the European has one species of
+'Homarus'; the American, another; the African, another; and thus the
+remarkable facts of geographical distribution begin to dawn upon us.
+
+Again, if we examine the contents of the earth's crust, we shall find in
+the latter of those deposits, which have served as the great burying
+grounds of past ages, numberless lobster-like animals, but none so
+similar to our living lobster as to make zoologists sure that they
+belonged even to the same genus.  If we go still further back in time,
+we discover, in the oldest rocks of all, the remains of animals,
+constructed on the same general plan as the lobster, and belonging to
+the same great group of 'Crustacea'; but for the most part totally
+different from the lobster, and indeed from any other living form of
+crustacean; and thus we gain a notion of that successive change of the
+animal population of the globe, in past ages, which is the most
+striking fact revealed by geology.
+
+Consider, now, where our inquiries have led us.  We studied our type
+morphologically, when we determined its anatomy and its development,
+and when comparing it, in these respects, with other animals, we made
+out its place in a system of classification.  If we were to examine
+every animal in a similar manner, we should establish a complete body of
+zoological morphology.
+
+Again, we investigated the distribution of our type in space and in
+time, and, if the like had been done with every animal, the sciences of
+geographical and geological distribution would have attained their
+limit.
+
+But you will observe one remarkable circumstance, that, up to this
+point, the question of the life of these organisms has not come under
+consideration.  Morphology and distribution might be studied almost as
+well, if animals and plants were a peculiar kind of crystals, and
+possessed none of those functions which distinguish living beings so
+remarkably.  But the facts of morphology and distribution have to be
+accounted for, and the science, whose aim it is to account for them, is
+Physiology.
+
+Let us return to our lobster once more.  If we watched the creature in
+its native element, we should see it climbing actively the submerged
+rocks, among which it delights to live, by means of its strong legs; or
+swimming by powerful strokes of its great tail, the appendages of whose
+sixth joint are spread out into a broad fan-like propeller: seize it,
+and it will show you that its great claws are no mean weapons of
+offence; suspend a piece of carrion among its haunts, and it will
+greedily devour it, tearing and crushing the flesh by means of its
+multitudinous jaws.
+
+Suppose that we had known nothing of the lobster but as an inert mass,
+an organic crystal, if I may use the phrase, and that we could suddenly
+see it exerting all these powers, what wonderful new ideas and new
+questions would arise in our minds!  The great new question would be,
+"How does all this take place?"  the chief new idea would be, the idea
+of adaptation to purpose,--the notion, that the constituents of animal
+bodies are not mere unconnected parts, but organs working together to
+an end.  Let us consider the tail of the lobster again from this point
+of view.  Morphology has taught us that it is a series of segments
+composed of homologous parts, which undergo various
+modifications--beneath and through which a common plan of formation is
+discernible.  But if I look at the same part physiologically, I see
+that it is a most beautifully constructed organ of locomotion, by means
+of which the animal can swiftly propel itself either backwards or
+forwards.
+
+But how is this remarkable propulsive machine made to perform its
+functions?  If I were suddenly to kill one of these animals and to take
+out all the soft parts, I should find the shell to be perfectly inert,
+to have no more power of moving itself than is possessed by the
+machinery of a mill when disconnected from its steam-engine or
+water-wheel.  But if I were to open it, and take out the viscera only,
+leaving the white flesh, I should perceive that the lobster could bend
+and extend its tail as well as before.  If I were to cut off the tail, I
+should cease to find any spontaneous motion in it; but on pinching any
+portion of the flesh, I should observe that it underwent a very curious
+change--each fibre becoming shorter and thicker.  By this act of
+contraction, as it is termed, the parts to which the ends of the fibre
+are attached are, of course, approximated; and according to the
+relations of their points of attachment to the centres of motions of
+the different rings, the bending or the extension of the tail results.
+Close observation of the newly-opened lobster would soon show that all
+its movements are due to the same cause--the shortening and thickening
+of these fleshy fibres, which are technically called muscles.
+
+Here, then, is a capital fact.  The movements of the lobster are due to
+muscular contractility. But why does a muscle contract at one time and
+not at another?  Why does one whole group of muscles contract when the
+lobster wishes to extend his tail, and another group when he desires to
+bend it?  What is it originates, directs, and controls the motive
+power?
+
+Experiment, the great instrument for the ascertainment of truth in
+physical science, answers this question for us.  In the head of the
+lobster there lies a small mass of that peculiar tissue which is known
+as nervous substance.  Cords of similar matter connect this brain of
+the lobster, directly or indirectly, with the muscles.  Now, if these
+communicating cords are cut, the brain remaining entire, the power of
+exerting what we call voluntary motion in the parts below the section
+is destroyed; and on the other hand, if, the cords remaining entire, the
+brain mass be destroyed, the same voluntary mobility is equally lost.
+Whence the inevitable conclusion is, that the power of originating
+these motions resides in the brain, and is propagated along the nervous
+cords.
+
+In the higher animals the phenomena which attend this transmission have
+been investigated, and the exertion of the peculiar energy which
+resides in the nerves has been found to be accompanied by a disturbance
+of the electrical state of their molecules.
+
+If we could exactly estimate the signification of this disturbance; if
+we could obtain the value of a given exertion of nerve force by
+determining the quantity of electricity, or of heat, of which it is the
+equivalent; if we could ascertain upon what arrangement, or other
+condition of the molecules of matter, the manifestation of the nervous
+and muscular energies depends (and doubtless science will some day or
+other ascertain these points), physiologists would have attained their
+ultimate goal in this direction; they would have determined the relation
+of the motive force of animals to the other forms of force found in
+nature; and if the same process had been successfully performed for all
+the operations which are carried on in, and by, the animal frame,
+physiology would be perfect, and the facts of morphology and
+distribution would be deducible from the laws which physiologists had
+established, combined with those determining the condition of the
+surrounding universe.
+
+There is not a fragment of the organism of this humble animal whose
+study would not lead us into regions of thought as large as those which
+I have briefly opened up to you; but what I have been saying, I trust,
+has not only enabled you to form a conception of the scope and purport
+of zoology, but has given you an imperfect example of the manner in
+which, in my opinion, that science, or indeed any physical science, may
+be best taught.  The great matter is, to make teaching real and
+practical, by fixing the attention of the student on particular facts;
+but at the same time it should be rendered broad and comprehensive, by
+constant reference to the generalizations of which all particular facts
+are illustrations.  The lobster has served as a type of the whole
+animal kingdom, and its anatomy and physiology have illustrated for us
+some of the greatest truths of biology.  The student who has once seen
+for himself the facts which I have described, has had their relations
+explained to him, and has clearly comprehended them, has, so far, a
+knowledge of zoology, which is real and genuine, however limited it may
+be, and which is worth more than all the mere reading knowledge of the
+science he could ever acquire.  His zoological information is, so far,
+knowledge and not mere hear-say.
+
+And if it were my business to fit you for the certificate in zoological
+science granted by this department, I should pursue a course precisely
+similar in principle to that which I have taken to-night.  I should
+select a fresh-water sponge, a fresh-water polype or a 'Cyanaea', a
+fresh-water mussel, a lobster, a fowl, as types of the five primary
+divisions of the animal kingdom.  I should explain their structure very
+fully, and show how each illustrated the great principles of zoology.
+Having gone very carefully and fully over this ground, I should feel
+that you had a safe foundation, and I should then take you in the same
+way, but less minutely, over similarly selected illustrative types of
+the classes; and then I should direct your attention to the special
+forms enumerated under the head of types, in this syllabus, and to the
+other facts there mentioned.
+
+That would, speaking generally, be my plan.  But I have undertaken to
+explain to you the best mode of acquiring and communicating a knowledge
+of zoology, and you may therefore fairly ask me for a more detailed and
+precise account of the manner in which I should propose to furnish you
+with the information I refer to.
+
+My own impression is, that the best model for all kinds of training in
+physical science is that afforded by the method of teaching anatomy, in
+use in the medical schools.  This method consists of three
+elements--lectures, demonstrations, and examinations.
+
+The object of lectures is, in the first place, to awaken the attention
+and excite the enthusiasm of the student; and this, I am sure, may be
+effected to a far greater extent by the oral discourse and by the
+personal influence of a respected teacher than in any other way.
+Secondly, lectures have the double use of guiding the student to the
+salient points of a subject, and at the same time forcing him to attend
+to the whole of it, and not merely to that part which takes his fancy.
+And lastly, lectures afford the student the opportunity of seeking
+explanations of those difficulties which will, and indeed ought to,
+arise in the course of his studies.
+
+But for a student to derive the utmost possible value from lectures,
+several precautions are needful.
+
+I have a strong impression that the better a discourse is, as an
+oration, the worse it is as a lecture.  The flow of the discourse
+carries you on without proper attention to its sense; you drop a word
+or a phrase, you lose the exact meaning for a moment, and while you
+strive to recover yourself, the speaker has passed on to something
+else.
+
+The practice I have adopted of late years, in lecturing to students, is
+to condense the substance of the hour's discourse into a few dry
+propositions, which are read slowly and taken down from dictation; the
+reading of each being followed by a free commentary expanding and
+illustrating the proposition, explaining terms, and removing any
+difficulties that may be attackable in that way, by diagrams made
+roughly, and seen to grow under the lecturer's hand. In this manner
+you, at any rate, insure the co-operation of the student to a certain
+extent.  He cannot leave the lecture-room entirely empty if the taking
+of notes is enforced; and a student must be preternaturally dull and
+mechanical, if he can take notes and hear them properly explained, and
+yet learn nothing.
+
+What books shall I read? is a question constantly put by the student to
+the teacher.  My reply usually is, "None: write your notes out
+carefully and fully; strive to understand them thoroughly; come to me
+for the explanation of anything you cannot understand; and I would
+rather you did not distract your mind by reading."  A properly composed
+course of lectures ought to contain fully as much matter as a student
+can assimilate in the time occupied by its delivery; and the teacher
+should always recollect that his business is to feed, and not to cram
+the intellect.  Indeed, I believe that a student who gains from a course
+of lectures the simple habit of concentrating his attention upon a
+definitely limited series of facts, until they are thoroughly mastered,
+has made a step of immeasurable importance.
+
+But, however good lectures may be, and however extensive the course of
+reading by which they are followed up, they are but accessories to the
+great instrument of scientific teaching--demonstration.  If I insist
+unweariedly, nay fanatically, upon the importance of physical science
+as an educational agent, it is because the study of any branch of
+science, if properly conducted, appears to me to fill up a void left by
+all other means of education.  I have the greatest respect and love for
+literature; nothing would grieve me more than to see literary training
+other than a very prominent branch of education: indeed, I wish that
+real literary discipline were far more attended to than it is; but I
+cannot shut my eyes to the fact, that there is a vast difference
+between men who have had a purely literary, and those who have had a
+sound scientific, training.
+
+Seeking for the cause of this difference, I imagine I can find it in the
+fact that, in the world of letters, learning and knowledge are one, and
+books are the source of both; whereas in science, as in life, learning
+and knowledge are distinct, and the study of things, and not of books,
+is the source of the latter.
+
+All that literature has to bestow may be obtained by reading and by
+practical exercise in writing and in speaking; but I do not exaggerate
+when I say, that none of the best gifts of science are to be won by
+these means.  On the contrary, the great benefit which a scientific
+education bestows, whether as training or as knowledge, is dependent
+upon the extent to which the mind of the student is brought into
+immediate contact with facts--upon the degree to which he learns the
+habit of appealing directly to Nature, and of acquiring through his
+senses concrete images of those properties of things, which are, and
+always will be, but approximatively expressed in human language.  Our
+way of looking at Nature, and of speaking about her, varies from year
+to year; but a fact once seen, a relation of cause and effect, once
+demonstratively apprehended, are possessions which neither change nor
+pass away, but, on the contrary, form fixed centres, about which other
+truths aggregate by natural affinity.
+
+Therefore, the great business of the scientific teacher is, to imprint
+the fundamental, irrefragable facts of his science, not only by words
+upon the mind, but by sensible impressions upon the eye, and ear, and
+touch of the student, in so complete a manner, that every term used, or
+law enunciated, should afterwards call up vivid images of the particular
+structural, or other, facts which furnished the demonstration of the
+law, or the illustration of the term.
+
+Now this important operation can only be achieved by constant
+demonstration, which may take place to a certain imperfect extent
+during a lecture, but which ought also to be carried on independently,
+and which should be addressed to each individual student, the teacher
+endeavouring, not so much to show a thing to the learner, as to make him
+see it for himself.
+
+I am well aware that there are great practical difficulties in the way
+of effectual zoological demonstrations.  The dissection of animals is
+not altogether pleasant, and requires much time; nor is it easy to
+secure an adequate supply of the needful specimens.  The botanist has
+here a great advantage; his specimens are easily obtained, are clean
+and wholesome, and can be dissected in a private house as well as
+anywhere else; and hence, I believe, the fact, that botany is so much
+more readily and better taught than its sister science.  But, be it
+difficult or be it easy, if zoological science is to be properly
+studied, demonstration, and, consequently, dissection, must be had.
+Without it, no man can have a really sound knowledge of animal
+organization.
+
+A good deal may be done, however, without actual dissection on the
+student's part, by demonstration upon specimens and preparations; and
+in all probability it would not be very difficult, were the demand
+sufficient, to organize collections of such objects, sufficient for all
+the purposes of elementary teaching, at a comparatively cheap rate.
+Even without these, much might be effected, if the zoological
+collections, which are open to the public, were arranged according to
+what has been termed the "typical principle"; that is to say, if the
+specimens exposed to public view were so selected that the public could
+learn something from them, instead of being, as at present, merely
+confused by their multiplicity.  For example, the grand ornithological
+gallery at the British Museum contains between two and three thousand
+species of birds, and sometimes five or six specimens of a species.
+They are very pretty to look at, and some of the cases are, indeed,
+splendid; but I will undertake to say, that no man but a professed
+ornithologist has ever gathered much information from the collection.
+Certainly, no one of the tens of thousands of the general public who
+have walked through that gallery ever knew more about the essential
+peculiarities of birds when he left the gallery than when he entered
+it.  But if, somewhere in that vast hall, there were a few preparations,
+exemplifying the leading structural peculiarities and the mode of
+development of a common fowl; if the types of the genera, the leading
+modifications in the skeleton, in the plumage at various ages, in the
+mode of nidification, and the like, among birds, were displayed; and if
+the other specimens were put away in a place where the men of science,
+to whom they are alone useful, could have free access to them, I can
+conceive that this collection might become a great instrument of
+scientific education.
+
+The last implement of the teacher to which I have adverted is
+examination--a means of education now so thoroughly understood that I
+need hardly enlarge upon it.  I hold that both written and oral
+examinations are indispensable, and, by requiring the description of
+specimens, they may be made to supplement demonstration.
+
+Such is the fullest reply the time at my disposal will allow me to give
+to the question--how may a knowledge of zoology be best acquired and
+communicated?
+
+But there is a previous question which may be moved, and which, in fact,
+I know many are inclined to move.  It is the question, why should
+training masters be encouraged to acquire a knowledge of this, or any
+other branch of physical science?  What is the use, it is said, of
+attempting to make physical science a branch of primary education?  Is
+it not probable that teachers, in pursuing such studies, will be led
+astray from the acquirement of more important but less attractive
+knowledge?  And, even if they can learn something of science without
+prejudice to their usefulness, what is the good of their attempting to
+instil that knowledge into boys whose real business is the acquisition
+of reading, writing, and arithmetic?
+
+These questions are, and will be, very commonly asked, for they arise
+from that profound ignorance of the value and true position of physical
+science, which infests the minds of the most highly educated and
+intelligent classes of the community.  But if I did not feel well
+assured that they are capable of being easily and satisfactorily
+answered; that they have been answered over and over again; and that
+the time will come when men of liberal education will blush to raise
+such questions,--I should be ashamed of my position here to-night.
+Without doubt, it is your great and very important function to carry
+out elementary education; without question, anything that should
+interfere with the faithful fulfilment of that duty on your part would
+be a great evil; and if I thought that your acquirement of the elements
+of physical science, and your communication of those elements to your
+pupils, involved any sort of interference with your proper duties, I
+should be the first person to protest against your being encouraged to
+do anything of the kind.
+
+But is it true that the acquisition of such a knowledge of science as is
+proposed, and the communication of that knowledge, are calculated to
+weaken your usefulness?  Or may I not rather ask, is it possible for
+you to discharge your functions properly without these aids?
+
+What is the purpose of primary intellectual education?  I apprehend that
+its first object is to train the young in the use of those tools
+wherewith men extract knowledge from the ever-shifting succession of
+phenomena which pass before their eyes; and that its second object is
+to inform them of the fundamental laws which have been found by
+experience to govern the course of things, so that they may not be
+turned out into the world naked, defenceless, and a prey to the events
+they might control.
+
+A boy is taught to read his own and other languages, in order that he
+may have access to infinitely wider stores of knowledge than could ever
+be opened to him by oral intercourse with his fellow men; he learns to
+write, that his means of communication with the rest of mankind may be
+indefinitely enlarged, and that he may record and store up the knowledge
+he acquires. He is taught elementary mathematics, that he may
+understand all those relations of number and form, upon which the
+transactions of men, associated in complicated societies, are built,
+and that he may have some practice in deductive reasoning.
+
+All these operations of reading, writing, and ciphering, are
+intellectual tools, whose use should, before all things, be learned,
+and learned thoroughly; so that the youth may be enabled to make his
+life that which it ought to be, a continual progress in learning and in
+wisdom.
+
+But, in addition, primary education endeavours to fit a boy out with a
+certain equipment of positive knowledge.  He is taught the great laws
+of morality; the religion of his sect; so much history and geography as
+will tell him where the great countries of the world are, what they
+are, and how they have become what they are.
+
+Without doubt all these are most fitting and excellent things to teach a
+boy; I should be very sorry to omit any of them from any scheme of
+primary intellectual education.  The system is excellent, so far as it
+goes.
+
+But if I regard it closely, a curious reflection arises.  I suppose
+that, fifteen hundred years ago, the child of any well-to-do Roman
+citizen was taught just these same things; reading and writing in his
+own, and, perhaps, the Greek tongue; the elements of mathematics; and
+the religion, morality, history, and geography current in his time.
+Furthermore, I do not think I err in affirming, that, if such a
+Christian Roman boy, who had finished his education, could be
+transplanted into one of our public schools, and pass through its course
+of instruction, he would not meet with a single unfamiliar line of
+thought; amidst all the new facts he would have to learn, not one would
+suggest a different mode of regarding the universe from that current in
+his own time.
+
+And yet surely there is some great difference between the civilization
+of the fourth century and that of the nineteenth, and still more
+between the intellectual habits and tone of thought of that day and
+this?
+
+And what has made this difference?  I answer fearlessly--The prodigious
+development of physical science within the last two centuries.
+
+Modern civilization rests upon physical science; take away her gifts to
+our own country, and our position among the leading nations of the
+world is gone to-morrow; for it is physical science only, that makes
+intelligence and moral energy stronger than brute force.
+
+The whole of modern thought is steeped in science; it has made its way
+into the works of our best poets, and even the mere man of letters, who
+affects to ignore and despise science, is unconsciously impregnated
+with her spirit, and indebted for his best products to her methods. I
+believe that the greatest intellectual revolution mankind has yet seen
+is now slowly taking place by her agency.  She is teaching the world
+that the ultimate court of appeal is observation and experiment, and
+not authority; she is teaching it to estimate the value of evidence; she
+is creating a firm and living faith in the existence of immutable moral
+and physical laws, perfect obedience to which is the highest possible
+aim of an intelligent being.
+
+But of all this your old stereotyped system of education takes no note.
+Physical science, its methods, its problems, and its difficulties, will
+meet the poorest boy at every turn, and yet we educate him in such a
+manner that he shall enter the world as ignorant of the existence of
+the methods and facts of science as the day he was born.  The modern
+world is full of artillery; and we turn out our children to do battle
+in it, equipped with the shield and sword of an ancient gladiator.
+
+Posterity will cry shame on us if we do not remedy this deplorable state
+of things.  Nay, if we live twenty years longer, our own consciences
+will cry shame on us.
+
+It is my firm conviction that the only way to remedy it is, to make the
+elements of physical science an integral part of primary education.  I
+have endeavoured to show you how that may be done for that branch of
+science which it is my business to pursue; and I can but add, that I
+should look upon the day when every schoolmaster throughout this land
+was a centre of genuine, however rudimentary, scientific knowledge, as
+an epoch in the history of the country.
+
+But let me entreat you to remember my last words.  Addressing myself to
+you, as teachers, I would say, mere book learning in physical science
+is a sham and a delusion--what you teach, unless you wish to be
+impostors, that you must first know; and real knowledge in science
+means personal acquaintance with the facts, be they few or many.*
+
+    [footnote] *It has been suggested to me that these words may
+    be taken to imply a discouragement on my part of any sort
+    of scientific instruction which does not give an
+    acquaintance with the facts at first hand.  But this is not
+    my meaning.  The ideal of scientific teaching is, no doubt,
+    a system by which the scholar sees every fact for himself,
+    and the teacher supplies only the explanations.
+    Circumstances, however, do not often allow of the
+    attainment of that ideal, and we must put up with the next
+    best system--one in which the scholar takes a good deal on
+    trust from a teacher, who, knowing the facts by his own
+    knowledge, can describe them with so much vividness as to
+    enable his audience to form competent ideas concerning
+    them.  The system which I repudiate is that which allows
+    teachers who have not come into direct contact with the
+    leading facts of a science to pass their second-hand
+    information on. The scientific virus, like vaccine lymph,
+    if passed through too long a succession of organisms, will
+    lose all its effect in protecting the young against the
+    intellectual epidemics to which they are exposed.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg Etext On the Study of Zoology, by T. H. Huxley
+
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