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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Geological Contemporaneity and Persistent
+Types of Life, by Thomas H. Huxley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Geological Contemporaneity and Persistent Types of Life
+
+Author: Thomas H. Huxley
+
+Posting Date: January 6, 2009 [EBook #2936]
+Release Date: November, 2001
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEOLOGICAL CONTEMPORANEITY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Amy E. Zelmer
+
+
+
+
+
+GEOLOGICAL CONTEMPORANEITY AND PERSISTENT TYPES OF LIFE.
+
+By Thomas H. Huxley
+
+[1]
+
+
+
+MERCHANTS occasionally go through a wholesome, though troublesome and
+not always satisfactory, process which they term "taking stock." After
+all the excitement of speculation, the pleasure of gain, and the pain of
+loss, the trader makes up his mind to face facts and to learn the exact
+quantity and quality of his solid and reliable possessions.
+
+The man of science does well sometimes to imitate this procedure; and,
+forgetting for the time the importance of his own small winnings, to
+re-examine the common stock in trade, so that he may make sure how far
+the stock of bullion in the cellar--on the faith of whose existence so
+much paper has been circulating--is really the solid gold of truth.
+
+The Anniversary Meeting of the Geological Society seems to be an
+occasion well suited for an undertaking of this kind--for an inquiry,
+in fact, into the nature and value of the present results of
+paleontological investigation; and the more so, as all those who have
+paid close attention to the late multitudinous discussions in which
+paleontology is implicated, must have felt the urgent necessity of some
+such scrutiny.
+
+First in order, as the most definite and unquestionable of all the
+results of paleontology, must be mentioned the immense extension and
+impulse given to botany, zoology, and comparative anatomy, by the
+investigation of fossil remains. Indeed, the mass of biological facts
+has been so greatly increased, and the range of biological speculation
+has been so vastly widened, by the researches of the geologist and
+paleontologist, that it is to be feared there are naturalists in
+existence who look upon geology as Brindley regarded rivers. "Rivers,"
+said the great engineer, "were made to feed canals"; and geology, some
+seem to think, was solely created to advance comparative anatomy.
+
+Were such a thought justifiable, it could hardly expect to be received
+with favour by this assembly. But it is not justifiable. Your favourite
+science has her own great aims independent of all others; and if,
+notwithstanding her steady devotion to her own progress, she can scatter
+such rich alms among her sisters, it should be remembered that her
+charity is of the sort that does not impoverish, but "blesseth him that
+gives and him that takes."
+
+Regard the matter as we will, however, the facts remain. Nearly 40,000
+species of animals and plants have been added to the Systema Naturae by
+paleontologic research. This is a living population equivalent to
+that of a new continent in mere number; equivalent to that of a new
+hemisphere, if we take into account the small population of insects as
+yet found fossil, and the large proportion and peculiar organization of
+many of the Vertebrata.
+
+But, beyond this, it is perhaps not too much to say that, except for the
+necessity of interpreting paleontologic facts, the laws of distribution
+would have received less careful study; while few comparative anatomists
+(and those not of the first order) would have been induced by mere love
+of detail, as such, to study the minutiae of osteology, were it not
+that in such minutiae lie the only keys to the most interesting riddles
+offered by the extinct animal world.
+
+These assuredly are great and solid gains. Surely it is matter for no
+small congratulation that in half a century (for paleontology, though
+it dawned earlier, came into full day only with Cuvier) a subordinate
+branch of biology should have doubled the value and the interest of the
+whole group of sciences to which it belongs.
+
+But this is not all. Allied with geology, paleontology has established
+two laws of inestimable importance: the first, that one and the same
+area of the earth's surface has been successively occupied by very
+different kinds of living beings; the second, that the order of
+succession established in one locality holds good, approximately, in
+all.
+
+The first of these laws is universal and irreversible; the second is an
+induction from a vast number of observations, though it may possibly,
+and even probably, have to admit of exceptions. As a consequence of
+the second law, it follows that a peculiar relation frequently subsists
+between series of strata, containing organic remains, in different
+localities. The series resemble one another, not only in virtue of
+a general resemblance of the organic remains in the two, but also
+in virtue of a resemblance in the order and character of the serial
+succession in each. There is a resemblance of arrangement; so that the
+separate terms of each series, as well as the whole series, exhibit a
+correspondence.
+
+Succession implies time; the lower members of a series of sedimentary
+rocks are certainly older than the upper; and when the notion of age was
+once introduced as the equivalent of succession, it was no wonder that
+correspondence in succession came to be looked upon as a correspondence
+in age, or "contemporaneity." And, indeed, so long as relative age only
+is spoken of, correspondence in succession 'is' correspondence in age;
+it is 'relative' contemporaneity.
+
+But it would have been very much better for geology if so loose and
+ambiguous a word as "contemporaneous" had been excluded from her
+terminology, and if, in its stead, some term expressing similarity of
+serial relation, and excluding the notion of time altogether, had been
+employed to denote correspondence in position in two or more series of
+strata.
+
+In anatomy, where such correspondence of position has constantly to be
+spoken of, it is denoted by the word "homology" and its derivatives; and
+for Geology (which after all is only the anatomy and physiology of the
+earth) it might be well to invent some single word, such as "homotaxis"
+(similarity of order), in order to express an essentially similar idea.
+This, however, has not been done, and most probably the inquiry will at
+once be made--To what end burden science with a new and strange term in
+place of one old, familiar, and part of our common language?
+
+The reply to this question will become obvious as the inquiry into the
+results of paleontology is pushed further.
+
+Those whose business it is to acquaint themselves specially with the
+works of paleontologists, in fact, will be fully aware that very few,
+if any, would rest satisfied with such a statement of the conclusions of
+their branch of biology as that which has just been given.
+
+Our standard repertories of paleontology profess to teach us far higher
+things--to disclose the entire succession of living forms upon the
+surface of the globe; to tell us of a wholly different distribution of
+climatic conditions in ancient times; to reveal the character of the
+first of all living existences; and to trace out the law of progress
+from them to us.
+
+It may not be unprofitable to bestow on these professions a somewhat
+more critical examination than they have hitherto received, in order to
+ascertain how far they rest on an irrefragable basis; or whether, after
+all, it might not be well for paleontologists to learn a little more
+carefully that scientific "ars artium," the art of saying "I don't
+know." And to this end let us define somewhat more exactly the extent of
+these pretensions of paleontology.
+
+Every one is aware that Professor Bronn's 'Untersuchungen' and Professor
+Pictet's 'Traite de Paleontologie' are works of standard authority,
+familiarly consulted by every working paleontologist. It is desirable to
+speak of these excellent books, and of their distinguished authors,
+with the utmost respect, and in a tone as far as possible removed from
+carping criticism; indeed, if they are specially cited in this place,
+it is merely in justification of the assertion that the following
+propositions, which may be found implicitly, or explicitly, in the works
+in question, are regarded by the mass of paleontologists and geologists,
+not only on the Continent but in this country, as expressing some of the
+best-established results of paleontology. Thus:--
+
+Animals and plants began their existence together, not long after
+the commencement of the deposition of the sedimentary rocks; and then
+succeeded one another, in such a manner, that totally distinct faunae
+and florae occupied the whole surface of the earth, one after the other,
+and during distinct epochs of time.
+
+A geological formation is the sum of all the strata deposited over the
+whole surface of the earth during one of these epochs: a geological
+fauna or flora is the sum of all the species of animals or plants which
+occupied the whole surface of the globe, during one of these epochs.
+
+The population of the earth's surface was at first very similar in all
+parts, and only from the middle of the Tertiary epoch onwards, began to
+show a distinct distribution in zones.
+
+The constitution of the original population, as well as the numerical
+proportions of its members, indicates a warmer and, on the whole,
+somewhat tropical climate, which remained tolerably equable throughout
+the year. The subsequent distribution of living beings in zones is the
+result of a gradual lowering of the general temperature, which first
+began to be felt at the poles.
+
+It is not now proposed to inquire whether these doctrines are true
+or false; but to direct your attention to a much simpler though very
+essential preliminary question--What is their logical basis? what are
+the fundamental assumptions upon which they all logically depend? and
+what is the evidence on which those fundamental propositions demand our
+assent?
+
+These assumptions are two: the first, that the commencement of the
+geological record is coeval with the commencement of life on the
+globe; the second, that geological contemporaneity is the same thing as
+chronological synchrony. Without the first of these assumptions
+there would of course be no ground for any statement respecting the
+commencement of life; without the second, all the other statements
+cited, every one of which implies a knowledge of the state of different
+parts of the earth at one and the same time, will be no less devoid of
+demonstration.
+
+The first assumption obviously rests entirely on negative evidence. This
+is, of course, the only evidence that ever can be available to prove the
+commencement of any series of phenomena; but, at the same time, it must
+be recollected that the value of negative evidence depends entirely on
+the amount of positive corroboration it receives. If A B wishes to prove
+an 'alibi', it is of no use for him to get a thousand witnesses simply
+to swear that they did not see him in such and such a place, unless the
+witnesses are prepared to prove that they must have seen him had he
+been there. But the evidence that animal life commenced with the
+Lingula-flags, 'e.g.', would seem to be exactly of this unsatisfactory
+uncorroborated sort. The Cambrian witnesses simply swear they "haven't
+seen anybody their way"; upon which the counsel for the other side
+immediately puts in ten or twelve thousand feet of Devonian sandstones
+to make oath they never saw a fish or a mollusk, though all the world
+knows there were plenty in their time.
+
+But then it is urged that, though the Devonian rocks in one part of the
+world exhibit no fossils, in another they do, while the lower Cambrian
+rocks nowhere exhibit fossils, and hence no living being could have
+existed in their epoch.
+
+To this there are two replies: the first, that the observational basis
+of the assertion that the lowest rocks are nowhere fossiliferous is an
+amazingly small one, seeing how very small an area, in comparison to
+that of the whole world, has yet been fully searched; the second, that
+the argument is good for nothing unless the unfossiliferous rocks in
+question were not only 'contemporaneous' in the geological sense,
+but 'synchronous' in the chronological sense. To use the 'alibi'
+illustration again. If a man wishes to prove he was in neither of two
+places, A and B, on a given day, his witnesses for each place must be
+prepared to answer for the whole day. If they can only prove that he was
+not at A in the morning, and not at B in the afternoon, the evidence of
+his absence from both is 'nil', because he might have been at B in the
+morning and at A in the afternoon.
+
+Thus everything depends upon the validity of the second assumption.
+And we must proceed to inquire what is the real meaning of the word
+"contemporaneous" as employed by geologists. To this end a concrete
+example may be taken.
+
+The Lias of England and the Lias of Germany, the Cretaceous rocks
+of Britain and the Cretaceous rocks of Southern India, are termed by
+geologists "contemporaneous" formations; but whenever any thoughtful
+geologist is asked whether he means to say that they were deposited
+synchronously, he says, "No,--only within the same great epoch." And if,
+in pursuing the inquiry, he is asked what may be the approximate value
+in time of a "great epoch"--whether it means a hundred years, or a
+thousand, or a million, or ten million years--his reply is, "I cannot
+tell."
+
+If the further question be put, whether physical geology is in
+possession of any method by which the actual synchrony (or the reverse)
+of any two distant deposits can be ascertained, no such method can be
+heard of; it being admitted by all the best authorities that neither
+similarity of mineral composition, nor of physical character, nor even
+direct continuity of stratum, are 'absolute' proofs of the synchronism
+of even approximated sedimentary strata: while, for distant deposits,
+there seems to be no kind of physical evidence attainable of a nature
+competent to decide whether such deposits were formed simultaneously, or
+whether they possess any given difference of antiquity. To return to an
+example already given: All competent authorities will probably assent to
+the proposition that physical geology does not enable us in any way to
+reply to this question--Were the British Cretaceous rocks deposited at
+the same time as those of India, or are they a million of years younger
+or a million of years older?
+
+Is paleontology able to succeed where physical geology fails? Standard
+writers on paleontology, as has been seen, assume that she can. They
+take it for granted, that deposits containing similar organic remains
+are synchronous--at any rate in a broad sense; and yet, those who will
+study the eleventh and twelfth chapters of Sir Henry De La Beche's
+remarkable 'Researches in Theoretical Geology', published now nearly
+thirty years ago, and will carry out the arguments there most luminously
+stated, to their logical consequences, may very easily convince
+themselves that even absolute identity of organic contents is no proof
+of the synchrony of deposits, while absolute diversity is no proof of
+difference of date. Sir Henry De La Beche goes even further, and adduces
+conclusive evidence to show that the different parts of one and the same
+stratum, having a similar composition throughout, containing the same
+organic remains, and having similar beds above and below it, may yet
+differ to any conceivable extent in age.
+
+Edward Forbes was in the habit of asserting that the similarity of the
+organic contents of distant formations was 'prima facie' evidence, not
+of their similarity, but of their difference of age; and holding as
+he did the doctrine of single specific centres, the conclusion was as
+legitimate as any other; for the two districts must have been occupied
+by migration from one of the two, or from an intermediate spot, and
+the chances against exact coincidence of migration and of imbedding are
+infinite.
+
+In point of fact, however, whether the hypothesis of single or of
+multiple specific centres be adopted, similarity of organic contents
+cannot possibly afford any proof of the synchrony of the deposits which
+contain them; on the contrary, it is demonstrably compatible with
+the lapse of the most prodigious intervals of time, and with the
+interposition of vast changes in the organic and inorganic worlds,
+between the epochs in which such deposits were formed.
+
+On what amount of similarity of their faunae is the doctrine of the
+contemporaneity of the European and of the North American Silurians
+based? In the last edition of Sir Charles Lyell's 'Elementary Geology'
+it is stated, on the authority of a former President of this Society,
+the late Daniel Sharpe, that between 30 and 40 per cent. of the species
+of Silurian Mollusca are common to both sides of the Atlantic. By way of
+due allowance for further discovery, let us double the lesser number
+and suppose that 60 per cent. of the species are common to the North
+American and the British Silurians. Sixty per cent. of species in common
+is, then, proof of contemporaneity.
+
+Now suppose that, a million or two of years hence, when Britain has
+made another dip beneath the sea and has come up again, some geologist
+applies this doctrine, in comparing the strata laid bare by the upheaval
+of the bottom, say, of St. George's Channel with what may then remain of
+the Suffolk Crag. Reasoning in the same way, he will at once decide the
+Suffolk Crag and the St. George's Channel beds to be contemporaneous;
+although we happen to know that a vast period (even in the geological
+sense) of time, and physical changes of almost unprecedented extent,
+separate the two.
+
+But if it be a demonstrable fact that strata containing more than 60 or
+70 per cent. of species of Mollusca in common, and comparatively
+close together, may yet be separated by an amount of geological time
+sufficient to allow of some of the greatest physical changes the world
+has seen, what becomes of that sort of contemporaneity the sole evidence
+of which is a similarity of facies, or the identity of half a dozen
+species, or of a good many genera?
+
+And yet there is no better evidence for the contemporaneity assumed
+by all who adopt the hypothesis of universal faunae and florae, of a
+universally uniform climate, and of a sensible cooling of the globe
+during geological time.
+
+There seems, then, no escape from the admission that neither physical
+geology, nor paleontology, possesses any method by which the absolute
+synchronism of two strata can be demonstrated. All that geology can
+prove is local order of succession. It is mathematically certain
+that, in any given vertical linear section of an undisturbed series of
+sedimentary deposits, the bed which lies lowest is the oldest. In
+many other vertical linear sections of the same series, of course,
+corresponding beds will occur in a similar order; but, however great may
+be the probability, no man can say with absolute certainty that the beds
+in the two sections were synchronously deposited. For areas of moderate
+extent, it is doubtless true that no practical evil is likely to result
+from assuming the corresponding beds to be synchronous or strictly
+contemporaneous; and there are multitudes of accessory circumstances
+which may fully justify the assumption of such synchrony. But the moment
+the geologist has to deal with large areas, or with completely separated
+deposits, the mischief of confounding that "homotaxis" or "similarity of
+arrangement," which 'can' be demonstrated, with "synchrony" or "identity
+of date," for which there is not a shadow of proof, under the one common
+term of "contemporaneity" becomes incalculable, and proves the constant
+source of gratuitous speculations.
+
+For anything that geology or paleontology are able to show to the
+contrary, a Devonian fauna and flora in the British Islands may have
+been contemporaneous with Silurian life in North America, and with a
+Carboniferous fauna and flora in Africa. Geographical provinces and
+zones may have been as distinctly marked in the Paleozoic epoch as
+at present, and those seemingly sudden appearances of new genera and
+species, which we ascribe to new creation, may be simple results of
+migration.
+
+It may be so; it may be otherwise. In the present condition of our
+knowledge and of our methods, one verdict--"not proven, and not
+provable"--must be recorded against all the grand hypotheses of the
+paleontologist respecting the general succession of life on the
+globe. The order and nature of terrestrial life, as a whole, are
+open questions. Geology at present provides us with most valuable
+topographical records, but she has not the means of working them into a
+universal history. Is such a universal history, then, to be regarded as
+unattainable? Are all the grandest and most interesting problems which
+offer themselves to the geological student essentially insoluble? Is he
+in the position of a scientific Tantalus--doomed always to thirst for
+a knowledge which he cannot obtain? The reverse is to be hoped; nay, it
+may not be impossible to indicate the source whence help will come.
+
+In commencing these remarks, mention was made of the great obligations
+under which the naturalist lies to the geologist and paleontologist.
+Assuredly the time will come when these obligations will be repaid
+tenfold, and when the maze of the world's past history, through which
+the pure geologist and the pure paleontologist find no guidance, will be
+securely threaded by the clue furnished by the naturalist.
+
+All who are competent to express an opinion on the subject are, at
+present, agreed that the manifold varieties of animal and vegetable
+form have not either come into existence by chance, nor result from
+capricious exertions of creative power; but that they have taken place
+in a definite order, the statement of which order is what men of
+science term a natural law. Whether such a law is to be regarded as an
+expression of the mode of operation of natural forces, or whether it
+is simply a statement of the manner in which a supernatural power has
+thought fit to act, is a secondary question, so long as the existence of
+the law and the possibility of its discovery by the human intellect are
+granted. But he must be a half-hearted philosopher who, believing
+in that possibility, and having watched the gigantic strides of the
+biological sciences during the last twenty years, doubts that science
+will sooner or later make this further step, so as to become possessed
+of the law of evolution of organic forms--of the unvarying order of that
+great chain of causes and effects of which all organic forms, ancient
+and modern, are the links. And then, if ever, we shall be able to begin
+to discuss, with profit, the questions respecting the commencement of
+life, and the nature of the successive populations of the globe, which
+so many seem to think are already answered.
+
+The preceding arguments make no particular claim to novelty; indeed
+they have been floating more or less distinctly before the minds of
+geologists for the last thirty years; and if, at the present time,
+it has seemed desirable to give them more definite and systematic
+expression, it is because paleontology is every day assuming a greater
+importance, and now requires to rest on a basis the firmness of which is
+thoroughly well assured. Among its fundamental conceptions, there
+must be no confusion between what is certain and what is more or less
+probable. [2] But, pending the construction of a surer foundation than
+paleontology now possesses, it may be instructive, assuming for the
+nonce the general correctness of the ordinary hypothesis of geological
+contemporaneity, to consider whether the deductions which are ordinarily
+drawn from the whole body of paleontologic facts are justifiable.
+
+The evidence on which such conclusions are based is of two kinds,
+negative and positive. The value of negative evidence, in connection
+with this inquiry, has been so fully and clearly discussed in an address
+from the chair of this Society [3], which none of us have forgotten,
+that nothing need at present be said about it; the more, as the
+considerations which have been laid before you have certainly not tended
+to increase your estimation of such evidence. It will be preferable to
+turn to the positive facts of paleontology, and to inquire what they
+tell us.
+
+We are all accustomed to speak of the number and the extent of the
+changes in the living population of the globe during geological time
+as something enormous: and indeed they are so, if we regard only the
+negative differences which separate the older rocks from the more
+modern, and if we look upon specific and generic changes as great
+changes, which from one point of view, they truly are. But leaving
+the negative differences out of consideration, and looking only at the
+positive data furnished by the fossil world from a broader point of
+view--from that of the comparative anatomist who has made the study of
+the greater modifications of animal form his chief business--a surprise
+of another kind dawns upon the mind; and under 'this' aspect the
+smallness of the total change becomes as astonishing as was its
+greatness under the other.
+
+There are two hundred known orders of plants; of these not one is
+certainly known to exist exclusively in the fossil state. The whole
+lapse of geological time has as yet yielded not a single new ordinal
+type of vegetable structure. [4]
+
+The positive change in passing from the recent to the ancient animal
+world is greater, but still singularly small. No fossil animal is so
+distinct from those now living as to require to be arranged even in a
+separate class from those which contain existing forms. It is only when
+we come to the orders, which may be roughly estimated at about a hundred
+and thirty, that we meet with fossil animals so distinct from those now
+living as to require orders for themselves; and these do not amount, on
+the most liberal estimate, to more than about 10 per cent. of the whole.
+
+There is no certainly known extinct order of Protozoa; there is but one
+among the Coelenterata--that of the rugose corals; there is none
+among the Mollusca; there are three, the Cystidea, Blastoidea, and
+Edrioasterida, among the Echinoderms; and two, the Trilobita and
+Eurypterida, among the Crustacea; making altogether five for the
+great sub-kingdom of Annulosa. Among Vertebrates there is no ordinally
+distinct fossil fish: there is only one extinct order of Amphibia--the
+Labyrinthodonts; but there are at least four distinct orders of
+Reptilia, viz. the Ichthyosauria, Plesiosauria, Pterosauria, Dinosauria,
+and perhaps another or two. There is no known extinct order of
+Birds, and no certainly known extinct order of Mammals, the ordinal
+distinctness of the "Toxodontia" being doubtful.
+
+The objection that broad statements of this kind, after all, rest
+largely on negative evidence is obvious, but it has less force than may
+at first be supposed; for, as might be expected from the circumstances
+of the case, we possess more abundant positive evidence regarding Fishes
+and marine Mollusks than respecting any other forms of animal life;
+and yet these offer us, through the whole range of geological time, no
+species ordinally distinct from those now living; while the far less
+numerous class of Echinoderms presents three; and the Crustacea two,
+such orders, though none of these come down later than the Paleozoic
+age. Lastly, the Reptilia present the extraordinary and exceptional
+phenomenon of as many extinct as existing orders, if not more; the
+four mentioned maintaining their existence from the Lias to the Chalk
+inclusive.
+
+Some years ago one of your Secretaries pointed out another kind
+of positive paleontologic evidence tending towards the same
+conclusion--afforded by the existence of what he termed "persistent
+types" of vegetable and of animal life. [5] He stated, on the authority
+of Dr. Hooker, that there are Carboniferous plants which appear to be
+generically identical with some now living; that the cone of the Oolitic
+'Araucaria' is hardly distinguishable from that of an existing species;
+that a true 'Pinus' appears in the Purbecks, and a 'Juglans' in the
+Chalk; while, from the Bagshot Sands, a 'Banksia', the wood of which is
+not distinguishable from that of species now living in Australia, had
+been obtained.
+
+Turning to the animal kingdom, he affirmed the tabulate corals of the
+Silurian rocks to be wonderfully like those which now exist; while even
+the families of the Aporosa were all represented in the older Mesozoic
+rocks.
+
+Among the Molluska similar facts were adduced. Let it be borne in mind
+that 'Avicula', 'Mytails', 'Chiton', 'Natica', 'Patella', 'Trochus',
+'Discina', 'Orbicula', 'Lingula', 'Rhynchonella', and 'Nautilus', all
+of which are existing 'genera', are given without a doubt as Silurian
+in the last edition of 'Siluria'; while the highest forms of the highest
+Cephalopods are represented in the Lias by a genus, 'Belemnoteuthis',
+which presents the closest relation to the existing 'Loligo'.
+
+The two highest groups of the Annulosa, the Insecta and the Arachnida,
+are represented in the Coal, either by existing genera, or by forms
+differing from existing genera in quite minor peculiarities.
+
+Turning to the Vertebrata, the only Paleozoic Elasmobranch Fish of
+which we have any complete knowledge is the Devonian and Carboniferous
+'Pleuracanthus', which differs no more from existing Sharks than these
+do from one another.
+
+Again, vast as is the number of undoubtedly Ganoid fossil Fishes, and
+great as is their range in time, a large mass of evidence has recently
+been adduced to show that almost all those respecting which we possess
+sufficient information, are referable to the same sub-ordinal groups
+as the existing 'Lepidosteus', 'Polypterus', and Sturgeon; and that a
+singular relation obtains between the older and the younger Fishes;
+the former, the Devonian Ganoids, being almost all members of the same
+sub-order as 'Polypterus', while the Mesozoic Ganoids are almost all
+similarly allied to 'Lepidosteus'. [6]
+
+Again, what can be more remarkable than the singular constancy of
+structure preserved throughout a vast period of time by the family
+of the Pycnodonts and by that of the true Coelacanths; the former
+persisting, with but insignificant modifications, from the Carboniferous
+to the Tertiary rocks, inclusive; the latter existing, with still less
+change, from the Carboniferous rocks to the Chalk, inclusive?
+
+Among Reptiles, the highest living group, that of the Crocodilia,
+is represented, at the early part of the Mesozoic epoch, by species
+identical in the essential characters of their organization with those
+now living, and differing from the latter only in such matters as the
+form of the articular facets of the vertebral centra, in the extent to
+which the nasal passages are separated from the cavity of the mouth by
+bone, and in the proportions of the limbs.
+
+And even as regards the Mammalia, the scanty remains of Triassic and
+Oolitic species afford no foundation for the supposition that the
+organization of the oldest forms differed nearly so much from some of
+those which now live as these differ from one another.
+
+It is needless to multiply these instances; enough has been said to
+justify the statement that, in view of the immense diversity of known
+animal and vegetable forms, and the enormous lapse of time indicated by
+the accumulation of fossiliferous strata, the only circumstance to be
+wondered at is, not that the changes of life, as exhibited by positive
+evidence, have been so great, but that they have been so small.
+
+Be they great or small, however, it is desirable to attempt to estimate
+them. Let us, therefore, take each great division of the animal world in
+succession, and, whenever an order or a family can be shown to have had
+a prolonged existence, let us endeavour to ascertain how far the later
+members of the group differ from the earlier ones. If these later
+members, in all or in many cases, exhibit a certain amount of
+modification, the fact is, so far, evidence in favour of a general law
+of change; and, in a rough way, the rapidity of that change will be
+measured by the demonstrable amount of modification. On the other hand,
+it must be recollected that the absence of any modification, while
+it may leave the doctrine of the existence of a law of change without
+positive support, cannot possibly disprove all forms of that doctrine,
+though it may afford a sufficient refutation of any of them.
+
+The PROTOZOA.--The Protozoa are represented throughout the whole range
+of geological series, from the Lower Silurian formation to the present
+day. The most ancient forms recently made known by Ehrenberg are
+exceedingly like those which now exist: no one has ever pretended that
+the difference between any ancient and any modern Foraminifera is of
+more than generic value, nor are the oldest Foraminifera either simpler,
+more embryonic, or less differentiated, than the existing forms.
+
+The COELENTERATA.--The Tabulate Corals have existed from the Silurian
+epoch to the present day, but I am not aware that the ancient
+'Heliolites' possesses a single mark of a more embryonic or less
+differentiated character, or less high organization, than the existing
+'Heliopora'. As for the Aporose Corals, in what respect is the Silurian
+'Paleocyclus' less highly organized or more embryonic than the modern
+'Fungia', or the Liassic Aporosa than the existing members of the same
+families?
+
+The 'Mollusca'.--In what sense is the living 'Waldheimia' less
+embryonic, or more specialized; than the paleozoic 'Spirifer'; or the
+existing 'Rhynchonellae', 'Craniae', 'Discinae', 'Lingulae', than the
+Silurian species of the same genera? In what sense can 'Loligo' or
+'Spirula' be said to be more specialized, or less embryonic, than
+'Belemnites'; or the modern species of Lamellibranch and Gasteropod
+genera, than the Silurian species of the same genera?
+
+The ANNULOSA.--The Carboniferous Insecta and Arachnida are neither less
+specialized, nor more embryonic, than these that now live, nor are the
+Liassic Cirripedia and Macrura; while several of the Brachyura, which
+appear in the Chalk, belong to existing genera; and none exhibit either
+an intermediate, or an embryonic, character.
+
+The VERTEBRARA.--Among fishes I have referred to the Coelacanthini
+(comprising the genera 'Coelacanthus', 'Holophagus', 'Undina', and
+'Macropoma') as affording an example of a persistent type; and it is
+most remarkable to note the smallness of the differences between any of
+these fishes (affecting at most the proportions of the body and fins,
+and the character and sculpture of the scales), notwithstanding their
+enormous range in time. In all the essentials of its very peculiar
+structure, the 'Macropoma' of the Chalk is identical with the
+'Coelacanthus' of the Coal. Look at the genus 'Lepidotus', again,
+persisting without a modification of importance from the Liassic to the
+Eocene formations inclusive.
+
+Or among the Teleostei--in what respect is the 'Beryx' of the Chalk
+more embryonic, or less differentiated, than 'Beryx lineatus' of King
+George's Sound?
+
+Or to turn to the higher Vertebrata--in what sense are the Liassic
+Chelonia inferior to those which now exist? How are the Cretaceous
+Ichthyosauria, Plesiosauria, or Pterosauria less embryonic, or more
+differentiated, species than those of the Lias?
+
+Or lastly, in what circumstance is the 'Phascolotherium' more
+embryonic, or of a more generalized type, than the modern Opossum; or a
+'Lophiodon', or a 'Paleotherium', than a modern 'Tapirus' or 'Hyrax'?
+
+These examples might be almost indefinitely multiplied, but surely they
+are sufficient to prove that the only safe and unquestionable testimony
+we can procure--positive evidence--fails to demonstrate any sort of
+progressive modification towards a less embryonic, or less generalised,
+type in a great many groups of animals of long-continued geological
+existence. In these groups there is abundant evidence of variation--none
+of what is ordinarily understood as progression; and, if the known
+geological record is to be regarded as even any considerable fragment
+of the whole, it is inconceivable that any theory of a necessarily
+progressive development can stand, for the numerous orders and families
+cited afford no trace of such a process.
+
+But it is a most remarkable fact, that, while the groups which have
+been mentioned, and many besides, exhibit no sign of progressive
+modification, there are others, co-existing with them, under the same
+conditions, in which more or less distinct indications of such a process
+seems to be traceable. Among such indications I may remind you of the
+predominance of Holostome Gasteropoda in the older rocks as compared
+with that of Siphonostome Gasteropoda in the later. A case less open
+to the objection of negative evidence, however, is that afforded by the
+Tetrabranchiate Cephalopoda, the forms of the shells and of the septal
+sutures exhibiting a certain increase of complexity in the newer genera.
+Here, however, one is met at once with the occurrence of 'Orthoceras'
+and 'Baculites' at the two ends of the series, and of the fact that one
+of the simplest Genera, 'Nautilus', is that which now exists.
+
+The Crinoidea, in the abundance of stalked forms in the ancient
+formations as compared with their present rarity, seem to present us
+with a fair case of modification from a more embryonic towards a less
+embryonic condition. But then, on careful consideration of the facts,
+the objection arises that the stalk, calyx, and arms of the paleozoic
+Crinoid are exceedingly different from the corresponding organs of a
+larval 'Comatula'; and it might with perfect justice be argued that
+'Actinocrinus' and 'Eucalyptocrinus', for example, depart to the full
+as widely, in one direction, from the stalked embryo of 'Comatula', as
+'Comatula' itself does in the other.
+
+The Echinidea, again, are frequently quoted as exhibiting a gradual
+passage from a more generalized to a more specialized type, seeing
+that the elongated, or oval, Spatangoids appear after the spheroidal
+Echinoids. But here it might be argued, on the other hand, that the
+spheroidal Echinoids, in reality, depart further from the general plan
+and from the embryonic form than the elongated Spatangoids do; and that
+the peculiar dental apparatus and the pedicellariae of the former are
+marks of at least as great differentiation as the petaloid ambulacra and
+semitae of the latter.
+
+Once more, the prevalence of Macrurous before Brachyurous Podophthalmia
+is, apparently, a fair piece of evidence in favour of progressive
+modification in the same order of Crustacea; and yet the case will not
+stand much sifting, seeing that the Macrurous Podophthalmia depart as
+far in one direction from the common type of Podophthalmia, or from any
+embryonic condition of the Brachyura, as the Brachyura do in the
+other; and that the middle terms between Macrura and Brachyura--the
+Anomura--are little better represented in the older Mesozoic rocks than
+the Brachyura are.
+
+None of the cases of progressive modification which are cited from
+among the Invertebrata appear to me to have a foundation less open to
+criticism than these; and if this be so, no careful reasoner would,
+I think, be inclined to lay very great stress upon them. Among the
+Vertebrata, however, there are a few examples which appear to be far
+less open to objection.
+
+It is, in fact, true of several groups of Vertebrata which have lived
+through a considerable range of time, that the endoskeleton (more
+particularly the spinal column) of the older genera presents a less
+ossified, and, so far, less differentiated, condition than that of the
+younger genera. Thus the Devonian Ganoids, though almost all members of
+the same sub-order as 'Polypterus', and presenting numerous important
+resemblances to the existing genus, which possesses biconcave vertebrae,
+are, for the most part, wholly devoid of ossified vertebral centra. The
+Mesozoic Lepidosteidae, again, have, at most, biconcave vertebrae, while
+the existing 'Lepidosteus' has Salamandroid, opisthocoelous, vertebrae.
+So, none of the Paleozoic Sharks have shown themselves to be possessed
+of ossified vertebrae, while the majority of modern Sharks possess
+such vertebrae. Again, the more ancient Crocodilia and Lacertilia
+have vertebrae with the articular facets of their centra flattened
+or biconcave, while the modern members of the same group have them
+procoelous. But the most remarkable examples of progressive modification
+of the vertebral column, in correspondence with geological age, are
+those afforded by the Pycnodonts among fish, and the Labyrinthodonts
+among Amphibia.
+
+The late able ichthyologist Heckel pointed out the fact, that, while
+the Pycnodonts never possess true vertebral centra, they differ in the
+degree of expansion and extension of the ends of the bony arches of
+the vertebrae upon the sheath of the notochord; the Carboniferous forms
+exhibiting hardly any such expansion, while the Mesozoic genera present
+a greater and greater development, until, in the Tertiary forms, the
+expanded ends become suturally united so as to form a sort of false
+vertebra. Hermann von Meyer, again, to whose luminous researches we
+are indebted for our present large knowledge of the organization of the
+older Labyrinthodonts, has proved that the Carboniferous 'Archegosaurus'
+had very imperfectly developed vertebral centra, while the Triassic
+'Mastodonsaurus' had the same parts completely ossified. [7]
+
+The regularity and evenness of the dentition of the 'Anoplotherium', as
+contrasted with that of existing Artiodactyles, and the assumed nearer
+approach of the dentition of certain ancient Carnivores to the typical
+arrangement, have also been cited as exemplifications of a law of
+progressive development, but I know of no other cases based on positive
+evidence which are worthy of particular notice.
+
+What, then, does an impartial survey of the positively ascertained
+truths of paleontology testify in relation to the common doctrines of
+progressive modification, which suppose that modification to have taken
+place by a necessary progress from more to less embryonic forms, or
+from more to less generalized types, within the limits of the period
+represented by the fossiliferous rocks?
+
+It negatives those doctrines; for it either shows us no evidence of any
+such modification, or demonstrates it to have been very slight; and as
+to the nature of that modification, it yields no evidence whatsoever
+that the earlier members of any long-continued group were more
+generalized in structure than the later ones. To a certain extent,
+indeed, it may be said that imperfect ossification of the vertebral
+column is an embryonic character; but, on the other hand, it would be
+extremely incorrect to suppose that the vertebral columns of the older
+Vertebrata are in any sense embryonic in their whole structure.
+
+Obviously, if the earliest fossiliferous rocks now known are coeval
+with the commencement of life, and if their contents give us any just
+conception of the nature and the extent of the earliest fauna and flora,
+the insignificant amount of modification which can be demonstrated
+to have taken place in any one group of animals, or plants, is quite
+incompatible with the hypothesis that all living forms are the results
+of a necessary process of progressive development, entirely comprised
+within the time represented by the fossiliferous rocks.
+
+Contrariwise, any admissible hypothesis of progressive modification must
+be compatible with persistence without progression, through indefinite
+periods. And should such an hypothesis eventually be proved to be true,
+in the only way in which it can be demonstrated, viz. by observation
+and experiment upon the existing forms of life, the conclusion will
+inevitably present itself, that the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cainozoic
+faunae and florae, taken together, bear somewhat the same proportion to
+the whole series of living beings which have occupied this globe, as the
+existing fauna and flora do to them.
+
+Such are the results of paleontology as they appear, and have for some
+years appeared, to the mind of an inquirer who regards that study simply
+as one of the applications of the great biological sciences, and who
+desires to see it placed upon the same sound basis as other branches of
+physical inquiry. If the arguments which have been brought forward are
+valid, probably no one, in view of the present state of opinion, will
+be inclined to think the time wasted which has been spent upon their
+elaboration.
+
+
+
+
+
+[Footnote 1: The Anniversary Address to the Geological Society for
+1862.]
+
+[Footnote 2: "le plus grand service qu'on puisse rendre a la science est
+d'y faire place nette avant d'y rien construire."--CUVIER]
+
+[Footnote 3: Anniversary Address for 1851, 'Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.'
+vol. vii.]
+
+[Footnote 4: See Hooker's 'Introductory Essay to the Flora of Tasmania',
+p. xxiii.]
+
+[Footnote 5: See the abstract of a Lecture "On the Persistent Types of
+Animal Life," in the 'Notices of the Meetings of the Royal Institution
+of Great Britain'.--June 3, 1859, vol. iii. p. 151.
+
+[Footnote 6: "Memoirs of the Geological Survey of the United
+Kingdom.--Decade x. Preliminary Essay upon the Systematic Arrangement of
+the Fishes of the Devonian Epoch."]
+
+[Footnote 7: As the Address is passing through the press (March 7,
+1862), evidence lies before me of the existence of a new Labyrinthodont
+('Pholidogaster'), from the Edinburgh coal-field, with well-ossified
+vertebral centra.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Geological Contemporaneity and
+Persistent Types of Life, by Thomas H. Huxley
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