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diff --git a/29385.txt b/29385.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f46792e --- /dev/null +++ b/29385.txt @@ -0,0 +1,21270 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Story of the Great War, Volume VI (of +VIII), by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Story of the Great War, Volume VI (of VIII) + History of the European War from Official Sources + +Author: Various + +Editor: Francis J. Reynolds + Allen L. Churchill + Francis T. Miller + +Release Date: July 12, 2009 [EBook #29385] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF THE GREAT WAR *** + + + + +Produced by Charlene Taylor, Christine P. Travers and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net +(This file was produced from images generously made +available by The Internet Archive) + + + + + +[Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected. +Hyphenation and accentuation have been standardised, all other +inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling has been +maintained. + +Page 382: Words are missing in the sentence "The genuine leaders of +the Socialists should [...] the labor organizations realized +immediately the policy which the dark forces were initiating." The +place is marked with [see TN].] + + + + +THE STORY OF THE GREAT WAR + + History of the European War from Official Sources + + Complete Historical Records of Events to Date, + Illustrated with Drawings, Maps, and Photographs + + Prefaced by + + What the War Means to America + Major General Leonard Wood, U.S.A. + + Naval Lessons of the War + Rear Admiral Austin M. Knight, U.S.N. + + The World's War + Frederick Palmer + + Theatres of the War's Campaigns + Frank H. Simonds + + The War Correspondent + Arthur Ruhl + + Edited by + + Francis J. Reynolds + Former Reference Librarian of Congress + + Allen L. Churchill + Associate Editor, The New International Encyclopedia + + Francis Trevelyan Miller + Editor in Chieft, Photographic History of the Civil War + + P. F. Collier & Son Company + New York + + +[Illustration: _Major General John J. Pershing, appointed to organize +and command the American forces in France, is shown landing in France +on June 12, 1917. French officers and officials of high rank are there +to welcome him. His arrival is recognized as an epoch-making date in +the war, for it foreshadows the creation of a great American Army in +France._] + + +THE STORY OF THE GREAT WAR + + SOMME . RUSSIAN DRIVE + FALL OF GORITZ . RUMANIA + GERMAN RETREAT . VIMY + REVOLUTION IN RUSSIA + UNITED STATES AT WAR + + +VOLUME VI + +P . F . Collier & Son . New York + + Copyright 1916 + By P. F. Collier & Son + + + + +CONTENTS + + +PART I.--WESTERN FRONT--SOMME AND VERDUN + +CHAPTER Page + + I. French and British Advances 9 + + II. Further Successes--French Capture Maurepas 13 + + III. German Counterattacks 16 + + IV. Operations at Verdun--British Victories in the Somme 19 + + V. The "Tanks"--British Capture Martinpuich 21 + + VI. Capture of Combles--Air Raids 25 + + VII. British Capture Eaucourt L'Abbaye-Regina Trench 28 + + VIII. Continued Allied Advance 31 + + IX. French Retake Douaumont 34 + + X. Germans Lose Fort Vaux--French Take Saillisel 37 + + XI. British Successes in the Ancre 41 + + XII. Operations on the French Front--Further Fighting in + the Ancre 47 + + XIII. Weather Conditions--Movements Around Loos 51 + + XIV. French Win at Verdun 53 + + XV. Canadians at Arras--Nivelle in Command 55 + + XVI. German Attacks at Verdun--Result of Six Months' Fighting 58 + + XVII. German Attack on Hill 304--British Surprise Attack 61 + + +PART II.--EASTERN FRONT + + XVIII. The New Drive Against Lemberg 70 + + XIX. The Battle on the Stokhod River 76 + + XX. Renewed Drive Against Lemberg 81 + + XXI. The Fighting from Riga to Lutsk 86 + + XXII. Fighting in the Carpathians 90 + + XXIII. Winter at the Eastern Front 93 + + +PART III.--THE BALKANS + + XXIV. Rumania's Military Strength 95 + + XXV. Hostilities Begin 96 + + XXVI. Bulgaria Attacks 98 + + XXVII. The Germans Arrive 103 + + XXVIII. The Rumanian Raid Across the Danube 106 + + XXIX. Mackensen Pressed Back 111 + + XXX. The Rumanians Pressed Back 113 + + XXXI. The Battle of the River Argechu 117 + + XXXII. Bucharest Falls 119 + + XXXIII. Sarrail's Offensive 124 + + XXXIV. Unrest in Greece 126 + + XXXV. A Greek Army Surrenders to Germany 129 + + XXXVI. The Serbians Advance 132 + + XXXVII. The Greeks on the Firing Line 134 + + XXXVIII. Seizure of the Greek Fleet 136 + + XXXIX. The Bulgarians Driven Back 138 + + XL. Monastir Falls 140 + + XLI. Greek Fights Greek 143 + + XLII. Fighting in the Streets of Athens 145 + + XLIII. The Serbians Checked 148 + + +PART IV.--AUSTRO-ITALIAN FRONT + + XLIV. The Fall of Goritz 149 + + XLV. Fall and Winter on the Austro-Italian Front 153 + + XLVI. Fighting on Mountain Peaks 159 + + +PART V.--WAR IN THE AIR AND ON THE SEA + + XLVII. Aeroplane Warfare 168 + + XLVIII. Zeppelin Raids 176 + + XLIX. Submarine Warfare 182 + + +PART VI.--THE UNITED STATES AND THE BELLIGERENTS + + L. The Old Menace 189 + + LI. The U-53's Exploits 194 + + LII. Gathering Clouds 200 + + LIII. Rupture With Germany 205 + + LIV. Nothing Settled 212 + + +PART VII.--WESTERN FRONT + + LV. The German Retreat on the Ancre 217 + + LVI. The German Retreat Continues--French Recover 120 Towns 227 + + LVII. The British Troops Capture Vimy Ridge and Monchy--French + Victories on the Aisne 239 + + LVIII. French Victories in Champagne--The British Capture + Bullecourt 252 + + LIX. The Battle of Messines Ridge--British Smash the + German Salient South of Ypres 263 + + LX. The Germans Defeat British on Belgian Coast--Intense + Fighting in the Champagne and at Verdun 276 + + +PART VIII.--THE UNITED STATES AND GERMANY + + LXI. The Interim 291 + + LXII. Berlin's Tactics 297 + + LXIII. Armed Neutrality 304 + + LXIV. Germany's Bid to Mexico 312 + + LXV. A State of War 317 + + LXVI. Building the War Machine 328 + + LXVII. Men and Money in Millions 344 + + LXVIII. Envoys from America's Allies 351 + + LXIX. In It at Last 356 + + +PART IX.--THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION + + LXX. Foreshadowing Revolution 363 + + LXXI. The Rise of Nihilism 365 + + LXXII. Revolutionary Doctrines 367 + + LXXIII. Russian War Spirit Aroused 372 + + LXXIV. Rasputin, the Evil Spirit of Russia 374 + + LXXV. Treachery of the Autocracy 378 + + LXXVI. Party Intrigues 380 + + LXXVII. The Work of Traitors 383 + + LXXVIII. Threatening of the Storm 386 + + LXXIX. Revolution 389 + + LXXX. The Culmination 392 + + LXXXI. The New Government 395 + + LXXXII. The Czar Abdicates 400 + + LXXXIII. First Acts of the New Regime 404 + + LXXXIV. Socialism Supreme 406 + + LXXXV. Policies Proclaimed 409 + + LXXXVI. Kerensky Saves Russia from Herself 412 + + LXXXVII. The American Commissions 416 + + +PART X.--EASTERN FRONT + + LXXXVIII. The End of Winter at the Eastern Front 421 + + LXXXIX. Effects of the Russian Revolution 424 + + XC. The Beginning of Russian Rehabilitation 428 + + XCI. The Russian July Offensive 433 + + XCII. The Capture of Halicz and Kalusz 436 + + XCIII. The Collapse of the Russian Offensive 440 + + XCIV. The Russian Rout in Galicia and the Bukowina 445 + + +PART XI.--AUSTRO-ITALIAN FRONT + + XCV. Stalemate on the Italian Fronts 452 + + XCVI. Spring on the Austro-Italian Front 457 + + XCVII. The Italian Drive Against Trieste 462 + + XCVIII. The Height of the Italian Offensive 468 + + +PART XII.--WAR ON THE SEA + + XCIX. Submarine Warfare 475 + + C. Naval Operations 480 + + +PART XIII.--WAR IN THE AIR + + CI. Aerial Warfare 485 + + CII. Air Raids 492 + + + INDEX 495 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + + General Pershing Landing at Boulogne, France _Frontispiece_ + + Opposite Page + + Sir Douglas Haig and Marshal Joffre 30 + + Notice Posted in French Munitions Works 62 + + General von Mackensen in Rumania 110 + + British Armored Motor Car, or "Tank" 222 + + Curtain or Barrage Fire 286 + + Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States 302 + + American Naval Gunners Fighting Submarines 350 + + A. F. Kerensky Addressing Russian Troops 430 + + + + +LIST OF MAPS + + Page + Battle Lines on All Fronts, August 1, 1917 + (_Colored Map_) _Front Insert_ + + Verdun Front, February 1, 1917 38 + + Allies' Gain at the Somme, up to February, 1917 66 + + Attack in the Riga Sector 87 + + Teutonic Invasion of Rumania 104 + + New German Submarine War Zone of February 1, 1917 207 + + The Entire Western Front, August 1, 1917 220 + + The German Retreat on the Western Front, March 18, 1917 233 + + Taking of Vimy Ridge by the Canadians, April 9 and 10, 1917 240 + + The French Offensive on the Craonne Plateau, Champagne 257 + + The Taking of Messines Ridge, June 7, 1917 266 + + The Somme Battle Front, August 1, 1917 283 + + The Russian Offensive and Retreat in Galicia 446 + + The Entire Eastern Battle Front, August 1, 1917 450 + + + + +PART I--WESTERN FRONT--SOMME AND VERDUN + + + + +CHAPTER I + +FRENCH AND BRITISH ADVANCES + + +The first month of the Allied offensive on the Somme front closed +quietly. The British and French forces had every reason to feel +encouraged over their successes. In the two thrusts since July 1, +1916, they had won from the Germans nearly twenty-four square miles of +territory. Considering the extent to which every fraction of a mile +was fortified and defended, and the thoroughness of the German +preparations to make the district impregnable, the Allied gains were +important. As a British officer said at the time, it was like digging +badgers out of holes--with the proviso that every badger had machine +guns and rifles at the hole's mouth, while the approach to each was +swept by the fire from a dozen neighboring earthworks. + +It was estimated that in the first month of the Allied offensive on +the Somme the German casualties amounted to about 200,000 men, while +the Anglo-French forces lost less than a fourth of that number. The +Allies claimed to have captured about 13,000 prisoners and between +sixty and seventy field guns, exclusive of machine guns and the +smaller artillery. + +With the capture of Pozieres it might be said that the second phase of +the Battle of the Somme was concluded. The Allied forces were well +established on the line to which the second main "push" which began +July 14, 1916, was directed. + +During the first three days of August, 1916, comparative quiet +prevailed along the Somme front, and no important offensive was +attempted by either side. Minor fighting continued, however, every +day, and during the nights the English positions were heavily +bombarded by the German guns. + +On the night of August 4, 1916, the British assumed the offensive, +advancing from Pozieres on a front of 2,000 yards. The attack, which +seems to have taken the Germans by surprise, was entirely successful, +as the British troops gained 1,000 yards of the German second line and +captured over 400 prisoners. This second line consisted of two +strongly fortified trenches running parallel, which were backed by a +network of supporting and intermediate trenches, all strongly +constructed, with deep dugouts and cunningly devised machinery of +defense. When the Australians made the thrust forward from Pozieres +while the British cooperated on the left over the ground to the east +of the village, they found when going over the enemy trenches that in +many places the British guns had wrecked and almost obliterated the +German second lines. After the British advance the Germans launched +two spirited counterattacks, which were easily repulsed by the British +artillery. The British casualties were unimportant, but the troops +suffered intensely from the heat of the evening and from the gas masks +that they were forced to wear, as previous to the attack the Germans +had bombarded with gas shells. + +Minor fighting and artillery duels continued intermittently until the +morning of August 6, 1916, when the Germans delivered two fierce +attacks on the ground gained by the British east of Pozieres. The +Germans, employing liquid fire in one attack, forced the British back +from one of the trenches they had captured on August 4, 1916, but part +of this was later regained. The following day the Germans continued +their attacks north and northeast of Pozieres on the new British +lines. After heavy bombardment of the British positions, the Germans +penetrated their trenches, but were forced out again, having suffered +some casualties and leaving a number of prisoners in British hands. In +front of Souchez the Germans exploded a mine, and here some of their +troops succeeded in entering the English trenches over the crater, +but were quickly bombed out again. + +On the same date late in the afternoon the French forces to the north +of the Somme carried out a well-planned attack which resulted in the +capture of a line of German trenches between the Hem Wood and the +river. The French took 120 prisoners and a number of machine guns. + +On August 8, 1916, the British positions north and east of Pozieres +were heavily bombarded by German artillery. In the evening of the same +date British troops pushing forward engaged the enemy near the station +of Guillemont. A bomb attack made by the Germans on the eastern +portion of the Leipzig salient south of Thiepval was driven back with +some casualties. Two British raiding parties about the same time +succeeded in entering the German lines north of Roclincourt and blew +up some dugouts. On this date a squadron of ten German aeroplanes +endeavored to cross the British lines on a bombing expedition, but +were driven off by four British offensive patrols. Two of the German +aeroplanes were forced to descend behind their own lines, while the +others were scattered and did not return to attack. In the evening of +the same day the Germans made four attacks on the British lines to the +northwest of Pozieres, and in one were successful in occupying a +portion of a British trench. + +During this day the French north of the Somme, while the British were +fighting at Guillemont, advanced east of Hill 139, north of +Hardecourt, and took forty prisoners. The Germans, making two attempts +to recapture the trenches won from them by the French on the previous +day, were beaten back, leaving a great number of dead on the field. In +the evening French troops captured a small wood and a heavily +fortified trench to the north of the Hem Wood, making their gains for +the two days, an entire line of German trenches on a front of three +and three-quarter miles and a depth of from 330 to 350 yards. + +In the battered and shell-pitted region to the northwest of Pozieres +fighting between the British and German troops continued unceasingly. +The slight gains made by the British troops were won only by the +greatest risk and daring, for the whole plateau between Thiepval and +Pozieres (about 3,000 yards) lay open to the German fire from the +former place. A great part of it could be reached by machine guns, +while German batteries at Courcelette and Grandcourt commanded the +ground at close range. A network of German trenches, well planned, +stretched in almost every direction. Flares and shell fire made the +region as bright as day during the night, and it was only by rushing a +trench from saps made within a few feet of the objectives or by +breaking into a trench and bombing along it that the British were able +to achieve any small gains. And gains were made on this terrible +terrain daily, though only a few yards might be won, and a dozen or +more prisoners captured. + +The British attack on the Germans around Guillemont, which took place +as previously noted on August 8, 1916, was at first successful. A +section of the troops carried some trenches, and then pushing on +gained a useful piece of ground south of Guillemont with few +casualties. Another (the left) section of British troops were unable +to proceed farther on account of the darkness. Another section, owing +to miscalculation, swept through the German trenches straight into the +village of Guillemont, where they lost their direction amid the ruins +and confusion. Working their way through the shattered streets they +proceeded to dig themselves in when they had reached the far northeast +corner of the place. With enemies all around them, and the breadth of +the ruined village between them and their friends, the adventure could +have but one conclusion. A few of the men succeeded in getting back to +the British lines, but the remainder fell into the hands of the +enemy. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +FURTHER SUCCESSES--FRENCH CAPTURE MAUREPAS + + +In the morning of August 11, 1916, after the usual preparatory +bombardment, French troops carried the whole of the third German +position north of the Somme from the river northeast of +Hardecourt--that is to say, on a front of about four miles and to an +average depth of about a mile. This third German position consisted of +three, and in some places of four, lines of trenches strongly defended +and with the usual trench blockhouses. The French attacked in force +along the whole front, and in eighty minutes, according to the +description given in French newspapers, carried the German position at +a small cost in casualties compared with results. The Germans fought +bravely and stubbornly, but the French artillery did such effective +work before the advance attack that in the hand-to-hand conflicts that +followed the French troops readily overcame the enemy. A Bavarian +battalion which garrisoned a blockhouse on Hill 109 offered such a +determined resistance that when the victorious French finally entered +the work they found only 200 of the garrison alive. + +In the afternoon of the same day, August 11, 1916, French forces north +of the Somme took several German trenches by assault and established +their new line on the saddle to the north of Maurepas and along the +road leading from the village to Hem. A strongly fortified quarry to +the north of Hem Wood and two small woods were also occupied by the +French troops. During the course of the action in this district they +took 150 unwounded prisoners and ten machine guns. + +British air squadrons numbering sixty-eight machines on August 12, +1916, bombed airship sheds at Brussels and Namur, and railway sidings +and stations at Mons, Namur, Busigny, and Courtrai. Of the British +machines engaged in these attacks, all but two returned safely. In +the evening of the same day the British forces attacked the third +German position which extended from the east of Hardecourt to the +Somme east of Buscourt. On this front of about four miles the British +infantry carried the trench and works of the Germans to a depth of +from 660 to 1,100 yards. To the northwest of Pozieres the British +gained 300 to 400 yards on a front of a mile, and also captured +trenches on the plateau northwest of Bazentin-le-Petit. + +The French continued to make appreciable gains south of the Somme, +carrying portions of trenches and taking some prisoners. The new +British front to the west of Pozieres was repeatedly attacked and +bombarded by the Germans, and on August 15, 1916, they succeeded in +recapturing trenches they had lost two days before. But they were +unable to hold their gains for more than a day, when the British drove +them out and consolidated the position. + +During the afternoon and evening of August 16, 1916, German and French +to the north and south of the Somme engaged in heavy bombardments. At +Verdun the German lines were forced back close to Fleury, the French +taking enemy trenches and smashing a counterattack with their +artillery. + +On the afternoon of August 17, 1916, there was hard fighting along the +whole Somme front from Pozieres to the river. The British gained +ground toward Ginchy and Guillemont and took over 200 prisoners, +including some officers. During the night the Germans delivered +repeated attacks against the positions the British had captured, but +only in one instance did they succeed in winning back a little ground. + +On August 18, 1916, the British continued to add to their gains, +advancing on a front of more than two miles for a distance of between +200 and 600 yards. As a result of these operations carried out along +the British front from Thiepval to their right, south of Guillemont, a +distance of eleven miles, was the gain of the ridge southeast of +Thiepval commanding the village and northern slopes of the high ground +north of Pozieres. The British also held the edge of High Wood and +half a mile of captured German trenches to the west of the wood. +Advances were also made to the outskirts of the village of +Guillemont, where the British occupied the railroad station and +quarry, both of some considerable military importance. As a result of +these operations the British captured sixteen officers and 780 of +other ranks. + +German guns continued to shell the British positions throughout the +day and evening of August 18, 1916, but no infantry attacks were +attempted. On the following day after a heavy bombardment the Germans +made three vigorous bombing attacks on the British positions at High +Wood, all of which were repulsed, though the Germans succeeded in some +instances in gaining a foothold for a time in the British trenches. In +the aggregate the British successes in this region had in a week +resulted in the capture of trenches which, if put end to end, would +reach for a number of miles. + +On August 24, 1916, the French completed the capture of Maurepas, for +which they had been battling for nearly two weeks, after seizing the +trenches to the south of the village. Maurepas was of great military +importance, for, with Guillemont on the British front, it formed +advanced works of the stronghold of Combles. The attack was launched +at five in the evening on a front of a mile and a quarter from north +of Hardecourt to southeast of Maurepas. The French troops captured the +German portion of Maurepas at the first dash, and a little later the +strong intrenchments made by the Germans to cover the Maurepas-Combles +road were in their possession. The victory was won over some of +Germany's best troops, the Fifth Bavarian Reserve Division and the +First Division of the Prussian Guard under Prince Eitel Frederick. + +On the same day, August 24, 1916, the British troops on the north of +the Somme attacked the German positions in the Maurepas region and +carried with a rush that part of the village still held by the Germans +and the adjoining trenches, taking 600 prisoners and eighteen guns. +South of the village the Germans made a violent attack on the British +position at Hill 121, but owing to the concentrated fire of artillery +which mowed them down they were unable to reach the British lines at +any point. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +GERMAN COUNTERATTACKS + + +Throughout the week the Germans attempted repeatedly to retake the +positions that had been won from them by the French and British +troops. One of the most desperate attacks made was against the British +positions between the quarry and Guillemont. After a heavy preparatory +bombardment the Germans launched an attack that took them to the edge +of the British trenches, where a desperate hand-to-hand struggle was +made in which the Germans fought with stubbornness and determination, +but were finally repulsed with heavy losses. + +The new French positions gained at Maurepas were violently attacked on +August 26, 1916, but the French artillery wrought terrible havoc among +the German troops, and they withdrew in disorder. In two days the +French took over 350 prisoners in this sector. + +On the evening of August 26, 1916, the British captured several +hundred yards of German trenches north of Bazentin-le-Petit and pushed +forward some distance north of Ginchy. + +After gaining a trench of 470 yards south of Thiepval and taking over +200 prisoners, the British on August 24, 1916, joined up with the +French forces on the right, where important progress was made around +Maurepas. Continued hard fighting on the eastern and northern edges of +the Delville Wood advanced the British lines several hundred yards on +each side of the Longueville-Flers road. These operations resulted in +the British capturing eight officers and about 200 of other ranks. + +West of Ginchy two German companies attacked the British trenches and +were driven off by machine-gun fire. Bombardment of British positions +continued during the night. Two aeroplane raids carried out by the +British airmen damaged trains on the German line of communications. +Important military points were also bombed with some success, but in +encounters with German aircraft the British lost one machine. + +The importance of the Thiepval sector to the Germans was demonstrated +in their constant efforts to regain the positions there that had been +captured by the British. A great number of guns were concentrated by +the Germans in this sector. The bombardment which preceded the attack +was of unusual violence, but owing to the intrepid spirit of the men +from Wiltshire and Worcestershire, who defended the positions, the +Germans were unable to reach the trenches and withdrew in disorder. +According to an eyewitness of this attack, the first wave of German +soldiers advancing to attack was thrown in disorder by the intense +gunfire from the British positions. A second wave of men +started--swept a little farther over the shell-torn terrain than the +others had done, then faltered, broke apart, and fell back, having +failed to get through the British artillery fire or even to approach +their trenches. + +In the area around Mouquet Farm and in the trenches south of Thiepval +the British captured during the day one German officer and sixty-six +of other ranks. British aircraft displayed great activity in this +sector, dropping five tons of bombs on points of military importance +behind the enemy lines. One hostile machine was brought down, while +two British machines failed to return. South of the Ancre the British +made slight advances, capturing four German officers and fifty-five of +other ranks. + +A great battle developed north of the Somme on September 2, 1916, in +which the British and French forces took thousands of prisoners and +captured important territory. After intense artillery preparation the +French infantry cooperating with British troops attacked the German +positions on a front of about three and three-quarter miles between +the region north of Maurepas and the river. The strong German forces +engaged were unable to resist the onslaught of the Allied troops. The +villages of Forest, east of Maurepas, and Clery-sur-Somme were +captured, as well as all the German trenches along the route from +Forest to Combles as far as the outskirts of the last place. The +Germans launched with heavy forces a counterattack against the +conquered positions, but were driven back by the heavy fire of the +French batteries. The French official reports gave the number of +unwounded prisoners captured in this battle as exceeding 2,000, and +the booty taken included twelve guns and fifty machine guns. German +aircraft which engaged British flyers during the progress of the +battle were driven off with a loss of three machines destroyed and +four badly injured. The British lost three. + +Fighting on the Somme and Ancre was continued with increased severity +on September 3, 1916. The Germans stubbornly contested the British +advance, but were unable to gain any material advantage except at +Ginchy, occupied by the British, who were driven out of all but a +small portion of the place. As an offset to this loss the British +troops captured the strongly fortified village of Guillemont and the +German defenses on a front of one and two-third miles to an average +depth of about 800 yards. The British took during this battle over 800 +prisoners. + +The new French positions to the north of Combles were violently +attacked on this same date, but the German effort was broken by the +machine-gun and artillery barrage. The French captured over 500 +prisoners and ten machine guns. + +South of the Somme, on a front of about twelve miles, the French +troops attacked enemy organizations from Barleux to the region south +of Chaulnes and were entirely successful in gaining their objectives. + +Southwest of Barleux the French infantry in a single push carried +three successive German lines and advanced over a mile, which brought +them to the outskirts of Berny and Deniecourt. To the south, by a +well-planned enveloping movement, the village of Soyecourt was +carried, and here a whole Prussian battalion was cut off and +surrendered after a short resistance. South of Vermandovillers, where +the Germans occupied a portion of the village, the French launched an +attack on the German front in the afternoon, but it was night before +they could break through north of Chilly. The French pushed on through +the breach, forcing the Germans to retire to their second line, +leaving 1,200 prisoners, guns and machine guns in French hands. +Desperate attempts were made by the German General von Hein to recover +the lost ground. Before the French had time to consolidate their +positions he launched six counterattacks, all of which failed under +the French barrage of fire. On September 4, 1916, the French made +2,700 prisoners between Barleux and Chilly. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +OPERATIONS AT VERDUN--BRITISH VICTORIES IN THE SOMME + + +The intense activity of the Allied forces in the Somme region in +August and during the first week in September, 1916, exceeded in +interest the happenings around Verdun. While only one building in the +town remained uninjured by the shells which the Germans poured into it +daily, the French, to whom the initiative had passed, continued to +harry the enemy daily along the Thiaumont-Vaux front. Their "nibbling" +process went on unceasingly, seizing some hundred yards of trenches, +or taking batches of 200 or 300 prisoners with such frequency as to +produce a decidedly depressing effect on the German commanders and on +their troops, who in this sector represented the pick of the German +army. + +On September 6, 1916, a signal success was won by the French at Verdun +when they carried the German line on the Vaux-Chapitre Wood-Le Chenois +front to a length of 1,000 yards, taking 250 prisoners and ten guns. + +In the second week of September, 1916, the French and British forces +made important gains in the Somme region. On September 9, 1916, +British forces advancing on a front of 6,000 yards occupied Falfemont +Farm, Leuze Wood, Guillemont, and Ginchy, the area gained being more +than four square miles. The bravery displayed by the Irish troops from +Connaught, Leinster, and Munster in connection with the capture of +Guillemont was especially commended by headquarters. The same troops +fought with distinction in the capture of Ginchy, a village only in +name, for shell fire had reduced it to mere heaps of rubble and dust. + +In an assault on the French front September 9, 1916, between +Belloy-en-Santerre and Barleux the Germans by using jets of flame +obtained a temporary footing in the French trenches, but were driven +out by a vigorous counterattack with the loss of four machine guns. On +the night of September 11, 1916, French forces north of the Somme took +the offensive and drove a broad wedge right in between the powerfully +defended German positions of Combles on the north and Peronne to the +south. Continuing their advance on the following day, in less than +half an hour they carried the German first line and, taking Hill 145 +by the way, pressed on to the Bapaume road south of Rancourt, and held +it as far south as Bouchavesnes village which was captured by a +brilliant dash early in the evening. On September 13, 1916, the French +again advanced, carrying several positions and occupying in this +region the German third line. They also captured a trench system south +of Combles. In the two days' fighting 2,300 German prisoners were +captured. + +On the night of Thursday, September 13, 1916, the British forces won +German trenches to the southeast of Thiepval and a heavily fortified +place known as Wunderwerk. This was the prelude to a series of +brilliant victories won by the British troops which had not been +surpassed during the entire fighting in the Somme area. At 6 a. m. on +September 15, 1916, the British attacked on a front of about six +miles, extending from Bouleaux Wood east of Guillemont to the north of +the Albert-Bapaume road. A tremendous bombardment of the enemy +positions continued for twenty minutes before the infantry advanced to +attack. The Germans were believed to have 1,000 guns concentrated in +this sector which had been shelling the British positions for several +days, but during this battle for some reason, perhaps lack of +ammunition, they played an unimportant part, and were far outclassed +by the British artillery. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE "TANKS"--BRITISH CAPTURE MARTINPUICH + + +It was in this battle that the British for the first time introduced a +new type of armored cars which proved veritable fortresses on wheels, +and came to be popularly known as "tanks." These destructive engines +of warfare were from twenty to forty feet long and were painted a dull +drab, or some unassuming color calculated to blend with the tones of +the landscape. In a dim light they suggested the giant slugs of a +prehistoric age. Sliding along the ground on caterpillar wheels, with +armored cheeks on each side of the head, above which guns stuck out +like the stalked eyes of land crabs, their first appearance in this +sector may well have created consternation among the German troops who +saw them for the first time. There was something uncanny about these +steel-scaled monsters that slid over the ground as it were on their +stomachs, balanced by a flimsy tail supported on two wheels. Weighing +many tons, when the "tank" came to an obstacle, such as a house or +wall, it rammed the obstruction with its full weight, and then +climbing over the debris lumbered on its way. Through vast craters and +muddy shell holes and over trenches the monsters waddled along, +scattering death and destruction as they advanced. The German +soldiers, after the first consternation caused by the appearance of +these war engines in the field, bravely attacked them; swarming over +the sides of the "tanks" and seeking to batter in the steel scales and +armored plates and to silence the guns that spouted fire from the +head, but the daring efforts were useless and caused many casualties. +Machine-gun fire was also ineffectual. They could only be disabled by +a direct hit from a large gun. It is said that the Germans voiced +their disgust for this kind of warfare, and protested that the British +were not fighting fair! + +At first the Germans thought they could rush a "tank" as they would a +fort, and lost heavily in such futile attacks; they could make no +impression on the steel "hide" of the monsters. Once astride a trench, +the guns of the tank could rake right and left, mowing down the +defenders whose volleys pattered harmlessly on the steel plates of the +war engine. + +A young Australian who served in one of these new war machines +described "tanksickness" as being as bad as seasickness until you +became accustomed to the constant plunges and lurchings as the "tank" +encountered obstacles on its way. The Australian noted down his +impressions while cruising around the German lines in a "tank." A few +quotations from his diary may be of interest: + +"Peppering begun at once. Thought old thing was going to be drowned in +a shower of bullets. Germans dashed up from all sides. We fired at +them point-blank. The survivors had another try. More of them went +down.... A rain of bullets resumed. It was like as if hundreds of +rivets were being hammered into the hide of the 'tank.' We rushed +through.... Got right across a trench. Made the sparks fly. Went along +parapet, routing out Germans everywhere. Tried to run, but couldn't +keep it up under our fire. Threw up the sponge and surrendered in +batches." + +"One can hardly imagine any spectacle more terrifying," said an +eyewitness, "than these monsters must have presented to German eyes +when, after a hurricane bombardment, through the smoke and dust of +bursting shells, the great shapes came lumbering forward in the gray +light of dawn. The enemy evidently had no hint of what they were. They +emptied their rifles at them, and the things came rolling on. They +turned on their machine guns, and the bullets only struck sparks from +the great beasts' awful sides. In several places they sat themselves +complacently astride of the trench, and swept it in both directions +and all the ground beyond with their machine guns. Against strong +points they were invaluable, because they could thrust themselves, +secure in the toughness of their hide, in close quarters where +unprotected infantry could never get. In woods they trampled their way +through the undergrowth and climbed over or broke down barricades, +contemptuous of the machine guns and rifle fire which made the +approach of unarmored men impossible." + +During this advance the British penetrated the third German line, +which was shattered at all points. Three new villages--Flers, +Martinpuich, and Courcelette--fell into British hands and more than +twenty miles of German trenches were taken. Over 100 officers and +4,000 other ranks were captured by the British. + +Martinpuich, which was known to be strongly fortified by the Germans, +was the first trench to be carried by the British troops almost +without a check. Beyond this was a series of other trenches and +fortified positions in shell holes and the like. And here the "tanks" +did effective service, their appearance creating consternation among +the German troops, whose gunfire was powerless to injure or to impede +the triumphal progress of these ungainly forts on wheels. In one +instance a German battalion commander surrendered to a "tank" and was +taken on board as a passenger. Up to the outskirts of Martinpuich +there was stiff fighting and the village itself bristled with machine +guns. The Germans stubbornly and bravely contested the British advance +through the ruins. The British troops, however, continued to push +forward almost yard by yard until the whole place was in their hands, +and they had dug themselves in in a line on the farthest eastern and +northern sides of the village. + +Before the hour set for the advance the British troops who took +Courcelette were strongly attacked by the Germans on the front just +north of the Bapaume road. The British front-line trench was broken by +the attack, and hard fighting was in progress when the hour set for +the British advance arrived. Then from support lines and other +positions to the rear of the trench the Germans had entered the +British troops swept forward. The Germans were overwhelmed as the +waves of khaki-clad, cheering men rushed forward and over them and out +beyond the objective points as originally planned. In front of +Courcelette there were formidable German positions; two trenches in +particular which had been strongly fortified and against which the +British troops for a time hurled themselves in vain. Twice the +British troops were driven back, but the third assault was entirely +successful, the British troops sweeping over the two trenches and into +the outskirts of Courcelette. By 8.10 o'clock the British forces had +worked clear through the village ruins and had carried two especially +strong positions on the farther side, a quarry on the north and a +cemetery on the northeast of the village. + +In the High Wood area, to the right of the two attacks described, the +Germans had converted a large mine crater into a fortress of +formidable strength, for from this position they could sweep the +entire wood with machine guns so placed that the British were +powerless to reach them. The "tanks" were of great efficiency in +reducing this strong point on the eastern angle of the wood. The +British troops fighting every yard of the way, slowly encircled the +wood, which was still full of cunningly hidden machine guns, and then +went steadily through it. This wood, which was described as a horrible +place, with its heaps of dead and shattered defenses, was effectually +cleaned out by the British and occupied by them, and a line was +established due north of the farthest extremity for about 1,000 yards. + +Flers was captured by the British by successive pushes in which the +"tanks" again demonstrated their value. Leading the way, these +monsters waddled through the village, shattering barricades, crushing +their way through masonry and creating general alarm among the German +troops, who saw these formidable war engines for the first time. + +In the capture of Courcelette, Flers, and Martinpuich the British air +service successfully cooperated with the movements of the artillery +and infantry. During the day, September 15, 1916, thirteen German +aeroplanes and kite balloons were destroyed, and nine others were +driven down in a damaged condition. The British reported that four of +their machines were lost. + +On the following day, September 16, 1916, the Germans attacked the +British positions around Flers and along the Les Boeufs road, and were +beaten off. The British line which had been held and lived in for a +day was now little more than a series of shell holes linked by a +shallow trench. Though "the air was stiff with bullets" as an officer +described it, the British troops climbed out of their shattered +position and pushing on took possession of a more satisfactory trench +ahead, where they consolidated and sat down. This last small advance +cost the British more casualties than all the other operations during +the two days' fighting. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +CAPTURE OF COMBLES--AIR RAIDS + + +Meanwhile the Allied troops--the French on the south, the British on +the north--made steady progress in hemming in Combles. The French +increased their gains by storming Le Priez Farm and against severe +attacks held their gains north and south of Bouchavesnes. In another +dashing attack they took by assault a group of German trenches south +of Rancourt, some of their troops pushing forward to the edge of the +village. South of the Somme they advanced east of Deniecourt and +northeast of Berny, taking several hundred prisoners and ten machine +guns. The closing-in process around Combles went steadily forward. + +In the evening of September 17, 1916, the British forces in the +vicinity of Courcelette extended their gains on a front of 1,000 +yards, captured a strong fortification known as the Danube Trench on a +mile front, and also the strongly defended work at Mouquet Farm which +had been fought over for several weeks. On the same date the French +made a spirited attack south of the Somme, wresting from the Germans +what portions they still held of the villages of Vermandovillers and +Berny, the ground between the two, and also between Berny and +Deniecourt, breaking up all counterattacks and taking 700 prisoners. + +On September 18, 1916, the British on the Somme front continued to add +to their gains of the previous days. Northwest of Combles they +captured a strongly fortified German work and, beating off numerous +counterattacks north of Flers, took six howitzers, two field guns and +lighter pieces, as well as some prisoners. South of this the British +took another section of German trenches, and by a counterattack won +back trenches to the east beyond Mouquet Farm which they had lost on +previous days. + +On the same date the French took the village of Deniecourt, making the +third village captured by them in two days. During these operations +over 1,600 prisoners were taken, including twenty-five officers. + +Owing to the weather conditions, little progress was made by the +Allied forces on September 19, 1916. Raids were successful, however, +on enemy trenches northeast of Bethune, and the French made some +advance and took prisoners east of Berny. The Germans made five +spirited attacks against the French front in Champagne where the +Russian detachments were posted, all of which were repulsed with heavy +losses by the guns and machine guns. From 9 in the morning until +nightfall of the following day the Germans continued their assaults on +the French lines, but only here and there did they make even temporary +progress. + +On Thursday, September 21, 1916, the British line in the west was +again advanced. A section of the German front about a mile long was +attacked between Martinpuich and Flers. Two lines of German trenches +were captured in this push. Meanwhile the French continued to develop +their hemming in of Combles, nibbling their way forward, taking +prisoners and guns, a slow but determined advance that the Germans +could not restrain. + +British guns displayed great activity on Friday, September 22, 1916, +when they destroyed ten hostile gun pits, damaged severely fourteen +others, and blew up five ammunition pits. About the same time fifty +aeroplanes raided an important railroad junction, destroyed several +ammunition trains, and caused violent explosions and conflagrations. + +September 25, 1916, was a notable day in the history of the Allied +advance in the west, when French and British forces again assumed the +offensive. The German positions were stormed on a front of about six +miles between Combles and Martinpuich to a depth of more than a mile. +The strongly fortified villages of Les Boeufs and Morval with several +lines of trenches were captured. Morval, standing on a height north of +Combles, with its subterranean quarries and maze of wire +entanglements, constituted a formidable citadel of defense. By the +capture of these villages German communication with Combles was cut +off. The British took a large number of prisoners and immense +quantities of war material. + +About noon of the same date the French attacked the German positions +between Combles and Rancourt and the defenses from the latter village +to the Somme. Rancourt was taken after a sharp struggle, and the +French lines were advanced to the northeast of Combles as far as the +southern outskirts of Fregicourt. East of the Bethune road the French +positions were extended for half a mile, while farther south several +systems of German trenches were captured in the vicinity of the Cabal +du Nord. + +On the second day of the Allied offensive the French and British +continued their successful advance. Combles, which the Allied troops +had been closing in on for some days, was captured. Here an enormous +quantity of booty, munitions, and supplies which the Germans had +stored away in the subterranean regions of the place fell to the +victors. + +The subsequent capture of Gueudecourt by the French and British forces +completed the notable advance of the Allies on September 25, 1916. +They were now in possession of the ridge that dominates the valley of +Bapaume, having cleared a stretch of ground on the far side of the +crest to a distance of half a mile. In the night of September 26, +1916, the British troops captured Thiepval and the strongly fortified +ridge east of it, which included an important stronghold, the Zollern +Redoubt. The British reported the capture of over 1,500 prisoners +during the two days' fighting. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +BRITISH CAPTURE EAUCOURT L'ABBAYE-REGINA TRENCH + + +September 30, 1916, marked the close of the third month of Allied +fighting in the Somme region. Since September 15, 1916, seven new +German divisions were brought against the British and five against the +French. According to reports from British headquarters in France, the +British troops had engaged thirty-eight German divisions, of which +twenty-nine had been forced to withdraw in a broken and exhausted +state. During the three months' campaign the Allied forces captured +over 60,000 German prisoners, of which number the British claimed to +have taken 26,735. Besides other war material the Allies recovered +from the Somme battle fields 29 heavy guns and howitzers, 92 field +guns and howitzers, 103 trench artillery pieces, and 397 machine guns. + +In the afternoon of October 1, 1916, the British troops assaulted the +double-trench system of the main German third line over a front of +about 3,000 yards from beyond Le Sars to a point 1,000 yards or so +east of Eaucourt l'Abbaye. The British troops in the center, directly +in front of Eaucourt l'Abbaye, were held up by the complicated +defenses there, but the troops on the right, carrying everything +before them, swept over the main lines of trench east of the place +until well beyond it they occupied positions on the north, which they +held against all German assaults. The center was meanwhile reenforced +by the arrival of "tanks," which accomplished useful work in clearing +the trenches; these were then occupied by the British troops. On +October 2, 1916, German forces succeeded in pressing through a gap in +the British line, and again occupied trenches before the village, +while the British continued to hold their positions on the farther +side, some of which were a thousand yards to the rear of the enemy. +The following day the British heavily bombarded Eaucourt l'Abbaye and +drew the cordon tighter around it. October 4, 1916, they assumed the +offensive, and driving the Germans out of their trenches, filled up +the gap and entered the town. Eaucourt l'Abbaye, with its old monastic +buildings furnished with immense cellars, crypts and vaults, offered +admirable conditions for prolonged defense. More important than the +occupation of this place was the capture by the British of the +positions around it with over 3,000 yards of the long-prepared German +third line. These gains were won by the British troops at considerable +cost in casualties, while the Germans also lost heavily. + +The important part played by the "tanks" in this successful operation +is worthy of record. One of these machines becoming disabled, +continued for some time to operate as a stationary fortress. Later the +"tank" became untenable and the crew were forced to abandon it. While +this was being done the commanding officer of the "tank" was somewhat +severely wounded so that he could not proceed. Two unwounded members +of the crew refused to leave the wounded officer, and for more than +two days they stayed with him in a shell hole between the lines. While +hiding in this dangerous position the wounded officer was again struck +by a bullet, but it was found impossible to get him away until the +British captured the positions around the town. + +There was intermittent shelling of the British front south of the +Ancre during the night of October 4, 1916. A successful raid was +carried out by a London territorial battalion in the Vimy area on the +following day, and an assault on the British trenches east of St. Eloi +was repulsed. October 6, 1916, was unmarked by any important offensive +on the part of the belligerents. The Germans continued to shell +heavily the British front south of the Ancre. Three British raiding +parties succeeded in penetrating German trenches in the Loos area and +south of Arras. + +An important success was won by the British on the following day, +October 7, 1916, when Le Sars--their twenty-second village--was +captured. The Germans evidently anticipated the attack, for they had +massed a large number of troops on a short front. The town itself was +held by the Fourth Ersatz Division, and the ground behind Eaucourt +l'Abbaye by a Bavarian division. The place, though strongly +fortified, did not offer the resistance that the British troops +expected. Their first forward sweep carried them to a sunken road that +ran across the village at about its middle, and a second rush after +the barrage had lifted brought them through the rest of the place and +about 500 yards beyond on the Bapaume road. In Le Sars itself six +officers and between 300 and 400 other ranks were made prisoners by +the British. The Bavarians between Le Sars and Eaucourt fought with +stubborn valor and gave the British troops plenty of hard work. Owing +to the complication of fortified positions, trenches, and sunken +roads, the ground in this section of the fighting area presented many +difficulties. To the northeast of Eaucourt the determined pressure of +the British troops caused the Bavarian resistance to crumble and the +victors swept on and out along the road to Le Barque. At other points +the British pierced the German lines and occupied positions midway +between Eaucourt and the Butte de Warlencourt. To the left, a mile or +so back, in what was known as the Mouquin Farm region, the British +troops pushed forward in the direction of Pys and Miraumont, and all +that part of Regina Trench over which there had been much stiff +fighting was held by them. German troops had recovered a small portion +of the front-line trenches they had lost to the north of Les Boeufs. +In this sector on the night of October 7, 1916, the British guns +shattered two attempted counterattacks and gathered in three officers, +170 men, and three machine guns. To the north of the Somme the French +infantry cooperating with the British army attacked from the front of +Morval-Bouchavesnes and carried their line over 1,300 yards northeast +of Morval. During this advance over 400 prisoners, including ten +officers, were captured, and also fifteen machine guns. Large +gatherings of German troops reported north of Saillisel were caught by +the concentrated fire from the French batteries. + +In the region of Gueudecourt the British advanced their lines and +beat off a furious attack made on the Schwaben Redoubt north of +Thiepval on October 8, 1916. This repulse of the Germans was +followed by the British troops winning some ground north of the +Courcelette-Warlencourt road. In two days they took prisoner +thirteen officers and 866 of other ranks. + +[Illustration: General Sir Douglas Haig (left), commanding the +British armies in France and Belgium, and General Joffre, supreme +commander of the French armies. In December, 1916, Joffre was made a +Marshal of France.] + +The British continued their daily policy of making raids on the German +trenches. Several were carried out on October 10, 1916, in the +Neuville-St. Vaast and Loos regions, where trenches were invaded, +three machine-gun emplacements destroyed, and a large number of +prisoners taken. On the same date there was intense artillery activity +on the Somme between the French and Germans. The French fought six air +fights and bombed the St. Vaast Wood. To the south of the river the +French troops took the offensive and attacked on a front of over three +miles between Berny-en-Santerre and Chaulnes. Here the French infantry +by vigorous fighting captured the enemy position and certain points +beyond it. They also captured the town of Bovent, and occupied the +northern and western outskirts of Ablaincourt and most of the woods of +Chaulnes. During this offensive more than 1,250 Germans were taken. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +CONTINUED ALLIED ADVANCE + + +Unceasing activity on the part of the Germans on October 11, 1916, +showed that the recent successes of the Allies had by no means +dampened their ardor or impaired their morale. All day long they +shelled the British front south of the Ancre, especially north of +Courcelette. Here the Germans attempted an attack, but were caught on +their own parapets and stopped by the British barrage. Two German +battery positions were destroyed here by bombing from aeroplanes. Two +British aircraft engaged seven hostile machines, one of which was +destroyed and two others were severely damaged. Behind the German +front British aeroplanes bombed railway stations, trains, and billets, +losing during these air fights four machines. + +In the afternoon of this date, October 11, 1916, the British troops by +a determined push gained 1,000 yards between Les Boeufs and Le +Transloy, having gained all the territory they set out to win. The +advance, which was won at a comparatively small cost, brought the +British lines within 500 yards of one of the few conspicuous landmarks +in this desolate region--a cemetery about half a mile from Le +Transloy. + +The English continued to make night raids on the German trenches. Five +such raids undertaken October 11-12, 1916, in the Messines, Bois +Grenier, and Haisnes areas were all successful; heavy casualties were +inflicted on the Germans and a number of prisoners were taken. During +the day of October 12, 1916, the British attacked the low heights +between their front trenches and the Bapaume-Peronne road, where they +gained ground and made captures. On this date the French infantry +north of the Somme made progress to the west of Sailly-Saillisel. +South of the Somme French forces took the offensive on October 14, +1916, delivering an attack west of Belloy-en-Santerre, by which they +gained possession of the first German line on a front of about a mile +and a quarter. By another attack they captured the village of +Genermont and the sugar refinery to the northeast of Ablaincourt. In +these two attacks nearly 1,000 prisoners were taken, including +seventeen officers. + +On the same date British forces in the neighborhood of the Stuff +Redoubt and Schwaben Redoubt cleared two lines of German communication +trenches for a distance of nearly 200 yards. During these operations, +which were carried out by a single company, the British took two +officers and 303 of other ranks. In the evening the British advanced +their lines northeast of Gueudecourt and made further captures of men +and material. + +On Sunday, October 15, 1916, south of the Somme, the Germans made +desperate attempts to regain the trenches they had lost to the French +southeast of Belloy-en-Santerre, but the attacks were shattered by the +French artillery. + +French assaults by the German troops were repulsed on the following +day when the French carried a wood between Genermont and Ablaincourt, +taking prisoner four officers and 110 of other ranks, as well as a +number of machine guns. The German aircraft were especially active on +this day and the French fought seven engagements. In the Lassigny +sector a German machine hit by French guns fell in flames behind its +own lines. + +The clear weather which prevailed during the day of October 16, 1916, +tempted British airmen to renewed activity. They bombed successfully +railway lines, stations, and factories. During the numerous fights in +the air three German machines were destroyed and one was driven to +earth, while two kite balloons were forced down in flames. For these +successful exploits the British paid somewhat heavily. One of their +machines was brought down by German gunfire and six were missing at +the end of the day. + +Heavy bombardments on both sides, trench raids, and counterattacks, +which resulted in some successes for the Allied troops, marked the +following days. On October 21, 1916, the Germans lost heavily in an +attempt to recover Sailly-Saillisel from the French. Three regiments +of the Second Bavarian Division recently arrived in this sector were +shattered one after the other by French curtain and machine-gun fire. +South of the Somme a brilliant little success was achieved by the +French north of Chaulnes. Early in the afternoon the French infantry +after a heavy bombardment of the enemy lines pushed forward and gained +a foothold in the Bois Etoile which was held by troops of Saxony. + +The Chaulnes garrison attempted to come to the support of the Saxons, +but were driven back by the destructive fire from French batteries. +Generals Marchand and Ste. Clair Deville, who were wounded in fighting +in the Somme region, continued to hold their commands and to direct +the action of the French troops under them. + +Early in the morning of October 21, 1916, German troops in +considerable force attacked the Schwaben Redoubt north of Thiepval +occupied by the British, and at several points succeeded in entering +the trenches. But in a short time the British troops by a vigorous +attack drove them out, capturing five officers and seventy-nine of +other ranks. A subsequent attack by the British, delivered on a front +of some 5,000 yards between Schwaben Redoubt and Le Sars, advanced the +British line from 300 to 500 yards. Sixteen officers and over 1,000 +German prisoners were taken during this operation, while the British +losses were said to be slight. On this same date British aircraft +showed great activity, bombing German communications, an important +railroad junction, and an ammunition depot, while there were several +air duels in which the British destroyed three machines and drove +others behind their lines. Two British aeroplanes were not heard from +again. + +In the afternoon of the following day, October 22, 1916, the British +right wing advanced east of Gueudecourt and Les Boeufs and captured +1,000 yards of German trenches. On the same day British airmen bombed +two railway stations behind the enemy's lines, hitting a train and +working great damage to buildings and rolling stock. The British +airmen in a series of engagements brought down seven German machines, +damaging others and forcing them to descend. At the close of the day +eight British machines were missing. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +FRENCH RETAKE DOUAUMONT + + +On October 24, 1916, on the Verdun front a great victory was won by +the French in the capture of Fort Douaumont. This stronghold, which +had been termed by the Germans "the main pillar of the Verdun +defenses," had been captured by the Brandenburgers in the last week of +February, 1916. The French lost the fort, but they clung desperately +to the approaches, which for weeks were the scenes of bloody +struggles. The fort was retaken by the Allied troops on May 22, 1916, +but after two days of furious bombardment and the attacks of fresh +German troops they were driven from the place. From that time until +the French recaptured it on October 24, 1916, it had remained in +German possession. Shortly before noon of the last date the French +launched their attack on the right bank of the Meuse after an intense +artillery preparation. The German line, attacked on a front of about +four and a half miles, was broken through everywhere to a depth which +attained at the middle a distance of two miles. + +General Nivelle had intrusted the plans for the recapture of Fort +Douaumont to General Mangin. Artillery preparation began on October +21, 1916, when the air was clear and favored observation by captive +balloons and aeroplanes. For two days the fort and its approaches were +subjected to an almost continuous bombardment of French guns. On +October 23, 1916, the explosion of a bomb started a fire in Fort +Douaumont. The shelters covering the quarries of Haudromont were +destroyed and also the battery at Damloup, while the ravines were +blown to pieces. Owing to the wide extent of the French attacks the +Germans seemed to have been in doubt as to the point from which the +main assault would be launched. Gradually the French "felt out" the +positions of the 130 German batteries, a great number of which they +destroyed. + +The troops selected by the French for their attack belonged to +divisions that had been fighting for some time in this sector. +According to the French official account of the storming of the fort, +from left to right was the division of General Guyot de Salins, +reenforced on the left by the Eleventh Infantry. This division was +made up of Zouaves and Colonial sharpshooters, among them the Moroccan +regiment which had previously been honored for heroic conduct at +Dixmude and Fleury, and to whom fell the honor of attacking Fort +Douaumont. Then came the division commanded by General du Passage, +consisting of troops from all parts of France. A division commanded by +General Bardmelle, composed of troops of the line and light infantry, +came next, and a battalion of Singhalese also took an equal part in +the attack. + +At 11.40 a. m. the attack was launched in a heavy fog. It had been +planned that the first stroke should take in the quarries of +Haudromont, the height to the north of the ravine of La Dame, the +intrenchment north of the farm of Thiaumont, the battery of La +Fausse-Cote, and the ravine of Bazite. In the second phase, after an +hour's stop to consolidate the first gains, the French troops were to +press on to the crest of the heights to the north of the ravine of +Couleuvre, the village of Douaumont, the fort of Douaumont, the dam +and pond of Vaux, and on to the battery of Damloup. + +The French attack succeeded in carrying out the first phase of the +plan with insignificant losses, and proceeded almost immediately to +advance to the second objective. "At 2.30 p. m.," said a French +eyewitness of the attack, "the fog lifted and the observers could see +a magic spectacle. It was our soldiers, filing like so many shadows +along the crest of Douaumont, approaching the fort from all sides. +Arriving at the fort, they quickly established themselves within, and +through field glasses could be seen the long column of prisoners as +they filed out. + +"The French Fourth Regiment, charged with taking the quarries of +Haudromont, went beyond their objective, which was the trench of +Balfourier. The division under General Guyot de Salins had taken +Thiaumont and Douaumont, while that of General du Passage had seized +the wood of Caillette and advanced to the heights of La Fausse-Cote. + +"Steadily foot by foot the French infantry pushed on, driving the +enemy before them and taking 3,500 prisoners on the way, till at last +after a severe struggle around Fort Douaumont they shot all of its +defenders who refused to surrender and won it back to France." + +In the space of four hours the French had recaptured territory which +had taken the Germans eight months to conquer at a cost of several +hundred thousand of their best troops. The Germans explained their +defeat on the ground that the fog hampered their observation and +barrage, while the French artillery had set fire to a store of benzine +in the fort, which forced the garrison to evacuate. + +In addition to the fort and village adjoining, the French forces +captured the Haudromont quarries which had been in possession of the +Germans since April 18, 1916. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +GERMANS LOSE FORT VAUX--FRENCH TAKE SAILLISEL + + +On the Somme front the operations of the Allied troops were impeded by +heavy rains, but artillery duels continued daily; the British airmen +made many raids on enemy positions and were successful in bombing +depots and railways. October 27, 1916, an aerial combat took place in +which many machines were engaged. Five aeroplanes fell during the +fight, two of which were British. + +On Saturday morning, October 28, 1916, the British troops carried out +a successful operation northeast of Les Boeufs, which resulted in the +capture of enemy trenches. The Germans driven from their position were +caught by the British rifle fire and lost two officers and 138 of +other ranks. On the following day the British won another trench from +the Germans to the northeast of Les Boeufs. + +In summing up the gains of the Allies during the month of October, +1916, it will be noted that they had made steady progress. The British +forces had won the high ground in the vicinity of the Butte de +Warlencourt, which brought them nearer to the important military +position of Bapaume. The French had by ceaseless activity pushed +forward their lines toward Le Transloy. During four months from July 1 +to November 1, 1916, the Franco-British troops in the course of the +fighting on the Somme had captured 71,532 German soldiers and 1,449 +officers. The material taken by the Allies during this period included +173 field guns, 130 heavy guns, 215 trench mortars, and 981 machine +guns. + +[Illustration: Verdun Front, February 1, 1917.] + +After the French victory on October 24, 1916, when Fort Douaumont was +captured from the Germans, it was inevitable that Fort Vaux on the +same front must also fall, and this took place on November 2, 1916. +For some days Fort Vaux had been subjected to intense artillery fire +by the French, and the German commander ordered the evacuation of the +fortress during the night. It was in defending this stronghold against +overwhelming odds that the French Major Raynal and his garrison won +the praise of even their enemies. The German direct attack on the fort +began March 9, 1916, and for ninety days Major Raynal held it against +the ceaseless attacks of Germany's finest troops backed not by +batteries, but by parks of artillery. Only when the fort was in ruins +and the garrison could fight no longer were the German troops able to +occupy the work. The French Government marked its appreciation of +Major Raynal's heroic defense by publishing his name and by conferring +on him the grade of Commander of the Legion of Honor, a distinction +usually reserved only for divisional generals. The German Crown Prince +appreciating Major Raynal's heroic qualities permitted him on his +surrender to retain his sword. + +North of the Somme, despite the persistent bad weather, the French +troops on November 1 and 2, 1916, captured German trenches northeast +of Les Boeufs and a strongly organized system of trenches on the +eastern outskirts of St. Pierre Vaast Wood. By these operations the +French took 736 prisoners, of whom twenty were officers, and also +twelve machine guns. + +The British forces on the Somme on the night of November 2, 1916, by a +surprise attack captured a German trench east of Gueudecourt and +carried out a successful raid on German trenches near Arras. British +aircraft, which had been actively engaged in bombing German batteries, +in the course of several combats in the air destroyed two hostile +machines. On November 4, 1916, the Germans attempted by a +counterattack to regain the trenches won by the British near +Gueudecourt, but were driven off with heavy losses, considering the +number of troops engaged. The Germans left on the field more than a +hundred dead, and the British captured thirty prisoners and four +machine guns. British aircraft, which continued to operate despite the +heavy weather that prevailed, suffered heavily on November 4, 1916. +One of their machines which had attacked and destroyed a German +aeroplane was so badly damaged that it fell within German lines and +four other British aircraft did not return. + +German attempts to wrest from the French the trenches they had won on +November 1, 1916, on the western edge of St. Pierre Vaast Wood were +unsuccessful, though at some points the German troops succeeded in +penetrating the lines. But their foothold in the French trenches was +only temporary, and they were driven out with considerable losses. + +On Sunday, November 5, 1916, the French took the offensive south of +the village of Saillisel, attacking simultaneously on three sides the +St. Pierre Vaast Wood, which had been strongly organized by the German +troops. As a result of this spirited attack the French captured in +succession three trenches defending the northern horn of the wood, and +the entire line of hostile positions on the southwestern outskirts of +the wood. At this point the fighting was of the most desperate +description. The Germans fought with great bravery, making violent +counterattacks, which the French repulsed with bomb and bayonet, and +capturing during the operations on this front 522 prisoners, including +fifteen officers. + +The British troops, which had won 1,000 yards of a position on the +high ground in the neighborhood of the Butte de Warlencourt on +November 5, 1916, were forced to relinquish a great part of their +gains when the Germans made a violent attack on the following day. + +North of the Somme the French made important advances between Les +Boeufs and Sailly-Saillisel. To the south on November 6, 1916, in the +midst of a heavy rain they launched a dashing attack on a front of two +and a half miles. German positions extending from the Chaulnes Wood to +the southeast of the Ablaincourt sugar refinery were carried, and the +whole of the villages of Ablaincourt and Pressoir were occupied by the +French infantry. Pushing forward their lines they also captured the +cemetery to the east of Ablaincourt, which had been made into a +stronghold by the Germans. The French positions were farther carried +to the south of the sugar refinery as far as the outskirts of +Gomiecourt. In these successful operations the French captured over +500 prisoners, including a number of officers. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +BRITISH SUCCESSES IN THE ANCRE + + +In the Ancre region the British won some notable victories on November +12, 1916, when Beaumont-Hamel was taken, which the Germans considered +an even more impregnable stronghold than Thiepval. The British also +swept all before them on the south side of the Ancre, capturing the +lesser village of St. Pierre Divion. The defeats which the British had +suffered in this region during July of 1916 were amply atoned for by +these victories. Beaumont-Hamel lies in the fold of a ridge and was +honeycombed with dugouts and the defenses so cunningly prepared that +it was extremely difficult for the British artillery to destroy them. +Under Beaumont-Hamel there is an elaborate system of caves or cellars +dating from ancient days, and it was the emergence of the German +troops from the dugouts and these lairs that made the attack of the +Ulster troops in July unavailing. Attacking simultaneously northward, +down the nearer slope, and eastward directly against the face of the +main German line before Beaumont-Hamel, the British troops captured +the whole position at once. + +The entire front on which the British attacked was over 8,000 yards. +On the right, or east, the advance began from the western end of +Regina Trench from the British position about 700 yards to the north +of Stuff Redoubt. From this point a German trench known as the Hansa +line ran northwestward to the Ancre, directly opposite the village of +Beaucourt. On the extreme right, north of Stuff Redoubt, to reach that +trench meant an advance of only a score or so of yards. To the +westward, above Schwaben Redoubt half a mile, the advance was nearly +1,000 yards. By St. Pierre Divion, along the valley of the Ancre +itself, the advance was over 1,500 yards. Everywhere in this sector +the British troops were successful. They gained in this offensive a +stretch of 3,000 yards north of the Ancre to an average depth of about +a mile. The victory of the British troops was especially notable, +because they had struck frontally at the main German first line with +tier upon tier of trenches which the Germans had strongly fortified +and wired for two years past. One English county battalion alone to +the south of Beaumont-Hamel took 300 prisoners, and in the village +itself 700 were captured, mostly soldiers from Silesia and East +Prussia. At the close of the day over 2,000 German prisoners had been +taken, and the ground won by the British amounted to about four square +miles. During the night of November 12, 1916, and during the day +following in the clean-up of the labyrinthian defenses which the +Germans had skillfully constructed 2,000 more prisoners were added to +the number already captured in this sector. The British advance had +brought them to the outskirts of Beaucourt-sur-Ancre, which was taken +on November 14, 1916. Pushing on through the village to the left of +it, the British troops advanced over the high ground to the northeast +of Beaumont-Hamel, on to the road from Serre to Beaucourt, having +gathered in another thousand prisoners on the way. + +During the two days' fighting in this region no British troops won +greater distinction than the Scots and the Royal Naval Division. In +all the German lines in France there was no more formidable position +than the angle immediately above the Ancre, where Beaumont-Hamel lay +in a hollow of the hill. On the morning of November 13, 1916, the +Royal Naval Division attacked the stretch from just below the "Y" +ravine on the south of Beaumont-Hamel to the north side of the Ancre. +After a preliminary bombardment, which played havoc with the German +barbed-wire entanglements protecting their front line, the British +naval troops swept over the line with a rush as if the barriers had +been made of straw. The British right rested on the Ancre as they +swept across the valley bottom. Northwest, where there was a rise of +ground, the center of the line had to attack diagonally along the +slope of the hill. At the top of the slope there was a German redoubt +hidden in a curve, and invisible in front, composed of a triangle of +three deep pits with concrete emplacements for machine guns which +could sweep the slope in all directions. This formidable redoubt was +situated immediately behind the German front trench, reaching back to, +and resting on, the second. At all points the British naval troops +carried the front trench by storm. On the right they rushed along the +valley bottom and the lower part of the slope, carrying line after +line of trench on to the dip where a sunken road ran along their front +going up from the Ancre to Beaumont-Hamel on the left. + +Here for a short space of time the British troops rested while others, +also of the Naval Division, came up and swept through them on and up +the slope until they had won a line beyond. After this the first line +caught up with them again, and they all swept on together in a +splendid charge that covered a good 1,500 yards and which brought them +to the very edge of Beaucourt. It was during this operation that a +British battalion commander was wounded, but continued to lead and +animate his men during the entire advance. + +Meanwhile the British right center was held up by the redoubt. The +German machine guns, while checking the troops in front of them, also +swept the ground along the face of the slope to the left. + +Here the troops of the Royal Naval Division suffered badly, but they +continued to advance under the withering fire, winning the first and +second line trenches, and then, as supports came up on the right, +braving the machine-gun fire, they pushed on across the dip and sunken +road up the slope toward Beaucourt. Here all the troops made a +junction, forming a line on the Beaucourt-Beaumont-Hamel road. Back of +this line the Germans still held the central parts of the trenches, +over the two ends of which the British troops had swept. The redoubt +still remained intact and other important positions were in German +hands. + +On the night of the 13th the British battalion commander who had been +wounded during the advance gathered together 600 men, all that could +be spared, from established positions, and with these troops he +purposed to attempt a farther advance. It was while he was gathering +these men together that the officer received a second wound, but still +refused to retire from the field. + +At early dawn of November 14, 1916, this officer led his 600 men +against the village of Beaucourt. In less than a quarter of an hour's +hand-to-hand fighting the British troops had won the village. When the +sun shone on the scene of the struggle the British troops were digging +themselves in on the farther side of Beaucourt. It was only then that +the brave battalion commander who had successfully led the attack with +four wounds in his body had to be taken to the rear. + +It was on November 14, 1916, in the fighting on the Ancre that the +Scots won special distinction. Their line in the fighting was just +above that taken by the Naval Division, and included Beaumont-Hamel +itself and the famous "Y" ravine. This ravine was such a formidable +place that it merits a somewhat detailed description. Imagine a great +gash in the earth some 7,000 or 8,000 yards in total length. In form +like a great "Y" lying on its side, the prongs at the top projected +down to the German front line while the stem ran back connecting with +the road through the dip which goes from Beaumont-Hamel on the north +to the Ancre. At the forked or western end, projecting down to the +front, there is a chasm more than thirty feet deep, with walls so +precipitous that in some parts they overhang. The Germans had burrowed +into the sides of the earth and established lairs far below the thirty +feet level of the ravine, where they were practically out of reach of +shell fire coming from whatever direction. In some instances they had +hollowed out great caves large enough to contain fully a battalion and +a half of men. In addition, the thoroughgoing Germans had made a +tunnel from the forward end of the ravine to their own fourth line in +the rear. Altogether the position was admirably adapted to sustain a +long defense and it was owing to the darkness when the British +attacked, and which took the Germans by surprise, that the stronghold +was captured. The violent artillery bombardment by the British before +the attack had battered all the ordinary trenches and positions to +pieces without effecting any serious damage to the underground +shelters. Following the bombardment, the Scotch troops broke over the +German defenses, meeting their only check in the onward rush at the +ends of the "Y" ravine. On the south of this narrow point, keeping +step with the Naval Division on their right, they swept across the +first and second lines to the third. Here there was stiff fighting for +a time, and when the Scots had struggled forward they left behind a +trench full of German dead. On the north side every foot of ground was +contested before the third line was reached, and then from both sides +the ravine was attacked with bombs. At a point just behind the fork of +the "Y" the first breach was made, and down the sheer sides of the +ravine the British troops dropped with bayonet in hand. Then followed +a stubborn struggle, for the Germans filled both sides of the chasm. +Bombing, bayoneting, and grappling hand to hand continued for some +time, the Germans despite their bravery being slowly forced back. At +this stage of the fighting the British delivered a new frontal attack +against the narrow bit of the front line still unbroken at the forward +end of the "Y." As the Germans at that end turned to repel the assault +the Scotch troops in the ravine rushed forward to be joined presently +by other British troops that had by this time broken into the ravine, +when there followed a scene of indescribable confusion. The struggle, +however, was of short duration, when the Germans, at first singly and +then in groups, flung down their arms and surrendered. All the Germans +visible were made prisoners, but it was known that the tunnel and the +shelters and dugouts contained many men. A shrewd Scotch private who +had lived in Germany succeeded by strategy in drawing out most of the +Germans from their hiding places. The canny Scot took a German officer +who had surrendered, and leading him to suspected dugouts bade him +order the men inside to come out. This ruse worked happily and at one +dugout fifty Germans issued forth and surrendered. + +While this struggle in the ravine was going on, other Scotch troops +had swarmed over the German lines higher up, and by noon had taken +possession of the site--there is no village--of Beaumont-Hamel. The +place is underlaid with many subterranean hiding places, and it was +during the process of gathering in the Germans concealed in these +underground shelters that some extraordinary incidents took place. One +example of personal bravery at this time must be cited. While the +fighting was still going on a man of the British Signal Corps was +running telephone lines up, and had just reached his goal in a +captured German trench when he was struck down before the mouth of a +dugout. Just as he collapsed a German officer appeared from the +depths, and "Signals" could see that there were a number of German +soldiers behind him. By a supreme effort the wounded man struggled to +his feet and ordered the officer to surrender. This the German was +quite ready to do. The Scot then pulled himself together and with his +remaining strength telephoned an explanation of the situation back +over the line which he had just laid. Having done this he stood guard +over the German officer in the opening of the dugout, keeping others +blocked behind him, until relieved of his charges by the arrival of +help. As a whole the Scots took over 1,000 prisoners and gathered in +fifty-four machine guns in the day's fighting. + +No doubt the British successes in this area were gained by the +unexpectedness and dash of their attacks which took the Germans by +surprise. The foggy weather which prevailed had hampered the Germans +so that they were unable to observe the movements of British troops. + +In the region to the south of the Ancre a relief was going on, so that +there was double the usual number of Germans in the trenches. The +relieving division, the Two Hundred and Twenty-third, one of the +Ludendorff's new formations and going into action for the first time +as a division, was caught within a few minutes after getting to the +trenches. Again the "tanks" were found of special service, though +owing to the heavy mud encountered during the advance they were +considerably hampered in their movements. At one point north of the +Ancre a "tank" was useful in clearing the German first-line trench, +and at another point south of the river one pushed forward and got +ahead of the British infantry into a position strongly held by the +Germans who swarmed around it and tried to blow it up with bombs. The +"tank" stood off the furious assaults until the British infantry came +up, when it became busy and helped the troops clean up the trenches +and dugouts in the vicinity. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +OPERATIONS ON THE FRENCH FRONT--FURTHER FIGHTING IN THE ANCRE + + +While the British were winning one of their most important victories +on the Somme on the French front both north and south there was +continued activity. The whole village of Saillisel, over which there +had been prolonged fighting, was now in French hands. Heavy attacks by +the German troops assisted by "flame throwers" were repulsed. +Southeast of Berny the Germans succeeded in penetrating the French +trenches, but were thrust out by a keen counterattack. + +During the fighting in these sectors the French took 220 prisoners, +seven officers, and eight machine guns. + +North of the Somme the Germans attacked from Les Boeufs to +Bouchavesnes, evidently with the purpose of forestalling a new French +offensive beyond Saillisel, which would endanger the left of the +German line opposed to the British, by the menace of being turned on +the south. Regiments of the Prussian Guard Infantry Division attacked +in the forenoon and in the afternoon along the six-mile front. But the +French forces remained firm and unwavering on both wings, and the +Germans could gain no headway against their curtain and machine-gun +fire. Around the St. Pierre Vaast Wood, in the center of the line, the +fighting reached the greatest intensity. The Germans displayed +unyielding bravery, and despite very heavy losses succeeded in +capturing outlying trenches along the western fringe, and in the +northern corner of the wood. These positions afforded them little +advantage while Saillisel and the southwest fringe of the wood were +firmly held by French troops. + +South of the Somme from Ablaincourt to Chaulnes Wood, a distance of +two and a half miles, the Germans pounded the French positions almost +unceasingly for forty-eight hours. At 6 o'clock in the morning of +November 15, 1916, the Germans after a final shower of tear shells +endeavored to drive in their wedge. The main efforts of the attacking +contingent were concentrated on Ablaincourt and Pressoir. The French +were quite prepared for the onslaught and the oncoming waves of German +troops wavered and broke under the fiery storm of French shells. +Despite their heavy losses the Germans after repeated failures +succeeded about noonday in rushing the eastern portion of Pressoir. +Renewing the attack after a short interval, other portions of the +place were occupied by them. During the night, the small force of +French troops which had held the village all day against overwhelming +odds was reenforced, and in the early hours of November 16, 1916, by a +brilliant counterattack the Germans were swept out of the village and +the French line was once more solidified. The Germans during two days' +fighting had displayed conspicuous courage, but the twelve attacks +they made on Pressoir, where they gained a temporary advantage, cost +them heavily. Certain regiments, among others the One Hundred and +Eleventh Prussian, lost 60 per cent. of their effectives. + +On November 15 and 16, 1916, the British continued to make gains north +of the Ancre. One division advanced a mile, and took over 1,000 +prisoners at a cost of about 450 casualties. On November 16, 1916, Sir +Douglas Haig reported that in twenty-four hours the British had taken +six German officers and 297 of other ranks. In the afternoon of this +date the Germans launched a vigorous counterattack, and forced the +British to relinquish a part of the ground east of the Butte de +Warlencourt, which had been won on November 14, 1916. During the week +the British aeroplanes were constantly active and some important +successes were won over enemy aircraft. On November 16, 1916, two +junctions on the German lines of communication were bombed, and +railways and aerodromes were attacked with bombs and machine-gun fire +by day and night. German aircraft, which had displayed considerable +activity at this period, fought a number of aerial engagements with +British flyers with disastrous results to themselves. Three German +machines were brought down on the British side, and two fell within +the German lines. The British also drove down five more in a damaged +condition, while their own losses in these air combats amounted to +only three machines. + +According to the British official report 6,190 Germans had been made +prisoner during four days' fighting in this sector. + +On a front of about a mile and a half the British troops on November +18, 1916, again forged ahead for an average distance of 500 yards or +so on the south side of the Ancre. On the north of the river they +pushed on at daybreak through fast-falling snow until the British line +was now within three-quarters of a mile to the northeast of Beaucourt +and 500 yards beyond the Bois d'Holland, which was in British hands. +The last advance had brought them to the outskirts of Grandcourt and +here bomb fighting at close range went on throughout the day of +November 18, 1916. + +To the west of this village ran the original main German second line, +which lower down passed through such famous places as the Stuff and +Zollern Redoubts. With its parallel lines of trenches and +complications it was quite as formidable as the main first line +constructed about the same time two years before. The British had +already broken through the line up to a point some 600 yards north of +Stuff Redoubt. On November 18, 1916, their troops again smashed the +line for a distance of more than 500 yards. The Germans still held +positions on the line to the south of Grandcourt, but the British had +penetrated so far to the right and to the left that the line could no +longer serve as a barrier to the village. The British advance was +begun about 6 a. m., preceded by a short but fierce bombardment of the +German line, and which according to the account afterward given by +prisoners caused the Germans to seek the shelter of their dugouts. +Troops from the British Isles and Canada who made the advance together +were among the Germans before the latter could issue from their +shelters after the withering storm of shells. At different places +savage hand-to-hand fighting went on in the trenches. On the sides of +the ravine below Grandcourt, where the slopes were swept by +machine-gun fire, the British were unable to advance. But for some two +miles to the right they swept all resistance away. Especially +important were the British gains on the extreme right, which gave them +possession of another stage of the descent along the minor spur +running in a northerly direction. The whole of the south side of the +Ancre to the edge of Grandcourt was now firmly held by British troops. + +In the night of November 21, 1916, after a heavy preparatory +bombardment by trench mortars, the Germans carried out a successful +trench raid on British lines south of St. Elie. A considerable part of +the British front-line trench was demolished by German fire and +twenty-six British were taken prisoner by the raiders. + +The clear weather that prevailed along the Somme front at this time +encouraged German, French, and British airmen to engage in raiding +expeditions. On November 24, 1916, British machines attacked and +routed a formation of twenty German aeroplanes, and held possession of +the field without losing one machine. At other points the British +flyers smashed eight German machines and drove several down to earth +in a damaged condition. In these encounters the British lost three +aircraft of various types. + +In Lorraine three British aeroplanes fought an engagement with a +considerable number of German machines. The result was that the +British drove down an enemy machine in the forest of Gremecy, +remaining masters of the field without incurring any losses +themselves. On the Somme front there was incessant activity among the +French airmen, who fought about forty engagements, during which they +brought down five German machines. Quartermaster Sergeant Flachaire +destroyed his sixth machine near Manancourt and Lieutenant Doullin his +tenth south of Vaux Wood. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +WEATHER CONDITIONS--MOVEMENTS AROUND LOOS + + +November, 1916, the fifth month of the Battle of the Somme, drew to an +end with fog and drizzling rain, the whole fighting area a drab +expanse of mud and pools of water. For two months there had not been +an interval of more than three or four days of fine weather at a time, +and the ground had grown steadily more and more water-logged, which +greatly hampered military operations. Except on the Ancre, where the +British had taken 7,000 prisoners, no other important victories had +been won by them, but each day marked some gain, and in the aggregate +the ground won, the casualties inflicted, and the slow but continuous +attrition of the enemy were of importance. The British claimed that in +November alone they had taken prisoner between 9,000 and 10,000 +Germans and had put out of action fully four times as many. + +The wastage of the Allies' aircraft in November, 1916, was +considerably less than in any of the previous four months. In the +official reports it was definitely stated that 148 British, German, +and French machines had been brought down. Of this total thirty-two +British machines were admitted by General Headquarters to have been +lost or were counted missing. As an offset to these losses the British +airmen had destroyed twenty-four, captured seven, and brought down +damaged twenty-six German machines. In addition to these the Royal +Naval Air Service operating under French military authorities had +brought down five hostile aeroplanes. + +It was claimed by the French that they had destroyed, captured, and +driven to earth in a wrecked condition fifty German machines. +Lieutenant Guynemer continued to hold his lead among French airmen, +having scored in November, 1916, his twenty-third victory. In three +days of this month he brought down six German aeroplanes. Guynemer's +victories in the air had inspired other members of the French flying +corps to fresh deeds of daring, and during November, 1916, Lieutenant +Nungesser and Adjutant Dorme destroyed their fifteenth and sixteenth +hostile machines respectively. In the only reports published by the +Germans during this month it was claimed that they had destroyed or +put out of action thirty-six hostile machines. + +On December 1, 1916, British troops successfully raided German +trenches south of Armentieres. On the same date the Germans attempted +a trench raid northeast of Neuve Chapelle which was beaten off by the +British, who inflicted some losses on the raiders. On the French front +their airmen were active in bombing enemy positions. + +A German attack was made in force on December 3, 1916, after a heavy +bombardment of the British trenches south of Loos. After a spirited +struggle the Germans were driven off, having suffered heavy +casualties. On this same day British aircraft won some important +successes inside the German lines, when they bombed among other +objectives a railway station and aerodrome. The British Naval Air +Squadron also engaged in a number of air combats on this date, +destroying two German machines and damaging four others. + +Heavy bombardments of enemy positions by day and the usual trench +raids at night continued for more than a week, during which the Allied +troops registered minor successes, insignificant when considered +separately, but important in the aggregate. It was not until December +13, 1916, that any important engagement was fought, when a German +attack was made on Lassigny, that part of the French front nearest to +Paris. It was estimated by French headquarters that the Germans had +brought together for this attack 40,000 troops and had concentrated +corresponding quantities of artillery. After an intense bombardment of +the French lines that lasted for some hours the German troops pressed +forward. If they had hoped to take the French by surprise, they were +speedily undeceived. The assaulting waves were received by a withering +fire from the French 3-inch and machine guns that tore great gaps in +the German close-formed ranks. A barrier of fire thrown to the rear of +the Germans caught and ravaged the supporting reserves. + +The French trenches were reached over a frontage of about 300 yards, +but an immediate counterattack enabled the French to recapture their +lines. Only a few survivors of the German attacking column escaped. +Most of them were killed after a determined resistance. An hour later +the Germans renewed the assault and again failed. As their reserves +came up they were easily dispersed by the heavy French artillery. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +FRENCH WIN AT VERDUN + + +On December 15, 1916, the French troops won an important victory in +the region of Verdun, north of Douaumont, when they broke through the +German lines on a front of six and a quarter miles, extending from the +Meuse River to the plain of Woevre, penetrating to a depth of nearly +two miles. In this advance the French troops captured the villages of +Vacherauville and Louvemont, the fortified farm of Chambrettes, and +the fortified fieldworks of Hardaumont and Bezonvaux. The results +gained by the French in this advance compare favorably with General +Mangin's sensational exploit on October 24, 1916, when Fort Douaumont +was taken. + +The battle began at 10 o'clock in the morning as the church clock near +by sounded the hour. Immediately every French gun started a storm of +steel, showering shells immediately behind the German front line. +While this intense bombardment was at its height, the French infantry +made a dashing advance and gained the village of Vacherauville, where +they encountered stubborn resistance. There was hand-to-hand fighting +from house to house until finally the Germans were driven out, +resisting every step of the way. Pressing on beyond the village the +French next attacked an important German trench known as "Bethmann's +Bowl," which they penetrated after a hard struggle and made the +defenders prisoners. Next Pepper Hill was attacked, and the two crests +of this height were won in exactly one hour after a start had been +made. During this time the Germans on the opposing slope were caught +in the rear by a French flank movement. Completely taken by surprise +they attempted to flee when French airmen, dropping their machines to +within 500 feet of the ground, brought their machine guns to bear on +the now disorderly crowd of fugitives, and those who escaped the +devastating fire sweeping down on them at once surrendered. + +The French infantry now advanced along the valley behind Pepper Hill, +and with the aid of a French force that had fought its way through the +fortified fieldworks of Caurieres Wood took Louvemont by a brilliant +assault. + +In front of Douaumont the French troops made a rapid advance, but in +Hardaumont Wood their forward movement on the right flank encountered +stubborn opposition. Fighting continued there until late in the +afternoon, when the German garrison in Bezonvaux Redoubt, about five +kilometers beyond the original French line, surrendered. + +It was especially encouraging to the Allies that in this impressive +victory only four French divisions participated, while it was known +from prisoners taken that the Germans had five divisions in the field. + +The French owed much of their success to the daring work performed by +their aviators. Dozens of airmen dashed here and there, taking +observations, correcting artillery, and accompanying the infantry's +advance. At intervals they dashed back to headquarters with detailed +reports of what was going on, thus keeping the commander in chief in +close touch with the operations of the troops. The German gunners +seemed to have become unnerved by the rapidity of the French advance, +and fired almost at random. They had no assistance from their own +aviators, who were kept in subjection by the French airmen, of whom +not one was lost during the day. + +The French did not overestimate the magnitude of the victory they had +won. It compelled the Germans to move back their artillery, which up +to that time was a source of danger to the French supply depots and +works on the other side of the Meuse, and also laid open the flanks of +the French position on Le Mort Homme. + +Owing to the swiftness of the advance and the disorganization of the +German batteries the French losses were comparatively slight. As +stated in the French official report the total number of prisoners +taken on December 15, 1916, was 11,387, including 284 officers, and +115 cannon were captured, with 44 bomb throwers and 107 machine guns. +This great victory was the last act of General Nivelle before assuming +the chief command of the French armies on the western front. To this +officer belongs the credit of drawing up the plan of attack, in which +he was assisted by General Petain, at that time his superior officer. +The assault proper was left to General Mangin. The four divisions +engaged were commanded by such leaders as General de Maud'huy and +General du Passage. + +During the night of December 17, 1916, German troops delivered a +strong counterattack against the new French positions north of +Douaumont. By hard fighting they succeeded in forcing the French out +of the fortified position known as Chambrettes Farm, the farthest +point which the French attained in their advance on December 15, 1916. +The Germans were not allowed for long to enjoy their small success, +for on December 18, 1916, the French returned in force and reoccupied +the position which they now held intact. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +CANADIANS AT ARRAS--NIVELLE IN COMMAND + + +In the afternoon of December 20, 1916, Canadian troops made an +important raid on German trenches north of Arras on a front of 400 +yards and succeeded in putting out of action, temporarily at least, an +entire battalion of German infantry. + +The Canadian troops, after the first preparatory fire of the British +guns had ceased, advanced and occupied the German trenches in less +than two minutes. The Germans, who had not expected that the raid +would take place before Christmas Eve, were completely surprised. As +they hurried for the saps and dugouts leading to the rear trenches, +the Canadians showered hand grenades among them. Caught entirely +unprepared, the Germans in the first line offered but a feeble +resistance, the majority at once surrendering with cries of "Kamerad!" +Many others were taken as they fled for the second and third lines +while the Canadians pushed on to the second trenches. About twenty +dugouts were destroyed, some of them with bombs captured from the +Germans. In a few of these dugouts the occupants refused to surrender +and consequently their lairs were blown to pieces. It was estimated +that 150 Germans were killed during the raid. The Canadians took one +commissioned officer prisoner and fifty-seven of other ranks. + +A British officer engaged in the raid thus describes the struggle +after the German line was penetrated: + +"As we entered the trenches many Germans broke from the dugouts. All +who did were subsequently well cared for. Each of our men was given +definite instructions for his precise task and a map of the enemy's +trenches, which proved absolutely correct. + +"Each man knew every detail of the proposed operation. They were +delighted at this and entered the fight with great cheers. When they +came out two hours later they were singing and as happy as schoolboys +on a holiday. + +"The neatness and dispatch with which the raid was carried out were +unique. The artillery cooperation of the British guns was perfection. +Beautifully placed curtains of fire prepared our advance, and creeping +forward protected us as they proceeded to demolish absolutely the +enemy trenches and dugouts. The program had given the men an hour and +a half for their work, but the clean-up was accomplished in an hour +and ten minutes, when the raiders signaled that they were ready to +return to their own trenches." + +The Germans did not attempt a counterattack until the following night, +when they mistakenly bombarded and raided their own first lines, +believing that the Canadians were still there. As it happened, the +Canadian troops who had carried out the successful raid were some +miles away. They were not a part of the fighting line, but on rest, +and had gone forward for this particular military operation planned +some weeks before. + +During the night of December 19, 1916, British troops made a +successful raid on German lines in the neighborhood of Gommecourt, +where after doing considerable damage to the defensive works they +retired without any casualties. Early in the morning of the following +day the British made another successful raid on German trenches north +of Arras, where they captured a number of prisoners. + +On the same date, December 19, 1916, a British contingent encountered +a hostile patrol north of Neuve Chapelle. After a brief, sharp fight +the leader of the patrol was killed and his men surrendered. + +German official reports of this date stated that, west of +Villers-Carbonnel, Grenadiers of the Guard and East Prussian +Musketeers forced their way into a strong British position that had +been destroyed by effective fire, and after blowing up dugouts retired +to their own lines, bringing away with them four officers and +twenty-six men as prisoners. The Germans claimed that during various +air engagements about this time along the Somme they destroyed six +hostile aircraft. + +During the night of December 20, 1916, a strong German raiding party +attacked the British line opposite Lens, but only a few succeeded in +penetrating the trenches. After a short struggle these were ejected by +the British troops and the raiding party was driven off. + +Southwest of Armentieres a British raiding party entered German +trenches and made some prisoners. + +On December 21, 1916, the French Government made public the official +order summoning General Nivelle to the command of the armies of the +north and northeast and signed by General Joffre. General Castelnau, +General Joffre's Chief of Staff, having reached the age limit, was +retained on the active list by a special decree indorsed by the +President of France, which was preliminary to his appointment to the +command of an army group. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +GERMAN ATTACKS AT VERDUN--RESULT OF SIX MONTHS' FIGHTING + + +During the night of December 28, 1916, German troops in considerable +force delivered a spirited attack on a three-kilometer front between +Hill 304 and Dead Man Hill, northwest of Verdun. The German advance +was made after an intense artillery preparation. According to the +official French reports the French infantry and machine-gun fire broke +the attack, but a trench south of Dead Man Hill was occupied by a few +German troops. In the account of the attack given out from Berlin it +was stated that German troops penetrated the third and second lines of +the French positions, from which 222 prisoners, of whom four were +officers, together with seven machine guns, were brought back. All +attempts made by the French troops to regain the captured trenches +were defeated, the German report stated. + +Between the Aisne and the Oise French artillery carried out a +destructive fire on the German positions in the region of +Quennevieres. French patrols penetrated the shattered German trenches +which had been hastily evacuated. All the afternoon of December 28, +1916, German guns on the left bank of the Meuse bombarded French +positions between the Meuse and Avocourt. At several points on the +French front in this sector the Germans made vigorous attacks with +grenades, but in every instance they were repulsed with considerable +losses. + +During the night of December 28, 1916, a party of British troops made +a successful raid against German trenches to the east of Le Sars with +good results. + +The closing days of the year were not marked by any important military +operations on either side. Though no great attacks were attempted, the +old business of trench warfare being resumed, the opposing forces +continued to harass and destroy each other at every opportunity. The +grim object of British, French, and German was to kill wherever shell +or machine-gun bullet could reach an enemy. This period of "peace" was +really one of ceaseless activity, and the British distinguished +themselves in keeping the Germans constantly on the alert. To prevent +the building of defenses, or smash them when built, to concentrate +gunfire on communication trenches so as to render them impassable, to +destroy reliefs coming in or going out, to carry death to the foe in +ditches and dugouts--in short, to injure him in any way that human +ingenuity and military science could devise--such were the tactics +employed by belligerents during the days and nights when in official +language there was "nothing to report." + +Official announcement was made on New Year's Day by the British Prime +Minister's Department that General Sir Douglas Haig, commander in +chief of the British armies in France, had been promoted to the rank +of field marshal. His chief aids on the French front, Lieutenant +General Sir Henry Rawlinson and Major General Sir Hubert Gough, +commanding the Fourth and Fifth Armies respectively, were also +gazetted for promotion. + +In reviewing the work of the Allies for the past six months Field +Marshal Haig made no secret of the fact that he had been forced by +circumstances to assume the offensive in July somewhat earlier than he +intended. Had he waited until his munitionment was complete and his +raw drafts had acquired more experience, the Battle of the Somme might +not have resulted so favorably to the Allies. The Germans were near +the outskirts of Verdun and striking hard, and the moral and political +consequences of the fall of Verdun would have been so serious that it +was impossible to delay the offensive. Field Marshal Haig stated in +his summing up that the Battle of the Somme was begun to save Verdun, +to prevent the transfer of further German reenforcements from the west +to the Russian or Italian fronts, and to wear down the strength of the +enemy forces, and that all these purposes were fulfilled. + +The brief period of so-called "peace" which had prevailed along the +Somme during the closing days of 1916 was broken on New Year's Day, +when a strong German patrol attacked the British trenches north of +Vermelles. The British troops defending the position having +foreknowledge of the attack, were quite prepared for a vigorous +resistance and the Germans were driven off with sanguinary losses, +leaving a number of dead and wounded on the field. In the evening of +this date, under cover of a heavy bombardment, a German patrol +consisting of about forty men made an attempt to reach the British +lines to the north of Ypres. A few of the German troops succeeded in +gaining the British trenches, but were ejected after a brief struggle. +At other points on the front between the Somme and the Ancre the +British troops started the new year in spirited fashion by carrying +out effective counterbattery work and heavy bombardment of German +positions in the neighborhood of Neuve Chapelle and Armentieres. + +During the afternoon of January 6, 1917, British troops under cover of +a heavy bombardment successfully raided German positions southeast of +Arras, where advancing over a wide front they entered the enemy's +defenses and penetrated to the third line. Here they succeeded in +bombing and destroying a number of dugouts and wrought considerable +damage to the German defensive works. In minor engagements of this +character the British reported to have taken 240 prisoners since +Christmas. + +French artillery on the Somme front was especially active during the +first days of the new year. On the night of January 4, 1917, French +aerial squadrons scattered projectiles on the German aviation field at +Grisolles and on the railway station and barracks at Guiscard. + +A number of explosions and four incendiary fires resulted from these +attacks by French airmen. + +Surprise attacks were attempted by German troops on the French +advance posts east of Butte du Mesnil in the region of Maisons de +Champagne. During the day of January 5, 1917, French artillery fire +dispersed the attackers, who fled from the field, leaving a number of +prisoners in French hands. The British troops along the Somme +continued their raids on German positions every night and frequently +during the day. In the afternoon of January 7, 1917, they attacked a +German trench south of Armentieres, and after bombing the German +defenses retired in good order with nineteen prisoners. On the same +date a German contingent after a preliminary bombardment attempted to +penetrate British trenches southwest of Wytschaete. The attackers +evidently expected that their heavy gunfire had demoralized the +defenders and looked for an easy victory, but they were speedily +repulsed with considerable losses. Another attempt made under cover of +a heavy bombardment to seize British advance posts to the north of +Ypres also met with disaster. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +GERMAN ATTACK ON HILL 304--BRITISH SURPRISE ATTACK + + +Early in the morning of January 10, 1917, small detachments of British +troops attacked the German lines to the north of Beaumont-Hamel. For +some days rain and sleet had been falling almost continuously, and the +battle field in this section of the fighting area largely consisted of +swamps and miniature lakes. The British troops following the barrage +fire penetrated the German position on a front of 500 yards. The +Germans had sought refuge from the withering fire of the British guns +in their dugouts, which rain and snow and sleet had converted into +mudholes. The German soldiers were wet and cold and miserable, and +offered but slight resistance. Three officers, nine non-coms., and 109 +men surrendered to the British--a larger number than the raiding party +contained. + +In the afternoon of January 10, 1917, the British carried out a +successful raid east of Loos which resulted in the capture of a number +of prisoners. Throughout the day British guns pounded German positions +in the neighborhood of Les Boeufs and on both sides of the Ancre +Valley. Destructive bombardment of German trenches opposite Le Sars, +and battery positions in the neighborhood of Gommecourt, produced good +results. + +On the following day, January 11, 1917, British troops successfully +attacked German positions to the north of Beaumont-Hamel. The action +had some local importance, for the Germans occupied high ground from +which they had observation of the British trenches. + +The British attack was begun shortly before dawn in a dark and heavy +mist. As the first glimmer of morning light appeared the snow began to +fall, hiding with a white mantle the miry battle field, in which the +British troops sank ankle deep as they struggled forward floundering +here and there in old shell holes. The Germans had not recovered from +the nerve-shattering bombardment that had preceded the attack when the +British soldiers were upon them and over their dugouts before they +could bring their machine guns into play. The majority of the Germans +did not attempt to fight, but surrendered at once. Some of the German +officers attempted to rally their men, and, fighting bravely rather +than surrender, were killed. In the two days' fighting in this sector +the British captured over 300 prisoners. The German version of this +attack stated that "an insignificant trench had been abandoned to the +enemy." + +In the night on this date, January 11, 1917, British troops were +reported to have penetrated German trenches north of Arras, where a +number of prisoners were taken at the cost of a few casualties. + +Early in the morning of January 13, 1917, German troops forced their +way into a British post northwest of Serre. By a hotly pressed +counterattack the British drove them out and again occupied the post. +Thirteen prisoners, including three officers, were captured in this +area. The British during the night also attacked German trenches west +of Wytschaete, where they were successful in attaining their +objectives and captured a number of prisoners. + +[Illustration: This notice was posted in French munitions works by +order of the Minister of Munitions. It contains an aviator's pictures +of Fort Douaumont before and after the artillery bombardment and +proves the importance of immense munitions supplies.] + +Owing to the almost continuous bad weather, heavy rains, and snowfall, +there was little fighting along the Somme during the succeeding days, +but the bombardment of enemy positions was continuous, and the British +took some prisoners in trench raids. + +In the morning of January 17, 1917, British forces on the Ancre +launched the strongest attack that had been attempted for weeks on a +front of 600 yards north of Beaucourt. Preceded by a heavy bombardment +that shattered the German defenses British troops occupied a line of +enemy posts at the cost of a few casualties. The position won by the +British was especially valuable because it afforded them better +advantages than they possessed for observation in this area. In the +afternoon of this date the Germans attempted a counterattack which was +broken up with heavy losses by the British artillery barrage. + +Another daylight raid was successfully carried out by the Canadian +troops northeast of Cite Calonne on the same morning. The Canadians +succeeded in penetrating German trenches on a front of 700 yards and +pushed forward to a depth of 300 yards, or as far as the enemy's +second line. The German dugouts were completely wrecked. The British +report stated that heavy losses were inflicted on the enemy. They +captured one officer and ninety-nine of other ranks, and several +machine guns and a trench mortar. In the evening of this date the +Germans, after three hours of intense artillery fire, delivered a +series of reconnoitering attacks in Chevaliers Wood on the height of +the Meuse (Verdun front). The British artillery and machine guns at +once became active and sent such a withering fire against the Germans +that they were scattered with heavy losses. + +Violent artillery duels continued for several days following, but +there was no important fighting along the Somme. On January 20, 1917, +in the region south of Lassigny, the Germans were especially active in +shelling French positions. They attempted a surprise attack on one of +the advanced French trenches, but were beaten off. On this date the +French launched a successful attack against German lines in the Vingre +sector, where they captured a number of prisoners. In the sector of +Burnhaupt, in Alsace, the French won a victory in an encounter with +enemy patrols, and repulsed a strong German reconnaissance which +attempted to reach French lines in the region southwest of Altkirch. + +During the night of January 20, 1917, and most of the following day, +German and French artillery fought an almost continuous duel on the +right bank of the Meuse, while patrols of the two armies engaged in +close and sanguinary encounters in Caurieres Wood. It was during the +fighting in this region that the British took over twelve miles of the +French front. French troops, however, still held the line on the +northern bank of the Somme near Mont St. Quentin, the key to Peronne. + +In the morning of January 21, 1917, the British forces made a +successful raid on German trenches southeast of Loos. It was a short +but spirited fight while it lasted. The British reported that they had +bombed and destroyed dugouts full of Germans, while their own losses +were slight. A number of Germans were made prisoner in this raid, but +the majority preferred to fight rather than yield, and fighting fell. + +In the evening on this date the Germans on the right bank of the Meuse +(Verdun front) attacked on two different occasions the French trenches +to the northeast of Caurieres Wood. They made the advance after an +intense preliminary bombardment, but were unable to reach the French +position. The accurate fire of the French artillery proved destructive +and drove them back, and the French were enabled to hold their lines +without a break. About the same time British troops repulsed a German +raid on their lines north of Arras. During the night and on the day +following, January 22, 1917, the British took a number of prisoners as +the result of patrol and bombing encounters in the neighborhood of +Grandcourt, Neuville-St. Vaast, Fauquisart, and Wytschaete. + +German Army Headquarters reported that on this date the British +attacked their lines near Lens and in a hand-grenade engagement were +repulsed with some losses. Near Bezon one of their reconnoitering +detachments brought back several prisoners and one machine gun from +short excursions into hostile positions. + +In the night of January 22, 1917, the Germans attempted two raids on +British positions between Armentieres and Ploegsteert. In one instance +the Germans were driven back before they could reach the British +trenches. The second party of raiders succeeded in penetrating a +portion of the British position, but were quickly driven out. The +raiding party while advancing, and again on returning, came under +British machine-gun fire and left a number of dead on the field. On +this date the British lost one aeroplane and drove a hostile machine +down in the neighborhood of Aubigny. About the same time the French +reported the capture of a Fokker, which landed in their lines near +Fismes. Two other German machines were brought down in an aerial +engagement in the vicinity of Marchelpot, and another by the fire of +French antiaircraft guns in the direction of Amy. + +A new division, and the sixth to enter the fight, was now flung +against the French with the purpose of cutting through the line and +covering the German occupation on the southern slope of Hill 304. "The +blackened stumps of the shell-swept wood," said an eyewitness, +"offered no protection to the kaiser's legions, and regardless of the +officers' shrill whistles and brandished revolvers the German soldiers +flung aside their equipment, rifles, and hand grenades and raced back +to their former trenches." + +During the night of January 26, 1917, French artillery continued to +pound German lines in the sector of Hill 304. At Les Eparges a +surprise attack was attempted by German troops that was repulsed with +considerable losses to the attackers. During the day's fighting in +this sector the French aviators brought down five hostile aircraft, +Lieutenant Guynemer scoring his thirtieth victory. + +[Illustration: Allies' Gain at the Somme, up to February, 1917.] + +In the neighborhood of Transloy on the Somme front British forces +carried out a successful operation on January 27, 1917. Owing to the +blizzard weather the Germans evidently did not expect an attack, +perhaps thinking that the British would remain under shelter as they +were doing. No unusual preparation seemed to be going on within the +British lines that would suggest to an outside observer that an +important military operation was about to be launched. But in the +British trenches well prepared and organized troops were waiting the +order to attack. Suddenly the British batteries spoke in thunderous +tones, showering German trenches and defensive works with shells of +enormous destructive force. The barbed-wire obstructions before the +German positions were cut like packthread. The British troops at the +signal sprang out into no-man's-land following the curtain of fire. +Sweeping over and around the position, the Germans were trapped in +their dugouts before they could get up to bomb the invaders or fire +upon them with machine guns. The whole German garrison of this strong +position gave up the fight after making but slight resistance. + +The prisoners, numbering six officers and 352 men of the Hundred and +Nineteenth and Hundred and Twenty-first Regiments, the Wuerttembergers +of Koenigen Olga, who had hardly recovered from the surprise occasioned +by their capture, were packed into old London busses and were hurried +to their camp on the British side of the battle field. + +The prisoners confessed that they had been caught napping. The British +gunfire they had believed was simply the usual morning salutation, and +remained in their dugouts until it was over. They said they would have +put up a fight if they had had any kind of chance, but taken by +surprise they could only surrender. + +German gunners at other points had by this time observed the red +lights that went up, the signals of distress, and thus learned that +the position had been captured. But they were too late in getting +their guns into action, and the white haze that hung over the scene at +that early morning hour hindered their observation, so that the feeble +fire they could concentrate on the captured position did no harm. + +The British had pressed on farther than the objective given to them to +a point 500 yards beyond the German first line, where they established +themselves, finding the deep warm dugouts much more comfortable than +the temporary shelters of their own which they had left. Later in the +day the British troops occupying the most advanced position were +withdrawn to the ground which had been assigned as the objective in +the attack. The Germans made different attempts to force them out of +this position, but all attacks broke down under fire, for the British +had perfect observation of their movements from the higher ground they +had won in recent battles in this sector. + +On the French front there was active fighting all day long on January +27, 1917. On the left bank of the Meuse French troops engaged the +Germans with hand grenades on the eastern slopes of Hill 304. On the +right bank of the river they made a successful attack against German +positions between Les Eparges and the Calonne trench. The German +position was found to be strewn with dead, and a great quantity of +booty was taken. In Lorraine there were numerous artillery duels in +the sector of the forest of Bezange. Near Moulainville a German +aeroplane was brought down in flames by the fire of French guns. + +The continued bad weather that prevailed along the Somme and on the +Verdun front did not hinder the Allies from assuming the offensive +whenever there appeared to be an opportunity to make even the +slightest gain. At daybreak on January 28, 1917, British forces +penetrated German trenches northeast of Neuville-St. Vaast, where they +successfully bombed the enemy in dugouts and brought away a number of +prisoners. All day British artillery was active north of the Somme in +the neighborhood of Beaumont-Hamel, Lens, and the Ypres sector. +Northeast of Festubert the British carried out a successful raid in +which they captured an officer and a number of other ranks. The +British raiders escaped without any casualties. The Germans after an +intense bombardment attempted to rush a British post east of +Fauquissart, but were repulsed in disorder. + +On this date the French forces also displayed courage and activity in +carrying out successfully important minor operations at different +points along the Somme. During the night they entered German positions +in the sector of Hill 304 on the left bank of the Meuse; artillery +duels and grenade fighting were almost continuous. In the Champagne, +and at various places on the front in Alsace, there were numerous +patrol encounters between the Germans and French in which the latter +were generally victorious. A German attack made on a French trench at +Hartmannsweilerkopf was repulsed with heavy losses to the raiders. An +attempt made by German aviators to bomb the open town of Luneville +proved abortive. No damage was done and no lives were lost. + +The British forces in France did not attempt any offensive during the +day of January 29, 1917, but at night a successful raid was carried +out in the neighborhood of the Butte de Warlencourt north of +Courcelette. + +The British penetrated the German trenches and bombed the dugouts, +destroying a gun and taking seventeen prisoners. East of Souchez +another British raiding party penetrated German lines and wrecked the +defenses. + +The Germans continued their efforts to drive the French out of their +positions in the region of Hill 304. On this date, January 29, 1917, +they made a violent attack with grenades on an advanced French trench +in this sector, but were repulsed with losses by the French artillery. +Three German aeroplanes were brought down. + +The 30th of January, 1917, was an unimportant day in the fighting in +France. The British bombarded German positions opposite Richebourg +l'Avoue, east of Armentieres and Ypres. Between Soissons and Rheims +the French artillery dispersed two surprise attacks attempted by the +Germans, one in the sector of Soupir and the other in the region of +Beaulne (Aisne). + +In Lorraine during the night a French detachment penetrated the first +and second line of German trenches at a point south of Leintrey. The +defenders of these positions were put out of action and the French +took about fifteen prisoners. In the region of Moncel another party of +French raiders successfully carried out a surprise attack on German +positions. + +On this last day of the month the British headquarters in France +reported that during January they had captured 1,228 Germans, +including twenty-seven officers. + + + + +PART II--EASTERN FRONT + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +THE NEW DRIVE AGAINST LEMBERG + + +Coincident with their attempt to recapture Kovel, the Russians +launched a new drive against Lemberg, the ancient capital of Galicia. +This movement was a result of the successes which they had gained in +the Bukowina and in eastern Galicia during July, 1916. By the end of +that month, as has been previously told, the Russians had reconquered +all of the Bukowina, overrun some of the most southern passes of the +Carpathians, and were in possession of that part of eastern Galicia +located north of the Pruth and Dniester Rivers and east of the Strypa +River. + +Having gained these advantages, they now attempted to press them and +attacked Lemberg both from the north and from the south. In the former +direction they advanced from Brody and Tarnopol against the strongly +held Styr and Bug line. In the south Lemberg was defended by the +Dniester line. Before forcing this line it was necessary to capture +Stanislau, an important point on the Czernowitz-Lemberg railway. +Between the Bug and the Dniester lines of defense Lemberg was secured +in the east, and still farther by a third line of natural defenses. +This was formed by a series of northern tributaries of the Dniester, +of which the most important were the Sereth, Strypa, and Zlota Lipa +Rivers. The former two had already been crossed by the Russians, but +there still remained the very formidable and extremely strong line of +defenses along the last, which had more than once before proved very +difficult to overcome. + +On the Russian side there were engaged in this struggle three army +groups under Generals Sakharoff, Stcherbacheff, and Lechitsky. The +Austro-German forces were divided into four groups under Generals +Puhallo, Boehm-Ermolli, Von Bothmer, and Von Pfanzer-Ballin. + +During the first few days of August, 1916, the fighting along this +entire line, though continuous and severe, was not particularly well +defined and was more or less split up into comparatively small and +local engagements. On August 1, 1916, engagements of this nature took +place southwest of Burkanoff and west of Buczacz. In the latter region +the ground offered great difficulties. A small but very marshy +river--the Moropiec--was strongly defended by the Austro-German +forces, and when these finally had to give way, they destroyed all +bridges. Nothing daunted, the Russians waded across in the face of +severe fire and frequently up to their necks in water, gained the +western bank, and after making some hundreds of prisoners, promptly +dug themselves in. Other engagements occurred on the same day in the +Dniester-Pruth sector--in the direction of Stanislau near Wisniowcza +and Molodgonow. + +On August 2, 1916, the Russians developed a strong attack on both +sides of the railway near Brody against Ponikowica, but were +unsuccessful. However, the attacks were kept up and by the next day, +August 3, 1916, yielded not only considerable ground, but more than +1,000 prisoners. Fighting was kept up in this locality throughout the +following day. The Austro-Germans launched nine counterattacks, all of +which were repulsed. The losses on both sides were very severe. For, +though the Austro-German forces had to give way, they did so only +after the most stubborn resistance. Every little village had to be +fought for for hours, and each street had to be cleared at the point +of the bayonet. Especially severe encounters occurred near Meidzigory +and Tchistopady. By August 5, 1916, the Russians had registered some +important successes in this small sector. The number of their +prisoners had mounted to over 5,000, and a considerable number of +machine guns and bomb throwers had fallen into their hands. The +Austro-Germans tried to dislodge their opponents by means of violent +artillery fire and a series of strong counterattacks, but were +unsuccessful, and by the end of the fourth day, August 5, 1916, the +Russians were in possession of the west bank of the Sereth, near and +northwest of Zalocze, and of the villages of Zvyjin, Ratische, +Tchistopady, Gnidava, and Zalvoce, and the entire ridge of heights +between them. + +Without let-up the Russians continued to hammer away at the +Austro-German lines on the Graberka and Sereth Rivers. On August 6, +1916, the Russian troops captured some more strongly fortified +positions in the vicinity of the villages of Zvyjin, Kostiniec, and +Reniuv. This region abounds with woods, and lends itself therefore +easily to the most determined defense. This resulted again in very +fierce bayonet encounters. The Austro-German forces attempted to stop +the Russian advance and launched a long series of very energetic +counterattacks, especially in the region of the river Koropiec. All of +these, however, were in vain. They were repulsed and resulted in +considerable losses. According to their official statement, the +Russians made about 8,500 prisoners in the Sereth sector on August 5 +and 6, 1916, captured four cannon, nineteen machine guns, eleven +trench mortars, a large number of mine throwers and much war material +of all kinds. The amount of ground captured by August 7, 1916, was +claimed to have reached the considerable total of sixty-one and +one-half square miles. + +Closer and closer the Russians were getting to their immediate +objective, Stanislau. On August 7, 1916, strong Russian forces +attacked along a front of about fifteen miles on a line between +Tlumach and Ottynia and succeeded in forcing back the Austro-Germans +along this entire front. They forced their way into the town of +Nizniow (about fifteen miles northeast of Stanislau), which was +captured, as also were the villages of Bratychuv, Palakhiche, +Nodworna, Charnolocza, Krovotula, Nove, and the small town of Ottynia, +and finally the town of Ilumach itself. + +In spite of the gradual retirement of the Austro-Germans they +maintained their counterattacks, which, however, were not successful. +By April 8, 1916, they had been forced to take their line back to the +west of Nizinoff-Tysmienitsa-Ottynia, or within a few miles east of +Stanislau. The Russians on that day crossed the Koropiec, drove their +opponents out of their fortified positions, and themselves occupied +the left bank up to the point of its juncture with the Dniester. Late +on the same day the town of Tysmienitsa was taken as well as a ridge +of heights to the northeast as far as the right bank of the Dniester. +The fall of Stanislau now had become only a matter of days. + +Throughout the next two days, August 9 and 10, 1916, the battle for +the possession of Stanislau continued to rage incessantly. One after +another the Russians overcame all the obstacles in their way. River +after river was crossed, trench after trench was stormed, and village +after village was captured. At last, about 8 o'clock in the evening of +August 10, 1916, the Russians under General Lechitsky entered +Stanislau from where the Austro-German troops had previously retired +in good order in a northerly direction against Halicz. + +Farther north, in the region of Buczacz and Zalocze, the Russian +advance likewise progressed, though somewhat slower. Although by +August 11, 1916, the ground between the Zlota Lipa and the Horovanka +from the village of Kraseczuv up to the village of Usciezelione had +been captured, the Russian line had not been able to push quite as far +west toward Lemberg as in the region of Stanislau. In spite of this +fact, however, the Russians continued to push their advance. On August +12, 1916, they occupied Podhaytse on the Zlota Lipa, halfway between +Buczacz and Brzezany, and Mariampol on the Dniester. + +The Austro-German forces continued their stubborn resistance all along +the line, and every bit of ground gained by the Russians had to be +fought for very hard. On August 13, 1916, fighting occurred along the +entire Galician front, from the Dniester up to the upper Sereth. The +Zlota Lipa was again crossed on that day at some of its numerous +turnings. After a very stubborn fight the village of Tustobaby, +northwest of the Dniester, strongly defended by fortifications and +machine guns, fell into the hands of the Russians. Russian attacks in +the region of Zboroff on the Tarnopol-Lemberg railroad were repulsed, +as were also attacks made west of Monasterzyska. + +"In addition, there were taken a large number of rifles, 30 versts of +small-gauge railways, telegraphic materials, and several depots of +ammunition and engineering materials." + +Throughout the next few days the Austro-Germans resumed the offensive +along the entire line. In spite of this the Russians managed to +advance at some points. At others they stubbornly maintained their +ground, and only in a few instances were they forced to yield +slightly. As the end of August approached the fighting along the +entire eastern front decreased very much in importance and violence. +Local engagements, it is true, took place at many points. But the +result of none of these had any important influence on the respective +positions of the Russians and Austro-Germans. The latter had lost +considerable ground during the Russian offensive and, if the Russian +reports were at all reliable, had suffered even more severe losses in +men and material. In this respect, however, the Russians had fared no +better, and possibly even worse. At any rate, neither Kovel nor +Lemberg, apparently the two chief objectives of the Russian +operations, had been reached, so that in spite of the Russian gains +the advantage seemed to rest with the Austro-Germans. + +At the same time at which the Russians advanced against Kovel and +Lemberg the Austro-German forces renewed with increased vigor their +activities in the Carpathian Mountains, undoubtedly with the object to +reduce, if possible, the Russian pressure on their Bukowinian and +Galician positions. To a certain extent the Central Powers met with +success. + +On August 4, 1916, a strong force of about one division, belonging to +the army group of the then Austrian heir-apparent, Archduke Charles +Francis Joseph, attacked the Russians in the mountain passes southwest +of Kutty on the Cheremosh, drove them back in a northeasterly +direction and captured some 400 men and a few machine guns. Again on +the next day, August 5, 1916, the Austro-Germans attacked in force, +this time somewhat farther west on the Pruth River in the vicinity of +Jablonitza south of Delabin, without gaining any noticeable ground. + +On August 6, 1916, the Austro-German successes of August 4, 1916, were +somewhat extended by the capture of some additional heights on the +Cheremosh River. For the next few days there was little fighting in +these regions. But on August 11, 1916, an attack begun the day before +south of Zabie on the Cheremosh resulted in the capture of about 700 +Russians and a few machine guns. + +Gradually this movement spread until on August 14, 1916, the Russians +saw themselves forced to evacuate Jablonitza on the Pruth, which, +together with some near-by villages, was immediately occupied by the +Austro-Germans. Over 1,000 Russians were captured. Additional +territory was regained by the Austro-Germans in this vicinity on +August 15, 1916. During the next few days the Russian resistance +gradually stiffened. In spite of this fact, and in spite of some local +successes gained by the Russians on August 15, 1916, south of Delatyn +and north of Kimpolung and again on August 17, 1916, south of +Jablonitza near Korosmezo, the Austro-Germans continued to gain ground +and increased the number of their prisoners. On August 19, 1916, the +Russians reported some additional successes in the Jablonitza sector +as well as on the Cheremosh and in the neighborhood of Kirlibaba, +northwest of Kimpolung near the Hungarian-Bukowinian-Rumanian border. + +On the same day, however, August 19, 1916, the Austro-Germans occupied +some heights south of Zabie, which they succeeded in holding against +strong Russian attacks launched on the same day, as well as on August +20 and 21, 1916. During the balance of August, 1916, the fighting in +the Carpathian Mountains deteriorated as a result of the new +developments farther south on the Rumanian border in a number of small +local engagements. The results of none of these had any particular +influence on the general position of either side, and in most +instances amounted to little more than fighting between outposts. The +only exception was the fighting in the neighborhood of Nadvorna, a +few miles south of Stanislau, where the Russians in the face of +stubborn resistance made some slight advance toward the Hungarian +border, from which they were, on August 29, 1916, still some twenty +miles distant. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +THE BATTLE ON THE STOKHOD RIVER + + +In preceding chapters we have learned of the successful onslaught +which the Russians made against the Austro-German lines during the +months of June and July, 1916. Along the entire southern part of the +eastern front--from the southern base of the Pinsk salient down to the +Austro-Russo-Rumanian border--the troops of the Central Powers had +been pushed back many miles. + +From June 4, 1916, to August 1, 1916, the Russians had regained some +15,000 square miles in Volhynia, Galicia, and the Bukowina. Lutsk, +Dubno, and Czernowitz were some of the valuable prizes which had +fallen into the hands of the czar's armies. At the beginning of +August, 1916, they now threatened the important railway centers of +Kovel and Lemberg, the latter the capital of Galicia. + +In defending the former the Austro-German armies had made a determined +stand on the banks of the Stokhod River. This bit of water has its +origin some ten miles west of Lutsk, from which point it winds its +tortuous course for about one hundred miles in a northerly direction +toward the Pripet River, of which it is a tributary. Its northern part +flows through the Pripet Marshes. Its southern part, up to about the +village of Trojanovka, forms a salient, with its apex on an almost +straight line drawn between Kolki on the Styr and Kovel on the Turiya. +This salient, as well as the part of the Stokhod between the southern +base of the salient and its origin, formed a valuable and very +formidable natural line of defense for Kovel against any attacks from +the northeast, east, and southeast. Here the Austro-Germans had thrown +up strong defensive works and were resisting with all their might. + +On August 1, 1916, the most furious kind of fighting took place in the +Stokhod sector. By that time the Russian attack, begun a few days +before, had made considerable progress, so that the Russians were at +some points some few miles west of the river. Time and again the +Russians heavily attacked the German-Austrian lines. In most places, +however, the latter not only held, but were even strong enough to +permit of repeated powerful counterattacks. This was especially true +in the region of the bend of the Stokhod near the villages of +Seletsie, Velitsk, and Kukhari. Very heavy fighting also developed at +many points north of the Kovel-Sarni railway. Near the village of +Smolary the Russians attacked three times, but were thrown back as +often, and between Witoniez and Kiselin six Russian attacks followed +each other in rapid succession, encountering the most stubborn +resistance. + +Without abatement the Russians threw themselves against their +opponents' lines in this sector on the following day, August 2, 1916. +But the Germans protected themselves with such a well-directed and +furious curtain of artillery fire that the czar's troops could make no +further progress in spite of exceedingly heavy losses. Again Witoniez +and Kiselin were the center of desperate fighting which gradually +spread to the forest near Ostrow, north of Kiselin, and to the region +near the villages of Dubeschovo and Gulevitchie. + +As the fighting progressed it became more and more evident that the +Austro-German command had determined to make a stand at the Stokhod at +any cost. The special correspondent of the London "Times," observing +the fighting from the Russian side, described its furiousness and the +ever-increasing resistance of the Austro-Germans as follows: + +"From an observation point eighty feet above the ground in the swaying +foliage of a huge oak, a few versts distance from the battle field, I +obtained an extraordinary view of the country and of the Russian +artillery preparation. The country here is as flat as a board and +marshy, with the slow-flowing Stokhod oozing in the midst of beds of +water lilies. The difficulties of an advance are almost incredible, +yet our troops forded the river in places, passing mazes of barbed +wire sunk in the water. + +"The cannonading continues day and night, at times reaching such +violence that it is impossible to distinguish sounds; it is simply a +continuous roar like thunder. At night the whole sky is illuminated by +bursting shells, searchlights, and star bombs. The town is filled with +wounded." + +During the night of August 3 to 4, 1916, the stiffening of the +Austro-German defensive found expression in a series of very violent +German attacks against the village of Rudka-Miryanskaia, which formed +a very strong salient in the Russian positions. This little hamlet--it +is hardly more than that--is situated on the river Stavok, a tributary +of the Stokhod. Austro-German forces advanced from three sides. +Throughout the entire night the fighting for the possession of this +point was kept up. Attack after attack was repulsed by the Russians. +But in the early morning hours the latter were forced to evacuate the +village and to retreat more than 500 yards to the east. A few hours +later reenforcements arrived and the Russians once more gained +possession of the village, in the streets of which the sanguinary kind +of hand-to-hand fighting raged for hours. As a result the +Austro-German forces were finally thrown back beyond the river Stavok. +Before long, however, fresh Austro-German troops launched new +counterattacks and regained most of this territory, holding it +thereafter in the face of a number of violent Russian counterattacks. + +Considerable fighting occurred likewise on August 3, 1916, both +somewhat farther north and south of this position. In the former +direction Russian detachments crossed the Stokhod at some points near +Lubieszow and occupied a series of heights, where they fortified +themselves strongly. To the south Ostrow again was the center of +bitter engagements, which, however, yielded no definite results. + +By this time, August 10, 1916, it had become more or less evident that +the Russian drive against Kovel had been stopped by the +Austro-Germans. For a few days now a comparative reduction in the +violence of the fighting in the Stokhod sector set in. + +Local attacks, however, as well as counterattacks continued even +during this period near Lubieszow and Zarecze, especially on August 11 +and 12, 1916. Gradually, and concurrent with increased activity on +other parts of the eastern front, engagements in the Stokhod sector +became fewer and less important. + +On August 18, 1916, however, the Russians somewhat renewed their +activity. The first sign was increased artillery fire at various +points. This was quickly followed by local attacks near +Rudka-Czerwiszce, Szelwow, and Zviniache. Especially noticeable was +the increase in Russian activity in the neighborhood of the first of +these three places, where the village of Tobol, after having changed +hands repeatedly, was finally occupied by the Russians. The latter +were successful on August 17, 1916, in crossing the Stokhod in this +vicinity at a point where they had previously been unable to make any +progress. On the other hand, they were forced to evacuate some of +their positions east of Kiselin. + +Both on August 20 and 21, 1916, the Russians attempted to enlarge the +success which they had gained near Rudka-Czerwiszce. In this, however, +they were not successful, encountering the strongest kind of +determined resistance and suffering considerable losses. Local +engagements at various points on the Kovel-Sarni railroad and in the +neighborhood of Smolary likewise terminated in favor of the +Austro-German forces. During the balance of August, 1916, fighting on +the Stokhod was restricted to moderate artillery fire, local infantry +engagements, and extensive reconnoitering operations, carried on now +by one side, now by the other, without, however, yielding any +important results or changing to any extent the respective positions. + +While the Russians were developing their attack against Kovel the +balance of the eastern front was comparatively inactive with the +exception of the Galician and Bukowinian sectors. The fighting which +occurred there had as its object the capture of Lemberg and developed +soon into a struggle of the first magnitude. It will be described in +detail in the following chapter. + +North of the Stokhod occasional local engagements occurred from time +to time. Thus the Germans gained a slight local success on August 1, +1916, near Vulka on the Oginsky Canal to the northwest of Pinsk. On +the same day considerable fighting took place near Logischin and on +both sides of Lake Nobel, both in the same vicinity. The fighting on +the banks of the lake continued during the next few days, but bore no +important results. + +Smorgon, the small but important railroad station on the Vilna-Minsk +railway, just southwest of the Vilia River, which so many times before +had been the center of furious fighting, again was made the scene of +attacks on the night of August 2, 1916. At that time the Germans +launched gas attacks on both sides of the railway. The attack opened +at 1 o'clock in the morning and the gas was released six times with +intervals between the waves. The gas attacks finished at 6 a. m. The +use of gas was discovered in good time, with the result that the +Germans, who were following the attacks, on attempting to advance, +were met with rifle and machine-gun fire and suffered severe losses. + +On August 3, 1916, considerable activity was displayed in the vicinity +of Lakes Narotch and Wiszniew. The Russians there attempted to advance +against the German field positions near Spiagla, but were promptly +thrown back. Farther north the Germans gained some slight local +successes by capturing a few advanced Russian trenches northwest of +Postavy. At some other points, especially on the Shara, southeast of +Baranovitchy, the railway center east of Slonin, lively hand-grenade +battles occurred. + +On the following day, August 4, 1916, the Russians made an attempt to +cross the Dvina near Deveten, a few miles northwest of Dvinsk, but +were repulsed. Another similar undertaking, attempted August 8, 1916, +east of Friedrichstadt, met the same fate. On that day German +batteries successfully bombarded Russian torpedo boats and other +vessels lying off the coast of Kurland and forced them to retire. + +August 10 and 11, 1916, brought a series of small, local attacks +launched by the Russians south of Lake Wiszniew, near Smorgon and +Krevo. They were all repulsed. These attacks were renewed on August +12, 1916, bringing, however, no better results. On August 13, 1916, +considerable fighting took place in the region of Skrobiowa and along +the Oginsky Canal, south of Lake Wygonowskoie. + +A lively local engagement developed on August 16, 1916, west of Lake +Nobel in the Pripet Marshes, about sixty miles northeast of Kovel. The +fighting lasted throughout August 17 and 18, 1916, and finally +resulted in a repulse for the Russians, who lost some 300 men and a +few machine guns. + +A gas attack, launched by the Germans during the night of August 22, +1916, in the region south of Krevo, a little town north of the +Beresina River and about fifty miles southeast of Vilna, brought no +results of importance. The same was true of an attack against Russian +trenches south of Tsirin, northwest of Baranovitchy, made after +considerable artillery preparation on August 24, 1916. + +Toward the end of August, 1916, the Russians again attempted at +various times to cross the Dvina. In no case, however, were they +successful. Even when they succeeded in launching their boats, as they +did on August 26, 1916, near Lenewaden east of Friedrichstadt, they +were driven back by the German fire. + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +RENEWED DRIVE AGAINST LEMBERG + + +In spite of the temporary setback which the Russians experienced at +the end of August, 1916, in their attempt to reach and capture once +more Galicia's ancient capital, Lemberg, they were undaunted. + +With the beginning of September, 1916, the vigor of their attacks +increased noticeably. On September 1, 1916, Russian attacks were +launched against the Austro-German lines east of Lemberg from all +directions. They were especially strong and violent in the vicinity of +Zlochoff and Halicz. In both these regions the Russian troops were +successful in advancing after capturing a number of positions. Without +abatement fighting continued on the next day, both before Halicz and +Zlochoff. In spite of the most fierce attacks, many of which were made +at the point of the bayonet, the Russians on September 2, 1916, were +unable to advance. + +The fighting on September 3, 1916, was centered chiefly around +Brzezany and Zboroff. In both localities the Russians claimed +successes and reported large numbers of prisoners. Again, on September +4, 1916, Brzezany was the center of much fighting. Attack after attack +was launched by the Russians and thrown back by the Austro-Germans. On +the following day, September 5, 1916, the Russian persistency finally +found its reward. Although Russian attacks near Zlochoff broke down +under the Austro-German fire, other attacks between the Zlota Lipa and +the Dniester resulted in the pressing back of the Austro-German +center. Throughout the next few days the Russians continued to hurl +attack after attack against the Austro-German lines, stretching, to +the west of Lemberg, from Brody to Halicz. The regions near Zlochoff, +Zboroff, Brzezany, and Halicz, and especially that small strip of +country lying between the Zlota Lipa and the Dniester, were witnesses +of some of the most stubborn and sanguinary fighting which even this +blood-drenched corner of unhappy, war-swept Galicia had seen. + +Again and again the Russian regiments would sweep up against the +strongly fortified and strongly held Austro-German lines, after +gunfire of unheard-of violence had attempted to prepare their task. +But though occasionally they made some advances, stormed some +trenches, or by the very violence of their attacks forced back the +Austro-Germans, the latter, generally speaking, held their ground. + +Some very interesting sidelights are thrown on the fighting near +Halicz by the special correspondent of the London "Times," Stanley +Washburn, who writes from the Russian lines about the middle of +September, 1916, as follows: + +"Our troops are now but a few hundred yards from Halicz railway +station, and just across the river from the town. + +"Fighting has been going on on this army front almost without +intermission since August 31, and has resulted in the capture of +25,000 prisoners, of whom 8,000 are Germans, and twenty-two guns, some +of them heavy guns. + +"The most significant, observation one makes on coming to this front +after two months with the more northern armies is the complete +reorganization of the Austrian front since the beginning of the +offensive in June. It was then held by six Austrian divisions and one +German. It is now held with a slightly extended front by fragments of +nine German divisions, two Turkish divisions, and three and a half +Austrian divisions. Of the Austrian divisions originally here three +have been completely destroyed, and two have departed, one for the +Rumanian front and another is missing. + +"The composition of the German forces here shows the extraordinary +efforts the Germans are making to bolster up the Austrian cause and +preserve Lemberg. The only German division here at the inception was +the Forty-eighth Reserve Division. Last July there came from the +Balkans the Hundred and Fifth German Division, and at the same time +the Hundred and Nineteenth from our Riga front. Subsequently two +regiments of this division were sent to Kovel. Now one of these has +been hurried back here. The Ninety-fifth and the Hundred and +Ninety-ninth Divisions came in August, and within the past few days +the Hundred and Twenty-third Division arrived from the Aisne and the +Two Hundred and Eighth from the Somme. In addition there are present +here a fragment of the First Reserve Division and of the Third +Prussian Guard Division. + +"The Turkish troops, which came several weeks ago, consist of the +Nineteenth and Twentieth Divisions, which last year opposed the Allies +at the Dardanelles. They have been fighting with extraordinary +fierceness. + +"The immense efforts being made by the Germans to hold this front and +to make sweeping movements, become increasingly difficult, and the +campaign here promises to become similar to that in the west, where +the enemy's lines must be slowly digested mile after mile." + +With the beginning of October, 1916, the Russians once more began +their drive against Lemberg. On the last day of September, 1916, the +Russians advanced short distances along both sides of the +Brody-Lemberg railroad, as well as farther south, near Zboroff, until +they were stopped by the curtain of fire directed against them from +the Austro-German lines. Still farther south, along both sides of the +Zlota Lipa, violent hand-to-hand encounters occurred. In the angle +between the Tseninoka and the Zlota Lipa the Russians also advanced +and gained a foothold in the first line of the Austro-Germans. + +The latter immediately launched strong counterattacks on October 1, +1916, which resulted in the recapture of some of the lost ground, +especially along the Brody-Lemberg railroad. By October 2, 1916, the +battle for Lemberg was again in full swing all along the line from +Brody down to the Dniester, and the Russians succeeded in advancing at +some points on the Zlota Lipa. Without diminution the battle continued +on October 3, 1916. But so stubborn was the Austro-German resistance +that the Russians, in spite of the most violent assaults, were unable +to make any noticeable progress, except in the neighborhood of Brody +and Zboroff, as well as on the Zlota Lipa. Not only were infantry +attacks kept up for two full days, but the most lavish expenditure of +shells resulted in the most stunning artillery fire. No changes of any +importance, however, occurred in the positions of either side. The +same condition continued on October 6, 1916. On October 7 and 8, 1916, +the fighting in this region had slowed down to a considerable extent, +except in the vicinity of Brzezany where a series of attacks and +counterattacks took place without having any definite result for +either side. + +Throughout the following week up to October 15, 1916, little of real +importance occurred in the Lemberg sector. Engagements, some of them +more nearly deserving the name "battles," were frequent at many +points, but barren of results. Gradually, however, the artillery fire +from both sides increased in violence, a sure sign of new attacks. On +October 14, 1916, coincident with the new Austro-German offensive in +the Carpathians, the Russians again attacked in force near Zboroff, +while the Germans attempted an advance south of Halicz. These +undertakings gradually developed, and by October 15, 1916, the battle +was again raging furiously all along the line east of Lemberg. +Especially on the western bank of the Narayuvka, a few miles north of +Halicz, strong Austro-German forces were employed and began to gain +ground slowly. This small success was gradually increased during the +following days, and on October 19, 1916, additional ground was gained +in this section. The Austro-Germans claimed to have captured over +2,000 men and held their newly regained positions against a number of +strong counterattacks. This success was again enlarged on October 20, +1916. + +The fighting for complete control of the west bank of the Narayuvka +continued on October 21 and 22, 1916, and by that day the Russians had +been forced to give up all their positions. This greatly improved the +Austro-German positions before Halicz. This, in conjunction with the +severe losses, which the Russians had suffered, resulted in a +reduction of fighting and, at least for the time being, the Russian +attempts to reach Lemberg ceased. During the balance of October +nothing of importance happened in the Lemberg sector of the eastern +front, although the Russians attempted a number of times during the +last two days of the month to recapture the positions which they had +lost on the Narayuvka. + +These attempts were renewed on November 1 and 2, 1916, with equal lack +of success. Engagements in this region which occurred on November 3, +1916, gave a few additional Russian positions to the Austro-Germans. +For the rest of November, 1916, the vicinity of the Narayuvka was +frequently the center of minor actions between comparatively small +detachments. Similar engagements occurred at various other points on +the Lemberg sector, and in some instances were preceded by heavy +artillery fire. The net result of all this fighting made practically +no change in the relative positions, except that it gave an +opportunity to the Austro-Germans to strengthen their positions near +Halicz and to bar the way to Lemberg more efficiently than ever. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +THE FIGHTING FROM RIGA TO LUTSK + + +Just as the Russians maintained their attacks against Lemberg, they +continued their drive against Kovel, farther north, in September, +1916. On the first of that month fierce fighting occurred east and +south of Vladimir Volynsky, about twenty-five miles south of Kovel. On +the Stokhod Austro-German counterattacks near the village of Tobolo, +about forty miles northeast of Kovel, likewise resulted in fierce +engagements. On September 2, 1916, strong Russian attacks were +launched northeast and southeast of Sviniusky. At one time these +resulted in the capture of the village of Korytniza, which, however, +had to be given up again by the Russians when the Austro-Germans +commenced a dangerous outflanking counterattack. + +The fighting in this region continued for that entire week, September +3 to 9, 1916. Neither side could gain any noticeable advantage. No +matter how often and how violently the Russians threw themselves +against the Austro-German lines on the Stokhod, the latter held as +they had done before so often. In isolated places the Austro-Germans +even assumed the offensive. But in that respect they were not any more +successful than their opponents. + +[Illustration: Attack in the Riga Sector.] + +On September 9, 10, and 11, 1916, the Russians launched a series of +very fierce attacks, carried out by strong forces against Bavarian +troops, holding part of the Stokhod line near Stara Czerwiszcze. Again +and again they came on in wave after wave. But neither great numbers +nor the most extensive artillery fire had any effect, as far as +gaining ground was concerned. The losses on both sides, however, were +appalling. By the middle of September, 1916, the fighting in the Kovel +sector lost noticeably in violence. On September 16, 1916, however, +the Russians again attacked west of Lutsk over a front of about twelve +miles. Though they suffered severe losses, they could not overcome the +Austro-German resistance, and for the balance of the month of +September, 1916, comparative quiet reigned along the Kovel sector of +the eastern front. + +Simultaneously with their renewed efforts against Lemberg the Russians +began once more to drive against Kovel, with the beginning of October, +1916. On October 1 and 2, 1916, the most stubborn fighting developed +west of Lutsk in the neighborhood of Zaturze, Zola Savovskaia, and +Shelvov. In some places Russian troops stormed twelve times against +one and the same position, and at one point they made seventeen +attacks. These attacks were kept up for a number of days, but met with +little success, and by October 5, 1916, comparative calmness prevailed +on the Volhynian sector. + +However, on October 8, 1916, the battle west of Lutsk, in the +direction of Vladimir Volynski, broke out once more in full fury. On +that day the Russians gained some slight successes at a few points, +which they lost, however, again on the following day. During the next +few days a number of smaller engagements occurred at many places west +of Lutsk, near Kiselin and along the Stokhod. These were only +forerunners of a new drive against Kovel which was begun on October +14, 1916. + +On that day the Russians captured some trenches near Korytniza, forty +miles south of Kovel. These were held against many violent +Austro-German counterattacks, although the latter were kept up for a +number of days. By October 18, 1916, a new battle had developed in the +neighborhood of Kiselin, and fighting also was renewed more vigorously +on the Stokhod. In the latter region the Austro-Germans regained some +ground which they held against strong counterattacks. By October 20, +1916, activities on the Volhynian front had slowed down to an exchange +of artillery fire of varying intensity and to minor engagements of +local extent and little importance. This condition continued +throughout the balance of October, 1916, except that during the last +few days the Russian artillery fire along the entire Stokhod line, +especially just west of Lutsk, increased greatly in violence. + +Throughout November, 1916, only a few actions of real importance took +place in the Kovel sector. Most of these occurred on the Stokhod, +where the Austro-Germans succeeded in improving their positions at +various points. The Russians seemed to be satisfied everywhere to +maintain their positions and to repulse as violently as possible all +Austro-German attempts to press them back. The most important +engagement in this sector most likely occurred on November 9, 1916, in +the region of Skrobova, near Baranovitchy, where the Central Powers +attacked along a front of about two and one-half miles and inflicted +heavy losses on the Russians. + +Throughout the entire period of the Russian offensive against Kovel +and Lemberg comparative quiet reigned in the northern half of the +eastern front. Of course there, as well as everywhere else, continuous +engagements occurred. But they were almost all of a minor character, +and in most instances amounted to little more than clashes between +outposts or patrol detachments. On September 2, 1916, the Germans made +a somewhat more pretentious attack against some Lettish battalions of +the Russian army near Riga. The latter retorted promptly by a strong +counterattack which inflicted severe losses. On September 3, 1916, the +Russians repulsed a strong German gas attack. + +During the balance of September, 1916, comparatively little of +importance occurred along the northern half of the eastern front +between Riga and the Styr. On September 6, 1916, the Russians crossed +to the western bank of the Dvina, north of Dvinsk, drove the Germans +out of their trenches along a short stretch and captured these +positions. On the next day the Germans promptly attacked these +positions, first with artillery and then with infantry, but were +unable to dislodge the Russians. On September 12, 1916, the Russians +made a number of attacks north of Dvetnemouth and near Garbunovka, but +were repulsed. A similar fate was suffered by a series of massed +attacks, preceded by a gas attack, which were undertaken by the +Germans on September 22, 1916, southwest of Lake Narotch. + +The month of October, 1916, brought little of moment on the northern +half of the eastern front. Of course, local engagements occurred at +various places almost continuously, but most of them were little less +than fights between outposts of patrols. On October 12, 1916, the +Germans suddenly attacked Russian trenches near the village of +Goldovitchy, on the western bank of the Shara, north of the Pripet +Marshes. A few isolated gas attacks were attempted by the Russians in +the same vicinity on October 24 and 25, 1916. The latter was +reciprocated by an infantry attack, carried out by a small German +force on October 26, 1916, which had no result. A similar attack made +against the Russian positions just south of Riga was equally +unsuccessful. + +During November, 1916, practically nothing of importance happened +anywhere along that part of the eastern front which stretches from +Riga to the Styr. Occasional attacks by small infantry groups were +made by both sides, but resulted in no actual change in the relative +positions. At other times artillery duels would take place, varying in +duration and intensity, and having likewise no result of real +importance. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII + +FIGHTING IN THE CARPATHIANS + + +Accompanying the renewed Russian efforts against Lemberg and Kovel in +the beginning of September, 1916, fighting broke out again with +greater vigor in the Carpathians. Numerous local engagements took +place on September 1, 1916, none of which, however, brought any +successes to the attacking Russians. They were more successful on the +following day, September 2, 1916. South of Rafailov, in the region of +Kapul Mountain and also near Dorna Vatra, the Austro-Germans lost some +strongly fortified positions and the Russians thereby captured some +heights. Considerable fighting also occurred on both banks of the +Bystritza near the Rumanian border. These successes were somewhat +extended by the Russians on September 3, 1916. On the following day +small engagements developed southwest of Zabie and in the region of +Shypoth. Strong Russian attacks were repulsed with heavy losses +southwest of Fundul Moldowi. Finally, on September 5, 1916, these +continuous Russian attacks lasting day and night somewhat undermined +the Austro-German resistance and resulted in a slight Russian advance +along the entire line of attack. + +On September 6, 1916, the Russians attacked southeast of Zielona, +about thirty-five miles southwest of Stanislau, and on the Bagaludova +west of the Kirlibaba Valley, on the border between the Bukowina and +Hungary. Both of these attacks were repulsed. The Austro-Germans +promptly replied with counterattacks near Zielona and west of Shypoth +on September 7, 1916. The Russians registered some successes on the +following day, September 8, 1916, west and southwest of Shypoth as +well as near Dorna Vatra. On the same day the Austro-Germans were also +forced to retreat northwest of Mount Kapul, a neighborhood in which +more or less fighting had been in progress ever since July, 1916. This +mountain peak is about 5,000 feet high. Again on September 9, 1916, +the Russians gained some ground west of Shypoth after attacking at +many points in the southern Carpathians. The heights east of the Cibo +Valley, about three miles west of Mount Kapul and just within the +Hungarian line, were also occupied by Russian forces. + +Attacks again occurred in the Mount Kapul sector on September 10 and +11, 1916. On the latter day the Russians finally succeeded in +capturing Mount Kapul, after first having occupied a ridge to the +north of it. Almost 1,000 prisoners as well as some machine guns and +mortars fell into their hands. This success apparently encouraged the +Russians to other efforts in this territory. + +On September 12, 1916, they attacked in the Carpathians along the +entire line from Smotrych, southwest of Zabie, to the Golden +Bystritza, without, however, making any headway. + +Part of the position on Mount Kapul lost by the Austro-Germans on +September 11, 1916, was recovered on the fourteenth. To the west, in +the Cibo Valley, the fighting continued, but here too, as along the +balance of the eastern front, fighting gradually slowed down during +the rest of September, 1916. + +During the first half of October, 1916, fighting in the Carpathians +was of a rather desultory nature. Neither side, though frequently +undertaking local engagements, registered any noticeable successes. +Suddenly on October 14, 1916, simultaneously with the increased vigor +shown by the Russians in Volhynia and Galicia, the Central Powers +launched a violent offensive movement along the entire Carpathian +front, from the Jablonica Pass down to the Rumanian border, on a front +of some seventy-five miles. + +Especially heavy fighting occurred near Kirlibaba, in the Ludova +sector, and south of Dorna Vatra. In the latter region the Russians +were thrown back over the Negra Valley. These early successes, +however, led to nothing of importance. After October 15, 1916, up to +the end of the month only local engagements took place. By that time +weather conditions in the Carpathians had become too severe to permit +of any extensive operations. + +Just as on the other parts of the eastern front the Carpathian sector +showed comparatively little activity during the month of November, +1916. Only at one point, in the region south of Dorna Vatra, did there +occur an action of somewhat greater importance. The Russians there had +gradually gained some ground by a series of small engagements. About +the middle of the month the Austro-Germans launched a strong +counterattack and regained all the ground, inflicting at the same +time heavy losses on the Russians. At other points occasional +artillery duels took place, and at many places small local engagements +between outposts and patrol detachments occurred almost daily. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +WINTER AT THE EASTERN FRONT + + +With the beginning of December, 1916, the severity of the cold weather +became so pronounced that activities at the eastern front had to be +reduced to a minimum by both sides. During the first week of December, +1916, considerable fighting, however, continued in that part of the +Carpathians just north of the Rumanian border, especially in the +vicinity of Dorna Vatra and Kirlibaba. This, too, gradually decreased +in violence, and during the second week of the month only minor +engagements between outposts and the usual trench activities occurred. + +On December 17, 1916, the Germans, after considerable artillery +preparation, started a more extensive offensive movement in the +vicinity of Great and Little Porsk, about twenty-one miles southeast +of Kovel. After considerable fighting, lasting all afternoon, +nightfall put a temporary stop to this undertaking. It was, however, +renewed during the early morning hours of the following day, and as a +result the Germans occupied small portions of the Russian positions. +These were held against a number of Russian counterattacks made during +the following days. Minor engagements also occurred on December 16, +17, and 18, 1916, near Kabarowce, northwest of Tarnopol; in the +Jezupol region of the river Bystrzyca between Stanislau and the +Dniester; southwest of Vale Putna in the extreme south of the +Bukowina; on the Narajowka River near Herbutow, about ten miles north +of Halicz; and near Augustowka south of Zboroff. + +During the balance of December, 1916, nothing of importance happened +at any part of the eastern front, except that on December 25, 1916, +the Germans violently bombarded the Russian positions in the region +between Brody and Tarnopol in Galicia and farther south on the +Narajowka south of Brzezany. + +The first few days in January, 1917, brought little change on the +eastern front. Engagements between small detachments occurred daily at +a number of places. None of these was of any importance. + +On January 23, 1917, the Germans after extensive artillery preparation +launched an attack with considerable forces against the positions +which the Russians had recently gained along the river Aa. Though +meeting with stubborn resistance they were successful, and captured +not only considerable ground, but also some 1,500 prisoners. The +Russians were forced to retire about a mile and a half toward the +north. During the next two days, January 24 and 25, 1917, they were +forced back still farther. These gains the Germans were able to hold +in the face of strong Russian counterattacks made on January 26 and +27, 1917, though they were unable to extend them. + +During the last four days of January, 1917, engagements along the +entire front increased occasionally in number and violence. On January +28, 1917, Russian troops attacked positions held by Turkish troops +near the Galician village of Potutory, some seven miles south of +Brzezany. At the point of the bayonet the Turks were forced to yield, +and in spite of a number of counterattacks the Russians maintained +their success. Fighting on January 29, 1917, was restricted chiefly to +the vicinity of the river Aa, where the Germans again made some slight +gains. This was also the case on January 30, 1917, when the Germans +with the assistance of extensive artillery bombardments and a series +of gas attacks captured some more Russian positions as well as about +900 prisoners and fifteen machine guns. + +On the last day of January, 1917, practically nothing of any +importance occurred at any point of the eastern front, the whole +length of which was that day in the grip of ever-increasing cold. + + + + +PART III--THE BALKANS + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV + +RUMANIA'S MILITARY STRENGTH + + +Finally the military power of Rumania was of enough consequence to +warrant the greatest exertions on the part of diplomats to obtain its +active support. With a population of close to 7,000,000, the little +state could throw a respectable army into the field. In 1914 her +infantry numbered well over a quarter of a million, her cavalry close +up to 20,000, while her equipment included 600 modern cannon and 300 +machine guns. Aside from this there was a considerable reserve to draw +from. By the middle of 1916, just before she entered the war, it was +estimated by good authorities that the Rumanian army numbered at least +600,000 men under arms and that about an equal number could still be +counted on in the reserves. In theory at least, it was a well-trained +army. The artillery of all classes numbered about 1,500 guns, but +there was a marked shortage of really powerful cannon. The horse and +field artillery were armed with Krupp quick-firers of 3-inch caliber, +and the heavy and the mountain guns were from the Creusot works in +France. The infantry was armed with the Austrian Mannlicher rifle, but +of these arms Rumania possessed barely enough to arm her 600,000 men. + +Shortly before she definitely made her decision, this stock of arms +was considerably augmented by shipments from France and England, and +even from Russia, but on account of the fact that they must be shipped +by a dangerous sea route and then across Russia, the time of transit +covering six weeks, she was probably not very well supplied with +ammunition. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV + +HOSTILITIES BEGIN + + +The first news of the actual fighting was given to the world through +an official Austrian communique, dated August 28, 1916, announcing +that, during the preceding night, the Rumanians had begun a determined +attack on the Austrian forces in the Red Tower Pass and the passes +leading to Brasso. On the following day another report added that the +attempted invasion had become general and that the Imperial troops +were resisting attacks in all the passes along the whole frontier. +But, added the report, everywhere the Rumanians had been successfully +repulsed, especially near Orsova, in the Red Tower Pass, and in the +passes south of Brasso. In spite of these successes, however, the +Austrians were compelled to retire their advanced detachments to a +position prepared in the rear, as planned long before, because +overwhelming forces of Rumanians were attempting a far-reaching +flanking movement. As a matter of fact, the Austrians, never very +determined fighters, and now especially demoralized by the recent +success of the Russian offensive under Brussilov, were giving way all +along the line before the Rumanians under General Averescu. On the +same day a Rumanian official report gave a long list of villages and +towns which the Rumanians had taken beyond the frontier, their Fourth +Army Corps also having taken 740 prisoners. Within two days Averescu +had advanced so rapidly that he was in possession of Petroseny, north +of the Vulkan Pass, and of Brasso, beyond Predeal Pass. His troops +were pouring through the Tolgyes and Bekas Passes up in the north in +steady streams, and were advancing on Maros Vasarhely, a military base +and one of the principal towns of central Transylvania. The Rumanians +advancing by way of Gyimes, after a sharp encounter with the +Austrians, had driven the latter back to the heights east of +Csikszereda, a point over twenty miles inside the Austrian frontier. +Finally, spirited fighting was taking place in the Varciorova Pass on +the Danube, and here too the Austrians made a very poor showing. + +Then on the last day of the month came the announcement from Bucharest +that Russian forces had arrived on Rumanian soil and were already +crossing the Danube over into Dobrudja, their left wing on the Black +Sea coast being protected by ships of the Russian fleet. The commander +of this force was General Zaionchovsky, who, together with his staff, +had been welcomed in Bucharest by a throng of the enthusiastic +inhabitants, women and children hurling bouquets of flowers on the +Russians as they passed through the streets. Another peculiar feature +of this event was the organization of a brigade of Serbians, interned +soldiers who had escaped into Rumanian territory during the invasion +of their country the year previously. These now became a part of the +Russian contingent. Meanwhile in the north the Rumanians and the +Russians had also joined forces, and on August 29, 1916, Berlin +officially announced that the German-Austrian forces in that section +had been attacked by the Russo-Rumanians in the Carpathians. + +On the Danube the Austrian river fleet showed some activity. A monitor +shelled Varciorova, Turnu Severin, and Giurgevo, situated on the +Rumanian bank, and some small craft were captured at Zimnita. On the +other hand, the Rumanians were reported to have begun a general +bombardment of Rustchuk, an important Bulgarian port on the river. And +on the night of the 28th the fact that the nation was at war was +brought home to the citizens of the capital by an aeroplane and a +Zeppelin, which sailed over the city dropping bombs, but doing very +little harm. During the following month such raids were to be almost +daily occurrences, and many were the women and children killed by the +bombs hurled down from above. + +On the 1st of September, 1916, came the announcement of a really +striking victory for the Rumanians: Orsova, where heavy fighting had +been raging since the first hour of the war and in which the Austrians +were daily claiming success, was finally taken. Here the Austrians +held a strong position, against which the Rumanians had hurled one +assault after another, until they succeeded in taking two heights +overlooking the town, each over a thousand feet high and thus forced +the defeated enemy over the Cserna River, a northern branch of the +Danube. This success caused some sensation, for now it appeared that +the way was opening for an offensive across the southern portion of +Hungary which should sever the Teutons and the Magyars from their +Bulgarian and Turkish allies. + +Badly beaten as they had been by Brussilov, the Hungarians and the +Austrians were now considerably shaken. Again, Germany was called on +to come to the rescue, as she had done before on the eastern front and +in Serbia. Nor could the Germans afford to overlook the call, for +there had been much agitation in Hungary for a separate peace. Indeed, +Germany had for some time been preparing to relieve the situation as +subsequent events conclusively proved. On the following day, September +2, 1916, her first blow was struck. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI + +BULGARIA ATTACKS + + +Up to this time the Rumanians had hoped, perhaps, even believed, that +Bulgaria would refrain from attacking in Dobrudja. Not a word had come +from Sofia indicating that Bulgaria intended to begin hostilities. But +on this day, September 2, 1916, a strong force composed of Bulgarians, +Turks, and Germans, which had been quietly mobilizing behind the +Bulgarian frontier, hurled itself over into Dobrudja and threw back +the weak Rumanian guards. The force with which this blow was delivered +was understood a few days later, when it was learned that Germany had +sent her best field commander, General Mackensen, to direct operations +in this zone. + +This territory is of a nature entirely different from the scene of the +fighting along the eastern and northern borders of Rumania. Dobrudja +forms a square tract of level country, about a hundred miles long and +sixty broad, lying just south of the delta of the Danube and along the +Black Sea coast. The larger part of it is marshy or low, sandy plain. +Here the Danube splits into three branches, only one of which, the +Sulina, is navigable. Two railroads traverse this country; the one +running from Bucharest to Constanza, an important seaport; another +branching off from this line below Medgidia, running down to Dobric, +thence over the frontier into Bulgaria. The former was of special +importance to the Rumanians, as it was the only line of communication +between Rumania and any Rumanian force that might be operating in +Dobrudja. It crossed the Danube over a bridge and viaduct eleven miles +in length, forming the only permanent crossing over the river below +the bridge at Belgrade. This structure ranks as one of the big +engineering works in the world, its cost being close to $3,000,000. It +consists, first of a bridge of three spans, 500 yards in length, then +follows a viaduct eight miles in length, resting on piers built on +islands, and finally comes a bridge 850 yards in length, of five +spans, crossing the main channel of the river, which here is a hundred +feet deep in places. Such is the famous Cernavoda Bridge. Toward this +important point Mackensen's first move was obviously directed. + +On September 3, 1916, a Rumanian dispatch announced that Mackensen was +attacking in full force along his front below Dobric and that he had +been repulsed. But as developed within twenty-four hours Mackensen was +not repulsed. On the contrary, he was advancing, as was shown the next +day when he had extended his lines to a point eight miles northwest of +Dobric, while the full length of the frontier was well within his +front. On the following day, the 4th, Dobric was attacked and easily +taken, and the combined forces of Bulgarians, Turks, and Germans +hurled themselves against the outer fortifications protecting the +south end of the bridge at Tutrakan. Fortunately for the Rumanians +they were now reenforced by a considerable body of Russians, and the +Bulgarians were temporarily checked, the heaviest fighting taking +place in the neighborhood of Dobric. But the Rumanians and the +Russians were plainly outnumbered, at Dobric they were gradually +pressed back, while at the bridgehead they were severely defeated. At +this latter point the enemy showed his vast superiority in artillery, +which he had concentrated here for the purpose of demolishing the +fortifications. After nearly a dozen assaults, each following a +furious artillery preparation, the Bulgarians finally, on September 6, +1916, drove the Rumanians back and took the fort. It was at this point +that the German and Bulgarian dispatches claimed that 20,000 Rumanians +were taken prisoner, but dispatches from Bucharest stoutly denied +this. However, as was admitted later, the total losses of the +Rumanians could not have been much less. + +After the fall of Tutrakan the Russo-Rumanian forces, under the +command of General Aslan, retired northward, and a lull came in the +fighting on this front which lasted almost a week. On the 8th Silistra +too was evacuated by the Rumanians after a spirited defense by the +small garrison. When the news of these reverses became known to the +people of Bucharest little depression was shown, for the operations +against the Austro-Hungarians were continuing successfully for the +Rumanians. + +In spite of the fact that the Austro-Hungarians had had two years' +experience of warfare, and that the Rumanians were new to actual +fighting, the former made very poor resistance. With comparative ease +the Rumanians advanced beyond Brasso and took Sepsiszentgyorgy and +forced the Austro-Hungarians to retreat west of Csikszereda. On the +8th the Rumanians announced themselves in possession of Toplicza, San +Milai, Delne, and Gyergyoszentmiklos, while in the sector between +Hatszeg and Petroseny they were pressing the enemy severely. Nowhere +did the Austrians make any serious resistance: they retreated, as +slowly as possible, under the protection of rear-guard actions, +yielding over 4,000 prisoners to the advancing Rumanians, as well as a +great deal of railroad rolling stock, cattle, and many convoys of +provisions. That they were expecting the assistance which was +presently to come to them from the Germans seems obvious from the +fact that they did not destroy the railroad or its tunnels or bridges +as they retired; they apparently felt certain of returning. The +peasantry, on the other hand, burned their houses and crops in those +sections where the population is Magyar, then fled toward Budapest, +which was beginning to fill with refugees. In those sections where the +Rumanians were numerous the people, according to the Rumanian +dispatches, welcomed the invaders with frantic enthusiasm. + +The victorious Rumanians continued toward Hermannstadt, taking +Schellenberg on the way. Here a Hungarian army had been defeated in +1599 by Rumanians under Michael the Brave. Hermannstadt, however, +marked the high tide of Rumanian victory. At this point the resistance +of the enemy began suddenly to stiffen. And then came the report that +the Rumanians were observing German uniforms among the opposing +forces. Again Germany had come to the rescue. On September 13, 1916, +the first German troops to arrive on the scene came in contact with +the Rumanians southeast of Hatszeg near Hermannstadt. Within two days +the Rumanians were no longer able to gain ground, though for some time +longer they sorely pressed their enemies. + +Meanwhile, Mackensen in Dobrudja was showing extreme activity. The +lull which followed the retirement of the Rumanians from Tutrakan was +suddenly terminated on the 12th, when the Bulgarians and their allies +attacked Lipnitza, fifteen miles east of Silistria. Here the Rumanians +resisted furiously, and after an all-night fight they severely +repulsed Mackensen's troops, taking eight German guns. However, this +was only a temporary advantage. Some days later the German kaiser, in +a telegram to his wife, announced that Mackensen had gained a decisive +victory in Dobrudja. While this phraseology is perhaps a little too +strong as a description of the situation at that date, the fact was +that the Rumanians and the Russians were again forced to retire +northward. According to the German reports the retreat was a +disorderly flight, but the absence of any reports indicating a large +capture of prisoners or material would indicate that the Germans +exaggerated their success. At this moment a new loan was being +launched in Germany, and it was natural that the military situation +should be somewhat warmly colored. + +On September 17, 1916, the Rumanian dispatches indicated that the +Russo-Rumanian forces in Dobrudja had fallen back to a line reaching +from Rasova, south of Cernavoda some ten miles to Tuzla, twelve miles +south of Constanza. Thus the situation was quite grave enough. +Meanwhile, some days before, General Averescu, who seemed to have been +doing so well on the Hungarian front, was sent to Dobrudja, in the +hope apparently that his superior abilities would save the situation. +He arrived on the 16th, together with considerable reenforcements +which had been drawn from the northwest, where the Russians were +supporting the Rumanians. Further Russian contingents had also +arrived, and on the following day, the 17th, Averescu turned suddenly +on Mackensen and gave him determined battle. This was the heaviest +fighting which had so far taken place in this section. Again and again +Mackensen hurled his Bulgarians and Turks against the Russo-Rumanian +lines, first battering them with his huge cannon. At Rasova, on the +Danube, his attacks were especially heavy. Had he taken this point he +would have been able to flank the Rumanians at Cernavoda, capture the +bridgehead there and so cut all communication between the Rumanians in +Dobrudja with Rumania itself. The battle raged until the 19th all +along the line, with no definite advantage to either side. But on that +day reenforcements came to Averescu. That night he began to advance. +The mightiest efforts of Mackensen's forces were unable to check him. +At dawn the Bulgarians began to retreat, setting fire to the villages +through which they retired. In this battle the Rumanians were plainly +victorious. No doubt they were in superior numbers, for Sarrail's +offensive in Macedonia had grown extremely formidable and the +Bulgarians had been compelled to rush down reenforcements from the +Dobrudja front. At any rate, Mackensen was forced to retreat until he +established his re-formed lines from Oltina, on the Danube, to a +point southwest of Toprosari, thence to the Black Sea coast, south of +Tuzla. For the time being the Rumanians were much elated by their +success. But, as time was to show, it was merely temporary. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII + +THE GERMANS ARRIVE + + +The center of interest in the campaign now became the Hungarian front. +As has already been stated, by the middle of the month the arrival of +German reenforcements had checked the advance of the Rumanians, and +now the situation along this front assumed an aspect not quite so +encouraging to the Rumanians. Some little progress was still made in +this direction in the third week of the month; after a few slight +engagements the Rumanians occupied Homorod Almas and Fogaras, the +latter a town of some importance halfway between Brasso and +Hermannstadt. During these operations nearly a thousand prisoners were +taken. Finally, on the 16th, they reached Barot, dominating the +railroad between Brasso and Foeldvar, some thirty miles beyond the +frontier. + +Meanwhile German troops had reenforced the Austrians at Hatszeg, in +the valley of the Streiu. Here on the 14th a pitched battle was begun +in a mountain defile, which lasted two days and resulted in the defeat +of a force of Magyars. On the 18th General von Staabs, commanding a +large force of German troops, attacked the Rumanians in the Hatszeg +sector, and after a very hot fight thrust them back. And at about the +same time German forces began attacking the Rumanians in the Gyergyoi +Havosok and Kalemen Hegyseg ranges of the Carpathians. + +On the 21st a Berlin dispatch announced that the Teutonic forces had +carried the Vulkan Pass and cleared it of the enemy. On the following +day, however, the Rumanians were still fighting at this point and +three days later forced the Teutons back and reconquered the lost +territory, as well as the neighboring Szurduk Pass. By the 28th they +had recovered ten miles of lost ground within the Hungarian frontier, +driving the Austrians and the Germans before them. + +[Illustration: Teutonic Invasion of Rumania.] + +A month had now passed since the outbreak of hostilities and the +Rumanians were still holding a large conquered territory, nearly a +third of Transylvania, or about 7,000 square miles of country. They +were in complete occupation of four out of fifteen administrative +departments and a portion of five others. Up to this time 7,000 +prisoners had been captured. Meanwhile large forces of Germans +continued arriving and reenforcing the enemy's lines, and now the +determination of the Germans to devote their best energies to the +punishment of Rumania was indicated by the fact that this northern +army was under the command of General von Falkenhayn, formerly chief +of the German General Staff. + +On September 26, 1916, the Germans began their first really serious +advance, the point of attack falling on the Rumanians near +Hermannstadt, about fifty miles northeast of Vulkan Pass. For three +days the Rumanians made a heroic resistance against a great +superiority in men and heavy cannon on the part of the enemy. On the +third day the Rumanians found themselves entirely surrounded, their +retreat through the Red Tower Pass being cut off by a column of +Bavarian Alpine troops who had scaled the mountain heights and +occupied the pass in the rear. Rendered desperate by this situation, +the Rumanians now fought fiercely to escape through the ring that +encircled them, but only a comparatively few succeeded in reaching +Fogaras, from which town another Rumanian force had been trying to +make a diversion in their favor. In this action, according to German +accounts, the Rumanians lost 3,000 men, thirteen guns, ten +locomotives, and a quantity of other material. This battle, called by +the Germans the Battle of Hermannstadt, enabled them to occupy again +the Red Tower Pass. On October 1, 1916, they had continued beyond this +pass and were attacking a Rumanian force south of it, near Caineni, on +Rumanian territory. Thus, with the first of the new month the +Rumanians were on the defensive in this region. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII + +THE RUMANIAN RAID ACROSS THE DANUBE + + +On the following day general attention was again attracted toward the +Dobrudja by a feat on the part of the Rumanians which for the moment +gave the impression that she was about to strike the enemy an +unexpected and decisive blow. A day or two before a Turkish and a +Bulgarian division had been severely repulsed near Toprosari, south of +Tuzla. Immediately there succeeded a general assault along the entire +line to which Mackensen had retreated on the 20th, but though thirteen +guns were captured, he did not again give ground. + +Suddenly, on the morning of October 2, 1916, the Rumanians threw a +pontoon bridge across the Danube at Rahova, about halfway between +Rustchuk and Tutrakan, and well in the rear of Mackensen's line. +Before the small Bulgarian forces stationed at this point were aware +of what had happened they were completely overwhelmed by the +Rumanians, who were streaming across the bridge. All the villages in +the neighborhood were seized and for twenty-four hours it was expected +that Mackensen was about to suffer a sensational repulse. But +apparently the Rumanians lacked the forces necessary for the +successful carrying out of what would have been a brilliant stroke, or +possibly the Bulgarian forces which appeared here against them were +larger than had been expected, for the next day they announced that +the force which had been thrown across the river had again retired, +unharmed, the object of its demonstration having been accomplished. +According to the Bulgarian accounts their retreat was forced because +of the appearance of an Austrian monitor, which began shelling and +destroying the pontoon bridge, and that before the retreat had been +completed the bridge had been destroyed and a large remnant of the +Rumanian force had been captured or killed. In general, however, the +fighting during these first few days of the month gave neither side +any advantage, and again the situation calmed down to comparative +inactivity. + +That the retirement of the Rumanians was well ordered is shown by the +fact that even the Berlin dispatches claimed very few prisoners, in +addition to a thousand taken at Brasso, while the Austro-Germans had +lost considerably over a thousand. On the 6th Fogaras had been +relinquished. North and east of Brasso the Rumanians had also +retreated. On the 8th Berlin announced that "the entire eastern front +of the enemy was in retreat." This was, in general, quite true, except +that for a few days longer they still held their positions in the +valley of the Maros. + +Aside from the advantage in his superiority of numbers, Falkenhayn +also had at his disposal the better railroad accommodations. A line +running parallel with almost the entire front enabled him to shift his +forces back and forth, wherever the contingencies of the situation +made them needed most. By the 12th he was facing the Rumanians in the +passes. Heavy fighting then began developing at Torzburg, Predeal, and +Buzau Passes. Finally the Rumanians were forced back toward Crasna on +the frontier. A critical moment seemed imminent. Averescu, who had +defeated Mackensen, was now recalled from the Dobrudja and sent to +take command of the Rumanian forces defending the passes behind +Brasso. + +By the middle of the second week of October, 1916, the Rumanians had +lost all the territory they had taken, except a little in the +northeast. The German-Austrian pressure was now heaviest in two areas: +about the passes behind Brasso and before the Gyimes Pass in the +northeast. + +In the latter region, on the 11th, the Rumanians had retired from +Csikszereda and from positions higher up on the circular strategic +railroad in the valley of the Maros. Before Oitoz Pass they resisted +fiercely, and for a time were able to hold their ground. But it was in +the passes behind Brasso that Falkenhayn's weight was being felt most +severely. On the 12th the following description of the general +situation was issued from Bucharest: + +"From Mount Buksoi as far as Bran the enemy has attacked, but is being +repulsed." + +On the following day came better news than the Rumanians had heard for +some weeks. The Germans had not only been checked in the Buzau and the +Predeal Passes, but they had suffered a genuine setback there, being +forced to retire. This victory was important in that Predeal Pass had +been saved, for not only was this pass close to Bucharest, but through +it ran a railroad and a good highway, crossing the mountains almost +due south of Brasso at a height of a little over 3,000 feet. On the +next day, however, the Rumanians were driven out of the Torzburg Pass +and forced to retire to Rucaru, a small town seven miles within +Rumanian territory. Falkenhayn's forces were now flowing through the +gap in the mountain chain and deploying among the foothills on the +Rumanian side of the chain. Here the situation was growing dangerous +to an extreme degree. Only ten miles farther south, over high, rolling +ground, was Campulung, the terminus of a railroad running directly +into Bucharest, only ninety miles distant. + +But Falkenhayn made no further progress that day. In the neighboring +passes he was held back successfully while his left flank in the Oitoz +Pass and his right flank in the Vulkan Pass were each thrown back. All +during the 15th and the 16th the fighting in the passes continued +desperately, the battle being especially obstinate before the railroad +terminus at Campulung, up in the foothills. At about this same time +the Russians in the Dorna Vatra district, where they joined with the +Rumanians, began a strong offensive, in the hope of relieving the +pressure on the Rumanians farther down. This attempt was hardly +successful, as the German opposition in this sector developed to +unexpected strength. On the 17th Falkenhayn succeeded in squeezing +himself through Gyimes Pass and reaching Agas, seven miles inside the +frontier. At about the same time strong fighting began in the Red +Tower Pass. The battle was, indeed, raging at a tense heat up and down +the whole front. It was now becoming obvious that the Central Powers +had determined to make an example of Rumania and punish her +"treachery," as they called it, even though they must suspend activity +in every other theater of the war to do so. Not a little anxiety was +caused in the Allied countries. The matter was brought up and caused a +hot discussion in the British Parliament. In the third week France +sent a military mission to Bucharest under General Berthelot, while +England, France, and Russia were all making every effort to keep the +Rumanians supplied with ammunition, in which, however, they could not +have been entirely successful. + +The Rumanians, on their part, continued defending every step forward +made by the enemy. On the 18th they won a victory in the Gyimes Pass +which cost the enemy nearly a thousand prisoners and twelve guns. At +Agas, in the Oitoz region, the Austro-Germans also suffered a local +defeat. Nor had they so far made very marked progress in the passes +behind Brasso. There seems to be no doubt that had the Rumanians been +able to devote all their forces and resources to the defense of the +Hungarian frontier, they would probably have been able to hold back +Falkenhayn's forces. But Mackensen had forced them to split their +strength. + +On October 19, 1916, the situation in Dobrudja again began assuming an +unpleasant aspect. On that date Mackensen began a new offensive. Since +his retirement a month previous he had remained remarkably quiet, +possibly with the purpose of making the Rumanians believe that he had +been more seriously beaten than was really the case, so that they +might withdraw forces from this front for the Transylvania operations. +This, in fact, they had been doing, and when, on the 19th, he suddenly +began renewing his operations, the Russo-Rumanian forces were not in a +position to hold him back. + +After a vigorous artillery preparation, which destroyed the +Russo-Rumanian trenches in several places, Mackensen began a series of +assaults which presently compelled the Russo-Rumanian forces to +retire in the center and on the right wing. On the 21st the Germans +reported that they had captured Tuzla and the heights northwest of +Toprosari, as well as the heights near Mulciova, and that they had +taken prisoner some three thousand Russians. This success now began to +threaten the railroad line from Cernavoda to Constanza. This line had +been Mackensen's objective from the beginning. On the 23d a dispatch +from Bucharest announced that the Rumanian lines had retired again and +were barely south of this railroad. Having captured Toprosari and +Cobadin, the Bulgarians advanced on Constanza, and on the 22d they +succeeded in entering this important seaport, though the Rumanians +were able to remove the stores there under the fire of the Russian +warships. + +[Illustration: General von Mackensen and his staff in Rumania. Already +victorious in campaigns in Galicia and Serbia, Mackensen won new +laurels in the Dobrudja. His troops pushed on to Bucharest, which fell +December 6, 1916.] + +On the same date Mackensen began an attack on Medgidia, up the +railroad about twenty-five miles from Constanza, and succeeded in +taking it. He also took Rasova, in spite of the fierce resistance +which the Rumanians made at this point. In these operations Mackensen +reported that he had taken seven thousand prisoners and twelve guns. +Next he attacked Cernavoda, where the great bridge crossed the Danube, +and on the morning of the 25th the defenders were compelled to retire +across the structure, afterward blowing it up. Thus the railroad was +now in the hands of Mackensen. The Russians and the Rumanians had been +driven across the river or up along its bank. But it would be no small +matter for the enemy to follow them. With the aid of so effective a +barrier as this broad river it now seemed possible that the Rumanians +might decrease their forces very considerably on this front, still +succeed in holding Mackensen back, and turn their full attention to +Falkenhayn in the north. Of course, there still remained the northern +section of Dobrudja, passing up east of southern Rumania to the head +of the Black Sea and the Russian frontier, along which Mackensen might +advance and get in behind the rear of the main Russian lines. But this +country in large part constitutes the Danube delta and is swampy, and +is certainly not fitted for operations involving heavy artillery. +Moreover, Mackensen was now at the narrowest part of Dobrudja, whose +shape somewhat resembles an hourglass, and a farther advance would +mean an extension of his lines. Aside from this, by advancing farther +north, he laid his rear open to a possible raid from across the river, +such as the Rumanians had attempted on October 2, 1916, +unsuccessfully, to be sure, but sufficiently to show that the whole +bank of the river must be guarded. The farther Mackensen advanced +northward the more men he would require to guard his rear along the +river. For the time being, at least, the river created a deadlock, +with the advantage to whichever side should be on the defensive. The +Rumanians might very well now have left a minimum force guarding the +river bank while they turned their main forces northward to stem the +tide of Teuton invasion through the passes. + +For over a week this seemed exactly what the Rumanians were doing. On +November 4, 1916, the situation along the Rumanian front in the +mountains looked extremely well for King Ferdinand's armies. At no +point had the Teutons made any appreciable headway, while in two +regions, in the Jiul Valley and southeast of Kronstadt, Bucharest +reported substantial gains. Berlin and Vienna both admitted that the +Rumanians had recaptured Rosca, a frontier height east of the Predeal +Pass. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX + +MACKENSEN PRESSED BACK + + +On November 6, 1916, came the news from Bucharest that the Rumanian +and Russian forces in northern Dobrudja had again assumed the +offensive and that Mackensen's line was giving way; and that in +retiring his troops had burned the villages of Daeni, Gariot, Rosman, +and Gaidar. Full details of these operations were never issued, but as +day after day passed it became obvious that the Russo-Rumanian armies +were indeed making a determined effort to regain the ground lost in +Dobrudja. + +On November 9, 1916, it was announced through London that the Russian +General Sakharov had been transferred from Galicia and was now in +command of the allied forces in Dobrudja; that he had succeeded in +pushing Mackensen's lines back from Hirsova on the Danube, where a +gunboat flotilla was cooperating with him, and that Mackensen was now +retreating through Topal, twelve miles farther south, and was only +thirteen miles north of the Cernavoda-Constanza railroad. On November +10, 1916, an official announcement from Petrograd stated that "on the +Danube front our cavalry and infantry detachments occupied the station +of Dunareav, three versts from Cernavoda. We are fighting for +possession of the Cernavoda Bridge. More than two hundred corpses have +been counted on the captured ground. A number of prisoners and machine +guns have also been captured. We have occupied the town of Hirsova and +the village of Musluj and the heights three versts south of Delgeruiv +and five versts southwest of Fasmidja." On the following day the +Russian ships began bombarding Constanza and set fire to the town +which, according to the Petrograd reports, was burned to the ground. +At the same time a Russian force advancing southward along the right +bank of the Danube occupied the villages of Ghisdarechti and Topal. On +that same date Sofia also reported heavy fighting and an enemy advance +near the Cernavoda Bridge. Two days later, on the 13th, an indirect +report through London stated that the Russians had crossed the Danube +south of the bridge, behind Mackensen's front. This was not officially +confirmed, but apparently another attempt was made to strike +Mackensen's rear from across the river. + +Meanwhile the Russo-Rumanian line was pressing Mackensen's front back, +hammering especially on his left wing up against the river, until he +was a bare few miles north of the railroad and thirty miles south of +the point farthest north he had been able to reach. Here he seems to +have held fast, for further reports of fighting on the Danube front +become vague and contradictory. At any rate, the Russo-Rumanian +advance stopped short of victory, as the recapture of the +Cernavoda-Constanza railroad would have been. That Mackensen's +retreat may have been voluntary, to encourage the enemy to advance and +thereby weaken his front on the Transylvanian front, seems possible in +the light of later events. Also, it was possible that his forces had +been weakened by Bulgarian regiments being withdrawn and sent down to +the Macedonian front, where Monastir was in grave danger and was +presently to fall to the French-Russian-Serbian forces. From this +moment a silence settles over this front; when Mackensen again emerges +into the light shed by official dispatches, it is to execute some of +the most brilliant moves that have yet been made during the entire +war. + + + + +CHAPTER XXX + +THE RUMANIANS PRESSED BACK + + +Meanwhile hard fighting had been going on on the Transylvanian front, +one day favoring one side and on the next day favoring the other. On +November 5, 1916, the Germans regained Rosca heights, which the +Rumanians had taken on the 3d. On the 7th the Russians were pressing +the Germans hard below Dorna Vatra, while southeast of Red Tower Pass +and near the Vulkan Pass the Rumanians suffered reverses, losing a +thousand men as prisoners, according to the Vienna and Berlin +dispatches. But before another week had passed it became evident that +the Teutons were gaining, whether because of superior artillery, or +because the Rumanians had weakened this front for the sake of the +Dobrudja offensive. For each step the Teutons fell back they advanced +two. Not unlike a skillful boxer Falkenhayn feinted at one point, then +struck hard at another unexpectedly. Without doubt skill and superior +knowledge, as well as superior organization, were on the side of the +invaders. By the middle of the month the Rumanians were being forced +back, both in the Alt and the Jiul valleys, facts which could not be +hidden by the dispatches from Bucharest announcing the capture of a +machine gun at one point or a few dozen prisoners at another. A few +days later the London papers were commenting on the extremely +dangerous situation in Rumania. + +The Teutons had been pushing especially hard against the extreme left +of the Rumanian line in western Wallachia. On the 15th, after a week +of continuous hammering, the Austro-Germans forced their way down from +the summits after battering down the permanent frontier fortifications +with their heavy mortars. Pushed down into the foothills, the +Rumanians, who were now being reenforced by Russian forces, decided to +make a stand on the range of hills running east and west and lying +south of Turgujiulij, the first important town south of the mountains. +Foggy weather favored the Russo-Rumanians and enabled them to take up +a strong position at this point before being observed by the Germans. +The latter began launching a series of assaults. For three days these +frontal attacks were continued. Finally numbers told; the Rumanian +center was broken. Then the German cavalry, which had been held in +reserve, hurled itself through the breach and raced down through the +valley toward the railroad, thirty miles distant, preventing the +fleeing Russians and Rumanians from making any further stands. On the +following day, the 19th, the cavalry had reached the Orsova-Craiova +railroad and occupied it from Filliash, an important junction, to +Strehaia station, a distance of twelve miles. + +Two days later came the announcement that Craiova itself had been +taken by the Teuton forces. This town is the center of an important +grain district on the edge of the Wallachian Plain. From a military +point of view the importance of its capture was in that it was a +railroad junction and that the Germans now held the line of +communication between the Orsova region, constituting the extreme +western portion of Wallachia, and the rest of Rumania. As a matter of +fact, as was to develop a few days later, the Teutons had broken +through the main Rumanian lines, and in doing so had clipped off the +tip of the Rumanian left wing. Some days later the capture of this +force was announced, though it numbered much less than had at first +been supposed--some seven thousand men. + +But now a new danger suggested itself. The Teutonic invasion was +heading toward the Danube. Should it reach the banks of that river +there would be nothing to prevent a juncture between the forces of +Falkenhayn and those under Mackensen, thereby forming a net which +would be stretched clear across Rumania and swept eastward toward +Bucharest. Falkenhayn had only to clear the northern bank of the +Danube, and nothing could prevent Mackensen's crossing; as was +presently to develop, this fear was not without foundation. On the +24th came the announcement from Berlin that Falkenhayn had captured +Turnu-Severin on the Danube and that Mackensen's troops had crossed in +several places and effected a juncture with Falkenhayn's men. Farther +north the Rumanians were reported to be falling back to positions +along the Alt River, a swift, deep stream in its upper reaches which +broadens out into many arms down on the plain and forms a difficult +obstacle to an advancing army. At Slatina the bridge is over four +hundred yards in length. This, apparently, was to be the new line of +defense, running north and south. Still farther north, in the +Carpathians, in Moldavia, the Austro-Germans were developing another +strong offensive, and here, near Tulghes Pass, where the Russians held +the line, a pitched battle of unusual fury developed, bringing the +Austro-Germans to a standstill for the time being, at least. Again +there came reports from Petrograd of activity along the front in +Dobrudja, but this appears to have been at the most nothing but a +demonstration to distract Mackensen from effecting any crossing +farther up the Danube at a point where he might flank the Rumanian +lines along the Alt. Throughout the countries of the Allies it was now +generally recognized that Rumania was doomed, unless the Russians +could send enough forces to rescue her. + +On the 26th official dispatches from both Berlin and Bucharest stated +that Mackensen had crossed the Danube at Zimnitza and was advancing +toward Bucharest. The German statement had him in the outskirts of +Alexandria, only forty-seven miles from the capital, and reported that +the Rumanians were retreating eastward from the lower Alt. On the +following day Berlin announced that the entire length of the Alt had +been abandoned by the Rumanians, which was confirmed by a dispatch +from Bucharest. This retreat had been forced by the crossing effected +by Mackensen's troops to the rear of the line, threatening its flank +and rear. That the danger to Bucharest was now being felt was obvious +from the fact that on the following day the Rumanian Government and +diplomatic authorities removed from Bucharest to Jassy, about two +hundred miles northeastward, near the Russian frontier. On this date, +too, it was reported that Mackensen had captured Giurgiu, which showed +that he had advanced thirty miles during the past twenty-four hours. +From Giurgiu there is direct rail connection with Bucharest: this line +Mackensen could use for transport service, thus increasing the danger +to the Rumanian main army that it might have its retreat cut off. +Having abandoned the Alt line, the next logical line that the +retreating Rumanians should have attempted to hold was the Vedea, +another river running parallel to the Alt and emptying into the +Danube. Here, too, there was a railroad running along the river bank, +or close to it, which would have served as a supply line. But it was +just this railroad which Mackensen had captured at Giurgiu. Once more +he threatened the Rumanian flank, and so a stand at the Vedea became +also impossible. Certainly the Teutons were now moving with +extraordinary rapidity, and there was undoubtedly some truth in the +Berlin statement that the Rumanians were fleeing eastward in a +panic-stricken mass. Great quantities of war material were abandoned +and captured by the advancing Teutons. It is significant, however, +that neither Berlin nor Vienna were able to report the capture of any +great amount of prisoners. + +By the first of the month the Teutons had almost reached the Arges +River, the last large stream that ran between them and the outer +fortifications of Bucharest. Behind this river the Rumanians finally +came to a stand, and now Berlin, instead of describing the precipitate +flight of the enemy, spoke only of the hard fighting which was going +on. At this time the German War Office also announced the capture of +Campulung, which opened the road through the Torzburg Pass. + +That Russia was now making strong efforts to relieve the pressure on +the Rumanians before Bucharest became obvious on December 1, 1916, +when it was reported from Petrograd that a Russian offensive had been +begun on the Bukowina border and was spreading down along the Rumanian +frontier south of Kirlibaba, along a front over two hundred miles in +length. Here, according to the report, the Rumanians, in cooperation +with the Russians, captured a whole range of heights in the Buzeu +Valley southeast of Kronstadt, while the Russians themselves reported +similar progress. At the same time Berlin, while also touching on the +severity of the fighting in the north, reported that the Russians were +hurling themselves against Mackensen's entire front in Dobrudja. The +German reports admitted that here and there the Russian attacks +effected slight local gains at tremendous cost. Whatever the actual +facts, this offensive movement came too late to have any material +results; Bucharest, at any rate, was doomed. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXI + +THE BATTLE OF THE RIVER ARGECHU + + +On December 3, 1916, what appears to have been a desperate battle from +the German reports took place along the river Argechu in the region +before Bucharest. This is a mountain stream which, from Piteshti to +southwest of Titu, is sometimes a hundred yards in width and at some +points twenty meters deep, though fords are found at frequent +intervals. At this time, however, the river was well flooded and only +the bridges were available for crossing. At this point strong +detachments of Bulgarians, Austrians, and Germans coming together from +the north, east, and south met with resistance from the Rumanians on +the other side of the river. For an entire day the Rumanians held back +the enemy, then suddenly broke and fled so abruptly that they had not +time to destroy the bridges, over which the invaders streamed after +the retreating Rumanians, capturing several thousands of prisoners. + +On the following day the left wing of the Austro-Germans captured +Tergovistea. At Piteshti the First Army of the Rumanians made another +brief stand, but was driven back beyond the Titu junction of railroads +from Bucharest to Campulung. South of Bucharest Russian and Rumanian +forces also offered a stout resistance, but were finally compelled to +retire when the enemy's cavalry cut around in their rear and +threatened their line of retreat. During this one day the Germans +claimed to have taken 8,000 prisoners, the Danube army capturing also +thirty-five cannon and thirteen locomotives and a great amount of +rolling stock. + +It was not the battle along the Argechu, however, which was the cause +of the immediate danger to Bucharest. The blow which decided the fate +of the Rumanian capital came from the north. The real danger lay in +the German forces coming down from the passes south of Kronstadt. +Already Campulung was taken and the Argechu crossed in the north. Then +the invaders streamed down the Prahova Valley, which begins at the +passes and runs down southeast behind Bucharest. The Rumanians now had +the choice of evacuating their capital or having it surrounded and +besieged. Bucharest was a fortified city, but the Germans carried such +guns as no fortifications built by the hand of man could resist. +Antwerp had been the first demonstration of that fact. + +The plan of holding the city had also several other objections. From a +military point of view the city was of little value. Its retention +would have had a certain moral value, in that it would have shown that +the Rumanians were by no means entirely defeated, but as practically +all the nations of Europe were now on one side or the other of the +fighting line, this political effect would have found few to +influence. To defend it, moreover, would have meant its complete +destruction, and sooner or later the defending force would have been +taken prisoners. There was no chance of saving the city from Teuton +occupation, such occupation might be delayed, nothing more. Rather +than waste a large force in a futile defense, the Rumanians decided +to evacuate the capital without any effort to stay the advancing enemy +at this point. This decision seems to have been taken some time before +the city was in actual danger. The civilian population was leaving the +city in a steady stream and every railroad carriage going eastward was +crowded to full capacity. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXII + +BUCHAREST FALLS + + +On December 6, 1916, the German War Office announced the entry of +Teutonic troops into the Rumanian capital, and what was more important +still from a military point of view, the capture of Ploechti, an +important railroad junction thirty-five miles northwest of Bucharest, +famous for its oil wells and therefore of great value to the +Austro-Germans. As developed later, however, these wells were +destroyed by the retreating Rumanians, and for some time to come, at +least, rendered almost useless. + +Whatever the value of Bucharest from a military point of view, there +can be no doubt that its capture was a heavy blow to the Allies. With +it went one-half of Rumania. The mightiest efforts of Russia had been +unable to save the kingdom from the hands of the invaders. Thereby she +had been forced to confess a certain degree of weakness. Nor had +Sarrail in Macedonia been able to divert the activities of the +Bulgarians from Dobrudja to any serious extent. This too constituted a +second confession of weakness. + +Indeed the activities, or lack of activities, on the part of the +Allies in Macedonia, in spite of the capture of Monastir, had been +even more disappointing than the inability of the Russians to save +Rumania. + +But the disaster to the cause of the Allies was more apparent than +real. As has been demonstrated on the Russian front more than once +during this war, the capture of territory alone has very little +influence on the final result of a campaign. It is not enough to +defeat an enemy; his forces must be destroyed, eliminated, wholly or +in part, and this can only be accomplished by the capture of his +forces. Though the Germans claimed that the Rumanians had lost 100,000 +men to them as prisoners, an obvious exaggeration, the Rumanian +fighting forces remained comparatively intact after the fall of +Bucharest. The best of the Rumanian troops undoubtedly remained, for +by this time they were becoming seasoned veterans. + +Having taken Bucharest, the German rush noticeably subsided; it lost +its force. This was in part due to the bad weather conditions which +now set in and lasted a week; rain fell in the plains in torrents and +made the passage of troops, and especially of artillery, very +difficult, even impossible. No doubt this also hindered the retreat of +the Rumanians, but the advantage was on their side. + +On the 18th it was reported from Petrograd that the entire Rumanian +front was being held by Russian soldiers, the Rumanians having retired +to their rear beyond the Sereth River at Jassy and in Bessarabia, +where they were being reorganized for future operations. After the +Bucharest-Ploechti line had been lost, according to one unofficial +report, the Russians had sent some strong cavalry divisions to support +the Rumanian retreat. The Russians offered strong resistance in the +region of Buzeu so as to permit their engineers to construct a +defensive front between Rimnik Sarat and the marshes at the mouth of +the Danube. On that same date Berlin announced an advance of the +Teutonic forces in northern Dobrudja. It was in this latter section +that the Teutons now centered their activities. The Russo-Rumanians +still remained in Dobrudja, on the south side of the Danube. So long +as they had a footing here they remained a potential threat to the +Teutons, which might awaken into active danger at the first favorable +opportunity. To be ousted from this northern tip of Dobrudja would be +even more serious to the Russo-Rumanians than the loss of Wallachia. +From this point they might, at some future day, initiate an offensive +against Bulgaria which might become extremely dangerous. Once across +the river, however, it would be difficult for them to recross, for +reasons that have already been discussed: no line of fortifications, +no intrenched positions they might throw up, would be so effective a +defense to the Teutons as the mouth of the Danube. + +In Rumania, west of the river, continuous and at times heavy fighting +continued, sometimes assuming almost the proportions of pitched +battles. During the last week of the month Mackensen apparently +realized the hopelessness, for the present at least, of driving the +enemy out of Dobrudja, and shifted some of his forces over to the west +bank of the river. The Russians had retired behind the Rimnik River, a +small stream which is about twenty-five miles north of the Buzeu and +parallel to it. On January 1, 1917, the Germans announced that the +Russians had been forced back against the bridgehead at Braila and +that in the Dobrudja they had advanced beyond Matchin. On the 5th, +Braila, the most important city left to the Rumanians, fell into the +hands of Mackensen, and at the same time the last of the Russians +retired from the northern tip of Dobrudja. This was the heaviest blow +that had fallen since the capture of Bucharest, and from a military +point of view was even more serious. Once driven across the broad +waters of the Danube mouth, the Russians and the Rumanians could not +recross in the future except in very strong force and with great +losses. At the same time it was now possible for Mackensen to reduce +his forces in Dobrudja to a minimum and reenforce the troops operating +over in Rumania proper. + +During the rest of the month the fighting continued up and down the +line with unabated vigor, though without any sensational results. The +Germans were now hammering at the main line of the Russian defense and +could not expect any large gains. The defeat of the Rumanians had +been, after all, only the driving back of a salient. But in general +the fighting during the latter half of January, 1917, seemed to favor +the Teutons. + +On the 15th Berlin reported that the Bulgarian artillery was +bombarding Galatz from across the Danube. On this date too the +Russians lost Vadeni, ten miles southwest of Galatz, their last +position south of the Sereth. On the other hand, Petrograd announced +on this same day that on the northern Rumanian front, in a violent +engagement on the Kasino River, the Rumanian troops forced the Germans +back, while the German attacks northeast of Fokshani were repulsed by +the Russians. By the following day these local attacks developed into +a general engagement, such as had not been fought since before +Bucharest had fallen. At Fundani, Berlin reported, the Russians hurled +one mass attack after another--waves of humanity as they were +termed--against the German lines and gained some temporary advantages. +On the 17th Petrograd announced the recapture of Vadeni. After a +prolonged artillery preparation the Russians rushed their infantry +against the position in the town and drove the Germans out. The +latter, after receiving reenforcements and assisted by an artillery +drumfire, made a powerful counterattack, but did not succeed in +driving the Russians back. Berlin admitted this defeat, incidentally +mentioning that Turkish troops were here engaged. Berlin also admitted +that "between the Kasino and Suchitza Valleys the Russians and +Rumanians made another mass attack and succeeded in regaining a height +recently taken from them." On the 20th, Mackensen's forces, as was +stated by Berlin and admitted by Petrograd, succeeded in taking +Nanesti and driving the Russians back to the Sereth. + +On January 22, 1917, an Overseas News Agency dispatch stated that the +number of Rumanian prisoners taken during the entire campaign to date +now numbered 200,000. Describing the situation of the Rumanian army at +that time, the dispatch continued: + +"The rest of the Rumanian army, part of which fought well, is +reorganizing in Moldavia and Bessarabia. The few Rumanian divisions +which still are engaged at the front are very much reduced in numbers. +According to the assertions of Rumanian prisoners, one division was +composed of only 2,800 men, while another numbered but 2,400. The +Rumanians suffered their heaviest losses from artillery fire. The +large number of dead in proportion to the wounded is remarkable. On +one square kilometer (about three-fifths of a square mile) of the +battle field of Campulung 6,000 Rumanian dead were counted. Some of +the Rumanian infantry regiments were composed of only four companies +of 150 men each. Because of the lack of sanitary organization, an +extraordinary large percentage of the wounded died in the hospitals, +which, however, afforded room only for the officers, while large +numbers of wounded soldiers were lodged in damp cellars, peasants' +huts, and barns, where they died miserably." + +On January 20, 1917, the military critic of the Overseas News Agency +summed up the situation as follows: + +"The Russo-Rumanian efforts to delay the advance of the Teutons +against the Sereth Plain are taking the form of fierce counterattacks, +launched to avert the danger that their position on the Putna and the +Sereth be outflanked. During the last few days especially violent +attacks have been directed against the position situated on the +Carpathian slopes north of the Suchitza. These developed no success +and cost the enemy heavy losses in casualties and prisoners.... On the +Carpathian front, in the Oituz district, the Teutonic forces have +pressed forward until they are in a position whence they can take the +circular valley of Ocna under their fire. As has been confirmed by the +Russian headquarters report, Bogdaneshti and Ocna were shelled. Ocna +is an important railroad station and a point of support for the +Russian defense in the upper Trotus Valley, while Bogdaneshti bars the +outlet to the great valley of the Trotus and Oituz. All the determined +attempts made by the Russians and Rumanians to extend the narrow +limits of their hold on the southern bank of the Sereth have been more +or less unsuccessful. The German troops, however, with their capture +of the village of Nanesti, tore the pillar from the wall of the +Russian defense. Nanesti forms the strategical center of the +bridgehead of Fundeni and covers the great iron bridge across the +Sereth, which is in the immediate vicinity of Nanesti. The entire +construction of the Nanesti-Fundeni bridgehead, which is a modern +field fortification, illustrates its importance as a central point of +support of the Sereth line. In the remaining sectors of the Sereth +snowstorms and mists have interfered with military activity." + +During the middle of January, 1917, the French Admiral du Fournier of +the Entente fleet in Greek waters paid a visit to the Russo-Rumanian +front. On his return from this tour, which was taken on the way to +France, he wrote in the Paris "Matin": + +"The Russian army was surprised by the rapid succession of Rumanian +reverses and had to suspend Brussilov's offensive in Galicia in order +to send large reenforcements to Rumania, but its position was such +that it could not cover its flank in Wallachia and its rear in +Dobrudja rapidly enough to stop the advance of the invaders. It was +only on the Sereth that it succeeded in forming with the first corps +that arrived from the army of General Sakharoff a front which was +lengthened by several good Rumanian divisions. A few weeks will +witness a change in the military situation. In my journey in a motor +car with the troops on the march I saw nothing but magnificent +soldiers, admirably equipped and in excellent form." + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII + +SARRAIL'S OFFENSIVE + + +The half year ending with February 1, 1917, was a period of almost +continuous activity before Saloniki, in sharp contrast to the previous +six months, which had been quite uneventful. Yet that interval between +the conquest of Serbia by the Austro-German and Bulgarian troops and +the renewal of fighting, beginning in August, 1916, were months of +furious preparation by General Sarrail and his colleagues. From what +was little more than a precarious footing in Saloniki itself they had +established a firm base protected by a wide circle of intrenchments, +while their forces had been augmented to something not far from +three-quarters of a million men under arms and a huge supply of +ordnance and munitions. From a mere expedition to keep a back door +open for the defeated Serbians, Sarrail's army had developed into what +was obviously going to be a gigantic campaign against the rear of the +Central Powers, an attempt to enter Austria through a back window. +Such, at least, was the supposition of military critics the world +over. Incidentally the presence of so large a force of the Allies in +Macedonia served various other purposes. Viewing the situation with a +retrospective eye, at the present moment, there can be no doubt that +Greece would by now have thrown her lot in with the Central Powers had +it not been for her fear of Sarrail's forces. Also, the Teutons and +the Bulgarians were compelled to devote a large force to holding a +front opposite Sarrail, and so weaken their other fronts. And finally, +without Sarrail in Saloniki, Rumania would never have decided to join +hands with the Allies, certainly not so early as she did. To be sure, +Rumania was defeated, but her defeat must have cost the Central Powers +grave losses which may eventually prove to have turned the tide in +favor of the Allies. + +Already before August, 1916, it was becoming obvious that Sarrail was +beginning to feel strong enough to play a less passive part. Little by +little he had been pushing out his lines. The remnants of the Serbian +army, which had been recuperating at Corfu, were reorganized and +transported to Saloniki by sea, whence they were sent to take over a +portion of the front on the extreme left. Somewhere around August 1, +1916, Russian soldiers began landing at Saloniki, though this +significant fact was not reported till nearly three weeks afterward, +when about 80,000 of them had joined Sarrail's force and had been sent +out on the left front, west of the Serbians. During this interval a +large force of Italians also joined the Allied troops at Saloniki and +joined the British near Doiran. All the Allies except Japan were now +represented on this front by their contingents, though of course the +French and British were still in vastly preponderating majority. The +moral effect was strong, for it was the first time that troops of all +the Allies were camped side by side. The landing of the Russians, who +had come through France, thence by the sea route, was no doubt +effected in the hope of affecting the Bulgarians, who are not only +Slavs, but have a very strong feeling of affinity for the Russians, +who liberated them from the Turks. It was probably hoped that on being +brought face to face with them on the firing line many Bulgarians +would desert, or possibly even there would be an uprising in Bulgaria +against Czar Ferdinand's policy. That nothing of this sort did +actually happen, either in Macedonia or in Dobrudja and Rumania, where +the Russians also faced Bulgarians, may perhaps be ascribed to the +revulsion of feeling against the Russians which many Bulgarians had +begun experiencing of recent years, on account of the many black +intrigues which the Russian Government had hatched against the +independence of Bulgaria. + +In the matter of Bulgaria, it is but fair to state that Russia, +Rumania, and Serbia had little right to complain; Bulgaria had just +scores to wipe off against all of them. Each was but paying the price +for some selfish policy in the past for which Bulgaria had had to +suffer. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV + +UNREST IN GREECE + + +There was the intense racial hatred between Greeks and Bulgars, more +fully explained in previous volumes. Hatreds of this nature affect the +public more than governing bodies. On the public sentiment of Greece +this hatred seems to have been a more powerful influence than more +subtle political considerations. The detested Bulgar, the barbarian, +the "kondri-cephalous" (blockhead) was advancing into eastern +Macedonia, which the Greeks had gained at so much cost, and they were +taking possession of that section of the country where the population +really is preponderatingly Greek. In the north, in western Macedonia, +he was also invading Greek territory, taking Florina, approaching the +very boundaries of Greece proper; indeed, cavalry patrols of the +Bulgarians had descended as far as the plains of Thessaly. + +Public indignation flamed to a white heat. On September 1, 1916, came +a press dispatch from Athens stating that the population was rising +against the Government and that the king had abdicated in fear. This +latter statement proved untrue, but in the Macedonia occupied by the +Allies a modified revolution was indeed taking place, no doubt +encouraged by the Allies. A provisional committee, or government, had +been organized, and to this authority the Greek garrisons at Vodena, +Port Karaburun, and Saloniki had surrendered. "Cretan gendarmes and +Macedonian volunteers," continued the report, "have surrounded the +barracks of the Greek infantry in Saloniki and exchanged shots with +the garrison after cutting the water main and electric-light wires and +shutting off food supplies. A detachment of sixty regulars attempted +to break its way out. Its surrender was demanded, and when the +regulars refused the volunteers fired shots in the air. The regulars +replied with a volley, whereupon the volunteers opened fire on them, +compelling them to return to the barracks. Altogether three men were +killed and two wounded. Before the garrison finally surrendered three +companies of French colonial infantry marched to the parade grounds. +They were soon followed by two battalions of infantry, which took up +positions on both sides of the parade grounds in the rear of the +barracks. Machine guns were posted at conspicuous points and armored +cars were stationed opposite the entrance of the barracks.... At 11 +o'clock that night the Greek troops marched out unarmed and were +interned at Camp Keitinlek outside the city." + +Apparently these incidents had a temporary influence on the Government +at Athens, for on September 3, 1916, it was reported that all parties +had agreed to give their support to the Zaimis cabinet, which was now +ready to reconsider its previous policy and give its full support to +the cause of the Allies. The German Ambassador, it was said, had left +Athens. How confident was Venizelos in the belief that the Government +had come around to his policy is obvious from the following statement, +which he made on that same date: + +"The addition of one more nation to the long list of those fighting +against Prussian militarism for the liberty of Europe and the +independence of the smaller states cannot but give more strength to +the common confidence in a complete victory of the Allies. I deeply +grieve that my country has so much delayed in paying her due +contribution to the struggle for these most precious benefits of +humanity, and trust the influence caused by Rumanian intervention will +render it absolutely impossible for the existing Greek authorities any +further to persist in their policy of neutrality, and that at the +earliest moment Greece too will join the camp of her proved and +traditional friends for the purpose of accomplishing her own national +ideals." + +Meanwhile the revolt in Greek Macedonia seemed to be spreading. A +provisional government was declared established with a Colonel +Zimorakakis at the head, and all the gendarmes and the cavalry had +gone over to the new regime. + +What gave further color to the reports that Greece was definitely +deciding to go over to the Allies was the announcement that the +elections had been postponed indefinitely. The Zaimis cabinet, it will +be remembered by those who have read the previous volume, was merely +provisional to fill the interim until the next elections. These had at +first been fixed for August 7, 1916, then postponed for another month. +Now they were again postponed indefinitely. Truly it seemed that the +two big parties had come to an understanding. Added to this was the +report that Baron Schenk, the chief of the German propaganda, had been +arrested and brought a prisoner aboard one of the French warships. +Also the telegraph and telephone systems of the country had been given +over to the control of the Allies. + +There now followed an interval of complete silence, broken only on the +10th, when it was reported from London that the Greek Premier, Zaimis, +had held a conference with the Entente ministers and had asked what +consideration Greece would receive should she join the Allies. The +ministers were reported to have replied that they would ask +instructions from their respective governments. On the following day +Zaimis suddenly offered his resignation. The king refused to accept it +and, on the ministers of the Entente expressing their confidence in +his sincerity, he withdrew his resignation. On the following day the +Entente Powers made their reply to Premier Zaimis, regarding what +reward Greece might expect should she join them. They were not +disposed, they stated, to enter into a discussion of this subject. If +Greece desired to join them, she must waive the question of +compensation for the present, though the Entente Powers stood ready to +assist her in equipping her with arms and munitions. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXV + +A GREEK ARMY SURRENDERS TO GERMANY + + +Meanwhile an incident in eastern Macedonia occurred which aroused a +great deal of feeling against the Greek Government in the Entente +countries. It will be remembered that the Bulgarians had advanced +along the coast in this region, being unopposed there by Allied +troops, and that they had finally appeared before Kavala. In spite of +the vigorous shelling from the Allies' warships they occupied the +forts surrounding the city, which were immediately evacuated by the +Greek garrisons. These, together with the soldiers in the city and +other outlying garrisons, numbering between six and eight thousand, +constituted a part of the Fourth Army Corps of the Greek army. On +September 13, 1916, Germany suddenly issued the announcement that this +body of Greek soldiers had surrendered. + +"After German and Bulgarian troops," continued the announcement, "had +found themselves compelled by General Sarrail's offensive to march as +a counterattack into Greek Macedonia, the Fourth Greek Army Corps +stood ready in Seres, Drama, and Kavala, behind the left Bulgarian +wing, which had advanced to the Struma. The measures of the Entente +aimed at forcing these Greek troops to its side or preparing for them +a fate similar to that which befell the overpowered portions of the +Eleventh Greek Division at Saloniki. Free communication with Athens +was interrupted and intercourse with the home authorities was +controlled by the Entente and refused arbitrarily by the Entente. + +"The commanding general of the Fourth Greek Army Corps at Kavala, +faithful to the will of the chief commander and the legally +constituted Government's policy of maintaining neutrality, and in view +of the unsupportable situation of the troops under his command, +menaced by famine and disease, has been compelled to proceed on his +own authority. On September 12, 1916, he asked the German chief +commander to protect his brave troops, loyal to the king, to relieve +them of the pressure of the Entente and provide food and shelter for +them. In order to prevent any breach of neutrality, it has been agreed +with the commanding general to transport to lodging places in Germany +these Greek troops in the status of neutrals with their entire arms +and equipment. Here they will enjoy hospitality until their fatherland +is free of invaders." + +There now arose the cry in the press of all the Entente countries that +the surrender of this force of Greek soldiers was only an act on the +part of the Greek Government to assist the Germans, whom it planned to +support actively when a propitious moment should come. In reply the +Greek Government published the telegrams that it had exchanged with +the Greek commander at Kavala. On the 11th he had telegraphed to +Athens, through the admiral of the British fleet: + +"The Fourth Greek Army Corps at Kavala wishes to surrender immediately +to the British. The Bulgarians have threatened to bombard the city +to-morrow." + +The British admiral thereupon sent the following message to General +Calaris, the War Minister in Athens: + +"Do you wish me to permit the Greek troops to embark on Greek ships?" + +In response the Greek War Minister wired: + +"To the Fourth Army Corps at Kavala: Transport yourselves immediately +with all your forces to Volo, arranging with the British admiral. The +police and civil authorities must remain at Kavala." + +Apparently the division that existed throughout the entire Greek +population appeared among these Greek soldiers, for not all +surrendered with their commander to the Germans; a large number +withdrew and escaped to Thaos. On the face of the telegraphic +correspondence, involving the British admiral, it would seem that the +Greek commander acted in accordance with his personal sympathies +rather than from instructions, but the incident nevertheless succeeded +in stirring strong feeling against Greece in France and England. + +That matters were not running smoothly within the inner circle of the +Greek Government became evident on September 16, 1916, when it was +announced that Premier Zaimis had now definitely and absolutely +resigned, and that Nikolas Kalogeropoulos had been asked by the king +to form a new cabinet. He was one of the foremost lawyers of Greece, +had lived for many years in France, and was said to be in sympathy +with Venizelos and the Allies. In 1904 he had been Minister of Finance +for a brief period, and in 1908 and 1909 he had been Minister of the +Interior. The new premier was sworn into office under the same +conditions as surrounded his predecessor: his was merely a service +cabinet, to maintain control until the elections could be held in +accordance with the constitution. + +In strange contrast to this event, which seemed to bode well for the +Allies, the "Saloniki movement," as the revolt in favor of +intervention was called by the British press and which had been lying +quiet for some time, now broke out afresh. On September 21, 1916, came +the report that the people on the island of Crete had risen and +declared a Provisional Government in favor of the Allies, and that the +new authorities had sent a committee to Saloniki to tender their +adherence to General Sarrail. Also it was rumored that Venizelos was +going to Saloniki to place himself at the head of the revolt. On the +20th he gave out an interview to the Associated Press correspondent +in which he certainly did not deny the possibility of his doing so: + +"I cannot answer now," he said, "I must wait a short time and see what +the Government proposes to do.... As I said on August 27, if the king +will not hear the voice of the people, we must ourselves devise what +it is best to do." + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI + +THE SERBIANS ADVANCE + + +Having reviewed the situation in Greece during the month of September, +1916, we may now return to our narrative of the military activities +along the Macedonian front. At the end of August, 1916, a lull seemed +to settle down along the entire front, nothing being reported save +minor skirmishes and trench raids. On the 2d the Italians at Avlona in +Albania, said to number 200,000, were reported from Rome to be making +an advance. Here the Austrians were facing them, the only point along +the line in which Austrian troops were posted. The Italians made an +attack on Tepeleni on the Voyusa, and drove the enemy from that +position as well as from two neighboring villages. After this event +nothing further was heard from them, though, as will appear later, it +was obvious that they were making some headway. Apparently it was +their object to cooperate with the rest of the Allies in Macedonia by +turning the extreme right of the Bulgarian line. + +On the 11th the silence was broken by the announcement from London +that an energetic offensive was being resumed along the entire front +on the part of the Allies. On that date the British made a crossing of +the Struma over to the east bank and attacked the Bulgarians +vigorously and, in spite of the counterattacks of the enemy, were able +to hold their advanced position. The French, too, began hammering the +foe opposite them west of Lake Doiran to the Vardar, and a few days +later reported that they had taken the first line of trenches for a +distance of two miles. + +It was over on the extreme left, however, that the Allies were to +gain what seemed to be some distinct advantages. Near Lake Ostrovo the +Serbians hurled themselves up the rocky slopes toward Moglena and +stormed the well-intrenched positions of the Bulgarians, and succeeded +in dislodging them and driving them back. A few miles farther over, at +Banitza, a station on the railroad, they also centered on a determined +attack, and there a pitched battle developed, the Bulgarians having +the advantage of the bald but rocky hills behind them. Over in the +west, before Kastoria (Kostur, in Bulgarian dispatches), the Russians +advanced and succeeded in driving the Bulgarians back. Some miles +north of the town rise the naked crags and precipices of an extremely +difficult range of mountains; here the Bulgarians stood and succeeded +in preventing the Russians from making any further progress, their +right flank being protected by the two Prespa lakes. + +For almost a week the battle raged furiously back and forth along this +section of the front. On the 15th the Bulgarian lines opposed to the +Serbians suddenly gave way and broke, and the triumphant Serbs made a +rapid advance, pursuing the enemy for nine miles and capturing +twenty-five cannon and many prisoners, according to dispatches of +Entente origin. For the next thirty-six hours the fighting was +intense, and then the whole Bulgarian right wing seemed to crumple and +swing backward. For a while the Bulgarians made a stand on the banks +of the Cerna, at the southern bend of the great loop made by the +river, but finally the Serbians effected a crossing and continued +driving the Bulgarians up along the ridges forming the eastern side of +the Monastir Valley. Farther to the left the French and Russians were +also succeeding in their efforts. The Bulgarians were driven out of +and beyond Florina (Lerin in Bulgarian dispatches) and General +Cordonnier, in command of the French, immediately established his +headquarters at this important point, commanding the whole Monastir +plain. Up this level country the Bulgarians fled. Reports did not +indicate to just what point up the valley the French were able to +advance, but it was quite obvious that the Bulgarians were able to +stay them some distance before Monastir, where the mountains approach +the city and offer excellent positions for artillery against troops +advancing up the railroad line toward the city. On the map at least +this important city seemed to be threatened, but it was still too +premature to pronounce it in serious danger, as did the Entente press. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII + +THE GREEKS ON THE FIRING LINE + + +It was during these six days' hard fighting that the Greek volunteers +underwent their baptism of fire and the first of them shed their blood +for the cause of the Allies. These constituted the First Regiment of +Greek volunteers commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Gravanis. He was +under the command of the French general at Fiorina, and he and his men +took a prominent part in the capture of the town. During the next few +days the fighting calmed down, except farther eastward above Ostrovo, +where the Serbians had succeeded in driving the Bulgarians from their +important positions along the Kaimakcalan ridges. Here the Bulgarians +counterattacked bitterly and continuously, but apparently with no +success. These assaults were repeated at intervals of several days +during the rest of the month, and though Sofia reported the recapture +of Kaimakcalan Heights and a general triumph along this whole section +of the front, the reports from both sides later indicated that these +dispatches were wholly false, probably issued to satisfy a restless +general public. On the other hand, the Allies made no further advance: +by the first day of the following month they held about the same +ground they had gained during the intensive fighting shortly after the +middle of September, 1916. As is usual after extreme military +activity, there followed a period of calm, during which both sides +were preparing for the next outburst of effort. But the end of +September, 1916, showed plainly that the Bulgarians and Teutons were +entirely on the defensive in Macedonia and were content to hold their +own. + +During the month of October, 1916, little of a sensational aspect +occurred on the Macedonian front; the latter half of this period was, +however, one of hard fighting and steady hammering along the Serbian +sector. On the 2d the Serbians reported that they had not only +consolidated the positions they had taken on the important heights of +Kaimakcalan but they had advanced beyond this point three kilometers +and taken Kotchovie. At the end of the week Jermani, a village at the +base of a high ridge on the lower shore of Little Prespa Lake, was +taken by the French. Some days after came a rather detailed dispatch +from Rome, significant in the light of later events. The Italians from +Avlona were obviously making steady progress over a very difficult +territory--difficult on account of the poor communications. On the +10th it was reported that they had taken Klisura, about thirty-five +miles from Avlona, in the direction of Monastir. This was barely a +fourth of the distance; nevertheless they were advancing toward Lake +Ochrida, west of the Prespa Lakes, against which the Bulgarians rested +their right wing. It was evident that they had driven back the +Austrians who were supposed to hold this section. + +On the 12th the British made an advance over on the right section of +the front; nothing of any real importance had occurred over here since +the supposed advance had begun, but there had been a great deal of +noise from the artillery on both sides. On this date the British +reached Seres, but were held back by the Bulgarians, who had +previously driven out the Greek garrison and occupied the forts in the +immediate neighborhood. These positions the British now began +hammering with great vigor, with their biggest guns, though without +any immediate result. + +At the end of the third week of the month the Serbians, under General +Mischitch, made another drive ahead and succeeded in penetrating the +enemy's lines for a distance of two miles, taking Velyselo, and a day +later Baldentsi. At the beginning of this battle, which lasted two +days, the advantage rested with the Bulgarians. They held the higher +line beyond the Cerna River, whose slopes were so steep that they +could roll huge bowlders down on the attacking parties. After a two +hours' artillery preparation early in the morning, the Serbians +suddenly sprang forward with loud cheers and rushed the heights. From +the rear they could be recognized at a great distance, on account of +the large square of white calico which each man had sewn to the back +of his coat, and the leaders carried white and red flags with which to +indicate the farthest point reached, so that the artillery in the rear +could see and avoid shelling them. While the Serbians stormed one +crest, the artillery pounded the crest just beyond. Finally all the +crests were covered by little fluttering red and white flags, while +the Bulgarians fled headlong down the opposite slopes. On the +following day a period of very bad weather set in and drowned further +operations in a deluge of rain. + +On the 21st came another report from Rome of some significance. In the +Iskeria Mountains east of Premeti an Italian detachment occupied +Lyaskoviki, on the road from Janina to Koritza. The latter town marks +the racial boundary between the Bulgarian and Albanian countries. To +the eastward was the rough country of Kastoria in which the Russians +were operating. In other words, the Italians were emerging from +Albania and were getting within reach of the Macedonian field of +operations. In fact, on the 29th it was reported that this Italian +expedition had linked up with the extreme left of the Allied wing, but +this report must have been quite premature; it still had some very +rough country to traverse before this could be accomplished. The end +of the month saw a lull in the operations in the entire Macedonian +theater on account of the bad weather. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII + +SEIZURE OF THE GREEK FLEET + + +On October 11, 1916, the patience of the Allies seems to have been +again exhausted with the wavering policy of the Greek monarch. On that +date Admiral du Fournier came to Athens and demanded the surrender of +the entire Greek fleet, except the cruiser _Averoff_ and the +battleships _Lemnos_ and _Kilkis_ (the latter two formerly the +American ships _Idaho_ and _Mississippi_). He further demanded the +transfer of control to the Allies of the Piraeus-Larissa railroad and +that the shore batteries should all be dismantled. These demands were +complied with at once, and all but the three vessels named were +surrendered and their crews landed. The ships so handed over consisted +of three battleships, one protected cruiser, four gunboats, three mine +layers, one torpedo depot ship, sixteen destroyers, twelve torpedo +boats, four submarines, and the royal yacht. The rest of the Greek +navy had already gone over to the Allies, as was mentioned, and was +now in Saloniki. The Piraeus-Larissa railroad, which the Allies also +demanded, runs for a distance of 200 miles in a winding course from +Piraeus, the seaport of Athens, to Larissa. The cause of this sudden +action, as explained by the British press, was that for some time +Greek troops had been concentrating in the interior near Larissa, +while other troops were gathering in Corinth, from whence they could +easily reach the force in Larissa. + +An Athens division had been quietly moving along the railroad line, +leaving a regiment to intrench themselves before the king's palace at +Tatoi. Apparently the fear was that King Constantine was preparing, at +a favorable moment, to retire with his army and intrench himself in +the plains of Thessaly until he could there join hands with the +Bulgarians and the Germans and perhaps attack the Allies on their left +flank. The surrender of the railroad now made this impossible. + +The result of this action was that large street demonstrations began +at once, supposed to have been instigated by the Reservists' League. +The French admiral thereupon landed a large force of marines and +occupied a number of public buildings whence he could control the main +streets with machine guns. By the 16th all Athens seemed to be in an +uproar, but the violence which took place was directed against +Venizelist sympathizers, while in their demonstrations against the +Allies the rioters contented themselves with jeering and hurling +insulting remarks. In these disorders the police remained absolutely +passive, and on some occasions joined with the rioters. This caused +the French admiral to demand that the command of the police force +should be practically turned over to him. A French officer was at once +established as chief inspector at the Ministry of the Interior. +Transfers or dismissals in the force could now not be made without his +consent, while he himself had arbitrary power in dismissing and +transferring. He was also empowered to appoint inspectors throughout +the rest of the kingdom. Naturally, the royalist press came out in +strong denunciations, but these were terminated when the French +established a press censorship. + +On the 22d the Allied governments demanded that the Greek force +concentrated at Larissa be withdrawn from that point and scattered +throughout the southern part of the country, and this demand was also +promised. During the rest of the month there were reports of +conferences between King Constantine and the French admiral and the +representatives of the Entente, all tending to show that he was again +becoming intensely pro-Ally. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIX + +THE BULGARIANS DRIVEN BACK + + +The quiet which prevailed in the field of military effort in Macedonia +toward the end of October, 1916, continued well into November, 1916, +save for local artillery activity and trench raids. But on the 11th +fighting broke out again in the bend of the Cerna River on the sector +held by the Serbians and French. That the Allies here made serious +gains was proved by the fact that for the first time Sofia dispatches +admitted an enemy advance, though they minimized it to trifling +significance. On that date the Serbians began a series of attacks +which resulted in the capture of Polog and 600 prisoners. During all +of the following day the battle continued, and again the Serbians +advanced, supported by the French, this time penetrating the enemy's +lines for a distance of seven miles, enabling them to take the village +of Iven and another 1,000 prisoners. On this date the Serbians +announced that since September 14, 1916, when the offensive began, +they had taken 6,000 prisoners, 72 cannon, and 53 machine guns. Again +the Sofia dispatch admitted that the Serbians had succeeded in "making +a salient before our positions northeast of Polog." + +The Serbians had now broken through the range of hills intervening +between themselves and the eastern edge of the Monastir Plain. For a +day there was a lull, and then the Serbians and French resumed their +attacks. Northeast of Iven the Bulgarians and Germans were compelled +to fall back, close pressed by the Serbians, who occupied the village +of Cegal. North of Velyeselo the French and Serbians also advanced; +the fighting spread westward as far as Kenali. The prisoners taken +during the past few days now numbered 2,200, among whom were 600 +Germans. But more important still, the Allies were now almost due east +of the city of Monastir. That city was now in imminent danger. + +On the 16th the entire line of formidable frontier defenses centered +on Kenali had to be abandoned by the German and Bulgarian troops, in +which operation they lost heavily. They then retreated across the Viro +River, west of the railroad and across the Bistritza River to the east +of the line, so that the Russians, following them up closely, +succeeded in arriving within four miles of the city. Meanwhile the +Serbians, in the mountains east of the swamps which protected the +plain along the Cerna, were rushing rapidly on in their effort to +swing around to the northeast of the city before the enemy should be +able to intrench himself among the rolling hills that bound the +northern extent of the plain. It was significant that among the +prisoners were a number of members of regiments which had been +fighting, only a week previously, upon the Dobrudja front under +Mackensen. + + + + +CHAPTER XL + +MONASTIR FALLS + + +A glance at the map will show that Monastir was now practically in the +hands of the Allies, that it would be impossible for the Germans and +Bulgarians to hold it any longer. As has already been explained, the +plain or valley near whose head it stands is a broad, level region +which here penetrates the mountainous interior of this portion of the +Balkan Peninsula. To the eastward it is bounded by low, rolling +foothills, which gradually rise into high, rocky mountains or heights. +On the west there are no foothills: the mountains rise abruptly, +stretching south almost to Kastoria. The railroad, after leaving +Banitza, in the foothills, swings around into the plain, but under the +shadows of the high ridges on the western side. Up toward the head of +the plain these mountains curve slightly inward. About ten or fifteen +miles below the point where they meet the rolling foothills, thus +forming the head of the valley, the city of Monastir lies, some of its +outlying suburbs being plastered up against the base of the mountains. + +An army occupying the heights above would absolutely dominate the +city; its artillery could pound it to a wreck within a few hours. + +It was along these heights on the western edge of the plain that the +French and the Serbians had advanced, driving the Bulgarians and +Germans before them. Just at Monastir these heights are especially +high and jagged, and the Bulgarians and Germans might very well have +held out here against the enemy for a much longer period. But the +foothills over on the eastern side of the plain had been passing into +the hands of the Serbians operating in that region. These forces were +now passing to the northward of the city, though the marshy plain +still intervened. They were advancing toward the head of the valley. +Should they succeed in reaching this point, where the highway to +Prilep passed, they would cut off the retreat of the Bulgarians. + +But there was still another road by which the Bulgarians might have +retreated: the highway leading through Resna to the upper part of Lake +Ochrida. Had this been open they might have risked the blocking of the +Prilep road. But, as was later indicated by the reports, the Italians +had by this time advanced above Koritza and were not only in touch +with the Russians operating around Kastoria and the lower part of the +Prespa and Ochrida lakes, but they were skirting the western shore of +Ochrida and threatening to advance on Monastir by this very highway. +Thus the Bulgarians were threatened from two directions--by the +Italians, who were turning their right flank, and by the Serbians, who +had broken through their lines in the foothills east of the Monastir +plain. There is probably no doubt that they could have held off all +frontal attacks from the heights above Monastir. Thus they were +squeezed, rather than driven, out of the city. + +On the night of the 18th the German and Bulgarian forces in the city +quietly withdrew and retreated along the Prilep road to the head of +the valley. At 8 o'clock the following morning, on November 19, 1916, +exactly a year since the Serbians had been driven out of the city by +the Austrians and Bulgarians, the Allied forces marched into the +Macedonian city, and an hour later the flag of King Peter once more +floated above the roofs. Apparently the Bulgarian retreat had been too +long delayed, for before reaching the head of the valley they were cut +off by the Serbians and only escaped after heavy losses, both in +killed, wounded, prisoners, and materials. At the same time the +Serbians effectually closed the road, taking several villages and all +the dominating heights. + +From a military point of view the fall of Monastir was not of vast +importance; it was of about the same significance from a tactical +aspect as Bucharest. But from a moral and political aspect it was of +immense importance. Though only populated by some 50,000 of mixed +Turks, Vlachs (Rumanians), Greeks, a few Serbs and Bulgarians, the +latter predominating, it was the center of the most Bulgarian portion +of Macedonia. Throughout the outlying districts down to Kastoria, over +to Albania, and up to Uskub, the population is purely and aggressively +Bulgar. Here the simple peasants were persecuted by the Greek Church +for fifteen years preceding the First Balkan War and by the Serbians +afterward; by the one on account of their religion, by the other on +account of their nationality. Here, too was the center of the +revolutionary movement against the Turks, and here the people rose +time and time again in open insurrection, only to be quenched by fire +and blood. Nowhere in the Balkan Peninsula has there been so much +oppression and bloodshed on account of nationality. For these reasons +Monastir has a deep sentimental significance to every Bulgarian. No +part of Macedonia means so much to him. Its possession by the Serbians +after the Balkan Wars did more, probably, to reconcile the country to +King Ferdinand's otherwise hateful pro-German policy than anything +else. As is now well known, Ferdinand stipulated that this city should +not only be taken from the Serbians, but that it should belong to +Bulgaria, before he entered the war on the side of the Germans and +Austrians. Otherwise it is quite likely that the Teutons would not +have considered it worth while to advance so far south. Its recapture +by the Serbians and their allies must, therefore, have had a +corresponding depressing effect in Bulgaria. + +On the day following the evacuation of Monastir the Italians appear +for the first time in the reports of the fighting in this region. They +had obviously come in contact with the Bulgarians on their extreme +right and were pressing them back, thus forcing the whole line to +retire. The French, too, made some advance along the eastern shore of +Lake Prespa, while the Serbians took five villages in the foothills at +the head of the plain. The main forces of the Bulgarians and Germans +were making their stand about twelve miles north of the city, well up +in the hills and crossing the Prilep highway. + +For some days following bad weather again settled down over the +Monastir section of the Macedonian front, and though it did not stop +the fighting, it rendered further progress on the part of the Allies +very difficult. But in spite of the brilliant victories announced by +the dispatches from Berlin and Sofia, these very reports indicated, by +the changing localities of the skirmishes that the Germans and +Bulgarians were still being pressed back. By the end of the month the +Serbians northeast of Monastir had advanced as far as Grunishte. In +the northwest the Italians were fighting in the mountains about +Tcervena Stana. Reporting on the last day of the month, Berlin +announces that "this was the day of hardest fighting." The Germans and +the Bulgarians had now reached their next line of defense and were +making desperate efforts to hold it. + +Meanwhile, over on the right of the Allied front, between Doiran and +the Vardar, violent fighting had been going on during the past few +weeks, and though the Allies seemed to make some slight progress here +and there, none of these gains were of a significant nature. Here the +Bulgarians seemed to be holding their own completely. Possibly it was +not Sarrail's object to attempt any real advance over in this section; +merely to keep the enemy engaged there and prevent his rendering too +much aid to the harried Bulgarian right wing. His main offensive, if +he really had contemplated a real advance, had evidently been planned +for the Monastir route into Serbia. That all the Slavic troops, the +Russians and Serbians, were placed over in this section gives, +besides, some little color to this supposition. + + + + +CHAPTER XLI + +GREEK FIGHTS GREEK + + +In Greece the same old situation continued. In the beginning of the +month there had come the first clash between the volunteer soldiers +of the Provisional Government and the troops of the king. The Greek +troops at Larissa had not yet had time to remove to southern Greece, +in accordance with the demands of the Allies, when on November 2, +1916, a body of volunteers of the Provisional Government marched +overland to Katerina, a town twenty-five miles northeast of Larissa, +where a garrison of royalist troops was stationed. Whether the +insurgents really attacked the garrison, or whether the royalist force +withdrew peacefully, was not made clear, but the fact was that the +volunteers entered the town and took possession. Following this +incident, it was stated from Athens on the 12th that King Constantine +had given his permission that any of his officers in either the army +or navy might join the forces of the Provisional Government, provided +they first resigned from the regular establishment. On this date +Germany entered her official protest against Greece handing over her +ships and much war material to the French admiral. In connection with +this report it was stated that Germany herself, on taking the forts +and towns in eastern Macedonia, had seized 350 cannon, 60,000 rifles +and $20,000,000 worth of ammunition. In the light of these facts, +naturally Germany's protest was not taken very seriously. Indeed, it +seems only to have suggested to the Allies that they complete what +Germany had so well begun, for on the 18th Admiral Fournier presented +a demand to the Greek Government that it surrender all arms, +munitions, and artillery of the Greek army, with the exception of some +50,000 rifles. The reason given was that the equilibrium had been +disturbed by Germany's seizure of so much war material. This demand +the Greek Government refused to concede five days later. Admiral +Fournier thereupon declared that the Greek Government had until +December 1, 1916, in which to make its decision. + +On the 26th the Provisional Government, through President Venizelos, +formally declared war against Germany and Bulgaria. On this same date +the Allied representatives protested to the Greek Government against +the continued persecution of the adherents of the Provisional +Government, and warned it that these must stop. At the same time +several prominent Venizelists in Athens were advised that they would +be fully protected, among them the mayor of the city. + +On December 1, 1916, when the ultimatum regarding the surrender of the +arms and ammunition of the Greek forces expired, a crisis was again +precipitated. The day before a transport with French troops appeared +in Piraeus Harbor and preparations were made to land them. At the same +time the Greek Government took control of the telegraphs and the post +office, expelling the French officers in charge. During the day +Admiral du Fournier notified the Greek Government that the first +installment of war material must be delivered that day. The reply was +a definite refusal. Thereupon troops and marines were landed from the +transport and ships at Piraeus. Again large mobs assembled in the +streets, and on the Allied troops marching into Athens a number of the +demonstrators fired on them with revolvers. It was even reported that +royalist troops took part in these disorders and made organized +attacks on the French troops. Three Greek officers and twenty-six +soldiers were reported killed, while the Allies lost two officers and +forty-five marines. Apparently the Venizelists also took part in the +rioting and the street fighting against the royalists, for General +Corakas, head of the recruiting bureau for the Provisional Government +in Athens, was arrested on a charge of inciting guerrilla warfare in +Athens and using his room in the Hotel Majestic as a point from which +to fire upon Greek soldiers. Mayor Benakas of Athens, a sympathizer of +the Provisional Government, was also removed from office. + +On the following day, the disorders still continuing, the Entente +Powers declared an embargo on all Greek shipping in their ports. + + + + +CHAPTER XLII + +FIGHTING IN THE STREETS OF ATHENS + + +On December 4, 1916, Lord Robert Cecil, War Trade Minister, said in +the British House of Commons that the situation was more serious than +it had ever been before. Despite assurances from the Greek king that +no disturbances would be permitted, a "most treacherous and unprovoked +attack was made on the Allies' detachments landed by the French +admiral on Friday." The British Government, Lord Cecil continued, +considered the responsibility of the king and Greek Government to be +deeply involved in this matter and Great Britain was considering, in +conjunction with her Allies, immediate steps to secure a radical +solution of the situation which had arisen. During these troubles the +Greek ministers at Paris and London and the consuls at London and +Manchester resigned, stating that they could no longer identify +themselves with the present Government of Greece. + +By the following day the Allied forces had been compelled to withdraw +under the protection of their ships at Piraeus. Meanwhile, it was said, +the Greeks were intrenching on all the heights around the city. All +the citizens of the Allied nations had left the city and had taken +refuge in Piraeus. The diplomatic representatives of the United States, +Holland, and Spain entered a protest against the treatment being +accorded the Liberals. To this the Greek Government replied as +follows: + +"The Royal Government from the first day had in view only the +reestablishment and maintenance of order in the trouble on Friday and +Saturday caused by revolutionary elements. This was done completely +with as little damage as possible. + +"If, contrary to the orders given, there was some excess of tension +and indignation on the part of the population and the troops, who saw +in a movement so tragic for the fatherland agitators taking advantage +of the unhappy events of the day to take up arms against the country +and try to overthrow the established government, this must be taken +into consideration. This exasperation was particularly aroused by the +bombardment of the Royal Palace and the neighborhood thereof, in this, +an open city, at the very moment when, an armistice having been +concluded, it was hoped that peace would finally reign. Nevertheless, +the Royal Government is decided to punish every person guilty of +committing illegal acts and exceeding instructions, and a severe +investigation will be begun to this end so soon as acts of this nature +are brought to the attention of the Royal Government. In this +connection the Foreign Minister considers it his duty to recall to +your attention that by his note of November 28 he warned the neutral +powers of the tragic position in which the Greek nation was placed as +a result of measures taken against Greece and of the consequences +which the French admiral's insistence on obtaining Greek war material +might well have." + +A further explanation of the Greek point of view, with special +reference to the street fighting in which the Allied troops were +engaged, was contained in a note sent to the United States Government, +on December 9, 1916. This communication was, in part, as follows: + +"Please bring to the knowledge of the Secretary of State for Foreign +Affairs that the Royal Government, with two letters and several oral +declarations, had informed the French admiral of the impossibility of +delivering the war material they were summoned to give away. Despite +these warnings the admiral decided to land a certain number of +detachments which in several columns proceeded from Piraeus to the +capital, which was under military control. The detachments occupied +some of the outskirts and repulsed the royal army, which only at that +moment decided to defend themselves without any orders. After the +morning skirmishes between the Allied detachments and our troops, a +truce was decided upon, at the request of the admiral. Despite the +armistice, however, and after firing had ceased, the Allied warships +bombarded several parts of the city and fired not less than +thirty-eight shells, seven of which were directed against the Royal +Palace. There can, under these conditions, be no question of treachery +or of an unprovoked attack." + +After the fighting and rioting had continued for some forty-eight +hours, quiet and order seem to have been reestablished in Athens. Then +followed a period of secret conferences between members of the Greek +Government, the king and the representatives of the Entente Powers, +the details of which were not made public. On December 16, 1916, it +was announced from Paris that Greece had accepted unreservedly the +conditions of the Allies. Regarding the disorders of the first few +days of the month, the Greek Government declared its desire to give +every legitimate satisfaction and proposed arbitration. A hope was +expressed, at the same time, that the Allies would lift the blockade +which had been in force ever since the disorders. Further details were +not given out; until the end of the month calm again prevailed in +Greece. But as yet there was no indication that permanent settlement +of the difficulties was in sight. + + + + +CHAPTER XLIII + +THE SERBIANS CHECKED + + +With regard to the military activities of the Allies along the +Macedonian front, little more need be said for the period ending with +February 1, 1917. Having been ousted out of the Monastir Plain, the +German-Bulgarian troops were now defending a new line which seemed +more advantageous to them. Apparently fighting continued, sometimes +with furious determination on both sides, but the results were +negligible. The terrain was now somewhat similar to that in France, +and the situation seemingly became similar. The opposing lines faced +each other deeply intrenched. Neither side could seriously drive the +other back. By this time the Serbian capital had been reestablished in +Monastir and the Serbians could make the claim that they were again +fighting on native soil, though the Monastir district outside the city +never gave birth to one Serbian. + +Considering the whole period covering the half year ending with +February 1, 1917, it may well be said that, whatever his reasons, +General Sarrail's activities have deeply disappointed the friends of +the Entente. Reviewing the results of the entire half year's fighting +along the Macedonian front, no results worthy of mention are visible +save the capture of Monastir, and even this is almost entirely limited +to its political value. From a military point of view, the Bulgarians +have held their own with forces obviously inferior in numbers to those +of the Allies. Naturally, in such a country the advantage is always +with the defensive. It is significant that throughout the half year +there are few dispatches indicating strong counterattacks on the part +of the Bulgarians. + + + + +PART IV--AUSTRO-ITALIAN FRONT + + + + +CHAPTER XLIV + +THE FALL OF GORITZ + + +Next to the Trentino the Isonzo was the part of the Austro-Italian +front which had seen most fighting in the past. From the very +beginning of the war it was there that the Italians had made their +most elaborate efforts. Not only did the territory, difficult though +it was ever there, allow the use of larger numbers and make possible +more extensive operations, but success on the Isonzo front held out a +greater promise than anywhere else--possession of Trieste. + +In spite of heroic efforts on the part of the Italian troops, however, +so far not a great deal had been accomplished. It was time that the +Italian lines were well in Austrian territory. But in midsummer, 1916, +they were still not much farther advanced than soon after the outbreak +of hostilities between Italy and Austria. The Austrians so far had +resisted all Italian attempts to take Goritz, an important town on the +Isonzo, about twenty-two miles northwest of Trieste. With Goritz in +the hands of the Austrians Trieste was safe. For it could not be +approached by the Italians as long as this important position +threatened the flank and rear of any army attacking Trieste along the +seashore. + +For considerable time little activity had been reported from the +Isonzo front. In fact, during the beginning of August, 1916, nothing +but occasional artillery engagements occurred anywhere on the +Austro-Italian front. On August 4, 1916, however, signs of renewed +Italian activity on the Isonzo front became noticeable. On that day a +vigorous attack was launched against Austrian positions on the +Monfalcone sector, the most southern wing of the Isonzo front. This +sector was about ten miles southwest of Goritz and fifteen miles +northwest of Trieste. + +Goritz was protected by three strong positions, Monte Sabotino to the +north, Podgora to the west, and Monte San Michele to the south. The +second of these had been in possession of the Italians for some time, +but was of little use, though only just across the river from Goritz, +because it was exposed to murderous fire from the Austrian positions +on Monte Sabotino. To the south of Monte San Michele and north and +east of Monfalcone there stretched the Doberdo and Carso Plateaus. +These were elevated flatlands of a rocky character, very much exposed. +They were bounded on all sides by hills, the western slopes of which +rose almost directly out of the Gulf of Trieste. Before Trieste itself +could be reached these plateaus had to be crossed. + +Following their initial successes of August 4 and 5, 1916, the +Italians extended their operations on August 6, 1916. Stubborn +fighting took place in the region of the Goritz bridgehead, on Monte +Sabotino and Monte San Michele, as well as near Monfalcone and the +Doberdo Plateau. The Italians, as may be seen from the following +description of the special correspondent of the London "Times" who +observed the attack, preceded the general attack with an elaborate +artillery bombardment. + +"From 7 o'clock yesterday morning until 3.30 in the afternoon a +fearful bombardment swept the Austrian positions from Monte Sabotino +to Monfalcone such as has never been equaled even in this desolate +zone. Gray-green clouds veiled the entire front, contrasting with the +limpid atmosphere of a perfect day. All the hillsides on this side of +the Isonzo were covered with new batteries, which belched forth an +unceasing rain of projectiles on the surprised Austrians on the rocks +of Sabotino, whose summit (2,030 feet) completely dominates Goritz. +The Carso, the possession of which by the Austrians has been a +deciding factor in many memorable struggles, was completely hidden by +smoke until 3.30 in the afternoon. The general attack had been +arranged for 4 o'clock, but the waiting troops on the Sabotino by 3.30 +could endure restraint no longer. Their commander ordered the +cessation of the bombardment and ordered the advance. + +"Since October 23 last year the Italian line on the Sabotino remained +unchanged. The southern side of the mountain sloping down to the +Pevmica was honeycombed with elaborately constructed caverns, drilled +out of the solid rock by the Italians. During these months each cavern +was made to contain an entire company of infantry. + +"Recently, unknown to the enemy, a tunnel 850 feet long, which reached +to within 90 feet of the Austrian trenches had been added to the +engineering exploits of the Italians; 800 men were assembled in this +tunnel. At a given signal they led the attack, supported by first-line +troops and strong reserves, thanks to this intricate system of +galleries on Sabotino's crest. The attack was watched by countless +observers, who, on other mountains, were hanging breathless on the +result of this hour's work. Innumerable patches of scrubby undergrowth +had been set on fire by the Italians to prevent their serving Austrian +snipers and were now wrapped in low-hanging clouds of black smoke. +Between these black patches the Italians crept ahead when the signal +came. The assault of the Austrian positions was of incredible +rapidity. So much so that the first positions were carried by the time +the enemy turned on his curtain of fire. The first, second, and third +lines of trenches were carried in twenty minutes, after which the +Austrians began a terrific bombardment of their old positions. The +redoubt on the summit fell within an hour and the chase went on along +the crest and down the sides, straight to the Isonzo, the pursuers +everywhere gathering up prisoners in droves. San Mauro (one and +one-fourth miles south of Sabotino) was taken by 6 o'clock, after +which the work of intrenchment began." + +In spite of the most stubborn resistance the Austrians had to give way +gradually. On August 7, 1916, the Austrian troops on Monte Sabotino +were withdrawn to the eastern bank of the Isonzo. At the same time the +positions on Monte San Michele were evacuated and the Italians thereby +were put in full possession of the Goritz bridgehead. Their attacks of +August 5, 6, and 7, 1916, had netted them territory for which they had +been fighting for months, besides about 10,000 prisoners, some 20 guns +and 100 machine guns and considerable war material of all description. + +Without loss of time they brought in heavy artillery and opened a +devastating fire on unfortunate Goritz. Strong resistance was offered +by the Austrians at many points, not so much now in the hope of +preventing the fall of Goritz as in order to protect their retreat. In +spite of this resistance small detachments of Italians crossed the +Isonzo at nightfall of August 8, 1916, while their engineers threw +bridges over the river at various points. + +On August 9, 1916, the bridge over the Isonzo leading directly into +Goritz was stormed after one of the most sanguinary battles of the +entire attack. This removed the last obstacle, and Italian troops +immediately occupied the city. At the same time other troops took up +the pursuit of the retreating Austrians. The latter delayed these +operations as much as possible by rear-guard actions and by +counterattacks against the new Italian positions on Monte San Michele +and against the village of San Martino, just south of the mountain. + +On August 10, 1916, the Third Italian Army continued with increased +pressure the attack on the San Michele and San Martino sectors, which +had begun on the 9th instant, and succeeded in capturing very strong +Austrian defenses between the Vippacco and Monte Cosich. The Austrians +were routed completely and retired east of Vallone, leaving, however, +strong rear guards on Cima Debeli and on Hill 121, east of Monfalcone. + +The Italians also occupied Rubbia and San Martino del Carso and the +whole of the Doberdo Plateau, reaching the line of the Vallerie. East +of Goritz the Austrians were holding out in trenches on the lines of +Monte San Gabriele and Monte San Marto. + +The Vallone was crossed by Italian troops on August 11, 1916. The +same detachments stormed the western slopes of Monte Nadlogern and the +summit of Crn-Hrid and occupied Opacchiasella, on the northern edge of +the Carso Plateau. + +By this time the Austrians had recovered their breath to some extent. +They had taken up strong positions previously prepared for them in the +hills to the east of Goritz and there resisted successfully all +Italian attacks. Occasional counterattacks against the new Italian +positions, however, brought no results. + +To the south of Goritz, too, the Italian advance came to a standstill +after the Vallone Valley, separating the Doberdo from the Carso +Plateau, had been crossed. Continuous fighting, however, went on along +the northern edge of the Carso Plateau throughout the balance of the +month of August, 1916, much of it being done by the artillery of both +sides. The end of August, 1916, then, saw the Italians in possession +of Goritz and their lines at some points as much as five miles nearer +to Trieste. The latter, however, seemed at least for the time being +safely in the hands of the Austrians, who by this time had received +reenforcements and appeared to be determined to stop the Italian +advance across the Carso Plateau at all odds. + + + + +CHAPTER XLV + +FALL AND WINTER ON THE AUSTRO-ITALIAN FRONT + + +With the beginning of fall and the slowing down of the Italian drive +against Trieste after the capture of Goritz, activities on the various +parts of the Austro-Italian front were reduced almost exclusively to +artillery duels. Occasionally attacks of small bodies of infantry were +made on both sides. They yielded, however, hardly ever results of any +importance and had practically no influence on the relative positions +of the Austrians and Italians. + +On September 1, 1916, the Austrians made an unsuccessful attack +against Italian positions on Monte Civarone in the Sugana Valley +(Dolomite Mountains). Italian attacks south of Salcano and west of +Lokvicza were equally unsuccessful. Especially heavy artillery +engagements occurred on that day on the Trentino front and along the +coast of the Gulf of Trieste near Monte Santo. + +On September 2, 1916, along the coast of the Gulf of Trieste artillery +and mine-throwing engagements continued in various sectors with +intermittent violence. Fighting also spread to the Plava sector. On +the Ploecken sector the Italians after a very violent artillery fire +attacked unsuccessfully on a small front. Several attempts made by +minor Italian detachments to advance on the Tyrol front were repulsed. +Two attacks on Civaron failed. + +On the Trentino front Austrian artillery activity continued. Villages +of the Astico Valley and the Italian positions on Cauriol in the +Avisio Valley in particular were shelled. On the northern slopes of +Cauriol Italian Alpine troops engaged the Austrians, inflicting +considerable losses. In the hilly area east of Goritz some detachments +of Italian infantry pierced two wire entanglements and bombed the +Austrian lines, causing supports to be rushed up. These were +effectively shelled by batteries. + +At the head of the Rio Felizon Valley, in the upper Bovi, during the +night of September 3, 1916, detachments of infantry, Alpini, and +volunteers succeeded by a daring surprise attack in capturing several +commanding positions on the Punta del Forane. A violent Austrian +counterattack was decisively repulsed. + +On September 4, 1916, the usual artillery activity took place on the +Trentino front. The Austrian artillery fire was especially intense +against Italian positions on Mount Civaron in the Sugana Valley, and +on Mount Cauriol in the Fiemme Valley. + +A more violent attack was attempted by the Austrians on the evening of +September 6, 1916, against the Italian lines on Monte Civarone in the +Sugana Valley. After brisk fighting the Austrians had to withdraw, +abandoning their arms and ammunition and leaving some dead on the +ground. + +In the Vallarsa, Adige Valley, on the evening of September 7, 1916, +strong Austrian detachments after an intense bombardment attacked +Italian positions between Monte Spil and Monte Corno. They succeeded +in breaking through some trenches. A counterattack recaptured for the +Italians the greater part of the ground lost. + +On September 8, 1916, in the Tofana zone Italian troops repulsed an +attack against the position in the Travenanzes Valley which their +troops had taken on September 7, 1916. + +On the Trentino front the activity of the artillery was more +pronounced on September 9, 1916. Unimportant attacks on Italian +positions on Malga Sugna, in the Vallarsa, on the Asiago Plateau, and +on Monte Cauriol and Avisio, were repulsed. At Dolje, in the Tolmino +sector, after preparation with hand grenades, the Austrians attempted +to break through the Italian line, but were driven back immediately. + +On the next day, September 10, 1916, between the Adige and Astico +Valleys the Italians developed increased activity. Austrian hill +positions in this sector were subjected to strong artillery and mine +fire. On the Monte Spil-Monte Testo sector the advance of several +Italian battalions was repulsed. + +On the same day the coast front, the Carso Plateau, and the Tolmino +bridgehead were shelled strongly by Italian artillery. On some sectors +of the Tyrol front there was continued activity on the part of patrols +and the artillery. In the zone between Vallarsa and the head of the +Posina Valley Italian infantry captured a strong intrenchment at the +bottom of the Leno Valley. Between Monte Spil and Monte Corno they +completed capture of the trenches still left in Austrian hands after +the fighting of September 7, 1916. Progress was made by the Italians +on the ground north of Monte Pasubio and on the northern slopes of +Corno del Coston, in the upper Posina Valley. Italian batteries +destroyed military depots near St. Ilanio north of Rovereto. The +Austrians shelled Caprile, in Cordevole Valley, and Cortina d'Ampezzo. + +On September 12, 1916, Italian Alpine troops, north of Falzarego +gained possession of a position which not only commanded Travenanzes +Pass, but also interrupted communications between the Travenanzes +Valley and the Lagazuoi district. + +This success was extended on the next day, September 13, 1916, when +Italian detachments by a daring climb succeeded in taking some +positions in the Zara Valley in the Posina sector and on Monte +Lagazuoi in the Travenanzes-Boite Valley. + +Once more, on September 14, 1916, the Italians opened a new offensive +in the region of the Carso Plateau. Artillery and mine fire increased +there with the greatest violence. In the afternoon strong infantry +forces in dense formation advanced to the attack. Along the whole +front between the Wippach River and the sea fierce fighting developed, +and the Italians in some places succeeded in penetrating the Austrian +first-line trenches and in maintaining themselves there. North of the +Wippach, as far as the region of Plava, artillery fire was very +lively, but no infantry engagements worth mentioning developed. In the +Fiemme Valley artillery duels continued. Several attacks delivered by +Italian detachments about a battalion strong against the Bassano ridge +were repulsed. + +A second attack on the Carso Plateau in the evening of September 14, +1916, carried the Italian lines forward a few more miles and enabled +them to surround the height and village of San Grado. After bombarding +the Austrian positions for eight hours, this height and the village +were stormed on the following day, September 15, 1916. + +During the balance of the month of September, 1916, only minor +engagements and artillery duels occurred in the various parts of the +Austro-Italian front. The only exception was a successful Austrian +attack against the summit of Monte Cimone on the Trentino front +southeast of Rovereto. Early in the morning of September 23, 1916, the +entire summit was blown up by an Austrian mine and the entire Italian +force of about 500 men was either killed or captured. Later that day +the Italians captured the summit of the Cardinal (8,000 feet) at the +northeast of Monte Cauriol south of the Avisio after overcoming the +most stubborn Austrian resistance. + +During the first half of October, 1916, activities on the +Austro-Italian front presented much the same picture as during the +preceding month. Outside of artillery duels and local engagements +there happened little of interest or importance to the general +positions. However, there were of course a few exceptions. Thus on +October 2, 1916, Italian troops captured two high mountains, the Col +Bricon (7,800 feet), at the head of the Cismon-Brenta Valley, and an +unnamed peak more than 8,000 feet high, in Carnia between Monte +Cogliano and Pizzocollima. + +Various other successes of a similar nature were gained by the +Italians during the next few days in this region, between the Avisio +and the Vayol Cismon Valleys. + +In the meantime a heavy artillery bombardment had been started by the +Italians on the Carso Plateau. From day to day the intensity of the +artillery fire increased. At last on October 10, 1916, the Italians +launched their attack against the Austrian lines south of Goritz and +on the Carso. The battle lasted all day and night. After practically +all the intricate Austrian defenses had been destroyed Italian +infantry captured almost the whole of the line, composed of several +successive intrenchments between the Vippacco (Wippach) River and Hill +208, and advanced beyond it. Novavilla and the adjoining strong +position around the northern part of Hill 208 also fell into their +hands after brisk fighting. Prisoners to the number of 5,034, +including 164 officers, were taken and also a large quantity of arms +and ammunition. + +These successes were considerably extended on the following day, +October 11, 1916. Strong Austrian counterattacks availed nothing. + +The Italians maintained their new positions and continued to push +their advance on the Carso Plateau and southeast of Goritz, even if +slowly, throughout October 12 and 13, 1916. For the balance of the +month there was little activity on the Isonzo front beyond extremely +heavy artillery fire, most of which had its origin on the Italian +side. Occasional attempts on the part of the Italians to push their +lines still farther had little success. Equally unsuccessful were +Austrian endeavors to regain some of the lost ground. + +On the balance of the Austro-Italian front there was a great deal of +local fighting in the various mountain ranges. The heaviest of this +was centered around Monte Pasubio (7,000 feet), where many attacks and +counterattacks were carried out during October 17, 18, 19, and 20, +1916, under the most difficult conditions and frequently during very +severe blizzards. + +With the beginning of November, 1916, the Italians once more resumed +their drive against Trieste. On the last day of October, 1916, the +Italian artillery and mine fire had reached again great violence east +of Goritz and on the Carso Plateau. It became even more extensive and +vigorous early in the morning of November 1, 1916. A few hours later +the Italians began their infantry attacks against the Austrian lines, +many of which had been destroyed previously by the bombardment. + +South of the Opacchiasella-Castagnievizza road the Austrian line was +occupied at several points and held against incessant counterattacks, +as were likewise trenches on the eastern slopes of Tivoli and San +Marco and heights east of Sober. On the Carso, the wooded hills of +Veliki, Kribach, and Hill 375 east and above Monte Pecinka, and the +Height 308 east of the latter, were stormed and occupied. + +From Goritz to the sea heavy fighting which resulted in further +Italian successes along the northern brow of the Carso Plateau +continued on November 2, 1916. Here troops of the Eleventh Army Corps, +which repulsed violent counterattacks during the night, took strong +defenses on difficult ground east of Veliki, Kribach, and Monte +Pecinka. + +On the next day, November 3, 1916, the offensive on the Carso was +prosecuted successfully by the Italian troops. In the direction of the +Vippacco (Wippach) Valley the heights of Monte Volkovnjak, Point 126, +and Point 123 a little east of San Grado were stormed. An advance of +almost a mile eastward brought Italian troops to Point 291 and along +the Opacchiasella-Castagnievizza road to within 650 feet of the latter +place. On the rest of the front to the sea the Austrians kept up a +bombardment of great intensity with artillery of all calibers. A +massed attack was directed against Point 208, but was broken up by +concentrated fire. + +By November 4, 1916, the Austrian resistance had stiffened to such an +extent that a lull became noticeable in the Italian enterprises east +of Goritz and on the Carso Plateau. In spite of this, however, the +Italians had succeeded again in advancing their lines, inflicting at +the same time heavy losses to the Austrians and making almost 10,000 +prisoners in four days' fighting. Their own losses were also very +heavy, and undoubtedly were partly responsible for the cessation of +this new drive against Trieste. + +This was practically the last Italian effort during 1916 to reach +Trieste. Weather conditions now rapidly became so severe that any +actions beyond artillery bombardments and minor attacks by small +detachments had become impossible. During the balance of November, +1916, artillery duels were frequent and sometimes very severe on +various parts of the Isonzo front, especially on the Carso Plateau. +Beyond that neither side attempted anything of importance, though here +and there small engagements resulted in slight adjustments of the +respective lines. On the other parts of the Austro-Italian front much +the same condition prevailed during all of November, 1916; indeed even +artillery activity was frequently interrupted for days by the severity +of the weather. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVI + +FIGHTING ON MOUNTAIN PEAKS + + +Much of the fighting on the Austro-Italian front which has been +narrated in the preceding pages has been going on in territory with +which comparatively few are acquainted. A great part of the front is +located in those parts of northern Italy and the Austrian Tyrol and +Trentino which for generations have been known and admired all over +the world for their scenic beauty and natural grandeur. People from +many countries of the world have used this ground which now is so +bitterly fought over as their playground, and have carried away from +it not only improved health, but also the most pleasant of memories. +Though much of its beauty undoubtedly will survive the ravages of even +this most destructive of wars, a great deal of damage has been +inflicted. For in order to achieve some military ends the sky line of +entire mountain ranges has been changed. Summits have been blown up, +and contours of mountains which have been landmarks for centuries have +been changed. + +Pleasant though life is in these regions when peace reigns, they offer +particularly great and severe difficulties to the fighting men. The +dangers and hardships which these courageous soldiers of Italy and +Austria have been called upon to undergo are not easily appreciated +unless one has been on the very ground on which they do some of their +fighting. The following extracts from descriptive articles from the +pen of Lord Northcliffe, Mr. Hilaire Belloc, and some special +correspondents of the London "Times" give a most vivid picture of +actual conditions in the Austro-Italian mountains in war times. + +Speaking of his visit to the Cadore front, Lord Northcliffe says in +part: + +"In discussing the peculiarities of the hill fighting as contrasted +with the fighting on the road to Trieste his Majesty the King of +Italy, who has a fine sense of words, and who has spoken English from +childhood, said: 'Picture to yourself my men 9,000 feet up in the +clouds for seven months, in deep snow, so close to the Austrians that +at some points the men can see their enemies' eyes through the +observation holes. Imagine the difficulties of such a life with +continued sniping and bomb throwing!' + +"The illustrated newspapers have from time to time published +photographs of great cannon carried up into these Dolomite Alps, but I +confess to having never realized what it means. It never occurred to +me what happens to the wounded men or to the dead. How do supplies and +ammunition reach these lonely sentinels of our Allies? + +"Here food for the men and food for the guns go first by giddy, +zigzag roads, especially built by the Italians for this war. They are +not mere tracks, but are as wide as the road that runs between Nice +and Mentone, or the Hog's Back between Guilford and Farnham. When +these have reached their utmost possible height, there comes a whole +series of 'wireways,' as the Italian soldiers call them. Steel cables +slung from hill to hill, from ridge to ridge, span yawning depths and +reach almost vertically into the clouds. Up these cables go guns and +food, as well as timber for the huts in which the men live, and +material for intrenchments. Down these come the wounded. The first +sensation of a transit down these seemingly fragile tight ropes is +much more curious than the first trip in a submarine or aeroplane, and +tries even the strongest nerves. + +"Man is not fighting man at these heights, but both Italians and +Austrians have been fighting nature in some of her fiercest aspects. +The gales and snowstorms are excelled in horror by avalanches. Quite +lately the melting snow revealed the frozen bodies, looking horribly +lifelike, of a whole platoon which had been swept away nearly a year +ago. + +"While there have been heavy casualties on both sides from sniping, +bombing, mountain and machine guns, and heavy artillery, there has +been little sickness among the Italians. The men know that doctors' +visits are practically impossible. Therefore they follow the advice of +their officers. Yet the men have all the comforts that it is humanly +possible to obtain. The cloud fighters are extremely well fed. Huts +are provided, fitted with stoves similar to those used in Arctic +expeditions. + +"Higher yet than the mountain fighting line stand the vedettes, +sentinels and outposts whose work resembles that of expert Alpine +climbers. They carry portable telephones with which they can +communicate with their platoon. The platoon in turn telephones to the +local commander." + +Of some of the fighting and of life in the Dolomites he says: + +"Of the three peaks of the Colbricon only the third, known as the +Picolo Colbricon, remains to the enemy. The action which is now being +developed on the Colbricon is especially interesting from the fact +that the Italian advance there is not due to trained mountain troops, +but to the light arm of Bersaglieri, who have there proved themselves +equal to their best traditions. In the advance from the first to the +second summit of Colbricon the Bersaglieri had to climb a gully at an +angle of 70 degrees. At two points the wall rises perpendicularly, and +the enemy was able to defend his positions by simply rolling down +rocks, which carried in their train avalanches of pebbles. + +"In no region of the Italian front is there greater difficulty in the +matter of supply, transport, and the care of the wounded. Every +stretcher bearer here finds himself continually exposed to the peril +of falling over a precipice together with his wounded. + +"As the sun rose the great peaks of the Dolomites stood out like pink +pearls, set here and there in a soft white vapor. Coming through a +Canadian-looking pine forest, with log-house barracks, kitchens, and +canteens beneath one such peak, I was reminded of Dante's lines: +'Gazing above, I saw her shoulders, clothed already with the planet's +rays.' But poetic memories soon faded before a sniper's bullet from a +very near Austrian outlook. + +"At one spot the Austrian barbed-wire entanglements were clearly +visible through glasses on a neighboring summit at a height of over +10,000 feet. A few yards below in an open cavern protected by an +overhanging rock the little gray tents of Italy's soldiers were +plainly seen. It may be a consolation to our men on the Somme and in +Flanders that the war is being waged here in equally dangerous +conditions as theirs. + +"The Italians have driven back the Austrians foot by foot up the +almost vertical Dolomite rock with mountain, field, and heavy guns, +and especially in hand-to-hand and bomb fighting. Sniping never ceases +by day, but the actual battles are almost invariably fought by night. + +"The only day fighting is when, as in the famous capture of Col di +Lana and more recently at Castelletto, the whole or part of a mountain +top has to be blown off, because it is impossible to turn or carry it +by direct assault. Then tunnels sometimes 800 yards long are drilled +by machinery through the solid rock beneath the Austrian strongholds, +which presently disappear under the smashing influence of thirty or +forty tons of dynamite. Then the Alpini swarm over the debris and +capture or kill the enemy survivors and rejoice in a well-earned +triumph. + +"One needs to have scaled a mountainside to an Italian gun's +emplacement or lookout post to gauge fully the nature of this warfare. +Imagine a catacomb, hewn through the hard rock, with a central hall +and galleries leading to gun positions, 7,000 feet up. Reckon that +each gun emplacement represents three months' constant labor with +drill, hammer, and mine. Every requirement, as well as food and water, +must be carried up by men at night or under fire by day. Every soldier +employed at these heights needs another soldier to bring him food and +drink, unless as happens in some places the devoted wives of the +Alpini act nightly under organized rules as porters for their +husbands. + +"The food supply is most efficiently organized. A young London Italian +private, speaking English perfectly, whom I met by chance, told me, +and I have since verified the information, that the men holding this +long line of the Alps receive a special food, particularly during the +seven months' winter. Besides the excellent soup which forms the +staple diet of the Italian as of the French soldiers, the men receive +a daily ration of two pounds of bread, half a pound of meat, half a +pint of red wine, macaroni of various kinds, rice, cheese, dried and +fresh fruit, chocolate, and thrice weekly small quantities of cognac +and Marsala. + +"Members of the Alpine Club know that in the high Dolomites water is +in summer often as precious as on the Carso. Snow serves this purpose +in winter. Then three months' reserve supplies of oil fuel, alcohol, +and medicine must be stored in the catacomb mountain positions, lest, +as happened to an officer whom I met, the garrisons should be cut off +by snow for weeks and months at a time." + +Mr. Hilaire Belloc vividly pictures some mountain positions and +observation posts in the high Dolomites as follows: + +"There stands in the Dolomites a great group of precipitous rock +rising to a height of over 9,000 feet above the sea and perhaps 6,000 +feet above the surrounding valleys, one summit of which is called the +Cristallo. It is the only point within the Italian lines from which +direct and permanent observations can be had of the railway line +running through the Pusterthal. In the mass of this mountain, up to +heights of over 8,000 feet, in crannies of the rock, up steep couloirs +and chimneys of snow, the batteries have been placed and hidden quite +secure from the fire of the enemy, commanding by the advantage of the +observation posts the enemy's line with their direct fire. One such +observation post I visited. + +"A company of men divided into two half companies held, the one half +the base of the precipitous rock upon a sward of high valley, the +other the summit itself, perhaps 3,000 feet higher; end the +communication from one to the other was a double wire swung through +the air above the chasm, up and down which traveled shallow cradles of +steel carrying men and food, munitions, and instruments. Such a device +alone made possible the establishment of these posts in such +incredible places, and the perilous journey along the wire rope swung +from precipice to precipice and over intervening gulfs was the only +condition of their continued survival. The post itself clung to the +extreme summit of the mountain as a bird's nest clings to the cranny +of rock in which it is built; while huts, devised to the exact and +difficult contours of the last crags and hidden as best they might be +from direct observation and fire from the enemy below, stood here +perched in places the reaching of which during the old days of peace +was thought a triumph of skill by the mountaineers. And all this +ingenuity, effort, and strain stood, it must be remembered, under the +conditions of war. The snow in the neighborhood of this aerie was +pitted with the shell that had been aimed so often and had failed to +reach this spot, and the men thus perilously clinging to an extreme +peak of bare rock up in the skies were clinging there subject to all +the perils of war added to the common perils of the feat they had +accomplished. + +"Marvelous as it was, I saw here but one example of I know not how +many of the same kind with which the Italians have made secure the +whole mountain wall from the Brenta to the Isonzo and from Lake Garda +to the Orther and the Swiss frontier. Every little gap in that wall is +held. You find small posts of men, that must have their food and water +daily brought to them thus, slung by the wire; you find them crouched +upon the little dip where a collar of deep snow between bare rocks +marks some almost impassable passage of the hills that must yet be +held. You see a gun of 6 inches or even of 8 inches emplaced where, +had you been climbing for your pleasure, you would hardly have dared +to pitch the smallest tent. You hear the story of how the piece was +hoisted there by machinery first established upon the rock; of the +blasting for emplacement; of the accidents after which it was finally +emplaced; of the ingenious thought which has allowed for the chance of +recoil or of displacement; you have perhaps a month's journeying from +point to point of this sort over a matter of 250 miles." + +A special correspondent of the London "Times" describes the fighting +around Monte Pasubio in the Trentino, which has already been mentioned +in the preceding pages, as follows: + +"When the tide of the Austrian invasion rolled back at the end of +June, 1916, its margin became fixed on the crest of the Pasubio, an +enormous and irregular group of mountains, of which the Italians +remained in possession of the highest peak, but all the northern +summits and the top of the whole central ridge called the Cosmagnon +Alps remained to the enemy. It was from this ridge that they dominated +the Vallarsa, and their first-line trenches were on its edge. Fifteen +yards below them the Italians had burrowed in somehow and had hung on +until now. + +"With the oncoming of winter, however, and the avalanches their +hanging on became altogether too problematic. For weeks the weather +prevented action through some meteorological phenomenon. When it is +fair below in the plain Pasubio is crowned with dense fogs, and vice +versa. Finally, the summits revealed themselves clear against the sky. +The careful preparation had passed unobserved of the enemy, and during +the night of the 8th inst., with increased intensity at dawn of the +9th inst., the artillery attacked on the whole line for several miles. + +"Bombs were employed in great number, and are found to be even more +effective here than on the Carso, the friable rock breaking into +millions of fragments under the explosion. + +"In the afternoon a demonstrative attack in the Vallarsa carried the +line ahead some 400 yards, and at half past 3 the principal attack +carried the trenches of the crest (Cosmagnon Alps), together with the +summit called Lora. The arduous mountaineering feat of arriving on the +mountain's overhanging brow was accomplished on rope ladders by +infantry Alpini and Bersaglieri. + +"The line once brought over the crest, the battle raged furiously on +the mountain top. The Austrians had constructed magnificent caverns +and dugouts, and made them as impregnable as their long residence +permitted. Their resistance was specially keen around the fearful +natural fortifications called the Tooth, consisting of spires and +slender ledges and abounding in caverns. The Tooth still remains in +part to the Austrians. From the first day, the Alpini have scaled part +of it and still stick there. + +"One of the spectacular sights of the day was an Alpini perched on his +spire of the Tooth, who kept the Austrian machine gunners from their +task, pelting them with rocks every time they set to work. + +"The fighting all took place on the rolling surface of the Cosmagnon +Alps--closed in by the barrage fire on both sides under the dazzling +sky, but with the world below completely shut off by Monte Pasubio's +crown of clouds. Shrapnel and shell disappeared in the ocean of +clouds." + +More so than in any other war theater, fighting on the Austro-Italian +front was influenced by weather conditions during December, 1916, and +January, 1917. For practically its entire extent it was located in +mountainous territory, most of it indeed, as we have seen, being among +mountain peaks thousands of feet high. + +No wonder then that there was little to report at any time during +December, 1916, and January, 1917, except artillery activity of +varying frequency and violence. Occasionally engagements would take +place between small detachments. These, however, were hardly ever +little more than clashes between outposts or patrols. These and quite +frequently even artillery activity were stopped entirely for days at a +time by the severity of the blizzards and gales that prevailed +throughout most of December, 1916. + +In January, 1917, much the same condition prevailed. Batteries +everywhere were shelling each other and whatever positions of the +enemy were within reach as often as the weather was clear enough to do +so. On January 1, 1917, Goritz was subjected to a particularly heavy +bombardment from the Austrian guns, which caused considerable material +damage. + +On January 4, 1917, two attacks carried out by small Austrian +detachments--one between the Adige and Lake Garda and the other in the +Plava sector--were repulsed. An Italian attack on the Carso Plateau +resulted in an advance of about 600 feet along a narrow front. Similar +small advances were made in the same region by the Italians at various +times. In most instances they were maintained in the face of frequent +Austrian counterattacks, though some of the latter occasionally were +successful. + +On January 18, 1917, the Austrians attempted, after especially violent +artillery preparation, an attack against the Italian positions between +Frigido and the Opacchiasella-Castagnievizza road on the Carso, south +of Goritz. Italian gun and rifle fire, however, stopped the Austrian +attack before it had fully developed. A few days later, on January 22, +1917, a similar Austrian attack, launched southeast of Goritz, was +somewhat more successful and resulted in the temporary penetration of +a few Italian positions. The same success accompanied a like +undertaking in the vicinity of Goritz near Kostanjeoica on January 30, +1917. + +On practically every day through January, 1917, there was +considerable artillery activity in the various sectors of the entire +front. This increased in violence in accordance with weather +conditions, but generally speaking had little result on general +conditions, which at the end of January, 1917, were practically the +same as had been established after the fall of Goritz. + + + + +PART V--WAR IN THE AIR AND ON THE SEA + + + + +CHAPTER XLVII + +AEROPLANE WARFARE + + +During the six months, covering the period from August 1, 1916, to +February 1, 1917, aeroplane warfare at the various fronts was as +extensive, varied, and continuous as at any time during the war, if +indeed not more so. The efficiency of machines and operators alike +became higher and higher developed. Atmospheric conditions became less +and less of a factor in flying. If in spite of these facts the number +of machines and flyers lost continued to be comparatively huge, this +was due to the fact that the development of flying made fairly equal +progress in the flying corps of the various belligerents, and that +increased efficiency and independence from atmospheric conditions +rather had the tendency of increasing the daring of aviators. + +It is of course evident that it would be impossible within the limits +of these chapters to narrate every flying enterprise undertaken. +Hundred, perhaps thousands, of flights made, are never reported either +officially or unofficially. The largest number of these of course had +as their object chiefly the gathering of information or the more +accurate direction of artillery fire. + +In the following pages, however, will be found an account of all the +more important independent aeroplane enterprises undertaken at the +various fronts, as well as aeroplane raids made into the interior of +some of the countries at war. + +On August 1, 1916, an Italian aerial squadron attacked with +considerable success an Austro-Hungarian plant for making Whitehead +torpedoes and submarine works located west of Fiume on one of the +Croatian bays of the Adriatic. + +Two German aeroplanes, coming from the Dardanelles, on August 4, 1916, +dropped bombs on the aerodrome of the Entente Allies, located on the +island of Lemnos in the AEgean Sea, but were promptly driven off by +gunfire from British ships. + +On the same day, August 4, 1916, Turkish or German aeroplanes +attempted a bombardment of shipping on the Suez Canal. The attack was +carried out by two machines over Lake Timsah, forty-five miles south +of Port Said. The town of Ismailia, on the lake border, also was +bombarded. No damage was done. + +Again on August 6, 1916, a bomb attack by aeroplanes over Port Said +and Suez inflicted little material damage and caused slight +casualties. + +On the following day, August 7, 1916, an Austrian squadron made up of +twenty-one aeroplanes attacked Venice. They claimed to have dropped +three and one-half tons of explosives and to have caused great damage +and many fires; the Italian Government, however, stated that the +damage caused was comparatively small and that only two people were +killed. + +On September 5, 1916, two British aeroplanes raided the Turkish +aerodrome and aeroplane repair section at El Arish, ninety miles east +of the Suez Canal, dropping twelve bombs with good results. Turkish +aeroplanes attacked the British machines but ultimately gave up the +fight, and the latter returned to camp undamaged. + +Again on September 8, 1916, three British machines bombed El Mazaar +and the Turkish camp near by. + +Early in the morning of September 13, 1916, a group of Austrian +seaplanes attacked Venice once more. Incendiary and explosive bombs +struck the church of San Giovanni Paola, the Home for the Aged, and a +number of other buildings, inflicting some damage, although no +casualties were reported. Chioggra also was attacked by the same +machines; but here, too, the damage was rather slight. + +On the same day in the afternoon an Italian air squadron of eighteen +Capronis under the protection of three Nieuport antiaircraft +aeroplanes attacked Trieste. Six Italian torpedo boats and two motor +boats assisted them in the gulf. Numerous bombs were dropped, but +these caused only slight damage, and none of military importance. One +man was slightly wounded. + +Austrian aeroplanes and antiaircraft batteries obtained hits on the +Italian torpedo boats. At the same time an Italian air squadron +appeared over Parenzo, dropping twenty bombs in a field. No damage was +done. + +Still another attack was reported on this day, this time by the +Russians. A squadron of four Russian giant aeroplanes of the +Slyr-Murometz type bombarded the German seaplane station on Lake +Angern in the Gulf of Riga. The Russians claimed to have dropped about +seventy-five bombs and to have started a great conflagration. They +also claimed that eight German seaplanes counterattacked, but were +repulsed by machine-gun fire, and that as the result of the bombing +and the air fight not fewer than eight German machines were destroyed +or put out of action. None of the Russian machines were reported +either lost or damaged. + +A German aerodrome, located at St. Denis-Westrem in Belgium, was +attacked on September 22, 1916, by British machines who claimed to +have killed forty Germans and to have burned two sheds and three +aeroplanes. On October 1, 1916, bombs were dropped by British +aeroplanes on the Turkish camp at Kut-el-Amara. + +Three days later, on October 4, 1916, British aeroplanes carried out a +successful bombing attack on Turkish camps in the neighborhood of El +Arish. It was claimed then that recent aerial attacks on the Turkish +aerodrome at El Arish had had the effect of compelling the Turks to +move their machines and hangars from that place. + +An Austro-German air squadron on October 12, 1916, was reported to +have dropped bombs on Constanza, the principal Rumanian Black Sea +port. + +On October 20, 1916, a British naval aeroplane attacked and brought +down a German kite balloon near Ostend. A similar machine engaged a +large German double-engined tractor seaplane, shooting both the pilot +and the observer. The seaplane side-slipped and dived vertically into +the sea two miles off Ostend. The remains later were seen floating on +the water. Both the British machines were undamaged. + +Two days later, October 21, 1916, a German aeroplane approached the +fortified seaport of Sheerness at the mouth of the Thames, flying very +high. Four bombs were dropped, three of which fell into the harbor. +The fourth fell in the vicinity of a railway station and damaged +several railway carriages. British aeroplanes went up and the raider +made off in a northeasterly direction. No casualties were reported. + +A German seaplane was shot down and destroyed later that day by one of +the British naval aircraft. The German machine fell into the sea. +Judging by time, it was probably the seaplane which visited Sheerness. + +Margate, a resort on the southeast coast of England, was attacked on +October 22, 1916, by a German aeroplane, which succeeded in inflicting +slight material damage and injuring two people before it was driven +off. + +The French made a strong attack on the Metz region on the same day, +October 22, 1916, employing twenty-four machines. They claimed that +these dropped 4,200 kilograms of bombs on blast furnaces at Hagodange +and Pussings north of Metz, and also on the railway stations at +Thionville, Mezures-les-Betz, Longwy, and Metz-Sablons. On the same +day another French aerial squadron bombarded the ammunition depot at +Monsen road (Somme). German aeroplanes dropped several bombs on +Luneville. There were no victims and the material damage was +insignificant. On the Somme front two German aeroplanes were brought +down and three others were forced down in a damaged condition. +Finally, good results were achieved by a French bombing expedition +against factories of Rombach and the railway station at Mars-la-Tour. + +The Germans, however, claimed that the French air raids did no damage +to Metz and other points, but that five civilians were killed and +seven made ill by inhaling poisonous gases from the bombs. They +further claimed that twenty-two French aviators had been shot down by +aerial attacks and antiaircraft fire and that eleven aeroplanes were +lying behind the German lines. Captain Boelke conquered his +thirty-seventh and thirty-eighth foes. + +On October 27, 1916, French aeroplanes dropped forty bombs on the +railway station at Grand Pre, eight on the railway station at +Challerange, and thirty on enemy bivouacs at Fretoy-le-Chateau and +Avricourt, north of Lassigny, where two fires were seen to break out. + +On the same night ten other French machines dropped 240 bombs on the +railway station at Conflans and thirty on the railway station at +Courcelles. Another French machine dropped six shells on the railway +line at Pagny-sur-Moselle. + +The British report for the same day likewise announced that aerial +engagements took place between large numbers of machines on both +sides. It was reported that five machines fell during a fight, two of +which were British. On another occasion one British pilot encountered +a formation of ten German machines, attacked them single handed and +dispersed them far behind their own lines. + +On October 28, 1916, it was announced that Captain Boelke, the famous +German aviator, had been killed in a collision, with another +aeroplane. He was credited with having brought down forty aeroplanes. + +Not until almost the middle of November, 1916, did aeroplane warfare +develop its usual activity. + +On the night of November 9-10, 1916, British aeroplanes dropped bombs +without success on Ostend and Zeebrugge. One British machine was +forced down and captured and the aviator, a British officer, made +prisoner. + +On the morning of November 10, 1916, a German battleplane attacked +two British biplanes between Nieuport and Dunkirk. It shot down one +and forced the other to retreat. In the forenoon three German +battleplanes met a superior British aerial squadron off Ostend and +attacked it. After a combat the British were forced to withdraw. The +German machines returned to their base, having suffered insignificant +damages. + +Between 10 and 11 o'clock on the morning of November 10, 1916, a group +of seventeen British aeroplanes bombarded the steel works at +Voelklingen, northwest of Saarbruecken. One thousand kilograms of +projectiles were dropped on the buildings, which were damaged +seriously. In the course of the operations British machines fought +several actions against German machines, three of which were felled. + +On the following night between 8 and 9 o'clock eight British +aeroplanes executed a fresh bombardment of these works, dropping 1,800 +kilograms of projectiles. Several fires were observed. All British +machines returned safely. + +During the night of November 10-11, 1916, British squadrons drenched +with projectiles the stations of Ham, St. Quentin, Tergnier, and +Nesle, in the Somme region, and the aerodrome at Dreuze, the blast +furnaces of Ramsbach, the aeroplane sheds of Frescati (near Metz), and +the blast furnaces of Hagodange (north of Metz). These operations +caused great damage, and several explosions and fires were observed. + +A German aeroplane during the night of November 10-11, 1916, bombarded +several French towns. Nancy and Luneville received projectiles which +caused damage or casualties. Amiens was also bombarded on various +occasions during the same night. Nine persons of the civilian +population were killed and twenty-seven injured. + +On November 11, 1916, five German machines were claimed to have been +brought down by the British. + +The following day, November 12, 1916, a squadron of British naval +aeroplanes attacked the harbor of Ostend. A considerable number of +bombs was dropped on the dockyards and on the war vessels in the +harbor. On the same day it was also reported that two successful air +raids had been carried out by aircraft operating with the British +forces in Egypt. The points raided were Maghdaba and Birsaba. A ton +of high explosives was dropped. Two Fokker machines were brought down +by the raiding aeroplanes, all of which returned safely. + +Near Saloniki two aeroplanes belonging to the Central Powers were +forced to descend behind their own lines. During the night of November +14, 1916, ten British machines at various points in France carried out +a series of successful raids on railway stations and rolling stock. + +On the same day a Turkish aeroplane flying very high dropped several +bombs in and about Cairo, Egypt, killing and wounding a number of +civilians. No military damage was done and only one military casualty +was incurred. + +On November 17, 1916, it was reported that a French aviator had +succeeded in flying across the Alps after dropping bombs upon the +station at Munich, the capital of Bavaria. He landed near Venice, +having flown 435 miles in one day. + +London was again attacked on November 28, 1916. An aeroplane, flying +very high, dropped six bombs which injured nine people and did +considerable damage. A German machine, brought down a few hours later +near Dunkirk, was supposed to have been the one returning from the +attack on London. + +On November 30, 1916, in Lorraine, three British aeroplanes fought an +engagement with several German machines. One German machine was +brought down in the forest of Gremecy. + +On the same day on the Somme front French airmen fought about forty +engagements, in the course of which five German machines were brought +down. + +Six French machines dropped fifteen bombs on Bruyeres. Another French +air squadron carried out a bombardment of the aerodrome of Grisolles +(north of Chateau-Thierry). Between 3.45 p. m. and 7 p. m. 171 bombs +of 120 mm. were dropped. + +That night between 9.30 p. m. and 1.10 a. m. four French machines +bombarded the blast furnaces and factories of Voelklingen (northwest of +Saarbruecken). + +On December 1, 1916, a group of aeroplanes of the British Naval Air +Service bombarded the blast furnaces of Dillingen, northwest of +Saarbruecken. During this expedition one ton of explosives was dropped. + +A German aeroplane was brought down during the return journey. + +During December 2, 1916, Italian aeroplanes bombed Austrian positions +at Dorimbergo (Fornberg) and Tabor, in the Frigido (Vippacco) Valley. +On the following day, December 3, 1916, another Italian air squadron +bombed the railway station for Dottogliano and Scoppo on the Carso +(seven and one-half miles northeast of Trieste). Notwithstanding bad +weather conditions and the violent fire of the Austrian artillery, the +aviators came down low to drop a ton and half of high explosives. + +Numerous air flights took place and one Austrian machine was brought +down; one of the Italian machines was reported missing. + +Austrian seaplanes dropped bombs at several points on the Carso +without causing casualties or damage. An Italian aeroplane dropped +five large bombs on the floating hangars at Trieste, with excellent +results. + +On December 4, 1916, Austrian aircraft dropped a few bombs on Adria +and Monfalcone without doing any damage. + +On the Tigris front, during the same day, December 4, 1916, Turkish +aeroplanes bombed successfully British camps. Six British machines +immediately made an equally successful counterattack. + +On December 14, 1916, a British squadron of naval aeroplanes carried +out a bombardment of the Kuleli-Burges bridge, south of Adrianople. + +Throughout the balance of December, 1916, there was a great deal of +local air activity at many points on all the fronts. Comparatively +speaking, however, no major actions occurred. + +The same condition existed during the early part of January, 1917. + +On January 11, 1917, an Austrian air squadron dropped a considerable +number of bombs in the neighborhood of Aquieleja, southwest of +Monfalcone. One Austrian seaplane was brought down by Italian +antiaircraft batteries. At the same time two aeroplanes bombarded the +aviation ground at Propecto and the seaplane base in the harbor of +Trieste. + +The Russian front reported increased aerial activity on the following +day, January 12, 1917. A German aerial squadron, consisting of +thirteen airplanes, dropped about forty bombs on the station and town +of Radzivilov. Russian aeroplanes bombarded with machine-gun fire a +German battery near the village of Krukhov. + +Similar exploits were reported from many different points on the +various fronts during the following week. Especially was this true of +the western front. However, there nowhere occurred any major actions. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVIII + +ZEPPELIN RAIDS + + +During the night of July 31 to August 1, 1916, a squadron of +Zeppelins, reported to have numbered at least six, raided the eastern +and southeastern counties of England. Sixty bombs were dropped, +causing considerable material damage, but, as far as was ascertained, +no casualties. + +Again the following day, August 2, 1916, six Zeppelins appeared over +the east coast of England. According to German claims, London, the +naval base at Harwich, and various industrial establishments in the +county of Norfolk were covered with a total of about eighty bombs, +which caused, of course, considerable loss. Although English +authorities claimed that antiaircraft guns registered a number of hits +against one, or possibly two, of the Zeppelins, and that another, +flying during its return trip over Dutch territory, was fired at and +hit, all of the six were later reported to have returned to their home +base undamaged. + +Another squadron visited the east coast again one week later, August +9, 1916. There were reported to have been between seven and ten +machines which dropped about 160 bombs, caused extensive damage, and +killed twenty-three people. English batteries finally forced the +withdrawal of the Zeppelins. + +About twenty-four hours after Rumania's entrance into the war on the +side of the Allies a Zeppelin, accompanied by an aeroplane, appeared +during the night of August 28, 1916, over Rumania's capital, +Bucharest. After a short bombardment, which caused but little damage, +they were both forced to withdraw by the fire of antiaircraft guns. +Before returning to their bases they bombarded three other unnamed +Rumanian cities without causing much damage. + +Shortly after 11 o'clock in the evening of September 2, 1916, the +eastern coasts of England were again attacked, this time by a fleet of +thirteen airships, the most formidable attack that had so far been +launched against England. + +The measures taken by the English authorities for the reduction or +obscuration of lights proved most efficacious, for the raiding +squadrons, instead of steering a steady course as to the raids of the +spring and of last autumn, groped about in darkness looking for a safe +avenue to approach their objectives. + +Three airships only were able to approach the outskirts of London. One +of them, the _L-21_, appeared over the northern district about 2.15 in +the morning of September 3, 1916, where she was picked up by +searchlights and heavily engaged by antiaircraft guns and aeroplanes. +After a few minutes the airship was seen to burst into flames and fall +rapidly toward the earth. + +The ship was destroyed, the wreckage, engines, and half-burned bodies +of the crew being found at Cuffley, near Enfield. The other two ships +which approached London were driven off by the defenses without being +able to approach the center of the city. A great number of bombs were +dropped promiscuously over the east Anglian and southeastern counties, +causing considerable but not very serious damage. Two people were +reported killed and thirteen injured. + +The funeral of the sixteen members of the German Zeppelin took place +on September 6, 1916, at Potter's Bar Cemetery, and was carried out +under the direction of the British Royal Flying Corps. A young member +of the latter, Lieutenant William Robinson, who had been responsible +for the Zeppelin's destruction, received later the Victoria Cross as +well as a number of monetary rewards and civic honors. The site at +Cuffley, which had been the scene of the airship's destruction, was +presented to the English nation by its owner. + +During the night of September 23, 1916, twelve Zeppelins again made +their appearance over the eastern counties of England and the +outskirts of London. Although the material damage was widespread, it +was borne chiefly by small homes and shops. The toll in human life was +greater than at any other raid, amounting to thirty-eight killed and +125 injured. However, two of the Zeppelins were forced down in Essex; +one of them was destroyed together with its crew; the other managed to +make a landing and its crew of twenty-one were made prisoners. + +Two days later, during the night of September 25, 1916, a smaller +squadron of about six airships attacked the northeastern and southern +counties of England. Bombs did considerable damage, most of which, +however, was inflicted on privately owned property. Thirty-six people +were killed and twenty-seven more injured. + +With the advance of autumn Zeppelin raids became less frequent. Only +once during October, 1916, on the night of October 1 to 2, did a +squadron of Zeppelins appear over English territory. At that time ten +airships attacked the eastern coast and London. The damage again was +principally to private property. Only one person was reported killed +and one injured. One of the Zeppelins, however, was brought down in +flames near Potter's Bar, and from its wreckage the bodies of nineteen +members of its crew were recovered. + +Not until the end of November, 1916, was another Zeppelin attack +reported. At that time, during the night of November 27 to 28, 1916, +two airships raided Yorkshire and Durham. They did considerable +damage, killed one and injured sixteen persons. Both Zeppelins were +brought down and destroyed and the entire crews of both perished. + +One airship was attacked by an aeroplane of the British Royal Flying +Corps and brought down in flames into the sea off the coast of Durham. + +Another airship crossed the North Midland counties and dropped bombs +at various places. On her return journey she Was repeatedly attacked +by aeroplanes of the British Royal Flying Corps and by guns. She +appeared to have been damaged, for the last part of her journey was +made at very slow speed, and she was unable to reach the coast before +day was breaking. + +Near the Norfolk coast she apparently succeeded in effecting repairs, +and, after passing through gunfire from the land defenses, which +claimed to have made a hit, proceeded east at high speed and at an +altitude of over 8,000 feet. She was attacked nine miles out at sea by +four machines of the British Royal Naval Air Service, while gunfire +was opened from an armed British trawler, and the airship was finally +brought down in flames. + +During December, 1916, no Zeppelins were apparently used actively. As +far as it was possible to determine definitely, the number of German +airships wrecked from the outbreak of the war up to January 1, 1917, +was nineteen. Of these twelve were lost during 1916 as follows: + +_L-19._ Wrecked in the North Sea on February 3. + +_L-77._ Shot down by French guns near Brabant-le-Roi on February 21. + +_L-15._ Shot down in raid on eastern counties, and sank off Thames +estuary on April 1. + +_L-20._ Wrecked near Stavanger on May 3. + +Unnamed airship. Destroyed by British warships off Schleswig on May 4. + +Unnamed airship. Brought down by Allied warships at Saloniki on May 5. + +_L-21._ Burned and wrecked near Enfield, September 3. + +_L-32_ and _L-33_. Brought down in Essex, September 24. + +Airship brought down at Potter's Bar, October 1. + +Two airships brought down in flames off the east coast, November +27-28. + +Another list, based on an article published in the "Journal of the +Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute," yields a total of +thirty-eight Zeppelins as having been destroyed since the outbreak of +the war. Of this number the loss of thirty was said to have been +authenticated. + +Of the larger total (38) 5 were destroyed in 1914, 17 in 1915, and 16 +in 1916. Of these 4 were lost in France, 6 in Russia, 7 in Belgium, 7 +in England, 1 in Denmark, 1 in Norway, 1 in the Balkans, 5 in the +East, and 6 in Germany. + +No further activities of Zeppelins were reported during January, 1917, +except that it was announced unofficially on January 3, 1917, that two +Zeppelins had been destroyed at Tondern, Schleswig, by a fire due to +defective electric wiring in a recently constructed double shed. + +To sum up the losses in aeroplanes incurred by the various +belligerents during the six months' period, August, 1916, to February, +1917, is practically impossible. Figures are available for a few +months only, and they are not only unofficial, but come from all kinds +of different sources, most of them very much biased. + +Furthermore, there always is a wide discrepancy between figures +published by adherents of the Allies and those published by the +friends of the Central Powers. + +As an example of this condition the following may well serve: At the +end of January, 1916, an unofficial statement claimed that the Germans +lost during 1916 on the western front a total of 221 aeroplanes. The +French authorities immediately claimed that they had knowledge of 417 +German aeroplanes which had been shot down by their aviators, and that +195 more machines were brought down damaged, of which undoubtedly a +number finally were to be considered lost to the Germans. Neither +statement, however, is supported by sufficient data to allow any kind +of checking up. The truth, therefore, must be sought somewhere around +the average between these two figures. + +Equally difficult is it to arrive at any definite figures regarding +the losses in man power incurred by the various aviation corps. No +official figures are available except the lists of casualties +published in aviation papers. These, however, cover only the French +and English organizations, and even in these two cases they contain a +large number of men who lost their lives not at the front, but in +aviation camps in England or France while being trained. + +However, that section of the French Aviation Corps containing American +volunteers has been more liberal in publishing statistics. On November +3, 1916, it was announced that the flying unit of the French Corps, +consisting entirely of American volunteers, had brought down between +May and November a total of twenty-one German machines. At that time +it consisted of twelve American members. Unfortunately it had lost +previously to this date two of its members. + +Kiffin Rockwell of Atlanta, Ga., had been killed in an air battle over +Thame in Alsace on September 23, 1916. He had joined the Foreign +Legion of the French army in May, 1915, had been severely wounded, +received the Military Medal, and after his recovery had been +transferred to the Flying Corps. He had participated in thirty-four +air battles, and a few hours before his death had been promoted to be +a second lieutenant. + +Norman Prince, Harvard graduate and native of Hamilton, Mass., was +severely wounded early in October, 1916. He died a week later on +October 14, 1916, in a hospital after first having been decorated with +the cross of the Legion of Honor. He had also received some time +before the Military Medal. + +On November 2, 1916, it was announced that Anthony H. Jannus, a young +Washington aviator, had been killed in Russia on October 12, 1916, +while flying for the Russian army. + +Another young American, Ruskin Watts of Westfield, N. J., who was +serving in the English Aviation Corps on the western front, was on +November 2, 1916, reported as missing since September 22, 1916. No +further news of his fate was known. + +This meant that, as far as was known definitely, four Americans had +lost their lives fighting for the Allies as members of their aviation +service. + + + + +CHAPTER XLIX + +SUBMARINE WARFARE + + +The totals of the damage inflicted by submarines of the Central Powers +on the merchant fleets of the Entente Allies during July, 1916, was +not officially announced until August 16, 1916. On that day an +official statement was published in Berlin to the effect that German +and Austrian submarines and mines had destroyed during July, 1916, 74 +merchantmen belonging to England and her allies. These ships had a +total tonnage of 103,000 tons. + +The activity of German and Austrian submarines increased considerably +during August, 1916. According to an official German statement +submarines or mines sunk 126 merchant ships, belonging to England and +her allies, totaling 170,679 tons gross, as well as 35 neutral +merchant ships, totaling 38,568 tons. These figures, however, did not +agree with figures compiled in this country. The New York "Journal of +Commerce" records only 93 ships of a total tonnage of 123,397 as +having been sunk in August, 1916. The same authority also announced +that in the period from August 1, 1914, to September 1, 1916, there +had been destroyed, 1,584 merchant ships, aggregating 2,939,915 tons. + +Among the ships sunk in August, 1916, was the Italian mail steamer +_Letimbro_. She went to the bottom of the Mediterranean on August 4, +1916, and it was claimed that many of her 1,100 passengers were lost. +Other ships of more than 2,000 tons which were lost in August, 1916, +were: + +British: _Tottenham_, 3,106 tons; _Favonian_, 3,049 tons; _Mount +Coniston_, 3,018 tons; _Aaro_, 2,603 tons; _Trident_, 3,129 tons; _San +Bernardo_, 3,803 tons; _Antiope_, 2,793 tons; _Whitgift_, 4,397 tons; +_Britannic_, 3,487 tons; _Heighington_, 2,800 tons; and _Newburn_, +3,554 tons. + +Italian: _Citta di Messina_, 2,464 tons; _Hermerberg_, 2,824 tons; +_Siena_, 4,372 tons; _Teti_, 2,868 tons; _Nereus_, 3,980 tons; +_Angelo_, 8,609 tons; _Sebastiano_, 3,995 tons; _Stampalia_, 9,000. + +Other nations: _Ivar_, Danish, 2,139 tons; _Kohina Maru_, Japanese, +3,164 tons; _Tenmei Maru_, Japanese, 3,360 tons; _Tricoupis_, Greek, +2,387 tons; _Ganekogorta Mendi_, Spanish, 3,061 tons; _Pagasarri_, +Spanish, 3,287 tons. + +Of vessels smaller than 2,000 tons the losses to the various nations +were as follows: Great Britain, 23; France, 6; Italy, 10; Russia, 4; +Norway, 9; Sweden, 6; Holland, 2; Denmark, 3; Greece, 3. + +A large discrepancy regarding the total number and tonnage of Allied +and neutral merchantmen sunk by mines and submarines was again +noticeable in the figures published in the United States newspapers +and in official statements of the German admiralty. + +The latter on October 26, 1916, announced that 180 ships with a total +tonnage of 254,600 had been sunk, of which 141 of 182,000 tons +belonged to Great Britain and her allies, and 39 of 72,600 tons to +neutral nations. The New York "Journal of Commerce," on October 5, +1916, published a summary of merchantmen lost during September, 1916, +which accounted only for 70 vessels of 150,317 tons, of which 25 were +said to have belonged to Great Britain and 18 to neutral Norway, while +France lost 4, Italy 4, Sweden 5, Denmark 4, Spain, Greece, and +Holland each 2, and Belgium 1. Of all these the following were more +than 2,000 tons: + +British: _Duart_, 3,108 tons; _Strathalian_, 4,404 tons; _Swift +Wings_, 4,465 tons; _Kelvinia_, 3,140 tons; _Torridge_, 5,036 tons; +_Strathtay_, 4,428 tons; _Heathdene_, 3,541 tons; _Llangorse_, 3,841 +tons; _Butetown_, 2,466 tons; _Bronwen_, 4,250 tons; _Strathe_, 2,500 +tons; _Newby_, 2,168 tons; _Counsellor_, 4,958 tons; _Lexie_, 3,778 +tons; _Swedish Prince_, 3,712 tons; _Roddam_, 3,218 tons; _Lord +Tredegar_, 3,856 tons; _Dewa_, 3,802 tons. + +Norwegian: _Elizabeth IV_, 4,182 tons; _Polynesia_, 4,064 tons; +_Bufjord_, 2,284 tons; _Qvindeggen_, 2,610 tons; _Furu_, 2,029 tons; +_Isdalen_, 2,275 tons. + +Other nations: _Antwerpen_, Dutch, 11,000 tons; _Benpark_, Italian, +3,842 tons; _Gamen_, Swedish, 2,617 tons; _Luis Vives_, Spanish, 2,394 +tons; _Assimacos_, Greek, 2,898 tons. + +For the month of October, 1916, the New York "Journal of Commerce" +placed its total figures of Allied and neutral merchantmen sunk by +mines or submarines at 127 vessels of 227,116 tons, according to a +compilation published on November 3, 1916. No official figures of the +German Government for October, 1916, were available. Of the +above-mentioned 127 vessels, Great Britain lost 38; Norway, 56; +Sweden, 10; Denmark, 8; Greece, 5; Russia, 4; Holland, 3; France, +Belgium, and Rumania, each 1. Of these the following were of more than +2,000 tons: + +British: Franconia, 18,150 tons; _Alaunia_, 13,405 tons; _Welsh +Prince_, 4,934 tons; _Rowanmore_, 10,320 tons; _Astoria_, 4,262 tons; +_Cabotia_, 4,309 tons; _Midland_, 4,247 tons; _Cluden_, 3,166 tons; +_Barbara_, 3,740 tons; _Framfield_, 2,510 tons; _Ethel Duncan_, 2,510 +tons; _Sidmouth_, 4,045 tons; _Crosshill_, 5,002 tons; _Sebek_, 4,601 +tons; _Renylan_, 3,875 tons; _Strathdene_, 4,321 tons; _West Point_, +3,847 tons; _Stephano_, 3,449 tons. + +Norwegian: _Christian Knudsen_, 4,224 tons; _Risholm_, 2,155 tons; +_Snestadt_, 2,350 tons; _Edam_, 2,381 tons; _Sola_, 3,057 tons; +_Bygdo_, 2,345 tons. + +Russian: _Tourgai_, 4,281 tons; _Mercator_, 2,827 tons. + +Dutch: _Bloomersdijk_, 4,850 tons. + +Greek: _George M. Embiricos_, 3,636 tons; _Massalia_, 2,186 tons; +_Germaine_, 2,573 tons. + +Rumanian: _Bistritza_, 3,668 tons. + +More interest than ever before in submarine warfare was aroused in +this country when the German war submarine _U-53_ unexpectedly made +its appearance in the harbor of Newport, R. I., during the afternoon +of October 7, 1916. About three hours afterward, without having taken +on any supplies, and after explaining her presence by the desire of +delivering a letter addressed to Count von Bernstorff, then German +Ambassador at Washington, the _U-53_ left as suddenly and mysteriously +as she had appeared. + +This was the first appearance of a war submarine in an American port. +It was claimed that the _U-53_ had made the trip from Wilhelmshaven in +seventeen days. She was 213 feet long, equipped with two guns, four +torpedo tubes, and an exceptionally strong wireless outfit. Besides +her commander, Captain Rose, she was manned by three officers and +thirty-three men. + +Early the next morning, October 8, 1916, it became evident what had +brought the _U-53_ to this side of the Atlantic. At the break of day +she made her reappearance southeast of Nantucket. The American steamer +_Kansan_ of the American Hawaiian Company bound from New York by way +of Boston to Genoa was stopped by her, but after proving her +nationality and neutral ownership was allowed to proceed. Five other +steamships, three of them British, one Dutch, and one Norwegian, were +less fortunate. The British freighter _Strathend_, of 4,321 tons, was +the first victim. Her crew were taken aboard the Nantucket Shoals +Lightship. Two other British freighters, _West Point_ and _Stephano_, +followed in short order to the bottom of the ocean. The crews of both +were saved by United States torpedo-boat destroyers which had come +from Newport as soon as news of the _U-53's_ activities had been +received there. This was also the case with the crews of the Dutch +ship _Bloomersdijk_ and the Norwegian tanker _Christian Knudsen_. + +On December 20, 1916, the German admiralty announced that the total +losses inflicted on Allied and neutral merchantmen by submarines and +mines during November, 1916, amounted to 191 vessels of 408,500 tons. +Of these 138 ships of 314,500 belonged to Great Britain and her +allies, and 53 ships of 94,000 tons to neutral countries. + +On November 13, 1916, the Norwegian steamship _Older_, on passage from +Newport to Gibraltar, was captured by a German submarine, which placed +a prize crew on board her. For a time the submarine remained in +company. Eventually, however, the _Older_ separated from the +submarine, apparently with the intention of making for a German port. +She was intercepted by a British ship of war, recaptured, and brought +into a British port, and the prize crew were made prisoners of war. + +The losses of Allied and neutral merchantmen sunk by submarines and +mines during the month of December, 1916, according to the New York +"Journal of Commerce," totaled 134 vessels of 251,750 tons, of which +53 vessels of 157,217 tons belonged to Great Britain and her allies, +and 81 vessels of 84,533 tons to neutrals. + +Among the largest of these were the following British boats: _King +Malcom_, 4,351 tons; _Reapwell_, 3,417 tons; _Luciston_, 2,948 tons; +_Moeraki_, 4,392 tons; _King Bleddyn_, 4,387 tons; _Couch_, 5,620 +tons; _Tanfield_, 4,358 tons; _Avristan_, 3,818 tons; _Strathalbyn_, +4,331 tons; _Ursula_, 5,011 tons; _Bretwalda_, 4,037 tons; +_Westminster_, 4,342 tons. + +The French merchant marine, in addition to a number of smaller boats, +lost: _Kangaroo_, 2,493 tons; _Emma Laurans_, 2,152 tons. One Belgian +steamer of 2,360 tons, the _Keltier_, also was sunk. + +Of neutrals, the Dutch lost the _Kediri_, 3,781 tons; the Norwegians +the _Rakiura_, 3,569 tons; _Modum_, 2,942 tons; _Meteor_, 4,211 tons; +_Manpanger_, 3,354 tons; the Greeks, _Salamis_, 3,638 tons; and the +Danish, _Michail Ontchonkoff_, 2,118 tons. + +The balance of the boats destroyed in December, 1916, was made up of +vessels of less than 2,000 tons, among which there were Russian, +Swedish, and Portuguese boats as well as ships belonging to the +nations already mentioned. One American-owned was also included, the +_John Lambert_, of 1,550 tons, owned by the Great Britain & St. +Lawrence Transportation Company. + +On December 4, 1916, a German submarine sank in the Mediterranean the +former Anchor liner _Caledonia_, a steamer of 9,223 tons. The German +version of this occurrence was as follows: + +"On December 4, 1916, in the Mediterranean, the British liner +_Caledonia_ attempted to ram one of our submarines without having +previously been attacked by the latter. + +"Just before the submarine was struck by the steamer's bows it +succeeded in firing a torpedo, which hit and sank the _Caledonia_. The +submarine was only slightly damaged. + +"The captain of the steamer, James Blaikie, was taken prisoner by the +submarine." + +In January, 1917, the toll exacted by mines and submarines was +especially large. The New York "Journal of Commerce" gave on February +6, 1917, the following figures: 154 vessels of 336,997 tons. Of these +87, of 229,366 tons, belonged to Great Britain and her allies, and 67, +of 107,631 tons, to neutrals. No American boats were included. + +On January 1, 1917, a German submarine sank the British transport +_Ivernia_ in the Mediterranean while carrying troops. Four officers +and 146 men as well as 33 members of the crew were reported missing. + +The British battleship _Cornwallis_ was sunk on January 9, 1917, +likewise in the Mediterranean. Thirteen members of the crew were +reported missing. The _Cornwallis_, which was launched at Blackwell in +1901 and completed in 1904, had a displacement of 14,000 tons, length +of 405 feet, beam of 75-1/2 feet, and draft of 26-1/2 feet. Her +indicated horsepower was 18,238, developing a speed of 18.9 knots. She +carried four 12-inch, twelve 6-inch, ten 12-pounder, and two 3-pounder +guns, as well as four torpedo tubes. The complement of the +_Cornwallis_ was about 750. + +Two days later, January 11, 1917, the British seaplane carrier +_Ben-Machree_ was sunk by gunfire in Kasteloxizo Harbor (Asia Minor). +There were no casualties. + +Among the larger boats (above 2,000 tons) sunk during January, 1917, +were the following: + +British: _Apsleyhall_, 3,882 tons; _Holly Branch_, 3,568 tons; +_Baycraig_, 3,761 tons; _Lesbian_, 2,555 tons; _Andoni_, 3,188 tons; +_Baynesk_, 3,286 tons; _Lynfield_, 3,023 tons; _Manchester Inventor_, +4,247 tons; _Wragby_, 3,641 tons; _Garfield_, 3,838 tons; +_Auchencrag_, 3,916 tons; _Port Nicholson_, 8,418 tons; _Matina_, +3,870 tons; _Toftwood_, 3,082 tons; _Mohacsfield_, 3,678 tons; +_Tremeadow_, 3,653 tons; _Neuquen_, 3,583 tons; _Tabasco_, 2,987 tons; +_Matheran_, 7,654 tons; _Jevington_, 2,747 tons. + +French: _Tuskar_, 3,043 tons. + +Japanese: _Taki Maru_, 3,208 tons; _Chinto Maru_, 2,592 tons; +_Misagatu Maru_, No. 3, 2,608 tons. + +Russian: _Egret_, 3,185 tons. + +Norwegian: _Britannic_, 2,289 tons; _Older_, 2,256 tons; _Fama_, 2,147 +tons; _Esperanca_, 4,428 tons; _Bergenhus_, 3,606 tons; _Jotunfjell_, +2,492 tons; _Myrdal_, 2,631 tons. + +Dutch: _Salland_, 3,657 tons; _Zeta_, 3,053 tons. + +Greek: _Evangelos_, 3,773 tons; _Demetrios Goulandris_, 3,744 tons; +_Aristotelis C. Ioannow_, 2,868 tons; _Demetrios Inglessis_, 2,088 +tons; Tsiropinas, 3,015 tons. + +Spanish: _Valle_, 2,365 tons; _Manuel_, 2,419 tons; _Parahyba_, 2,537 +tons. + +Toward the end of January, 1917, the severity of submarine warfare was +noticeably increased. Day by day the number of vessels sunk grew +larger, and some of them were of especially large tonnage. On January +28, 1917, a French transport, carrying 950 soldiers to Saloniki, the +_Amiral Magon_, was sunk in the Mediterranean with a loss of about 150 +men. + +Then came on January 29, 1917, the official announcement that the +British Government had decided to lay new mine fields in the North Sea +in order to cope more successfully with the ever-growing submarine +menace. According to this announcement the British Government warned +all neutrals that from this date the following area in the North Sea +was to be considered dangerous to shipping: + +The area comprising all the waters, except the Netherlands and Danish +territorial waters, lying southwestward and eastward of a line +commencing four miles from the coast of Jutland in latitude 56 degrees +N., longitude 8 degrees E. + +As a result of this new policy it was announced by Lloyd's that eleven +vessels of about 15,000 tons were sunk on the first day of the +blockade. During the first week of the blockade, February 1 to 8, +1917, according to British figures, which, however, were claimed by +German officials to be much lower than the actual figures, there were +sunk 58 vessels of 112,043 tons, of which 1 was American, 20 belonged +to other neutrals, 32 to Great Britain, and 5 to the other +belligerents. + + + + +PART VI--THE UNITED STATES AND THE BELLIGERENTS + + + + +CHAPTER L + +THE OLD MENACE + + +A welcome period of quiet in the submarine controversy with Germany +followed the settlement of the _Sussex_ case recorded in the previous +volume. But neither the Administration nor the country was deluded +into resting in any false security. The dragon was not throttled; it +merely slumbered by the application of a diplomatic opiate. While the +war lasted the menace of its awaking and jeopardizing German peace +with the United States was always present. + +The achievements of the _Deutschland_, a peaceful commercial submarine +which inaugurated an undersea traffic between the United States and +Germany, provided an interesting diversion from the tension created by +the depredations of her armed sisters. After safely crossing the +Atlantic and finding a safe berth in an American port in the summer of +1916, she showed such hesitation in setting out on the return trip +that doubts were general as to whether the dangers of capture by alert +Allied cruisers were not too great to be risked. The attempt +nevertheless was finally made on August 2, 1916, when she darted under +water after passing out of the three-mile limit at the Virginia Capes +and was successful. She arrived at Bremen on August 23, 1916, with a +cargo of rubber and metal, and apparently found no difficulty in +eluding the foes supposedly in wait for her on the high seas. When she +left her Baltimore berth, so the story went, eight British warships +awaited her, attended by numerous fishing craft hired to spread nets +to entangle her. Near the English coast dense fogs aided by obscuring +the vision of her foes' naval lookouts, and in rounding Scotland to +reach the North Sea she had to evade a long line of warships and +innumerable auxiliary craft extended far north. + +Germany found occasion for exultation in her return without mishap. +The blockade was broken. Berlin was bedecked with flags and the whole +country celebrated the event as though Marshal von Hindenburg had won +another victory. The _Deutschland_ again left Bremen on October 10, +1916, and found her way into New London, Conn., on November 1, 1916, +leaving for Germany three weeks later with a rubber and metal cargo +said to be worth $2,000,000 and a number of mail pouches. She was +reported to have arrived safely off the mouth of the Weser on December +10, 1916. + +A repetition of the _Deutschland's_ exploits was looked for from her +sister undersea craft, the _Bremen_, about whose movements the widest +speculation was centered. She was reported to have left Germany for +the United States on September 1, 1916, but did not appear, nor was +any trace of her seen en route. She never arrived, and became a +mystery of the sea. A story circulated that she had been captured by a +British patrol boat in the Straits of Dover and thirty-three of her +crew of thirty-five made prisoners, the remaining two having been +killed when the boat was caught in a steel net. The British admiralty +preserved its customary silence as to the truth of this report. Her +German owners finally acknowledged their belief that she had been lost +probably through an accident to her machinery. At any rate a life +preserver bearing the name _Bremen_ was picked up off the Maine coast +about the end of September, 1916. + +As the summer of 1916 advanced American contemplation of this +agreeable trade relation with blockaded Germany by means of a +commercial submarine service was abruptly switched to a review of the +manner in which that country was observing its undertaking not to sink +unresisting vessels without warning. A certain communication credited +to Admiral von Tirpitz was circulated in Germany urging a return to +his discarded sea policy. This was nothing more nor less than the +pursuit of unrestricted and ruthless submarine warfare, the espousal +of which by him as Minister of Marine, in conflict with the milder +methods favored by the German Chancellor, forced his resignation +earlier in the year. Of course such a change would mean an immediate +clash with the United States and the ending of diplomatic relations. + +President Wilson had been watching Germany's behavior since May, 1916, +when she pledged her submarine commanders to safeguard the lives on +board doomed vessels. Three months' probation, according to American +reports, failed to show any evidence that she was not living up to her +promise; but British reports cited a number of instances pointing to +an absolute disregard of her undertaking with the United States. She +had hedged this promise with a condition reserving her liberty of +action should a "new situation" develop necessitating a change in her +sea policy, and the question arose whether she was not trying to +create a new situation to justify such a change. Concurrent with the +new Von Tirpitz propaganda, at any rate, came a recrudescence of +submarine destruction without warning, mainly in the Mediterranean. +This activity lent weight to a fear that the kaiser and Von +Bethmann-Hollweg were yielding to the pressure exercised by the Von +Tirpitz party. Germany regarded her submarines as her chief weapons +for damaging the Allies; but she was embarrassed by the problem of how +to operate them without clashing with American interests. Her policy +at length shaped itself to a careful discrimination in raiding +Atlantic traffic and avoiding attacks on liners altogether. + +The leader of the German National Liberals, Dr. Ernest Bassermann, +echoed the Von Tirpitz cry, in an address to his constituents at +Saarbruecken. The most ruthless employment of all weapons, he urged, +was imperative. Besides Von Tirpitz, High Admiral Koester, Count +Zeppelin, and Prince von Buelow shared this view. He told the world, +which he was really addressing, that the submarine campaign had not +been abandoned, but only suspended solely on account of the American +protest. It was not clear that there had really been any cessation of +submarine activity, though some abatement had undoubtedly followed the +undertaking with the United States. + +The manifest unrest in Germany provoked by the curb placed upon her +submarines by President Wilson caused the eyes of Washington to be fixed +anxiously on the uncertain situation. It was solely a psychological and +mental condition, but of a character that seemed premonitory of an +outbreak on Germany's part. Dr. von Bethmann-Hollweg, in a cryptic +remark to the Reichstag on September 28, 1916, succeeded in aggravating +American concern, though he may not have so intended. "A German +statesman," he said, "who would hesitate to use against Britain every +available instrument of battle that would really shorten this war should +be hanged." + +There was no obvious reference to the United States in this utterance; +but the German press seized upon it as a pretext for an attack on +American neutrality. The connection was provided by the coincidental +death of an American aviator named Rockwell, who, with a number of +compatriots, had served the Allies on the French front. The point made +was that the active part American airmen were taking in the ranks of +the Allies, combined with the enormous supply of war materials +furnished by American firms, indicated the futility of abiding by +concessions made to the United States controlling the submarine war. +The United States was charged with taking advantage of restricted +submarine activity to cover the participation of American citizens as +aids to the Entente and to expand its war trade. Being simultaneous +and couched in the same key, the press outbursts bore every indication +of a common inspiration, probably official. + +"Moderation in the use of Germany's undersea craft," said one group of +journals in effect, "merely serves to further American assistance to +the Entente Allies in men and munitions." + +Another paper, the "Tageszeitung," characterized the American policy +as one in the pursuance of which President Wilson Was making a +threatened use of a "wooden sword," and called for a policy of the +utmost firmness against that country. + +It was intimated from Washington that if any faction in Germany--in +this case the Pan-Germans--succeeded in reviving submarine methods +whereby ships were sunk without warning or without safeguards against +loss of American lives, the submarine crisis with Germany would be +reopened with all its possibilities. At the same time no serious +importance was attached by official Washington to the German clamor +for more frightfulness. + +It was true that the Pan-Germans were making a powerful onslaught for +the overthrow of the German Chancellor, Dr. von Bethmann-Hollweg, who +was the only obstacle to a return to ruthless submarine warfare. +Moreover, as perceived by the "Berliner Tageblatt," "tension in the +atmosphere of imperial politics has reached such a high point that a +discharge must follow if the empire is not to suffer lasting damage." +But Washington looked for development on the high seas, not in the +political arena of Berlin, where the sound and fury of words did not +afford a safe barometer of governmental action. + +By the end of September, 1916, a "lull" in German submarine activity +was reported, due, according to Lord Robert Cecil, to a shortage in +submarines. But reports showed that between June 1, 1916, and +September 24, 1916, 277 vessels, sixty-six of which were neutral, had +been sunk by submarines, fifteen of them without warning, and with the +loss of eighty-four lives. The abatement really took place in June and +July, 1916, following the American agreement with Germany in May, +1916. The "lull" may therefore be measured by these figures: Vessels +sunk in June, 57; in July, 42; in August, 103; in September (to the +24th), 75. + +The only real lull was a cessation in attacks on liners. The British +view, based on the allegation that fifteen vessels had been sunk +without warning causing a loss of eighty-four lives, was that German +frightfulness was already in full swing despite Berlin's promise to +the United States. The American attitude, however, was that so long as +American lives were not lost on ships sunk without warning the United +States had no ground for intervention. Hence Germany could apparently +sink vessels with impunity so long as the noncombatant victims +belonged to other nationalities. + +The agitation in Germany to break the undertaking with the United +States was thrashed out between the adherents of Chancellor von +Bethmann-Hollweg and the Pan-Germanists without shaking the +Chancellor's strength. He had the support of Field Marshal von +Hindenburg and the navy chiefs, who, in frowning on an unbridled +submarine warfare, successfully imposed the weight of their authority +against any change. The subject divided the Budget Committee of the +Reichstag, the question being whether its discussion should be +permitted in open session. The outcome was that the committee decided, +by a vote of 24 to 4, to smother the agitation by refusing to permit +its ventilation in the open Reichstag. + + + + +CHAPTER LI + +THE U-53'S EXPLOITS + + +While the German Budget Committee was thus occupied a new and +startling turn was given to the situation by the unheralded appearance +at Newport, R. I., on October 7, 1916, of a German submarine, the +_U-53_. Rising out of the water in the afternoon, it remained long +enough for its captain to deliver a missive for Count von Bernstorff, +the German Ambassador, pay a call on Admiral Knight, the American +commander there, ask for news of the missing _Bremen_, and obtain a +sheaf of New York newspapers for information regarding Allied +shipping. Then it left the port, whither it had been piloted, and +disappeared under the waves. The visit, standing by itself, was an +interesting episode; but it proved to be much more than a mere social +call. + +The next day revealed the real object of the submarine's presence in +American waters. Off Nantucket it appeared in its true guise as a +raider of shipping and sank five vessels--three British, one Dutch, +and one Norwegian. Having thus brought the submarine war to the very +threshold of the United States, causing a reign of terror among +held-up shipping along the Atlantic seaboard--a state of mind which, +while it lasted, meant a virtual blockade of American ports--it +disappeared and was not again heard of. + +There was no doubt that the exploits of the _U-53_ were intended as a +demonstration to test American feeling as to whether Germany could +attack on this side of the water munition and other vessels bound for +Allied ports. It appeared a bold attempt to create a new precedent by +overriding one laid down in 1870 by President Grant, who ruled that +American waters must not be used by other nations for belligerent +purposes. Outside the three-mile limit, however, German submarines +could operate with the same impunity as in the Arctic Ocean, so long +as they observed the requirement of giving warning and allowing people +on board the intercepted vessels time to save their lives. But the +manifest point was that the waters outside the three-mile limit were +contiguous to the American coast, and provided highways for American +shipping, coastwise and foreign. The proximity of German submarines, +even though they confined their attention to Allied shipping to and +from American ports, constituted too great a menace to the free +movement of the American mercantile marine. + +A wolf at a man's door is none the less dangerous because the wolf is +lying in wait for the appearance of an inmate of the man's house and +not for the man himself. Informal intimations persuaded Germany that +she could not safely repeat the experiment of carrying the war to +America's door. + +The innovation, even in its most innocuous form, was contrary to good +international usage. Great Britain had previously offended in this +respect by permitting her patrolling cruisers to intercept and examine +merchant vessels off the port of New York. She desisted at +Washington's request. But a waiting cruiser, plain to the eye, +interfering with shipping to prevent communication with Germany, was +a mild offender compared with an unseen submarine crossing the paths +of ships and liable to err in its indiscriminate destructiveness. + +Fortunately, no American lives were lost. But this was not the fault +of the submarine. No question could be raised of its behavior in +sinking four of the five ships, namely, the _Strathdene_ (British +freighter), bound from New York to Bordeaux; the _West Point_ (British +freighter), bound from London to Newport News; the _Bloomersdijk_ +(Dutch freighter), bound from New York to Rotterdam; and the +_Christian Knudsen_ (Norwegian freighter), bound from New York to +London. The danger, happily averted, to American-German relations lay +in the sinking of the fifth vessel, the _Stephano_, a British +passenger liner plying regularly between New York, Halifax, N. S., and +St. John's, Newfoundland. Among the _Stephano's_ passengers were a +number of Americans, who, like their companions in misfortune, had to +seek the doubtful safety of small boats miles offshore. + +The situation was saved by the presence of American destroyers in the +vicinity. Their commanders and crews were actual witnesses of the +sinking, and afterward interposed as life savers of the shipwrecked +victims. The _Balch_ rescued the passengers and crew of the +_Stephano_, numbering 140, and other destroyers took on board the +crews of the four freighters. The American navy in saving Germany's +victims had saved Germany from facing the consequences of her behavior +in jeopardizing the lives of Americans on board the _Stephano_. German +diplomacy was even capable of pointing to the fact that the prompt +relief afforded the _Stephano's_ passengers by American destroyers was +proof that the submarine commander had safeguarded their lives by +relying upon the American navy as a rescuer. The irony of such a +contention lay in the implication that if American destroyers had not +been on the scene the vessels might have been spared. + +It was a short-lived panic. The _U-53_ came and went in a flash; but +amid the scare created by its presence President Wilson found it +necessary to assure the country that "the German Government will be +held to the complete fulfillment of its promise to the Government of +the United States. I have no right now," he added, "to question its +willingness to fulfill them." + +The Administration's deliberations on the subject produced the +decision that the _U-53_ had not ignored the German pledges. It came, +saw, and conquered according to formula. It had first warned the +vessels, gave enough time for the people on board to be "safely" +transferred to boats, and there were American naval eyewitnesses to +testify as to the regularity of its proceedings. The incident passed +as one on which no action could be taken by the United States. But +Germany saw that it could not well be repeated. American sensibilities +had to be respected as much as international proprieties. The reproof +conveyed to the British Ambassador by Secretary Lansing that "the +constant and menacing presence of cruisers on the high seas near the +ports of a neutral country may be regarded according to the canons of +international courtesy as a just ground for offense, although it may +be strictly legal," applied with double force to the presence of +German submarines because of their greater danger. + +Tart comments on the incident came from Great Britain, though its +Government did not appear to have protested to the United States +against the view that the _U-53's_ proceedings were lawful and +regular. + +Lord Robert Cecil, an official spokesman, saw a ruse in the +submarine's visit: + +"German public opinion appears to be obsessed with the idea that the +way to deal with the Allied blockade is to have a succession of sudden +crises with neutrals, which may be used for striking diplomatic +bargains. These bargains, in the mind of Germany, always take one +form--that Germany is to refrain from violating international law and +humanity in return for the abandonment by Great Britain as toward +neutrals of the legitimate military and naval measures of the Allies." + +In the House of Lords the United States was accused of a breach of +neutrality by Lords Beresford and Sydenham. Referring to "the +activities of the _U-53_ under the very eyes of the American navy" +and to President Wilson's ultimatum which resulted in the German +pledge, Lord Sydenham said: + +"Even before the exploits of the _U-53_ that pledge was torn to +shreds. Yet the Government of the United States has made no sign +whatever that the sinking of neutral ships goes on almost every day. +What must small neutrals think of their powerful representative?" + +No life, he said, was lost because of the presence of American +warships. Lord Sydenham took the position that the presence of +American warships actually enabled Germany to defy what President +Wilson had described as a sacred and indisputable rule of +international law. + +Lord Beresford expressed a similar view: + +"The United States are really aiding and abetting this rather serious +state of affairs. If the United States had not sent their ships, which +for some extraordinary reason happened to be on the spot, to save +life, the Germans would no doubt have broken the pledge to which their +attention had been called. I think we are bound to take notice of a +fact which does not appear to be quite within the bounds of neutrality +as far as the United States are concerned." + +Lord Grey, Foreign Secretary, declined to commit the Government to +such an attitude. He held that the American-German undertaking was no +affair of Great Britain's. + +It was left for the spectator to be truly prophetic, as the later +peace movement showed, in seeking a motive for the _U-53's_ +proceedings. It considered that Germany sought to force the United +States to propose peace terms, regardless of whether the Entente +Allies were agreeable or not: + +"Thus, with unrestricted submarine warfare as a settled policy, +Germany gives America warning of what is likely to happen unless the +United States is prepared to declare that the war has reached a point +where it is dangerous for neutrals. If the United States is willing to +play this role, the Germans will hold their hands from an extra dose +of unlimited submarine frightfulness." + +The _U-53_ had no sooner gone when an exchange of communications +between the American and Allied governments regarding the status of +foreign submarines in neutral ports became public. The question +related to the hospitality accorded the _Deutschland_ in Baltimore and +New London; but as it arose in the midst of the hubbub occasioned by +the _U-53_, the American view appeared to determine that such craft +could call at an American port like any other armed vessel, so long as +it did not stay beyond the allotted time. + +The Allied governments besought neutrals, the United States among +them, to forbid belligerent submarine vessels, "whatever the purpose +to which they are put," from making use of neutral waters, roadsteads, +and ports. Such craft could navigate and remain at sea submerged, +could escape control and observation, avoid identification and having +their national character established to determine whether they were +neutral or belligerent, combatant or noncombatant. The capacity for +harm inherent in the nature of such vessels therefore required, in the +view of the Allied governments, that they should be excluded from the +benefit of rules hitherto recognized by the laws of nations governing +the admission of war or merchant vessels to neutral waters and their +sojourn in them. Hence if any belligerent submarine entered a neutral +port it should be interned. The point was further made that grave +danger was incurred by neutral submarines in the navigation of regions +frequented by belligerent submarines. + +The American answer was brusque, and resentful of the attempt of the +Allies to dictate the attitude neutrals should take toward submarines +which visited their harbors. The governments of France, Great Britain, +Russia, and Japan were informed that they had not "set forth any +circumstances, nor is the Government of the United States at present +aware of any circumstances, concerning the use of war or merchant +submarines which would render the existing rules of international law +inapplicable to them." Moreover, "so far as the treatment of either +war or merchant submarines in American waters is concerned, the +Government of the United States reserves its liberty of action in all +respects and will treat such vessels as, in its opinion, becomes the +action of a power which may be said to have taken the first steps +toward establishing the principles of neutrality." + +Finally, as to the danger to neutral submarines in waters frequented +by belligerent submarines, it was the duty of belligerents to +distinguish between them, and responsibility for any conflict arising +from neglect to do so must rest upon the negligent power. + +This caustic exchange of views on harboring submarines took place +before the appearance of the _U-53_. Had the Allies deferred +approaching the United States until after that event, the situation +favored the belief that the submarine's behavior would have dictated a +different reply from Washington. Indeed, there was a strong +presumption that if another German armed submarine had the temerity to +visit an American port it might have been promptly interned, not under +international law, but at the behest of public opinion. + + + + +CHAPTER LII + +GATHERING CLOUDS + + +The conduct of the country's foreign policy became hampered by the +presidential campaign. President Wilson was frankly uncertain of +reelection and embarrassed by the feeling that any determination he +made of a policy toward Germany might be overturned by his successful +opponent. So American domestic politics perceptibly intruded at this +stage in the country's foreign policy. + +In fact, that policy was practically in suspension. Germany eagerly +availed herself of the hiatus, and, satisfying herself that President +Wilson would be defeated, and that his successor would adopt a +different attitude to her (she had no real ground for this +supposition), embarked upon a submarine activity that was in strange +contrast to the moderation which the German Chancellor had stubbornly +fought for in its conduct. + +The point to be remembered was that Germany's pledge to President +Wilson was the only curb on frightfulness. Germany rashly assumed that +the defeat of President Wilson would nullify it. At any rate, his +uncertain outlook in the preelection period opened the way for a +submarine outbreak which would be extended with impunity owing to the +Administration's hesitation in taking action that might not be +sustained by the President's presumed successor, on the theory that +Mr. Wilson's defeat would be tantamount to a popular repudiation of +his policies. + +Light was thrown on the German submarine policy by a Berlin dispatch, +dated October 26, 1916, which indicated that the submarines were at +least placating the extremists: + +"While the silence of the German press and public on the subject of +sharpened submarine warfare may be attributed in some measure to the +stand of Hindenburg and Ludendorff against it, much more significant +is the growing popular realization that sharpened submarine warfare is +actually in force. And the public is beginning to regard it as +efficient and highly satisfactory. The fact is that it is successful +as never before, for it is sharpened not qualitatively, but +quantitatively." + +The British admiralty later reported that between May 4 (the date of +the German pledge) and November 8, 1916, thirty-three vessels had been +sunk by German submarines without warning, resulting in the loss of +140 lives. In the same period 107 ships, all of British registry, had +been sunk and "the lives of the crews and passengers imperiled through +their being forced to take to the sea in open boats while their ships +were a target for the enemy's guns." + +President Wilson's success at the polls, which hung in the balance +several days after the election, was the signal for a change of +attitude on Germany's part. The Berlin Government realized that his +foreign policy had received the indorsement of a majority of American +citizens, and the assurance was communicated that the German admiralty +was again on its good behavior. + +But many depredations had been committed which Germany would be hard +put to explain satisfactorily. No less than ten pressing American +inquiries regarding sunk ships were sent to the Berlin Foreign Office +as soon as the President, assured that his tenure of office was no +longer in doubt, returned to the consideration of foreign affairs. The +submarine outbreak showed an undoubted disposition on Germany's part +to violate her pledge, and if the Administration was satisfied that +she had done so, its expressed attitude was that no more protests +would be sent. The American answer to Germany's defiance could only be +the dismissal of Count von Bernstorff from Washington and the recall +of Ambassador Gerard from Berlin. + +The outstanding cases on which the United States called for an +adequate defense from Germany were: + +The _Rowanmore_, British freighter, bound from Baltimore to Liverpool, +sunk off Cape Clear on October 25, 1916. Two Americans and five +Filipinos were on board. No lives were lost. + +The _Marina_, a British horse carrier, bound from Glasgow to Newport +News, sunk without warning off the southwest coast of Ireland on +October 29, 1916. She carried a mixed crew of British and Americans. +Six Americans lost their lives. + +The _Arabia_, a Peninsular and Oriental passenger liner, sunk in the +Mediterranean without warning on November 6, 1916. One American was on +board. No lives were lost. + +The _Columbian_, an American steamer, sunk off the Spanish coast on +November 8, 1916, after being held up for two days under surveillance +by the submarine during a storm. + +Germany charged that the _Rowanmore_ attempted to escape on being +ordered to stop. Her steering gear was shot away after an hour's +chase, when the captain hove to and lifeboats were lowered. The crew +complained that the submarine shelled the boats after they had cleared +the ship. This the commander denied. The flight of the _Rowanmore_ +appeared to deprive her of the consideration due to an unresisting +vessel under cruiser warfare. + +The _Marina_ carried a defensive gun, as did the _Arabia_. This fact +alone, Germany contended, entitled her submarines to sink both vessels +without warning, in addition to the commander's belief in each case +that the vessel was a transport in the service of the British +admiralty. The American Government was satisfied that neither vessel +was engaged in transport service on the voyage in question. In the +_Arabia's_ case, 450 passengers were on board, including women and +children, who were only saved because the Administration had already +held that the gun's presence on a vessel did not deprive her of the +right to proper warning before being sunk. Germany admitted liability +for sinking the _Columbian_ and agreed to pay for the value of the +vessel and the contraband cargo she carried. + +The _Marina_ case stood out, in the view of the State Department, as a +"clear-cut" violation of Germany's pledges to the United States. Her +gun was not used, and no opportunity was afforded for using it. The +"presumption" on the part of a German submarine commander that a +vessel was a transport was a favorite defense of Germany's and +disregarded the American ruling on armed merchantmen, which held that +"the determination of warlike character must rest in no case upon +presumption, but upon conclusive evidence." + +Berlin was looking for trouble. A period of complications in +American-German relations was frankly predicted. The Administration +was plainly concerned by the situation; but no decision to take action +was forthcoming. Its hesitation appeared to be due to the apparent +need for a further note to dispose of new interpretations Germany had +ingeniously woven in her various excuses by way of evading the letter +and spirit of the _Sussex_ agreement. One view of her submarine +"rights" which Germany insisted on upholding was that armed +merchantmen were not legally immune from attack on sight. + +Herr Zimmermann, the German Undersecretary of Foreign Affairs, defined +anew his Government's attitude: + +"As the armament of several British ships has been used for attack, +and has therefore endangered the lives of crew and passengers, of +course armed ships cannot be considered as peaceful trade boats." + +The cases of the _Marina_ and _Arabia_ put the German pledges to a +test. Neither vessel attempted to escape nor offered resistance, +though armed with a solitary gun. The issue therefore resolved itself +into these considerations: + +First. Since the German submarine commanders have pleaded extenuating +circumstances on which they based their presumption that the _Marina_ +and _Arabia_, were transports, and not passenger vessels, were these +circumstances sufficient to have justified the commanders in mistaking +the two steamers for transports? + +Second. If there were such extenuating circumstances, were they such +as to warrant the commanders in departing from the general rule laid +down by the American Government in the _Sussex_ note, calling forth +the pledges given by Germany in May, 1916, in which it was guaranteed +that "in accordance with the general principles of visit and search +and destruction of merchant vessels recognized by international law, +such vessels, both within and without the area declared as naval war +zone, shall not be sunk without warning and without saving human +lives, unless these ships attempt to escape or offer resistance?" + +Whatever intimation was made to Germany by the United States did not +become public. By December, 1916, the whole question appeared to have +been suddenly shelved by the peace proposals Germany hurled at the +Allies in loud tones of victory, coupled with an invitation to the +United States to interpose as a mediator. Peace, of course, would +dispose of further friction with the United States. While the +proposals were pending, moreover, American action on German violations +of her submarine agreement was suspended. What was the use of a +diplomatic rupture with Germany on the eve of peace? But Germany knew +that her official "peace kite" was making an abortive flight. Peace +she really did not expect, knowing it was not within reach; but she +was anxious to preserve friendly relations with the United States, +although daily flouting it in her conduct of the submarine war. Her +peace move was therefore shown to have had a double edge. It +postponed, but did not avert, a final crisis with the United States, +and that, indeed, might well have been its initial aim in view of the +foredoomed futility of its ostensible object. Certainly President +Wilson espoused the peace proposal for the same reason; but, as shown +in the following chapter, the efforts of both were in vain. The real +climax was to come after all. + + + + +CHAPTER LIII + +RUPTURE WITH GERMANY + + +The movement for peace was at its crest, and President Wilson was +apparently sanguine that his efforts in furthering it were on the eve +of bearing fruit, when Great Britain planned to extend her blockade of +the German coast in the North Sea. She enlarged the dangerous area +which hitherto only barred the entry of German naval forces south into +the Straits of Dover and the English Channel by cutting off the German +North Sea coast altogether, in order to prevent the egress and ingress +of German sea raiders by the northward route and to curtail the +chances of the kaiser's warships making successful forays on the +English coast. The significance of this action was not seen until it +became known that Great Britain had discovered that Germany, while +seemingly occupied with peace, was preparing a warning to neutrals of +her intention to establish a deep-sea blockade of the entire British +and French coasts. By extending the mined area round the German coast +Great Britain sought to counteract and anticipate the new German +project, the aim of which was to starve the British Isles by a bitter +and unrestrained submarine war on all ships. The British warning of +the extended dangerous area came on January 27, 1917. Germany +announced her new policy four days later, proclaiming that it was in +retaliation of Great Britain's latest attempt to tighten her strangle +hold on German food supplies. But there was overwhelming evidence--the +German Chancellor himself provided it--that the German plan had been +matured long in advance of Great Britain's course, and that the peace +overtures had really been made by Germany in order that their certain +rejection could be seized upon as a justification for the ruthless +sea warfare projected. + +The Wilson Administration, round whose horizon mirages of peace still +appeared to linger, was not prepared for the blow when it came. The +President could scarcely credit the news brought by a note from +Germany on January 31, 1917, that she had withdrawn her pledges to the +United States not to sink ships without warning. But the situation had +to be faced that a crisis confronted the country in its relations with +the German Empire. + +Germany found occasion in her note of renunciation to link its purport +with that of the President's address delivered to the Senate nine days +previously. (See Part VI, Chapter LVIII, "Peace Without Victory.") In +its exalted sentiments she gave a perfunctory and manifestly insincere +acquiescence by way of prefacing familiar reproaches to the Allies for +refusing to accept her peace overtures. In rejecting them, she said, +the Allies had disclosed their real aims, which were to "dismember and +dishonor Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria." + +Germany was poignantly grieved by the continuance of the war, not +solely because of fear of this supposititious dismemberment, but +because "British tyranny mercilessly increases the sufferings of the +world, indifferent to the laws of humanity, indifferent to the +protests of the neutrals whom they severely harm, indifferent even to +the silent longing for peace among England's own allies. Each day of +the terrible struggle causes new destruction, new sufferings. Each day +shortening the war will, on both sides, preserve the lives of +thousands of brave soldiers and be a benefit to mankind." + +Anything to end the war, was Germany's slogan. Because of the +sufferings of the German people "a new situation" had been created +which forced her to "new decisions." Because of the sufferings of +other nations, and the Entente Powers' refusal to make peace at her +bidding, she thus announced her resolve: "... The Imperial Government, +in order to serve the welfare of mankind in a higher sense and not to +wrong its own people, is now compelled to continue the fight for +existence, again forced upon it, _with the full employment of all the +weapons which are at its disposal_." + +The Imperial Government furthermore hoped that the United States +would "view the new situation from the lofty heights of impartiality, +and assist on their part to prevent further misery and unavoidable +sacrifice of human life." + +[Illustration: New German Submarine War Zone of February 1, 1917.] + +The "new situation" as presented to the United States was that within +a barred zone Germany had drawn round the British and French coasts, +extending from the Shetlands as far south as Cape Finisterre, and to +the west some 700 miles into the Atlantic, and also in the +Mediterranean, all sea traffic would be stopped on and after February +1, 1917, and that neutral vessels navigating the proscribed waters +would do so at their own risk. The only exception made was a "safety +lane" permitted for one American vessel a week with identifiable +markings to sail to and from Falmouth through the Atlantic zone (the +United States Government to guarantee that it did not carry +contraband) and another safety lane admitting sea traffic through the +Mediterranean to Athens. All other vessels would be sunk without +regard to the pledges Germany made to the United States. Germany thus +practically shut off American traffic with Europe in pursuance of her +new sea warfare against her enemies. + +The edict was extended to hospital ships on the charge that the Allies +used them for the transportation of munitions and troops. The charge +was denied by the British and French Governments; but frightfulness +admitted of no truth nor acceptance of denials of German charges, +obviously made deliberately to justify barbarities, and so hospital +ships, with their medical and nursing staffs and wounded, were to be +sunk whenever found by submarines. + +The real attitude of Germany toward her withdrawn pledges to the +United States was betrayed by the German Chancellor in addressing the +Reichstag Committee on Ways and Means. He revealed that the pledges +were merely a temporary expedient, made to fill up a gap until more +submarines were available. It appeared that in March, May (when +Germany surrendered to the American demands), and in September, 1916, +the question of unrestricted warfare was not considered ripe for +decision--that is, Germany was not ready to defy the United States. +Dr. von Bethmann-Hollweg thus defined the situation: + +"I have always proceeded from the standpoint of whether U-boat war +would bring us nearer victorious peace or not. Every means, I said in +March, that was calculated to shorten the war constitutes the most +humane policy to follow. When the most ruthless methods are considered +best calculated to lead us to victory, and swift victory, I said then +they must be employed. This moment has now arrived.... The moment has +come when, with the greatest prospect of success, we can undertake the +enterprise." + +What changes, he asked, had come into the situation? A firm basis for +success had been established by a considerable increase in submarines; +poor harvests confronted England, France, and Italy, who would find +their difficulties unbearable by an unrestricted submarine war; France +and Italy also lacked coal, and the submarines would increase its +dearth; England lacked ore and timber, her supplies of which would be +diminished by the same means; and all the Entente Powers were +suffering from a shrinkage in cargo space due to the submarines. With +the bright prospect of success afforded by the supposed plight of the +Allied Powers, Germany, he indicated, was prepared to accept all the +consequences that would flow from the unrestricted submarine warfare +decided upon. + +So was President Wilson. The German Chancellor made it clear that +after Germany gave her solemn pledge on May 4, 1916, not to sink ships +without warning, she had occupied the intervening months in feverish +preparations to break it and to tear up the pledge like a scrap of +paper and throw it to the winds. On the Chancellor's own words Germany +had been convicted of a breach of faith. + +The President considered the crisis for three days. There was no +question of the United States tolerating Germany's disavowal of her +unlawful blockade of American trade with the belligerent countries. +The only questions to be decided were whether to warn Germany that a +rupture would follow her first act hurtful to American life or +property; to demand the withdrawal of her decree by an ultimatum; to +wait until she committed some "overt act" before taking action; or +whether to cease diplomatic relations without any parley at all. + +The last-named course was determined upon. On February 3, 1917, +President Wilson addressed the two Houses of Congress in joint +session, informing them that the United States had severed its +relations with Germany. The President reviewed the circumstances which +led to the giving of the German undertaking to the United States +following the sinking of the _Sussex_ on March 24, 1916, without +warning. He reminded Congress that on the April 18 following the +Administration informed the German Government that unless it "should +now immediately declare and effect an abandonment of its present +methods of submarine warfare against passenger and freight-carrying +vessels, the Government of the United States can have no choice but to +sever diplomatic relations with the German Empire altogether." The +German Government consented to do so with reservations. These the +United States brushed aside, and committed Germany to the plain pledge +that no ships should be sunk without warning unless they attempted to +escape or offered resistance. In view of Germany's new declaration +deliberately withdrawing her solemn assurance without prior +intimation, the President told Congress that the Government had no +alternative consistent with the dignity and honor of the United States +but to hand Count von Bernstorff, the German Ambassador, his +passports, and to recall Ambassador Gerard from Berlin. But the +President refused to believe that the German authorities intended to +carry out the decree. + +"I cannot bring myself to believe," he said, "that they will indeed +pay no regard to the ancient friendship between their people and our +own or to the solemn obligations which have been exchanged between +them and destroy American ships and take the lives of American +citizens in the willful prosecution of the ruthless naval program they +have announced their intention to adopt. Only actual overt acts on +their part can make me believe it even now." + +But in the event of such overt acts the duty of the United States was +clear: + +"If this inveterate confidence on my part in the sobriety and prudent +foresight of their purpose should unhappily prove unfounded, if +American ships and American lives should in fact be sacrificed by +their naval commanders in a heedless contravention of the just and +reasonable understanding of international law and the obvious dictates +of humanity, I shall take the liberty of coming again before the +Congress to ask that authority be given me to use any means that may +be necessary for the protection of our seamen and our people in the +prosecution of their peaceful and legitimate errands on the high seas. +I can do nothing less. I take it for granted that all neutral +governments will take the same course." + +Should Germany compel the United States to declare war, the President +repudiated that any aggressive attitude would dictate such a course: + +"We do not desire any hostile conflict with the Imperial German +Government. We are the sincere friends of the German people, and +earnestly desire to remain at peace with the Government which speaks +for them. We shall not believe that they are hostile to us unless and +until we are obliged to believe it, and we purpose nothing more than +the reasonable defense of the undoubted rights of our people. We wish +to serve no selfish ends. We seek merely to stand true alike in +thought and in action to the immemorial principles of our people which +I have sought to express in my address to the Senate only two weeks +ago--seek merely to vindicate our right to liberty and justice and an +unmolested life. These are the bases of peace, not war. God grant that +we may not be challenged to defend them by acts of willful injustice +on the part of the Government of Germany!" + +War was apparently inevitable. Submarine warfare on Atlantic shipping +made certain some "overt act" offensive to the United States. The +German attitude was that the new decree would be remorselessly acted +upon; it could not and would not be modified; it was absolute and +final; and the only security for American shipping was to avoid the +prohibited zone by abandoning its trade with Europe. + +Germany frankly discounted the effect of the entrance of the United +States, as a belligerent opposed to her. Measuring her estimated gains +from the pursuit of an unbridled sea war, she decided that they would +more than outweigh the disadvantage of American hostility. + + + + +CHAPTER LIV + +NOTHING SETTLED + + +With the Allied Powers the American Government's relations continued +to be friendly under certain diplomatic difficulties, due to a group +of unadjusted issues relating to the blockade of German ports, mail +seizures, and the blacklist. Popularly, overwhelming pro-Ally +sympathies and an enormous trade due directly to the war more than +offset commercial irritation arising from Allied infractions of +American rights; but while they continued they intruded as obstacles +to the preservation of official amity. If the Administration was +content to enter its protests and then let matters rest, its inaction +merely meant that the Allies' sins were magnanimously tolerated, not +condoned. The Allies, on the other hand, maintained that they were not +sinning at all, that they were only doing what the United States +itself had done when engaged in war and would do again if it ever +became a belligerent. Diplomacy failed to reconcile the differences, +and so nothing was settled. + +Great Britain, as the chief offender in trampling roughshod over +American privileges of trade in war time, added to her manifold +transgressions, in August, 1916, by placing further curbs on neutral +trade with the Netherland Overseas Trust. Under a scheme to ration the +neutral countries of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Holland--that is, +restricting their imports to their estimated domestic needs--further +licenses granted to British exporters to trade with these countries +were discontinued. Here was a check on British exports for fear of the +surplus reaching Germany through neutral channels. A check on +American exports followed by Great Britain forbidding the Overseas +Trust to accept further consignments of certain commodities from the +United States for Holland, and by her refusal to grant letters of +assurance safeguarding the delivery of American shipments destined for +the three other countries. By these devices Great Britain controlled +supplies to these countries at the source. The effect was that certain +American consignments predestined for Holland were stopped altogether, +while the shipping companies trading between the United States and +Scandinavia could not take cargoes without British assurances of safe +discharge at their ports of destination. The British official view was +that excessive exports from Great Britain to these countries could not +very well be forbidden while permitting them from the United States +and other neutral sources. The veto had to be general to be effective. + +One measure passed by Congress, providing for the creation of a +Shipping Board, empowered the Secretary of the Treasury to forbid +clearance to any vessel whose owner or agents refused to accept +consignments offered for transport abroad by an American citizen for +reasons other than lack of space or inadaptability of the vessel to +carry the cargo offered. Another measure, the Omnibus Revenue Law, +made similar provisions in a more drastic form, aiming specifically at +retaliation for the Allies' blacklist of German-American firms, and +the various blockades and embargoes in operation against American +products. It provided that the owners or agents of vessels affiliated +with a belligerent engaged in a war to which the United States was not +a party must neither discriminate in favor of nor against any citizen, +product, or locality of the United States in accepting or refusing +consignments on pain of clearance being refused. + +The same penalty attached to vessels of any belligerent which denied +to American ships and citizens the same privileges of commerce which +the offending belligerent accorded to its own vessels or to those of +any other nationality. An alternative penalty, to be exercised by the +President in his discretion, denied to such offending belligerents' +ships and citizens the privileges of commerce with the United States +until reciprocal liberty of trade was restored. A third provision +aimed at penalizing a belligerent who prohibited the importation at +its ports of any American product, not injurious to health or morals, +by barring importation into the United States from the offending +country similar or other articles. + +The prevailing view was that the exercise of such reprisals by the +President would virtually mean nonintercourse in trade and involve +serious international complications. An isolated English impression, +only of moment because it placed the aspects of the legislation in a +nutshell, recognized that while it might be merely a "flourish" having +a special virtue on the eve of a presidential election, the reprisals +were aimed at the Allies, primarily against Great Britain, and were +popular in the United States as a commercial club that could be +wielded instead of having recourse to the threats that brought Germany +to respect American demands. But the British official attitude as +taken by Lord Robert Cecil was unmoved. "It is not likely," he said, +"that Great Britain will change her blacklist policy at the request of +the United States. The idea that Great Britain is adopting a +deliberate policy with which to injure American trade is the purest +moonshine, since outside of our own dominions our trade with the +United States is the most important. Of course, natural trade rivalry +exists, but no responsible statesman in this country would dream of +proposing an insane measure designed to injure American commerce." + +The blacklist was the last straw which provoked the retaliatory +legislation. But, alone of the seemingly unadjustable disputes pending +between the United States and Great Britain, it was on the blacklist +issue that the latter had an unanswerable defense. The British stand +left official Washington's complaint bereft of foundation under +international law. The only ground on which the American protest could +be justified was by contending that the blacklist violated +international comity. In other words, if it was not illegal--there was +no doubt of its legality--it was an incivility. + +There had been the usual diplomatic exchange between the two +governments on the subject prefacing a lengthy communication sent by +Lord Grey--the new title of the British Foreign Secretary upon his +promotion to the peerage--on October 10, 1916. Therein he repeated +that the blacklist was promulgated in pursuance of the Trading with +the Enemy Act (a war measure explained in a previous volume), and was +a piece of purely municipal legislation. Moreover, the American +Government was assured, "the Government of Great Britain neither +purport nor claim to impose any disabilities or penalties upon neutral +individuals or upon neutral commerce. The measure is simply one which +enjoins those who owe allegiance to Great Britain to cease having +trade relations with persons who are found to be assisting or +rendering service to the enemy." + +Nor were the steps taken confined to the United States: + +"With the full consent of the Allied Governments, firms even in Allied +countries are being placed on the statutory list, if they are firms +with whom it is necessary to prevent British subjects from trading. +These considerations may, perhaps, serve to convince the Government of +the United States that the measures now being taken are not directed +against neutral trade in general. Still less are they directed against +American trade in particular; they are part of the general belligerent +operations designed to weaken the enemy's resources." + +The burden of the note was that Great Britain maintained the right, +which in the existing crisis she also deemed a duty, to withhold +British facilities from those who conducted their trade for the +benefit of her foes. This right Lord Grey characterized as so obvious +that he could not believe the United States Government seriously +contested the inherent privilege of a sovereign state to exercise it +except under a misconception of the scope and intent of the measures +taken. It would appear that the American Government gracefully +surrendered, by default, its earlier contention that Great Britain had +no right to forbid her subjects from trading with American firms +having Teutonic affiliations. + +The American objections to detentions and censorship of mails by the +Allied Powers, which were bent on preventing German sympathizers from +using the postal service to neutral countries as a channel for +transmitting money, correspondence, and goods for the Central Powers, +brought a further communication from Lord Grey on October 12, 1916. It +threw no new light on the subject, the bearings of which were dealt +with in a previous volume. The American contentions, so far from being +conceded, were themselves attacked in an argument intended to refute +them. The Allied governments were only prepared to give assurances +that they would continue to lessen the annoyances caused by the +practice and were "ready to settle responsibility therefor in +accordance with the principles of law and justice, which it never was +and is not now their intention to evade." + +Lord Grey thus defined the Allied position: + +"The practice of the Germans to make improper use of neutral mails and +forward hostile correspondence, even official communications, dealing +with hostilities, under cover of apparently unoffensive envelopes, +mailed by neutrals to neutrals, made it necessary to examine mails +from or to countries neighboring Germany under the same conditions as +mails from or to Germany itself; but as a matter of course mails from +neutrals to neutrals that do not cover such improper uses have nothing +to fear." + +Germany's treatment of mails, Lord Grey pointed out, went much further +than mere interception: + +"As regards the proceedings of the German Empire toward postal +correspondence during the present war, the Allied governments have +informed the Government of the United States of the names of some of +the mail steamers whose mail bags have been not examined, to be sure, +but purely and simply destroyed at sea by the German naval +authorities. Other names could very easily be added. The very recent +case of the mail steamer _Hudikswall_ (Swedish), carrying 670 mail +bags, may be cited." + +The discussion was as profitless as that arising from the blacklist. +As to the blockade issue, involving interference with American +commerce on the high seas, both sides appeared to epistolarily bolt, +and the question remained in suspended animation. The blacklist and +mail disputes acquired a similar status. + + + + +PART VII--WESTERN FRONT + + + + +CHAPTER LV + +THE GERMAN RETREAT ON THE ANCRE + + +In January, 1917, the British forces in France captured 1,228 Germans, +of whom twenty-seven were officers. The first month of the new year +passed unmarked by any striking gains for either side. The Allies had +maintained and strengthened their old positions, made slight advances +at some points, and continued to harass and destroy the enemy in +trench raids, artillery duels, and in battles in the air. + +Some record of the principal minor operations in France and Belgium at +this time is necessary, as every offensive movement had a set purpose +and was a part of the Germans' or Allies' plans. + +On February 1, 1917, in the neighborhood of Wytschaete, parties of +Germans dressed in white attempted two surprise assaults on British +trenches, but were rolled back with severe losses before they could +get within striking distance. In these encounters the British took +prisoners without losing a man or incurring the slightest casualty. + +On the same date the French were engaged in lively artillery actions +at Hartmannsweilerkopf and east of Metzeral. Around Altkirch and to +the east of Rheims they were successful in spirited encounters with +enemy patrols. In Lorraine during the night the Germans attacked +trenches south of Leintrey, but were shattered by French fire. In the +sector of St. Georges in Belgium a surprise attack also failed. + +On the British front in the course of the same night a dashing raid +was carried out against German trenches northeast of Guedecourt (Somme +sector) in which two officers and fifty-six men were taken prisoners. + +The British carried out another successful operation on February 3, +1917, north of the Ancre, pushing forward their line east of Beaucourt +some 500 yards on a front of about three-quarters of a mile. Over a +hundred prisoners and three machine guns were captured. On the same +night southeast of Souchez German trenches were penetrated and +twenty-one prisoners and some guns were taken. Several dugouts +containing Germans were bombed and an enemy shaft was destroyed. + +While the British continued to make slight gains and to harass the +enemy, the French were engaged in minor operations no less successful. +A surprise attack in the region of Moulin-sous-Toutvent resulted in +the capture of a dozen prisoners. A similar operation in the region of +Tracy-le-Val between the Oise and the Aisne was also a victory for +French arms. The Germans fought with determination, but were unable to +make any headway against the indomitable French spirit. The number of +casualties incurred by the Germans was not known, but the French took +twenty-two prisoners. + +During February 4, 1917, the Germans displayed intense activity, as if +determined to retrieve their frequent failures since the month opened. + +Three hostile raids were attempted by strong German forces during the +night and early morning of February 4-5, 1917, on the British lines on +the Somme front. The Germans in each attack were thrown back in +disorder, leaving a number of prisoners in British hands. + +Northeast of Guedecourt during the night of the 4th the British +occupied 500 yards of a German trench, capturing a machine gun and +seventy prisoners, including two officers. + +In the space of twenty-four hours (February 4-5, 1917) the Germans +made four successful counterattacks against the new British front east +of Beaucourt. The British continued the work of consolidating their +new positions undisturbed by the frantic efforts of the Germans to +oust them, and in raids and counterattacks captured forty prisoners, +including one officer. + +British airmen registered a number of victories during February 4, +1917. Three German machines were destroyed and six others driven to +earth seriously damaged. Only one British machine was counted missing. + +During the evening on this date the French south of the Somme defeated +a German raid near Barleux, inflicting heavy casualties and taking +some prisoners. Incursions into German lines in Alsace and the +Chambrette and Pont-a-Mousson sectors were carried out with +satisfactory results. They captured a considerable amount of war +material and brought back one officer and a number of prisoners. + +The British on the Somme front were now determined to push on to the +capture of Grandcourt. On February 6, 1917, they occupied 1,000 yards +of German trench in the neighborhood of that place. Artillery activity +on both sides of the Somme front and in the Ypres sector continued +during the day and night. The British brought down ten German machines +in aerial battles and lost two of their own flyers. + +On February 5-6, 1917, the French continued to raid German lines with +good results. In Alsace near Anspach they penetrated three German +positions, wrecking enemy works and bombing shelters and returned to +their own lines without losing a man. + +The continuous pressure which the British brought to bear on both +sides of the Ancre River forced the Germans to evacuate Grandcourt on +February 6, 1917. The capture of the village was regarded as +important, marking a notable advance for the British on the forts of +Miraumont and Grandcourt, which covered Bapaume from the west. + +In Lorraine on this date the Germans succeeded in piercing a salient +in the French lines, but were driven out by a spirited counterattack. +Three German planes were brought down during the night, Lieutenant +Huerteaux scoring his twentieth victory. + +[Illustration: The Entire Western Front, August 1, 1917.] + +The British followed up their success in capturing Grandcourt by +advances on both sides of the Ancre. On the morning of February 8, +1917, they drove the Germans out of a position of importance on the +highest point of Sailly-Saillisel hill, gaining all their objectives +and capturing seventy-eight prisoners, of whom two were officers. In +the operations along the Ancre a German officer and eighty-two men +were made prisoner. + +South of Dixmude a strong German raiding party attempted to attack a +Belgian outpost. They were received by such a hurricane of infantry +and machine-gun fire that the field was strewn with dead, and few of +the raiders succeeded in making their escape. + +During February 9-10, 1917, the French and British continued to +register minor successes in daring raids, bombarding enemy positions +and capturing in one way or another several hundred prisoners. + +An advance worthy of special note was made by British troops in the +night of February 10, 1917, when they captured a strong system of +German trenches on a front of more than three-quarters of a mile in +the Somme line. This was on the southern front just north of Serre +Hill. The German prisoners taken during this operation numbered 215, +including some officers. + +On the same date French raiders penetrated German trenches in the +Forest of Apremont, destroying defenses and capturing prisoners. In +the neighborhood of Verdun a German plane was shot down, and in other +sectors French aviators during fiercely fought combats in the air +brought down in flames two other machines. + +North of the Ancre the British continued to make progress, occupying +without difficulty a German trench some 600 yards long and taking a +good number of prisoners. The Germans tried to force the British out +of their recently won positions south of Serre Hill, but, caught in +artillery barrage and machine-gun fire, were driven off with serious +losses. On this date also the French carried out successful raids +during the night on the Verdun front in the neighborhood of the +famous Hill 304, and another in the Argonne which resulted in the +destruction of enemy works and the capture of a number of prisoners. + +The small gains made by the French and British during the first weeks +of February, 1917, were not especially important in themselves, but +each slight advance brought the Allies nearer to important German +positions. The daily trench raids served to harass and bewilder the +common enemy, and while the number of prisoners taken were few in each +instance, in the aggregate the number was impressive. The British and +French were not disposed to squander lives recklessly in these minor +exploits, and it was only when they were within striking distance of +an important objective that they operated with strong forces and the +most powerful guns at their command. + +The Canadians, who always displayed a special liking for trench raids, +and were uncommonly successful in such operations, engaged in one on +the morning of February 13, 1917, which merits description in some +detail. The attack was made on a 600-yard front between Souchez and +Givenchy. The Germans under the shell storm that shattered their +trenches had retreated to the depths of their dugouts, and while it +lasted few ventured forth to oppose the raiders. The British +bombardment had been so effective that the German machine-gun +emplacements must have been destroyed or were buried under debris, for +only a few guns spoke out as the Canadians "went over." The Germans in +the dugouts could not be coaxed out. Explosives thrown into their +hiding places must have produced appalling consequences. The sturdy +Canadians did not relish this kind of work, but there was no +alternative. For an hour they searched the mine shafts and galleries +around Givenchy and destroyed them. Some Germans in the depths were +killed before they could explode certain mines they had prepared under +British positions. About fifty prisoners of the Eleventh Bavarian +Regiment were captured who had fought in Russia, at Verdun, and on the +Somme. + +Five hours later the same Canadian troops, unwearied by this strenuous +experience, were carrying out another raid farther south, where they +obtained good results. + +On this date, February 14, 1917, the steady pressure maintained by +the British forced the Germans to abandon advanced positions between +Serre and the Somme and to fall back on their main fighting position. + +[Illustration: One of the strange armoured automobiles or "tanks" with +which the British surprised the Germans in September, 1916. Their +caterpillar trucks and peculiar form make it possible for them to +advance easily over obstructions and trenches.] + +On the following day, February 15, 1917, the troops of the German +Crown Prince achieved a success of some importance. After intense +artillery fire they stormed four French lines south of Ripont in the +Champagne, on a front of about a mile and a half, gaining ground to a +depth of half a mile. They captured twenty-one officers and 837 men of +other ranks, and a considerable quantity of war material. On the same +date the British carried out a successful raid southeast of Souchez, +penetrating enemy positions and taking prisoners. In air combats in +different sectors British airmen disposed of nine German machines and +lost four of their own. + +The British made important gains on both banks of the Ancre when in +the morning of February 17, 1917, they attacked German positions +opposite the villages of Miraumont and Petit Miraumont on a front of +about two miles. North of the river a commanding German position on +high ground north of Baillescourt Farm was carried on a front of about +1,000 yards. In these operations along the Ancre the British captured +761 prisoners, including twelve officers. + +During the preliminary bombardment of the German positions a British +artillery sergeant slipped out of the trenches with a telephone, and, +establishing himself in a shell hole in a forward position, directed +the gunfire which shattered the German barbed-wire defenses. + +The Germans made a courageous attempt to oust the British from their +newly won positions on the spur above Baillescourt Farm in the morning +of February 18, 1917. Their infantry, advancing in three waves with +bodies of supporting troops in the rear, were swept by the +concentrated fire of the British artillery. The storm of fire +shattered the attack and the German forces were rolled back in +confusion. At no point were they able to reach the British lines. + +During the night the British carried out four successful raids on +German positions southwest and northwest of Arras, south of +Fauquissart and north of Ypres, during which nineteen prisoners were +taken and great damage was wrought to hostile defenses. + +The British continued their successful minor operations during the +succeeding days. On February 20, 1917, New Zealand troops penetrated +German lines south of Armentieres to a depth of 300 yards, where they +wrecked dugouts and trench works. The intense preliminary bombardment +which preceded the raid had proved so destructive that the New +Zealanders found the German support lines filled with dead. The raid +resulted in the capture of forty-four prisoners. In an attack +southeast of Ypres the British, advancing on a front of 500 yards, +reached the German support line after desperate fighting. They +destroyed dugouts and mine shafts and took 114 prisoners, including an +officer and a number of machine guns. + +The steady pressure of the British on the German positions along the +Ancre since the beginning of the month brought results that surpassed +Field Marshal Haig's most sanguine expectations. The Germans were +forced to abandon their front on the Ancre, escaping to a new line of +defenses along the Bapaume ridge. Their retreat covered about three +miles and the British were able to occupy a number of German +strongholds which they expected to win by hard fighting. Serre, the +two Miraumonts, and Pys were occupied without a struggle. The Germans +succeeded in saving their guns during the retirement, but were forced +to destroy ammunition dumps and military stores. In the night of +February 24, 1917, British troops, advancing south of Irles and toward +Warlencourt, occupied the famous butte which had been the scene of +intense fighting in the previous month. + +The foggy, misty weather which prevailed at the time in this region +had greatly facilitated the German retreat, as the keen eyes of the +British airmen were unable to study their movements. It was surmised +that some important operation was under way owing to the reckless +expenditure of shells which had been going on for some days. The +Germans were shooting up stores of ammunition which they found +impossible to take with them in their retreat. + +During February 25-26, 1917, the British continued to harass the +retiring Germans, pressing forward over the newly yielded ground and +forcing back the rear guards of the enemy. In these actions the +Germans depended chiefly on their heavy guns mounted on railway +trucks, which in case of necessity could be rushed away at the last +moment. + +Early in the morning of February 26, 1917, heavy explosions were heard +in the direction of Bapaume, where the Germans were engaged in +destructive work to prevent the British entry. Along their lines of +retreat large trees had been felled across the roads, forming lofty +barriers, on the other side of which great mine craters had been +opened up. + +Despite desperate rear-guard actions, and the strenuous efforts made +by the Germans to hinder the advance, the British continued to press +forward. The village of Ligny about a mile and a half west of Bapaume +was occupied, as well as the village of Le Barque. North of the Ancre +the western and northern defenses of Puisieux were wrested from the +Germans. + +On February 27, 1917, the British pushed forward all along the +eleven-mile line stretching from south of Gommecourt to west of Le +Transloy. The British objective at this time was a crest overlooking +the high ground running between Achiet-le-Petit and Bapaume. At every +stage of the British advance fresh evidences were found of the German +destructive methods before retiring. The carefully built dugouts which +they had so long occupied had been reduced by explosives to heaps of +rubbish. + +The Germans had left certain bodies of men behind with machine guns to +hinder the British pursuit. As they had carefully chosen their +positions they were enabled to work considerable damage. The British +had encounters with some of these outposts on the 27th in the +neighborhood of Box and Rossignol Woods. The Germans, having found +that their machine-gun fire did not restrain the advance, tried a +shrapnel barrage which proved more effective, but only delayed the +pursuers for a short time. + +The British troops were so elated over the fact that the Germans were +retreating that they made light of the ingenious obstacles thrown in +their way. The great advance continued, the British occupying +Rossignol Wood, Rossignol Trench, and considerable ground to the +northeast of Puisieux. The latter place was partly occupied by Germans +who fought as if determined that the British should pay a high cost +for possession of the village. The British had worked their way into a +corner of the line, and other parties were engaged in driving out the +defenders, who fought from house to house. + +Southeast of the village the British line was being pushed out above +Miraumont and Beauregard Dovecote. The Germans in the Gommecourt +salient shelled Miraumont and bombarded the neighborhood with high +explosives in reckless fashion as if eager to consume their supplies. + +During the night of February 27, 1917, the German troops abandoned +Gommecourt and the British took possession. Here on July 1, 1916, the +Londoners had fought with desperate valor in assaulting an almost +impregnable position, and in the storm of massed gunfire were +threatened with annihilation. + +To the northeast of Gommecourt the British advanced their line more +than half a mile, and also captured the villages of Thilloy and +Puisieux-le-Mont. A successful raid carried out in the night by the +British in the neighborhood of Clery resulted in the capture of +twenty-two prisoners. + +There was sharp fighting among the ruins of Puisieux, where the +Germans had to be hunted from their hiding places. After this +clearing-out process the British line now ran well beyond Gommecourt +on the left and down to Irles on the right. The Germans concentrated +heavy shell fire on Irles, and showered high explosives on Miraumont +and upon other places on the front from which they had withdrawn. The +British were now less than a mile from Bapaume, in the rear of which +the German guns on railway mountings were firing incessantly on +British positions. + +On March 1, 1917, British headquarters in France, summarizing the +operations during February, stated that the British had captured 2,133 +German prisoners and occupied either by capture or the withdrawal of +the Germans eleven villages. Some of the positions captured were of +the highest importance, to which the Germans had clung as long as they +could with desperate energy, and from which the British had tried +vainly to conquer. The Germans had retired on the Ancre on a front of +twelve miles to a depth of two miles. + +The first stage of the German retirement plan was completed on March +2, 1917, when they made a definite stand, their line now running from +Essarts through Achiet-le-Petit to about 1,000 yards southeast of +Bapaume. The Loupart Wood occupying high ground along this line had +been transformed into a strong field fortress after German methods, +and here it was evident every preparation was made for a stiff +defense. + +The British had an enormous task before them in building roads through +the recovered ground. The Germans had carefully timed their retirement +when the ground was hard, but now owing to a week's thaw most of the +Somme and Ancre area was transformed into liquid mud. In addition to +the difficulties presented by the terrain, the British patrols in the +evacuated territory constantly encountered isolated bodies of German +defensive troops who, obedient to their instructions, fought bravely +to hold the positions they had been assigned to. Everything that +cunning could devise was resorted to to delay the British advance. An +Australian patrol discovered in one place a chain stretched across a +ravine which was connected with a mine at either end. + + + + +CHAPTER LVI + +THE GERMAN RETREAT CONTINUES--FRENCH RECOVER 120 TOWNS + + +The British troops continued to advance in the Ancre area in spite of +the difficult terrain and the desperate defense of the Germans who had +been left behind in the retirement and who occupied positions where +they might work the greatest damage to the pursuers. East of +Gommecourt on March 3, 1917, the British gained two-thirds of a mile +along a two-mile front. They were also successful east of +Bouchavesnes, where they captured the enemy's front and support lines +on a front of two-thirds of a mile. In these operations they captured +190 prisoners and five machine guns. + +On March 4, 1917, the Germans made a violent attack on the Verdun +front which was repulsed by the French. North of Caurieres Wood the +Germans gained a footing in French advanced positions. They were +driven out on the following day in a spirited counterattack, leaving +many of their comrades dead on the field. + +Thaws, fogs, and snows continued to hamper military operations in all +sectors of the fighting area. On March 8, 1917, the French won a +decided victory over the Germans in Champagne. Notwithstanding the +snow, which rendered any military movement difficult, French troops +operating between Butte du Mesnil and Maisons de Champagne carried +German positions on a front of 1,680 yards to a depth varying from 650 +to 865 yards. As the French crossed no-man's-land, preceded by a +complete curtain of fire which raised and dropped mechanically, the +German artillery was everywhere active, but their massed fire could +not check the attackers' steady advance. As the French reached the +first lines of German trenches the occupants offered little +resistance, but came running out with uplifted hands in token of +surrender. At some points, however, the Germans had converted their +positions into regular fortresses, and here there was desperate +fighting with grenade and rifle. The French cleared out these +strongholds and made their way slowly up the slopes toward the +objective. During the fight French aeroplanes circled overhead +watching the movements of the Germans behind the points attacked. Not +a German machine was visible, but some were hidden among the snow +clouds, for the rattle of machine guns, heard at times, denoted their +presence above the battle field. + +On the following day, March 9, 1917, the Germans launched three +violent attacks in this sector in an attempt to force the French out +of their newly won positions. The Germans did not lack bravery, and +pressed forward in the face of a strong barrage and machine-gun fire. +The French guns, however, wrought such destruction in their ranks that +they were finally forced to retire, their number shattered and +depleted. In the two days' fighting in this sector the French took 170 +prisoners, of whom four were officers. + +The British captured Irles in the morning of March 10, 1917. Previous +to the attack their howitzers had deluged the place with shells. The +infantry followed closely, one force advancing from the south and +another turning north, to head off any attempt of the Germans to +retreat. In a sunken ravine the British found a small garrison of old +men with machine guns. Here thirty prisoners were taken and the rest +killed. The British swept on over the German trenches, meeting with +very little opposition. About 150 Germans were taken in this main +attack and quite as many more were gathered in by troops working west +and north. The prisoners were all Prussians, belonging chiefly to the +Second Guards Reserve. The Germans succeeded in withdrawing without +very heavy losses, leaving their rear guard to bear the brunt of the +British attack. The evacuation of Irles, which had become untenable, +had been fixed by the Germans for the 10th at 7.30 a. m., but the +British caught them napping by striking two hours earlier, with the +result that they captured three officers and 289 men. + +In the night of March 10, 1917, the French carried out successful +surprise attacks on the German trenches in the Lassigny and +Canny-sur-Matz regions, and in the neighborhood of the Woevre north of +Jury Wood, destroying defensive works in these operations and taking +fifteen prisoners and some machine guns. + +In the afternoon of March 12, 1917, the French troops operating on the +Champagne front recaptured all the trenches on Hill 185. These lines +lay west of the Maisons de Champagne Farm which the Germans had won +in the previous month. The attack was made over a front of nearly a +mile. During the night of March 11, 1917, French troops had crawled +forward and by the use of grenades prepared the way for the general +assault on the German positions which were carried on the following +day. All the German trenches were taken on the hill and a fortified +work on the slopes north of Memelon. In the course of the action the +French captured about 100 prisoners and a considerable number of +machine guns. + +On March 12, 1917, the British advance was resumed on a front of +nearly four miles to the west of Bapaume. The Germans, retreating, +left only a strong screen of rear guards to oppose, but they avoided +contact with British patrols as far as possible. It was evident that +the Germans were reserving their strength for some important +operation. + +The British, pushing onward, advanced their line north of Ancre Valley +on a front of over one and a half miles southwest and west of Bapaume. +South of Achiet-le-Petit the British made important progress and +occupied 1,000 yards of German trenches west of Essarts. On March 13, +1917, Haig's troops had won the coveted ridge overlooking Bapaume from +the northwest. For the first time since the struggle began on this +front the British had the advantage of the highest ground. Bapaume, +which the Germans had been blasting and piling up with the wreckage of +stores and the trunks of fallen trees, was now within easy striking +distance and the next point to be captured in the British advance. + +Grevillers was occupied by the British during the night, their line +now stretching along the ridge which runs northwest from that point to +the outskirts of Achiet-le-Petit, where the Germans were in +possession. + +In the course of this latest advance Loupart Wood was occupied. It is +situated on the shoulder of a high ridge which overlooks the entire +Somme battle front. The British were highly elated over the capture of +the wood, where for eight months German batteries had rained shells +upon the British positions. It was regarded as one of the strongest +artillery posts which the Germans held on the western front. + +The Germans had made desperate efforts to hold this strong position, +but thirty hours of incessant bombardment by British guns leveled +their defenses and crushed in the dugouts, and they withdrew, a +shattered remnant. + +In the Champagne region the Germans continued their attacks during +March 13-14, 1917, on the French positions on Hill 185. The loss of +the hill a few days before, and of positions around Maisons de +Champagne were regarded as important by the Germans, for they +persisted in their attacks though every attempt made was repulsed with +appalling losses. They were unable to reach the French line at any +point, though concentrating strong artillery fire on the lost +positions and attacking with grenades throughout the night. The French +continued to hold their own despite these desperate onslaughts and +were even able to increase their gains in this sector. + +In the region of St. Mihiel the French by a dashing operation captured +Romainville Farm with its garrison of thirty Germans. At four +different points French detachments penetrated German trenches between +the Meuse and Apremont Forest, pushing as far as the second line of +defenses and bringing back a number of prisoners. + +On March 15, 1917, French forces south of the Somme in the +neighborhood of Roye after an intense shelling of the German lines +penetrated east of Canny-sur-Matz to a depth of about half a mile. +British troops between Peronne and Bapaume made important gains about +this date. Pushing forward on a front of two and a half miles they +occupied German trenches running from the south of St. Pierre Vaast +Wood to the north of the village of Saillisel, a stretch of about +3,000 yards. + +On March 17, 1917, the Germans were forced to abandon the whole line +of about fifteen miles between the Oise and Andechy, owing to the +pressure of French forces. These lines were strongly fortified and had +been occupied by the Germans for about two years. The French continued +their advance movement on the following day. Their advance guard +entered Roye in pursuit of a German contingent that had blown up +streets in the interior of the town. About 800 of the civil population +which the Germans had not had time to remove received their +liberators with a wild enthusiasm that was pathetic to witness. + +North and northeast of Lassigny the French made further gains, +occupying the town and a number of points beyond, and pushing forward +past the road between Roye and Noyon. During the night of March 17, +1917, French air squadrons bombarded German organizations in the +region of Arnaville, and the factories and blast furnaces at +Voelkingen, where a great fire was seen to break out. Stations and +roads in the region of Ham and St. Quentin were also bombarded with +good results, and all the French aeroplanes returned undamaged. + +On March 18, 1917, the Germans were in retreat over a front of +approximately eighty-five miles from south of Arras on the north to +Soissons on the Aisne. They evacuated scores of villages, and the +important towns of Peronne, Chaulnes, Nesle, and Noyon. Evidently the +Germans had been forced to leave somewhat hurriedly, for many of the +places evacuated were only slightly damaged as the result of military +operations. + +British and French troops, keeping in close touch with the German rear +guard during the advance, pushed forward to a depth of from ten to +twelve miles, and their cavalry entered Nesle about the same time. The +occupation of Noyon on the Oise was of special importance, as the +nearest point to Paris held by the Germans. The famous Noyon elbow or +salient, from which it was expected the Germans would launch an attack +on the French capital, now ceased to be a source of anxiety and +apprehension to the French fighting forces in this region. + +Peronne, for which the French had fought desperately for nearly two +years, was entered by the British on March 18, 1917, after a brief +action with the German rear guard. East of the place the Germans had +fired a number of villages as they retreated. Athies, a town of some +importance, was reduced to a smoldering ruin and the smoke of its +burning buildings could be seen for miles. The Germans displayed their +"thoroughness" as they retired by poisoning the wells with arsenic, +and setting high-explosive traps into which they hoped the British +advance guards would blunder. Bridges over all the waterways were +burned and the crossroads carefully mined. + +[Illustration: The German Retreat on the Western Front, March 18, +1917.] + +The capture of Bapaume, that quaint Picardy town which the Germans had +transformed into an almost impregnable stronghold and fortress, was a +special cause for rejoicing by the British troops. It was a prize they +had longed for through many weary months. There was no waving of flags +or beating of drums when the British patrols entered the town, for +there was stiff fighting ahead, and the place was filled with +underground strongholds. Soon the welcome message came over the wire +that all the enemy rear guard had been accounted for, and the British +were free to survey their new acquisition. Fires were smoldering in +many parts and not a house was left intact. Shells had wrought a great +deal of the ruin, but it was evident that many of the buildings had +been dynamited. The statue of General Louis Faldeherbe, who defended +Bapaume against the Germans in 1870, was missing, and had evidently +been carried off by the kaiser's troops. + +The defensive works around Bapaume were of the most elaborate +description, and the highest ingenuity had been employed in making the +place impregnable. In addition to a splendid trench system forming a +network around the place, there were acres of barbed wire stretched +upon iron posts firmly planted in the earth, and intricate systems of +wires spread over the ground to hamper an enemy attack. In addition to +strong redoubts at different points fitted up with every defensive +device, the cellars under the houses had been consolidated in many +places, forming great underground galleries that could shelter +thousands of German troops. + +The British were not permitted to occupy Bapaume in peace, for while +the enemy could no longer be seen, he was heard from constantly and +destructively. All day long and during the night the town was shelled +and great damage was wrought in such sections which the enemy had +registered before leaving. + +The German forces were still retiring, hastened on their way by the +British troops, who were pressing them closely. From captured Germans +it was learned that fresh divisions, including one that had fought in +Rumania, had been thrown in as a screen to shield the retiring troops. + +The Germans had devised so many traps to catch the Allies and delay +the pursuit that the advance was necessarily slow. The French found +less opposition than the British, and were able to push forward more +rapidly, covering twenty-two miles in the three days since the +retirement began. Over 120 towns and villages were recovered by the +French alone. The joy of the inhabitants who had been for thirty-two +months in the hands of the Germans was a deeply moving spectacle. +Every French soldier was embraced amid smiles and tears. Many of the +women declared that they owed their own lives as well as the lives of +their children to American relief in the occupied territory. + +The mayors, assistant mayors, and other officials of Candor and Lagny +had been carried off by the Germans, but owing to the rapidity of +retirement many women and children had been left behind. All over +thirteen were compelled to work without payment. Boys were driven to +dig ditches or small trenches for telephone wires under fire. Those +who refused for religious reasons to work on Sunday were fined. The +Germans had closed all schools during their occupation of the French +towns. The destruction of property was carried out in the most +thorough fashion and according to systematized plans. Captured orders +on the subject directed the blowing up of houses, wells, and cellars +except those held by rear-guard outposts. Farm implements were burned +and destroyed. Orders were given to collect filth in the neighborhood +of wells to contaminate the water. All the fruit trees with rare +exception in the evacuated territory were girdled or otherwise killed. + +The use of cavalry by the French and British seemed to have taken the +Germans by surprise and interfered with their plans. In one village +they were forced to hurriedly depart without touching the supper which +was laid out on the table. In other places the Allies found newly +opened boxes of explosives with which the Germans had planned to +destroy the villages before leaving. + +The famous castle and stone village of Coucy-le-Chateau on the road +from Paris to Namur, and one of the show places of the Laon region, +were reduced to ruins. The village and castle date back to the +thirteenth century and were regarded by art critics as architectural +gems of medieval France. The castle had been spared from destruction +during the French Revolution, and millions had been expended since on +its preservation. This splendid monument of feudal Europe is no more. + +The German retreat was continued more slowly on March 19, 1917, when +all northern France was swept by fierce equinoctial gales, and rain +squalls were frequent in the battle area. Despite weather conditions, +which hampered military operations, the British troops made good +progress, and on the 20th held the line of the Somme in strength from +Peronne southward to Canizy. British patrols were active as far east +as Mons-en-Chaussee, and in several sectors between Bapaume and Arras +British cavalry were engaged in skirmishes with the enemy. + +In the course of the following week the British forces restored eleven +villages to France, and the whole department of the Somme was now +cleared of invaders. The capture of Savy, which was held by a garrison +of 600 Prussians of the Twenty-ninth Siegfried Division, brought the +British within four miles of St. Quentin, and near to the Hindenburg +line, where the Germans were strongly concentrated. St. Quentin had in +part been destroyed and its picture galleries and museums looted of +their contents. The outer bastion of the Hindenburg or Siegfried line +was protected by barricades of tree trunks and swathed about with +barbed wire. The Siegfried division holding the new German line of +defense was busy during the last days of March, 1917, in building +concrete emplacements, trenches, and dugouts. + +On April 1, 1917, the British troops were within three miles of St. +Quentin, while the French threatened the place from the south. + +During the month of March, 1917, the British captured 1,239 Germans, +of whom sixteen were officers, and large quantities of war material, +including twenty-five trench mortars and three field guns. During the +first three months of the year they had taken prisoner a total of +seventy-nine officers and 4,600 of other ranks. + +On April 2, 1917, General Haig's troops drove a wedge into the German +line on the ridge protecting St. Quentin on the west, capturing the +villages of Holnon, Francilly, and Selency. With the occupation of the +last village the British had a footing on the ridge overlooking St. +Quentin, which lies in a hollow. If they could maintain their hold on +this position the capture of St. Quentin was certain. + +At the northern end of the British line of advance their success was +no less important. Attacking on a front of about ten miles they +captured an important series of German positions defending the +Arras-Cambrai highroad. Six villages were occupied by the British +after heavy fighting. A town of some importance, Croisilles, was also +captured during the course of these operations. This was considered a +valuable gain, as a section of the Hindenburg line lies behind it. +Longatte and Ecourt St. Mien, two villages below Croisilles also fell +to the British. The Germans defended themselves with reckless bravery +acting on Hindenburg's orders that the position must be saved at all +costs. + +The French launched a concerted attack on the following day, April 3, +1917, over a front of eight miles on both sides of the Somme, storming +the heights south and southwest of St. Quentin and advancing within +two miles of the city, General Nivelle's forces were now in a position +to begin the final attack on the place. + +Haig's troops on the British front west of St. Quentin had extended +their hold on Holnon Ridge and occupied Ronssoy Wood farther to the +north, while in the region of Arras they captured after stiff fighting +the village of Henin. + +South of the Ailette River the French fought their way forward foot by +foot. On the 3rd they drove the Germans out of their positions around +Laffaux and brought increasing pressure to bear against the enemy's +line south of Laffaux Mill. + +On this date the Germans threw more than 2,000 shells into the open +city of Rheims, killing several of the civilian population. + +General Nivelle's troops continued to advance on April 4, 1917, +through violent snow squalls and over sodden ground, and the Germans +were pushed back along the whole front from the Somme to the Oise. + +A dashing attack carried out near La Folie Farm, about a mile and a +half north of Urvillers, threw the Germans in such disorder that they +fled precipitately, abandoning three lines of strongly fortified +trenches, leaving behind the wounded and much war material, including +howitzers. The French had now gained the foot of a ridge 393 feet high +on the southern outskirts of St. Quentin. By the capture of La Folie +they cut the railroad connecting St. Quentin with the Oise, leaving +only one line on the north by which the Germans could escape from the +doomed city. On the west bank of the Somme French patrols had pressed +forward to the outskirts of St. Quentin. On the British front west of +the city the Germans made a violent attack, but were driven off with +heavy losses. Farther to the north the British succeeded in +straightening their line between the Bapaume and Peronne highway +converging on Cambrai. + +The most important event during April 5, 1917, was a powerful attack +made against the French by picked German troops to the northwest of +Rheims along a mile and a half front. The purpose was to clear the +left bank of the Aisne Canal. They succeeded in gaining a foothold at +certain points in the French first-line trenches, but were thrust out +later by counterattacks. + +The only other important event on this date was the strong +bombardment by the Germans of the new French positions south of St. +Quentin. The British and French troops, despite occasional checks +occasioned by the frantic efforts of the Germans to stay their +victorious progress, continued to steadily advance their lines, which +now extended in a semicircle two miles from St. Quentin. + + + + +CHAPTER LVII + +THE BRITISH TROOPS CAPTURE VIMY RIDGE AND MONCHY--FRENCH VICTORIES ON +THE AISNE + + +The steady pressure maintained by the Allied troops on German +positions culminated on April 9, 1917, when the British launched a +terrific offensive on a twelve-mile front north and south of Arras. +German positions were penetrated to a depth of from two to three +miles, and many fortified points, including the famous Vimy Ridge, +were captured. The line of advance extended from Givenchy, southwest +of Lens, to the village of Henin, southwest of Arras. For a week +British guns had been bombarding this sector without cessation, and +during the night preceding the attack the fire had increased in +intensity to a degree that surpassed any previous bombardments. The +British literally blasted their way through the German front and +rearward positions. Vimy Ridge, dominating the coal fields of Lens, +where thousands of French had fallen in the previous year, was +captured by the Canadians. The terrific bombardment by British guns +during many days had not depressed the Germans' spirit and the advance +was hotly contested. The British, however, were in excellent fighting +trim, and forced their way onward in spite of the fiercest opposition. +They took a famous redoubt known as "The Harp," virtually an entire +battalion defending it. Here three battalion commanders were captured. +Over 6,000 prisoners were taken by the British, including 119 +officers. The majority of these belonged to Bavarian regiments, which +since the fighting began in France had suffered the most heavily. +Wuerttembergers and Hamburgers were also represented. An enormous +quantity of war material fell into British hands, including guns, +trench mortars, and machine guns. + +[Illustration: Taking of Vimy Ridge by the Canadians, April 9 and 10, +1917.] + +In making their retreat in the Somme sector the Germans had announced +that they had completely disarranged by so doing the British offensive +plans. The smashing blow delivered on April 9, 1917, was the answer. + +At other points on the line the British had also made substantial +gains, capturing by storm, on the road to Cambrai, Boursies, +Demicourt, and Hermies. Progress was also made in the Havrincourt Wood +south of the Bapaume-Cambrai railway. To the south, in the +neighborhood of St. Quentin, General Haig's troops captured three +villages, bringing forward their lines to within two miles of the St. +Quentin Canal. + +As a result of the first two days' fighting in the Arras region the +number of German prisoners captured by the British had increased to +over 11,000, including 235 officers, 100 guns of large caliber, 60 +mortars, and 163 machine guns. + +The British troops did not rest to enjoy their first day's victories, +but pushed on along the greater part of the twelve-mile front from +Givenchy to Henin. They penetrated as far as the outskirts of +Monchy-le-Preux, five miles east of Arras. On the way they captured a +high hill which protects Monchy, thus threatening the entire German +line south of the Arras-Cambrai highroad. + +More to the north the British troops took Fampoux and its defenses on +both sides of the Scarpe River. The fiercest fighting on April 10, +1917, was on the northern part of Vimy Ridge, where from isolated +positions to which they still clung, the Germans attempted a +counterattack. They were driven out of these positions and from the +slopes of the ridge which was now strongly held by the British. + +Vimy village was one of the vaunted German field fortresses, and was +strongly defended. Here the Canadians gathered in over 3,000 prisoners +garrisoning the stronghold and 100 officers. The final British +bombardment had sent most of the German defenders into the deepest of +the dugouts from which they did not venture forth until the British +called upon them to surrender. Among the officers captured on the +ridge were seven lieutenant colonels and several doctors, who +surrendered with all their staffs. They blamed their predicament to +the failure of supports to come up as promised. + +The British had carried out their successful onward sweep in the face +of unfavorable weather conditions. During April 10, 1917, when the +last German was being cleared out of the Vimy area, the snow fell +heavily. + +Throughout the day following the weather continued unfavorable, +impeding the operation of troops and making observation impossible. In +the morning the Germans attempted two counter attacks on the new +British positions in the neighborhood of Monchy-le-Preux, but were +beaten off with heavy losses. Prisoners reported that they had been +ordered to hold the village at all costs. + +To the south bodies of British troops penetrated a German position +near Bullecourt, where they gained a number of prisoners and damaged +the enemy's defenses. This small success was forfeited at midday when +the Germans, attacking with strong forces, drove the British back to +their lines. + +The village of Monchy was captured by the British in the morning of +April 12, 1917. Throughout the previous day this tiny village perched +on a hill had been the storm center around which the battle raged. + +The attack was made by British and Scottish troops, who fought for +three hours to clear the Germans out of the railway triangle. Having +dispersed the enemy, they fought on to the Feuchy Redoubt, only to +find that the entire German garrison there had been buried by the +British bombardment so that not a man escaped alive. + +At 5 o'clock in the morning of April 12, 1917, British troops on the +right, linking up with the Scots and supported by cavalry on the left, +with Hotchkiss and machine guns swept forward to the capture of +Monchy. + +The cavalry dashed into the village on the north side, meeting with +few Germans, for as they pressed forward the enemy was retreating on +the southern side, hoping to escape that way. Here they encountered +Scots and Midlanders and fierce fighting ensued. The Germans were well +provided with machine guns, and from windows and roofs sent a +withering fire upon the British as they swarmed into the streets of +the village. The Germans made a brave resistance, but the British +continued to press them hard, fighting their way into houses and +courtyards and capturing or killing the defenders. Some of the +garrison of the place succeeded in escaping to a trench in the valley +below, where they had a redoubt and machine guns. + +By 8 o'clock in the morning the British had a number of guns in +position for the defense of the village against counterattacks which +were sure to follow. It was found that the Germans had prepared in the +village an elaborate system of dugouts that could provide shelter from +the heaviest shell fire. Under the chateau there were great rooms +luxuriously furnished and provided with electric lights, where British +and Scotch officers regaled themselves with German beer. + +An hour after the occupation of the village it was heavily shelled by +big German guns, German airmen from above directing the fire. The +British held on determinedly in spite of heavy losses, and their +courage never flagged. In the afternoon the Germans made some +determined counterattacks, but their advancing waves were mowed down +by the British machine guns and eighteen pounders, and finally they +were thrown back in confusion. The British now advanced beyond the +village, while the Germans were forced to retreat from the trench +below. + +In the opinion of the German press the battle of Arras was an event of +only local importance which did not affect in any degree the strategic +situation. The plan of the Anglo-French command to deliver a +shattering blow on the Somme front and roll up the new Hindenburg line +by assaults on both flanks at Soissons and Arras, they contended, had +been foiled. + +With better weather conditions the British were able to push forward +more rapidly and to make further breaches in the Hindenburg line. +Advancing over a wide front, they were drawing nearer to the coveted +line of German communications running north and south through Douai +and Cambrai. On the northern horn the British captured Lievin, the +southwest suburb of Lens, and Cite St. Pierre, northwest of that +place. On the southern horn they advanced within 400 yards of St. +Quentin. Some idea of the extent of the British advance within a week +may be gained from the fact that the British were now three miles +beyond the famous Vimy Ridge. + +It was expected that the Germans would stubbornly defend St. Quentin +and Lens, which were now the British objectives, and on which the +heaviest British gunfire was now concentrated. In the course of the +day advances were made south and east of Fayet to within a few hundred +yards of St. Quentin. On the way the village of Gricourt was carried +at the point of the bayonet and over 400 Germans were captured. + +Lens, an important mining center, had been in possession of the +Germans since the autumn of 1914. It stretches for several miles and +the surrounding district is rich in mineral wealth. Throughout the day +of April 14, 1917, the British poured heavy high-explosive shells into +the city, using for the first time guns that had been recently +captured from the Germans. The continued bombardment caused fires and +explosions in the city. It was believed that some of these +conflagrations were the work of the enemy, who were preparing to +abandon the place. + +In the course of the day, April 14, 1917, the British pushed their way +through Lieven, a straggling suburb of Lens, meeting with stubborn +defense in every street, where the Germans had posted machine guns at +points of vantage and rear-guard posts that gave the British +considerable trouble. Soon a body of British troops had penetrated +Lens itself and were working their way slowly forward. From the +western side other troops were advancing through Lievin, slowly and +cautiously. The main German forces were in retreat, but the +machine-gun redoubts, skillfully manned, were a constant source of +danger and wrought considerable destruction. + +From prisoners captured the British learned of wild scenes that had +taken place in Lens while the Germans were attempting to get away +their stores and guns and begin the retreat. Frantic efforts were made +to blow up roads and to carry out orders to destroy the mine shafts +and flood the galleries, so that property of enormous value should not +be left to France. The occasion for this mad hurry was because the +Germans believed that the British might be upon them at any moment. + +During the evening they had sufficiently recovered from their first +panic to send supporting troops back into Lens to hold the line of +trenches and machine-gun forts on the western side and check the +British advance while they prepared for themselves positions on the +Drocourt-Queant line, the Wotan end of the Hindenburg line, from which +the British were forcing them to withdraw. It was learned from German +prisoners that there were still about 2,000 persons, principally old +men, women, and children, still in the Lens district waiting for a +chance to break through to the British lines. The condition of these +poor creatures can be imagined, surrounded by destruction from all +sides and hiding in holes in the ground with death always hovering +near. + +The British continued to close in around Lens from three directions, +their progress being slow owing to the stubborn attacks made by German +rear guards and the fierce fire of cunningly placed machine guns. + +Field Marshal Haig's chief purpose in advancing on Lens was to turn La +Bassee from the south. La Bassee and Lens form the principal outworks +of Lille, which is the key to the whole German position in Flanders. +If the British succeeded in capturing these two places, Lille would be +seriously threatened. + +On the 15th the British continued to gain ground in the direction of +St. Quentin and east and north of Gricourt, to the north of the city. + +In the morning the Germans delivered a powerful attack over a front of +six miles against the new British position, which extended from +Hermies to Noreuil. In the face of a terrific fire from British +artillery they forged ahead, but lost so many men that they were at +last forced to retreat, gaining no advantage except at Lagnicourt +village, to one part of which they clung tenaciously. Immediately the +British organized a counterattack, which was carried out with dash and +spirit. The Germans were driven out of the village and 300 prisoners +were taken. Some 1,500 dead were left in front of the British +positions. + +April 16, 1917, was a day of glory for French arms, when General +Nivelle launched a great attack on a front of about twenty-five miles +between Soissons and Rheims. The French were everywhere successful, +capturing the German first-line positions along the entire front and +in some places penetrating and holding second-line positions. + +The scene of General Nivelle's great victory was the historic line of +the Aisne, to which the Germans had retreated after the battle of the +Marne. Ever since that epoch-making event in the history of the Great +War the Germans had held the line despite every effort of the Allies +to dislodge them. The Germans had ample warning that a great offensive +was in preparation, for the French had been bombarding their positions +for ten days before. On their part they had made every effort to repel +the threatened attack, and had massed a great number of men and guns +in that region. In justice to the Germans it must be said that they +fought with courage and desperation along the whole front. They +realized the importance of holding the line at all costs, for if the +French advance proved successful, it would mean the isolation of Laon, +upon which the Hindenburg line depended. + +North of Berry-au-Bac, where the old line of battle swings to the +southeast toward Rheims, the French forces gained their greatest +advance. To the south of Juvincourt they succeeded in penetrating the +German second-line positions and held on. Every effort made by the +Germans during the day failed, the French artillery literally tearing +their ranks to pieces. Further advances were made by the French to the +banks of the Aisne Canal at the villages of Courcy and Loivre. + +General Nivelle reported that over 10,000 prisoners were captured +during this offensive together with a vast amount of war material. + +Meanwhile the British in the Lens area were constantly engaged with +the Germans, who again and again launched counterattacks to recover +lost positions, to impede the advance and to gain time to strengthen +their defenses on the line of retreat. + +During the night of April 15, 1917, the British captured Villeret, +southeast of Hargicourt, which served to further widen the second gap +in the Hindenburg line north of St. Quentin. The British were +successful in all these minor struggles in making prisoners, and owing +to the Germans' hurried retreat vast quantities of military stores +fell into their hands. Since April 9, 1917, the British had captured +over 14,000 prisoners and 194 guns. + +In the midst of a driving rain and flurries of snow that hampered +military operations the French struck another blow on the 17th, on a +new eleven-mile stretch of front east of Rheims from Prunay to +Auberive. They carried the entire front-line German positions. From +Mt. Carnillet to Vaudesincourt support positions seven miles in extent +also were captured. During this push 2,500 German prisoners were +taken. + +The French advance on both sides of Rheims now left that city in a +salient that would prove a great source of danger to the Germans. The +French having captured the German second-line position northwest of +Rheims, smoothed the way for an advance that might force the enemy out +of the forts that held the cathedral city in subjection. + +The French continued their offensive with undiminished vigor and dash +on April 18, 1917, driving the Germans in disorder from their +positions north of the Aisne and securing a firm hold on high ground +commanding the river. The number of German prisoners had now increased +to 20,730. Great quantities of war material fell to the French, +including 175 guns, 412 machine guns, and 119 trench mortars. + +On the front from Soissons to Rheims General Nivelle's troops captured +four villages, which brought them to the outskirts of Courtecon, an +advance of about two miles for the day. + +Another successful French attack was delivered to the west, where the +old German line stood on the south bank of the Aisne, which resulted +in the capture of the important town of Vailly and a strong bridgehead +near by. On the western leg of the German salient, whose apex was at +Fort Conde on the Aisne, the French struck another decisive blow which +gave them the village of Nanteuil-le-Fosse, and endangered the Germans +in the fort, who were now in the position of being cut off. + +East of Craonne a French contingent surrounded the forest of La +Ville-au-Bois and forced the surrender of 1,300 Germans. + +In the afternoon of April 18, 1917, the Germans delivered a strong +counterattack in which 40,000 men were employed, in an attempt to +recover their lost second-line positions to the east of Craonne which +had been seized by the French in the first onslaught. Though vastly +outnumbered in man power, the French were well supplied with +artillery, and the attackers were rolled back in confusion with heavy +losses before they could reach the French lines at any point. During +the day's fighting in this area the French captured three cannon and +twenty-four guns, together with a number of shell depots. Most of the +guns were immediately turned against the Germans and proved effective +in assisting in their destruction. + +Undeterred by heavy losses and constant failure the Germans with +stubborn courage continued to press counterattacks south of St. +Quentin. One of these was successful in seizing a number of French +positions. But the gain was only temporary, when the French came +dashing back in force, regained the positions, and captured or killed +the occupants to the last man. + +The double offensive of the British north of Arras and of the French +on the Aisne had disarranged the German plans, according to reliable +information that reached the Allied command. Hindenburg was preparing +an offensive against Riga and another against Italy; attempts on Paris +and on Calais were also projected, but the Allied western offensive +forced him to bring back the greater part of his forces intended for +these fronts. + +For several days the fighting in the Arras region slowed down. The +Germans had brought forward new batteries and stationed them around +Lens and Loos, replacing those captured by the British during the +first day's battle. These guns were now constantly active, sending +heavy shells into Lievin, Bois de Riaumont, and into the suburbs of +Lens and Monchy. The neighboring ridge and slopes were also subjected +to machine-gun fire. + +Beyond bombarding German positions, the British made no important +advance, though preparations were going forward for the next stage in +the great battle of Arras. + +The French continued to make gains along the Oise, pressing back the +Germans toward the Chemin-des-Dames, which runs along the top of the +heights north of the river. On April 20, 1917, General Nivelle's +troops occupied Sancy village and gained ground east of Laffaux. The +French front in this sector now faced the fort of Malmaison, which +crowns a range of high hills protecting the highroad from Soissons to +Laon. The Germans launched a heavy attack on April 19, 1917, in which +large forces of troops were employed in the region of Ailles and +Hurtebise Farm. The French artillery and machine guns delivered such a +withering fire against the attackers that they were thrown back in +disorder with appalling losses. + +In Champagne the French continued to make progress, capturing +important points in Moronvilliers Wood. + +British troops south of the Bapaume-Cambrai road slowly advanced on +Marcoing, a place of considerable importance and an outpost to +Cambrai. In this push, begun on April 20, 1917, they captured the +southern portion of the village of Trescault, which lies about nine +miles from Cambrai. They also surrounded on three sides Havrincourt +Wood, which from its high position constitutes a formidable barrier in +the way of advance, and which the Germans will eventually be forced to +evacuate. Ground was also gained by the British between Loos and Lens, +and every attempt made by the Germans to regain lost positions was +repulsed. + +On the French front in western Champagne the Germans on the 21st made +desperate efforts to recapture the positions on the heights which they +had lost in the previous week. Mont Haut, the dominating position in +this region, was the principal objective against which they launched +repeated attacks, all of which came to naught. There were numerous +minor operations on the Rheims-Soissons front during the night of the +21st. Rheims was repeatedly bombarded, the Germans paying particular +attention to the cathedral, which received further damage from +shells. + +What might be termed the second phase of the battle of Arras was begun +in the morning of April 23, 1917, when the British resumed the +offensive. At 5 o'clock in the morning the British advance started +east of Arras on a front of about eight miles, capturing strong +positions and the villages of Gavrelle and Guemappe. The occupation of +these places and of strongholds south of Gavrelle as far as the river +Scarpe broke the so-called Oppy line, defending the Hindenburg +positions before Douai. The British were successful in clearing the +enemy out of the neighborhood of Monchy, which commands the region for +forty miles. The Germans appreciating the value of this position had +launched twenty counterattacks against it in the ten previous days. It +proved to them the bloodiest spot in all this war-ravaged region, and +when the British advanced at early dawn on the 23d, thousands of dead +in field-gray uniforms littered the approaches to the position. During +the day the British took over 1,500 prisoners. + +On this date, April 23, 1917, the Germans attacked the French lines in +Belgium at several points in the course. Bodies of Germans succeeded +in penetrating some French advanced positions, but after spirited +hand-to-hand struggles were killed, captured, or driven off. In most +cases the Germans never got in touch with the French, but were rolled +back by the concentrated fire of the French artillery. Fighting +continued in the Champagne, where the Germans renewed again and again +their efforts to capture the new French positions on Mont Haut. + +On the second day of the offensive the British had made gains east of +Monchy, and had pushed on between that village and the river Sensee to +within a short distance of Cherisy and Fontaine-les-Croisilles, +holding all their newly won positions against attack. + +It was noted by the British command that the Germans during this +second phase of the battle of Arras had fought with exceptional +ferocity, which even the heavy losses they incurred did not weaken. On +the front of about eight miles seven German divisions were employed. +British guns were effective in shattering massed counterattacks, and +there was considerable hand-to-hand fighting in which the British were +sometimes badly handled, but at the close of the day the British had +recovered all the positions they had been forced out of temporarily. +The fighting continued on the 24th, but was less ferocious, the +opponents having exhausted themselves in the previous day's efforts. +In the second and third day of the offensive the British captured +2,000 prisoners. + +During the night of April 23, 1917, the British advancing on a wide +front south of the Arras-Cambrai road captured the villages of +Villers-Plouich and Beaucamp and pressed forward as far as the St. +Quentin Canal in the vicinity of Vendhuille. + +The second phase of the offensive in the Arras region was especially +notable for the victories won by the British in the air. In one day +forty German machines were brought down, while the British lost only +two. + +The British advance was now necessarily slow, for they were no longer +engaged in rear-guard actions as in the first phase of the offensive, +but faced strong bodies of troops whose valor was unquestioned. Thus, +as in the first days of fighting in the Somme, there was desperate +fighting to gain or regain a few hundred yards of trenches. With +varying fortunes the opponents fought back and forth over the same +ground without either side gaining any distinct advantage, though both +were losers in precious lives. By early morning of April 25, 1917, +Scottish and British troops had reestablished the line on the Bois +Vert and Bois de Sart. + +A striking incident in connection with the fighting in this area was +the recovery of parties of British soldiers who had been given up as +lost. They had been cut off from rejoining their regiments and had +come through the most ghastly perils, being swept by a British barrage +that preceded an infantry attack and subjected to the deadly and +constant shelling of the German guns. They had clung to their isolated +positions in the face of all these terrors and not a man was killed. + + + + +CHAPTER LVIII + +FRENCH VICTORIES IN THE CHAMPAGNE--THE BRITISH CAPTURE BULLECOURT + + +During the night of April 25, 1917, the Germans renewed their attempts +to recover lost positions on the high ground near the Chemin-des-Dames, +and especially west of Cerny. West of Craonne they hurled masses of men +against Hurtebise Farm with disastrous results. Eastward in the vicinity +of Ville-aux-Bois the French artillery dropped shells with mathematical +precision on the German lines. The regiment that was detailed to capture +the village of Ville-aux-Bois, which formed with Craonne one of the +pillars of the German line in this area, carried out the difficult +operation with complete success. It was necessary to capture two heavily +garrisoned woods before the place could be assaulted. At the end of the +first day's fighting the French had taken hundreds of prisoners and +several dozen machine guns. The prisoners alone numbered more than the +French troops who made the attack. + +Fighting continued in this region during the 26th. The French repulsed +all attempts made by the Germans to recover lost ground, and extended +their gains. + +During the desperate fighting along the Aisne in this offensive the +French captured about 20,000 prisoners and 130 guns. The German losses +in killed, wounded, and prisoners were estimated at over 200,000--one +of the most formidable totals of the Great War. + +North of the Scarpe River and in the vicinity of Catelet the British +continued to improve their positions. Thirteen German aeroplanes and +one balloon were brought down on the 26th by British aviators. + +On April 28, 1917, the British attacked on a front extending in an +easterly direction from Vimy Ridge at its northern hinge and southward +to the Scarpe River. Gains were made at all points attacked, and the +so-called Oppy-Mericourt line which protects the Drocourt switch to +the Hindenburg line was pierced again. An eyewitness stated that he +saw no less than five gray waves of Germans blindly facing the British +fire in an attempt to regain the lost positions. Torrents of British +shells tore gaps in the German ranks, and those who succeeded in +forcing their way through the barrage were mowed down by sprays of +machine-gun bullets. Under this storm the German attack broke down. +There was bayonet fighting at different points, and many Germans were +killed by blows from rifle butts. + +The Canadians, who had been resting since their brilliant work on +Easter day, when they swept the Germans from Vimy Ridge, were in fine +fighting trim. By a brilliant assault they captured Arleux-en-Gobelle +and held the village securely against all attempts made by the Germans +to recapture it. + +Southeast of Oppy, the British took Greenland Hill, which overlooks +the Scarpe Valley. There was fierce fighting north of the village of +Roeux, at the chemical works on the Arras-Douai railway, which changed +hands several times. The character of the fighting on the 28th did not +result in the taking of many prisoners, for almost everywhere it was a +struggle to the death. + +The loss to the Germans of Monchy-le-Preux was regarded by them as a +serious matter, and they were prepared to sacrifice any number of men +to retake it. Late in the night of April 28, 1917, they launched two +violent attacks against the British positions east of the town. Two +new divisions had been brought up and were hurled into the struggle +only to be literally torn to fragments before they could reach even an +outpost. On this date also Gavrelle was violently attacked from the +north. This was the fourteenth or fifteenth counterattack the Germans +had made against the village, which failed as all the previous ones +had done. + +On the same date there were violent outbursts in the Champagne and +Aisne regions on the French front, in which the Germans made no +progress. The French gained ground and prisoners near Ostel in the +Chemin-des-Dames area. German lines were invaded in the sector of Hill +304 on the left bank of the Meuse and a considerable number of +prisoners were taken. At Auberive after a violent bombardment the +Germans attacked in force, but were repulsed by the French artillery. + +South of the village of Oppy, where the fighting had raged for several +days, the British captured a German trench system on a front of about +a mile. Here the Germans offered the most stubborn resistance, and +after the position was won they launched furious counterattacks in the +hope of smashing the British before they had opportunity to organize +their gains. + +The results of the fighting in this region could not be estimated by +the number of prisoners taken or the amount of ground gained. The +British had a difficult task to perform in assaulting positions +protected by natural defenses, and held in strength with quantities of +machine guns. After forcing the enemy out of the positions, and when +their strength was well-nigh spent, the British troops were forced to +beat off repeated counterattacks preceded by barrage fire and to +destroy the enemy again and again. They encountered no more formidable +conditions in the course of the war than in this region, for the +Germans had machine redoubts on the slopes commanding fields of fire +on both sides of the Scarpe River, and each advance made by the +British exposed their flanks to enfilading fire. In the face of such +deadly opposition the British still continued to press onward, forcing +the Germans to pay a fearful price for Hindenburg's strategic plans. + +On the last day of the month French troops in the Champagne made a new +attack on both sides of Mont Carnillet, a commanding peak southeast of +Mauroy. To the west the French captured several fortified lines of +trenches from the heights as far south as Beine. East of the mount +General Nivelle's men forced their way up the northern slopes of Mont +Haut; and northeast of this position to the approaches of the road +from Mauroy and Moronvilliers. This advance widened on the west and +deepened the salient driven into the German lines between Prunay and +Auberive, rendering exceedingly precarious their hold on ground east +of Rheims. + +There was no important fighting on the British front on April 30, +1917, and General Haig's troops were not ungrateful for the brief +respite afforded them. The Germans did not attempt any important +attacks owing to a shortage of ammunition and military supplies. From +documents found on prisoners the British learned that there was a +dearth in all war material and that the supply of new guns to replace +those worn out was very limited. During the night General Haig's +troops improved their positions between Monchy-le-Preux and the Scarpe +River, repulsing a feeble German attack on the new positions. + +While comparative quiet reigned in the fighting area on the last day +of April, 1917, British airmen were active, and in the course of +twenty-four hours a number of highly dramatic battles were fought in +which the British brought down twenty German aeroplanes and lost +fifteen machines themselves. + +During the night of May 1, 1917, the French consolidated their new +positions on the wooded hills east of Rheims. In the course of the +following day the Germans delivered two strong attacks against French +lines northeast of Mont Haut, but were rolled back by the French +barrage fire and machine-gun fire which broke the waves of assault and +scattered the attackers. + +The report for the month of April, 1917, issued by the British War +Office stated that in the course of the offensive operations in France +19,343 prisoners had been taken, including 393 officers. In the same +period the British had captured 257 guns and howitzers, 227 trench +mortars, and 470 machine guns. The French during the same period had +captured over 20,000 prisoners. It was estimated that the Germans had +143 divisions in France, but only ninety-nine of these were in the +actual line, the rest being held in strategic reserve. + +During the month of April, 1917, more aeroplanes were lost by the +combatants than in any month since the fighting began. A careful +compilation from British, French, and German communiques shows a +total loss of 717 during this period. The Germans lost 369, the French +and Belgians 201, and the British 147. + +On May 2, 1917, the French in the Champagne began to push their way +slowly through the great forest south of Beine, which covers +considerable territory from south of Mont Carnillet to La Pompelle +Fort, the most easterly fortification of Rheims. + +On May 3, 1917, General Haig's troops struck a fourth blow against the +German front east and southeast of Arras, penetrating the Hindenburg +line west of Queant. The British push toward Cherisy, Bullecourt, and +Queant was at the southern end of the day's major operation, which +covered a range of nearly eighteen miles. At the north Fresnoy was the +chief objective. It lies just east of Arleux, taken a few days before +by the Canadians. + +These two villages were strongly organized for defense with +complicated trench fortifications, forming one of the strongest points +on the Mericourt-Oppy-Gavrelle line. Fresnoy was carried by the +Canadians after the most furious fighting, in which the German +positions changed hands a number of times, but at last remained +securely in possession of the troops from oversea. North and south of +Fresnoy a two-mile front was won by the British, who also secured a +grip on the German trench system north of Oppy. + +While the British were dealing hammer blows on the enemy's lines the +French had been preparing another coup, which was carried out on May +4, 1917. By this operation they captured the village of Craonne on the +Soissons-Rheims front, several fortified points north and east of the +village, and German first-line positions on a front of about two and a +half miles. + +Craonne was an especially valuable capture, for it stands on a height +at the east end of the Chemin-des-Dames, protecting not only the +plateau north of the Aisne, but the low ground between it and +Neufchatel. The Germans had held the place since the first battle of +the Aisne, and against its cliffs many gallant French troops had +vainly flung themselves, only to be thrown back with heavy losses. The +possession of Craonne gave the French command of an open road through +the valley of Miette where a few weeks before they had captured the +German second line south of Juvincourt. They could now, advancing +through this corridor, outflank the entire German position depending +on Laon as its center. + +[Illustration: The French Offensive on the Craonne Plateau, +Champagne.] + +Throughout May 4, 1917, the British were occupied in organizing and +strengthening the new positions they had won in and around Fresnoy +and in the sectors of the Hindenburg line near Bullecourt. Repeated +German counterattacks were repulsed at all points, except in the +neighborhood of Cherisy and the Arras-Cambrai road, where the British +were forced to abandon some of their new positions. In the day's +fighting the British captured over 900 prisoners. During the night +General Haig's troops made considerable progress northwest of St. +Quentin and northeast of Hargicourt, where the Malakoff Farm was +captured. + +By May 5, 1917, the French army was in sight of Laon, and had begun to +shell the German positions on the steep hill on which the city stands. +The position of the French was decidedly favorable for important +operations against the enemy. If they moved up the Rheims-Laon road, +and pushed north from Cerny with a strong force, it would be possible +to outflank from the south the whole German line, which here turns to +the northwest in a wide sweep from Laon, through La Fere to St. +Quentin and Cambrai. This operation if successful would compel the +Germans to retire to the Belgian frontier. + +The Germans were not satisfied with the way things were going, so the +Allied command learned from prisoners. It was estimated that they had +lost thus far in the Anglo-French drive on this front no less than +216,000 men, of whom the British took 30,000 prisoners and the French +23,000; about 47,000 were killed on the field and 160,000 were put out +of action. The British and French casualties had also been very +heavy--the former numbering about 80,000 and the latter 93,000 +including killed, wounded, and prisoners. + +On the British front the Germans continued to make the most desperate +efforts to regain a section of the Hindenburg line east of +Bullecourt, which the Australians had won in the advance of May 3, +1917. From three sides day and night the sturdy defenders were +assailed by the Germans, but their attacks by day were killed by the +British artillery, and at night were driven off by bomb and bayonet. +The Germans had good reason to value this wedge bitten into the +Hindenburg line, for its possession by the Australians weakened an +otherwise strong position that ran formerly from Arras to Queant. The +British were now in touch with the Hindenburg line all the way from +Queant south to St. Quentin, and were pressing the Germans toward the +Drocourt switch in the north. + +On the new lines east of Mont Haut held by the Germans a position +garrisoned by 200 men was captured by the French during the night of +May 5, 1917. + +The French continued to make progress, slowly but firmly pressing the +Germans back from many points, and gaining more ground than they lost +through counterattacks. By the 6th of May, 1917, they had captured all +the unconquered positions on the Chemin-des-Dames and were masters of +the crest over which it runs for more than eighteen miles. The moral +effect of this victory was to give the French the assurance that they +could beat the Germans on their chosen battle ground and force them +out of their deepest defenses into the open field. German +invincibility had become a shattered myth. + +For some days General Haig's troops had been tightening their grip +around Bullecourt, which lies in the original Hindenburg line due east +of Croisilles. The Australians who held this front had surrounded the +village on three sides and its fall was imminent. + +On May 8, 1917, Bavarian troops stormed Fresnoy village and wood and +wrested some ground from the British on the western side. During the +night the Germans had concentrated large forces for an attack north of +Fresnoy which were dispersed by British fire. By a strong +counterattack the British recovered all the ground on the west that +they had lost on the previous day. + +Some idea of the intense fighting in northern France may be gained +from the fact that since April 1, 1917, over thirty-five German +divisions (315,000 men) were withdrawn from this front owing to their +exhausted condition. The French and British had lost heavily, but +their casualties were from 50 to 75 per cent fewer than they incurred +in the Battle of the Somme. + +Fresnoy, which was held by the Canadians, and which jutted into the +German lines, was subjected to intense fire and showers of high +explosives and shrapnel throughout the night of the 7th, and in the +morning of the following day the Germans attacked in force. The +British were overwhelmed, but served their machine guns to the last, +and only fell back from their advanced lines when the village was no +longer tenable. The greater part of the ground lost by them was +recovered on the following day. + +The French captured first-line German trenches over a front of +three-quarters of a mile northeast of Chevreux near Craonne, during +the night of May 8, 1917, capturing several hundred prisoners. +Vigorous counterattacks made about the same time by the Germans to +regain lost positions on the plateau of Chemin-des-Dames and on the +Californie Plateau were shattered by the French artillery. The Germans +here displayed the most intrepid bravery, sending forward successive +waves of men again and again until the battle area was strewn with +dead. Northwest of Rheims the French carried 400 yards of German +trench, taking prisoner 100 men and two officers. + +Severe and continuous fighting went on during May 9, 1917, in the +neighborhood of Bullecourt, where the Germans tried vainly to shake +the British hold on the position. East of Gricourt a portion of the +German front and support lines were captured by the British, also a +considerable number of prisoners. Counterattacks on the French front +along the Chemin-des-Dames and in the region of Chevreux resulted in +heavy losses to the Germans in men and guns. + +Toward the close of the day, May 11, 1917, the British after the +hardest and most sanguinary fighting won two positions at Roeux just +north of the Scarpe, and at Cavalry Farm beyond Guemappe. The loss to +the Germans was serious, for these were observation posts of the +highest value. The British captured about 350 prisoners, mostly of +Brandenburg regiments, who were found crouching in tunnels waiting for +a pause in the storm of shell fire to rush out and meet the attackers +with machine guns. But they waited too long, and Haig's troops were +upon them before they could use their weapons. At Roeux the Bavarian +garrison in the tunnels fought ferociously, and being unwilling to +yield were destroyed. + +Around Guemappe, by the Cavalry Farm, which the Scottish troops had +been forced to abandon in the previous month, the fighting was less +intense. The Scots went about their task in a businesslike way and +routed the garrison and took ten guns and a number of prisoners. + +Bullecourt, which had been the scene of some of the hottest fighting +since the offensive began, and where the Australians had repulsed a +dozen strong counterattacks, was in large part occupied by the British +on May 12, 1917. North of the Scarpe, British troops established +themselves in the western part of the village of Roeux, and improved +their positions on the western slopes of Greenland Hill. + +Along the Aisne and south of St. Quentin the French continued to +bombard enemy lines. A violent attack made by the Germans on the 12th +against French positions on the Craonne Plateau north of Rheims broke +down under French artillery and machine-gun fire. + +The British continued to hold their own in Bullecourt and to improve +their position there and at Cavalry Farm and Roeux. In the three days' +operations the British had captured 700 prisoners, including eleven +officers and a considerable number of guns and war material. + +May 14, 1917, was a successful day for the Germans when they captured +Fresnoy. Early in the morning they succeeded by strong counterattacks +in gaining a foothold in the British trenches northeast of the +village. At a later hour the British attacked and regained the lost +ground, but were forced to withdraw when the Germans brought forward +two fresh divisions. The Germans continued their violent attempts to +regain Roeux and that part of Bullecourt which was firmly held by the +British. The struggle around these two places which had been raging +for four weeks grew daily more intense, and the ground around the +British positions was heaped with dead. + +All of Roeux was by the 15th in British hands: the chateau with its +great dugouts and gun emplacements, the cemetery from which a large +tunnel ran westward to Mount Pleasant Wood, and the village itself. + +After a terrible shell fire during the night of the 15th the Germans +launched a strong assault in dense numbers, and the ruins were strewn +with new dead beside the old dead. Despite the intense fire from +British machine guns some German troops penetrated advanced posts and +barricades and desperate fighting with bomb and bayonet followed. The +British fiercely counterattacked, driving the enemy back, and gained +more ground than they had held before. + +At Bullecourt there was the same story to tell. This place, to use the +expression of an eyewitness, "had become a flaming hell." In twelve +counterattacks the Germans had only succeeded in destroying a few of +the British advanced positions. They had only been able to maintain a +hold on the southwest corner of the village owing to the tunnels in +which they were protected from the heaviest fire. + +A German counterattack of unusual strength was delivered in the +morning of May 16, 1917. No bloodier struggle was fought during the +Allied offensive in 1917 than here at Bullecourt. From shell crater +and from behind bits of broken wall the British with bombs and +bayonets hung on until relieved by the arrival of fresh troops. In the +orchards and gardens and in shallow trenches the opponents struggled +in close combat, springing at each other's throat when the supply of +bombs was exhausted. The British obtained a grip on Bullecourt for the +time being, but they knew the respite would be brief, when the Germans +would return and renew the bloody struggle. + +The old Hindenburg line having been breached at Bullecourt and +Wancourt, the Germans were now busy strengthening their new line of +defense which ran through Montigny, Drocourt, and Queant. + +The British had improved their defenses to the east, and had pushed +forward a little nearer to Lens. Here the Germans continued to wreck +and destroy buildings and machinery, so that the great mining center +would prove of little value to the Allies when they occupied it. + +Early in the morning of May 20, 1917, a British attack broke into the +Hindenburg line between Fontaine-les-Croisilles and Bullecourt, +southeast of Arras. The Germans made several violent attempts to +recover their lost positions, but were unable to make any gains during +the day. The purpose of the British attacks in this sector was to +capture the last salient on the front southeast of Arras. With this +accomplished the German support line from Drocourt to Queant would be +seriously endangered. + +The French lines on the Chemin-des-Dames north of the Aisne continued +to be subjected to attack, the Germans throwing great masses of troops +against the positions on the heights. + +After very heavy artillery bombardment that lasted the greater part of +the night the Germans in the early morning of the 20th made +preparations for a general assault, but the French counterfire was so +heavy that over the greater part of the front the attack could not be +developed. Northeast of Cerny the Germans succeeded in occupying +French trenches on a 216-yard front, but at all other points where +they advanced the French counterattacks and barrage fire rolled them +back and wrought disaster among their ranks. + +During the last week of May, 1917, the French forces along the +Chemin-des-Dames only fought on the defensive. The Germans attempted +to regain lost positions, but were unsuccessful in obtaining the +slightest advantage, while their losses must have been considerable. + + + + +CHAPTER LIX + +THE BATTLE OF MESSINES RIDGE--BRITISH SMASH THE GERMAN SALIENT SOUTH +OF YPRES + + +After an intense bombardment that lasted all day of June 1, 1917, and +part of the night the Germans on the 2d, employing large forces, +hurled five attacks on the French Craonne position; three against the +eastern face of Californie Plateau and two against Vauclerc Plateau. +It seemed as if the Germans hoped to win the coveted position on the +heights by sheer weight of numbers. Advancing in dense masses shoulder +to shoulder they formed an impressive spectacle. But not for long. +Soon great gaps were torn in the solid lines by the famous French +artillery. + +The ranks quickly closed up and again surged onward in dense gray +waves, only to be shattered again and again by the splendidly served +French guns. The same process was repeated, the Germans advancing, +their ranks depleting, and then as the French fire became even more +destructive they fell back, leaving the battle ground littered with +dead. + +The French rightly called this a victory, for they maintained all +their positions and the Germans had not succeeded in gaining a +foothold at any point. The German headquarters was silent concerning +the fight on this date. + +While the French continued to hold their position on the eastern +extremity of the Chemin-des-Dames they threatened to turn the right +flank of the Laon bastion by an advance over the open ground north of +Berry-au-Bac. For this reason the Germans were desperately anxious to +recover the Craonne position, which was the key to the whole tactical +situation in this part of the front. + +For about two weeks the British had been bombarding the strong German +salient south of Ypres. On June 7, 1917, they delivered against this +position or series of fortifications an overwhelming blow. It was one +of the most spectacular military operations carried out during the war +and marked a brilliant victory for the Allied arms. By this startling +coup the Germans were forced out of one of the strongest positions +they held on the western front. As far as human ingenuity and military +skill could make it so, the position was impregnable. From its +commanding situation the Germans were able to observe with ease all +the preparations that were in progress in the British lines and +arrange to checkmate them. The value of the position to the Germans in +this area was therefore of supreme value. + +For two and a half years the Allied armies in this little corner of +Belgium had held the Germans in check, and during that time they were +almost at the mercy of the German guns on the Messines-Wytschaete +Ridge. + +The German front defenses of this position consisted of the most +elaborate trench systems and fortifications, forming a belt of about a +mile deep. Farms and woods around were garrisoned and machine-gun +emplacements were set up in every available corner. Concrete dugouts +of the strongest description were provided for the protection of +garrisons and machine gunners, and nothing that labor and skill could +devise was neglected to make the position indestructible. Yet all this +laboriously constructed defense work that had taken many months to +complete and the strength and skill of thousands were swept away in a +few hours' time. + +For nearly two years companies of sappers--British, Australians, and +New Zealanders--had been busily engaged in tunneling under the low +range of hills upon which the German position stood. In these +underground passages engineers had planted nineteen great mines, +containing more than a million tons of ammonite, a new and enormously +destructive explosive. The secret of the mines was so well kept during +the time they were preparing that the Germans seemed to have had no +suspicion of the great surprise in store for them. + +At exactly 3.10 in the morning of June 7, 1917, all the nineteen mines +were discharged by electric contact and the hilltops were blown off +amid torrents of spouting flames with a roaring sound like many +earthquakes that could be heard distinctly farther away than London. +Large sections of the German front, supporting trenches, and dugouts +went up in debris amid thick clouds of smoke. To add to the terror of +the defenders of the position the British guns after the explosions +shelled the salient steadily until preparations were completed for +attack. Then the British infantry under Field Marshal Haig and General +Sir Herbert Plumer advanced with a rush to the assault and the German +front line for ten miles was captured in a few minutes. + +[Illustration: The Taking of Messines Ridge, June 7, 1917.] + +Less than three hours after the first attack the Messines-Wytschaete +Ridge was stormed. The British pushed their advance along the entire +sector south of Ypres, from Observation Ridge to Ploegsteert Wood to +the north of Armentieres. Later in the day the German rear defenses, +which ran across the base of the salient, were assaulted. Here the +Germans had concentrated strong forces and the British encountered +stiff opposition, but by nightfall the whole rear German position +along a five-mile front to a depth of three miles was secure in +British hands. The Canadians, who were in the forefront of all the +fighting, had an enjoyable day of it, unsurpassed since they swept the +Germans from Vimy Ridge. + +In the course of the day's fighting the British captured over 7,000 +prisoners and a large number of guns of all calibers. The Germans, it +was estimated, had about 30,000 casualties, and the British less than +a third of that number. + +Eyewitnesses to this spectacular and dramatic operation have described +the shattering effect the terrific explosions had on the Germans +defending the positions, especially on those protecting the ill-famed +Hill 60, where so many brave British soldiers had perished in previous +fights. + +When this hill burst open and a dense mass of fiery clouds and smoking +rocks shot skyward, the British troops assigned to take the position +and while still some distance away were thrown down by the violence of +the concussion. But no one was injured, and finding their footing they +dashed on in the direction of the hill. Below Mount Sorrel and in +Armagh Wood they encountered groups of Jaegers and Wuerttembergers, who +crawled out of holes in the still quivering earth, and, shaking with +terror, weakly raised their hands in token of surrender. There was no +desire to fight left in these men, but where the dugouts had not been +shattered by British fire and were partly intact hundreds crouched in +the dark and could only be persuaded to come into the open when bombs +were hurled among them. + +In other places the explosions had not produced such terrifying +effects on the Germans, and the British met with stubborn resistance. +This was the case in the neighborhood of the Chateau Matthieu, to the +west of Hollebeke, which was strongly held and where the Londoners who +engaged the Germans had a strenuous time of it before they gained the +upper hand. + +The British had looked for stout resistance from the enemy in a street +of fortresslike houses built of huge blocks of concrete six feet +thick, but their shell fire had done its work so thoroughly that most +of the structures were in ruins, while the occupants of those that +remained intact were too cowed and panic-stricken to make any but the +feeblest defense. + +For the first time on anything like a large scale the British leveled +woodlands by spraying them with drums of burning oil, thus laying bare +hidden trenches and gun emplacements and clearing the way for their +infantry to advance. + +In Dead Wood some German troops of the Thirty-fifth Division attempted +a counterattack on a body of British South Country troops. It was a +fierce, close struggle, when bayonets were the favorite weapon. The +Germans, who are not generally fond of cold steel and hand-to-hand +fighting, on this occasion did their share in the general thrusting +and stabbing, and certainly displayed no lack of courage. But the men +of Kent, who were eager to be on their way, fought with such wild fury +that the Germans, after they had incurred very heavy losses, were +eager to drop their rifles and surrender. + +The part the armored tanks played in the battle of Messines Ridge was +not very important, but they would have been missed if they had not +been present in emergencies to help out the infantry. When there was +no particular business for the monsters, pilots and crews sallied +forth and joined in the fight. + +Military critics award the principal honors in the battle of Messines +Ridge to the guns and the gunners who served them. For about a +fortnight the gunners had worked incessantly with scarcely any sleep +in the midst of nerve-racking noises and with death constantly +hovering around them. The number of shells used in this battle by the +British was incredible. One division alone fired over 180,000 shells +with their field batteries and over 46,000 with their heavies. + +It was a joyous hour for the British in the course of the day's +fighting when they were able to abandon the old gun positions after +two and a half years of stationary warfare. They had no longer to fear +that any more shells would be fired by the Germans from the commanding +position on the ridge. All danger from that quarter had ceased. + +The cheering British troops made way for the gunners, as shouting +joyously they went up the ridge on a run, the infantry trailing along +after them. Arrived near the top, the gunners unlimbered and went into +action for the second phase of the fighting. + +British aviators, who performed important scout work for the gunners, +were deserving of a liberal share in the honors of the day. Some of +the Royal Flying Corps seemed to have gone battle-mad in the course of +the fighting, for they engaged in such death-defying adventures as no +wholly sane person would have attempted. + +There was one British aviator in particular whose reckless daring +shone conspicuously even above that of his fellows, and who on the +occasion showed an utter disregard for life. One of his major +operations was to fly over a body of German troops on the march. +Hovering at a short distance above them, he sprayed the astonished +troops with machine-gun fire until they scattered and fled. Passing +joyously on his way, the aviator encountered a convoy and flying low +poured volleys into the Germans and was gone before they had time to +recover from their astonishment and retaliate. Near Warneton a large +force of German troops was massing to attack when down among them +dashed the aviator, his machine gun crackling, when they dispersed in +all directions, leaving dead and wounded on the field. + +Another daring young flyer belonging to the Royal Flying Corps +attacked and silenced four machine-gun teams in strong emplacements. + +Other British aviators were active in clearing out trenches of their +German occupants, and when they ran out of ammunition for their Lewis +guns hurled down on the enemy bombs, explosives, and anything that +injures or destroys. + +By the British capture of Messines Ridge the Germans lost their last +natural position that commanded the British lines. The victory came as +a fitting climax to the British achievements in France during the +preceding three months' campaign. By the capture during that period of +Bapaume, Vimy Ridge, Monchy Plateau, and now Messines Ridge, the +British had completely changed the military situation on the western +front. + +The area gained in this vast operation was a front nine miles long to +an extreme depth of five miles. Owing to strong German pressure +exerted at this point the advance was checked, but the British +continued to engage and harass the enemy in minor operations. + +During the night of June 8, 1917, the British resumed activities in +the neighborhood of the great mining center of Lens. An attack was +launched south of the Souchez River on a front of two miles, +penetrating to a depth of half a mile. + +On the following day the Germans with strong forces delivered a +determined assault on British lines on a front of six miles east of +Messines. The attack failed. South of Lens the Canadians on the same +date pierced the German lines on a front of two miles, destroying +defensive works and taking a number of prisoners. + +Artillery and heavy guns were busy on both sides during the night of +June 10, 1917, east of Epehy. The Germans assembled strong forces of +troops in this area to attack, but were scattered by the intense fire +of British guns. Southeast of La Bassee the British carried out a +dashing raid on enemy lines, during which they destroyed elaborate +trench systems and mine galleries and captured eighteen prisoners. +Successful raids were also made on German positions east of Vermelles +and south of Armentieres on the same night. The British continued +these dashing exploits on the following day on both sides of Neuve +Chapelle, east of Armentieres, and north of Ypres. In each operation +the German defenses were smashed and a considerable number of +prisoners were taken. + +In the Champagne the French had to defend themselves against +persistent German assaults made to regain lost positions at Mont Blond +and Mont Carnillet. The Germans had never renounced the hope of +recovering these invaluable observation points, and sacrificed +thousands of men in the vain hope of wearing down the French +resistance. The region of the Californie Plateau was also subjected to +furious attacks and violent artillery engagements, and while the +French lost heavily the Germans were unable to gain the slightest +advantage. + +Early in the morning of June 12, 1917, the British won new and +valuable positions astride the Souchez River. In the night the Germans +in force delivered a counterattack to regain the lost ground, +displaying a disregard for safety and stolid bravery as they pushed on +in spite of heavy losses. But the British were in a situation where +they could rake the German lines with their artillery and machine-gun +fire, and made the most of their advantage. The Germans could not make +any headway against this storm of fire, and at last when their ranks +were shattered they gave up hope and retired. + +Owing to the British advance east of Messines, and to the continued +pressure of their troops south of the front of attack, the Germans +were forced to abandon large and important sections of their +first-line defensive system in the region between the river Lys and +St. Yves. Following closely the retreating enemy, the British made +important advances east of Ploegsteert Wood and also in the +neighborhood of Gaspard. + +While their allies were gaining ground and hastening the German +retreat on their front, the French in the regions of Braye, north of +Craonne, northwest of Rheims, and on the left bank of the Meuse, near +Cumieres, were being hammered continuously by German guns. It seemed +that defenses and defenders must be destroyed by this hurricane of +fire and shell. But the soldiers of the Republic had learned many +lessons concerning German methods of warfare since the fighting began +in this region and knew how to conserve their strength, and were +prepared to out-fight the enemy whenever the odds were anything like +equal. The concentrated fire of the German guns damaged the French +defenses, but were ineffective in crushing French spirit, so that the +attacks that followed the bombardments failed in every instance to +gain any advantage. + +Positions the British had captured earlier in the week south of the +Ypres-Commines Canal were attacked by the Germans on June 15, 1917, +following heavy artillery preparations. In the first dash a few +Germans succeeded in approaching the British front trenches, but they +were killed or driven out and the attack collapsed at all points. + +In the night of the 15th the sorely tried French forces continued to +bear the brunt of German fury around Craonne and Mont Carnillet. Raids +they made in the region of Hill 304, on the heights of the Meuse, +broke down with heavy losses. East of Rheims the French were +successful in minor operations in which they captured a good number of +prisoners. Artillery duels were almost continuous on the following day +north and south of the Ailette River, in the Champagne, and in the +region of the heights of Carnillet and Blond. The Germans won a +section of trench in neighborhood of Courcy, but later were driven out +or destroyed by the French in a counterattack. + +East of Monchy-le-Preux the Germans after a heavy bombardment of +British positions made an attack in force that was entirely successful +in gaining the first-line defenses. The British were driven back with +considerable losses to their main new position on Infantry Hill. + +After the disastrous experience of the German airmen during the battle +of Messines Ridge their flying forces adopted the familiar tactics of +mass formation. The British air pilots seldom encountered in these +June days squadrons of less than fifteen machines, and occasionally +they met aerial armies of as many as sixty planes. In some battles in +the second week of June, 1917, between seventy and eighty machines +were involved. Most of these air fights took place inside German +territory, and despite superior numbers the British Royal Flying Corps +continued to prove their superiority in the air over the Teutons. In +one of these aerial battles, when a large number of planes were +engaged, the British pilots smashed ten German machines, while only +two British flyers were compelled to withdraw from the fight, one of +them making a successful landing within his own lines. + +Of the reckless bravery displayed by some of the younger members of +the Royal Flying Corps many authentic stories are told. One intrepid +British pilot coolly took up a position over a German aerodrome at a +considerable distance within the enemy lines. There were seven +machines in the aerodrome when the British flyer took up his position +above, and as they issued forth first one and then two at a time he +attacked and in every instance was successful in smashing or in +driving out of control the German machine. + +On the Arras battle front on June 19, 1917, the British gained some +ground south of the Cojeul River, capturing during the operation +thirty-five prisoners. + +French positions between the Ailette River and Laffaux Hill in the +Champagne and northwest of Rheims were on this date the special marks +for the concentrated fire of German guns. French outposts were +attacked at Mont Teton and Mont Carnillet (an almost daily occurrence +this summer), but the Germans were unable to gain any advantage and +were driven back to their trenches with heavy losses. + +The British were successful on June 20, 1917, in regaining the Monchy +position which had been lost some days before. It was of utmost value +that this point should be wrested from German hands if the advance was +to continue, and the British were correspondingly elated that they had +possession of it again. + +South of La Fere the French attacked during the night following the +21st, and penetrating German lines in the region of Beauton, destroyed +large numbers of the enemy and brought back prisoners. In the +Champagne after severe artillery preparation the Germans attacked +French trenches on Teton Height and to the east of this position on a +front of 400 yards. The Germans employed strong forces in the +operation, and in a daring push in which they sacrificed large numbers +of men they succeeded in penetrating advanced positions. But they were +unable to hold them long, when the French came back in a dashing +assault that swept them out and back to their own lines. On the +following day the French in a brilliant movement made on a 600-yard +front advanced their line 600 yards nearer to Mont Carnillet. + +It was in this region that a unit consisting of only sixty-two French +Grenadiers and portable machine guns occupied a position that the +Germans coveted. The Germans attacked with a strong force, but the +stout-hearted defenders, though vastly outnumbered, not only drove +them back, but pressed on in pursuit, capturing a considerable length +of German trenches and killing more than 200. + +In the Chemin-des-Dames on June 22, 1917, the Germans launched a +number of attacks, which led to some desperate engagements. In the +vicinity of La Royere Farm the ground was covered with the bodies of +German dead, according to the statements of correspondents on the +field. The Germans at a heavy cost only succeeded in gaining +possession of a short section of a French front trench. + +Rheims continued to be the mark on which the Germans vented their +anger when things went wrong, and on the 22d they threw 1,200 shells +into the cathedral city. + +The British had made no sensational advances in France for some time, +but along the entire 120-mile front occupied they continued to +maintain strong pressure on the enemy positions. During the night of +the 24th they carried out a number of successful local operations. One +of these enterprises was of importance, as it increased the British +grip around Lens. Attacking by starlight the British troops stormed +and captured 400 yards of front-line trenches east of Riaumont Wood, +in the western outskirts of Lens, thus drawing closer the ring of iron +with which they were hemming in the French mining center. + +In numerous raids carried out in the night on enemy trenches in the +vicinity of Bullecourt, Roeux, Loos, and Hooge, much damage was +wrought to German defenses and a considerable number of prisoners were +captured. One daring body of British troops remained for two hours in +German trenches, blowing up dugouts and inflicting serious casualties +on the garrison. + +In the general advance on Lens the Canadians occupied the strongest +outpost in the defense of that place and had pushed forward to La +Coulotte. The object of the British command was to exert extreme +pressure on the enemy and at the same time keep down the casualties, +and this they were successful in doing. + +Patrols sent out reached the crown of Reservoir Hill without meeting +opposing forces and pressed on down the eastern slope to occupy the +strong Lens outpost. South of the Souchez River the Canadians were +pressing on the very heels of the retreating Germans. Railway +embankments southeast of the Lens electric station were occupied, and +the advance was then continued toward La Coulotte. + +For several days the Germans had been destroying houses in the western +part of the mining center, in order to secure a wider area of fire for +their guns. This movement suggested to the British command that they +intended to cling as long as possible to the eastern side of the city +and to prolong the fight to the bitter end by house-to-house fighting. + +In the night of June 25, 1917, the French made a brilliant attack +northwest of Hurtebise on a strongly organized German position. They +gained all their objectives and the rapidity with which the attack was +carried out proved a crushing surprise to the Germans who lost in the +fight and in counterattacks ten officers and over 300 of other ranks. + +Among the positions captured by the French in the operations in this +region was the "Cave of the Dragon," which was more than 100 yards +wide and 300 yards deep, and had been converted into a strong +fortress. The cavern had numerous exits and openings through which +machine guns could be fired. Here the French captured a vast amount of +war material, including nine machine guns in good condition, +ammunition depots, and a hospital relief outpost. + +In the morning of June 27, 1917, the Canadians, encouraged by their +recent successes, which had been won at slight cost, decided to attack +across the open ground sloping upward to Avion and the village of +Leauvette near the Souchez River. The assaulting troops consisted of +men from British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario, and Nova Scotia, and the +British army contained no more daring fighters. The attack was a +success, except at one point, where the Germans were strong in machine +guns, and were surrounded by barbed-wire entanglements of a peculiarly +complicated sort. Here the sturdy men from overseas were unable to +gain their objectives, but at other points they gained valuable +ground. + +In the following night, during a heavy rainstorm, the British attacked +a number of the southwesterly suburbs of Lens, including the one known +as Avion. They won all their first objectives, and captured over 200 +prisoners. The fighting was in and out of ruined buildings, +collieries, pit derricks, and the usual structures of a mining +settlement. It was continued on the following day, advance being made +on a total front of about four miles to a depth of over a mile. The +result of these attacks was to give the British a series of strongly +organized defensive systems on both banks of the river Souchez +covering Lens. + +On the same night the suburbs of the mining center were attacked, the +British captured German forward positions south and west of Oppy in +the Arras sector on a front of about 2,000 yards. + +On the 28th and 29th of June, 1917, the Germans launched by night +powerful attacks in the Verdun sector near Hill 304 and Avocourt Wood. +They succeeded in piercing French first lines over the whole front +attacked, but were subsequently driven out, except at one point, on +the slope of Dead Man Hill, where they clung tenaciously, defying +every attempt made by the French to regain the position. + + + + +CHAPTER LX + +THE GERMANS DEFEAT BRITISH ON BELGIAN COAST--INTENSE FIGHTING IN THE +CHAMPAGNE AND AT VERDUN + + +In the first days of July, 1917, the Verdun sector became the scene +of some of the heaviest fighting on the western front. The Germans +seemed determined to redeem their failures in this area in the +previous year and engaged in daily assaults with large numbers of +picked forces. The German High Command had circulated so many stories +regarding the declining strength of the French troops and of their +weakened morale that they must have come to believe their own +inventions. The soldiers of the Republic certainly did their best to +convince the German command that they were very much alive and in good +fighting trim. Most of the German attacks in the Verdun sector were +repulsed, but they succeeded in retaining some conquered ground on the +west slope of Dead Man Hill. On the Aisne front during the night of +June 30, 1917, the Germans attacked near Cerny and Corbeny, when their +storming detachments were almost annihilated by the devastating fire +of the French artillery. To the northeast of Cerny the Germans +succeeded in gaining a small salient which had first been leveled by +their guns. + +South of Lens the British continued to make progress, capturing a good +portion of the German trench system in this area and taking a number +of prisoners. British aviators on this front maintained successfully +their supremacy of the air. In the space of twenty-four hours they +brought down five German aeroplanes, and four others were driven out +of control, while only one British machine was missing. + +Heavy artillery fighting continued during July 1, 1917, in the sector +between Cerny and Ailles on the French front. At a late hour French +troops carried out a spirited attack on both sides of the +Ailles-Paissy road and ejected the Germans from the trenches they had +captured in the previous week. In the night of July 2, 1917, the +Germans made a strong counterattack in an endeavor to oust the French +from their regained position, but were repulsed. In the course of the +night several more attacks were made by the Germans, who, thrown back +in every instance, finally abandoned the effort when day was breaking. + +On the left bank of the Meuse, on the Verdun front, violent artillery +fighting continued the greater part of the night on the same date +between Hill 304 and Avocourt Wood. Early in the morning following +the Germans attacked on a front of 500 yards at the southeast corner +of the wood. The assaults broke down under the devastating French fire +and no attempt was made to renew the effort. + +On the British front no important actions were fought during the first +week of July, 1917, but everywhere defenses were strengthened and the +pressure on the German positions became unceasingly intense. Southwest +of Hollebeke in Belgium the British advanced their lines on a front of +about 600 yards during the night of July 4, 1917. Successful raids in +the vicinity of Wieltje and Nieuport resulted in the capture of a good +number of prisoners. + +On the Verdun front the Germans renewed their offensive without +obtaining any important progress. Heavy artillery fighting continued +near Moronvilliers in the Champagne and around Hill 304. + +German positions west and north of this hill were subjected to a +destructive fire of French batteries during the day of July 5, 1917, +and with such good effect that the enemy guns only feebly replied. + +Near Louvemont, on the left bank of the Meuse, the French were +successful in several encounters with German patrols, which they +dispersed after sharp fighting, killing a number and taking prisoners. + +In the Champagne, especially at Le Casque and Le Teton, there was +active artillery fighting throughout the day. In the region between +the Miette and the Aisne the Germans attacked three French posts, but +were driven off by the French artillery fire. + +The British now took the offensive and advanced their line on a +600-yard front south of Ypres, near Hollebeke, and continued to exert +pressure on the German lines. On the 7th a further push forward was +made east of Wytschaete in Belgium. + +The French sector of the Chemin-des-Dames to the south of Filain was +menaced at all times because it was dominated by the ancient fort of +Malmaison in possession of the enemy. In the early morning of July 9, +1917, the Germans began an intense bombardment of this sector and then +attempted to rush ten or twelve infantry battalions into the French +positions. A brigade of the famous Chasseurs-a-pied holding the line +were forced back by overwhelming numbers. The Germans evidently +thought that success was certain, for they had brought with them +quantities of barbed wire, boxes of grenades, and trench mortars, and +everything that was needed to organize the position whose capture +would give them the command of a considerable section of +Chemin-des-Dames. + +They failed, however, to consider the indomitable French spirit. The +Chasseurs had only retreated a short distance when they gathered +together engineers and reservists who had been working on roads in the +rear and rushed back, and by a series of brilliant counterattacks +ejected or killed most of the Germans in spite of their heroic +resistance, capturing large quantities of their war material and +reoccupying the line almost to its fullest extent. + +The Germans having obtained reenforcements, fought furiously to regain +the lost position, but the French elated by their success redoubled +their efforts to destroy the enemy and the shell craters, and +communication trenches were soon encumbered with German dead. The +French losses in the fighting here were severe, but as they occupied +safer positions the Germans' casualties were far greater. The fighting +was so intense throughout the action that very few prisoners were +taken by either side. A group of French soldiers who had been made +prisoners and brought to the German second line attacked their guard +and fled to their own lines, escaping without hurt the intense fire +directed against them. + +On this date, July 10, 1917, the Germans delivered a smashing blow +against the British lines north of Nieuport on the Belgian coast. For +twenty-four hours the Germans had maintained an intense bombardment +which lasted from 6 o'clock in the morning of the 10th up to midnight +and was renewed again at dawn on the following day. The firing was on +such a huge scale that it could be distinctly heard as far as London. +The effect of this bombardment was to level all the British defenses +in the dune sector and to destroy their bridges over the Yser. +According to the Berlin reports 1,250 men were captured by the Germans +in this battle. + +To the southward, in the region, of Lombaertzyde, the Germans only +obtained a temporary success, the British in a strong counterattack +driving them out of the positions they had won before they had time to +organize for defense. + +That the Germans were enabled to succeed in this coup was largely +owing to the weather conditions. A heavy gale was blowing on the +Belgian coast and British naval support was impossible. The Germans +enjoyed the advantage of having strong coast batteries all along the +dunes which they could move about at will from one point to another. +There was, however, no blinking the fact that a weak point existed in +the British defenses. Such success as the Germans won was attributed +by some critics to their superiority in the air, the British at the +time being short of machines. + +The net gains to the Germans in this battle was the capture of British +positions on a front of 1,400 yards to a depth of 600 yards. The +British losses in the shelled terrain between the river Yser and the +sea were estimated at 1,800. + +During the night of July 11, 1917, British naval aeroplanes carried +out successful raids in Flanders in and near five towns, when several +tons of bombs were dropped with good results. Railway lines and an +electric power station at Zarren were attacked by gunfire from the +air, and bombs were dropped on a train near St. Denis-Westrem. The +British airmen's bombs caused a fire near Ostend, and heavy explosions +at the Varssenaere railway dump followed by an intense conflagration +which was still flaming fiercely when the British returned safely to +their own lines. + +On the French front there was increasing aerial activity on July 12, +1917, on both sides from daybreak to midnight. In some cases as many +as thirty machines were actively engaged. As a result of these +encounters fourteen German aeroplanes were brought down and sixteen +others were driven out of control. Nine British machines were counted +missing. + +Fighting continued daily in the Champagne and at frequent intervals. +The Germans were paying a high price for every foot of ground gained +and learned at the cost of heavy sacrifices that the French were as +strong as ever, notwithstanding a report to the contrary was +circulated by the German High Command that they were short of men and +would be unable to fight much longer. + +On July 14, 1917, the French scored a double victory when they +occupied five heights among a clump of hills known as the +Moronvilliers Massif to the east of Rheims. The positions won were of +the first importance whereby the Germans lost their principal +observatories in this region. The French occupied all the crests of +the hills, but some of the slopes were held by the Germans, from which +points of vantage they were able to watch the movements of their +opponents. + +The net gains to the French during the day included a network of +German trenches on a front of over 800 yards to a depth of 300 yards, +while the prisoners captured numbered 360, including nine officers. + +On the left bank of the Meuse, in the Verdun sector, around Hill 304 +and Dead Man Hill, artillery duels were continuous during the night of +July 13, 1917. + +The loss of the strong positions on the Moronvilliers hills, the chief +observation posts in the region, spurred the Germans on to make +frequent and frenzied attempts to force the French out. In the night +of July 15, 1917, the hills were subjected to sustained and violent +bombardment. It was followed by German attacks on Mont Haut and a +height known as the Teton. At Mont Haut the Germans succeeded in +penetrating French positions, but were driven out by a brilliant +counterattack. The fighting lasted throughout the night, and was of +the most violent description. By morning the French had thrust the +Germans back and held all positions on the hills securely. The Germans +had gained only a short stretch of trench near Mont Haut, which for +the time they were able to hold possession. + +On the left bank of the Meuse, in the Verdun sector, to the west of +Hill 304, the French carried out a dashing operation early in the +morning of July 17, 1917. After strong artillery preparation that had +lasted all through the previous night the French attacked, and +notwithstanding the stubborn and energetic resistance of the enemy, +recaptured in a few minutes all the positions that the Germans had +occupied since June 29, 1917. Following up the advantage thus gained +the French carried German positions beyond their objectives to a depth +of 2,000 yards on both sides of the road between Esnes and Malancourt. +All the first German line was captured, and a little later after the +most intense fighting the second line was carried. The French gained +ground in this advance to a depth of over a mile. The number of +unwounded prisoners captured reached 425, of whom eight were officers. + +The loss of such important positions in the Verdun sector stimulated +the Germans to make repeated endeavors to recapture them, and during +the night of July 17, 1917, they delivered furious counterattacks +preceded by intense artillery preparations. The assaults were all +repulsed by the French, and at no point were the Germans enabled to +gain even a temporary footing. + +In the evening of July 18, 1917, the Germans attacked the French lines +south of St. Quentin over a front of about half a mile. They succeeded +in penetrating the first line, and held it for a brief period, when +they were driven out. A few hours later the Germans made another +strong attack over a front of about four miles, their objective being +the same--the hillock known as Moulin-sous-Toutvent. This attack was +broken up by the French artillery and machine-gun fire. + +Throughout the day of July 19, 1917, French and German artillery were +active along the whole French front, but beyond inflicting some +casualties for which they paid heavily the Germans gained no +advantage. + +A general assault was launched by the Germans with important forces +during the night of July 19, 1917, on the line along the plateau +between Craonne and Vauclerc. Over the whole extent of the front there +was hand-to-hand fighting, but everywhere the French succeeded in +holding their positions. An energetic counterattack made between the +Californie and Casemates Plateaus enabled the French to regain a +trench line which the Germans had penetrated and held since the +previous day. Fighting continued in the Hill 304 region, and in the +Champagne, but the Germans failed to make any progress. + +[Illustration: The Somme Battle Front, August 1, 1917.] + +During these days of intense fighting on the French front the British +had not been marking time, but they had far less to contend against +than their valorous allies. The French had to bear the brunt of German +fury throughout the week. The whole French line from Verdun to St. +Quentin in this period had been subjected to almost continuous +attacks. At the cost of enormous losses that had not been exceeded +during the war, save at Verdun in the previous year, the Germans had +only gained a slight advance on a front of 2,000 feet, at the foot of +the slope leading to the Chemin-des-Dames between Vauclerc and +Craonne. The French now held all the important heights of the Aisne +which Hindenburg had declared were impregnable. + +The German High Command had given orders that the French positions on +the heights must be captured at all hazards. Throughout the night of +July 21, 1917, the high plateaus north of Craonne were shelled by +German guns of the heaviest caliber. An attack was made at daybreak +from Hurtebise to the east of Craonne. The two plateaus to the north, +called the Casemates and Californie positions, are three-cornered in +shape, projecting toward the north and joined by a narrow saddle. The +approach to this is not so abrupt from the north as that to the +plateaus themselves. The French artillery fire broke up the attack +between Hurtebise and the Casemates Plateau before it could develop. + +Assemblages of German troops north of Ailette were dispersed with +heavy losses by the concentrated fire from French batteries. German +attacks east of the plateaus led to violent hand-to-hand conflicts in +which the Germans fought with great courage, but were unable to make +gains. Throughout the day the battle raged, the Germans hurling great +masses of men against the French lines, and, thrown back with heavy +losses, again and again renewed the attacks. On the Californie Plateau +after repeated repulses they succeeded in gaining a foothold, but +were only able to hold it for a short time, when the French threw them +back in an assault that laid many a German low. + +Since the 10th of the month the British had done little but repel +counterattacks, but they had won a little useful ground east of +Monchy, close to the coast, and around Ypres and Lens theirs and the +German batteries were busy day and night. From prisoners captured by +the British it was learned that the Germans were suffering from the +great wastage of men. Out of one division west of Lens it was stated +that between seventy and eighty men had been buried every day for some +weeks past. The British losses were also considerable, but their guns +did more shooting, and the enemy's casualties were consequently much +heavier. The British continued to hold the upper hand in air combats, +few German machines being encountered. During July 23-24, 1917, +British airmen dropped between four and five tons of bombs on enemy +aerodromes, ammunition depots, and railway junctions with good +results. North and east of Ypres the British made several raids during +the 24th, capturing 114 prisoners, including two officers. + +On the French front General Petain, commander in chief of the French +armies, found time while the battle was still raging to review the +famous division whose four regiments had won the highest honors at +Verdun, Nieuport, on the Somme, and in the Champagne. The troops which +had been fighting for three years showed outwardly no sign of the +terrible ordeals they had undergone, holding themselves proudly erect +as they passed the saluting base amid the strains of military music +and flying colors. General Petain, who believed in treating his men as +if they were his own sons, commended their bravery and thanked them in +the name of the Republic for the brilliant example they had set to the +other soldiers of France. + +The loss of the plateaus north of Craonne continued to rankle in the +mind of the German command, and repeated efforts were made to recover +these precious positions. In the night of July 25, 1917, a ferocious +attack was made on the French lines on a front of about two miles +from La Bovelle Farm to a point east of Hurtebise. In the face of a +murderous fire from the French artillery that wrought havoc in the +advancing masses the Germans pressed on and succeeded in occupying +portions of French first-line trenches south of Ailles. Repeated +attacks made on Hurtebise Farm broke down under French artillery fire. +Attacks on Mont Haut, following an intense bombardment that lasted all +night long, failed to make any progress. North of Auberive the French +carried out a successful operation during which they penetrated German +trenches and continued their advance. + +In Flanders in the night of the 25th the town of Nieuport, which had +been in ruins since the first year of the war, was bombarded by the +Germans with guns of every caliber. The British guns replied with +equal violence, so that for miles around the air vibrated day and +night and the ground shook with tremors. + +East of Monchy the Germans resumed action, 400 attacking with flame +throwers the line of British trenches that had already been smashed by +artillery fire, and succeeded in occupying some posts of no great +importance. + +In the Champagne the sorely tried French troops were allowed no +respite by the Germans, who would not renounce their hope of regaining +the important positions on the heights. In the night of July 26, 1917, +no less than five attacks were made by the Germans in the vicinity of +the height south and west of Moronvilliers, but all broke down under +fire of the French artillery. East of Auberive, several groups of +Germans led by an officer tried a surprise attack which led to close +fighting and from which hardly one German soldier escaped unwounded. +The ground around the French position was strewn with dead, including +that of the officer who led the attack. + +[Illustration: Barrage or curtain fire used to protect and clear the +way for an infantry advance. Here the fire is being used to protect +French troops for an advance on Fort Vaux.] + +From the Flemish coast southward past Lens the great gun duel +between the British and Germans continued without ceasing. The +Germans had brought up vast stores of ammunition and poured shells +into Nieuport, Ypres, and Armentieres, and for miles around sprayed +the country at large with the hope of smashing hidden British +batteries. To this wide sweeping storm of fire the British were +replying with far greater violence, sending two shells to the +enemy's one, a rivalry of destruction that had not been surpassed on +any previous occasion since the war began. Except for occasional +raids the infantry remained quiescent under this gunnery. North of +Arras and east of Ypres the British raids netted a considerable +number of prisoners and machine guns. The fury of the British fire +was not without effect on the generally stolid and imperturbable +Germans, for at Fontaine-les-Croisilles they ran away without +firing a shot when a British raiding party rushed forward to attack. + +The three weeks' bombardment in Belgium closed on the morning of July +31, 1917, when British and French troops launched an attack on a +gigantic scale along a front of nearly twenty miles from Dixmude on +the north to Warneton on the south. The Allies won a notable victory, +capturing in the first day of the battle ten towns and over 5,000 +prisoners, including ninety-five officers. The attack began a little +before 4 o'clock in the morning, just when the first faint light of +dawn was breaking, German trenches had been either leveled or were +completely wiped out by the preceding bombardment. The shelling +increased in violence as the troops of the Allies left their positions +and rushed forward to attack. The first and second German lines were +carried almost without opposition, but at some points the Germans held +up the advance with machine guns from their rear positions. These the +British stormed, and lost considerable men in the operation, but they +were comforted with the thought that the German losses were much +heavier. + +As a result of the day's operations the British had advanced their +line on a front of over fifteen miles from La Basse Ville, on the +river Lys, to Steenstraete on the river Yser. + +The French troops on the extreme left and protecting the left flank of +the British forces captured the village of Steenstraete, and rushing +on penetrated the German defenses to a depth of nearly two miles. +Having won all their objectives at an early hour in the day, the +French continued to advance, occupying Bixschoote and capturing German +positions to the southeast and west of the village on a front of +nearly two and a half miles. In the center and on the left British +divisions swept the enemy from positions to a depth of two miles, and +secured crossings at the river Steenbeek, thus gaining all their +objectives. In carrying out this attack British troops captured two +powerful defensive systems by assault, and won against fierce +opposition the villages of Verlorenhoek, Frezenberg, St. Julien, and +Pilken, together with farms that had been transformed into fortresses +and other strongholds in neighboring woods. + +The victory of the Allies was more remarkable because of unfavorable +weather conditions. The day was marked by heavy rain and the sky was +full of heavy sodden clouds, so that observation was well nigh +impossible for the airmen and kite balloons. Fortunately on the night +before the attack the rain held off and the many thousands of British +troops who occupied mudholes and shell holes close to the enemy lines +had reason to bless the dark since they had a better chance of +escaping observation. But this was not always possible, for the German +flares and rockets often revealed their position and a shell would +pass over them or smash among them, killing some and maiming others. +Those who escaped these death-dealing visitors were forced to maintain +silence, lest they betray their position. During the night the German +aviators were more active than during the day and many times their +bombs found a mark among the British soldiers crouching on the ground. +It was a terrible ordeal through which these brave fellows had to +pass, the forced inaction was maddening, and they were all the more +eager to fight when at last the welcome signal came in the early dawn +to go forward to attack. + +Despite the discouraging weather conditions, which hindered +observation, large squadrons of British planes led the advance against +the German lines and not only maintained constant contact with the +infantry, but flying low carried on a destructive warfare with their +machine guns. + +There were many air battles fought at a few hundred feet above the +ground, but the Germans were decidedly outclassed and had to retire +after they had lost six machines. + +One British aviator doing patrol duty, and flying at a height of not +more than thirty feet, came upon a German aerodrome on which he +dropped a bomb with careful precision. As the Germans in the sheds +came tumbling out, the aviator turned his machine gun on them, and +circling around the field poured such a stream of fire into the +kaiser's men that they scattered, leaving a number of dead on the +ground. + +The Germans having presently recovered, from their astonishment got a +machine gun into action and came back to attack the airman, who made a +dive, and when not more than twenty feet from the ground silenced +their gun with his own. Then he circled the field, firing through the +doors of every building he passed on the groups of men within. Leaving +this scene the British airman next came upon two German officers, and +his machine-gun working steadily put them to flight. A column of +several hundred troops encountered after this were dispersed when he +swept along the line, leaving a number of dead and wounded on the +field. It was now time to return to the British lines for more +ammunition and some slight repairs, but the gallant aviator +encountered two German war planes that engaged him in battle. One he +disabled by a well-directed shot and the other seized the opportunity +to hurry from the scene. + +On the Aisne front during July 31, 1917, there was violent artillery +fighting south of La Royere; the French had won all their objectives +and more. The German advanced trenches were filled with dead and the +French captured 210 prisoners. + +On the same date the Germans after heavily bombarding French lines at +Cerny and Hurtebise, attacked positions east of Cerny on a front of +1,500 meters with three regiments. French counterattacks immediately +carried out, drove the Germans back, their ranks seriously depleted, +and the French were now enabled to advance along the whole front. + +The day was calm on both sides of the Meuse, but farther south, in the +right center of the French attack, after gaining Hooge village and +Sanctuary Wood, their first objectives, they fought their way forward +and carried the village of Westhoek, against very obstinate +resistance from the enemy. In this neighborhood there was stiff +fighting throughout the day, and still continued. The French had +penetrated the German defenses to a depth of about a mile. A number of +violent counterattacks were repulsed. South of the Zillebeke-Zandvoord +road, on the extreme right, French troops at an early hour in the day +had succeeded in winning all of their objectives, capturing the +villages of La Basse Ville, and Hollebeke. The French claimed to have +suffered few casualties in these important operations, and by +nightfall of July 31, 1917, over 3,500 German prisoners had been +passed behind the lines. + +The German Government having industriously circulated reports that +the French armies had suffered such a wastage of men that in a short +time they would prove a negligible factor in the war, the French War +Office announced that there were a million more troops in the fighting +zone than were mustered to stem the German flood tide at the Battle of +the Marne. It was also declared that the Republic had more men under +arms than at any time in her history. Nearly 3,000,000 troops were in +France alone, exclusive of the interior and in the colonies. + + + + +PART VIII--THE UNITED STATES AND GERMANY + + + + +CHAPTER LXI + +THE INTERIM + + +The cessation of diplomatic relations between the American and German +Governments was an inevitable consequence of the latter's submarine +decree abrogating the undertaking it gave in the _Sussex_ case. The +world knew it. Germany knew it. Her ambassador at Washington, Count +von Bernstorff, knew it best of all, and accepted his dismissal in a +fatalistic spirit. The rupture had to come. He had done his best to +avert it, and his best had availed nothing. + +The long-feared break having become a reality, the American people +looked wide-eyed at the unexampled international situation. What now? +When two parties enter into a bargain and one breaks it, there is +usually a parting of the ways, a personal conflict perhaps, when there +is not also a lawsuit. But no court could settle the differences +between the United States and Germany. The nation squarely faced the +fact that the two countries were officially not on speaking terms; +they were on the dangerous ground of open enmity, when the least +provocation would be as a spark to a powder magazine. Sparks there +were in plenty; but the explosion waited. President Wilson guarded the +magazine. He waited an "overt act" before giving up his vigil and +letting events take their course. + +Germany began her announced ruthless submarine warfare against neutral +shipping with caution. Apparently she was loath to precipitate matters +by acting in the letter and spirit of the new decree which warned that +any neutral vessel found in the new danger zone "perished." On +February 3, 1917, when the decree was in operation, one of her +submarines encountered an American freighter, the _Housatonic_, off +the Scilly Isles, which came within the proscribed area. It sank her, +but first gave warning, permitted the crew to take to the boats, and +actually towed the boats ninety miles toward land. A British patrol +vessel then appeared; the submarine fired a signal to attract its +attention and vanished under water, leaving the patrol vessel to +rescue the _Housatonic's_ crew. According to the new order given the +submarines the _Housatonic_ ought to have been sunk without warning. + +This unwonted chivalry looked promising; but it was deemed to be +merely an act of grace extended to neutral vessels on the high seas +which had left their home ports before the date (February 1, 1917) +when the new policy of ruthlessness went into effect. It was not +repeated. + +No such shrift was accorded British vessels, whether Americans were on +board them or not. About the same time the merchantman _Eavestone_ was +sunk by a submarine, which also shelled the crew as they took to the +boats. The captain and three seamen--one an American--were killed by +the gunfire. This action was debated as an "overt act," but apparently +the Administration did not regard isolated fatalities of this +character as providing ground for a _casus belli_. + +What came nearer to a flagrant violation of the _Sussex_ agreement was +the destruction by submarine torpedoes of the Anchor passenger liner +_California_ without warning off the Irish coast with 230 persons on +board. The vessel sailed from New York for Glasgow on January 28, +1917, and its crew and passengers included a sprinkling of Americans. +There were no American casualties; but attacks on passenger liners +without warning, regardless of the menace to American life, formed the +crux of the various crises between the United States and Germany, and +the sinking of the _California_, as an "overt act," therefore brought +the breaking point nearer and nearer. The loss of life was forty-one, +thirteen passengers and twenty-eight of the crew being drowned. The +vessel sank in nine minutes and the submarine made no effort to save +the lives of its victims. + +The loss of two British steamers, the _Japanese Prince_ and the +_Mantola_, sunk without warning, added to the growing indictment +against Germany in the consequent jeopardizing of American lives. +There were thirty American cattlemen on board the _Japanese Prince_. +With the remainder of the crew they took to the boats, and after +drifting about for several hours were saved by a passing ship. An +American doctor on board the _Mantola_ was among the latter's +survivors. + +The next attack on American shipping was the sinking of the _Lyman M. +Law_, a sailing vessel loaded with lumber from Maine to Italy, by a +submarine off the coast of Sardinia in the Mediterranean. The crew, +seven of whom were American, were saved. There was no warning; the +crew were ordered to debark, a bomb was placed on board, and the +vessel was blown up and sank in flames. + +The destruction of the Cunard liner _Laconia_, without warning, +followed. Three American passengers were lost, two of them women, +mother and daughter, who died from exposure in one of the boats. The +vessel was torpedoed in the Irish Sea at 10.30 p. m. on February 25, +1917, and it was not until 4 o'clock the next morning that the +survivors, scantily clad, were rescued in a heavy sea. + +All these outrages were readily chargeable as overt acts, any single +one of which could have constituted a cause for war, if the +Administration was looking for one. But Germany's offenses, viewed +singly, were passed over; it was their cumulative force that was +providing the momentum to hostilities. + +Two American freighters, the _Orleans_ and the _Rochester_, left New +York on February 9, 1917, without guns or contraband, bound for +Bordeaux, France, and were the first craft to leave an American port +after Germany issued her terrifying order condemning all neutral +vessels found in the new danger zone. + +Meantime the barometer at Washington was ominous. The _California_ +sinking, then the _Laconia_, proved how slender was the thread that +held the sword of Damocles over the heads of the American people. +Tension increased. "We are hoping for the best and preparing for the +worst," came one official view early in the crisis. The President +became detached and uncommunicative. + +Germany indirectly sought to avert the consequences of her conduct. A +week after the rupture in diplomatic relations Dr. Paul Ritter, the +Swiss Minister, to whom she had delegated the charge of her interests +in the United States, approached the State Department with an informal +proposal to reopen negotiations. Secretary Lansing required him to put +his request in writing, and the following memorandum was thereupon +presented by Dr. Ritter on February 11, 1917: + +"The Swiss Government has been requested by the German Government to +say that the latter is now, as before, willing to negotiate, formally +or informally, with the United States, provided that the commercial +blockade against England will not be broken thereby." + +Secretary Lansing's answer, made the next day, was short and to the +point. He notified Dr. Ritter, under instructions from the President, +that "the Government of the United States would gladly discuss with +the German Government any questions it might propose for discussion +were it to withdraw its proclamation of the 31st of January [1917], in +which, suddenly and without previous intimation of any kind, it +canceled the assurances which it had given this Government on the 4th +of May last [1916], but that it does not feel that it can enter into +any discussion with the German Government concerning the policy of +submarine warfare against neutrals which it is now pursuing unless and +until the German Government renews its assurances of the 4th of May +and acts upon the assurance." + +No further interchanges took place on the subject. The answer +clarified the situation and disposed of doubts caused by the veil the +President had thrown about the workings of his mind. It told the +country that its Executive was not wavering and would brook no +compromise. + +Little hope prevailed in Berlin that war with the United States could +be avoided, since the bait offered with a view to formulating a _modus +vivendi_ for reconciling the divergent attitudes of the two +governments had failed. It was said that behind Dr. Ritter's overtures +was a proposal that American vessels would be spared in order to avoid +actual war if the United States assented to the continuance of the +extended blockade against England. This implied that all other +vessels, neutral or belligerent, were marked for destruction. However +that might be, Berlin, finding its approaches repulsed, boldly denied +that the German Government had been a party to initiating any +overtures at all. No recession of the submarine program was thought of +or proposed; no change of policy was possible In fact, this denial +brought with it tidings that the periods of grace Germany granted to +neutral ships entering the prohibited zones had expired and that all +immunity from attack and destruction had therefore ceased. Then it +developed that Dr. Ritter's overtures had been traced to pacific +elements in the United States, represented by William J. Bryan, who +was said to have been in league with the ex-ambassador, Count von +Bernstorff, and the Washington correspondent of a Cologne newspaper, +in a plan to avert hostilities. Part of this propaganda was the +transmission of dispatches from Washington to the German press stating +that the President's message to Congress must not be construed +literally, and that there was no desire for war with Germany. The +purpose of these dispatches was to prevail on Germany to abate her +submarine warfare by way of convincing the United States that her new +policy was not so ruthless as had been described. The pacifists knew +very well that the President had no intention of yielding to half +measures, and that the only course Germany could take to obtain a +resumption of negotiations was the absolute withdrawal of her order +revoking the _Sussex_ pledge. The Administration resented the +pacifists' activities as an attempt to undermine the uncompromising +position it had taken. Their dealings with a foreign government were +actually unlawful; but no action was taken. + +A subsequent announcement from Berlin stated that Dr. Ritter (inspired +by American pacifists) had telegraphed the German Government offering +to mediate, whereupon he was told that Germany was agreeable on the +terms named in the interchanges Dr. Ritter had with the State +Department. As to a belief which had arisen from Dr. Ritter's action +that the marine barrier maintained against Great Britain by submarines +and mines had been or would be weakened out of regard for the United +States or for other reasons, official Berlin (February 14, 1917) had +this to say: + +"Regard for neutrals prompts the clearest declaration that +unrestricted war against all sea traffic in the announced barred zones +is now in full effect and will under no circumstances be restricted." + +The United States had spoken: "Withdraw your new submarine decree +before making any proposal," it had demanded of Berlin. Germany had +spoken: "Our course cannot be changed." + +The situation in Washington drifted along without any definite program +of future action being disclosed; but the President was not idle. He +decided--though he held the power himself--to ask Congress for +authority to protect American shipping on the high seas by providing +merchantmen with naval guns and gunners. There was a freight +congestion in Atlantic ports, due to the reluctance of American +shipowners to sail their vessels without defensive armament. The +President's decision was a step nearer war, for armed American +vessels, on encountering German submarines, would be bound to cause +hostilities, and war would be a reality. Berlin took this view. If the +United States armed its merchant ships, German opinion was that the +considerate submarines would be unable to save passengers and crews of +the vessels they sank. Were the vessels unarmed the submarines could +perform this kindly service. This sardonic hint was construed as an +official warning from Germany that the arming of American vessels +meant war. The Administration, however, was no longer concerned with +Germany's viewpoint. It realized that so long as it permitted American +ships to be held in port in fear of attack by submarines if they +ventured out, its inaction would in effect be viewed as acquiescing in +the German policy. Such a state of affairs, it was decided, could not +be allowed to continue indefinitely. + + + + +CHAPTER LXII + +BERLIN'S TACTICS + + +Before the armed neutrality stage of the prewar period was reached +certain events transpired in Berlin which call for inclusion in the +record. + +Immediately upon the rupture of diplomatic relations the State +Department notified Ambassador Gerard, who was requested to ask for +his passports. About the same time the German Government acceded to a +demand made by Secretary Lansing for the release of a number of +Americans captured from ships sunk by a German raider in the South +Atlantic and taken to a German port on board one of them, the British +steamer _Yarrowdale_. Germany had no right to hold these men as +prisoners at all, since they were neutrals. Yet there was an attempt +to interject their release into the international crisis as an olive +branch and a concession to American feeling. The two issues were +distinct; but Germany, by her subsequent action, managed to link them +together. + +Ambassador Gerard requested his passports on February 5, 1917, while +the release of the _Yarrowdale_ prisoners was pending. Meantime +dispatches which came to Berlin from Washington via London were +blamed for misleading the German Government into thinking that the +United States was detaining Count von Bernstorff, and had seized the +German ships, with their crews, lying in American ports. Until it +received assurances regarding the "fate" of the ex-ambassador and +learned what treatment was to be meted out to the "captured" crews of +the German vessels, the kaiser's government detained Ambassador +Gerard, his staff, a number of Americans, including newspaper +correspondents, as well as the _Yarrowdale_ men. It practically held +all Americans in Germany as prisoners for a week. + +In view of the readiness of the German Government to seize upon the +flimsiest excuses for its manifold disgraceful deeds, permissible +doubts arose as to whether it was willingly or willfully misled by the +dispatches. Every courtesy was shown to the departing German +Ambassador by the Washington Government; safe conduct across the ocean +was obtained for him from Great Britain; and he publicly expressed his +acknowledgments. As to the German vessels, there were no seizures, and +the only restraints imposed on the crews were those required by the +immigration laws. Whatever the motive, the detention of Ambassador +Gerard was so wanton a violation of law and usage as to constitute in +itself an act of war. + +While Ambassador Gerard was held incommunicado in Berlin, his mail +intercepted, his telephone cut off, and telegraphic facilities denied +him, the German Government actually sought to parley with him by way +of revising an old treaty to apply to existing conditions. Mr. Gerard, +having ceased to hold ambassadorial powers after the breaking of +relations, could not enter into any such negotiations; but then the +German Government had never been concerned with legalities. It blandly +asked him to sign a protocol, the main purpose of which was to protect +Germans and their interests in the United States in the event of war. + +The proposed protocol, besides containing a formal reratification of +the American-Prussian treaties of 1799 and 1828 regarding mutual +treatment of nationals caught in either belligerent country in case of +war, provided for some remarkable additions as a "special +arrangement" should war be declared. + +Germans in the United States and Americans in Germany were to be +entitled to conduct their businesses and continue their domicile +unmolested, but could be excluded from fortified places and other +military areas. Or if they chose, they were free to leave, with their +personal property, except such as was contraband. If they remained +they were to enjoy the exercise of their private rights in common with +neutral residents. They were not to be transferred to concentration +camps nor their property sequestered except under conditions applying +to neutral property. Patent rights of the respective nationals in +either country were not to be declared void nor be transferred to +others. No contracts between Germans and Americans were to be canceled +or suspended, nor were citizens of either country to be impeded in +fulfilling their obligations arising thereunder. Finally Germany +required that enemy merchant ships in either country should not be +forced to leave port unless allowed a binding safe conduct by all the +enemy sea powers. + +In short, Germany asked that in the event of war her nationals and her +ships and commercial interests in the United States be regarded as on +a neutral footing and exempt from all military law. They were to be as +free and unrestricted as in peace time. + +Mr. Gerard refused to sign the protocol after he had ceased to +exercise ambassadorial functions. Thereupon Count Montgelas, chief of +the American department of the Foreign Office, hinted that his refusal +to sign it might affect the status of Americans in Germany and their +privilege of departure. The reference was to American press +correspondents in Berlin, whose fate was apparently thought to weigh +with American public opinion. This threat to detain newspaper +representatives as supposedly important pieces on the diplomatic +chessboard before war was declared brought a firm refusal from Mr. +Gerard to yield to such pressure. He also expressed doubt whether the +newspaper representatives could be utilized to urge acceptance of the +protocol under pain of detention. Thenceforth nothing further was +heard of the protocol. Germany was undoubtedly exercising duress in +requiring Mr. Gerard to sign it, since his passports were withheld and +a needless guard had been placed round the American Embassy. + +It appeared that the protocol had also been submitted to the State +Department by the Swiss Minister in Washington. Secretary Lansing +finally disposed of it. In a communication to Dr. Ritter he said the +United States Government refused to modernize and extend the treaties +as Germany proposed, and indicated that the Government held the +treaties null and void since Germany herself had grossly violated her +obligations under them. The treaty of 1828, for example, contained +this clause governing freedom of maritime commerce of either of the +contracting parties when the other was at war: + +"The free intercourse and commerce of the subjects or citizens of the +party remaining neuter with the belligerent powers shall not be +interrupted. + +"On the contrary, in that case, as in full peace, the vessels of the +neutral party may navigate freely to and from the ports and on the +coasts of the belligerent parties, free vessels making free goods, +insomuch that all things shall be adjudged free which shall be on +board any vessel belonging to the neutral party, although such things +belong to an enemy of the other. + +"And the same freedom shall be extended to persons who shall be on +board a free vessel, although they should be enemies to the other +party, unless they be soldiers in actual service of such an enemy." + +Secretary Lansing pointed out another clause of equal import in the +treaty of 1799, providing: + +"All persons belonging to any vessels of war, public or private, who +shall molest or insult in any manner whatever the people, vessel, or +effects of the other party, shall be responsible in their persons and +property for damages and interests, sufficient security for which +shall be given by all commanders of private armed vessels before they +are commissioned." + +Germany was reminded of her violations of these stipulations in strong +terms. Said Secretary Lansing: + +"Disregarding these obligations, the German Government has proclaimed +certain zones of the high seas in which it declared without +reservation that all ships, including those of neutrals, will be sunk, +and in those zones German submarines have in fact, in accordance with +this declaration, ruthlessly sunk merchant vessels and jeopardized or +destroyed the lives of American citizens on board. + +"Moreover, since the severance of relations between the United States +and Germany certain American citizens in Germany have been prevented +from removing from the country. While this is not a violation of the +terms of the treaties mentioned, it is a disregard of the reciprocal +liberty of intercourse between the two countries in times of peace and +cannot be taken otherwise than as an indication of the purpose on the +part of the German Government to disregard, in the event of war, the +similar liberty of action provided for in Article 23 of the treaty of +1799--the very article which it is now proposed to interpret and +supplement almost wholly in the interests of the large number of +German subjects residing in the United States and enjoying in their +persons or property the protection of the United States Government." + +In addition to declining to enter into the special protocol Germany +proposed, Secretary Lansing significantly added: + +"The Government is seriously considering whether or not the treaty of +1828 and the revised articles of the treaties of 1785 and 1799 have +not been in effect abrogated by the German Government's flagrant +violations of their provisions, for it would be manifestly unjust and +inequitable to require one party to an agreement to observe its +stipulations and to permit the other party to disregard them. + +"It would appear that the mutuality of the undertaking has been +destroyed by the conduct of the German authorities." + +The meaning of this passage was that as Germany was deemed to have +abrogated the treaties by sinking American ships, the German vessels +immured in American harbors would be under no treaty protection should +war be declared, and would be immediately seized by the American +Government. Germany had thus destroyed the protection they would have +received in case of war. + +The intimidation exercised on Ambassador Gerard to obtain his +signature to the protocol and its submission by Dr. Ritter to +Secretary Lansing showed that Germany was nervously concerned about +safeguarding her interests in the United States and feared for the +safety of her nationals in the pending crisis. Ample assurances +presently came to Berlin, however, that, during the diplomatic break +at any rate, the American Government would not resort to Teutonic +methods. Count von Bernstorff was safe; no ships had been seized; no +crews arrested; no other German persons or interests molested. +Thereupon Ambassador Gerard and an entourage of some 120 Americans +received their passports and left the German capital on February 10, +1917, for the United States via Switzerland and Spain. + +Germany was less ready to release the Americans known as the +_Yarrowdale_ prisoners. Her Government still appeared to fear that the +crews of German warships in American ports were in danger, and +evidently wanted hostages at hand lest any trouble befell them at the +hands of the American military authorities. Secretary Lansing demanded +their release on February 3, 1917, when relations were broken. Germany +assented, then withdrew her assent. A second request for their freedom +and for an explanation of their continued detention was made on +February 13, 1917. At this date the men had been held as prisoners of +war for forty-four days contrary to international law. After being +captured from Allied vessels sunk by the German raider, they were +taken before a prize court at Swinemunde, when their status was +determined. Neutral merchant seamen, according to Germany, must be +held as prisoners of war because they had served and taken pay on +armed enemy vessels. Germany disclosed for the first time that she was +treating armed merchantmen as ships of war and regarded neutral seamen +found on such vessels as combatants. The German raider had captured +altogether 103 subjects of neutral states. They were not imprisoned +because they had committed hostile acts, which would have justified +their detention. They were penalized for being on enemy vessels. The +American Government insisted that Germany had no right to hold any +Americans as war prisoners unless they committed hostile acts. Germany +had no answer to make to that contention. But she did not free them. +"They will be released just as soon as we learn of the fate of the +German crews in American ports," said Herr Zimmermann, Foreign +Secretary. + +[Illustration: Woodrow Wilson was inaugurated President of the United +States, March 4, 1913; was reelected and began his second term March +4, 1917. He signed the Declaration of War, April 6, 1917.] + +Germany had already been assured that the crews were in no danger. The +conviction grew that she meant to detain the _Yarrowdale_ seamen as +hostages pending a determination of the crisis as to peace or war. The +Administration had been inclined to subordinate all collateral issues +between the two countries to the major and vital one created by the +submarine peril; but the plight of these seamen caused their case to +become one of the chief factors in the crisis. Germany seemed to +conclude that their continued detention, in view of the indignation +roused in Washington by such a wanton violation of international law, +to say nothing of the open insult hurled at the dignity and good faith +of the United States, would only precipitate war. On February 16, +1917, came a report that the men had been released. This proved to be +a false alarm. On February 26, 1917, Berlin notified that their +release, although ordered "some time ago," had been deferred because +an infectious disease had been discovered in their concentration camp +at Brandenburg. They were consequently placed in quarantine "in the +interest of neutral countries." On March 2, 1917, Dr. Ritter informed +Secretary Lansing that the transfer of the American sailors to the +frontier had been arranged but delayed until the quarantine ended. On +March 8, 1917, they were finally released from quarantine and sent to +the Swiss frontier. Members of other neutral crews were sent home +through various frontier towns. All were said to have been penniless +and in rags. Apart from the necessary quarantine (a Spanish doctor +found typhus in the camp), the record stands as an example of +Germany's gift for unscrupulous temporizing and for using +procrastination as a club to hold the United States at bay when on the +brink of war. + +The Reichstag met shortly after Germany had compulsorily disposed of +her connections with the United States. An expected address by the +kaiser's Chancellor, Dr. von Bethmann-Hollweg, had been deferred until +February 27, 1917, when a tardy official recognition was made of the +American action. + +The most deliberate official notice of the course the United States +would take was served on the German Government in the President's +ultimatum arising out of the torpedoing of the _Sussex_ early in 1916. +If Germany continued her ruthless sea warfare, the President warned +her, "the Government of the United States can have no choice but to +sever diplomatic relations with the German Empire altogether." Now the +time had come for the President to go even beyond that step. The day +before the Reichstag listened to the Chancellor's complaint the voice +of the American President was again heard in the Capitol at +Washington. + + + + +CHAPTER LXIII + +ARMED NEUTRALITY + + +President Wilson addressed Congress in joint session, February 26, +1917, asking authority to use the armed forces of the United States to +protect American rights on the high seas. He desired to establish a +state of "armed neutrality." This was not a request for a declaration +of war, nor was it an act of war. It was to prepare the United States +to resist what might be warlike acts by Germany. + +Reviewing the maritime conditions caused by Germany's submarine order +of January 31, 1917, which produced the diplomatic rupture, the +President disclosed an unexpected view--that Germany's misdeeds in +carrying out her new decree had not, in his opinion, so far provided +the "overt act" for which the United States was waiting. + +"Our own commerce has suffered, is suffering," he said, "rather in +apprehension than in fact, rather because so many of our ships are +timidly keeping to their home ports, than because American ships have +been sunk.... + +"In sum, therefore, the situation we find ourselves in with regard to +the actual conduct of the German submarine warfare against commerce +and its effects upon our own ships and people is substantially the +same that it was when I addressed you on February 3, except for the +tying up of our shipping in our own ports because of the unwillingness +of our shipowners to risk their vessels at sea without insurance or +adequate protection, and the very serious congestion of our commerce, +which has eventuated, a congestion which is growing rapidly more and +more serious every day. + +"This in itself might presently accomplish, in effect, what the new +German submarine orders were meant to accomplish, so far as we are +concerned. We can only say, therefore, that the overt act which I have +ventured to hope the German commanders would in fact avoid has not +occurred." + +But he felt that American immunity thus far had been more a matter of +happy accident than due to any consideration of German submarine +commanders. Nevertheless, he pointed out, it would be foolish to deny +that the situation was fraught with the gravest possibilities and +dangers. Hence he sought from the Congress "full and immediate +assurance of the authority which I may need at any moment to +exercise." + +"No doubt," he proceeded, "I already possess that authority without +special warrant of law, by the plain implication of my constitutional +duties and powers, but I prefer in the present circumstances not to +act upon general implication. I wish to feel that the authority and +the power of the Congress are behind me in whatever it may become +necessary for me to do. We are jointly the servants of the people and +must act together and in their spirit, so far as we can divine and +interpret it.... + +"I am not now proposing or contemplating war or any steps that need +lead to it. I merely request that you will accord me by your own vote +and definite bestowal the means and the authority to safeguard in +practice the right of a great people who are at peace and who are +desirous of exercising none but the rights of peace to follow the +pursuit of peace in quietness and good will--rights recognized time +out of mind by all the civilized nations of the world. + +"I believe that the people will be willing to trust me to act with +restraint, with prudence, and in the true spirit of amity and good +faith that they have themselves displayed throughout these trying +months, and it is in that belief that I request that you will +authorize me to supply our merchant ships with defensive arms should +that become necessary, and with the means of using them, and to employ +any other instrumentalities or methods that may be necessary and +adequate to protect our ships and our people in their legitimate and +peaceful pursuits on the seas." + +Even before the President addressed Congress the "overt act" had been +committed by Germany. News of the sinking of the _Laconia_, already +mentioned, was published synchronously with the delivery of his +message and subjected to correction his allusion to the noncommittal +of any overt act by German submarines. The President, in fact, decided +later that the destruction of the Cunarder without warning and at +night, in rough seas, with the loss of American lives, constituted a +"clear-cut" violation of the pledge the German Government gave to the +United States after the _Lusitania_ and _Sussex_ sinkings. But it was +felt that the next step in meeting the situation now rested with +Congress. + +The Senate and House immediately set about framing bills conforming, +as far as the President's opponents permitted, to his request. There +was no time to be lost. Congress expired on March 4, 1917, by +constitutional limitation and the President had delayed submitting his +message until the last moment, so that Congress had only eight days to +debate and agree to a measure that excited the pacifists' bitter +animosity in both Houses, as well as the opposition of other +legislators who feared that the authority the President sought would +encroach on Congress's war-making prerogative. + +In the House of Representatives the opposition dwindled to negligible +proportions. Public sentiment had been stirred by the sinking of the +_Laconia_ and by certain revelations the Administration published +disclosing German overtures to Mexico in the event of war, the +character of which will be chronicled later. Sensitive to the public +pulse, the House was eager to receive the Armed-Ship Bill when it was +reported on February 28, 1917, by the Foreign Affairs Committee, which +had occupied a couple of days in shaping it. A stirring debate on the +bill took place the next day (March 1) under cloture rule, and before +the House adjourned that night it had passed the measure by a +substantial vote of 403 to 13. The bill was at once sent to the +Senate, and was substituted for the Senate Committee's bill, whose +provisions conferred larger powers on the President. Expecting the +Senate to pass its own bill as a substitute, it was the intention of +the House leaders to accept the Senate's measure when it came to them +for passage. The measure, however, never passed the Senate. Through +the wide latitude allowed for unlimited debate a handful of Senators +opposed to any action against Germany succeeded in effectually +blocking the bill. The Senate sat late into the night of February 28, +1917, and took up the Armed-Ship Bill the next day. Senator La +Follette, who led the successful filibuster against the bill, objected +to its consideration, and, under the rule of unanimous consent, would +only allow the bill to proceed on condition that no attempt was made +to pass it before the next day. A precious day was lost, which sealed +the fate of the measure. The bill came before the Senate for +continuous debate on March 2, 1917, when it got into a parliamentary +tangle. Debate was resumed on Saturday, March 3, 1917. Only a day and +a half of the session now remained. Senator Stone who, though in +charge of the bill, was opposed to it, found his position untenable +and surrendered its conduct to Senator Hitchcock. This course enabled +him to join the opponents of the bill openly by contending for an +amendment excluding munition ships from armed protection--a revival of +the arms embargo he had urged before. But the main obstruction to the +bill came from a group of Western senators, who balked every effort +for limiting debate or setting a time for a vote. As midnight neared +the Administration's supporters saw that its chances of passing before +Congress expired at noon the next day, Sunday, March 4, 1917, were of +the slightest, and, anxious that the country should know where they +stood, these senators, to the number of seventy-five, signed a +manifesto reading as follows: + +"The undersigned, United States senators, favor the passage of Senate +bill 8322, to authorize the President of the United States to arm +American merchant vessels. + +"A similar bill already has passed the House of Representatives by a +vote of 403 to 13. + +"Under the rules of the Senate, allowing unlimited debate, it now +appears to be impossible to obtain a vote prior to noon March 4, 1917, +when the session of Congress expires. + +"We desire the statement entered in the record to establish the fact +that the Senate favors the legislation and would pass it if a vote +could be obtained." + +The Senate continued sitting until the stroke of twelve noon on March +4, 1917. The President was in the Capitol receiving reports of the +course of his opponents' tactics. A vote not having been reached, the +Armed-Ship Bill went down to defeat, having been talked to death, and +the Senate automatically adjourned with the expiration of the last +session of the Sixty-fourth Congress. The bill was assured of passage, +had a vote been permitted, by 75 to 12. The twelve obstructionists +were Senators La Follette of Wisconsin, Norris of Nebraska, Cummins of +Iowa, Stone of Missouri, Gronna of North Dakota, Kirby of Arkansas, +Vardaman of Mississippi, O'Gorman of New York, Works of California, +Jones of Washington, Clapp of Minnesota, Lane of Oregon--seven +Republicans and five Democrats. + +The situation produced an indignant protest from the President, who, +in a public statement, described the termination of the session by +constitutional limitation as disclosing "a situation unparalleled in +the history of the country, perhaps unparalleled in the history of any +modern government. In the immediate presence of a crisis fraught with +more subtle and far-reaching possibilities of national danger than any +other the Government has known within the whole history of its +international relations, the Congress has been unable to act either to +safeguard the country or to vindicate the elementary rights of its +citizens." + +"The Senate," he proceeded, "has no rules by which debate can be +limited or brought to an end, no rules by which dilatory tactics of +any kind can be prevented. A single member can stand in the way of +action, if he have but the physical endurance. The result in this case +is a complete paralysis alike of the legislative and of the executive +branches of the Government. + +"Although, as a matter of fact, the nation and the representatives of +the nation stand back of the Executive with unprecedented unanimity +and spirit, the impression made abroad will, of course, be that it is +not so and that other governments may act as they please without fear +that this Government can do anything at all. We cannot explain. The +explanation is incredible. The Senate of the United States is the only +legislative body in the world which cannot act when its majority is +ready for action. A little group of willful men, representing no +opinion but their own, have rendered the great Government of the +United States helpless and contemptible. + +"The remedy? There is but one remedy. The only remedy is that the +rules of the Senate shall be so altered that it can act. The country +can be relied upon to draw the moral. I believe that the Senate can be +relied on to supply the means of action and save the country from +disaster." + +The new Senate of the Sixty-fifth Congress met in extraordinary +session at noon on March 6, 1917, when both parties took steps to +frame a revision of the rules for preventing filibustering. Both +caucuses agreed upon a cloture rule empowering the Senate to bring the +debate on any measure to an end by a two-thirds vote, limiting +speeches to one hour each, but sixteen senators must first make the +request in the form of a signed motion presented two days previously. +After several hours' discussion this rule passed the Senate on March +8, 1917. Thus the right to unlimited debate, which had been regarded +as the most characteristic prerogative of senators, was at last +restrained after enjoying a freedom of nearly one hundred and ten +years. + +The recalcitrant senators who prevented the passage of the Armed-Ship +Bill were the subject of bitter criticism from the press and public +throughout the country, which echoed, but in much stronger terms, the +President's denunciation of them. There was none to do them reverence +in the United States. The only meed of praise they received came from +Germany. The essence of editorial opinion in that country regarding +their action, according to a Berlin message, was that "so long as +there are men in the American Congress who boldly refuse to have their +country involved in the European slaughter merely for the sake of +gratifying Wilson's vainglorious ambition, there is hope that the +common sense of the American people will assert itself and that they +will not permit the appalling insanity to spread to the new world that +holds the old world in a merciless grip." + +The German press, like the senators whom it eulogized, was mistaken in +supposing that the President had been thwarted by the failure of the +Armed-Ship Bill. Certainly he remained in doubt as to his next course. +He had told Congress that he believed he had the power to arm merchant +ships without its authority, but did not care to act on general +implication. Now he was faced with the duty of ascertaining definitely +where his freedom of action lay, since Congress had impeded, instead +of facilitating, his conduct of the crisis with Germany. An old act, +passed in 1819, governing piracy at sea, had been unearthed, and at +first sight its terms were read as preventing the President from +arming merchant ships. The law advisers of the Government, Secretary +Lansing and Attorney General Gregory, examined this act and decided +that it was obsolete. They were of opinion that it did not apply to +the existing situation. The statute forbade American merchantmen from +defending themselves against the commissioned vessels of a nation with +which the United States was at "amity"; but they could resist by force +any attacks made on them by any other armed vessels. In short, it +legalized resistance to pirates. The word "amity" pre-supposed +friendly diplomatic relations as well as a normal condition of +traffic and commerce on the high seas in its application to the armed +vessels of other nations. The provision forbidding conflict with them +by American traders was intended primarily to prevent private citizens +from embarrassing the Government's foreign relations. Now it was held +that Germany's denial to Americans of the rights of the high seas was +inconsistent with true amity, and caused her war vessels to lose, so +far as the United States was concerned, their right to immunity from +attack, both under international law and under this municipal act, +which was viewed as superseded and void in its application to German +war craft. + +This decision disposed of an obstacle which had placed the President +in a dilemma. It was true he could go to Congress again; but immediate +action was imperative. Armed neutrality, under the President's powers +as commander in chief of the army and navy, was thereupon determined. +Every merchant ship which so desired would be provided with guns and +naval gunners to operate them. Foreign governments were notified of +this action in an executive memorandum which read: + +"In view of the announcement of the Imperial German Government on +January 81, 1917, that all ships, those of neutrals included, met +within certain zones of the high seas, would be sunk without any +precaution taken for the safety of the persons on board, and without +the exercise of visit and search, the Government of the United States +has determined to place upon all American merchant vessels sailing +through the barred areas an armed guard for the protection of the +vessels and the lives of the persons on board." + +The President meantime was also confronted with the necessity of +calling the new Congress into extra session, not so much to gain its +assent to armed neutrality (since he had determined to act without +it), but as a war expedient to support the measures projected against +Germany. Owing to the Senate filibuster the previous Congress had been +unable to pass appropriations exceeding $500,000,000, more than half +of which was needed for the army. The new Congress was accordingly +convened, to meet on April 16, 1917. + + + + +CHAPTER LXIV + +GERMANY'S BID TO MEXICO + + +While Congress was in the midst of its consideration of the Armed-Ship +Bill, the Administration amazed the country by revealing through the +press that Germany had made overtures to Mexico for an alliance with +that country in the event of war with the United States, and also +sought to involve Japan. + +This disclosure was due to American secret service agents, who had +intercepted a communication addressed by Herr Zimmermann, the German +Foreign Secretary, to Herr von Eckhardt, the German Minister at Mexico +City, reading as follows: + + "BERLIN, January 19, 1917. + + "On the 1st of February we intend to begin submarine warfare + unrestricted. In spite of this, it is our intention to endeavor + to keep neutral the United States of America. + + "If this attempt is not successful, we propose an alliance on the + following basis with Mexico: That we shall make war together and + together make peace. We shall give general financial support, and + it is understood that Mexico is to reconquer the lost territory + in New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona. The details are left to you + for settlement. + + "You are instructed to inform the President of Mexico of the + above in the greatest confidence as soon as it is certain that + there will be an outbreak of war with the United States, and + suggest that the President of Mexico, on his own initiative, + should communicate with Japan suggesting adherence at once to + this plan. At the same time, offer to mediate between Germany and + Japan. + + "Please call to the attention of the President of Mexico that the + employment of ruthless submarine warfare now promises to compel + England to make peace in a few months. + + "ZIMMERMAN." + +The Administration was in possession of this document, and achieved a +dramatic coup in exposing its contents just as important war +legislation was pending in Congress. The immediate effect of the +revelation was that the Armed-Ship Bill passed the House of +Representatives by the overwhelming majority recorded in the previous +chapter. The Senate was no less astonished; but its attitude was one +of incredulity and produced a demand to the State Department vouching +for the document's authenticity and demanding other information. +Secretary Lansing assured it that the letter was _bona fide_, but +declined to say more. + +The letter was transmitted to Von Eckhardt through Count von +Bernstorff, then German Ambassador at Washington, and now homeward +bound to Germany under a safe conduct obtained from his enemies by the +country against which he was plotting war. It came into the +President's hands a few days before it was published on March 1, 1917, +and provided a telling comment on Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg's +declaration that the United States had placed an interpretation on the +new submarine decree "never intended by Germany" and that Germany had +promoted and honored friendly relations with the United States "as an +heirloom from Frederick the Great." Its disclosure was viewed as a +sufficing answer to the German Chancellor's plaint that the United +States had "brusquely" broken off relations without giving "authentic" +reasons for its action. + +The bearings of the proposal to Mexico were admirably stated by the +Associated Press as follows: + +"The document supplies the missing link to many separate chains of +circumstances which, until now, have seemed to lead to no definite +point. It sheds new light upon the frequently reported but indefinable +movements of the Mexican Government to couple its situation with the +friction between the United States and Japan. + +"It adds another chapter to the celebrated report of Jules Cambon, +French Ambassador in Berlin before the war, for Germany's world-wide +plans for stirring up strife on every continent where they might aid +her in the struggle for world domination which she dreamed was close +at hand. + +"It adds a climax to the operations of Count von Bernstorff and the +German Embassy in this country, which have been colored with passport +frauds, charges of dynamite plots, and intrigue, the full extent of +which never has been published. + +"It gives new credence to persistent reports of submarine bases on +Mexican territory in the Gulf of Mexico. It takes cognizance of a fact +long recognized by American army chiefs, that if Japan ever undertook +to invade the United States it probably would be through Mexico, over +the border and into the Mississippi Valley to split the country in +two. + +"It recalls that Count von Bernstorff, when his passports were handed +to him, was very reluctant to return to Germany, but expressed a +preference for an asylum in Cuba. It gives a new explanation to the +repeated arrests on the border of men charged by American military +authorities with being German intelligence agents. + +"Last of all, it seems to show a connection with General Carranza's +recent proposal to neutrals that exports of food and munitions to the +Entente Allies be cut off, and an intimation that he might stop the +supply of oil, so vital to the British navy, which is exported from +the Tampico fields." + +A series of repudiations followed. The Mexican Government, through +various officials except President-elect Carranza himself, denied all +knowledge of Germany's proposal. The German Minister at Mexico City +protested that he had never received any instructions from Secretary +Zimmermann, which appeared to be the case, since they were +intercepted. From Tokyo came the assurance of Viscount Motono, +Japanese Foreign Minister, that Japan had received no proposal from +either Germany or Mexico for an alliance against the United States. He +scouted the idea as ridiculous, since it was based on the "outrageous +presumption that Japan would abandon her allies." Secretary Lansing +did not believe Japan had any knowledge of Germany's overtures to +Mexico, nor that she would consider approaches made by any enemy, and +was likewise confident that Mexico would not be a party to any +agreement which affected her relations with the United States. + +The Berlin Government impenitently admitted the transmission of the +Eckhardt letter and justified the alliance with Mexico it proposed. +The Budget Committee of the Reichstag, unequivocally and by a +unanimous vote, indorsed the initiation of the ill-starred project as +being within the legitimate scope of military precautions. Addressing +the Reichstag, Herr Zimmermann thus defended his action: + +"We were looking out for all of us, in the event of there being the +prospect of war with America. It was a natural and justified +precaution. I am not sorry that, through its publication in America, +it also became known in Japan. + +"For the dispatch of these instructions a secure way was chosen which +at present is at Germany's disposal. How the Americans came into +possession of the text which went to America in special secret code we +do not know. That these instructions should have fallen into American +hands is a misfortune, but that does not alter the fact that the step +was necessary for our patriotic interests. + +"Least of all are they in America justified in being excited about our +action. It would be erroneous to suppose that the step made a +particularly deep impression abroad. It is regarded as what it +is--justifiable defensive action in the event of war." + +The Mexican Government, despite its denials, remained under the +suspicion that it had secret dealings with Germany. Toward the close +of 1916 circumstantial rumors were afloat that German sea raiders, +who were then roaming the South Atlantic, had a base somewhere on the +coast of Mexico. The Allied Powers were persuaded that if this was +true the raiders could not obtain supplies from such a source without +the knowledge or connivance of the Mexican authorities. The British +charge at Mexico City thereupon presented a note to the Carranza +Government stating that if it was discovered that Mexican neutrality +had thus been violated, the Allies would take "drastic measures" to +end the situation. The retort of the Mexican Foreign Minister, Senor +Aquilar, almost insolent in tone, was to the effect that it was the +business of the Allies to keep German submarines out of western +waters, and that if they were not kept out Mexico would adopt whatever +course the circumstances might dictate. + +An allusion has previously been made to a peace proposal submitted by +General Carranza. Its character was such as to point to the presence +of German influences in Mexico, and the impression was created that it +was made solely to embarrass the United States. Shortly after the +American severance of relations with Germany, General Carranza +circulated an identical note to the neutral powers, including the +United States, asking them to join Mexico in an international +agreement to prohibit the exportation of munitions and foodstuffs to +the belligerents in Europe. Such an embargo, General Carranza piously +pointed out in florid terms, would compel peace. The inference was +plain. Only the Central Powers would benefit by such a step. If the +note was not directly inspired by German intrigue it certainly +suggested to the other neutrals a practical union against the Entente +Allies. The proposal was contrary to international law and to the +principles of neutrality as laid down by the United States to the +German and Austro-Hungarian Governments. + +The suspected complicity of Mexico as a tool of Germany, however, +faded before the inconceivable folly of the latter in gravely +proposing that Mexico should attempt to regain the "lost territories" +of New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas. The American press was almost +united in declaring that Germany had committed an act of war against +the United States. Certainly her exposed machinations brought +hostilities perceptibly nearer. + + + + +CHAPTER LXV + +A STATE OF WAR + + +Armed neutrality proved to be a passing phase in a rapidly developing +situation. When the President on March 9, 1917, called on the new +Congress to assemble on April 16, his course was solely dictated by +existing conditions, which required legislative support, by the +passage of adequate appropriations, for carrying out the defensive +measures decided upon. But armed neutrality never became a reality. As +a certain foretoken of war it could not be sustained. Not a naval gun +had found its way on to the bow or stern of a merchant ship before the +depredations of Germany forced the United States to reconsider its +predetermined course of defensive armament. + +"We make absolutely no distinction in sinking neutral ships within the +war zone," Herr Zimmermann had warned. "Our determination is +unshakable since that is the only way to end the war." + +This was an intimation that American vessels, like those of other +neutrals, must comply with the U-boat rulings or take the +consequences. Hence more American vessels were sunk, Germany pursuing +her evil way regardless of the American attitude. + +On March 12, 1917, the unarmed steamer _Algonquin_, with a crew of +twenty-seven, of whom ten were Americans, was shelled and sunk without +warning by a German submarine. The crew succeeded in escaping. + +A few days later the sinking of three unarmed American vessels, the +_City of Memphis_, _Illinois_, and _Vigilancia_, was announced. The +first and second named ships were returning to the United States in +ballast; hence their destruction could not be justified on the ground +that they were carrying freight for the Allies. The _City of Memphis_ +was first shelled and then torpedoed off the Irish coast on March 17, +1917. Her crew of fifty-seven escaped in five boats and were picked up +by a steamer. The _Illinois_ was torpedoed the next day. The +_Vigilancia_ was similarly sunk on March 16, 1917, by a submarine +which did not appear on the surface. Fifteen of the crew, including +five Americans, were lost. + +These sinkings occasioned gratification in Germany. Count Reventlow, a +notable German publicist, thus welcomed them in the "Deutsche +Tageszeitung": + +"It is good that American ships have been obliged to learn that the +German prohibition is effective, and that there is no question of +distinctive treatment for the United States. In view of such losses, +there is only one policy for the United States, as for the small +European maritime powers, namely, to retain their ships in their own +ports as long as the war lasts." + +Another German press comment was that the sinkings were certain to +produce special satisfaction throughout the empire. + +German contempt for American feeling could no further go. A cabinet +meeting held on March 20, 1917, disclosed that the President's +colleagues, even reputed pacifists like Secretaries Daniels and Baker, +were a unit in regarding a state of armed neutrality as inadequate to +meet the serious situation. The President was confronted with the +necessity of immediately taking more drastic action rather than +continuing to pursue measures of passive defense against the submarine +peril represented by arming ships. The cabinet's demand was for an +earlier convocation of Congress and a declaration that a state of war +existed between the United States and Germany. The President listened, +and that evening attended a theater supposedly to divert and prepare +his mind for coping with the gravest of problems. Events proved that +he had already determined his course. + +Armed neutrality was a delusive phrase and misrepresented actual +conditions; it merely glozed over a state of undeclared hostility and +deceived no one. Yet it had its adherents; they wanted to give it a +fair trial before discarding the pretense that it existed. The +Government, they said, should wait and see how armed ships fared at +the hands of German submarines. If they proved equal to encounters +with U-boats, or, better still, if the U-boats did not dare to attack +them, there would be no occasion for further action. The proposal +would not bear scrutiny since it was now known that Germany regarded +armed merchantmen as ships of war and their crews as combatants. + +The next day, March 21, 1917, the President issued a proclamation +calling upon Congress to assemble on April 2, instead of April 16, "to +receive a communication concerning grave matters of national policy." +The national emergency which had been in existence since Germany began +sinking American ships in pursuance of her unrestricted submarine +policy was now acknowledged. It would be the function of Congress, if +the President so advised, to declare that a state of war existed +between the Government of the United States and that of the German +Empire. And a waiting and willing nation was left in no doubt that war +there would be. The cabinet had become a war cabinet and the country +warlike, goaded to retaliatory action by the wanton deeds of the most +cruel government of this or any other age. + +As the spokesman of an imperialistic regime preserving its accustomed +role of a wolf in sheep's clothing, the German Chancellor addressed +the Reichstag on March 29, 1917, and took cognizance of the critical +situation in the United States in these terms: + +"Within the next few days the directors of the American nation will be +convened by President Wilson for an extraordinary session of Congress +in order to decide the question of war or peace between the American +and German nations. + +"Germany never had the slightest intention of attacking the United +States of America, and does not have such intention now. It never +desired war against the United States of America, and does not desire +it to-day. How did these things develop? + +"Why, England declined to raise her blockade, which had been called +illegal and indefensible even by President Wilson and Secretary +Lansing," said the Chancellor. "Worse than that, she had intensified +it. Worse than all, she had rejected Germany's 'peace' offers and +proclaimed her war objects, which aimed at the annihilation of the +Teutonic Powers. Hence unrestricted sea warfare followed. + +"If the American nation considers this," concluded the Chancellor, "a +cause for which to declare war against the German nation, with which +it has lived in peace for more than one hundred years, if this action +warrants an increase of bloodshed, we shall not have to bear the +responsibility for it. The German nation, which feels neither hatred +nor hostility against the United States of America, shall also bear +and overcome this." + +The march of events went on irresistibly. At 8.35 o'clock on the +evening of Monday, April 2, 1917, President Wilson appeared before a +joint session of the Senate and House of Representatives. He had +addressed the Congress in person several times during his terms of +office, but never under circumstances or in a setting more dramatic. +The streets leading to the Capitol were packed with vast throngs. +White searchlights etched the dome and the pillars against the sky, +revealing the Stars and Stripes waving in the breeze on the flagstaff +above the dome. Two troops of United States cavalry in dress uniform, +with sabers drawn, formed a guard round the House approaches. Hundreds +of police, in uniform and in plain clothes, were scattered along the +route followed by the President's automobile from the White House. +Inside the House, which had been in almost continuous session all day, +the members assembled to receive the President. The senators appeared +carrying little American flags. The Diplomatic Corps, the whole +Supreme Court--in fact, the entire personnel of the Government, +legislative, judicial, and executive--gathered to hear the head of the +American nation present its indictment against the Imperial Government +of Germany. + +The President was visibly nervous. He was pale. His voice was neither +strong nor clear. He appeared to be deeply affected by the epochal and +awesome character of his task. His distinguished audience listened in +profound silence as he stated America's case without bluster and +without rancor. The burden of his address was a request that the House +and Senate recognize that Germany had been making war on the United +States and that they agree to his recommendations, which included a +declaration that a state of war existed, that universal military +service be instituted, that a preliminary army of 500,000 be raised, +and that the United States at once cooperate with the Allied Powers as +a belligerent in every way that would operate to effect the defeat of +Germany as a disturber of the world's peace. + +In adopting ruthless submarine warfare, the President told Congress, +Germany had swept every restriction aside: + +"Vessels of every kind, whatever their flag, their character, their +cargo, their destination, their errand, have been ruthlessly sent to +the bottom without warning and without thought of help or mercy for +those on board, the vessels of friendly neutrals along with those of +belligerents. Even hospital ships and ships carrying relief to the +sorely bereaved and stricken people of Belgium, though the latter were +provided with safe conduct through the proscribed areas by the German +Government itself and were distinguished by unmistakable marks of +identity, have been sunk with the same reckless lack of compassion or +of principle. + +"It is a war against all nations. American ships have been sunk, +American lives taken, in ways which it has stirred us very deeply to +learn of, but the ships and people of other neutral and friendly +nations have been sunk and overwhelmed in the waters in the same way. +There has been no discrimination. + +"The challenge is to all mankind. Each nation must decide for itself +how it will meet it." + +Here the President referred to the short-lived expedient of armed +neutrality adopted to meet the challenge: + +"When I addressed the Congress on the 26th of February last I thought +that it would suffice to assert our neutral rights with arms, our +right to use the seas against unlawful interference, our right to keep +our people safe against unlawful violence. But armed neutrality, it +now appears, is impracticable. + +"The German Government denies the right of neutrals to use arms at all +within the areas of the sea which it has proscribed, even in the +defense of rights which no modern publicist has ever before questioned +their right to defend. The intimation is conveyed that the armed +guards which we have placed on our merchant ships will be treated as +beyond the pale of law and subject to be dealt with as pirates would +be. Armed neutrality is ineffectual enough at best; in such +circumstances and in the face of such pretensions it is worse than +ineffectual; it is likely only to produce what it was meant to +prevent; it is practically certain to draw us into the war without +either the rights or the effectiveness of belligerents. There is one +choice we cannot make, we are incapable of making; we will not choose +the path of submission--" + +The President's audience had listened in silence up to this point. +There was more of the sentence; but Congress did not wait to hear it. +At the word "submission," Chief Justice White of the Supreme Court +raised his hands in a resounding clap, which was the signal for a +deafening roar of approval alike from congressmen, senators, and the +occupants of the crowded galleries. + +"We will not choose the path of submission," repeated the President, +"and suffer the most sacred rights of our nation and our people to be +ignored or violated. The wrongs against which we now array ourselves +are no common wrongs; they cut to the very roots of human life." + +Then came the presentation of the only alternate course the United +States could take: + +"With a profound sense of the solemn and even tragical character of +the step I am taking and of the grave responsibilities which it +involves, but in unhesitating obedience to what I deem my +constitutional duty, I advise that the Congress declare the recent +course of the Imperial German Government to be in fact nothing less +than war against the Government and people of the United States, that +it formally accept the status of belligerent which has thus been +thrust upon it, and that it take immediate steps not only to put the +country in a more thorough state of defense, but also to exert all its +power and employ all its resources to bring the Government of the +German Empire to terms and end the war." + +Now what did this involve? The President thus answered the question: + +"It will involve the utmost practicable cooperation in counsel and +action with the governments now at war with Germany, and, as incident +to that, the extension to those governments of the most liberal +financial credits, in order that our resources may so far as possible +be added to theirs. + +"It will involve the organization and mobilization of all the material +resources of the country to supply the materials of war and serve the +incidental needs of the nation in the most abundant and yet the most +economical and efficient way possible. + +"It will involve the immediate full equipment of the navy in all +respects, but particularly in supplying it with the best means of +dealing with the enemy's submarines. + +"It will involve the immediate addition to the armed forces of the +United States, already provided for by law in case of war, of at least +500,000 men, who should, in my opinion, be chosen upon the principle +of universal liability to service, and also the authorization of +subsequent additional increments of equal force so soon as they may be +needed and can be handled in training. + +"It will involve also, of course, the granting of adequate credits to +the Government, sustained, I hope, so far as they can equitably be +sustained by the present generation, by well-conceived taxation." + +The President asked his countrymen to undertake a herculean task. But +it was a necessary task--he deemed it an imperative one, and he knew +it would be borne by willing shoulders. Without any object of gain, it +was to vindicate the principles of peace and justice in the world as +against selfish and autocratic power. + +Neutrality was no longer feasible when the menace to the world's peace +and freedom lay in the existence of autocratic governments backed by +organized force and controlled solely by their own will, not by the +will of their peoples. The United States had seen the last of +neutrality in such circumstances. The age demanded that the standards +of conduct and responsibility for wrong done which were respected by +individual citizens of civilized states should also be observed among +nations and their governments. + +He acquitted the German people of blame. The United States had no +quarrel with them. They were the pawns and tools of their autocratic +rulers. + +"Self-governed nations," said the President, "do not fill their +neighbor states with spies or set the course of intrigue to bring +about some critical posture of affairs which will give them an +opportunity to strike and make conquest. Such designs can be +successfully worked out only under cover and where no one has the +right to ask questions." + +What hope was there of a steadfast concert of peace with an autocratic +government which could not be trusted to keep faith within it or +observe its covenants? The President pointed out the futility of +looking for any enduring concord with Germany as she was now governed: + +"One of the things that have served to convince us that the Prussian +autocracy was not and could never be our friend is that from the very +outset of the present war it has filled our unsuspecting communities, +and even our offices of government, with spies and set criminal +intrigues everywhere afoot against our national unity of counsel, our +peace within and without, our industries and our commerce. Indeed, it +is now evident that its spies were here even before the war began; and +it is unhappily not a matter of conjecture, but a fact proved in our +courts of justice, that the intrigues which have more than once come +perilously near to disturbing the peace and dislocating the industries +of the country, have been carried on at the instigation, with the +support, and even under the personal direction of official agents of +the Imperial Government accredited to the Government of the United +States. + +"The selfish designs of a government that did what it pleased and told +its people nothing," continued the President, "have played their part +in serving to convince us at last that that government entertains no +real friendship for us, and means to act against our peace and +security at its convenience. That it means to stir up enemies against +us at our very doors the intercepted note to the German Minister at +Mexico City is eloquent evidence." + +The President then delivered the most striking passage of an oration +that will rank as one of the greatest ever addressed to a listening +world: + +"We are accepting this challenge of hostile purpose because we know +that in such a Government, following such methods, we can never have a +friend; and that in the presence of its organized power, always lying +in wait to accomplish we know not what purpose, can be no assured +security for the democratic governments of the world. We are now about +to accept the gage of battle with this natural foe to liberty and +shall, if necessary, spend the whole force of the nation to check and +nullify its pretensions and its power. We are glad, now that we see +the facts with no veil of false pretense about them, to fight thus for +the ultimate peace of the world and for the liberation of its peoples, +the German peoples included; for the rights of nations, great and +small, and the privilege of men everywhere to choose their way of life +and of obedience. + +"The world must be made safe for democracy. Its peace must be planted +upon the tested foundations of political liberty. We have no selfish +ends to serve. We desire no conquest, no dominion. We seek no +indemnities for ourselves, no material compensation for the sacrifices +we shall freely make. We are but one of the champions of the rights of +mankind. We shall be satisfied when those rights have been made as +secure as the faith and the freedom of nations can make them." + +The following morning, April 3, 1917, the Foreign Affairs Committees +of both houses met at 10 o'clock to consider war resolutions +introduced the previous evening in the House and Senate immediately +after the President's address. They were identical in form and were +submitted to textual alterations by the committees. That adopted by +the Senate committee, and accepted by the House leaders, read as +follows: + +"_Whereas_, The Imperial German Government has committed repeated acts +of war against the Government and the people of the United States of +America, therefore be it + +"_Resolved_, By the Senate and House of Representatives of the United +States of America in Congress assembled, that the state of war between +the United States and the Imperial German Government, which has thus +been thrust upon the United States, is hereby formally declared and +that the President be, and he is hereby, authorized and directed to +employ the entire naval and military forces of the United States and +the resources of the Government to carry on war against the Imperial +German Government; and, to bring the conflict to a successful +termination, all of the resources of the country are hereby pledged by +the Congress of the United States." + +Senator Stone, chairman of the Senate committee, alone opposed its +adoption. It was at once reported to the Senate, only to meet +objection from Senator La Follette, who demanded the "regular order," +that is, that the resolution, under the rule any member could invoke +in order to postpone the consideration of important legislation, be +withheld for one day. His objection came when Senator Hitchcock, who +was in charge of the resolution, asked for unanimous consent to a +suspension of the rules for its immediate consideration. The Senate +was obliged to submit to the Wisconsin senator's obstructive tactics; +but Senator Martin, the Senate Democratic leader, rather than permit +any other business to be transacted, promptly obtained an adjournment +till the next day. It was determined that the Senate, on reassembling, +should sit without rest, recess or intermission, and without +considering any other matter until the war resolution was passed. +Senator La Follette and other pro-German pacifists in the chamber were +barred from interposing further obstacles, especially as the new +cloture rule was now operative. + +The Senate assembled on April 4, 1917, in serious mien to carry out +its task of passing the resolution before it could adjourn. It was a +day of speechmaking and of historic utterances characterized by a +moving earnestness of conviction. Orators of patriotic fervor came +from senators who had before condemned any declaration of war as the +greatest blunder the United States could commit. Others recounted the +crimes of Germany against civilization, and, in face of these deeds, +condemned any national unwillingness and cowardice to retaliate as +showing a national degeneracy that was much worse than war. + +The debate ended shortly after 11 o'clock that night, having lasted +thirteen hours. The resolution was thereupon put to the vote and +passed by 82 to 6. The actual alignment was 90 to 6, as eight absent +senators favored the resolution. The six opponents were Senators La +Follette of Wisconsin, Gronna of North Dakota, Norris of Nebraska, +Stone of Missouri, Lane of Oregon, and Vardaman of Mississippi. They +all belonged to the group of twelve who had prevented a vote on the +Armed-Ship Bill. Three of this group, Senators O'Gorman, Clapp, and +Works, had already retired into private life. The remaining three, +chastened by the contumely their attitude had occasioned, deserted the +pacifists and voted for the resolution. + +The House had been waiting for the Senate's action and immediately +proceeded to debate the resolution when it came before it on April 5, +1917, at 10 o'clock a. m. Following the Senate's example, it resolved +to remain in session without any interval until a vote was taken. +There was a strong band of pacifists in the House, some with +pronounced pro-German sympathies, and they occupied much of the day +with their outgivings. The House floor leader, Representative Kitchin +of North Carolina, was one of their number. The debate extended +through the night without cessation until 3.15 the next morning, April +6, 1917, when, after a wearisome discussion exceeding seventeen hours, +the resolution passed amid resounding cheers by the overwhelming vote +of 373 to 50. + +The President signed the resolution in the afternoon of the same day, +at the same time issuing a proclamation notifying the world that a +state of war existed between the United States and the Imperial +Government of Germany, and outlining regulations for the conduct of +"alien enemies" resident within American jurisdiction. + +American relations with Germany's allies--Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and +Bulgaria--remained to be determined. In his war address to Congress +the President made this allusion to them: + +"I have said nothing of the governments allied with the Imperial +Government of Germany, because they have not made war upon us or +challenged us to defend our right and our honor. The Austro-Hungarian +Government has, indeed, avowed its unqualified indorsement and +acceptance of the reckless and lawless submarine warfare, adopted now +without disguise by the Imperial German Government, and it has +therefore not been possible for this Government to receive Count +Tarnowski, the ambassador recently accredited to this Government by +the Imperial and Royal Government of Austria-Hungary; but that +Government has not actually engaged in warfare against citizens of the +United States on the seas, and I take the liberty, for the present at +least, of postponing a discussion of our relations with the +authorities at Vienna. We enter this war only where we are clearly +forced into it, because there are no other means of defending our +right." + +Under German dictation, however, Austria-Hungary and Turkey broke +relations with the United States on April 9 and April 21, 1917, +respectively. Bulgaria took no action. The American war declaration +thus solely applied to Germany. + + + + +CHAPTER LXVI + +BUILDING THE WAR MACHINE + + +The United States entered the war as a member of the Allied +belligerents in their fight for civilization against Germany at 1.18 +on the afternoon of April 8, 1917, at which time President Wilson +signed the resolution empowering him to declare war as passed by +Congress. + +The nation set about girding on its armor. A message was flashed to +the great naval radio station at Arlington, Va., which repeated it to +the extent of its carrying radius of 3,000 miles, notifying all +American ships at foreign stations and the governors and military +posts of American insular possessions in the Pacific and in the +Antilles. + +Orders were issued by the Navy Department for the mobilization of the +fleet, and the Naval Reserve was called to the colors. The navy also +proceeded to seize all radio stations in the country. + +An emergency war fund of $100,000,000 was voted by Congress for the +use of the President at his discretion. + +The Allied warships which had been patrolling the Atlantic coast +outside American territorial waters since the war began, to prevent +the German ships in American ports from escaping, were withdrawn. +There was no need of further vigilance, as one of the first acts of +the Government was to seize every German and Austrian vessel which had +lain safe under the protection of the Stars and Stripes. There were +ninety-one German ships, several of them interned men-o'-war, +aggregating 629,000 gross tonnage. The largest group were moored in +New York Harbor, numbering 27, and included leviathans like the +_Vaterland_, (54,282 gross tons), _George Washington_ (25,570 tons), +and _Kaiser Wilhelm II_ (19,361 tons). Six were in Boston Harbor, +among them the _Amerika_ (22,622 tons), and the _Kronprinzessin +Cecile_ (19,503 tons). Others were held in the Philippines and Hawaii. +Seven Austrian vessels were seized, but subject to payment, the United +States not being at war with the Dual Monarchy. + +All the German officers and crews were taken in charge by the +immigration authorities and held in the status of intending immigrants +whose eligibility for entering the country was in question until the +end of the war. This decision meant internment. + +The machinery of most of the German ships was found to be damaged to +prevent the Government making immediate use of them as transports, for +which the larger ones were admirably fitted. The damage dated from the +severance of relations on February 3, 1917, and was a preconcerted +movement undertaken by the various captains and officers upon +instructions from Berlin to cripple the machinery when war seemed +imminent. Captain Polack of the North German Lloyd liner +_Kronprinzessin Cecile_, held in Boston, admitted that he had received +orders to make his vessel unseaworthy from the German Embassy at +Washington three days before the rupture with Germany took place. + +Congress later authorized the President to take title to the German +ships for the United States and to put them into service in the +conduct of the war. Payment or any other method of return for their +seizure was to wait until the war ended. In a short time more than +half of the seized vessels had been repaired and put upon the seas +under the American flag with new names. Fifteen were fitted for +transports. The Stars and Stripes was duly hoisted on the great German +liner _Vaterland_. + +Simultaneous with the seizure of these vessels came wholesale arrests +of Germans suspected of being spies. Federal officers swooped down on +them in various parts of the country as soon as war was declared. They +could not now safely be at large. Several had already been convicted +of violating American neutrality by hatching German plots and were at +liberty under bond pending the result of court appeals; others were +under indictment for similar offenses and waiting trial; the remainder +were suspects who had long been under Federal surveillance. It was a +war measure taken without regard to the civil law to circumvent +further machinations of German conspirators, who had now become alien +enemies. + +Bearing upon these precautions was a proclamation issued by the +President warning citizens and aliens against the commission of +treason, which was punishable by death or by a heavy fine and +imprisonment. The acts defined as treasonable were: The use of force +or violence against the American army and navy establishment; the +acquisition, use, or disposal of property with the knowledge that it +was to be utilized for the service of the nation's enemies; and the +performance of any act and the publication of statements or +information that would give aid and comfort to the enemy. + +The Government had previously assured Germans and German reservists +domiciled on American soil that they would be free from official +molestation so long as they conducted themselves in accordance with +American law. A general internment of German aliens was deemed to be +both impracticable and impolitic. + +Precautions taken against internal uprisings by Teutonic sympathizers +proved to be sufficient without corralling the great number of German +citizens established among the populace--a step which would not only +be costly but inflict great hardships on many unoffending and orderly +aliens. The Administration held by its previous determination not to +resort to reprisals in its treatment of Germans nor to lose its head +in the periodic waves of spy fever which spread throughout the +country. + +The President and his advisers, while taking all these preliminary +measures of war, were deeply conscious of the enormous field of other +activities, calling for leadership and statesmanship of a high order, +which the war situation had opened out. Without being daunted by the +prospect, the President took the step of appealing to the people at +large for cooperation. There were so many things to be done besides +fighting--things without which mere fighting would be fruitless. The +President thus stated them: + +"We must supply abundant food for ourselves and for our armies and our +seamen, not only, but also for a large part of the nations with whom +we have now made common cause, in whose support and by whose sides we +shall be fighting. + +"We must supply ships by the hundreds out of our shipyards to carry to +the other side of the sea, submarines or no submarines, what will +every day be needed there, and abundant materials out of our fields +and our mines and our factories with which not only to clothe and +equip our own forces on land and sea, but also to clothe and support +our people, for whom the gallant fellows under arms can no longer +work; to help clothe and equip the armies with which we are +cooperating in Europe, and to keep the looms and manufactories there +in raw material; coal to keep the fires going in ships at sea and in +the furnaces of hundreds of factories across the sea; steel out of +which to make arms and ammunition both here and there; rails for +worn-out railways back of the fighting fronts; locomotives and rolling +stock to take the place of those every day going to pieces; mules, +horses, cattle for labor and for military service; everything with +which the people of England and France and Italy and Russia have +usually supplied themselves, but cannot now afford the men, the +materials, or the machinery to make." + +The President's specific appeal was to the agricultural and industrial +workers of the country to put their shoulder to the wheel to help +provision and equip the armies in Europe. On the farmers and their +laborers, he said, in large measure rested the issue of the war and +the fate of the nations. To the middlemen of every sort the President +was bluntly candid: "The eyes of the country are especially upon you," +he said. "The country expects you, as it expects all others, to forego +unusual profits, to organize and expedite shipments of supplies of +every kind, but especially of food," in a disinterested spirit. He +asked railroad men of all ranks not to permit the nation's arteries to +suffer any obstruction, inefficiency, or slackened power in carrying +war supplies. To the merchant he suggested the motto: "small profits +and quick service" to the shipbuilder the thought that the war +depended on him. "The food and the war supplies must be carried across +the seas, no matter how many ships are sent to the bottom." The miner +he ranked with the farmer--the work of the world waited upon him. +Finally, every one who created or cultivated a garden helped to solve +the problem of feeding the nation; and every housewife who practiced +economy placed herself in the ranks of those who served. + +Legislative tasks which confronted Congress were overwhelming and not +a little confusing. They embraced measures for authorizing huge issues +of bonds to finance the Allies and provide funds for the American +campaign; new taxation; food control; the provision of an enormous +fleet of airships; forbidding trading with the enemy; an embargo on +exports to neutral countries to prevent their shipment to Germany; an +espionage bill; and chiefly, a measure of compulsory military service +by selective draft to raise a preliminary army of 500,000 men, to be +followed by a second draft of the same number, to enable 1,000,000 +Americans to help the Allies defeat Germany. + +The Bond Bill passed both houses of Congress without a dissentient +vote within eleven days of the war declaration and five days of the +bill's submission. The Administration sought authority for an issue of +$5,000,000,000 bonds, to be raised by public subscription, and +$2,000,000,000 bonds in Treasury certificates of indebtedness, the +latter to be redeemed in a year by the aid of new war taxation then +expected to be available. Both bonds and certificates bore 3-1/2 per +cent interest. The main portion of the five-billion issue, or three +billions, was apportioned as a loan to the Allies, in the disposition +of which the President was to be wholly unhampered. Securities at par +to that amount were to be acquired from the various foreign +governments to cover the loan. Representative Kitchin, in presenting +the bill to the House, described it as representing "the most +momentous project ever undertaken by our Government and carried the +greatest authorization of bonds ever contained in a bill submitted to +any legislative body in the world." The only material amendments made +limited the loans and the acquisition of foreign securities as +collateral to the period of the war. The House passed the measure +after two days' debate on April 14, 1917, by a vote of 889 to 0. The +Senate vote, three days later, after a day's debate, was 84 to 0. The +various factions in both Houses, which were hostile to the +Administration's policy before war was declared, dropped all +partisanship in their eagerness to support measures for prosecuting +the war now that the die had been cast. + +The War Revenue Bill was less easily disposed of. It bristled with +contentious points bearing upon the most equitable ways and means of +raising supplementary imposts to meet the first year's war outlays. As +submitted to the House it was designed to raise a revenue of +$1,800,000,000; but the barometer of the Treasury's needs kept rising +and presently stood at $2,250,000,000 as the amount needed to be +raised by the bill. The House hurriedly passed a loosely constructed +measure, taxing practically every industry and individual, especially +the incomes of corporations and men of wealth. It raised all tariff +duties and abolished the free list by making the exempted articles +subject to a duty of 10 per cent. The House accepted it as a war +measure, full of inequalities that would never be tolerated in times +of peace. It threw upon the Senate the onus of repairing the defects +of the bill. It passed it largely as it stood, a hasty piece of +patchwork, in order to get some kind of legislation before Congress to +meet the Treasury's requirements. The measure was discussed in a cloud +of confusion, and so perplexed the members that, in disposing of it, +they relied upon the Senate to return it in better shape for +adjustment in conference. The Senate was inclined to confine the +measure's revenue scope to $1,250,000,000, leaving the balance needed +by the Government to be raised by authorized bond issues. But in +redrafting the bill the Senate committee, after vainly succeeding in +paring the imposts below $1,670,000,000, was eventually obliged to +raise them $500,000,000. The conferees' report further enhanced them +to yield approximately $2,500,000,000. In this shape the bill finally +passed the Senate October 2, 1917. + +A simple named bill "to increase temporarily the military +establishment of the United States," which was early presented to +Congress after the declaration of April 6, 1917, stood out as the +Administration's chief war measure. It became known as the Selective +Draft Bill because of its chief provisions, which authorized the +President to institute a modified form of conscription for raising a +new army. It also authorized him to raise the regular army and the +National Guard to their maximum strength and officer and equip them. +These latter enlistments were to be voluntary, under existing laws, +unless the required number was not forthcoming by that means, in +which case the regular military establishment was to be replenished +from recruits obtained by the selective draft. This latter method the +President was empowered to use for creating two forces of 500,000 men +each, one immediately, the other later, as deemed expedient. All men, +citizens and intended citizens, between the ages of 21 and 30, were +subject to call under the selective draft and were required to +register their names for possible enrollment. The census showed that +some 10,000,000 men between the ages named could be located by +registration, from which number the Government could select the +million of men required in two divisions. The House and Senate adopted +the measure on April 28, 1917, by substantial majorities, the voting +being respectively 397 to 24 and 81 to 8. A vain attempt was made in +both Houses to raise the new army by voluntary enlistments. + +There was a popular demand for sending former President Roosevelt to +France as head of a volunteer force of four infantry divisions, and +the Senate adopted an amendment authorizing the project. The House had +rejected the proposal. When the bill reached the Conference Committee, +the Senate amendment authorizing the Roosevelt expedition was deleted. +But upon the bill's return the House reversed itself by refusing to +accept it, and sent it back to the Conference Committee with the +instruction to restore the section permitting Colonel Roosevelt to +organize a volunteer force for service in Europe. The bill went to the +President for signature with this provision restored; but the +President declined, in his discretion, to avail himself of the +authority to permit the dispatch of the Roosevelt division, and it +never went. + +The Food Control Bill which conferred large powers on the Government +for safeguarding the food supplies of the country for war purposes +proved as difficult to pass as the War Revenue Bill, but succeeded in +reaching the President. Its presentation to Congress was heralded by a +public statement from the President, who sought to impress upon the +country the immediate need of legislation to conserve and stimulate +the country's food production. He sought authority to appoint a food +administrator, and named Herbert C. Hoover, who had creditably +directed the feeding of the Belgians as head of the Relief Committee, +for the post. The President drew a sharp line of distinction between +the work of the Government as conducted by the Department of +Agriculture in its ordinary supervision of food production and the +emergencies produced by the war. + +"All measures intended directly to extend the normal activities of the +Department of Agriculture," he said, "in reference to the production, +conservation, and the marketing of farm crops will be administered, as +in normal times, through that department, and the powers asked for +over distribution and consumption, over exports, imports, prices, +purchase, and requisition of commodities, storing, and the like which +may require regulation during the war, will be placed in the hands of +a commissioner of food administration, appointed by the President and +directly responsible to him. + +"The objects sought to be served by the legislation asked for are: +Full inquiry into the existing available stocks of foodstuffs and into +the costs and practices of the various food producing and distributing +trades; the prevention of all unwarranted hoarding of every kind and +of the control of foodstuffs by persons who are not in any legitimate +sense producers, dealers, or traders; the requisitioning when +necessary for the public use of food supplies and of the equipment +necessary for handling them properly; the licensing of wholesome and +legitimate mixtures and milling percentages, and the prohibition of +the unnecessary or wasteful use of foods. + +"Authority is asked also to establish prices, but not in order to +limit the profits of the farmers, but only to guarantee to them when +necessary a minimum price which will insure them a profit where they +are asked to attempt new crops and to secure the consumer against +extortion by breaking up corners and attempts at speculation, when +they occur, by fixing temporarily a reasonable price at which +middlemen must sell. + +"Although it is absolutely necessary that unquestionable powers shall +be placed in my hands, in order to insure the success of this +administration of the food supplies of the country, I am confident +that the exercise of those powers will be necessary only in the few +cases where some small and selfish minority proves unwilling to put +the nation's interests above personal advantage." + +A sweeping bill was thereupon presented to the House empowering the +President, under the war clause of the Constitution, to take the +measures he named whenever, in his opinion, the national emergency +called for their exercise. + +The mere conferring of such extreme powers on the President, it was +hoped, would suffice. The Government view was that armed with the +effective weapons the bill provided, no difficulty would be +encountered in enlisting on the side of the public interest all +recalcitrant private agencies without legal action. + +The House, in passing the measure, made it more drastic by inserting +an amendment prohibiting the further manufacturing of alcoholic +liquors during the war, and authorizing the President, in his +discretion, to commandeer existing stocks of distilled spirits. The +President was unwilling to countenance such a drastic curb on the +liquor industry, and the Senate Agriculture Committee, on his +recommendation, restricted the veto on the manufacture of liquor to +whisky, rum, gin, and brandy, removing the ban on light wines and +beer, but retained the clause empowering him to acquire all distilled +spirits in bond, as above named, should the national exigency call for +such action. The Senate approved the bill as thus amended. + +The antiwhisky provisions, which were due to the Prohibitionists, were +denounced as unconstitutional. Nevertheless, the House vote on the +bill was 365 to 5. The Senate vote was as emphatic, being 81 to 6. + +A more direct contest with the President over his war powers was waged +around the Espionage Bill. Though primarily framed to make spying and +its attendant acts treasonable offenses punishable by death or heavy +fines and imprisonment, it was projected more as a measure aimed at +news censorship, on account of a section forbidding the pursuit and +publication of information on the war. A violent and persistent +agitation by the press of the country against such a restriction, +echoed in both Houses in the course of lengthy debates, finally won +the day. All control of the publication of war news was denied the +Administration, despite the President's appeals to Congress for the +provision of a press censorship. The newspapers demanded to be placed +on their good behavior and scouted the idea that any law was needed to +restrain them from publishing information likely to give aid and +comfort to the enemy. Thwarted by Congress, the President had to be +content to forego the authority he sought for placing a veto on war +news except such as the Government permitted to be disclosed. He was +reminded that when relations were broken with Germany and war neared, +the press readily responded to the Administration's request--made in +the absence of legal authority to establish a press censorship--to +suppress the publication and transmission of information concerning +the movements of American merchant craft, then about to be armed +against German submarines. Since then announcements of arrivals at and +sailings from American ports of all vessels were excluded from the +newspapers. + +The Espionage Bill had an inherent importance of its own, but its +purposes had been so overshadowed by the prominence given to the +censorship provision that they were lost sight of. It empowered the +President to place an embargo on exports when public safety and +welfare so required; provided for the censoring of mails and the +exclusion of matter therefrom deemed to be seditious and anarchistic, +and making its transmission punishable by heavy fines; the punishment +of espionage; the wrongful use of military information; circulation of +false reports designed to interfere with military operations; attempts +to cause disaffection in the army and navy, or obstruction of +recruiting; the control of merchant vessels on American waters; the +seizure of arms and ammunition and prohibition of their exportation +under certain conditions; the penalizing of conspiracies designed to +harm American foreign relations; punishment for the destruction of +property arising from a state of war; and increased restrictions on +the issue of passports. + +The measure acquired a conspicuous place in the war legislation by +reason of the embargo provision. It appeared an inconsequential +clause, judging from the little public attention paid to it; but the +President saw a weapon in it that might have more effect in bringing +Germany to her knees than Great Britain's blockade of her coasts, +stringent as the latter had proved. It developed into a measure for +instituting a blockade of Germany from American ports. It had long +been known that the maritime European neutrals--Holland, Denmark, +Norway, and Sweden--had flourished enormously by supplying Germany +with various necessities--mainly obtained from the United States on +the pretense that the huge increase of their American trade was due to +enlarged domestic consumption, the same being due, in its turn, to the +cutting off of needed supplies from other countries by the British +blockade and the war situation on land. The design of the embargo +provision was to stop these neutrals from receiving any American goods +until it was clearly established, _before_ leaving an American port, +that they would not be transhipped to Germany. With this object the +President was authorized to stop any or all exports to any or all +countries in his discretion. This was a sweeping blanket instruction +from Congress aimed at placing a barrier on transhipment trade with +Germany from the port of departure. "Satisfy us that your goods are +not going to Germany via neutral countries," the Government told +exporters, "and your ships can get clearance. Otherwise they cannot." +The embargo was even aimed at neutral countries that permitted their +own goods to cross the German frontier by threatening to cut those +countries off from any trade with the United States. But it was not +clear how it could be made effective in this respect. Its chief aim +was rather to make it impossible for the neutrals to replenish with +American goods such of their domestic stocks which had been depleted +by exports to German customers. + +The subject raised a stormy debate during a secret session of the +Senate. Senator Townsend, in an assault upon the embargo proposal, +took the view that the Administration wished to use the embargo to +force small neutral nations into the war as American allies. + +"I am not willing," he said, "to vote for the very German methods we +have condemned. I understand that this provision is not to be used for +the protection of American produce or to protect the American supply, +but to coerce neutral countries. We stood for neutrality, and urged +the nations of the world to support neutrality. Now that we are +engaged in war we ought not to coerce other nations and force them to +enter the struggle." + +The Administration found a supporter from an unexpected quarter--from +Senator Stone, chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, who +opposed the war and all its works. He thus defended the embargo: + +"If we were still neutral I should join readily in opposing such +legislation. But we are now belligerent. If it is true that any +neutral country, contiguous to Germany, which is now our enemy, is +supplying Germany with food, munitions, and other materials out of its +own productions, and then comes to the United States to purchase here +and transport there a sufficient quantity to replenish its supply, +doesn't the senator think the United States is within its belligerent +rights to say that the United States doesn't consent?" + +"It is true we are no longer neutral," insisted Mr. Townsend, "and we +don't intend that any other country shall remain neutral. We are in +trouble and want everybody else to be in trouble if we are strong +enough to put them in." + +The admitted purpose of the embargo was to force neutral countries +contiguous to Germany to suspend trade with her as an enemy of the +United States. The sentiment of the Senate, barring the objections of +a few members like Senator Townsend, who protested against the +embargo's "injustice," was that the United States had full control +over its own trade, and, especially in time of war, could restrict it +as its foreign interests required. No international law was involved +in American legislation which determined the disposition of American +exports, even if that legislation had a direct bearing on the +prosecution of the war. The Administration refused to see any analogy +between this embargo policy and the questions raised by the blockade +controversy between the United States and Great Britain when the +former was a neutral. American belligerency had necessitated a change +of basis in the Government's attitude. + +The President went to some pains to explain to the country what the +export embargo meant. He created a Board of Exports Control, or +Exports Council, composed of Herbert C. Hoover, the selected head of +the food administration body, and a number of leading Government +officials. This board's duty was to prevent a single bushel of wheat +or the smallest quantity of any other commodity from leaving an +American port without the board's license and approval. This check on +exports, the President pointed out, regulated and supervised their +disposition, and was not really an embargo, except on consignments to +Germany. + +"There will, of course, be no prohibition of exports," he said. "The +normal course of trade will be interfered with as little as possible, +and, so far as possible, only its abnormal course directed. The whole +object will be to direct exports in such a way that they will go first +and by preference where they are most needed and most immediately +needed, and temporarily to withhold them, if necessary, where they can +best be spared. + +"Our primary duty in the matter of foodstuffs and like necessaries is +to see to it that the peoples associated with us in the war get as +generous a proportion as possible of our surplus, but it will also be +our wish and purpose to supply the neutral nations whose peoples +depend upon us for such supplies as nearly in proportion to their need +as the amount to be divided permits." + +Nevertheless the proclamation that came from the White House on July +9, 1917, disclosed an exercise of presidential authority without +precedent in American history in that it contemplated, with British +cooperation, the virtual domination of the country's trade with the +whole world. It provided for the absolute governmental control, by +license, of the exports of essential war commodities to fifty-six +nations and their possessions, including all the Allied belligerents, +all the neutrals, as well as the enemy countries. These commodities +embraced coal, coke, fuel, oils, kerosene and gasoline, including +bunkers, food grains, flour and meal, fodder and feeds, meats and +fats, pig iron, steel billets, ship plates and structural shapes, +scrap iron and scrap steel, ferromanganese, fertilizers, arms, +ammunition and explosives. By the control of coal and other fuels the +Government was bent on obtaining a firm grasp on shipping. And the +point was, as stated in the preamble of the proclamation, "the public +safety requires that succor shall be prevented from reaching the +enemy." + +Europe hailed the establishment of the American embargo as signalizing +a "real blockade" against Germany. The Paris "Temps" succinctly +expressed the prevailing view in the Allied countries: + +"The Allies, despite the patience of their diplomats and the vigilance +of their navies, have failed to make the blockade sufficiently tight. +A new measure was needed; the United States has now supplied it. By +forbidding indirect assistance the United States has introduced a new +and efficient condition. If the Allies firmly apply the principle, as +public opinion strongly demands, President Wilson's proclamation will +have been one of the decisive acts of the war." + +The need for sending foodstuffs and like necessaries to the Allies, as +pointed out by the President in explaining the embargo, called for +shipping facilities of a magnitude that demanded the immediate +attention of Congress. Exports there would be in unexampled +quantities, but their destination must largely be to the Entente +countries, consigned in armed ships. Coastwise craft were drafted for +transatlantic trade; ships under construction for private concerns +were subject to acquisition by the Government; every craft afloat +adaptable to war service--ferryboats, private yachts, motor boats and +the like--were listed for contingent use; and the thousand or more +merchant ships of American registry demanded an equipment of guns and +ammunition to enable them to run the submarine blockade. + +The seized German and Austrian ships helped to supply the needed +tonnage, but they did not go far. War conditions, created by the +recognition that the United States would practically win the war for +the Allies by keeping their countries generously supplied with all +necessities required the construction of a huge trade fleet of steel +or wooden ships at a cost of a billion dollars. The Government, +through the Shipping Board, reserved the right of preempting the +products of every steel mill in the country and of canceling all their +existing contracts with private consumers, so as to divert the use of +steel products for the trade fleet. The acquisition of every shipyard +in the country was also contemplated as a contingency. Tentative +estimates provided for the construction of thousands of steel and +wooden cargo ships aggregating between five and six million tonnage +within the coming two years. + +The shipbuilding program was undertaken by General Goethals, builder +of the Panama Canal, as general manager of a new Government body +called the Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation, and William +Denman, its president. Conflict immediately arose between them +regarding the expediency of building steel or wooden ships to meet the +emergency, and the whole project was imperiled by their personal +differences. General Goethals favored a steel fleet and planned to +apply the available balance of an appropriation of $550,000,000 to the +construction of fabricated steel ships of standard pattern. Early in +July contracts for 348 wooden ships, aggregating 1,218,000 tons, and +costing some $174,000,000, had been made or agreed upon and contracts +for a further 100 were under negotiation. Of steel ships seventy-seven +had been contracted for or agreed upon, amounting to 642,800 tons, at +a cost of $101,660,356. This was a good beginning, as it represented a +program under way for providing 525 ships of all sorts. The remainder +of the Goethals program called for steel ships, of which he promised +3,000,000 tons in eighteen months. Another feature of the Goethals +policy was the immediate commandeering of private ships in the stocks, +whether owned by Americans, Allies, or neutrals. Acute friction arose +between General Goethals and Mr. Denman, mainly over the question of +the former's negotiations and plans with the steel interests. In the +end President Wilson intervened by accepting the invited resignations +of both, and placing the shipbuilding in the hands of Admiral +Washington L. Capps, a naval ship constructor of renown, and Edward +N. Hurley, former chairman of the Federal Trade Commission. + +By now the foundations of a huge war machine had been laid by +legislative and executive action; but it was discovered that a vital +factor in modern wars had been overlooked. An enormous air fleet was +necessary to provide further eyes for the Allies. Congress repaired +this omission by voting $640,000,000 for building 22,000 airships and +for raising and equipping an American corps of 100,000 aviators. + + + + +CHAPTER LXVII + +MEN AND MONEY IN MILLIONS + + +The country early realized the practical effect of the legislation +passed by Congress enabling the President to call on the national +resources in men, money, and material for conducting the war with +Germany. + +The Administration's first nation-wide appeal was for money. Under the +Bond Bill it was empowered to raise war funds, and proceeded to do so +by floating the first issue of the "Liberty loan of 1917," this being +a demand for $2,000,000,000 from the popular purse. The money raised +was to provide credits to the Allied governments to meet the enormous +war purchases they were making in the United States, and, like +previous accommodations to them, this provision of funds was not so +much a loan as a transfer or exchange of credits. American money was +lent to the Allies, deposited in American banks, to enable them to buy +American products. Not a cent of the Liberty loan went out of the +country. + +It was the largest single financial transaction ever undertaken by the +United States Government. It greatly exceeded all previous bond issues +and squarely brought the country to face the necessities of war +finance on a huge scale. But the prewar period, which produced a high +tide of prosperity, due to the unexampled calls on American industries +by the Allied Powers, had revealed the enormous wealth and economic +strength of the American investing community, as well as a +flourishing condition of the working population. The Government +entered upon the financial operation with no misgivings and the result +proved its confidence in the success of the loan. Bank subscriptions +were discouraged. National loans hitherto issued in war time were +floated as a basis of national currency and were taken up by the banks +in large amounts. But the Liberty loan was an appeal to the +million--to several millions; to the man in the street, the small +tradesman, the salaried class. Workers realized that in subscribing to +the loan they were not only securing an absolutely safe investment, +but were providing funds for wages and profits. The money they +invested as a loan to the Allies was applied by them to buying +American goods. + +The Liberty loan was floated on May 14, 1917, in denominations as low +as $50, rising to $100,000, at 3-1/2 per cent. interest, redeemable in +fifteen or thirty years. The banks of the country, national and State, +the trust companies, newspapers, department stores, express companies, +and numerous corporations and firms placed their establishments and +staffs at the national service for receiving applications, which came +from all classes. The response flagged as the date for closing the +subscription lists neared (June 15, 1917), but there was a rally at +the last moment by small investors, and the lists closed with the loan +greatly oversubscribed. + +Germany had been watching its progress. There were lulls during the +month in which the loan was under issue and Germany was eager to see +in a passing slowness of response a popular unwillingness to shoulder +the burden of war and an apathy that she welcomed. The people had no +spirit for the war and it was largely a bankers' loan, said her +spokesmen. Anticipating this criticism the Government, aided by the +press, publicists, and bankers, conducted a propaganda which +successfully impressed the country that a large popular +oversubscription could not be misconstrued by Germany, as it would +convince her that there would be no stinting of national resources by +the United States to aid the Allies in encompassing her defeat. The +result showed that a request for $2,000,000,000 had been met by a +response of $3,035,226,850 from over 4,000,000 investors, mainly for +small amounts. The success of the loan, especially in its appeal to +modest purses, was imposing. Secretary McAdoo of the Treasury thus +expressed the Government's gratification: + +"The widespread distribution of the bonds and the great amount of the +oversubscription constitute an eloquent and conclusive reply to the +enemies of the country who claimed that the heart of America was not +in this war. The result, of which every citizen may well be proud, +reflects the patriotism and the determination of the American people +to fight for the vindication of outraged American rights, the speedy +restoration of peace, and the establishment of liberty throughout the +world. + +"The Congress pledged all the resources of America to bring the war to +a successful determination. The issue just closed will serve as an +indication of the temper and purpose of the American people and of the +manner in which they may be expected to respond to future calls of +their country for the necessary credits to carry on the war." + +The operation of the Selective Draft law provided a simultaneous +opportunity for a display of patriotism. Acting under its provisions, +the President in a stirring proclamation issued on May 18, 1917, +called upon every man in the country between the age of 21 and 30 to +register his readiness to be called upon for army service at the +designated registration place within the precinct where he permanently +resided. It was a call to the nation to arm. + +"The power against which we are arrayed," the President said, "has +sought to impose its will upon the world. To this end it has increased +armament until it has changed the face of war. In the sense in which +we have been wont to think of armies, there are no armies in this +struggle, there are entire nations armed. Thus, the men who remain to +till the soil and man the factories are no less a part of the army +that is in France than the men beneath the battle flags. It must be so +with us. It is not an army that we must shape and train for war; it is +a nation. + +"To this end our people must draw close in one compact front against a +common foe. But this cannot be if each man pursues a private purpose. +All must pursue one purpose. The nation needs all men; but it needs +each man, not in the field that will most pleasure him, but in the +endeavor that will best serve the common good. Thus, though a +sharpshooter pleases to operate a trip hammer for the forging of great +guns and an expert machinist desires to march with the flag, the +nation is being served only when the sharpshooter marches and the +machinist remains at his levers. + +"The whole nation must be a team, in which each man shall play the +part for which he is best fitted. To this end, Congress has provided +that the nation shall be organized for war by selection; that each man +shall be classified for service in the place to which it shall best +serve the general good to call him. + +"The significance of this cannot be overstated. It is a new thing in +our history and a landmark in our progress. It is a new manner of +accepting and vitalizing our duty to give ourselves with thoughtful +devotion to the common purpose of us all. It is in no sense a +conscription of the unwilling; it is, rather, selection from a nation +which has volunteered in mass. It is no more a choosing of those who +shall march with the colors than it is a selection of those who shall +serve an equally necessary and devoted purpose in the industries that +lie behind the battle line." + +The President had strongly espoused the selective draft in preference +to the voluntary system of raising an army organization. He had +pointed out that many forms of patriotic service were open to the +people, and emphasized that the military part of the service, +important though it was, was not, under modern war conditions, the +most vital part. The selective draft enabled the selection for service +in the army of those who could be most readily spared from the pursuit +of other industries and occupations. There being a universal +obligation to serve in time of war, the Administration felt the need +of being empowered to select men for military service and select +others to do the rest of the nation's work, either by keeping them in +their existing employment, if that employment was useful for war +purposes, or utilizing their services in a like field. + +"The volunteer system does not do this," he said. "When men choose +themselves they sometimes choose without due regard to their other +responsibilities. Men may come from the farms or from the mines or +from the factories or centers of business who ought not to come but +ought to stand back of the armies in the field and see that they get +everything that they need and that the people of the country are +sustained in the meantime." + +Registration day, which was fixed for June 5, 1917, partook of the +character of an election day. The young manhood of the country of the +prescribed ages trooped to the registration places of their districts +like voters depositing ballots at polling booths. It was a national +roll call of the pick of civilian manhood available for military duty, +and yielded an enrollment of 9,649,938 from which the first army was +to be drafted. + +"The registration," reported the Government, "was accomplished in a +fashion measuring up to the highest standards of Americanism. The +young men came to the registration places enthusiastic; there was no +hint of a slacking spirit anywhere, except in a few cases where +misguided persons had been prevailed upon to attempt to avoid their +national obligation." + +The machinery for the selective draft had merely been started. Only +the groundwork had been laid. The principal operation--the draft +itself--had to be undertaken, and the process was a slow one. Half the +men who registered claimed exemption from military service for a +multitude of reasons, but as not more than 6 per cent were to be +chosen to compose the first citizen army, this was not important even +if most of the exemption claims were justified and allowed. + +The outstanding fact was that the registrants were all on an equal +footing and that their mustering brought nearer the realization of the +President's dream of a "citizenry trained" without favoritism or +discrimination. The son of the millionaire and of the laborer, the +college-bred man and the worker forced to earn his living from early +youth, were to march side by side in the ranks and practice +marksmanship and trench digging together. Great Britain and France had +democratized their armies; the United States did the same. + +The President increased the number of men to be drafted for the first +army from 500,000 to 687,000 in order to use drafted men to bring the +regular army and the National Guard to their full strength. Thus there +were 687,000 men to be selected from a registration of 9,649,938. The +quota required from each State, based upon each State's number of +registrants, was determined in that proportion. + +The draft, which was practically a great lottery to establish the +order in which the registrants were to be called into war service, +took place on July 20, 1917, in Washington. As it was anticipated that +fully half of the men called would either be exempted or rejected +after medical examination, the exemption boards appointed throughout +the country, located in 4,557 districts, were required to call double +the number of their quota for examination in the order in which the +men's numbers appeared on the district list after the drawing. This +meant a call of 1,374,000 men. + +The drawing itself was based on a system of master-key numbers in two +groups, written on slips of paper. These slips were rolled and placed +in a bowl, from which they were drawn one at a time by blindfolded +men. The picking of a single number out of one set of a thousand +numerals, or out of another set of eleven numerals, drafted each man +in the 4,557 districts whose registration card bore the serial number +picked. The method fixed with absolute equality of chance the order in +which all registrants--if called upon--were to report to their local +boards for examination and subsequent exemption, discharge, or +acceptance for military service. The local boards at once organized +for the examination and enrollment of the men called. + +The new citizen force became known as the National Army, in +contradistinction to the regular army and the National Guard, and was +organized into sixteen divisions, grouped by States as under: + + First--Massachusetts, Maine, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Vermont, + and New Hampshire. + + Second--Lower New York State and Long Island. + + Third--Upper New York State and northern Pennsylvania. + + Fourth--Southern Pennsylvania. + + Fifth--Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, and District + of Columbia. + + Sixth--Tennessee, North Carolina, and South Carolina. + + Seventh--Alabama, Georgia, and Florida. + + Eighth--Ohio and West Virginia. + + Ninth--Indiana and Kentucky. + + Tenth--Wisconsin and Michigan. + + Eleventh--Illinois. + + Twelfth--Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. + + Thirteenth--North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Minnesota, + and Iowa. + + Fourteenth--Colorado, Kansas, and Missouri. + + Fifteenth--Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and Oklahoma. + + Sixteenth--Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, California, + Nevada, and Utah. + +Huge cantonments, or concentration camps--army cities--were put under +construction in the various sections of the country where the drafted +men could be expeditiously massed for mobilization and training before +proceeding to the European battle ground. In all, thirty-two of these +camp cities were required, the regular army and National Guard +providing another sixteen divisions for which such training grounds +were needed. The camp sites were chosen for spaciousness, absence of +marshes, natural drainage situations, and proximity to lines of +transport and a good water supply. Each army camp called for vast +building supplies, as each was designed to constitute a complete town, +with sewerage, water works, lighting system, and streets. + +[Illustration: United States naval gunners defending the troop +transport ships from submarine attack. The troop ships of the first +contingent to cross the sea were twice attacked by submarines on the +way.] + +The volunteer system was largely depended upon to recruit the regular +army and the National Guard to their required strength; but in the +draft call a provision of 187,000 men had been made for service in +these two branches to fill up gaps caused by failure of volunteer +enlistments or by the detailing of regulars or guardsmen to aid in +training the draft recruits. The President pointed out that there was +ample scope for the volunteer system in augmenting the two established +services, which needed as many men as the draft army. On April 1, +1917, before war was declared, the regular army and National Guard +numbered about 225,000 men. These branches needed augmenting to a +strength of 293,000 and 400,000 respectively, making a combined force +of 693,000. There was thus a call for 468,000 men, which was mainly +responded to by volunteers. The draft citizen army of 500,000 and this +force of 693,000 made an army approaching 1,200,000 men which the +Government organized for field service in Europe in the first year of +America's participation in the war. Adding to this an augmented naval +force of 150,000, and the Marine Corps, numbering 30,000, a grand +total approximating 1,400,000 men appears as the first American +contribution to the forces fighting Germany. + + + + +CHAPTER LXVIII + +ENVOYS FROM AMERICA'S ALLIES + + +What perhaps most vividly brought home to the nation that it was now +one of the belligerents of the Allied Powers was the visit of a number +of special commissioners from the governments of the latter countries, +following the American declaration of war. The presence of the British +and French missions in particular made a deep impression, not only +because of the importance and magnitude of their errand, but because +of their personnel. The British mission was headed by Arthur James +Balfour, a former Conservative premier, and now Foreign Secretary in +the Lloyd-George cabinet. The French mission included Rene Viviani, a +predecessor of Premier Ribot and a member of his cabinet, and Marshal +Joffre, the victor of the Battle of the Marne and an idol of France. +The commanding personalities of Mr. Balfour and Marshal Joffre caught +the American imagination and the visits they paid to several cities +during their brief stay partook of the character of state events, +marked by an imposing welcome and sumptuous hospitality. + +A reception no less generous was accorded the members of the other +missions--the Italian, headed by the Prince of Udine, son of the Duke +of Genoa and nephew of King Victor Emmanuel, and including Signor +Marconi, the inventor of wireless telegraphy; the Russian, headed by +Boris Bakhmetieff, the new Russian Ambassador; and the Belgian, headed +by Baron Moncheur. Other missions came from Ireland, Rumania, and +Japan. + +The reception of these various missions formed the occasion for a +number of state functions which placed the Administration in the role +of a national host to many distinguished guests from foreign countries +with which the United States was now allied for the first time in a +devastating war. The honors paid to them produced remarkable +proceedings in Congress without parallel in that body's deliberations; +but then the great world war had shattered precedents wherever it +touched. The spectacle was witnessed of a British statesman, in the +person of Mr. Balfour, addressing the House and Senate, an event which +became an enduring memory. Congress also heard addresses from M. +Viviani, Baron Moncheur, and the Prince of Udine. They told why their +countries were in the war--a familiar story whose repetition within +the halls of Congress had considerable point in that the national +legislature itself had sanctioned war on Germany for the same reasons. +American and Allied statesmen thus met on common ground in a common +cause. The numerous conferences between the various sections of the +Allied missions and American officials--beginning with that between +the President and Mr. Balfour--were councils of war. They symbolized +the joining of hands across the sea in a literal sense--across a sea +infested with German submarines, which the envoys, incidentally, +escaped both in coming and returning. + +In the public ceremonials that marked their visit the leading envoys +freely and repeatedly expressed their grateful recognition to the +United States for unselfishly entering the war at last on the side +which was fighting for civilization--a disinterested action without +parallel in the history of wars, as Mr. Asquith had called it. Their +gratitude might well be taken for granted; but, like the Allies' aims +in the war, it bore repetition, because American aid was sorely +needed, and they had, in fact, come to accept as much assistance as +the United States had to give. + +The immediate need was money, food, ships--all the accessories of war +outside the fighting zone. Funds for loans having become available, +the American Treasury proceeded to distribute its largesse generously. +Great Britain received $200,000,000 as the first installment of a +number of loans; France and Italy received $100,000,000 each; Serbia +got $3,000,000; Russia $175,000,000; France another $60,000,000; and +Great Britain $300,000,000 more. Further credits to the various +countries brought the amount loaned to $1,525,000,000 by the close of +July, 1917, or more than half of the $3,000,000,000 sanctioned by +Congress for financing the Allies. + +By these transactions the United States Government displaced the +banking firm of J. P. Morgan & Co., who had been acting as fiscal +agent for the Allies since they began to purchase huge supplies in +America on American credits. + +Great Britain, as the bulwark of her allies, had many weighty matters +to lay before the United States. Her mission sought an understanding +regarding the conduct of the blockade, naval operations, munition +supplies, military dispositions and resources, and the shipment of +foodstuffs. There was no driving of bargains, since neither was a +competitor of the other, and hence could have no radical difference of +view on questions to the settlement of which they had been drawn in +union against a common foe. The attitude of the British mission +invited American cooperation, reciprocal service, and expressed +gratitude for the American partnership. They had no policies to +suggest to the Administration. They had much information on the +conduct of the war to lay before the United States--specially +blunders to be avoided; but they did not presume to teach Americans +how to make war. The United States, on its part, eagerly wanted to +know all that could be known, and to be guided accordingly. + +A week of conferences clarified the situation. Both the British and +French missions revealed with surprising frankness the status of the +Allied resources and the military situation. Great Britain was +especially candid in disclosing the extent of her losses by +submarines. She needed ships, as many as America could build. France +needed an American army at once to augment her man power. Italy wanted +coal and grain. Most of all, the collapse of Russia's military +organization had brought the Allies to the pass of relying on American +aid as imperative if Germany was to be defeated. + +The personal contact between American Government officials and the +various missions, especially the British, produced a mutual confidence +and sympathy not to be measured by words. Resources and needs were +frankly stated. The United States disclosed what it could do and how. +The way, in short, was cleared for the United States to enter the +Grand Alliance on a basis making for efficient cooperation in the +conduct of the war. + +A gentleman's agreement was effected with neither side committed to +any binding policy. The United States retained a free hand, and was +not controlled, formally or informally, by any entangling undertaking +as to any future course it might elect to take in its relations with +Germany. But one enlightening point emerged. It was that while the +United States was free to enter into any peace it chose, it would not +enter into a separate peace. No action in that direction was +imaginable in the circumstances without consulting the Entente Allies. +This injection of peace considerations into the war situation, before +the United States had really entered the lists with troops and guns, +was taking time by the forelock. But it was needful to clear the air +early, as one of the reasons ascribed to Germany's apparent +complacence to the entrance of America as a belligerent was that she +counted on the United States as a balance wheel that might restrain +the Entente's war activities and hasten peace, or later operate to +curtail the Entente's demands at the peace conference. On these +assumptions America's participation was supposed to be not wholly +unwelcome to Berlin. + +American freedom of action was unlikely to confuse the war issues in +the manner Germany looked for. Whatever hopes Germany built upon that +freedom did not deter Secretary Lansing and Mr. Balfour from hastening +to counteract misleading impressions current that America would be +embarrassed in its postwar foreign policy by becoming involved in +European territorial questions, from which, for more than a century, +it had remained aloof. + +The French mission also achieved an incontestable popular triumph, due +to the presence of Marshal Joffre and to memories of French assistance +in the Revolutionary War. France's heroic resistance to German +invasion of her territory, specially in thwarting the advance on +Paris, had also attached American sympathies to her cause. M. Viviani +and Marshal Joffre did not hesitate to avail themselves of this +feeling by plainly requesting the immediate dispatch of American +troops to France. While this course conflicted with the early plans of +the American General Staff, the latter had to recognize the immense +moral effect which the flying of the Stars and Stripes would have on +the Allied troops in the Franco-Belgian trenches, and the request did +not go unheeded. The country realized that the French importunity for +troops was born of an equally importunate need. + +All the missions, except the British, were birds of passage, who +departed upon fulfilling their errands of securing American aid in +directions where it was most required. There was more permanency to +the British mission, owing to Great Britain's role of general provider +to her Allies, which called for the establishment of several British +organizations in New York and Washington as clearing houses. Mr. +Balfour and his suite left, to be succeeded by Lord Northcliffe, chief +proprietor of the London "Times," London "Daily Mail," and many other +British publications, who was commissioned by Lloyd-George to continue +the work Mr. Balfour had begun and to coordinate the ramifications +produced by extensive scope of the Allies' calls on American +industries for war equipment. + +In the same direction the American Government consolidated its +energies in a War Industries Board, which it created to supervise the +expenditure of millions of dollars on equipping the American armies. + + + + +CHAPTER LXIX + +IN IT AT LAST + + +The Administration decided to send an American expeditionary force to +France as an advance guard of the huge army in process of preparation. +Major General John J. Pershing was placed in command of this +expedition, which was believed to embrace an army division, a force of +the Marine Corps, and nine regiments of engineers. A veil of official +secrecy (religiously respected by the press in pursuance of the +voluntary censorship it imposed upon itself) was thrown over the +dispatch of the preliminary force, and nothing further was heard of it +until tidings came of the unheralded arrival of General Pershing in +England on June 8, 1917, and of the appearance of a number of American +warships off the French coast about the same time. + +This latter event proved to be the safe arrival of a convoyed naval +collier, the _Jupiter_, which served as a harbinger of the fleet of +transports conveying the American troops. It carried a cargo of army +provisions, including over 10,000 tons of wheat. + +The arrival of the first division of transports at an unnamed French +seaport was reported on June 26, 1917. They were signaled from the +deserted quays of the town at 6 o'clock in the morning, and as they +steamed toward port in a long line, according to an eloquent +eyewitness, they appeared a "veritable armada," whose black hulls +showed clearly against the horizon, while the gray outlines of their +escorting destroyers were almost blotted out in the lead-colored sea. +Dominating all was an enormous American cruiser with its peculiar +upper basket works. The warships went to their allotted moorings with +clockwork precision, while tugs took charge of the transports and +towed them to their berths. Resounding cheers were exchanged between +the troops which lined the rails of the incoming ships and the +populace which lined the quays. + +The next day came a formal intimation from Paris that the first +expeditionary unit of American troops, in command of Major General +William L. Sibert, had safely reached their destination. Rear Admiral +Gleaves, commanding the destroyer force which accompanied the +transports, telegraphed the Navy Department to the same effect. But it +subsequently transpired that all had not been plain sailing in passing +through the submarine zone. + +The expedition was divided into contingents, each contingent including +troopships and a naval escort designed to hold off any German raiders +that might be sighted. An ocean rendezvous had also been arranged with +the American destroyer flotilla under Admiral Sims, which had been +operating in European waters since May 4, 1917, in order that the +passage of the danger zone might be attended by every possible +protection. Frequent indications pointing to the presence of +submarines in the expedition's course were observed as the transports +neared European waters. The passage through the infested zone was +therefore made at high speed; the men were prepared for any emergency; +boats and life belts were at hand for instant use; and watches at +every lookout were heavily reenforced. + +These precautions were timely and more than warranted. The first +contingent of transports was attacked twice by German U-boats. Admiral +Gleaves, describing these incidents in reporting to Admiral Mayo, +commander in chief of the Atlantic fleet, said the first attack was +made at 10.15 p. m. on June 22. The location, formation, and names of +the transports and the convoys, the speed they made, and the method +of proceeding, were suppressed in the account made public by the Navy +Department. + +It appeared that the destroyers' flagship, which led the transport +fleet, was the first to encounter the submarine. At least the officer +on deck and others on the bridge saw a white streak about fifty yards +ahead of the ship, crossing from starboard to port at right angles to +the ship's course. The ship was sharply turned 90 degrees to starboard +at high speed, a general alarm was sounded, and torpedo crews were +ordered to their guns. One of the destroyers called _A_ and one of the +transports astern opened fire, the destroyer's shell being fitted with +tracers. Other members of the convoying destroyers turned to the right +and left. At first it was thought on board the flagship that the white +streak was caused by a torpedo, but later reports from other ships +warranted the conclusion that it was the wake of the submarine itself. +At 10.25 the wake of a torpedo was sighted directly across the bow of +the destroyer called _A_, about thirty yards ahead. The ship's course +was swung to the left, and shots were fired from port batteries in +alarm, accompanied by blasts from the siren. The destroyer then passed +through a wake believed to be from the passing submarine. A second +torpedo passed under the destroyer _A's_ stern ten minutes later. + +Another destroyer known as _D_ was also the target of a torpedo which +passed it from starboard to port across the bow about forty yards +ahead of the ship, leaving a perceptible wake visible for about four +or five hundred yards. + +The submarine sighted by the flagship immediately engaged the +attention of destroyer _B_. In fact it darted under the latter and +passed the flagship's bows, disappearing close aboard on the +flagship's port bow between the destroyer columns. The _B_ followed +the wake between the columns and reported strong indications of two +submarines astern, which grew fainter. The _B_ afterward guarded the +rear of the convoy. + +So much for the ghostly movements of the submarine or submarines which +crossed the tracks of the first contingent of American transports on +the night of June 22. In the absence of more tangible proof of their +presence beyond that provided by white streaks and wakes on the sea +surface, the incident might well have been a false alarm. It only +occasioned much excitement and activity. But its interest lay in the +alertness of the destroyers to danger. The officers on board the +flotilla had no doubt at all that the danger was real. Admiral +Gleaves, indeed, saw circumstantial evidence of the menace in alluding +to a bulletin of the French General Staff which referred to the +activities of a German submarine off the Azores. This U-boat, the +bulletin said, was ordered to watch in the vicinity of those islands, +"at such a distance as it was supposed the enemy American convoy would +pass from the Azores." + +The second contingent of transports, which arrived in France a week +later, had a similar experience, with the important difference that +their encounters with submarines took place in broad daylight, and +that the firing at one of them produced material traces of the enemy's +proximity. Two submarines were met on the morning of June 26, 1917, +one at 11.30, when the ships were about a hundred miles off the coast +of France, the other an hour later. The destroyer _H_, which was +leading, sighted the first U-boat, and the _I_ pursued the wake, but +without making any further discovery. The second episode was more +convincing of the actual presence of a submarine. The destroyer _J_ +saw the bow wave of one at a distance of 1,500 yards and headed for it +at a rapid speed. The pointers at the destroyer's gun sighted its +periscope several times for several seconds; but it disappeared each +time before they could get their aim, which the zigzagging of the ship +impeded. Presently the _J_ passed about twenty-five yards ahead of a +mass of bubbles which obviously came from the submarine's wake. A deep +charge was fired just ahead of these bubbles. Several pieces of +timber, quantities of oil and debris then came to the surface. Nothing +more was seen of the submarine. There was plain evidence that it had +been sunk. + +Two days later--on the morning of June 28, 1917, at 10 o'clock--the +destroyer _K_ opened fire at an object, about three hundred yards +ahead, which appeared to indicate a submarine. Admiral Gleaves +described it as a small object rising a foot or two high out of the +water, and leaving a small wake. Through binoculars he made out a +shape under the water, too large to be a blackfish, lying diagonally +across the _K's_ course. The port bow gun fired at the spot, and the +ship veered to leave the submarine's location astern. Then the port +aft gun crew reported sighting a submarine on the port quarter, and +opened fire. The lookouts also reported seeing the submarine under the +water's surface. The ship zigzagged and the firing continued. Not only +was the submarine seen but the lieutenant in charge of the firing on +the _K_ destroyer, as well as the gun crews and lookouts aft, +testified that it fired two torpedoes in the direction of the convoy. +The latter, however, had sheered off from its base course well to the +right when the alarm was sounded. The _K_ continued to zigzag until +all danger had passed, and duly joined the other escorts. The convoy +then formed into column astern. + +No submarine ambuscades awaited the third group of transports. Their +voyage was quite uneventful. Apart from the probability that much of +the commotion marking the passage of the first and second contingents +might well have been due to groundless fears, the success of the +American expedition in safely landing in France registered Germany's +first defeat at the hands of the United States. It was her boast that +her submarines would never permit any American army to reach its +destination. + +General Pershing was in Paris when the first transport contingent +arrived, and immediately set out for the French port to get in touch +with his troops. They were debarking in long lines when he arrived, +making their way to their temporary camp, which was situated on high +ground outside the town. Their debarkation signalized the actual +beginning of General Pershing's command in the European theater of war +of an army in being, as yet small, but composed of seasoned troops +from the Mexican border and marines from Haiti and Santo Domingo, all +fit and ready for immediate trench service. He had been greeted in +England as America's banner bearer, was immediately received by King +George on his arrival in London, while Paris accorded him, as London +did, the royal welcome which a sister democracy knows how to extend +to the representative of a democracy bound to the Anglo-French Entente +by the grimmest of ties. The landing of the vanguard of his army +disposed of further hospitalities and brought him squarely to the +business in hand, which was to get his troops in the fighting zone. + +A section of the French battle front for eventual occupancy by the +American forces was early selected after General Pershing had +inspected the ground under the guidance of the British and French +military authorities. Its location, being a military secret, was not +disclosed. Meantime the troops were dispatched to training bases +established for affording them the fullest scope to become familiar +with trench operators. The bases also included aviation, artillery, +and medical camps. Further tidings of them thenceforth came from the +"American Training Camp in France," wherever that was. Toward the +close of July, 1917, actual intensive work was under way and pursued +with an enthusiasm which warranted hopes that the troops would soon +reach a stage of efficiency fitting them for the firing zone. Trenches +were dug with the same spirit as that animating soldiers digging +themselves in under artillery fire. The trenches were of full depth +and duplicated those of certain sections of the front line, consisting +of front or fire trenches, support trenches, and reserve trenches, +with intricate communicating passages between them. + +The marines--those handy men who apply themselves to every service +in warfare, as to the manner born, whenever the occasion +requires--cheerfully bent their ardent energies to spade work, which +was probably a new task even for that many handed corps. Thereafter +they wired themselves in their trenches behind barriers of +barbed-metal entanglements. + +All this intensive work was performed under conditions approximating +to actual warfare. Both offensive and defensive tactics were employed, +including lively sham battles with grenades, bayonets, and trench +mortars. For bayonet practice dummies were constructed and the men +were taught the six most vital points of attack. The troops were +entertained by stories telling how the French decorated and painted +their dummies to resemble the kaiser, Von Hindenburg, and other enemy +notables, and each company searched its ranks for artists who could +paint similar effigies. + +Practice in trench warfare did not displace route marching. The +hardening process in that direction continued as part of the +operations. The men's packs increased in weight until they neared +fifty pounds. Duly the men would be equipped with steel helmets and an +extra kit, when their packs would weigh eighty pounds, like the burden +carried by the British troops. Accordingly the Americans were drilled +to bear this burden without undue fatigue. This was the stage American +operations in France had reached by the beginning of August, 1917. + +Little was disclosed regarding naval movements--beyond the activities +of American destroyers, which were not only occupied in convoying +transports and passenger liners through the submarine zone, but +cooperated with British patrols in checking submarine destruction in +other lanes of travel. The British recognized them as a formidable +part of the grand Allied fleet. + +As to the navy itself, its personnel was increased to 150,000 men. +Where the main American fleet was--whether with the British fleet at +the Orkneys, or stationed in some other zone--no event transpired to +give any clue. But patrol of the South Atlantic, as well as of the +American coast, was assumed by the Pacific coast fleet under Admiral +Caperton, the remaining French and British warships in those waters +acting under his authority. + +Sea warfare conditions, outside the useful work of the American +destroyers provided by the German submarines, gave little scope for +naval operations, and it was assumed that the main American fleet, +like the British, was lying quiescent, with its finger on the trigger, +awaiting its opportunity. The Navy Department meantime busied itself +arming scores of American merchant vessels to brave the submarines, +and in carrying out an extensive building program, which included the +construction of hundreds of submarine chasers--a new type of swift, +powerfully armed small craft--as well as of many new destroyers. + + + + +PART IX--THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION + + + + +CHAPTER LXX + +FORESHADOWING REVOLUTION + + +Without danger of overstatement or exaggeration, it may be said that +the most dramatic feature of the Great War's history during the period +February-August, 1917, was the revolution in Russia. To outsiders, +acquainted with Russian conditions only superficially, it was +startlingly unexpected. A revolution, usually, is merely the climax of +a long series of events of quiet development, the result of a long +period of propaganda and preparation, based on gradually changing +economic conditions. The overthrow of the Russian autocracy seems to +have been an exception to this general rule--at least in part. For +even to close observers nothing seemed more dead than the +revolutionary organizations in Russia on the outbreak of the Great War +in the summer of 1914. To be sure, when the opportunity came, they +sprang into life again and were able to place themselves in control of +the situation. But the great climax certainly did not come about +through their conscious efforts. + +For this reason a detailed description of the early revolutionary +movements directed against the czar's government is not necessary to a +thorough understanding of the events which so startled the world in +March, 1917. The causes which brought them about originated after the +outbreak of the war. + +We were in the habit of describing the two great governments, that of +the German Empire and that of the Russian Empire, with the word +"autocracies." And in that each was, and one still is, controlled +absolutely by a small group of men, responsible to nobody but +themselves, this was true. Aside from that, no further comparison is +possible. + +The German autocracy is the result of the conscious effort of highly +capable men who built and organized a system with thoughtful and +intelligent deliberation. With a deep knowledge of human psychology +and the conditions about them, they have guided their efforts with +extreme intelligence, knowing when to grant concessions, knowing how +to hold power without being oppressive. + +The Russian autocracy was a survival of a former age, already growing +obsolete, rarely able to adapt itself to changing conditions, blindly +fighting to maintain itself in its complete integrity against them. +Change of any sort was undesirable to those controlling its machinery, +even though the change might indirectly benefit it. It had been +crystallized in a previous epoch, even as the tenets of its church +were the crystallized superstitions of a barbaric age. It was, in +fact, a venerable institution which certain men wished to perpetuate +not so much from self-interest as from a blind veneration for its age +and traditions. To them even the interests of the people were of far +less importance than the maintenance of this anachronism in its +absoluteness. Where the German rulers had the intelligence to divert +opposing forces and even to utilize them to their own benefit, the +Russian autocrats fought them and attempted to suppress them. + +The chief of those forces which oppose autocracies are, naturally, the +growing intelligence of the people and the resulting knowledge of +conditions in other countries which they acquire. Realizing this fact, +at least, the Russian rulers were bitterly opposed to popular +education and made every effort to suppress the craving of the common +people for knowledge of any kind. + +These facts considered, it is not surprising that the first +revolutionary movements in Russia should have been generated among the +educated classes, even among the aristocracy itself. As far back as a +century ago a revolutionary society was formed among the young army +officers who had participated in the Napoleonic Wars, and who, in +their contact with the French, imbibed some of the latters' democratic +ideas, though they were then fighting them. Failing in their efforts +to impregnate these ideas among the czar and his ruling clique, they +finally, in 1825, resorted to armed violence, with disastrous results. +Nicholas I had just ascended the throne, and with furious energy he +set about stamping out the disaffection which these officers had +spread in his army, and for the time being he was successful. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXI + +THE RISE OF NIHILISM + + +The first agitators for democracy among the civil population were the +Nihilists, those long-haired, mysterious individuals whose +bomb-throwing propensities and dark plottings have furnished so many +Western fiction writers with material for romances. The Nihilists, so +well described as a type in Turgenev's "Fathers and Sons," were the +sons and daughters of the landed aristocracy, the provincial gentry, +who went abroad and studied in foreign universities, or, studying at +home, imbibed revolutionary ideas through foreign literature. Coming +together in small groups, they began to formulate ideas of their own +especially adapted to Russian conditions. At first these ideas were of +a nonpolitical character and extremely abstract. They wished to go +among the ignorant peasants and educate them in the Western sciences. +"Going among the people" was a phrase among them which assumed the +significance of a program. But with its antipathy toward all forms of +learning the Government soon showed its determination to suppress all +these efforts at educating the common people, and the youthful +agitators were arrested and thrown into prison by the hundreds. + +As a matter of fact their abstract ideas had made little impression on +the ignorant mujiks, and had the Government ignored the Nihilists it +is probable that their organization would have died a natural death +from lack of success. But the opposition of the police only roused the +fighting spirit of the young aristocrats, and they not only became +more enthusiastic, but added recruits to their ranks more than enough +in numbers to fill the gaps made by those in prison. The persecution +by the police, furthermore, forced them to make a secret organization +of their loosely knit groups, and this too fired the romantic +imaginations of the young people. + +The fight between the agitators and the police waxed stronger and more +bitter. Then one day all Russia was shocked by the news that a +Petrograd police chief had had a young woman in prison as a Nihilist +suspect disrobed and flogged. + +Hitherto the Nihilists had been entirely peaceful in their methods; +violence had formed no part of their tactics. The indignation roused +within their ranks by the outrage to the young woman resulted in a +change. They decided to instill terror into the hearts of the +Government officials by a systematic policy of assassination, whereby +the most oppressive of the officials should be removed from their +field of activity by death. The first of these assassinations, not +quite successful, took place in Kiev in 1878. From then on violence on +both sides increased and the bitterness intensified until in 1881 it +culminated in the assassination of Alexander II. This so enraged the +Government officials and vitalized their energy that soon after all +the most active Nihilists had been captured or driven abroad, and for +some years there came a lull in the agitation for democracy in Russia. +But it was, after all, lack of success which had killed Nihilism +rather than the violent measures of the Government. Practically all of +the Nihilists had imbibed the radical doctrines of Karl Marx and +Michael Bakunin, especially those of the latter, himself a Russian and +more inclined toward violent anarchism than toward political +socialism. These doctrines were far too abstruse for the untutored and +practical minds of the peasants, and in most cases they had shown +animosity rather than sympathy toward the agitators. + +Yet the Nihilist doctrines and program formed the basis for later +efforts toward creating a revolutionary spirit among the Russian +people. To this day the few surviving Nihilists of the early days, +notably Katherine Breshkovskaya, "the grandmother of the Russian +Revolution," are venerated by the people as the last representatives +of the heroic age. + +It was not until the middle of the last decade of the nineteenth +century, after the succession of Nicholas II to the throne in 1894, +that revolutionary organization was revived in Russia. These modern +efforts were concentrated into two forms of organization. The largest +of these was the Social Democratic party, whose program consisted +mainly of organizing the working people in the large cities and +industrial centers. Its leaders were made up largely of recruits from +the educated middle classes and from the Jewish elements. + +Second in size, though quite as important in influence, was the Social +Revolutionary organization. Though smaller in regard to membership, +its leaders and most active members were those same students from the +aristocratic classes which had made up the Nihilist groups. It was +interested in injecting its doctrines into the peasantry, rather than +propagating them among the working classes. And a certain branch of +the organization, known as the Fighting Branch, still practiced +assassination as a means to gaining its ends. As a result of its +activities some of the highest officials of the Government and the +most important dignitaries of the ruling clique lost their lives. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXII + +REVOLUTIONARY DOCTRINES + + +As members of both these organizations are at present in power in +revolutionary Russia, it may be quite appropriate to enunciate their +fundamental principles. + +The Russian Social Democrats, together with all the Socialist parties +of the world, stand for a democracy that shall be economic or +industrial as well as political. They contend that a nation, such as +the United States, which is democratic in its political organization, +but whose industries and natural resources are in private hands, is +democratic only in appearance. They stand for the socialized state +which, being controlled by the universal suffrage of its people, shall +in its turn own and control the natural resources and the industries +through which the people are supplied with their daily needs. Their +first aim is to gain control of the political machinery of the state, +then reorganize industry on a socialistic basis. + +The aims of the Social Revolutionists are not so easily defined, for +the reason that there is more diversity of opinion among the +membership. Most of them are undoubtedly Socialists, and many again +are Anarchists of the Kropotkin school. Temperamentally the Russian is +much more an Anarchist than a State Socialist, more an individualist +than a collectivist. It is the Jewish element which gives the Social +Democrats their numerical superiority. As compared to the Social +Democrat it may be said that the Social Revolutionist, taking the +average, is opposed to the strongly centralized state and bases his +scheme of reconstruction on the local autonomy of the small community. +It is the same difference that may be found, or is supposed to exist, +between the principles of the Republican and the Democratic parties of +the United States. The Social Revolutionist is the Democrat of +Socialistic Russia; the Social Democrat is the Republican. + +The failure of the war with Japan proved a strong stimulus to the +revolutionary movements in Russia. In fact, their activities compelled +the Government to conclude a peace when further hostilities might +have brought about the defeat of the Japanese. To bring this domestic +unrest to a head before it should gain too wide a volume, the +Government sent its own agitators among the workingmen and incited +them to make demonstrations and other forms of disturbance, which +should serve the police as a pretext for violent suppression. The +first of these demonstrations occurred on January 21, 1905, a date +which remains in: scribed in the pages of Russian history as "Red +Sunday." The workingmen, some thousands in number, were led by Father +Capon, a priest, who was at least under the influence of the +Government, if not in its pay. Against the wishes of the Social +Democrats, with whom his organization cooperated, he decided to lead a +great army of his followers to the gates of the palace and petition +the czar for constitutional government. When the unarmed demonstrators +arrived at the palace they were shot down by the hundreds and trampled +into the mud by the hoofs of the cavalry horses. + +The outrage stirred the Russian people profoundly. The revolutionary +elements now began to act in earnest, though they were not quite as +prepared as they had wished to be. A general strike was organized, and +so effectively was it maintained that the czar and his clique promised +the people a constitution. But when the strike had been called off and +the disturbances subsided, it soon became evident that the promises +were not to be fulfilled. More than that, the police now began such a +series of repressive measures that again the fires on the revolution +were lighted. Most notable of these was the uprising in Moscow in +December, 1905, when the people and the soldiers fought bloody battles +in the streets. But the revolutionary forces lacked proper +organization, and were finally crushed. Of all the promises which had +been made only the Duma remained, amounting to little more than a +debating club with absolutely no independent legislative power. + +The first Duma at least served to give some conception of the coloring +of public opinion in Russia. The majority of the deputies belonged to +the Constitutional Democrats, a political party which appeared and +represented the moderate progressives, those who wished a +constitutional monarchy and progressive reforms. Their leader was +Paul Milukov, a professor in the University of Moscow and at one time +professor in the University of Chicago. + +The Duma, though the restrictive election laws had minimized the +revolutionary elements within it, clamored for the promised reforms +until it was finally dissolved by the Government. A number of deputies +went to Finland and there issued a manifesto with the object of +rousing a general demonstration, but without success. The second Duma +proved quite as progressive as the first and was also dissolved +arbitrarily. Then the electoral laws were made still more restrictive, +so that the landed nobility and the clergy should be more represented. +The third Duma, as a result, proved quite innocuous, and for five +years it sat, never attempting to initiate any changes, attracting +very little attention. + +During this period reaction regained all its former ascendency, within +the Social Revolutionary organization it was discovered that the chief +of the fighting organization, Eugene Azev, was nothing more than the +paid agent of the secret police and that he had been delivering the +members of the organization into the hands of his masters as they +proved themselves most dangerous. The agent through whom the exposure +had been made, by an ex-police chief, was an obscure Russian +journalist, Vladimir Bourtsev, who at once rose to international +prominence as the "Sherlock Holmes of the Russian Revolution." To +maintain his reputation he began with much publicity further +investigations and discovered a great number of smaller-fry spies in +the organization, with the result that all mutual confidence of the +members was broken and the organization went completely to pieces. + +After this, 1907, little more was heard in foreign countries of +Russian revolution. Within Russia itself the university students who +had formed the best material for the working committees turned their +energies in other directions, degenerating into the notorious +"candle-light clubs" and other somewhat depraved practices with free +love as a basis. + +Nor had anything occurred to revive the hopes of the friends of +Russian freedom when hostilities broke out between Russia and Germany +in 1914, and the greatest of all wars was precipitated. Certainly not +within revolutionary circles. Among the peasantry and the working +classes, indeed, and of spontaneous origin, there had appeared a great +economic movement, more directly revolutionary in character than the +more picturesque terrorist organizations. This was the cooperative +societies. In the towns and cities and the industrial centers they +took the form of consumers' organizations in which the people combined +their purchasing power and conducted their own stores for the supply +of their daily needs. These local societies again federated into the +Moscow Wholesale Society, which purchased in bulk for its +constituents. In the rural districts the peasants organized for the +purpose of marketing their produce jointly; this form of cooperation +was especially marked in Siberia among the dairy farmers. Then there +were the credit societies, cooperative banks which federated in the +Moscow Narodni (People's) Bank, and so had millions of rubles at its +disposal with which to finance more cooperative organizations. All +these societies were much restricted by the police, but they gained +enough headway to play an important part in the economic life of the +nation after the outbreak of hostilities and to become a big element +in the final revolutionary movement. + +Closely akin to the cooperatives, and of much older origin, were the +Zemstvos. These local governing organizations were established in 1864 +by Alexander II to satisfy the desire of the peasants to express +themselves in local politics. The local Zemstvo is charged with the +administration of education, sanitation, medical relief for the poor, +maintenance of highways, and other local matters outside the sphere +of the central government. Naturally the Zemstvo was not intrusted +with any power that was likely to prove dangerous to the Petrograd +Government, but as the members were elected by popular suffrage, +restricted by certain qualifications demanding the ownership of +property on the part of the electors. The Zemstvos proved highly +effective training schools in which the peasants could learn +self-government and parliamentary procedure. The local Zemstvos, like +the cooperative societies, federated into district Zemstvos, which +sometimes had the control of large affairs on their hands. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXIII + +RUSSIAN WAR SPIRIT AROUSED + + +With the declaration of war against Germany, slumbering Russia seemed +suddenly to awaken, and elements which had hitherto been antagonistic +joined together for the common purpose of repelling the German +invasion. Keenly patriotic, even to the point of fanaticism, in spite +of his ready acceptance of radical doctrines, the Russian is ever +ready to present a solid front against outside interference. Thus it +was that when the war began revolutionists who had fled from Russia, +or who had been exiled abroad, flocked home in great numbers and +offered their services to the autocracy to fight the Germans. Never +has Russia shown such unanimity of spirit and such solidarity of +purpose. The Japanese War had been so plainly one of aggression, and +in so distant a part of the world, that this same spirit had not been +manifested in 1904. But now the Germans, always hated by the Slavs, +were actually crossing the Russian frontier, close to the national +capital. All Russia rallied to the call for action. As a matter of +fact, it was the Russian autocracy itself which presently began +realizing that it had unintentionally and illogically arrayed itself +on the side of the forces which it had always fought, as the +revolutionary elements in Russia also presently began realizing that +they had followed their truest instincts in supporting the war against +Germany. + +For within a few weeks after the outbreak of hostilities the war +assumed an entirely different character. In its first aspect it was a +quarrel between various autocracies over greed for influence and +territory. The Russian autocracy went into the fight because of its +pretensions in the Balkans. Then France and Great Britain, the two big +democracies of Europe, threw themselves into the conflict. They fought +to oppose the ambition of the German rulers to Prussianize the whole +of Europe. It soon became obvious that the Teutonic Powers wanted +something of immensely more importance than territorial gains in +Serbia; they wanted to become the masters of all Europe. And so the +initial character of the war changed within a few weeks: it developed +into a conflict between international democracy on the one hand and +international autocracy on the other hand. It was then when the +question of Serbia sank into comparative insignificance that the +Russian autocrats realized that they had enlisted on the wrong side. +But with the whole populace of the country enthusiastically united +behind it, the Government was swept onward; it was too late to make an +abrupt change of front. + +Undoubtedly all the members of the ruling class of Russia realized +this fact. But in full justice to them it must be said that the large +majority of them, those who previously had supported the Government +against the revolutionary and progressive elements, decided to accept +the situation and support the war against Germany to a finish, +whatever the results might be in internal affairs after the war. + +Within the governing clique, comprising some of the most influential +individuals, was a small group, later known as "the dark forces," +which quickly came to the conclusion that democracy must be defeated +at all costs. + +First of all came the czar himself. Nicholas, however, played a very +small figure as a personality in all the later intrigues. Weak of +character, almost to the point of being mentally defective, he +reflected only the personalities of those about him. Yet he was by +blood seven-eighths German. + +Next came the czarina, entirely German, with not a drop of Russian +blood. Of a stronger personality, though scarcely more intelligent, +she formed the real power behind the throne, in so far as direct +control was concentrated in any one person. By persons of more +intelligence than herself she could be used in manipulating the will +of the czar to their own purposes. Behind her, or rather to one side +of her, stood a group of the Russian nobility of German origin, +descendants of the courtiers and officials brought into Russian court +circles by the German wives of Russian czars. These still retained +enough of their German sympathies to counteract any consideration they +might otherwise have felt for the interests of Russia itself, +especially as this was further strengthened by their realization that +the defeat of Germany would also mean the doom of Russian autocracy, +of which they were a part. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXIV + +RASPUTIN, THE EVIL SPIRIT OF RUSSIA + + +The dominating figure of this dark circle of pro-Germans within the +Russian court was the monk Rasputin--Rasputin the peasant, the +picturesque, the intriguing, the evil medium through which the agents +of Germany manipulated the Russian Government toward their own ends, +the interests of the German autocracy. Such a figure could have played +a part in no other than a court of Oriental pattern, and such the +Russian court was. + +Gregory Novikh was a Siberian by birth, the son of a common, +illiterate mujik, as illiterate and as ignorant as his father. Early +in life, while still a common fisherman, he showed abnormal qualities. +Degenerate, unrestrained in all his appetites, he possessed a magnetic +personality sometimes found in persons of that type. It was said that +no woman, even of the highest culture and quality, could resist his +advances. So loose was his behavior that he acquired the nickname of +Rasputin, which means a rake, a person of bad morals. And by this name +he gradually became notorious all over the land. + +From fishing Rasputin turned toward easier ways of making a living. +He became an itinerant monk, a holy man, a mystic. A role he was able +to play on account of his peculiar hypnotic powers. As a religious +fakir he acquired influence over women of high degree, though his +manners were coarse and his person was decidedly unclean. + +Eventually Rasputin made the acquaintance of Madame Virubova, the +favorite lady-in-waiting of the czarina. With the credulity of a +superstitious woman of her class, the czarina was a patroness of many +occult cults and had a firm belief in the influence of invisible +spirits. Rasputin was presented to her by the lady-in-waiting as an +occult healer and a person of great mystic powers. Immediately he was +asked to show his powers on the young czarevitch, Alexis, heir to the +throne, who was constitutionally weak and at that moment was suffering +especially from attacks of heart weakness. Rasputin immediately +relieved the sufferings of the child and so permanently established +himself with the czarina and even with the czar. As has been explained +since, Madame Virubova had previously administered a drug to the young +czarevitch, and by applying the antidote Rasputin had obtained +immediate results. Whether this story be true, or whether Rasputin +really did possess those peculiar healing powers which certain +abnormal persons undoubtedly do possess, the fact was that he remained +in court as a permanent attachment and acquired an influence there +which was equaled by no other person. He became, in actual fact, the +real ruler of all the Russias, for the prime minister who incurred his +displeasure did not long remain in power. Such a man, naturally, would +have many enemies, even within court circles, and efforts were made to +bring about the downfall of Rasputin. Once his enemies did actually +succeed in having him expelled from Petrograd for a while, but +immediately the czarevitch became critically ill and during his +absence the czarina was almost continuously hysterical. Again he was +invited back to court and then he set about building up his influence +into a political machine that was never again to be broken, even after +his death, until it became necessary for the reactionaries themselves +to help destroy the autocracy itself in order to purge Russia of the +spirit of Rasputin. + +Rasputin, not the revolutionary movement, brought about the downfall +of czarism. + +Yet up until after the outbreak of the war Rasputin had been +intelligent enough to refrain from interfering in matters of state +importance. His influence had thus far been wielded only to secure his +own position. Perhaps his keen instincts, rather than his +intelligence, warned him against too deep an interference in political +matters. To this self-restraint he owed his long continuance in power, +for though the situation was well known all over Russia, it was +regarded rather in the light of a joke. Rasputin's power was +underestimated, perhaps; he was more or less regarded as the pet +poodle of the czarina. + +It was after the war that he suddenly changed his attitude. He was one +of the first to realize the danger to the autocracy that a German +defeat would mean; that the Russian court was ranged against the +forces which would perpetuate it. Whether it was this realization +which determined Rasputin to wield his powerful influence in favor of +Prussianism, or whether he had been bought by German gold, the fact +remains that he became the central figure about which revolved all +those "dark forces" which were working for either a separate peace +with Germany or the utter military defeat of Russia in the war. In +this object Rasputin and his allies nearly succeeded. It was to avert +this that practically all the social elements, both liberal and +reactionary, united with the revolutionists in overturning czarism. + +What the plans of the dark forces were during the first year of the +war cannot now of course be definitely known. Perhaps they realized +that the utter inefficiency of the Russian autocracy would soon decide +the issue on the eastern front. And had there not appeared other +elements to guide and support the Russian soldiers at the front, +Russia would undoubtedly have been overrun by the German-Austrian +armies before the end of the first year. + +But the patriotic enthusiasm which German aggression had awakened +also brought into life powerful social organizations created for the +purpose of supporting the army in its fight against the Germans. Five +days after war was declared a congress of all the Zemstvos met in +Moscow and organized the Russian Union of Zemstvos. A Central +Committee was appointed and, with almost unlimited funds at its +disposal, raised through subscriptions, set to work to supplement the +work of the Red Cross and the commissary department of the army, both +of which were obviously unable to meet the needs of the situation. +This organization practically took the place of the two other +departments of the Government, establishing hundreds of hospitals and +supplying their equipment, caring for the wounded soldiers, supplying +the soldiers at the front not only with their necessities, but with +tobacco, bathing facilities, laundries, and many other minor luxuries. +During the first two years of the war the Central Committee disbursed +over half a billion dollars. At the head of this organization, +democratic in form, as its president was Prince George Lvov, who was +later destined to play an important part in the organization of the +revolutionary government. + +Another spontaneous and democratic organization which came into +existence to support the army against the Germans was the Union of +Towns, representing 474 municipalities in Russia and Siberia. It, too, +carried on a work similar to that of the Zemstvos, raising and +spending vast sums of money. Then came the cooperative societies, +supplying the army with food. In the towns and cities the consumers' +societies combated the intrigues of the food speculators, which were +even more active in Russia than they are in this country, and +stabilized prices. In some of the cities the local municipal +administrations turned over the whole problem of food supply to the +local cooperatives, doing nothing more than foot the bills. During the +war the membership of these societies rose to thirteen million. They, +too, were democratic in form. + +It would seem that the Government could have done no less than accept +the cooperation of these social organizations thankfully and done all +in its power not to handicap them in their efforts. But this did not +happen. On the contrary, from the beginning they were hampered as +though they were dangerous revolutionary organizations. This policy +became even more pronounced later on, when the success of the Allies +made the dark forces desperate. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXV + +TREACHERY OF THE AUTOCRACY + + +On the outbreak of the war the premier was Ivan L. Goremykin, a +typical autocrat, who had served under four czars, and who was now +well past seventy. As though utterly unconscious of the war situation, +he carried his administration on as he had done previous to the war. +First of all, he began a determined campaign of persecution of the +Jews, at a moment when the most violent anti-Semites would be +irritated by such a course. He even went so far as to have a number of +pogroms perpetrated and he spread persistent rumors that the Jews were +betraying the cause of Russia, in spite of the fact that they were +playing a leading part in the social organizations and were more than +proportionately represented in the army. Then he instituted similar +persecution among the Ruthenians and the Poles, and when Galicia was +occupied by the Russian military forces Goremykin sent there a number +of petty officials whom he instructed to make the inhabitants into +Russians according to old methods. Then when the commander in chief, +Grand Duke Nicholas, issued his manifesto promising the Poles liberty, +the Goremykin ministry completely ignored the promise. And finally, a +number of political refugees, who had returned from abroad to offer +their services, either in the army or in the social organizations, +were imprisoned or sent to Siberia. + +Even the reactionaries who had previously supported all that the +Government stood for were indignant. This feeling became most manifest +in the Duma. In 1914 the Duma had been a reactionary body, the +majority of the deputies being in favor of trusting entirely to the +Government. In August, 1915, a most astonishing thing happened, the +Duma, with a large majority, which included Conservatives, Liberals +and Radicals alike, drew up a demand for a series of reforms, +including the institution of a cabinet responsible to the people +through itself. Another demand was for a general amnesty for all +political prisoners. This was the famous Progressive Bloc. Goremykin +refused even to discuss the program. Instead, he hurried to the czar +to get his signature to a decree proroguing the Duma, in which he +succeeded. The result was that the whole population rose in +threatening revolution, and this time the threat was not from the +revolutionary elements. Even former leaders of the Black Hundreds were +among the protestants. It was then that Rodzianko, the president of +the Duma, addressed a letter to the premier, placing the +responsibility of Russia's recent defeats squarely on him and added: +"You are obviously too old to possess the vigor to deal with so +difficult a situation. Be man enough to resign and make way for some +younger and more capable man." Then Goremykin resigned. + +But the change was for the worse, rather than for the better, for the +next premier was a close friend and associate of Rasputin, a younger +man, to be sure, and more capable, but whose capabilities were to be +turned in the wrong direction. Boris Sturmer, a German by blood and +sympathies, former governor of Tver, one of the blackest of +reactionaries, was appointed to fill the vacant premiership. + +Sturmer, where his predecessor had perhaps been merely incompetent, +now set about consciously to make a separate peace with Germany, and +this object he hardly took the trouble to hide. Through the censorship +he suppressed the loyal press and encouraged a number of papers which +openly denounced Russia's allies and demanded a separate peace with +the kaiser. Then he sent agents to Switzerland, there to confer with +representatives of the German Government, so openly that it was known +all over Russia, even among the peasants, that a separate peace was +being prepared. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXVI + +PARTY INTRIGUES + + +Again the popular protest checked the machinations of the dark forces. +Then Sturmer turned deliberately to suppress the democratic +organizations. Early in 1916 he issued an order forbidding any of +these societies, which were keeping the armies in the field, from +holding meetings. Next the headquarters of all these organizations +were placed in charge of the police. And then came the removal from +the Cabinet of Sazonov, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, the one man +in whose loyalty to Russia the people had confidence. Sazonov had +always been a keen admirer of the British and the French, and was in +close touch with the embassies of these countries in Petrograd. To the +Russians he had seemed at least some sort of a guarantee against being +surprised with a sudden separate peace. Nor can there be any doubt +that he was a serious obstacle in the way of the dark forces in their +efforts to bring about their object. Sazonov's removal acquired still +deeper significance when it was announced that Sturmer himself would +take charge of foreign affairs, business of which he had absolutely no +experience. + +Of a deep significance, though this was not obvious at the time, was +the appointment of Alexander D. Protopopoff as Minister of the +Interior. This was the man who was finally to kick aside the last +wedge shoring up the tottering walls of the Russian autocracy. + +Protopopoff, who had for the first time entered politics in 1908, +being a cloth manufacturer of Simbirsk, was in that year elected a +deputy to the Duma by the moderate Octobrists, a conservative body +which usually sided with the Government. But when the Octobrists +joined the Progressive Bloc against the Government, Protopopoff had +shown himself quite radical and supported it. Quite unexpectedly, by +the resignation of a vice president of the Duma, he rose to prominence +by being elected to the vacant office. In the summer of 1916 he was +one of a delegation which visited England, France, and Italy. On his +return to Russia, through Stockholm, he there met and held a +conversation with a German agent, but at the time, though the matter +was taken up by the Duma for investigation, he managed to exonerate +himself. But, as became known, the incident caused him to attract the +attention of Rasputin, and he and the court favorite came together and +to an understanding. The result was his appointment to the cabinet. + +At first it was hoped that Protopopoff would prove the sign of +surrender of the autocracy; that a liberal element was to be +introduced into the administration through him. But the new minister +showed himself in close harmony with Sturmer, and presently this last +hope was destroyed. + +With Protopopoff a new idea was introduced into the Government. It was +he undoubtedly who conceived the idea of staging a revolution in +Russia, of creating or precipitating a premature uprising, as had been +done so successfully in 1905, but for a different purpose. The idea +now was to create such internal disorders as to give the Government a +pretext for making separate peace with the Central Powers. This might +deceive everybody; the revolutionary elements, which would be used as +the medium for the disorder, and the liberals and conservatives who +were now strongly anti-Government. In the midst of the turmoil the +separate peace could be effected; then the soldiers could be recalled +from the front and used in suppressing the revolution, a task that +could be easily accomplished with the vast number of men under arms. +As was later to be demonstrated, the dark forces did not reckon with +the psychological changes which the army was also undergoing. + +Mysterious placards now began to appear in the factories and munition +shops calling on the workingmen to go out on strike and organize +demonstrations. Police agents, disguised as workingmen, went into the +industrial plants and began to preach revolution. It was easy enough +to utilize Socialist philosophy for this purpose. Why should the +workers of Russia fight the workers of Germany, when their interests +were identical? Why should they shed their blood for the ruling +classes, when the ruling classes were the only ones who could gain +through the war? The German Socialists were even then rising against +their masters; the Russian Socialists were urged to do likewise and so +join their German comrades in paving the way to the cooperative +commonwealth. + +Fortunately the Social Democratic party had already issued a detailed +manifesto explaining why the Russian Socialists should stand by the +war. The genuine leaders of the Socialists should [see TN] the labor +organizations realized immediately the policy which the dark forces +were initiating. For once they came together with the liberals and +even with the conservative elements, and prepared to combat this +underhanded propaganda. Placards were posted and proclamations were +issued by the real leaders denouncing the impostors and explaining +their tactics. This underground fight among the laboring classes was +of long duration, however. In instituting this policy the dark forces +were indeed playing with the fire which was eventually to consume +them. + +Throughout the war the food supply had been very bad, not on account +of any real scarcity of foodstuffs, but because of the inefficient +handling of the inadequate transportation facilities. In some +localities provisions rotted in the warehouses while in the large +cities the people were starving, on the verge of famine. Instead of +handling the food situation as the other belligerent countries were +doing, Sturmer encouraged a group of dishonest financiers to acquire +control of the food supplies, thereby making big financial profits +himself. This greediness on his part was, however, to cause his own +downfall before that of his associates. A traitor to his country, he +was also a thief. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXVII + +THE WORK OF TRAITORS + + +Such were the tactics the dark forces had fully adopted in the fall of +1916, only a few months before the revolution. They deliberately set +about disorganizing the machinery of the nation to facilitate a +Russian defeat. As has been proved, they did not stop short of actual +treachery in the military field. The failure of the Rumanian defense +was the result of actual betrayal by those higher even than the +generals in the field. The Germans and Austrians had known every +detail of the campaign plans of the Rumanians and the Russian army +supporting them, and this information they had obtained directly from +Petrograd. + +Had it not been for the fact that the whole nation was awaiting the +opening of the Duma to take place on November 14, 1916, it is more +than probable that the revolution would have taken place in the fall +of 1916 instead of four months later. It would then, however, have +been a far bloodier event, for then the disintegration of the +autocracy had not yet reached such a complete stage as it did in the +following spring, and it might have offered a far more serious, +perhaps a successful, resistance. But the last hope of the people was +in the Duma, and they awaited its session in that spirit. + +The Duma convened on the date set, and then was witnessed the +remarkable spectacle of the conservative members denouncing the +Government with the fiery oratory of Socialist agitators. The +president himself, Michael Rodzianko, who hitherto had always been a +stanch supporter of the autocracy, being a prosperous landowner and +the father of two officers in a crack regiment, arraigned Sturmer as +once he had arraigned the revolutionary agitators. But it was left to +Professor Paul Milukov, the leader of the Constitutional Democrats, to +create the sensation of the meeting. He not only denounced Sturmer as +a politician, but he produced the evidence which proved beyond a doubt +that Sturmer was receiving bribes from the food speculators; the +specific case he brought up showed that Sturmer, through his +secretary, had offered to shield certain bankers under indictment for +a substantial consideration. Sturmer immediately took steps to +dissolve the Duma. But the czar, whose signature he needed, was at the +front. For the moment he was delayed. + +During this interval another sensation occurred. General Shuvaiev, +Minister of War, and Admiral Grigorovitch, Minister of Marine, +appeared in the Duma, and declared themselves on the side of the Duma +and the people. This settled the fate of Sturmer. On his way to the +front to procure the signature of the czar to the proclamation +dissolving the Duma he was handed his dismissal. + +His successor was Alexander Trepov, also an old-time bureaucrat, but +known not to be affiliated with the dark forces. It was hoped that he +would conciliate the angry people. But Trepov never played an +important part in later developments; the fight was now between the +Duma and the people on the one hand and the Minister of the Interior, +Protopopoff, on the other. This battle now began in earnest and was +destined to be fought out to a bitter finish. + +With a brazen fearlessness which must be credited to him, Protopopoff +now arraigned himself openly against the whole nation and the Duma, +with only the few hundreds of individuals constituting the dark forces +behind him. But these sinister forces included Rasputin, the +all-powerful, the czarina, and, unconscious though he himself may have +been of the part he played, the czar himself. + +Protopopoff now began persecuting the members and the leaders of the +social forces as though they were the veriest street agitators for +Socialism. Next he endeavored to have Paul Milukov assassinated, but +the assassin repented at the last moment and revealed the plot. Then +he gathered together former members of the Black Hundreds and +recruited them into the police force and trained them in machine-gun +practice. And finally he renewed the energy with which he had begun to +organize revolutionary disorders among the workers. + +All Russia was against him, even to the great majority of the members +of the Imperial family. His own mother had warned the czar that +disaster threatened him. As early as December, 1916, the Grand Duke +Nicholas Michailovitch had held a long interview with the czar in +which he had openly denounced the czarina and Rasputin in such strong +terms that when he had finished, having realized he had gone extremely +far, he remarked: + +"And now you may call in your Cossacks and have them kill me and bury +me in the garden." In reply the czar only smiled and offered the grand +duke a light for the cigarette which he had been fingering in his +nervous rage. It was by a member of the Imperial family that the first +vital blow was struck at the dark forces. In the early morning hours +of December 30, 1916, a dramatic climax was precipitated. + +It was then that a group of men drove up in two motor cars to the +residence of Prince Felix Yusupov, a member of the Imperial family +through his having married a cousin of the czar. Among the men in the +two cars were Grand Duke Dimitri Pavlovitch, ex-Minister of the +Interior, A. N. Khvostov, also an ex-Minister of the Interior, and +Vladimir Purishkevitch, at one time a notorious leader of Black +Hundred organizations, but since the beginning of the war an active +worker in the social organizations and a deputy in the Duma, where he +formed one of the Progressive Bloc. + +A few minutes later the policeman on duty in the neighborhood heard +shots within the house and cries of distress. On making an +investigation he obtained no satisfaction, nor did he dare to continue +his inquiry on account of the high rank of the owner of the house. +Again the men came out of the house and carried between them a large +bundle resembling a human form, which they hustled into one of the +automobiles and rode off. + +Next morning blood spots were found in the street where the motor cars +had stood. Then a hole was discovered in the ice covering the river +Neva, beside which were found two bloody goloshes. Further search +revealed a human body, which proved to be the corpse of no less a +person than the notorious monk Rasputin himself. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXVIII + +THREATENING OF THE STORM + + +Thus was Rasputin finally removed from his sphere of evil influence by +men who before the war had been of the very inner circles of the +autocracy, but who had gradually undergone a great change of opinion. +They believed that even the autocracy itself was only secondary in +importance to Russia herself, and they had taken it upon themselves, +after doing all in their power to circumvent the traitors through +legitimate means, to remove the archconspirator as such creatures +usually were removed in the days when they were more common. Rasputin +had been lured to the house of Prince Felix and there killed. + +It was said that the czarina was hysterical for days after the +sensational news had swept over all Russia and Protopopoff fainted +upon being informed of the death of his dark ally and master. The +czar, who was at headquarters at the front, hurried home to Tsarskoe +Selo. And then, as though to insult the nation, the dead mujik was +buried with such pomp as was accorded only to members of the Imperial +family, the emperor and Protopopoff being among the pallbearers. + +The people treated the event as though it were a great military +victory, rejoicing unrestrainedly. The premier, Trepov, who though a +mere figurehead, was still loyal to Russia and secretly an enemy of +Rasputin and Protopopoff, allowed all the details of the assassination +to be published in the papers, even to the names of those concerned in +the actual killing. These latter were of too high a rank to be +punished, besides which popular sentiment stood solidly behind them. +Trepov himself did not prosecute them because of his sympathy with +their deed. + +Now that Rasputin, the undoubted leader and master mind of the dark +forces was dead, there was universal hope that the pro-German +conspiracy was killed with him. But the machine he had built up for +his own protection and medium through which to accomplish his ends was +too well organized to be broken even by his removal. Into Rasputin's +place stepped Protopopoff. He maintained his hold over the czar by +means of spiritualistic seances in which he pretended to have +communication with the spirit of the dead monk. The conspiracy +continued unabated, only now Protopopoff worked with the fury of +desperation. And so the crisis soon came to a head. + +All Russia, save for the small palace group, was against him. At the +new year reception held in the palace he was most severely humiliated +by Rodzianko, the president of the Duma, who, when Protopopoff +approached him with extended hand, swung his back to him, causing a +sensation all over the country. At another time, when he entered the +rooms of the aristocratic club in Petrograd, of which he was a member, +all the other members present walked out. Yet he had the courage of +his evil convictions; with the desperate fury of a tortured bull in +the ring he faced all his enemies and continued on his path, the whole +nation against him. + +Trepov, who had shown his sympathy for the executioners of Rasputin, +was removed. So were the Ministers of War and Marine, who had declared +themselves for the people. Black reactionaries and pro-Germans were +placed in their posts. Then he began arresting all the labor leaders +who were agitating against strikes and demonstrations and in favor of +prosecuting the war, leaving his own hirelings, who were preaching +strikes and revolution, to continue their efforts unharmed. This was +about the most obviously significant act he had yet committed. Then +the food-supply trains arriving daily in Petrograd were deliberately +halted in the provinces and the population drifted on to the verge of +actual famine. + +Then Protopopoff's efforts, in the early days of March, 1917, began to +bear fruit. In spite of the warnings of the few loyal labor leaders +still at liberty, the workers began to grumble and to talk revolt. +Their stomachs were empty. On February 27, 1917, when the Duma went +into session again, 300,000 workingmen had gone out on strike in +Petrograd. The air was charged with electricity. Everybody realized +that the critical moment was approaching: the final battle between the +dark forces and the people. + +On March 1, 1917, the only two leaders of the labor organizations +which supported the Duma issued an appeal exhorting the workers to +return to work. + +And this appeal in favor of order and law was censored by the +Government. + +Further proof of the treachery of Protopopoff were not needed; this +was the most convincing which had yet appeared. + +During the first week of March, 1917, the unrest among the populace +continued growing, and the Duma and the labor leaders felt themselves +regarding the situation helplessly. Small riots occurred and martial +law was immediately declared. Food was so scarce that even the wealthy +were starving. + +But Protopopoff had made one mistake: he was also starving the troops +garrisoning Petrograd. + +On March 9, 1917, the street railways ceased running on account of a +strike of the street railway men. The streets were full of excited +crowds, though as yet no violence had been committed. Cossacks and +soldiers also patrolled the thoroughfares, while squads of police were +on the housetops, covering the street corners with machine guns. +Protopopoff wanted revolution, but he did not mean to allow it to +succeed. All he wanted was a few days of violent disorder, a prolonged +Red Sunday, during which a separate peace with Germany and Austria +might be proclaimed. + +But the violence did not break out so soon as he desired. The strike +was spreading; by the 10th it had become practically universal. But +meanwhile the workingmen were quietly organizing. Electing delegates, +they formed the Council of Workingmen's Deputies, which immediately +took over the control of their movements. It was this fact which +caused what might have been a blind uprising of desperate people to +assume the character of an organized revolution. On this date the +Duma, which had been in continual session, broke off relations with +the Government with a resolution stating that "with such a Government +the Duma forever severs its connections." In response to this act the +czar issued a decree ordering the dissolution of the Duma. + +On the following day, Sunday the 11th, the members of the Duma +unanimously decided to ignore the decree of the czar and to hold what +was to prove the first session of the Duma as the representative body +of the Russian democracy. + +Meanwhile the street demonstrations continued, augmented by those +workers who had not yet gone out on strike and were simply out on +their weekly day of rest. A proclamation had been issued by the +military authorities forbidding gatherings, adding that the severest +measures would be resorted to in breaking them up. But no notice was +taken of this order. The Cossacks were riding through the crowded +streets, but, in sharp contrast to their behavior of former times, +they took great care not to jostle the people even, guiding their +horses carefully among the moving people. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXIX + +REVOLUTION + + +The first actual violence was begun by the police, who opened fire on +the crowds in certain sections of the city from the housetops with +their machine guns. A number of demonstrators were killed and wounded, +but still the disorders did not yet become general. Where the police +opened fire the more resolute elements of the crowds rushed in to +attack them and killed them. And now came Protopopoff's pretext for +ordering the soldiers to fire and to begin such a massacre as had +squelched the premature uprising on Red Sunday twelve years before. + +It was at this point that one of the most vital arrangements of +Protopopoff's scheme snapped. + +There were 35,000 soldiers in Petrograd at this time, more than +sufficient to suppress any uprising. Neither Protopopoff nor the most +radical members of the Duma doubted that the soldiers would obey the +orders of their officers, and shoot down the crowds on the streets. +When had Russian soldiers ever refused to suppress demonstrations of +the people? "The revolution is on," cried Milukov, "but it will be +drowned in blood!" In this supposition both sides were to prove +greatly mistaken. + +The Russian army of March, 1917, was a very different organization +from the Russian army of March, 1914. First of all, it was now +composed of men who three years before had been part of the Russian +people. The regular professional army, the standing establishment, +which had been the support of the autocracy, had been practically +drowned in the vast influx of recruits. Furthermore, the old, +well-trained regiments constituting the regular army had been +decimated in the fierce battles along the Russian front, some of +them being annihilated. They had been eliminated. Of still more +importance there had been a change in the minds of the highest army +leaders themselves. Whatever might have been their attitude toward +the autocracy and the people in the days of old, like their +colleagues, the civilian reactionaries, they had seen the autocracy +and the social organizations contrasted; they were profoundly +patriotic and they realized what Rasputin and his dark forces had +stood for, what Protopopoff stood for; they had personally, most of +them, pleaded with the czar to clean the court of the sinister +pro-German influences--with absolutely no success. They realized +that the country must choose between the autocracy as it was and a +government of the people if Prussianism was to be defeated, and they +did not hesitate in their choice. + +Among these army leaders, who had undergone such a change of +psychology, was no less a person than the Grand Duke Nicholas +Nicholaievitch himself, who had been removed from his command of the +armies facing the Austro-Germans and transferred to the minor field of +operations against Turkey, only because he had protested against the +influence of an illiterate Siberian mujik. + +With very few exceptions, the army leaders, from the commander in +chief down to the regimental commanders, stood arrayed on the side of +the Duma. So clever an intriguer as Protopopoff should have realized +this. + +One of the first regiments to be called out to fire on the people +after the first encounters between the machine-gun squads of the +police and the demonstrators was the famous Volynski Regiment, +notorious in Russian revolutionary history. Never had it failed its +masters. A noncommissioned officer of this crack regiment, +Kirpitchnikov, immediately made the round of the soldiers and the +other noncommissioned officers. They organized a committee which +approached the officers. The latter, with the single exception of the +colonel, stood with the committee. When the order came to fire on the +people, they shot the colonel, formed, shouldered their pieces, and +marched out on the streets as the first organized body of soldiers to +fight for the awakening Russian democracy. + +Persuading several other guard regiments to join them, they attacked +Protopopoff's police squads. This event occurred at 5 o'clock in the +afternoon of the 11th, and marked the beginning of the actual +revolution. The fighting begun by the mutinied soldiers now became +general. One by one other regiments were called out, but with very few +exceptions all refused to fire on the people and joined the +revolutionists. Then the Cossacks came over in a body. As twilight +approached the firing in the streets became general and continuous. + +Meanwhile Michael Rodzianko, president of the Duma, made one more +effort to avert the great crisis. The czar, having been assured by +Protopopoff several days previous that all danger was over and the +situation well in hand, had gone to army headquarters at the front. To +him Rodzianko sent a telegram worded as follows: + +"The situation is extremely serious. Anarchy threatens in the capital, +transportation of provisions is completely disorganized, and fighting +has begun in the streets. It is of vital importance that a new cabinet +be formed by some person enjoying the confidence of the people. Each +moment of delay adds to the disaster. May the responsibility for a +great national calamity not fall upon your head." + +To this telegram the czar made no answer. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXX + +THE CULMINATION + + +Meanwhile the deputies sat in session, helpless, regarding the +situation with growing alarm. After all, the majority were naturally +conservatives and feared revolution. As a matter of fact, they allowed +themselves to lose grip of the situation. + +As has already been said, the uprising was not a blind force giving +vent to elemental feeling, but a thoroughly organized revolutionary +movement. The old revolutionary forces had awakened in time to take +control of the developing situation. It was the leaders of the Social +Democrats, the Social Revolutionists, the successors of the old-time +Nihilists and the labor leaders, who were proving themselves masters +of the situation. The Duma sat quiet, inert, and so lost its +opportunity. It hated the dark forces on the one hand, it feared the +revolution on the other, and at the critical moment helped neither. +What saved it from being completely discredited was the fact that a +number of the revolutionary leaders, such as Alexander Kerensky and +Tcheidze, both Socialists, were also deputies in the Duma, and, being +of well-balanced minds, realized that they must have the support of +those elements which the Duma represented to succeed. The real center +of government of the new democracy, then rising out of the birth pangs +of the nation, was the Council of Workingmen's Deputies. + +This organization on the part of the active revolution was largely +completed during the night of the 11th, even while heavy firing swept +up and down the streets of the city. When Monday morning dawned the +various radical and labor leaders had knit themselves together in the +Council of Workingmen's Deputies and were in control of the +revolutionary forces through a great number of subcommittees. An +intelligent plan of campaign for the actual military or fighting +operations had been drawn up and was followed with an efficiency that +would have done credit to organized troops. Undoubtedly the officers +of the mutinied regiments who had gone over to the side of the people +helped, but the revolutionary commanders did not for a moment allow +them to take control of the situation. The red flag of International +Socialism was raised that Monday morning as the emblem of the new +regime, and to the present moment it continues flying. + +The dominating brain, the vital moral force, behind the revolution was +Alexander Kerensky, the young Socialist lawyer. + +On Monday morning the revolutionary column headed by a regiment of the +mutineers delivered an attack on the Arsenal, after dispersing the +police groups in the neighborhood. The commandant, General Matusov, +proved loyal to Protopopoff and offered resistance, but after some +sharp fighting the garrison was overcome and Matusov killed. The +capture of the Arsenal gave the revolutionists possession of a supply +of rifles, small arms, machine guns, and ammunition more than ample to +equip all their fighting forces. The artillery depot was also taken, +and now the revolutionary soldiers, most of them students and +workingmen, organized into flying detachments which scoured the city +in automobiles and hunted down the police as though they were wild +animals. The jails and prisons too were broken into and all the +political prisoners liberated. And so fell the notorious Peter and +Paul Fortress, the Bastille of Russia, in which some of the finest +minds of the Russian revolutionary movement, both men and women, had +been done to death with horrible torture. In the confusion some +criminals also escaped, but in spite of their presence in the fighting +crowds, there was very little looting or disorder, such as invariably +attends violent uprisings. Schlusselburg Prison, another monument to +martyred advocates of freedom, also fell. Then, headed by one of the +old revolutionists, just released from a long imprisonment, the people +turned on the most hated of all the old institutions, the headquarters +of the secret police. This building was stormed, its defenders killed +and then burned to its foundations, together with all its records. +Everywhere the revolutionary forces were successful, meeting +comparatively little resistance. + +Meanwhile the Duma continued inactive, except that Rodzianko sent a +second telegram to the czar and also a telegram to each of the +prominent army commanders, begging them to make their personal appeals +to the czar, that he might be persuaded to take some action which +would at least save him his throne nominally. + +"The last hour has struck," wired the Duma president. "To-morrow will +be too late if you wish to save your throne and dynasty." + +And again the czar, misled by a false adviser, refused to heed. +Various accounts would seem to indicate that he was drunk at the time. + +By this time 25,000 soldiers of the garrison had joined Kerensky's +revolutionary army under the red flag. Then came a committee from +these soldiers to the doors of the Duma with the demand: + +"We have risen and helped the people overturn the autocracy. Down with +czarism! Where do you stand?" + +President Rodzianko, speaking for the Duma, showed them his telegrams +demanding a ministry of the czar responsible to the people, and said +that they stood for a constitutional democracy. The soldiers were +satisfied. Then soldiers began arriving at the Taurida Palace, the +meeting place of the Duma, to acknowledge their recognition of its +authority. This was done under the influence of deputies Kerensky, +Tcheidze, and Skobelev, all Socialists, who felt the need of having +the cohesion of the Duma to the revolution. At about this time the +newly appointed premier, Golitzin, who had succeeded Trepov, +telephoned his resignation to the Duma. The other members of the +cabinet had disappeared. + +That afternoon the Duma appointed a committee of twelve members, +representing all parties, which should represent its authority and +should assist the revolutionary organizers in maintaining order. These +latter held a separate meeting in another room of the palace and +issued an appeal to the populace to refrain from excesses. An election +of deputies to the Council of Workingmen's Deputies was then called +for that evening, the name of the council being now changed to the +Council of Workingmen and Soldiers' Deputies. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXXI + +THE NEW GOVERNMENT + + +By this time the firing in the streets had died down. Desultory +fighting still continued in the outskirts of the city between patrols +of the revolutionary forces and policemen, but by evening calm once +more settled down over the city. The autocracy was dead; the +revolution had been won. The dead and wounded had been collected and +the latter were being cared for. The dead amounted to slightly less +than two hundred. + +The two committees--the one representing the Duma and the one +representing the red radicals--were in joint session all that night +working with a harmony that would have seemed incredible only a week +before. On the following morning they issued two proclamations. The +first simply appealed to the people to remain calm and commit no +excesses. The other announced the establishment of a new government +for Russia, which should be based on universal suffrage. Then the Duma +committee issued a special appeal to army officers to support the new +regime. All day delegations from various organizations of both social +and military life of the capital appeared before the doors of the Duma +to offer allegiance, and again and again Milukov and Kerensky, each +the popular hero of their separate elements, the one of the liberal +middle classes and the other of the radical working classes, were +called out to deliver addresses to crowds of enthusiastic people. +Despite their differences of opinion, these two and their fellows +worked together with an ideal harmony, each supporting the other with +his constituency. Perhaps no greater anomaly was ever presented in +history than the spectacle of Rodzianko, ultraconservative, and +Kerensky, radical Socialist, each addressing a large crowd, the one in +one courtyard the other in another courtyard, exhorting their +audiences to stand shoulder to shoulder for a common purpose. Nothing +but the knowledge that on the morrow the Prussians might be thundering +at the gates of the city could have produced such harmony of action +between two such differing types. + +Another picturesque incident of the actual revolution occurred when +the Imperial Guards at the palace revolted and, having disposed of +their commanders, sent a committee in to arrest the czarina, who was +attending her children, all of whom were ill with the measles. + +"Do not hurt me or my children," she appealed, "I am only a poor +Sister of Charity." A guard was left over her while the main body of +the regiment went over to Taurida Palace to place itself at the +disposal of the Provisional Government. + +Meanwhile other notorious members of the dark forces were apprehended. +Ex-Premier Boris von Sturmer, the traitor whom Milukov had denounced +as a thief, and who had since his downfall been a member of the court +camarilla, was arrested and put in a cell lately occupied by a +political prisoner. Next came the metropolitan of the church, Pitirim, +an appointee of Rasputin, a feeble old man in a white cap and a black +cassock, tottering in the midst of a crowd of laughing and jesting +soldiers and workingmen, showing him, however, no other violence than +with their tongues. One by one all the members of the old regime were +brought in, or they came of themselves. Finally the archconspirator, +Protopopoff himself, was the only one of note still at large. For two +days his whereabouts remained unknown. As developed later, he was +hiding in the house of a relative. + +On the evening of the 13th an old man in civilian dress appeared +before the main doorway of the Duma headquarters. A civilian guard, a +student, stood there. + +"I am Protopopoff," said the man to the astonished guard; "I have come +to surrender myself to the Duma and to recognize its authority. Take +me to the right person." + +The guard shouted the ex-minister's name in his excitement and a crowd +quickly gathered. Even the perennial good humor of a Russian crowd +forsook this gathering and it began to assume the aspect of a Western +vigilance committee. There were angry shouts; the archtraitor, +Protopopoff, was before them in person. But before actual violence +could be offered the old man, Kerensky, the Socialist leader, leaped +into the crowd and allayed the excitement, thus saving Protopopoff's +life. + +Another strange feature of the day's events was the appearance of +Grand Duke Cyril on the balcony of his own house, uttering a +revolutionary speech to the crowds on the pavement below. He declared +himself unequivocally for the new government, wherever it might lead, +and appealed to the people to support it. Meanwhile the Duma committee +sent telegrams to all the commanders along the various fronts and to +the admirals of the Baltic and Black Sea fleets, stating the bare +facts and asking their adhesion to the Provisional Government. From +all came ready professions of loyalty and adhesion. Similar telegrams +were sent to all the towns and cities throughout the provinces. And +all the country responded similarly. With very little violence the old +regime was upset all over Russia and local councils elected to work in +harmony with and under the authority of the Provisional Government in +Petrograd. The French and British ambassadors too hastened to inform +the president of the Duma that their respective governments recognized +its authority and were prepared to enter into diplomatic relations +with the Duma committee. + +On the 14th the streets of Petrograd had assumed their normal quiet, +if not their normal appearance, for it was somewhat unusual not to +observe a single policeman in sight. Every member of the police was +either in prison, in the hospital, or dead. The maintenance of order +was given over to a civilian police, or city militia, under the +command of Professor Yurevitch, the first time in Russian history that +a college professor had ever undertaken such a function. On this day +the garrison of the fortress of Kronstadt and the sailors of the fleet +stationed there mutinied, killed their commanders and came over to the +cause of the revolution. That evening the Duma committee issued a +proclamation worded as follows: + +"Citizens! The wonderful event has transpired! Old Russia is dead. The +Committee of Safety of the Duma and the Council of Workingmen's and +Soldiers' Deputies are bringing back order into the city and the +country.... The most pressing need now is food supplies for the people +and the army. Assist with bread and your labor." + +Until now since the last of the fighting the control of affairs had +been in the hands of the two committees, one representing the radical +revolutionists and the other the middle class and aristocratic Duma. +Each committee appealed to its constituency to respect the authority +of the other. + +During all of the next morning, the 15th, the two committees were in +continuous joint session, planning the formation of a cabinet or set +of officers for the Provisional Government. Early in the afternoon +this labor was concluded and the members of the new government were +announced. Prince George Lvov, he who had organized the Zemstvo Union +and served so efficiently as its president, was Premier and Minister +of the Interior. Though an aristocrat of the bluest blood, he was +extremely liberal in his views. Never had he been an autocrat, even +in sympathy. Paul Milukov, the leader of the Constitutional Democrats, +was Minister of Foreign Relations. He represented the middle-class +liberals or progressives, constituting what in this country would be +called the business men and professional class, as Lvov represented +the broad-minded country gentry. Alexander Kerensky, the radical +Socialist, an old member of the Social Revolutionists, the +organization of many assassinations, was named Minister of Justice. +Less fanatical and more balanced than many of his associates, he +represented the connecting link between the two sharply contrasting +elements which constituted the new government. To him the red flag of +International Socialism meant more than the flag of national +patriotism, but he, as some of his associates did not, realized that +national patriotism must not be destroyed until the spirit of +international brotherhood was an established fact; that world +federation must rest first on national unity. He proved then, though +still a man in his early thirties, the dominant figure of the +situation, a position which he has retained to an increasing degree +ever since. + +The other members of the new cabinet were: M. A. I. Gutchkov, chairman +of the War Industries Committee, Minister of War and Marine. In +earlier life he had been a soldier of fortune, having fought under +many flags, for many causes, including that of the Boers in South +Africa. In politics he was conservative. Andrei Shingarev, a +Constitutional Democrat, was made Minister of Agriculture, an +important post, for under his charge came the complicated problem of +food supply, to be solved by means of a transportation all too +inadequate in its lack of rolling stock to supply both army and people +together. A physician by profession, he was also an expert on finance. +Neither Rodzianko, president of the Duma, nor Tcheidze, the president +of the Council of Workingmen's and Soldiers' Deputies, was represented +in the cabinet, though both had taken important and leading parts in +the revolution and the organization following. + +The policy agreed upon was a compromise between the two elements in +the new government. The Duma party could not yet face the possibility +of a pure republic, and desired a constitutional monarchy under the +czar, reducing him to a mere figurehead, to be sure. The radicals +wanted a clear-cut democracy. Between them, by mutual compromise, they +agreed that the czar should be deposed and his brother Grand Duke +Michael should be proclaimed regent, with the Czarevitch Alexis as +heir apparent. The new constitution, which was to be as liberal as the +most progressive in the world, must, it was decided, be worked out in +detail by a national congress or constituent assembly which should be +elected by universal suffrage as soon as possible. The more important +and pressing task before the nation, it was realized by both elements, +was the organization of transportation that both the people and the +army might be supplied with food and that munitions and other military +supplies might be sent to the front. The armies of two great empires +were still to be defeated before there could be any detailed +discussion of forms of government. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXXII + +THE CZAR ABDICATES + + +Meanwhile where was the czar? As yet not a word had been heard from +him. He seemed to have been lost in the confusion. And as a matter of +fact he was as though he were the lost soul of the dead autocracy +wandering about in space, mournfully looking for some spot on which he +might alight. + +As has already been stated, Nicholas was at the general headquarters +of General Alexiev, the commander in chief, when the crisis was +precipitated in Petrograd. With him were a number of his personal +toadies, among them Baron Fredericks, the Court Minister, said to have +been responsible for most of the evil influences during past years. +Another of his companions was General Voyeykov. + +The two telegrams from Rodzianko had been received, but it seems +probable that they had been intercepted by either one of these two +attendants. At any rate, they must have counteracted whatever +influence the telegrams might have had on the weak-willed man's +decisions. General Alexiev, too, in response to Rodzianko's telegram +to himself had attempted to bring the czar to a realization of the +seriousness of the situation. Nevertheless he did nothing. Of the many +personal pictures of the czar which have been painted by those who +have known him personally one stands out predominantly: a little man +with a weak face, twirling his mustache with one hand and alternately +looking out of the window or fixing the speaker with a semi-vacant +stare. + +Nicholas stood so when Alexiev explained to him the situation in the +capital and then pleaded with him to grasp his last opportunity. But +this last opportunity he allowed to slip by. Undoubtedly he could then +have saved himself. Had he been a man of broad intelligence he might +have come forward and averted the rising storm by granting even less +than the autocracy of Germany has conceded to the German masses. Thus +he might have emerged more firmly fixed in his high position than ever +before. There are those who assert that Nicholas is mentally +defective. Certainly the facts bear them out. + +Finally there came an urgent appeal from his wife to return to +Tsarskoe Selo, and this, a purely domestic matter, he understood. +Together with his suite he started on a train, his escort under the +command of General Tsabel. All had been drinking heavily, and when +finally the news of the uprising came through in full detail, they +were all inclined to minimize the importance of what had happened. On +the morning of the 14th General Voyeykov briefly summarized the +situation to the czar, then added that General Ivanov, the one +commander at the front who still remained faithful to the autocracy, +was advancing on Petrograd with a regiment of picked men and he would +soon restore order. General Tsabel overheard this conversation. He +thereupon showed a telegram which he had just received from Petrograd +in which he was ordered to bring the czar's train direct to the city +instead of to Tsarskoe Selo. + +"How dare they give such orders!" demanded Nicholas. + +"This order," replied General Tsabel, "is backed by sixty thousand +officers and soldiers, who have gone over to the revolutionists." + +Nicholas was now finally impressed by actual fact. + +"Very well," he said, suddenly, "if it must be so, it must. I will go +to my estate in Livadia and spend the rest of my days among my +flowers." + +But even that was not a final decision. On approaching Petrograd and +Tsarskoe Selo the news came through that the garrison at the latter +place had gone over to the revolutionists. The czar now insisted that +he would go to Moscow, which he believed still remained loyal. But +presently there came a telegram announcing that the Moscow garrison +had also revolted. + +All day the train rolled back and forth from point to point, with no +destination in view, the czar and his suite hoping to find some break +in the wall about them. At Dno General Ivanov joined the party and +advised the czar to go to the army. It was later said that he and +General Voyeykov suggested that the Russian lines be thrown open at +Minsk and the Germans be allowed to come in to suppress the +revolution. To his credit be it said, however, that Nicholas refused +to consider this last resort. + +He next went to Pskov, the headquarters of General Russky, in command +of the army nearest to Petrograd, hoping to persuade that commander to +send a large enough force to Petrograd to suppress the revolution. At +8 o'clock in the evening he arrived. But Russky, together with all the +other army leaders, including the Grand Duke Nicholas, who had +conferred together by means of telegrams, had decided to support the +Duma. + +At 2 o'clock next morning, on the 15th, the czar met Russky. The +latter explained to him his position, and then called up Rodzianko by +telephone. Rodzianko told Russky that the Duma and the Council of +Workingmen's and Soldiers' Deputies had mutually agreed that the czar +must abdicate and two deputies--Gutchkov, the War Minister, and +Shulgin--were on their way to demand a document to this effect from +Nicholas. Before seeing the czar again Russky communicated with all +the commanders and explained the new situation, namely, that the czar +must be eliminated entirely. All replied immediately that they agreed +to this as the best course. Then Russky went to the czar again and +told him there was no other way open to him, he must vacate his +throne. The czar agreed and went to his private apartment on the train +to prepare the document. + +At 8 o'clock that evening the two deputies from the Provisional +Government arrived and were taken directly to the czar. They +immediately explained to the fallen monarch the full details of the +situation in Petrograd. The one incident that seemed to make an +impression on him was the defection of his own body guard. + +"What shall I do, then?" demanded Nicholas finally. + +"Abdicate," replied Gutchkov briefly. + +It will be remembered that the Provisional Government had decided that +it would demand of the czar that he abdicate in favor of his son and +of his brother, the Grand Duke Michael, as regent. + +"I have already signed my abdication," said Nicholas, "but on account +of his health I have decided that I cannot part with my son. Therefore +I wish to abdicate in favor of Michael." + +The two deputies asked leave to consult together for a few minutes +over this change. Finally they agreed to this form of abdication. The +czar then withdrew and presently returned with the document. The two +deputies read it through, approved it, shook hands with Nicholas +Romanoff, no longer czar, and returned to Petrograd. + +Still unrestrained in regard to his freedom of action, Nicholas went +to Moghiliev, the general headquarters, to bid his staff farewell, but +his reception there was cool at least; nobody took the slightest +notice of him, no more than if he had been some minor subaltern +officer. Then his mother, the Dowager Empress Marie, appeared and in +the evening he dined with her in her private car. + +Meanwhile public opinion in Petrograd had begun to make itself +strongly felt in regard to the outward form of the future Russian +Government. Many organizations passed resolutions and street +demonstrations took place, all protesting against a monarchical form +of government. Before the Provisional Government needed to take any +special action in response to this expression of popular sentiment, +Grand Duke Michael, the new czar, hastened to abdicate in his turn. +Favoring the principle of democracy, he added, he was not willing to +assume the responsibilities of such a high office without the formal +assent of the Russian people expressed by an election "based on the +principle of universal, direct, equal, and secret suffrage." Finally, +he urged the people to give their loyal support to the Provisional +Government, until such a time as an election could be held. + +Czar Nicholas abdicated on March 15, 1917. His brother, Czar Michael, +abdicated within twenty-four hours. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXXIII + +FIRST ACTS OF THE NEW REGIME + + +The Provisional Government then made no further steps toward filling +the vacant throne and Russia remained a republic. + +Then on the following day came a telegram from General Alexiev, +stating that the people of Moghiliev were growing impatient over the +freedom allowed ex-Czar Nicholas and requested the Provisional +Government to have him removed from headquarters. Alexiev did not wish +him wandering about headquarters. + +Four deputies were dispatched to Moghiliev to arrest the ex-emperor. +The four were received with a popular demonstration of enthusiasm, +which contrasted sharply with the coldness with which Nicholas had +been received. Nicholas was in his mother's train when the four +deputies arrived. He immediately emerged, crossed the platform and +stood before the four representatives of the new republic like a +school child about to be punished; with one hand he came to a salute, +recognizing their authority; with the other he twirled his mustache. + +He was shown his carriage and quietly placed under guard. The deputies +took places in another carriage, and then the train steamed out of the +station with Nicholas a prisoner. Arriving at the palace at Tsarskoe +Selo, Nicholas was taken over by the commandant and marched through +the gates of his old residence. And so he disappeared completely from +Russian public life. + +Meanwhile the czarina had also been arrested and confined to her suite +of rooms in the palace. All the telephone and telegraph wires were +cut. Most of the palace servants were dismissed and all the doors +except three were locked and barred. A battalion of soldiers now +mounted guard over him who had made more political prisoners than any +other man in the world. + +Now began the troubled career of the new Russian republic. The Council +of Workingmen and Soldiers, under whose direct supervision the +fighting forces of the old regime had been overcome and the revolution +organized, and which represented just those elements which the Duma +did not represent on account of the restrictive election laws, felt +its right to exist beside the Duma, possessing at least an equal +authority. Thus the new governing forces started under very peculiar +conditions, with a double head. The Council immediately issued a +proclamation inviting the communities all over Russia to elect local +councils, which might send their delegates to Petrograd to associate +themselves with the deputies elected by the workingmen and soldiers of +the capital. + +Another of the first acts of the Provisional Government was to order +the liberation of all the political prisoners of the old regime, +especially those in Siberia, and to invite all exiles abroad to return +home. The return of some of these political exiles roused quite as +much enthusiasm and popular demonstration as had the overthrow of the +autocracy itself. The progress of Catherine Breshkovskaya, the +"grandmother of the Russian revolution," from Siberia to Petrograd was +almost like the progress of a conquering general. She had been one of +the original Nihilists in the seventies and since then had spent most +of her life in Siberia. All Petrograd turned out to welcome the +popular heroine, now a feeble old woman, and she was officially +received at the railroad station by Kerensky and other members of the +Government in the old Imperial waiting rooms, where formerly only +members of the Imperial family had been permitted to enter. Outside in +the streets surged crowds of fur-capped people as far as the eye could +reach, waving red banners and revolutionary emblems. Now and again a +roar of voices chanting the Marseillaise would sweep back and forth +over the throngs. Within the station the walls were banked with +flowers and festooned with red bunting and inscriptions addressed to +the returning heroine. However, this incident occurred later, already +a great deal had been accomplished. + +The emancipation of the Jews had been one of first acts of the new +cabinet. All restrictions were removed and the Jews were recognized as +Russian citizens, and as such to be distinguished from all other +citizens in no way. Then the constitution of Finland was restored and +its full autonomy recognized. The same recognition was granted all the +other minor nationalities. Next the death penalty was abolished, and +finally the Provisional Government declared itself in favor of the +equal suffrage of women with men, a principle which is innate in the +revolutionary movement of Russia, to which as many women as men have +sacrificed themselves. The vast possessions of the ex-czar and most of +his munificent income were confiscated. At the same time the grand +dukes and other members of the Imperial family voluntarily gave up +their landed possessions and at the same time expressed their loyalty +to the new order. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXXIV + +SOCIALISM SUPREME + + +Within the church the same overturning of old authorities took place. +The new procurator caused to be thrown out the gilded emblems of the +autocracy, and priests known to be in sympathy with the revolution +were elevated to the offices vacated by the reactionaries. Most of the +vast landed estates of the church were confiscated, and the church was +relegated to a position in which it could no longer interfere in +matters of state. Probably a majority of the radicals would have liked +to abolish the church altogether, but even they must have realized +that the great body of Russia's population, the peasantry, had not yet +arrived at this state of mind, corrupt though they knew the +institution to be. + +For some weeks while these reforms, in which the vast majority of the +people believed, were being promulgated the most enthusiastic harmony +prevailed between the two elements constituting the Provisional +Government. But those realizing the wide gulf lying between these two +elements, the constitutionalists and the revolutionary radicals, were +every day expecting the inevitable dissensions to arise. Eventually +they came. They would have come much sooner had it not been for the +fact that the nation was at war. + +The friction which presently began between the two contrasting +elements sharing the power of government has undoubtedly been much +magnified and distorted by the press in Great Britain and this +country, not through malicious intent, but through ignorance of the +aims of one of these elements and of Russian character. The two +elements in question are, of course, found in all countries, and the +dissensions in Petrograd probably caused more bitterness in other +countries between these opposing elements than existed in Russia +itself. The conservative press of England and America exaggerated to +absurdity the program and aims of the radical forces in Russia, while +the Socialist press of these same countries was equally unreliable in +its partisanship, and would have had its readers believe Prince Lvov +and Milukov hardly any improvement on Protopopoff, a view in which it +would not have been supported by the most radical Russians. For the +true story of this period we must wait yet a while until dispassionate +witnesses have had time to present their experiences and observations +in permanent form. + +Nevertheless, there seems to be no doubt that the wine of freedom did +rise to the heads of the ultraradicals, and the Russian radical's +ideas often do approach the borders of absurdity. Having obtained +democracy in civil life, the extremists among the deputies of the +Workingmen's and Soldier's Council wished to extend it in full to the +army. Though this army was face to face with the best organized +military machine in the world, they demanded the resignation of all +the officers, that their places might be filled by the votes of the +common soldiers. This rank absurdity the commanders on the front +naturally resisted, and it was not allowed to come into practice, but +the spirit behind the suggestion did begin to permeate the ignorant, +peasants of the rank and file and caused endless demoralization. +Animated by the same spirit, many of the workingmen in the factories +supplying the army grew restless under the discipline of work and +struck for impossible wages. They had always thought that under a +Socialist system they would have little work and plenty to eat. Now +the social revolution had been accomplished, and these improvements +did not materialize. If more disorder and fighting were needed to +bring them about, they would supply these deficiencies. + +What added to this spirit was the arrival in Russia, early in April, +1917, of the extreme radical Socialist, Lenine. He is generally +credited in this country with being an agent of Germany, but men of +his type are not easily subsidized, nor would it have been necessary +for the Germans to do so. Utterly idealistic, a wild fanatic, +unpractical to the point of being unbalanced, he represented that wing +of radicalism which lives in Utopias and will give no consideration to +things as they are. They preach the doctrine of the brotherhood of man +with the same bitterness that many religious sects preach the +salvation of the soul. Lenine began his propaganda, together with +thirty or more of his followers who arrived with him. They preached +an immediate separate peace with Germany and Austria; it was not to +the interest of the Russian working classes to fight the Teuton +working classes when both were slaves under the same masters, the +capitalists of the world. Let the Germans fight their capitalists and +the Russians theirs. And even if the Germans did conquer Russia, what +did it matter? They would not prove any worse masters than the Russian +capitalists. All the working classes of the world should unite and +attack the capitalists simultaneously, etc. Undoubtedly Lenine made +some impression on the more ignorant workingmen of Petrograd and +soldiers of the army, but his significance has been much overestimated +in this country. In Russia his influence corresponds somewhat to the +influence of Emma Goldman in this country: their followers are more +noisy than numerous. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXXV + +POLICIES PROCLAIMED + + +The first important cause for dissension between the Council of +Workingmen's and Soldiers' Deputies and the Provisional Government +occurred on April 7, 1917, when Professor Milukov, speaking as +Minister of Foreign Affairs, stated that the occupation of +Constantinople and the Dardanelles was essential to the economic +prosperity of Russia. Either he underestimated the strength of the +Socialist elements, or he did not understand their point of view, for +here he proclaimed a principle to which even the mildest Socialist +would be opposed: the holding of territory occupied by people of one +nationality by a nation whose people are of another nationality. + +There was a rising storm of protest, in which even Kerensky joined +against his associate in the ministry. The result was that the +Provisional Government was compelled to issue the famous statement of +its aims in the war, in which it renounced all indemnities and the +desire to conquer any foreign territories, at the same time +enunciating the rights of all small nationalities to decide their own +separate destinies. President Wilson had expressed a very similar +formula before the entrance of the United States into the war in the +words "peace without victory." Unfortunately this general statement of +Socialistic principle lacked the detail necessary to make it +applicable to the war situation; nor have the radical forces ever been +unanimous enough in their opinions since then to supply these details. +There remained, and there still remains, the question as to whether +liberating Alsace and Lorraine from the Germans would be the conquest +of foreign territory, or whether reparation on the part of Germany for +the damage done in Belgium would constitute an indemnity. Must the +Armenians remain forever under Turkey, or must armed force be employed +to take Armenia away from Turkey, that the Armenians might settle +their own destiny? Either course might be interpreted as against or in +accordance with the principle enunciated. + +Nevertheless, this manifesto had a powerful influence in the Allied +countries, and the justice of the principles in question have been, +broadly speaking, generally recognized. + +The Germans made the most of the proclamation and suggested a separate +peace through countless agencies, in which Russia should not lose any +territory inhabited by Russians and need not pay any indemnities. At +this bait the Leninites and dupes of the numerous agitators in German +pay, which undoubtedly began infesting Petrograd, bit readily. But +here the Provisional Government responded by a clever stroke of +diplomacy, and in this it had the support of the council; if the +German and Austrian Socialists were really in sympathy with the +Russian ideals of democracy and wished to make peace with them, let +them then also overturn their autocracies. If they would do this, then +they might expect peace with Russia and undoubtedly with the other +Allies, for France, Great Britain, and the United States had each +declared that it was fighting the Teutonic autocracies and not the +people they ruled. + +The German Socialist is entirely a different type from the Russian +Socialist. He believes in iron discipline. He believes in strong +centralization. The German autocracy in many of its features +approaches something not far from the ideal of the German Socialist, +especially in its care of the working classes through state insurance, +workingmen's compensation legislation, and its many state and +municipal enterprises. In this lies the strength of the German +autocracy; with all its imperialistic features, it has cared for the +welfare of the working classes. + +The German Socialists did not respond to this appeal. And from that +moment all danger of a separate peace between the Russian democracy +and Germany was past, if danger it may be called. The real danger to +the cause of the Allies and to Russia itself was the internal danger, +the disorganization in army discipline which the radicalism of the +revolution naturally spread among the soldiers, augmented, as it was, +by every power and agency which the enemy could bring to bear. + +In the second week of April, 1917, a convention or congress of the +Workingmen's and Soldiers' Council was held, all parts of Russia being +represented. By a vote of 325 against 57 the continuance of the war +was declared necessary. The council also issued various appeals to the +soldiers, both in Petrograd and at the front, asking their support of +the Provisional Government, which seemed at least to indicate that +there were radical influences at work even too advanced for the +council. + +In Petrograd General Kornilov, the famous Cossack commander, who had +once been a prisoner of the Austrians and had escaped, and who had +personally placed the czarina under arrest, was placed in command of +the Petrograd garrison. His task was especially difficult, as his men +were in closer contact with the demoralizing influences of the radical +debating clubs of the capital. + +The Workingmen's and Soldiers' Council probably had no deliberate +intention of undermining the military discipline necessary to maintain +the efficiency of a body of troops, but it could not entirely give up +its idea of "democratizing the army." The result of these efforts, as +the members of the council themselves admitted, went far beyond +anything they had intended. On the 1st of May a number of political +demonstrations on the part of the soldiers took place in Petrograd. +Socialistic in nature, some of them directed against policies of the +Provisional Government. The council immediately disclaimed all +responsibility for the demonstrations and appealed to the soldiers to +remain in their barracks. + +This disintegration in army organization nevertheless made continual +progress during the early part of May, 1917, and was fast +precipitating a crisis. The fact was that the Provisional Government, +though nominally at the head of affairs, had no material power behind +it. This power, the army, was organized in the council and was +self-conscious. Naturally it could not resist the temptation of +attempting to exercise its judgment, though it realized that it was +not fitted to assume the entire responsibility of government. It felt, +too, a right to assert itself because the Duma, on account of the +restrictive election laws which had created it years before during the +old regime did not represent those classes to which the soldiers +belonged. + +The members of the Provisional Government did not deny the justice of +this claim, and early in May, 1917, they suggested as a remedy that +the cabinet be reorganized and the radical elements be given fuller +representation. But here again the council was faced by the obstacle +in the Socialist principle that Socialist organizations must never +fuse with so-called capitalist organizations. The offer was refused. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXXVI + +KERENSKY SAVES RUSSIA FROM HERSELF + + +On May 9, 1917, the situation was intensified when the council issued +an appeal to the working classes of the world to come together in a +general congress to discuss terms of peace. This meant naturally an +international Socialist conference. There was really no disloyalty +behind this move. The majority of the deputies no doubt considered it +a means of forcing the hands of the Socialists of the Central +Empires, perhaps to force them to overthrow their autocracies. The +idea was to formulate a peace program which would come close to +demanding universal democracy the world over and, by having the Teuton +Socialists subscribe to it, force them to bring pressure to bear on +their governments which might even develop into revolution. But this +was not understood abroad, and created much ill feeling. + +On May 13, 1917, General Kornilov, commanding the Petrograd garrison, +gave up his efforts in despair and handed in his resignation, on +account of "the interference of certain organizations with the +discipline of his troops." Generals Gurko and Brussilov also sent in +their resignations, and a few days later Minister of War and Marine +Gutchkov, wishing to precipitate the impending crisis, also resigned. + +Complete anarchy now threatened, for the council still insisted on its +right to guard the interests of democracy in the army as well as among +the civil population. It was then that Minister of Justice Kerensky +rose and saved the situation with an impassioned speech, in which he +declared that he wished he had died two months before when democracy +seemed such a promising dream. He then appealed to his associates in +the council, of which he was a vice president, to set aside their +Utopian fantasies for the time being and consider the needs of the +present. His oratory carried the day. The council agreed to a +coalition cabinet which should have full control of affairs. + +After a joint session between the executive committee of the council +and the Duma committee, the new cabinet was formed on May 19, 1917. + +Paul Milukov retired as Foreign Minister, for his nationalistic +utterances in regard to Constantinople had aroused against him all the +radicals. Prince Lvov remained as premier. Kerensky became Minister of +War. The Minister of Finance, Terestchenko, became Minister of Foreign +Affairs. Shingarev, a Social Revolutionist, became Minister of +Finance. Altogether the new cabinet included six radicals. Immediately +afterward the council passed a resolution of confidence in the new +government and urged all its constituents to support it. Kerensky +then stated that he would immediately leave for a tour of the front +for the purpose of exhorting the soldiers to submit to military +organization and that an iron discipline would be instituted. The +generals at the front now withdrew their resignations, which had not +been accepted, and returned to their posts. + +During this period two important conventions were held in Petrograd; a +national congress of the Cossacks and a national congress of peasants. +The former declared itself for a strong offensive against the enemy +but passed no political resolutions other than to support the +Provisional Government. The peasants' congress did likewise and also +showed itself strongly Socialistic in its election of officers. +Lenine, however, who was one of the candidates, received only 11 +votes, as against 810 polled by Tchernov, a Social Revolutionist, and +809 by Catherine Breshkovskaya, the "grandmother of the revolution." + +During the month of June, 1917, the Provisional Government made +distinct progress, considering the almost insurmountable obstacles +inherent in such a situation as it had to face. From now on there was +very little friction between the cabinet and the council; they worked +together with comparative harmony. The fact that the radical elements +were now so well represented in the ministry probably was the chief +reason, but the personality of Kerensky was now beginning to rise as +the dominating figure of the new Russia. A fairly extreme radical +himself, with the confidence of his associates, he was also respected +by the more conservative elements on account of his sanity and +practical abilities. On June 1, 1917, A. I. Konovalov, Minister of +Commerce and Trade, resigned on account of friction with his +associates over what he considered the Government's interference with +private industries, but this incident passed quietly. + +On this same date there occurred another incident which, on account of +its highly dramatic aspect, attracted wide attention in the press of +the Allied countries, and was therefore considered more significant +than it has since proved to be. The local council of the Workingmen's +and Soldiers' Council of Deputies in Kronstadt, the location of the +naval arsenal and the headquarters of the Baltic fleet, declared +Kronstadt an independent republic. The president of this council, a +young student by the name of Anatole Lamanov, was apparently an +anarchist of the extreme type; extreme in that he believed that +anarchist principles could be put into immediate practice, and he at +once issued a proclamation calling on all other communities in Russia +to declare their independence. His idea was that all the communities +should be knit together very loosely for specific purposes, such as +the war against the Germans, of which he was still heartily in favor. +Later dispatches, if true, would indicate that the real instigator of +this comic-opera scene was a woman, possibly in the pay of the German +Government, since she was the companion of Robert Grimm, a Swiss +Socialist, later expelled from Russia by the Socialists themselves on +account of pro-German activities. + +With its usual tolerance the Provisional Government made no attempt to +suppress this act of secession by armed force. The council itself in +Petrograd, representing the whole country, immediately denounced the +Kronstadt proclamation, and sent two deputies to Kronstadt to reason +with Lamanov and his associates. The whole incident seemed to be +largely a matter of paper proclamations, since no violence on either +side ever occurred, and the Kronstadt situation finally faded from +public attention. Nevertheless it caused Kerensky to cut short his +tour of the various fronts and return to Petrograd two days later. + +In the public speeches which he then made he spoke very encouragingly +of the situation on the firing lines, but two days later it was +announced that General Alexiev's resignation as commander in chief had +been accepted and that Brussilov had been appointed in his place. + +On the 10th President Wilson issued his famous note, prepared in +response to the radical formula of the council, declaring for a peace +"without annexation and without indemnities." In spirit it was in +perfect accord with what the council had demanded: that no people +should be annexed against their will, that democracy should be the +guiding principle, etc. Certainly it was in accord with his previous +declaration made before the war; a "peace without oppressive +victories," a principle quite as radical as anything the Petrograd +radicals had ever formulated. There was then, and has been ever since, +every indication that the Provisional Government and the big majority +of the members of the council accepted this declaration as being in +harmony with their own sentiments. Nevertheless, it became the object +of a very noisy attack by those extreme elements known as the +Maximalists, best represented by Lenine and his type. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXXVII + +THE AMERICAN COMMISSIONS + + +To the members of the German Government the Russian revolution +undoubtedly came as a great surprise, placing their faith, as they +did, in the efforts of Protopopoff and his machinations. It is +extremely unlikely that Petrograd was infested with German agents +disguised as radicals in the earlier days after the overthrow of the +autocracy. But by this time, in June, 1917, Germany had had time to +meet the new conditions, and obviously the German agents had arrived +and were busy. + +The only fertile ground available was that occupied by the Leninites. +While the genuine Maximalists may have been, and in all probability +really were, unconscious of the spies in their midst, they accepted +the cooperation of the dark elements, and together they set to work to +create disorder. The Kronstadt affair was their initial success. + +In the early days of June, 1917, armed bands of these disturbers began +parading the streets of the capital, haranguing the crowds. The +Provisional Government followed the policy of noninterference. One +party of the armed propagandists entered and took possession of a +large residential building in the Viborg section of the city and held +this position until late in July, 1917. + +These activities culminated in an attempt on the part of the +Maximalist leaders to organize a giant demonstration in the streets +on June 23, 1917. Placards were posted all over the city denouncing +the war, calling upon the soldiers to refuse to fight for the +capitalist governments, etc. + +The action taken by the Workingmen's and Soldiers' Council, itself so +often denounced as being under pro-German influence, and even in +German pay, by the press of the Allied countries, was extremely +significant. It immediately placarded the city with appeals to the +soldiers and workingmen to ignore the call of the Maximalists. All +that night until daybreak not only Kerensky himself, but N. C. +Tcheidze, the president of the council, and his associates, spent in +making the rounds of the barracks, addressing the soldiers, appealing +to them against participating in the demonstration. Their efforts were +a complete success; on the following day there was no demonstration. +And apparently in the last hour the Maximalist leaders themselves +realized that foreign influences were at work, for when their organ, +"Pravda," appeared, its front page was covered with an appeal to their +followers not to demonstrate. + +On June 16, 1917, a convention of newly elected deputies to the +Workingmen's and Soldiers' Council, representing all Russia, convened +in Petrograd. One of its first acts was to pass a resolution of +approval of the Provisional Government's expulsion of Grimm, the Swiss +Socialist, who had attempted pro-German activities in the capital, the +vote being 640 against 121. + +In the middle of the month the two American commissions, one under +Root and the other under Stevens, arrived in Russia, and it was +notable that the reported utterances of their members were sharply in +contrast to the press dispatches in their optimism. The conclusion +must be obvious that German influences were at work with our sources +of news. The Stevens Commission, whose mission was of a technical +nature, expressed surprise and pleasure over the progress which had +been made in straightening out the transportation tangle and the good +condition in which they found railroad facilities, the only handicaps +being lack of locomotives and rolling stock. + +Meanwhile, during June, 1917, a special council of sixty members was +at work drafting new legislation for the civil government of the +country. One law prepared by this body, as an illustration, was making +the judges of petty courts subject to the election of the people on +the American principle. This council was also intrusted with the task +of formulating the groundwork for the new constitution for the Russian +democracy, to be approved by the General Assembly when elected. + +During the first half of July, 1917, the sudden offensive of the +Russian armies, so brilliantly begun, seemed to engross every element +of Russian society. Kerensky himself had gone to the front and was +said to be leading the advancing troops himself. But even his magnetic +personality and stupendous vitality proved insufficient to accomplish +a task evidently begun too prematurely. + +On July 15, 1917, five members of the Provisional Government +resigned--Shingarev, Minister of Finance; Manuilov, of Education; +Nekrasov, of Ways and Communications; Prince Shakovsky, of Social +Welfare; and Acting Minister of Trade and Commerce, Steganov. Their +reasons for this action was their inability to agree with their +associates in the cabinet over the demands made just then by the +Ukraine elements in southern Russia, who wanted complete independence. +The dissenting ministers held that to grant such a demand would open +the way to similar action on the part of Finns, Ruthenians, Poles, and +other minor nationalities, which would mean the disintegration of +Russia. + +On July 18, 1917, there was a sudden outburst of Maximalist activity, +the most violent which had yet occurred. A body of sailors from +Kronstadt appeared and, together with the Anarchists who had +previously made armed demonstrations, they began parading the streets. +A body of Cossacks, armed only with sabers, which was advancing up one +of the streets conveying some wagon loads of material was fired upon +and several Cossacks were killed. The cavalrymen retired, being unable +to return the fire. This first bloodshed roused the indignation of the +troops supporting the Provisional Government, and they at once set +about clearing the streets. Some severe fighting followed, in which a +number of men on both sides were killed and several hundreds were +wounded. The demonstrators were finally driven away and within +forty-eight hours order had been reestablished. On this occasion, as +before, the Council of Workingmen's and Soldiers' Deputies cooperated +with the members of the Government in making the rounds of the +barracks and the workingmen's quarters to quiet the soldiers and the +people. The disturbance on this occasion was obviously of traitorous +origin, as the leaflets which had been used in furthering the +disorders accused both the Provisional Government and the council of +planning a counter-revolution in favor of the autocracy. + +The Provisional Government and the council now together appointed a +special commission for the purpose of keeping in touch with the +commandant of the Petrograd garrison and cooperate with him in +counteracting the efforts of the Maximalist agitators. + +Of special significance is the fact that these disorders occurred +almost simultaneously with the mutinous behavior of the regiments at +the front, whose treachery at a critical moment broke the Russian +offensive. Another result of the disturbances was a more energetic +policy against the Anarchists. Troops were now detailed to dislodge +the armed bands of Anarchists who had been occupying several large +residences in the city. On seeing that the Government was in earnest +the Anarchists surrendered unconditionally. + +On July 20, 1917, it was announced that Prince Lvov had resigned from +the premiership and that Kerensky had taken his place. Prince Lvov +gave as his reason for retiring his inability to agree with his +Socialist associates in their determination to declare Russia a +republic, since he believed that this decision was essentially the +right of the Constituent Assembly yet to be elected. The recent +disorders and the unfortunate situation at the front, however, +probably had much to do with the new ministerial crisis, for it was +also announced that Kerensky would be granted unlimited powers in +suppressing further disorders and an "iron discipline" in the army +would be instituted. At a joint conference held between the +Workingmen's and Soldiers' Council and the Executive Committee of the +Peasants' Congress, it was decided by a large majority to give the new +government, to be known as the "Government of National Safety," +absolute support. + +On the following day Kerensky announced that sterner measures would +immediately be taken: the death penalty would be reestablished, both +in civil life and in the army. Deserters and traitors would be shot. + +Though the radical elements were behind the change in the government +personnel, the new cabinet was not by any means a Socialist body. Five +non-Socialists still remained: Nekrasov, Vice Minister President, +without portfolio; Terestchenko, Minister of Foreign Affairs; Efremov, +Minister of Justice; Nicholas Lvov, Procurator of the Holy Synod; and +Godniev, Controller of State. The radicals were Kerensky, the Premier, +who also retained the War portfolio; Terestelli, Minister of Posts and +Telegraphs; Skobeliev, Minister of Education; Tchernov, Minister of +Agriculture; and Pieschiehonov, Minister of Supplies. + +For some days there were reports that further changes were still to be +made, giving the Constitutional Democratic party more definite +representation in the cabinet, on condition that these representatives +would be free from party dictation. Milukov, the party chief, showed +himself very much opposed to this suggestion, as he was to the +granting of such absolute power to the Government. On the last day of +the month further changes had not been made. Already Russia's armies +on the front were stiffening up against the German onslaughts. For +this full credit was given to Kerensky. He stands now as the +dominating figure in Russia, with the eyes not only of all Russians, +but all the peoples of the Allied nations, turned on him as the man +most capable of guiding the Russian republic through the difficulties +lying before it. Beginning with only the confidence of the radical +elements, he has gradually acquired a similar confidence in his +abilities and integrity from the Russian conservatives and all the +peoples of the countries aligned with Russia against the common enemy. + + + + +PART X--EASTERN FRONT + + + + +CHAPTER LXXXVIII + +THE END OF WINTER AT THE EASTERN FRONT + + +Various similar local enterprises were carried out on February 19, +1917. The Germans, about a battalion strong, attacked in close +formation in the region of Slaventine, northwest of Podgaste, but were +met by concentrated fire and forced to return to their own +intrenchments. In the Carpathians during a snowstorm a Russian +blockhouse south of Smotreo was successfully raided. The blockhouse +was blown up after the capture of its defenders. North of the Slanio +Valley, after driving away Russian forces and repulsing counterattacks +by outposts, Austro-German forces advanced their fighting position on +a ridge of heights. + +East of Lipnicadolna, on the Narayuvka River (Galicia), the Russians +exploded a mine under some German trenches and occupied the crater. +The Germans, however, reconquered the position in a counterattack. +South of Brzezany a Russian attack, made after mine-throwing +preparations, was repulsed. + +On February 22, 1917, near Smorgon, west of Lutsk and between the +Zlota Lipa and the Narayuvka, fighting with artillery and mine +throwing became more violent. Near Zvyzyn, east of Zlochoff, German +thrusting detachments entered a Russian position and after blowing up +four mine shafts returned with 250 prisoners, including three officers +and two machine guns. A successful reconnoitering advance was made +southeast of Brzezany by another German detachment. + +Similar enterprises, frequently accompanied by increased artillery +activity, were carried out in various parts of the front toward the +middle of March, 1917. Thus on March 12, 1917, north of the +Zlochoff-Tarnopol railroad, German reconnoitering detachments made an +attack during which three Russian officers, 320 men, and thirteen +machine guns were captured. Advances into the Russian lines near +Brzezany and on the Narayuvka also brought gains in prisoners and +booty. + +Again on March 14, 1917, near Vitoniez, on the Stokhod, and near +Yamnica, south of the Dniester, enterprises of German thrusting +detachments were carried out with success. More than 100 prisoners and +several machine guns and mine throwers were brought back from the +Russian positions. + +In the meantime there had occurred one of the most momentous events of +the war. The great Russian nation had risen in a comparatively +bloodless revolution against its former masters, the autocratic +government headed by Czar Nicholas. Though these events took place +March 8-11, 1917, news of them did not get to the outside world until +March 16, 1917. By then the czar had abdicated both for himself and +for his son. He, as well as his immediate family, had been made +prisoners. A new democratic though temporary government had been set +up by the guiding spirits who had directed the upheaval. + +Of course, the Germans and Austrians were not slow in taking advantage +of these new conditions. Fortunately for Russia the spring thaw was +beginning to set in and made really extensive operations impossible +for the time being. + +The last week of March, 1917, however, saw some determined attempts +on the part of the Germans to take as great an advantage of the +Russian disorganization as circumstances permitted. + +On March 21, 1917, in the direction of Lida, on the river Beresina, in +the region of the villages of Saberezyna and Potaschnia, German +thrusting detachments after a bombardment of long duration attacked +Russian positions and occupied them. By a counterattack they were +driven out of Potaschnia. The other part of the positions remained in +their hands. + +Northwest of Brody (Galicia) after artillery preparation the Germans +attacked Russian positions in the region of Baldur. After a stubborn +battle they were driven back to their trenches. + +The Russian forces were still active in some sections. On March 23, +1917, Russian reconnoitering detachments, advancing after artillery +preparation near Smorgon and Baranovitchy and on the Stokhod, were +driven away by the Germans; however, severe fire by artillery and mine +throwers preceded attacks, in which Austro-German troops south of the +Trotus Valley in the Carpathians near the Rumanian frontier took by +storm and in hand-to-hand fighting Russian positions on the frontier +ridge between the Sueta and Csobonyos valleys and brought in 500 +prisoners. A Russian advance north of Magyaros that followed soon +after failed. + +On March 26, 1917, the Germans again registered a success. Southeast +of Baranovitchy an energetically carried out attack was successful. +Russian positions situated on the west bank of the Shara between +Darovo and Labuzy were taken by storm and in hand-to-hand fighting. +More than 300 Russians were made prisoner and four machine guns and +seven mine throwers captured. West of Lutsk and north of the railroad +from Zlochoff to Tarnopol and near Brzezany, Russian battalions +attacked after violent artillery fire. They were repulsed with heavy +losses. + +Considerable fighting occurred during the following night and day, +March 27, 1917. This, in spite of the fact that the spring thaw was +officially announced to have set in. On the night of March 26-27, +1917, after artillery preparation the Germans attacked in the region +of Boguchy, northeast of Krevo, and occupied some Russian trenches. +Immediate counterattacks restored the situation. On the Stokhod River, +in the region of Borovo, the Russians delivered a mass attack. East of +Brzezany (Galicia), following a mine explosion, Russian patrols raided +German trenches and took twenty men prisoners. A German armored train +bombarded Russian positions east of Korosmezo. During a raid on the +northeast slope of Coman, in the wooded Carpathians, German raiding +detachments worked their way into a Russian position, blew up several +dugouts and returned with some prisoners and booty. A Russian attack +on Magyaros failed. South of the Uzul Valley, near the Rumanian +frontier, a strongly intrenched ridge was taken by storm and in +hand-to-hand fighting by German troops, who maintained it against +repeated counterattacks. One hundred prisoners and some machine guns +and mine throwers remained in German hands. + + + + +CHAPTER LXXXIX + +EFFECTS OF THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION + + +By this time, however, the disorganization of the Russian forces which +had resulted from the revolution made itself everywhere felt to a much +greater extent. The Germans apparently were either taken by surprise +by the suddenness of the revolution or else decided to wait for some +time before undertaking any important operations and to determine +first to what extent the revolution and change of government would +affect the Russian armies. Another factor in the delay of the German +attack which everyone expected almost as soon as news of the Russian +revolution became known was the successful battles which had been +fought by the British and French forces at the western front. + +On April 3, 1917, however, signs began to multiply, indicating that +the Germans had decided to begin more extensive operations. On that +day they opened a heavy artillery fire against Russian munition depots +on the left bank of the river Stokhod, in the region of the +Stchervitche-Helenin station, and on the river passages. The fire was +delivered partly with chemical shells. Simultaneously the Germans +discharged thirteen gas waves from the Helenin-Borovno sector. + +Under cover of the artillery fire the Germans took the offensive on +the Toboly-Helenin front and pressed back the Russian troops. Part of +the Germans succeeded in crossing the Stokhod in the region northeast +of Helenin. The Russian left flank detachments, which were defending +the munition dumps, found themselves in a serious position owing to +the pressure of the Germans and were forced to cross to the right bank +of the Stokhod. Some of the Russian detachments suffered heavy losses. +After strongly bombarding Russian positions south of Illukst the +Germans, attacked and occupied field posts and trenches in the region +south of the Poniewesch railway line, but were expelled and driven +back by a Russian counterattack. + +During the same night the Germans also directed a violent fire with +artillery and mine throwers against Russian trenches in the region of +the village of Novoselki, south of Krevo. At daybreak a German column +in strength of about a company forced its way into first-line trenches +near Novoselki, but as the outcome of a counterattack by Russian +scouts was dislodged and driven back. + +Russian raiding troops attacked the Austrians as they were attempting +to fortify positions in the region six miles west of Rafailova. Having +penetrated the barbed-wire entanglements the Russian troops occupied +three rows of trenches and bayoneted the Austrians. On the remainder +of the front rifle firing and reconnoitering operations occurred. + +The German success on the Stokhod, according to German reports, +developed almost into a rout. It was claimed that almost 10,000 men +and officers and fifteen guns and 150 machine guns and mine throwers +fell into the hands of the Germans. + +On April 5, 1917, after heavy artillery preparation, partly with +shells charged with chemicals, the Germans took the offensive and +occupied part of the Russian trenches to the east of Plakanen, +thirteen miles south of Riga. They were driven out as the result of a +Russian counterattack. + +On the following day, April 6, 1917, a number of local engagements +were reported. North of Brzezany, in the region of Angostoveka and +Koniuchy, after artillery preparation, the Germans attacked Russian +positions, but were repulsed. Southwest of Brzezany, in the region of +Lipnica Dolna, the Russians exploded a mine, destroying some German +trenches which the patrols immediately captured. The Russians repulsed +all counterattacks at this point and also took prisoners. In the same +region they attacked with gas. West of the town of Tomnatik strong +German detachments, supported by the fire of artillery, bomb throwers +and mine throwers, entered Russian trenches, but were immediately +ejected by counterattacks. + +Again on April 7 and 8, 1917, the Germans on the Galician front made +minor attacks in the Carpathians, in the region west of Dzemdron, in +the direction of Marmaroch and Siguet and to the west of the town of +Tomnatik. All of these were repulsed, however. + +Similar unimportant activities occupied the next few weeks. In the +meantime the disorganization of the Russian forces apparently +continued to increase. The Germans, however, apparently had decided by +this time not to attempt to make any military use of this condition, +but to improve the opportunity to come to an understanding with the +Russians. Almost daily reports appeared from various sources +indicating that a certain amount of fraternizing was going on in many +places on the eastern front. Though these reports varied very much, it +became quite clear that generally speaking the Russian lines still +held. In some places, undoubtedly, Russian detachments of varying size +laid down their arms and refused to continue to fight. There were even +isolated reports of some military groups having entered into peace +negotiations with their opponents. It is almost impossible to sift the +truth from these reports. It appears, however, that for some weeks a +more or less unofficial truce had been established almost everywhere +on the eastern front. The majority of the Russian soldiers at that +time undoubtedly were strongly in favor of immediate cessation of +hostilities. The Germans, on the other hand, seemed to be acting under +orders to treat their opponents with a minimum of severity and to +await further political developments before undertaking any important +military operations. + +The Russians, though of course glad enough to notice this cessation of +military activity, apparently were frequently not willing to let the +enemy get too close to their lines, even though he pretended to come +with friendly intentions. The official Russian report occasionally +indicates this, as for instance that for April 15, 1917, which says +that "attempts to approach Russian positions at various sectors of our +front by small enemy groups, the members of which carried flags in +their hands, were discovered. These groups, on coming under our fire, +returned rapidly to their trenches." + +Only very rarely, however, did the Russians attempt any offensive +movements during this period. On April 16, 1917, they made a gas +attack in the region of Konkary, but were met by strong machine-gun +fire. On the next day, April 17, 1917, the Germans started a slight +diversion of a similar nature north of Zboroff in Galicia. + +At that reports began to appear concerning the massing of troops by +the Germans in the northern sector of the line, indicating an attempt +to take Riga and possibly to march against Petrograd. + +Throughout May, 1917, the disorganization of the Russian army +continued. In the early part of the month the Council of Workingmen's +and Soldiers' became more and more radical in its demands, both as to +the share it was to have in the control of the army and as to the +disciplinary measures under which soldiers were to live. So serious +became the crisis that Minister of War General Gutchkov, as well as +Generals Kornilov, Brussilov, and Gurko resigned their commands. A. F. +Kerensky, then Minister of Justice, assumed the War portfolio, and it +was primarily due to his sagacity that the government and the council +finally agreed on May 16, 1917, on a basic program including the +continuation of the war. + +While these serious events were happening at Petrograd nothing of any +importance occurred at the front. The Germans still were playing their +waiting game and, according to reports, were exerting all their +influence toward a separate peace with Russia, both in Petrograd and +at the front. + +Military operations during May, 1917, were practically negligible. +Here and there skirmishes would occur between outposts and other small +detachments, and occasionally artillery duels would be fought for +short periods. Only a few times throughout the entire month were the +engagements important enough to be mentioned specifically in the +official reports. Thus on May 6, 1917, in the region of the village of +Potchne, on the Beresina River (western front), Russian artillery +dispersed a German attempt to approach the Russian trenches. In the +direction of Vladimir Volynski, south of Zubilno, after an intense +fire with grenades and bombs, a German company left their trenches and +began to attack the Russian trenches with hand grenades. Russian +artillery drove them back to their own trenches. On the +Kabarovce-Zboroff front the Germans carried out an intense +bombardment. + +Again on May 8, 1917, German artillery was active in the direction of +Vilna, in the Smorgon and Krevo sectors, in the direction of Vladimir +Volynski, and in the Zatorchy-Helvov sector. In the region of Zwyjene, +to the east of Zlochoff, the Germans exploded two mines which damaged +Russian trenches. Northeast of Brzezany Russian artillery caused +explosions among the German batteries. "Elsewhere on the front there +were the usual fusillades and scouting operations," continued the +Russian official report. + + + + +CHAPTER XC + +THE BEGINNING OF RUSSIAN REHABILITATION + + +The beginning of June, 1917, saw the first signs of a decided change +in Russian military conditions. It became clear that those political +forces at Petrograd who were demanding a separate peace and an +immediate cessation of hostilities were losing ground. Strong as the +cry of the soldiers was for peace and sincere as their belief had been +that the revolution had freed them not only from czarism and all that +went with it, but also from the awful business of killing and maiming +in which they had been engaged for almost three years, it gradually +dawned on them that this was not yet time. + +As early as June 1, 1917, reports came of increased firing at many +points of the eastern front. A few days later, however, it again +seemed as if Russia's military establishment was near to complete +collapse. General Alexiev, appointed commander in chief of all the +Russian armies as recently as April 15, 1917, resigned. He had been +forced out as a result of the opposition on the part of the Council of +Workingmen's and Soldiers' Deputies to his frankly pronounced belief +that adherence to most prerevolution conditions in the army was +essential if the army's discipline and effectiveness were to be +retained. General Brussilov, then commanding on the southeastern +front, was made commander in chief. Though this quick change in the +supreme command necessarily was for discipline, it augured well in all +other respects for a reconstruction of the Russian armies. The new +supreme commander was known to be an efficient general, a keen +fighter, and a sincere adherent of the Allied cause. His own command +at the southeastern front was assumed by General Gurko. + +On June 20, 1917, it was announced that the Congress of Soldiers' and +Workingmen's Delegates from the whole of Russia which was then in +session in Petrograd had voted confidence in the Provisional +Government and unanimously passed a resolution demanding an immediate +resumption of the offensive and the reorganization of the army. It was +also reported that a war cabinet was formed including the leaders of +the Russian army and navy and technical representatives. + +On the same day it was reported that near Lutsk (Kovel region), on +the Zlota Lipa, and Narayuvka (Lemberg region) and south of the +Dniester the artillery of both sides was more active than it had been +before. Russian raiding detachments, however, were driven off at +several points by the Germans. + +Again on June 21, 1917, in some sectors of the Galician and Volhynian +fronts Russian artillery activity increased, heavy guns cooperating. +Aerial activity was also livelier. + +The first signs of a possible Russian drive against Lemberg and Kovel +became evident on June 22, 1917. On the mountain front and in Volhynia +Russian artillery fire was revived. The Russian artillery's continuous +bombardment of the region south of Brzezany (Galicia) was +energetically returned by Austrian batteries. Increased fighting +activity also prevailed, especially between the Lemberg-Tarnopol +railway (Galicia) and the Dniester, a front of about forty miles. +Additional proof of the revival of the Russian fighting spirit was +furnished by the detailed report of a small engagement on the historic +Stokhod River. The Russian statement described how, near the village +of Pozog (Volhynia), Russian scouts prepared an ambush, and, +surrounding the approaching Germans, showered hand grenades on them. +In the bayonet fighting that followed some Germans were killed. Owing +to the approach of German reenforcements, however, the Russian scouts +were forced to return to their own trenches. + +On the rest of the front fusillades became more intense in the region +of Krevo. + +Apparently all thoughts of fraternizing with the enemy had left by +that time the minds of the Russian soldiers. This was shown by the two +occurrences reported on June 23, 1917. In Galicia, in the region of +Grabkovce, an Austrian scouting party attempted to gain information of +a Russian position, but was dispersed by a Russian company. + +In the region of Presovce an Austrian company surrounded a Russian +scouting party. The commander of the party assembled his men and by +means of bayonet fighting and the use of hand grenades succeeded in +breaking through and returning to their trenches without losing a +single man. + +June 24, 1917, brought very lively artillery activity at many +points in the eastern theater. In the Narayuvka-Zboroff sector the +Russian fire appreciably increased and continued with systematic +regularity. In the Carpathians north of Kirlibaba fighting also +increased in strength and frequency. + +[Illustration: When revolutionary Russia seemed likely to revert to +chaotic conditions, A. F. Kerensky, the Minister of War, rallied the +armies. He succeeded Prince Lvoff as Premier.] + +The following day, June 25, 1917, the Austro-Germans apparently +decided to follow the Russian lead and renew military operations to a +considerable extent. In the direction of Zlochoff and in the region of +Perpelniki (Galicia) a strong Austro-German party, supported by +artillery, endeavored to approach the Russian trenches, but was +repulsed by rifle fire. South of Brzezany, in the region of the +village of Svistelniki, on the Narayuvka, German infantry forced their +way into Russian trenches, but a counterattack compelled them to +retire. The German heavy artillery conducted an intense fire in the +region of Potuary, Ribney, and Kotov. + +On June 26, 1917, south of the Lemberg-Tarnopol railway line and on +the Narayuvka the artillery and mine-throwing fire was lively. On the +Zlota Lipa more German forces made some Russian prisoners as the +result of a successful reconnoitering advance. + +On the last day of June, 1917, came at last news of renewed fighting +on the part of the Russians on a larger scale. After a destructive +fire lasting all day against Austro-German positions on the upper +Stripa as far as the Narayuvka River there followed in the afternoon +powerful attacks by the Russian infantry on a front of about eighteen +and a half miles. The storming troops, who suffered heavy losses, were +compelled everywhere to retire by the defensive fire of the +Austro-Germans. + +On the same day, after several days of violent fire from the heaviest +guns, the Russians in the afternoon commenced an infantry attack south +and southeast of Brzezany and near Koniuchy. Strong fire from Austrian +batteries stopped this attack and inflicted heavy losses on the +Russians. Another very strong attack, started late in the afternoon +west of Zalocz, broke down under artillery fire. Toward midnight the +Russians, without artillery preparation, endeavored to advance south +of Brzezany. They were repulsed. During the night the artillery fire +declined, but it revved the next morning. The artillery duel extended +northward as far as the middle Stokhod and south as far as Stanislau. + +Then came on July 1, 1917, the news that the Russians had successfully +attacked in force on a front about thirty-five miles wide to the west +of Lemberg. Not until then did it become known that Prime Minister +Kerensky, the guiding spirit of the Provisional Government, had been +at the front for four days and had by his fiery eloquence stirred up +the Russian armies to such an extent that all talk of peace and all +thought of sedition disappeared for the time being. Press reports +stated that Kerensky having told the soldiers that if they would not +attack he would march toward the enemy's trenches alone, was embraced +and kissed by soldiers. + +The Russian attacks were made at various points. In the direction of +Kovel (Volhynia), in the region of Rudkasitovichskaya, Russian scouts +under command of four officers, after destroying the wire +entanglements by mines, penetrated the Austrian trenches, killed some +of the occupants, and captured a number of prisoners. According to the +testimony of prisoners, the Austrians knew of the attack from two +deserters. In the direction of Zloczow, after two days' artillery +preparation, Russian troops attacked the Austro-German positions on +the Koniuchy-Byshki front. After a severe engagement they occupied +three lines of trenches and the fortified village of Koniuchy and +advanced to the Koniuchy stream, to the south of the village of the +same name. + +Farther south, southeast of Brzezany, after artillery preparation, +Russian troops attacked the strongly fortified positions of the +Germans and after stubborn fighting occupied them at places. Germans +and Turks made counterattacks, and formidable positions changed hands +constantly. Along the Stokhod and on the Dniester the lively artillery +activity of the Russians continued. As a result of these attacks the +Russians claimed to have captured 164 officers, 8,400 men, and seven +guns. On the other hand, the Germans claimed that sixteen Russian +divisions constantly employing fresh troops assaulted their positions, +which were completely maintained or recaptured by counter attacks by +Saxon, Rhineland, and Ottoman divisions. The Russian losses surpassed +any hitherto known. Some units were said to have been entirely +dispersed. The Germans apparently considered these attacks very +serious, for it was announced officially that Field Marshal von +Hindenburg and General von Ludendorff, quartermaster general, had +arrived at headquarters of the Austro-Hungarian army to visit the +Austrian field marshal, Artur Arz von Straussenburg. + + + + +CHAPTER XCI + +THE RUSSIAN JULY OFFENSIVE + + +It soon became clear that the gradual increase in fighting activity +was not simply an impulsive response to Prime Minister Kerensky's +eloquence or the result of isolated local conditions. Gradually the +fighting spread over more and more ground. It became more efficient +and less spasmodic. Undoubtedly this was partly due to the fact that +matters behind the front began to settle down somewhat and that +supplies of ammunition and food again flowed more regularly and +abundantly. Then too the new commander in chief seemed to be more +capable of controlling his troops and to have a more definite plan for +his operations than his predecessor. Where formerly only small +detachments of Russians apparently could be persuaded or forced to +undertake military operations, now regiments, brigades, and even whole +divisions, went again at the business of fighting. Thus the Russians +were able to gain nice successes at many points. Especially in the +direction of Zlochoff, the Russians continued their offensive +successfully. In the afternoon of July 2, 1917, after a stubborn +battle, the Zoraisky regiment occupied the village of Presovce, while +the troops of the Fourth Finnish Division and the Cheshskoslovatsky +brigade occupied the strongly fortified German positions on the +heights to the west and southwest of the village of Zboroff and the +fortified village of Korshiduv. Three lines of trenches were +penetrated. The troops of the Central Powers then retired across the +Little Stripa. The Finns took 1,560 officers and soldiers prisoner, +while their captures included four trench mortars, nine machine guns, +and one bomb thrower. The Cheshskoslovatsky brigade captured sixty-two +officers and 3,150 soldiers, fifteen guns and many machine guns. Many +of the captured guns were turned against the former owners. Positions +to the west of the Uzefuvka also were taken. + +Altogether in that day's battle in the neighborhood of Zlochoff the +Russians took 6,300 prisoners, officers and soldiers, twenty-one guns, +sixteen machine guns, and several bomb throwers. Southeast of Brzezany +the battle continued with less intensity. In that region the Russians +captured fifty-three officers and 2,200 men. Between the Baltic and +the Pripet the activity of the fighting increased only at Riga and +Smorgon; there was heavy artillery fighting on the middle course of +the Stokhod, where, however, Russian local attacks on the Kovel-Lutsk +railway line failed with heavy losses, and also on the Zlota Lipa. +During the night following there was lively artillery fighting from +the Stokhod to the Narayuvka. New strong attacks of the Russians took +place at Brzezany, which failed with heavy losses. + +South of Zboroff the Russians, with the use of superior forces, +succeeded in pushing back a limited portion of the Austrian front +toward the prepared supporting position. In engagements involving +heavy sacrifices the Austro-Hungarians were forced to retire step by +step against the pressure of superior forces, but did this so easily +that they enabled the reserves to intervene for the restoration of the +situation. + +Unsuccessful attempts were made by the Germans in eastern Galicia on +July 4, 1917, to regain some of the lost ground. East of Brzezany the +Germans attacked advanced Russian posts, but were compelled by +artillery fire to retire. East of Lipnicadolna on the eastern bank of +the Narayuvka, after artillery preparation, they twice attacked +Russian positions, but were repulsed on both occasions. + +The next day, July 5, 1917, the violence of the fighting again +increased. In Galicia, between Zboroff and Brzezany, an artillery +battle of great violence developed. It diminished during the night and +increased again after daybreak. Also at Zwyzyn, Brody, and Smorgon the +artillery activity was very lively at intervals. On that part of the +Galician front, held chiefly by Turkish troops intermingled with some +Germans and Austro-Hungarian forces, the Russians made an unsuccessful +attack which cost them, according to German claims, 200 prisoners and +500 dead. + +Some more successes were gained by the Russian forces on July 6, 1917. +In the direction of Zlochoff, after artillery preparation, Russian +infantry attacked strongly fortified positions of the enemy. They +occupied three lines of trenches, but later the Germans succeeded in +pressing back the Russian detachments. + +In the sector of the heights northwest of Presovce and in the wood +west of Koniuchy Russian detachments conducted an offensive and +engaged in a stubborn battle throughout July 6, 1917. The Germans +executed counterattacks and at certain places pressed back the Russian +detachments. Toward evening, however, there remained in Russian hands +the heights northwest of Presovce and the villages of Lavrikovce and +Travotloki and the heights east of Dodov, as well as seventeen +officers and 672 men. + +In the region northwest of Stanislau to the south of the Dniester, +after artillery preparation, Russian advance detachments pressed back +the Austrians in the Jamnica-Pasechna sector and occupied their +trenches. South of Bohorodszany Russian advance detachments defeated +an advanced post of the Austrians. The Russians also occupied +Sviniuchy and repulsed the enemy's counterattack. Altogether in the +engagement the Russians took 360 prisoners. + +By now the Russian attack had spread so that Halicz, only sixty miles +southwest of Lemberg, Galicia's capital, and its chief protection from +the southeast, was practically in reach of the Russian guns. In this +sector the front was somewhat more than thirty miles long and ran +along the Narayuvka River. The newly organized Russian forces had been +formed into three armies and were continuing to pound away at their +adversaries. There was considerable fighting near Stanislau on July 7, +1917. Austro-Hungarian regiments in hand-to-hand encounters repulsed +several Russian divisions whose storming waves, broken by destructive +fire, had pushed forward as far as the Austrian position. Near Huta, +in the upper valley of the Bystritza Solotvina, another Russian attack +was repulsed. Between the Stripa and the Zlota Lipa the Russians were +apparently unable to renew their attacks in spite of their gains of +the previous days. Near Zboroff a Russian attack without artillery +preparation broke down with heavy losses. + +Farther north, in the Brzezany-Zlochoff sector, in the direction of +Zlochoff the Germans launched energetic counterattacks on the front at +Godov and the wood west of Koniuchy in an attempt to dislodge Russian +troops. All these attacks were repelled. Assaults west of Bychka by +troops in dense columns, supported by armored motor cars, were also +repulsed. + +Not until then did it become known that the Russians, in the beginning +of their offensive, had had the support of some of their allies. + +The Russian offensive had now been under way for more than a week. As +so often in the past, it had been launched against that part of the +front which was held chiefly by Austro-Hungarians, and also, as many +times before, the troops of the Dual Monarchy had been forced to give +way under the Russian pressure. German reenforcements, however, now +began to arrive and the defense began to stiffen, bringing at the same +time more frequent and stronger counterattacks. + + + + +CHAPTER XCII + +THE CAPTURE OF HALICZ AND KALUSZ + + +The surmise that Halicz, the important railroad point on the Dniester, +was soon to fall into the hands of the Russians, provided they were +able to keep up the strength and swiftness of their offensive, was +proved correct on July 10, 1917. Late that day the news that Halicz +had fallen on July 9, 1917, into Russian hands came from Petrograd. +The Russians were fighting under General Kornilov and their attacks +were so strong that the Austrians under General Kirchbach were unable +to resist. In two days Austro-German positions seven miles deep and +strongly fortified during a period of two years were overrun by the +victorious Russians. More than 1,000 prisoners, seven guns, many +trench mortars and machine guns, and a large booty of engineering +materials and other military stores fell into the hands of the +victors. The Austro-Hungarians were forced to retire behind the lower +course of the Lomnitza River, and at the end of the day the road to +Lemberg, only sixty-three miles northwest of Halicz, seemed seriously +threatened from the south. + +Earlier in the day sanguinary battles occurred on the road to Halicz +in the region of the villages of Huciska, Pacykov, and Pavelone. In +the streets of Pavelone there was bayonet fighting, which ended in a +complete rout of the Austrians. Toward evening the Russian troops +reached the village of Bukovica, having occupied the villages of +Viktarov, Majdan, Huciska, and Pacykov. + +South of Brzezany there was intense artillery fighting. In the +direction of Dolina the army of General Kornilov continued its +offensive in the region west of Stanislau. The Austro-Germans +displayed energetic resistance which developed into stubborn +counterattacks. Farther north, too, near Riga, Dvinsk, and Smorgon, +the fighting activity increased. + +The Russians maintained their successes on the following day, July 10, +1917. In the direction of Dolina they continued the pursuit +northwestward toward Lemberg of the retreating enemy, who had been +broken by General Kornilov's army on the Jezupol-Stanislau-Borgordchan +front--a front of almost twenty miles. + +At midday troops led by General Tcheremisoff, who had accomplished the +capture of Halicz, were thrown across to the left bank of the Dniester. +Toward evening they reached the valley of the river Lomnitza on the +front from the mouth of the river to Dobrovlany, and advance +detachments, crossing over after a short engagement to the left bank of +the river, occupied the villages of Bludniki and Babin. Russian troops +advancing on the Borgordchan-Zolotvin front, having broken down the +resistance of the enemy, reached the line of Posiecz-Lesiuvka-Kosmocz. +This was a success in a new sector south of Halicz and threatened the +approaches to the northern Carpathians. + +In the course of the day the Russians captured more than 2,000 +prisoners and about thirty guns. Altogether in the three days' battle +from the 8th to the 10th in the direction of Dolina they took more +than 150 officers and 10,000 men. Their captures also included about +eighty guns, twelve of them of heavy caliber, and a large number of +trench mortars and machine guns and a large quantity of engineering +material and military stores. On the remainder of the front there was +artillery firing, which was more intense in the direction of Zlochoff +and south of Brzezany. + +These various operations continued to develop on July 11, 1917, +especially among the rivers Dniester and Lomnitza. After a stubborn +and sanguinary battle the Austrians were forced out of the town of +Kalusz, which was occupied by the Russians. Kalusz, a town of about +8,000 population previous to the war, is on the west bank of the +Lomnitza and on the important railroad that runs from Stanislau to +Lemberg south of the Dniester. Until the development of the Russian +offensive it served as Austrian headquarters in this sector. To the +west of Bohorodszany, on the Grabovka-Rosolna-Krivicz front, the +Austrians taking advantage of the extremely intricate terrain, +succeeded in holding back the Russian advance. Near Riga, Smorgon and +Baranovitchy the artillery fighting was again spirited. Near Lutsk and +in the East Galicia fighting area the firing also reached a point of +considerable intensity at times. On the Ochtschara Russian chasseur +troops were repulsed, as were local Russian attacks on the Stokhod. + +On July 12, 1917, the firing activity between the Zlota Lipa and the +Narayuvka increased. Engagements developed also on the Honika River, +northwest of Halicz. Russian troops crossed to the left bank of the +river confluence and captured heights on the line of the river +Dniester-Bukazowice-Bludniki. After a stubborn battle the Austrians +were driven back from the heights to the northeast of Ehilus. The +Russians occupied the villages of Studzianka and Podhorki. + +In the region of Kalusz a Bohemian regiment by means of a daring +cavalry attack captured four heavy guns. Southeast of Kalusz, on the +Landstru-Lazianya-Kraisne front, Russian troops engaged in battle with +Austrian detachments who were protecting the crossings of the river +Lomnitza on the road to Kornistov and Dolina. The crossings of the +river at Perehinsko west of Bohorodszany were captured. + +In the region of Vladimir Volynski (Volhynia) southeast of Kiselin +German detachments under cover of artillery fire attacked Russian +positions and entered Russian trenches, but were expelled by reserves +which came forward, immediately restoring the situation. On the Dvina +near Smorgon and on the Shara there was spirited fighting, and also +west of Lutsk there was a temporary revival of activity in consequence +of reconnoitering thrusts. + +In describing the capture of Kalusz the "Russky Slovo" says that the +Russian cavalry entered the town at noon and found it abandoned by the +garrison. The Russians were soon attacked, however, by fresh enemy +forces, which were rushed from the fortress. After a stiff fight the +Russians were compelled to fall back. Reenforced, they returned and +drove the Germans out. At 2 o'clock in the afternoon the Germans, +supported by an armored train, counterattacked and again occupied +Kalusz. But they were once more expelled with heavy losses. Sanguinary +house-to-house fighting, mostly with the bayonet, ensued until 6 +o'clock in the evening. + +On July 13, 1917, it was reported that there was considerable rifle +firing on the lower Lomnitza, between the confluence with the Dniester +River and Kalusz. In the neighborhood of the town of Kalusz the +Austrians made two attacks from the direction of Mosciska and near +Gartenel and attempted to dislodge the Russian troops occupying +Kalusz, but were repulsed. The Russians occupied, after fighting, the +village of Novica, southwest of Kalusz. Heavy rains prevented +extensive fighting at other points south of the Dniester. Near Dvinsk +and Smorgon lively fighting activity continued. In eastern Galicia the +gunfire was lively only in the Brzezany sector. + +Heavy rains continued and swelled the rivers Lomnitza and Dniester and +the small streams running into them. Naturally this also affected the +condition of the roads. In spite of the unfavorable weather there was +considerable fighting on July 14, 1917. Southwest of Kalusz the +Austrians several times attacked troops which were occupying the +Dobrovdiany-Novica front. All the attacks were repulsed. As a result +of the battles in this region the Russians captured sixteen officers +and more than 600 of the rank and file. In the region of Lodziany +(eighteen miles southwest of Kalusz) as the final result of a series +of stubborn attacks Russian troops drove the Austrians from their +positions and took more than 1,000 prisoners and a number of guns. At +the crossing of the river Lomnitza, near Perehinsko, the Austrians +launched an offensive with the object of throwing Russian detachments +back to the right bank of the Lomnitza. The Russian offensive on the +Slivkiasen front met with stubborn resistance. + + + + +CHAPTER XCIII + +THE COLLAPSE OF THE RUSSIAN OFFENSIVE + + +The accomplishments of the Russian armies during the first two weeks +of July, 1917, were little short of marvelous. Not only had they +captured such important points as Halicz and Kalusz and had forced +back the Austrian lines in southeastern Galicia for miles and miles, +but they had also taken large numbers of prisoners and captured +valuable booty. From July 1 to July 13, 1917, 834 officers and 35,809 +men were captured by the Russians, with ninety-three heavy and light +guns, twenty-nine trench mortars, 493 machine guns, forty-three mine +throwers, forty-five bomb mortars, three fire throwers, two +aeroplanes, and much equipment. + +By the middle of July, 1917, however, the first fury of the Russian +onslaught had spent itself, and then too, as so often before, the +Central Powers had recovered from their first surprise and had +succeeded, thanks to their superior transportation facilities, in +bringing up strong reserves. For the first time since the beginning of +the Russian offensive on July 15, 1917, there appeared definite signs +that the German defensive was stiffening. On the lower Lomnitza there +were fusillades and artillery bombardments. Northeast of Kalusz the +Germans made energetic attempts to throw back the Russian troops on +the Lomnitza. The battle on the Landes-Reuldzian-Kraisne front +continued all day. After a severe engagement the Austrians were driven +out of the village of Lodziany and pressed hard to the river Lomnitza, +but owing to attacks made by their newly arrived reserves from the +direction of Rozniazov, and in view of the great losses, the Russian +troops were compelled to retire a short distance and intrench +themselves in the eastern end of the Lodziany. + +Then on July 16, 1917, came the news that the Russians had been forced +to evacuate Kalusz. Northeast of Kalusz the Germans had conducted +persistent attacks which at first had been repulsed by the Russians. +Finally, however, Russian troops occupying the left bank of the lower +course of the river Lomnitza were transferred to the right bank, +leaving Kalusz in Austrian hands and securing behind them the +important crossing of the Lomnitza. + +In the Novica-Lodziany-Kraisne section the Russian troops continued +their attacks, with the object of throwing the enemy back across the +Lomnitza. The Germans made stubborn resistance. With the approach of +evening, they counterattacked in dense waves from the direction of +Selohy-Kagnka, and, pressing the Russians back, occupied the village +of Novica, but were driven out again upon the arrival of fresh +reserves. Farther north, too, the lively fighting activity at Riga, +Dvinsk, and Smorgon continued. With the clearing of the weather the +firing on the Narayuvka front became heavier than it had previously +been. + +Once again on the following day, July 17, 1917, the Russians had to +yield ground under the ever-increasing pressure from the Germans. In +the north there was a still more noticeable increase in the fighting +activity at Riga, south of Dvinsk, and at Smorgon. In eastern Galicia +the firing was strong at Brzezany. + +In the Carpathian foothills Bavarian and Croatian troops in a combined +attack captured the heights to the east of Novica, which were +stubbornly defended by the Russians, and repulsed Russian +counterattacks in the captured positions. At other points on the +Lomnitza line also the Russians were forced back in local engagements. +As the result of a night attack Russian detachments reoccupied the +village of Novica to the south of Kalusz, but, suffering great losses +in this operation, withdrew to the eastern end of the village. Two +German attacks on these detachments were repulsed. Northwest of Lutsk +and on the East Galician front operations carried out by Austro-German +forces brought about an increase in artillery activity and resulted in +the capture of numerous prisoners. + +The artillery activity south of Dvinsk and Smorgon, which had been +lively for some days, continued. + +During the next few days fighting everywhere became more violent. Near +Jacobstadt, Dvinsk, and Smorgon, along the Stokhod, and from the Zlota +Lipa to south of the Dniester, the artillery activity increased +considerably. Advances and reconnoitering operations often led to +local engagements. Near Novica, on the Lomnitza front, new strong +Russian attacks were repulsed with sanguinary losses. + +On July 19, 1917, east of Brzezany, to the south of Szybalin, +Austro-German troops made repeated attacks and occupied a portion of +the Russian first-line trenches. Austrian efforts to attack south of +Brzezany were repelled by gun and rifle fire. West of Halicz +detachments occupying the village of Bludniki retired, whereupon the +Austrians, profiting by this movement, occupied the place. An effort +to win back this village was unsuccessful. In the direction of Vilna +there was animated artillery fighting throughout the day. After strong +artillery preparation the Germans persistently attacked the Russian +detachments on the Pieniaki-Harbuzov front, twenty miles south of +Brody. At first all these attacks were repulsed. At 10 o'clock the Six +Hundred and Seventh Mlynov Regiment, stationed between Bathov and +Manajov, in the same region, left its trenches voluntarily and +retired, with the result that neighboring units also had to retire. +This gave the Germans opportunity for developing their success. + +The Russians explained this occurrence officially in the following +statement: + +"Our failure south of Brody is explained to a considerable degree by +the fact that under the influence of the Bolsheviki extremists +(Anarchists) several detachments, having received a command to support +the attacked detachments, held meetings and discussed the advisability +of obeying the order; whereupon some regiments refused to obey the +military command. Efforts of commanders and committees to arouse the +men to fulfillment of the commands were fruitless." + +A similar incident, indeed, had happened during the German attacks +against Novica on July 17, 1917. On that day when the Germans early in +the evening had taken the offensive and had seized the height south of +Novica, to the south of Kalusz, one of the Russian regiments began to +leave. Major General Prince Gargarin, commander of the military +district, perceiving that the situation was critical, at once moved +forward a battalion of the Ukhnov regiment commanded by Second Captain +Burishen, which had only recently arrived in the district. This +battalion conducted an energetic attack. Simultaneously General Prince +Gargarin threw troops into the attack on both flanks, advancing +infantry and native cavalry regiments of Daghestanians on the right +and Circassians and Kabardians on the left. The Ukhnov regiment and +the natives rushed forward in a furious onslaught, carrying with them +also the Russian regiment which had retired. The general assault soon +changed the situation in favor of the Russians. + +These two occurrences were typical of many others of a like nature at +various points of the entire front. The affected groups varied in +extent, sometimes only small detachments would refuse to fight, while +at other times entire companies or battalions and even whole regiments +were affected. + +It now became quite evident that the Russian offensive had to come to +a standstill, and that Russian disorganization not only set in again, +but came much nearer to a total collapse than it had been previous to +the beginning of the Russian offensive. At the same time the new +German offensive developed in strength and extent. Even then it was +likely that the Russians not only were to lose the territory which +they had gained so recently, but possibly a large portion of East +Galicia that had been occupied by them for a long time. Whether the +Central Powers would be able to follow up their offensive in Galicia +with similar undertakings at other points of the eastern front, of +course, was a matter that depended not only on conditions at the +eastern front, but also on how things were going in the west. + +The Austro-German forces made good use of the opportunity created for +them by the defection rampant in the Russian armies. In East Galicia, +on July 20, 1917, behind the hastily retreating Russian forces, of +which only parts made a stand for rear-guard purposes, German troops +in impetuous pursuit crossed the Zlochoff-Tarnopol road on both sides +of Jezierna on a width of twenty-five miles. Wherever the Russians +made a stand they were defeated in swift assaults; burning villages +and great destruction showed the route of the retiring Russians. + +Again the Russians had to admit officially that their army +organization was going to pieces. They did this, in regard to their +retreat toward Tarnopol, in the following words: + +"Our troops on the whole did not show the necessary stability, and at +some points did not fulfill military commands; consequently they +continued to retire, and toward evening they paused on the line +Renov-Hlatiki-Pokropuvia-Vybudow." + +North of Brzezany Austro-Hungarian troops after hard fighting +recaptured positions they lost on July 1, 1917. North of the Dniester +Russian attacks broke down before the Austrian lines. South of the +river the Russians were driven out of Babin. At Novica German and +Austro-Hungarian troops stormed the Russian height positions in spite +of a stubborn defense. From the Stokhod to the Baltic the activity of +the artillery increased occasionally. It reached special intensity +between Krevo and Smorgon and at Dvinsk. + +At this critical point the Provisional Government again decided to +make a change in the command of the Russian armies fighting in +Galicia. Early in June, 1917, General Gouter had been placed in +supreme command in this section. Lieutenant General L. G, Kornilov, +then commander of the Eighth Russian Army, with which he had gained in +the first part of July, 1917, the successes on the Halicz-Stanislau +line, was now intrusted with the chief command of all Russian troops +fighting in Galicia. + + + + +CHAPTER XCIV + +THE RUSSIAN ROUT IN GALICIA AND THE BUKOWINA + + +Day by day the Russians' disorganization became worse. Instances of +defection became more frequent as the German offensive movement +increased in violence. With their usual thoroughness, and with almost +incredible swiftness, the forces of the Central Powers struck. Again +the Russian Government was forced to admit officially that Russian +commanders had lost control over their troops. + +By July 21, 1917, the Germans and Austrians in the region west of +Tarnopol managed to reach the Brzezany-Tarnopol railway at several +points. Near Brzezany the Seventh Russian Army also began to yield to +increasing pressure on its flanks. The number of prisoners and the +amount of booty were large. At Jezierna rich supplies of provisions, +munitions, and other war stores fell into German hands. + +[Illustration: The Russian Offensive and Retreat in Galicia.] + +Late in the afternoon the Germans forced their way forward from +Tarnopol to as far as the Sereth bridgehead. During the fight the +railway line from Kozowa to Tarnopol was reached at several points. +The Russian masses southeast of Brzezany began to yield. The town of +Tarnopol and numerous villages east of the Sereth soon were in flames. +On the lower Narayuvka River the artillery duel increased to +considerable intensity. On the river Lomnitza after a bombardment the +Germans took the offensive in the regions of the villages of Babino +and Studzianka and forced Russian troops to evacuate Babino and cross +the right bank of the Lomnitza. By the end of the day the whole +Russian front from the Zlota Lipa close up to the Dniester was +wavering under the pressure of the German-Austrian attack on the +Sereth. + +In the north, however, the Russians were still fighting back, though +unsuccessfully. Between Krevo and Smorgon the Russians after a strong +artillery preparation attacked with a strong force. Their assaults +broke down with heavy losses on the German troops. After an agitated +night fresh fighting broke out at that point. Northward as far as +Naroz Lake and also between Drysviaty Lake and Dvinsk increased +artillery fighting continued. + +The offensive movements undertaken by the Russians in the northern +sector were continued on July 22, 1917. In the direction of Vilna, in +the neighborhood of Krevo, Russian troops attacked and occupied German +positions in the district of Tsary-Bogushi, penetrating to a depth of +two miles in places. Over one thousand Germans were taken prisoner. + +However, the spirit of disobedience was gradually spreading among the +Russian troops. "The development of a further success is being +jeopardized by the instability and moral weakness of certain +detachments. Particularly noteworthy was the gallant conduct of the +officers, great numbers of them perishing during the fulfillment of +their duties," says the official Russian statement. On the upper +course of the Sereth, from Zalovce to Tarnopol, there was considerable +rifle firing. South of Berezovica-Velka the Germans conducted an +intense artillery fire. Between the rivers Sereth, Stripa, and Zlota +Lipa they continued their offensive, occupying the villages of +Nastasov, Beniave (on the Stripa), Uvse, and Slavintin. The strategic +effect of the German operations in East Galicia was continually +becoming more powerful. The Russians began retreating from the +northern Carpathian front. From the Sereth to the wooded Carpathians +the Germans were pressing forward over a front of 155 miles wide. + +By July 23, 1917, the victorious German army corps had forced their +way over the Sereth, crossing to the south near Tarnopol. Near +Trembowla desperate Russian mass attacks were repulsed. The Germans +advanced beyond Podhaytse, Halicz, and the Bystritza Solotvina River. +The booty was large. Several divisions reported 3,000 prisoners each. +Numerous heavy guns, including those of the largest calibers, railway +trucks filled with foodstuffs and fodder, munitions, armored cars and +motor lorries, tents, articles left on the field, and every kind of +war material were captured. + +Archduke Joseph's north wing now joined in a movement which had +commenced to the south of the Dniester. There was strong Russian +firing activity along that whole front. + +In the north the fighting, too, was severe. In some places the +Russians made decided gains, only to lose them again by the refusal of +certain troops to obey their commanders. Southwest of Dvinsk Russian +detachments, after strong artillery preparation, occupied German +positions on both sides of the Dvinsk-Vilna railway. After this +success entire units, without any pressure on the part of the Germans, +voluntarily returned to their original trenches. A number of these +units refused to carry out military commands during the battle. + +Detachments of the Twenty-fourth Division, the Tulsk, Lovitsky, and +Saraosky regiments, and the "Battalion of Death," consisting of women, +acted especially heroically, and as at other points the gallantry of +the officers was noteworthy. Their losses were large. In the direction +of Vilna and in the region north of Krevo the Germans delivered a +number of counterattacks, and succeeded in occupying one of the +heights north of Bogush, which had been captured by the Russians on +the previous day, July 22, 1917. Heroic exertion by the Russian +officers was required to restrain the men from withdrawing to the rear +in great numbers. + +The German successes became more and more important and the Russian +route more and more complete. Stanislau and Nadvorna were now in +German hands and German forces were rapidly approaching Buczacz. + +In the Carpathians, too, the Russians began to give way. + +Prime Minister Kerensky had rushed to the Galician front as soon as +news had reached him of the Russian debacle. However, even his +presence could not stem the Austro-German advance and the Russian +flight. It was reported that he had even risked his life in this +attempt. + +On July 25, 1917, the Austro-German successes were still farther +extended. During stubborn engagements Austro-German divisions gained +heights west of Tarnopol and the Gniza River sector to the +Trembowla-Husiatyn road. Farther southwest Buczacz, Tiumacz, Ottynia, +and Delatyn were taken. + +The Russian Carpathian front, owing to the pressure on the north of +the Dniester, now commenced to weaken to the south of the Tartar Pass. +The Russians were retreating there in the direction of Czernowitz. + +In the north, south of Smorgon, concentrated German artillery fire +partly closed up the breach in the German lines made by the Russians. +The latter were compelled to retreat, and the Germans regained almost +all of their former positions. + +July 26, 1917, brought still further defeats to the Russian forces in +Galicia. In a bitter struggle near Tarnopol, German divisions extended +their gains by a powerful attack at the bridgehead on the eastern bank +of the Sereth, which recently had been contested hotly. Farther +south, in spite of stubborn resistance of Russians, who were sent +forward regardless of the fact that thousands upon thousands of them +were being mowed down under destructive German fire, the Germans +captured the Gniza and Sereth crossings from Trembowla to Skomorocze. +They were also advancing rapidly on both sides of the Dniester. +Kolomea was captured by Bavarian and Austro-Hungarian troops. In the +northeastern portion of the wooded Carpathians Austrian troops were +following on the heels of the Russians who retreated in the direction +of the Pruth. + +[Illustration: The Entire Eastern Battle Front, August 1, 1917.] + +Without let-up the Germans and Austrians continued to press back the +disorganized Russian armies. By July 27, 1917, the Austro-German +divisions under General von Boehm-Ermolli had crossed the +Jablonica-Horodenka-Zablowow line. Austrian troops on the northern +wing were drawing close to the Pruth Plateau below Kolomea. West of +Seletyn-Fundul, on the Moldavian Road in the wooded Carpathians, +German and Austro-Hungarian troops wrested some heights positions from +the still resisting Russians. + +By July 28, 1917, the Russians on both sides of Husiatyn had retired +behind the frontier. German corps had reached Zbrocz. Others +approached the confluence of the northern Sereth and the Dniester. +Between the Dniester and the Pruth the Russian rear guard made a +stand. The Germans in a powerful attack broke through their positions +and pursued the Russians on both banks of the Dniester. In the +Cheremosh Valley Kuty was taken. Above and below the town a crossing +of the river was effected by the Austrians. + +In the last days of July, 1917, the Russian resistance stiffened +slightly. Still the Teutonic forces gained new successes in eastern +Galicia and Bukowina. The river Zbrocz was crossed at many points by +German and Austro-Hungarian divisions from above Husiatyn to south of +Skala, on a front of thirty-one miles, in spite of the bitter +resistance of the Russians. Between the Dniester and the Pruth the +allied Teutonic troops captured Werenocanka and Sniatyn, in the +direction of Czernowitz. + +In a strong assault German chasseurs broke through Russian rear-guard +positions near Visnitz. The Russians were thereby forced to evacuate +the Cheremosh line and retired toward the east. Also in the wooded +Carpathians, on the upper course of the southern Sereth, and on both +sides of the Moldava and the Suczawa, the Austro-Germans gained ground +in an attack toward the east. Under pressure of this success the +Russians abandoned their first-line positions in the Meste-Canaste +sector. + +That the Russian rout was not worse, and that they managed to save a +large part of their armies, was due largely to the assistance rendered +by Belgian and British armored cars. + + + + +PART XI--AUSTRO-ITALIAN FRONT + + + + +CHAPTER XCV + +STALEMATE ON THE ITALIAN FRONTS + + +On February 1, 1917, on the northern slopes of Monte Maso, along the +Posina Torrent, and in the Astico Valley Italian patrols destroyed +Austrian outposts, taking eleven prisoners. In the Sugana Valley +Austrian artillery bombarded Italian positions on Monte Lebre and +Ospedaletto and in Pesino Hollow with gas shells. On the Julian front +there were minor artillery actions and activity by patrol. At one +point a bombardment of the Austrian lines resulted in a small +ammunition dump being blown up. + +On the Trentino front even the artillery was handicapped by snowfall +on February 3, 1917. In the upper Comelico Valley Italian troops +repulsed a surprise attack. On the Julian front there was the usual +artillery firing. + +On February 6, 1917, on the Trentino front the artillery fighting was +more intense in the Astico Valley. In the Sugana Valley an Austrian +detachment which attempted to attack advanced Italian positions on +Monte Maso was put to flight, leaving arms and ammunition on the +ground. On the Julian front artillery fighting occurred, during which +the Austrians bombarded Goritz for a short time. + +In the Sugana Valley, after a violent bombardment, the Austrians at +dawn on February 7, 1917, attempted another attack on one of the +Italian positions on the right bank of the Brenta. It failed in its +inception, however, owing to the combined action of Italian infantry +and field batteries. A similar operation attempted by the Austrians on +the Freikofel had a like result. In the Posina Valley, at Astico, in +the Plezza sector, before Sagora, and in the vicinity of Boscomalo and +Hudilog, the activity of Italian reconnoitering patrols led to minor +skirmishes. + +During the next few days there were desultory artillery actions in the +Trentino. Italian batteries shelled Austrian positions on Monte Creino +and dispersed supply columns on the northern slopes of Monte Pasubio. + +On the Julian front the Austrian artillery showed increased activity. +In the area east of Goritz on the night of February 10, 1917, after +heavy artillery and trench mortar preparations, the Austrians in +considerable forces attacked the Italian positions on the western +slopes of Santa Caterina, northwest of San Marco, and east of +Vertoibizza, between Sober and the Goritz-Dornberg railway. After +heavy fighting the Austrians were repulsed nearly everywhere. However, +the Austrians succeeded in entering several portions of Italian +trenches, inflicted heavy losses upon the Italians and captured +fifteen officers and 650 men, ten machine guns, two mine throwers and +much other war material. + +This slight success gained by the Austrians resulted in an intense +bombardment and violent counterattacks on the part of the Italian +forces during February 11, 1917. The latter entirely reestablished +their lines and completely repulsed the Austrians, inflicting upon +them serious losses and taking more than a hundred prisoners, among +whom were a few officers. In the Trentino there was moderate +artillery activity. Detachments of Austrian ski runners attempted to +approach the Italian lines on the Pasubio. They were repulsed and +dispersed by a few well-directed shots. In the upper valleys of the +But and Fella there were continuous artillery duels. The Italians +reached the station of Tarvia with their fire. In the Vedel zone, +after throwing hand grenades, an Austrian detachment attacked. It was +speedily repulsed in violent hand-to-hand fighting. The detachment was +pursued and decimated by Italian fire. The few survivors were +captured. + +On the Trentino front the activity of the artillery increased again on +February 12, 1917, especially in the Tonale Pass, on the western +slopes of Monte Zugna, in the Lagarina Valley, in the upper +Travignola, and in the Cordevole Valley. In the Arsa Valley and on the +upper Coalba Torrent, on the right bank of the Brenta, Austrian raids +were repulsed. In the upper But Valley the artillery was active. +Italian batteries set fire to some Austrian barracks behind Val +Piccolo. + +The following day, February 13, 1917, Italian artillery fire again +reached and hit the station at Tarvia. In the zone north of Sober, in +the Goritz district, an Austrian attack was repulsed. In the Wippach +Valley lively artillery engagements continued. The Italians fired +numerous gas grenades. Italian attacks from the district of St. Peter +were repulsed. Near Tonale Pass Austrian troops surprised an Italian +point of support and took twenty-three Italian prisoners. + +Similar events of minor local importance occurred during the next few +days. Thus, on February 16, 1917, the Adige Valley was the scene of +considerable activity by the artillery. Italian batteries caused fires +to break out on the Austrian Zugna line. Minor encounters favorable to +the Italian forces were reported from various places. On the Julian +front there were the usual artillery actions. The railway station at +Santa Lucia di Tolmino was hit by Italian fire. + +Increased activity of reconnoitering parties led to small successful +encounters during February 17, 1917, at Cavento Adamello Pass, near +Forcellina di Montozzo, at Valcamonica in Vallaria, in the upper +Posina at Astico, and at Felizon in the Boite Valley, and in Frigido +Valley. In the upper But and on the Carso considerable artillery +actions were reported. During the next few days the Italian artillery +was again lively on several sectors of the mountain front. Tarvia was +repeatedly shelled. On February 19, 1917, Austrian patrols made +twenty-two prisoners as the result of an enterprise against Italian +positions east of Monte Zebio and north of Assio. + +During the following night Austrian detachments entered through +galleries dug under the snow one of the Italian trenches near Casere +Zebio Pastorile. After heavy hand-to-hand fighting they were repulsed +with considerable loss, leaving some prisoners in the hands of the +Italians. + +On February 20, 1917, the Austrians attempted attacks on the left bank +of the Maso Torreni and east of the Vertoibizza Torrent in the Frigido +Valley. There were desultory artillery actions. They became especially +intense in the south Loppio Valley in the upper Vanol, and on the +Carso. + +Other raids attempted by the Austrians during February 21 and 22, +1917, against the Italians on the Zugna in the Adige Valley, between +Strigne and Spera in the Sugana Valley, and on the slopes of Monte +Cadini in the upper Boite Valley, failed owing to firm resistance. In +the Col di Lana area an Austrian detachment by a sudden attack +occupied one of the Italian outposts. The detachment was at once +counterattacked and driven off. + +Again on February 23 and 24, 1917, the usual artillery actions took +place, particularly in the Sugana Valley, in the Plava sector, and +east of Goritz. Raids attempted by the Austrians against Italian +positions on the northern slopes of Col Bricon, in the Travignola +Valley, at Navagiust in the upper Degano, and on the slopes of Monte +Nero were repulsed. In the area southeast of Goritz Austrian +detachments, after a violent bombardment, attacked one of the advanced +Italian positions south of Vertoiba. They were driven back and +dispersed. + +During the last few days of February, 1917, the weather cleared up +somewhat and brought increased artillery activities. The artillery +duel was more intense in the zone east of Goritz. Some shells fell on +the town. At the confluence of the Vertoibizza and Frigido the +Italians repulsed Austrian detachments that were attempting to +approach their lines. On the northern slopes of San Marco an Italian +detachment made a surprise attack and penetrated into the Austrian +trenches, which were destroyed and the occupants driven out. + +The month of March, 1917, opened in the same manner in which February, +1917, had closed. There were intermittent artillery actions all along +the front. Italian batteries destroyed advanced Austrian posts on +Marmolado Mountain, near the upper Avisio River (Trentino front), +causing fires at various places. Detachments of Italian infantry on +March 2, 1917, successfully raided Austrian trenches at different +points, destroyed defensive works, and captured ammunition and other +war material. Austrian patrols made several similar raids. + +On March 4, 1917, artillery activity increased noticeably on the +Trentino front from the Travignola Valley to the upper Cordevole. In +the upper part of the San Pellegrino Valley, in the Avisio district, a +brilliant attack by Italian troops resulted in the occupation of a +strong position at an altitude of almost 9,000 feet on the Costabella +group. The Italians captured sixty-one men and one machine gun. On the +Julian front there were again intermittent artillery actions. Italian +batteries caused explosions and fires in the Austrian lines near +Castagnievizza on the middle Isonzo. Austrian detachments that +attempted to approach the Italian positions southeast of Vertoiba were +repulsed. + +During the night of March 9, 1917, Austrian detachments, in the midst +of a violent snowstorm, entered advanced positions on the southern +slopes of Cima di Bocche. They were driven out by a counterattack. +There were also the usual artillery duels. Italian batteries shelled +the station at Santa Lucia di Tolmino and the Austrian lines in the +Castaomavilla sector with good results. Not even minor engagements +were reported on the following day, March 10, 1917. But on March 11, +1917, an Austrian detachment, in the Concei-Ledro Valley, in the +Westerdak, after violent artillery and trench-mortar bombardment +against Bezzecoa and Mount View, attacked the Italian position in the +small valley of Vai, northeast of Lenzumo. The Austrians were repulsed +and a few prisoners were taken. On the remainder of the Trentino front +there were patrol encounters and increased artillery activity. In the +Travignola Valley of the Avisio, after trench-mortar preparation +against the southern slopes of Cima di Bocche, the Austrians attacked +toward Peneveggio. They were driven off. There were the usual +artillery actions along the Julian front. In the Castagnievizza +sector, on the Carso, the Italians surrounded an outpost and captured +the garrison, comprising nine men and one officer. + +On March 12, 1917, there was the usual artillery activity in the +Trentino. The Austrian batteries showed increased activity in the +Tolmino Basin on the Julian front. On the Carso an Italian detachment +raided the Austrian lines southwest of Lucati and destroyed the works. +The dugouts were burned and twenty-four prisoners and one machine gun +captured. An Austrian counterattack failed. + + + + +CHAPTER XCVI + +SPRING ON THE AUSTRO-ITALIAN FRONT + + +With the approach of spring, which of course comes late in the +mountainous regions in which the Austrians and Italians were fighting, +a quickening of all fighting activities became noticeable. Artillery +duels became more frequent and violent, scouting expeditions more +extensive and daring, and air reconnaissances an almost daily +occurrence. All this pointed to the coming of a new offensive. Rumors +were flying around almost as thickly as shells and bullets and they +credited equally both sides with making preparations. However, for +quite some time conditions continued very much in the same way in +which they had been running along during the winter. + +In the Monte Forno zone, on the Asiago Plateau, an Austrian detachment +during the night of March 15, 1917, made a surprise irruption into +one of the Italian trenches, but was promptly repulsed by a +counterattack. In the upper Cordevole Valley small patrol engagements +occurred on the slopes of Monte Sief. On the Julian front there were +lively actions by both the artillery and by small infantry +detachments. + +In the Adige Valley zone there was intense artillery activity on both +sides on March 16, 1917. Italian artillery bombarded the railway +station at Calliano and Austrian cantonments in the environs of Villa +Lagarina. Minor encounters of infantry occurred at Serravalle, Val +Lagarina, on the slopes of Monte Sief, in the upper Cordevole, near +the lower Studena, at Ponteblana Fella, and on the heights of Hill 126 +on the borders of the Carso Plateau. Artillery and mine-throwing +engagements on the Carso Plateau and in the Wippach Valley went on day +and night. On the Cima di Costabella a minor Italian attack was +repulsed. + +East of Monte Forno, at the north of the Asiago Plateau, detachments +of an Austrian regiment, advancing through snow tunnels, penetrated +into the Italian trenches, destroyed the dugouts, and inflicted +considerable losses upon the Italians. + +On March 17, 1917, after violent artillery preparation the Austrians +attacked Italian positions at the head of the small valley of Coalbo, +in the Sugana, but were driven off with heavy losses. On the preceding +night the Austrians destroyed, by heavy artillery fire, the defensive +works of the position gained by the Italians in the San Pellegrino +Valley on March 4, 1917, and succeeded in occupying the upper portion +of it. On the Julian front increased artillery and trench-mortar +fighting was reported. In the Plava sector the Italians repulsed an +Austrian detachment which attempted to raid positions near Pallioca. +East of Vertoiba an Italian patrol entered the Austrian lines, which +were set afire. Ammunition and war material were taken. In the +district of Kostanjevica an Italian attack preceded by strong +artillery fire was repulsed before the village. On the Tyrolean front +Italian long-range cannon shelled Arco and Villa Lagarina. + +On the whole front there was increased activity of the artillery on +March 18, 1917. It was most marked in the Lagarina Valley. Italian +field hospitals at Goritz and Ronchi were struck, causing a few +casualties. The Austrians attempted raids in the Giumella Valley and +in the Lucati sector, but were checked. + +On March 19 and 20, 1917, there was again considerable artillery +activity in the Trentino. On Costabella Massif, after a violent +bombardment with gas shells, the Austrians repeatedly attacked +advanced Italian positions. They were repulsed with heavy loss. The +usual artillery actions and patrol encounters were reported on the +Julian front. Two Italian patrols entered the enemy lines in the Goritz +area and destroyed them. + +Comparative inactivity was the rule during the following week. But +during the night of March 27, 1917, Austrian detachments in the Sugana +Valley attempted to approach Italian positions on the left bank of the +Maso Torrent west of Samone. They were driven off and dispersed by the +Italian fire. + +There was also considerable artillery activity on the Julian front. At +dusk the bombardment was extremely severe in the section between the +Frigido and Dosso Faiti. After destroying the Italian defenses the +Austrians launched two attacks in force, one against Hill 126, where +they succeeded in occupying some advanced trenches, and the other +toward Dosso Faiti, which was repulsed. + +Nothing of any importance occurred anywhere on the Austro-Italian +front during the last few days of March, 1917. + +April brought somewhat warmer weather, resulting in the beginning of +the spring thaws. This made military operations even more difficult +and brought about a very noticeable reduction in all activities on +both sides. Not until April 6, 1917, was there anything of any +importance whatsoever to report, and even then the operations were +only of minor importance. On that day there were desultory artillery +actions along the front, although the prevailing bad weather greatly +interfered with operations. + +During the afternoon the Austrians exploded a large mine in the +vicinity of advanced Italian positions on the second summit of Monte +Colbricon. The Italians suffered no serious damage and no casualties. +On the Carso a small detachment of Italian troops surprised and +occupied an advanced Austrian post north of Boscomalo, capturing the +entire garrison. + +On April 10, 1917, the artillery activity, normal on the remainder of +the front, was more lively west of Lake Garda and in the Lagarina +Valley. The Austrians having renewed their attack with medium-caliber +guns on Limone Garda, Italian batteries replied by shelling the +Austrian lines in the vicinity of Arco and Rovereto. On the Carso +Italian patrols pushed back advanced positions of the Austrians at +many points. + +During the night of April 11, 1917, the Austrians, after violent +artillery and trench-mortar preparations, succeeded momentarily in +entering one of the advanced Italian trenches to the east of Vertoiba, +but were immediately driven off on the arrival of Italian reserves. + +Artillery was again active on April 12, 1917, on the Trentino front +between the Adige and San Pellegrino Valleys. Italian medium-caliber +batteries employed effective bursts of fire against the railway +station of Calliano, where an unusual movement of trains had been +observed. On the Colbricon Massif, in the upper Cismon Valley, the +Austrians had been mining toward Italian advanced positions. During +the night the Italians exploded a countermine, which destroyed the +Austrian gallery. The edge of the crater was occupied by Italian +troops and the position established. On the Julian front artillery +duels were reported in the Plava area, to the east of the Vertoibizza +Torrent and in the northern sector of the Carso. The Italians repulsed +minor attacks in the vicinity of Della Tolmino, and against the +position which they had captured on April 7, 1917, north of Boscomalo. + +On April 13, 1917, the railway station at Calliano and moving trains +in the neighborhood were repeatedly hit, an ammunition depot was blown +up, and a fortified position destroyed in the Zugna area. On the +remainder of the Trentino front bad weather interfered with all +operations. + +On the Colbricon Massif, in the upper Cismon, Austrian detachments +attempted to attack the position which the Italians had captured on +the preceding night after the explosion of their mine. They were +repulsed with loss. On the Julian front artillery duels took place in +the Goritz Basin. + +Again on April 16, 1917, Italian artillery in the Lagarina Valley +renewed the bombardment of the station at Calliano, damaging the +building, putting trains and motor lorries to flight and dispersing +troops. Encounters among small groups of infantry were reported. + +In the upper part of the Aravionodo Valley in the midst of a heavy +storm an Austrian detachment made a surprise attack and penetrated one +of the advanced Italian positions west of Lake Bocete. They were +driven back to their own lines. On the Julian front the artillery +fighting was more intense in the vicinity of Goritz. + +Bad weather once more interfered seriously with all operations for a +few days. On April 20, 1917, however, there was again lively artillery +fire on the whole front. Italian batteries shelled Austrian camps in +the Lagarina Valley, dispersed Austrian detachments on the northern +slopes of Monte Pasubio and at various points on the Carnia front, and +checked Austrian fire in the Goritz area and on the Carso. + +For the next two days only artillery duels were reported. These were +continued on April 23, 1917, in the Sugana Valley, where extensive +movements of troops behind the Austrian lines were reported. In the +upper Cordevole Valley an Austrian detachment, which attempted to +penetrate one of the Italian positions in the Campo zone, was +counterattacked and dispersed, abandoning some arms and munitions. An +Austrian attack at Gabria, northwest of Tolmino, had a like result, +the Austrians suffering appreciable losses. + +On April 29, 1917, an Austrian detachment entered one of the advanced +Italian positions at Tonale Pass in the Camonica Valley. +Notwithstanding a violent barrage fire from the Austrian batteries, +Italian reenforcements at once reoccupied the position. The artillery +activity was continued in a desultory way. It was somewhat more +lively, however, in the Travignola Valley, at the head of the +Costeana stream, and in the Goritz area. Reconnaissance patrols were +active along the entire front. + +The first definite signs of an impending Italian drive on the Julian +front appeared on May 12, 1917. Along the whole front between Tolmino +and the sea the Italians were active with artillery and mine throwers. +The fire lasted through the entire night. It caused explosions and +fires in the Austrian lines and was continued with unabated vigor in +spite of prompt response from the Austrian guns during May 13, 1917. + + + + +CHAPTER XCVII + +THE ITALIAN DRIVE AGAINST TRIESTE + + +It now became quite evident that the Italians once more were ready to +attempt to reach their goal, Trieste. More and more violent became +their bombardment of the Austrian lines on the Isonzo front. On May +14, 1917, on the Julian front from Tolmino to the sea the destructive +fire of the Italian artillery, directed against strong Austrian +positions, reached great intensity and was vigorously answered by +numerous Austrian batteries of all calibers. Toward noon Italian +infantry made several raids on various points along the front, which +led to considerable progress in the Plava area, on the slopes of Monte +Cucco, and on the hills east of Goritz and Vertoibizza. At the same +time other Italian troops made a thrust in the northern sector of the +Carso and reached the wrecked Austrian lines east of Dosso Faiti, +capturing prisoners. The infantry actions continued during the entire +day, supported by artillery and trench mortars, which were keeping the +Austrian artillery in check. + +On the remainder of the front the Austrians attempted various attacks +in force on advanced positions northwest of Tolmino and on the Asiago +Plateau. All were unsuccessful and resulted in severe casualties to +the assailants. + +This offensive action, it now appeared, had really begun on May 12, +1917, when, in the morning, fire was opened along the whole line from +Tolmino to the sea. It was maintained with a regularly quickened +rhythm until the morning of May 14, 1917, when it was intensified to a +powerful drum fire. During the first part of the bombardment the +Austrians reacted but feebly. It seemed as though the Austrians had +been taken by surprise, but their reply was more vigorous on May 13, +1917, and extremely violent on the morning of the 14th. Austrian +batteries then opened a heavy curtain of fire, pouring thousands of +projectiles on the trenches in the Italian line. + +Undeterred by this tempest of fire, the Italian infantry, toward noon, +leaped over the parapets and dashed forward toward the objectives +previously assigned. These positions were almost all difficult ones, +and some of them hitherto had been regarded as impregnable; such, for +instance, as the heights on the left bank of the Isonzo, from Plava to +Salcano Pass. The steep slopes, covered with rocks and dotted here and +there with thick clumps of brush, constituted a formidable obstacle to +an infantry advance. Successive lines of trenches, prepared months +before above deep caverns, well supplied with defensive and offensive +material, were defended by seasoned troops and protected by batteries +placed so as to flank attacks with their fire. Notwithstanding these +conditions, the Italian infantry advanced. + +This vigorous offensive movement was continued by the Italian troops +on May 15, 1917. Ably supported by artillery, they succeeded in +establishing themselves on the steep and wooded heights along the +eastern bank of the Isonzo, north of Goritz, which had been +transformed by the Austrians into a formidably fortified defensive +position. On the left wing one of the Italian columns, after forcing a +passage across the river between Loga and Bombrez, captured the +last-named village and fortified itself there. + +In the center the heights of Hill 383, northeast of Plava, were +captured, while the Florence infantry brigade and the Vaellino +brigade, after taking by assault the villages of Zagora and Zagomila, +which were infested by machine guns, carried the crests of Monte Cucco +and Monte Vodice with great dash. + +On the right wing the other Italian columns made considerable progress +on the steep slopes of Monte Santo. Fierce Austrian counterattacks, +prepared and supported by a bombardment of exceptional violence, were +all repulsed. + +In the area east of Goritz the Messina brigade conquered Hill 174 +north of Tivoli, which was strongly fortified and stubbornly held by +the Austrians, whose insistent counterattacks were beaten back. + +The city of Goritz suffered a heavy bombardment from Austrian +batteries, and some buildings were seriously damaged. + +On the remainder of the front down to the sea there were lively +artillery actions. The Austrian rear lines were again effectively +bombed by air squadrons and during the night by airships. + +In the first two days of their advance the Italians made 3,375 +prisoners, among them ninety-eight officers. They also captured a +mountain battery, about thirty machine guns, and much war material, +including arms and ammunition. + +On the following day, May 16, 1917, the Austrian resistance stiffened +somewhat. In spite of this the Italian advance continued. Fighting in +the zone between Monte Cucco and Vodice was bitter and lengthy. +Considerable Austrian masses, supported by the fire of numerous +batteries, were repeatedly launched against Italy's new positions. +Each time they were repulsed, and the Fochux bastion of Monte Cucco +from Height 611 to Height 525 remained firmly in Italian hands. +Moreover, the Italians made appreciable progress toward the important +summit of Height 652, on the Vodice. + +In the zone east of Goritz Austrian counterattacks, directed +particularly against the summit of Height 174 and to the east of the +Vertoibizza Torrent, broke down under Italian fire. Afterward Italian +infantry, assuming a counteroffensive, occupied the important height +to the south of Grazigna after a desperate conflict. + +On the Carso Plateau the Austrians, with the evident object of +lessening the Italian pressure in the region of Goritz, attempted a +powerful effort against positions at Monte Vuocgnacco and Monte Faiti, +on the northern sector of the plateau. Successive waves of Austrian +infantry were broken down by well-directed fire, or rolled back in +disorder after having suffered serious losses. + +On the whole front from Tolmino to the sea there were continuous +actions by artillery of all calibers. The Austrian artillery continued +its work of devastation on the city of Goritz. + +On May 17, 1917, the Italian troops were engaged in fortifying the +important position captured east of Goritz and organizing +communication with the rear. The Austrians attempted but failed to +hinder the work of the Italian forces. + +During the night the Austrians under cover of darkness attempted +surprise attacks upon positions on the bridgehead of Bodrez (on the +Isonzo seven miles southwest of Tolmino), on the Vodice, Hill 592, and +at Grazigna. In the morning the Austrians brought up strong +reenforcements and renewed their attack, which was particularly +violent in the Vodice region and south of Grazigna. Shattered by +Italian battery fire the Austrian masses were counterattacked and +repulsed by infantry, who at several points surrounded their +assailants and forced them to surrender. + +The number of prisoners by now had increased to 6,432, including 143 +officers. + +All along the front from Tolmino to the sea the artillery continued +very active. Goritz again suffered very heavy damage. + +Surprise attacks during the night of May 17, 1917, on Italian +positions on the heights of Hill 592 on Monte Vodice were repulsed. In +the morning of May 18, 1917, Italian troops opened a vigorous attack, +with the object of capturing the heights of Hill 652 on Monte Vodice, +the key to the Austrian defenses north of Monte Santo. The stubborn +resistance of the Austrians, supported by numerous batteries of all +calibers, which kept up a continuous fire from the rear, rendered the +action long and severe. Advancing from rock to rock, expelling the +Austrians from trench and cavern, destroying their machine guns, +Italian infantry by evening succeeded in reaching the crest of the +long-contested heights and maintaining the position against the +concentrated fire of Austrian batteries. + +With the capture of the ridge between Monte Cucco and Monte Vodice, +the task of diverting the Austrian attention, which was assigned to +the troops in the sector between Bodrez and Loga, was completed, and +they withdrew to the right bank of the Isonzo without molestation from +the Austrians. + +In the region east of Goritz the Italians maintained all their +positions against persistent attacks, which were particularly violent +south of Grazigna and on the heights of Hill 174 south of Tivoli. + +On the remainder of the front incessant artillery duels occurred. The +Austrian fire was especially violent against Goritz and the +surrounding villages. + +In the area north of Goritz the Italian troops on May 19, 1917, +extended their positions on Hill 652, on the Vodice (a ridge which +links captured Monte Cucco with Monte Santo, the immediate Italian +objective in this region). Dense masses of Austrians preceded by a +heavy barrage fire counterattacked in an attempt to stop the Italian +progress, but each time were driven back with heavy loss. In the +evening the Austrians withdrew their infantry, and concentrated a +strong artillery fire on the lost positions. These the Italians firmly +maintained. They captured two 4-inch guns, two 6-inch mortars, trench +mortars and machine guns, and a large quantity of arms and ammunition. +In the area east of Goritz Italian troops broke into the Austrian line +and took some prisoners. On the Trentino front the Austrians attempted +a diversion by a heavy bombardment and by local infantry attacks +without success. + +These attempts were resumed on May 20, 1917, in the Trentino, in the +Campo area, in the Daone Valley, southeast of Lake Loppio, at Rio +Cameras, in the Adige Valley, and on the Maso Torrent line in the +Sugana Valley. Late in the evening masses of Austrian troops +vigorously assaulted Italian positions on the Pasubio, west of Monte +Dente. After heavy hand-to-hand fighting, the Austrians, suffering +severe loss, were completely driven back all along the line of attack. +On the Julian front, Austrian attacks on the northern slopes of San +Marco, east of Goritz, between Monte Vuocgnacco and Monte Faiti, and +in the neighborhood of Hill 268 were repulsed. The Italians took Hill +363, between Palieva and Britof, east of Plava, and extended their +positions still more on the Vodice. + +On May 21, 1917, the Austrians on the Trentino front, notwithstanding +the repulse so far suffered, persisted in making desultory and +fruitless attempts to divert the Italians from their main objectives. +Raids were made in force against the advanced Italian line at Caventro +Pass, Adamello, Pluberga Bridge, in the Chiesa, and in the Giumella +Valley, at Rio Pionale. All were repulsed. Between Lake Garda and the +Adige the Austrians, after an intense and prolonged bombardment with +artillery of all calibers, attacked positions on Monte Dosso Alto, +southwest of Loppio Lake, and on Monte Zugna. They were driven back +with heavy loss. Other local attacks which were attempted in the +Posina Valley, on the Asiago Plateau, and in Carnia failed. On the +Julian front, in the sector north of Goritz, the artillery duel, +already spirited, became more intense, but was not followed by +infantry action. The position which the Italians captured on Hill 363, +east of Plava, was consolidated. + +East of Goritz the Austrians attempted repeatedly to recapture Hill +126, south of Grazigna, but failed on account of the effective action +of Italian artillery reserves. + +A slight lull set in on May 22, 1917, except that the Italians opened +a very heavy fire against the Austrian positions on the Carso Plateau. + +This bombardment continued on May 23, 1917, and after ten hours of +violent bombardment, the troops of the Third Italian Army assaulted +and broke through the well-organized Austrian lines from +Castagnievizza to the sea. While they were heavily engaging the +Austrians on the left, other troops, after carrying trenches in the +center and on the right, occupied part of the area south of the +Castagnievizza-Boscomalo road, passed Boscomalo and captured Jamiano, +the important and strongly fortified heights of Hill 92 east of +Pietrarossa, Hill 77, Hill 58, Bagni, and Hill 21. The Austrians, at +first surprised by the sudden onslaught, toward evening +counterattacked in force, supported by an exceptionally heavy +bombardment. They were repulsed with severe loss. + +During the day the Italians captured more than 9,000 prisoners, +including more than 300 officers. In the Goritz area Italian troops +repulsed heavy attacks, captured a strong point on the northwest +slopes of San Marco, and after severe fighting made considerable gains +in the Monte Santo and Vodice areas. + +It was also announced officially that ten British batteries assisted +in the fighting of these days. + +On May 24, 1917, the battle continued to rage along the Julian front +from the sea to Plava. Italian troops, advancing over very difficult +and intricate ground, fought their way, yard by yard, through a deep +labyrinth of fortifications stubbornly defended by strong, +well-trained forces. + +In the sector between the sea and the Jamiano-Brestovizza road large +Italian forces, supported by some field batteries which advanced with +the infantry, drove the Austrians back as far as Foce Timavo, Flondar, +and Hill 31, a line south of Jamiano. + +North of Jamiano, after heavy fighting, the strongly fortified heights +Hills 235 and 247 were carried and the Italian positions extended as +far as the outlying houses of Versic. + +The Austrians attempted to lighten the Italian pressure on the +southern Carso by violent counterattacks from Castagnievizza to +Frigido. All these efforts failed. East of Goritz persistent Austrian +raids were repulsed during the night on Hill 174, north of Tivoli, and +at Grazigna. In the region of Monte Cucco and Monte Vodice the +Austrians vainly made every effort to retake captured positions. An +Austrian column attempted a surprise attack against Italian lines east +of Hill 652 on the Vodice. It was counterattacked and driven back to +its point of departure, which was then carried and held by Italian +troops. East of Plava the Italians extended their occupation on Hill +363. + + + + +CHAPTER XCVIII + +THE HEIGHT OF THE ITALIAN OFFENSIVE + + +The struggle which had now been raging for almost a fortnight +continued with unabated strength. Although the Austrians put up a most +gallant and determined resistance, they could not keep back the +Italian advance, which apparently was made with superior infantry and +artillery forces. + +On May 25, 1917, heavy fighting continued on the Carso. After intense +artillery preparation lasting until 4 o'clock in the afternoon, +infantry of the Seventh Italian Army Corps vigorously attacked and +carried the network of trenches extending from the mouth of the Timavo +River to a point east of Jamiano and took possession of the heights +between Flondar and Medeazza. + +Farther north, after severe hand-to-hand fighting, the Austrian +defenses at the labyrinth east of Boscomalo were broken and Hill 220, +southeast of the village, and trenches around Castagnievizza were +taken. The operations on the northern sector of the Carso were +confined almost exclusively to artillery actions. The Italians +extended their positions on Hill 174, north of Tivoli. + +The fighting was very heavy in the Vodice area, where the Austrians +made every effort to dislodge the Italians from the important point +Hill 652, which, however, remained firmly in Italian possession. After +violent artillery preparation dense masses of Austrian troops +attempted repeatedly and stubbornly to attack the Italian lines. + +In the Plava zone the Italians made farther progress on the slopes of +Hill 363 in the Rogat Valley. The total number of prisoners captured +so far on the Julian front from May 14 to 25, 1917, was 22,419, +including 487 officers. + +It was now the fourth day of this new Carso battle. Still the Italians +extended their positions. On May 26, 1917, artillery action all along +the line continued fiercely from sunrise until evening. In the +afternoon between the coast and Jamiano Italian infantry by a +brilliant assault succeeded in reaching a point beyond the railway +from Monfalcone to Duino, northeast of San Giovanni, and carried the +strongly fortified Hill 145 southwest of Medeazza. They established +themselves a few hundred yards from the village. + +North of Jamiano violent attacks and counterattacks followed in +succession all day, supported by artillery fire. Castagnievizza also +was reached and passed, but the persistent and concentrated shelling +by a number of Austrian batteries compelled the Italians to evacuate +ground there. The latter maintained a hold on the western boundary, +however. + +In the area east and north of Goritz the artillery action was intense. +The Italians shelled the basins of Cargaro and Britof, in which the +Austrian supplies centered. + +In the Plava sector Italian infantry carried the heights at the head +of the Palieva Valley, thus connecting their Monte Cucco lines with +those on Hill 363. + +Weather conditions on May 27, 1917, slowed down the fighting +everywhere, but did not prevent the Italians from extending their +various successes slightly in all directions. + +On May 28, 1917, however, the Isonzo battle was resumed for the third +time. A new and large Italian attacking wave was directed against the +heights of Vodice and Monte Santo. An Italian attack launched at noon +against the north slope was preceded by powerful artillery fire. It +extended along the entire sector. + +During the afternoon it resulted many times in severe hand-to-hand +fighting, which also raged during the night. Especially violent +fighting occurred in the region of Hill 652. The entire extent of the +Austrian front, however, now offered iron resistance to all Italian +efforts. + +South of Jamiano the Italians attacked Austrian positions four times, +losing, besides heavy casualties, fifteen officers and 800 men as +prisoners. The number of prisoners brought in by the Austrians since +the commencement of the Isonzo battle amounted to 14,500 men, +according to their official statements. + +The Italian offensive now began to come to a stop. The hard fighting +naturally had exhausted the Italian forces and munitions and by now +strong Austrian reserves had come up and made the resistance +sufficiently strong to stop further advances. On May 29 and 30, 1917, +artillery was not very active on the Trentino front and in the Carnia, +but was very heavy on the Julian front, particularly in the sector +from Monte Cucco to Vodice and east of Goritz. + +On May 31, 1917, considerable artillery activity developed in the +northern sector of the Carso and on the line from Goritz to Plava. In +the Vodice area numerous massed troops of the Austrians made a violent +attack upon Italian positions on Hills 592 and 652. The attack, +prepared by intense artillery fire and carried out with stubbornness, +failed. + +On June 1 and 2, 1917, the activity on the whole front was confined +for the most part to the artillery, which was especially active +against Italian positions east of Plava, in the Vodice area, and in +the northern sector of the Carso. + +On the Carso, after several days of violent artillery preparation, the +Austrians attacked in mass on June 4, 1917, from Dosso Faiti to the +sea. Although the Dosso Faiti positions were completely destroyed, +they were strenuously defended by the Italians. The latter also +resisted determined attacks from Castagnievizza to the ridges north of +Jamiano and by counterattacks and heavy hand-to-hand fighting +succeeded in maintaining their positions and even in occupying new +advanced positions near Castagnievizza and Versic. + +South of Jamiano, while maintaining their wing positions, the Italians +were obliged to rectify somewhat the center of their new line to avoid +the Austrian fire, at the same time carrying out frequent +counterattacks, effectively stopping the Austrians. + +It apparently was now the Austrians' turn. The Italians began to +report slight withdrawals. On June 5, 1917, lively artillery duels +continued on the front from the Monte Nero area to the heights of +Goritz. On the Carso the violent shelling of Italian positions from +Versic to Jamiano was resumed, provoking an energetic reply from their +batteries. + +South of Jamiano the fighting was less intense. The new Italian line +fronting Flondar, however, was withdrawn slightly to a position more +advantageous tactically. + +The struggle continued during the next few days, especially near +Jamiano. Positions changed hands frequently, but the advantage now +seemed to be slightly with the Austrians, though neither side +registered any extensive successes. The fighting gradually slowed down +to the type which had been employed previous to the Italian drive. +Most of the positions which the Italian forces had gained, remained, +however, securely in their hands. + +On June 10, 1917, there was a slight revival of more extensive +operations, especially in the Trentino. Throughout the whole of the +mountain zone of operations there was more fighting than usual, +especially between the Adige and Brenta Rivers. In the night the +Austrians were driven back and followed up at the Tonale Pass, in the +upper Chiesa Valley, on the slope of Dosso Casino, and in the Posina +Valley. + +On the Asiago Plateau Italian artillery destroyed the Austrians' +complex system of defenses at several points. Italian infantry, +attacking during a violent storm in the direction of Monte Zebio and +Monte Forno, carried the pass of Agnello, and captured nearly the +whole of Monte Ortigara, 6,924 feet high, east of Cima Undice. + +On the remainder of the front there were desultory concentrations of +fire on the part of the Austrian batteries, to which the Italians +replied. On the Carso attacks on the Italian line south of +Castagnievizza were completely repelled. + +During the balance of June, 1917, only isolated actions of importance +occurred. On June 15, 1917, east of the Adamello Massif in the eastern +Trentino, Italian Alpine detachments and skiers advanced over very +difficult ground, notwithstanding furious resistance, and attacked the +strongly fortified positions of Corno Cavento, at an altitude of 3,400 +meters. The position was carried. The Italians captured what was left +of the enemy garrison and two 75-mm. guns, one trench mortar, four +machine guns, and a large quantity of supplies and ammunition. On the +front of the Asiago Plateau the Austrian artillery continued to show +great activity. Patrol attacks on Italian positions on Monte Zebio +were repulsed. + +On the Ortigara at dawn Italian positions on Hill 2,101 were again +attacked with extreme violence. From 2.30 o'clock onward the +Austrians, continually reenforced, redoubled their efforts, but they +all failed. + +In the San Pellegrino Valley an attack upon advanced Italian positions +on the massif of Costabella was repulsed. + +On the southern slopes of Monte Rombon the Italians occupied by +surprise advanced posts, and maintained the same in spite of the +concentrated fire of the Austrians. + +On the Julian front the artillery fire was especially noticeable in +the Tolmino sector, and on the heights northeast of Goritz. Columns of +Austrian motor lorries were dispersed, and troops assembled east of +Castagnievizza were shelled. + +Again on June 20, 1917, the Italians renewed their activity in the +Trentino. After twenty-four hours of artillery preparation, an Italian +infantry attack on Sette Communi Plateau began early in the morning, +and was carried out with the greatest display of effort, especially on +the northern wing in the region of Monte Forno and the frontier ridge. +All the assaults failed. A local success which gave the Italians a +gain of about 100 yards was nullified by a counterattack. Nothing of +importance occurred on the Isonzo front. + +On the Asiago Plateau fighting was resumed on June 25, 1917. All night +Italian troops opposed the desperate efforts of the Austrians, who, +notwithstanding heavy losses, were attempting to retake the positions +recently lost in the Monte Ortigara sector. Attacks and counterattacks +were continuously made on the contested positions. Diversions at the +same time by the Austrians on other portions of the front were +completely stopped. + +On June 28, 1917, the artillery struggle was fairly active on the +whole front. In answer to the fire directed by the Austrians against +Ala the Italians repeatedly shelled the railway station at Calliano. +On the Asiago Plateau the Austrians concentrated a violent fire on +Agnello Pass. Near Santa Lucia, in the Tolmino region, traffic was +interrupted repeatedly by Italian fire. + +Throughout the last few days of June, 1917, and all of July, 1917, +only minor operations were undertaken by either side. Artillery +activity varied in extent and frequency from day to day, and so did +the operations of outposts and patrols. In a general way, however, +there was no readjustment of the positions which had been established +by the latest Italian drive. + +On March 10, 1917, Austria-Hungary issued a proclamation, ostensibly +to the Albanians, but obviously addressed to the whole world, that +Albania was to enjoy local autonomy under an Austro-Hungarian +protectorate. In June, 1917, Italy responded with a similar +proclamation, granting Albania independence under Italian protection. +At the time the announcement was made a semiofficial interview was +granted to the representative of a London newspaper by Deputy Eugenio +Chiesa, who had recently returned from a tour of inspection of the +parts of Albania held by the Italian army: + +"The Italian occupation in Albania and northern Epirus," he said, +"extends well into the Greek kingdom. Not only have the Italians +occupied Valona and its hinterland, but they have passed a long way to +the south of the boundary between Greece proper and northern Epirus at +Cape Stylos and have extended in a northern direction as far as the +river Kalamas, opposite the south end of Corfu, which was intended by +the thirteenth protocol of the Berlin Congress of 1878, and by the +Berlin Conference of 1880, to have been the northwestern frontier of +Greece, but which, since the last Balkan wars, has been well within +the enlarged northwestern boundary. I am opposed," continued Signor +Chiesa, "to the permanent occupation of these places, nor do I believe +the Italian Government intends to retain them. I consider as sincere +the manifesto of the commandant of Valona, but Valona Kanina, north +of Valona, the surrounding districts, and the isle of Saseto must +remain Italian, not only for strategic but for sanitary reasons, owing +to the necessity of draining the pestilential marshes which affect the +health of Valona. Venizelos, with whom I spoke at Saloniki, frankly +recognized this occupation of Valona, Saseto, and the territory about +Valona. The Italians have already constructed over 400 kilometers of +roads and opened over 125 schools, where both Italian and Albanian are +taught.... Corfu cannot remain Italian, it ought to be Greek." + + + + +PART XII--WAR ON THE SEA + + + + +CHAPTER XCIX + +SUBMARINE WARFARE + + +The six months' period from February 1, 1917, to August 1, 1917, +covers a more intensified submarine activity than any other period +since the beginning of the war. It was on February 1, 1917, that the +so-called unrestricted submarine warfare was initiated by the German +Government. As was to be expected, losses resulting from this new type +of "frightfulness" quickly became very large. As time went on, +however, it became evident that the Germans were unable to maintain +their submarine sinkings on an equal basis at all times. Losses varied +greatly from week to week. However, even at that they soon became so +severe as to cause grave difficulties to the countries fighting +against Germany and her allies, which before long were joined by the +United States as a result of Germany's new submarine policy. + +Difficult as it had been in the past to compile an accurate account of +submarine losses, such an attempt became even more impossible now. +All the governments involved soon followed Great Britain's lead and +stopped the publication of detailed data concerning their respective +maritime losses. Figures, it is true, were published, at least by +England, at regular intervals. But they were far from complete or +accurate. It is now next to impossible to give even an approximate +idea of the total losses. + +The following data come as close to being correct as a careful +consultation of official statements permits. They must, however, not +be considered complete. + +Up to the date of writing the United States had not published any +official figures covering the losses incurred by the American merchant +marine. From newspaper and other accounts, however, it appears that +between February 1, 1917, and July 16, 1917, from thirty to forty +American ships of more than 100,000 tons were lost. The first of these +was the steamer _Housatonic_, sunk on February 3, 1917, near the +Scilly Islands without loss of life. The sailing schooner _Lyman M. +Law_ was sent to the bottom of the sea on February 12, 1917, off the +coast of Sardinia in the Mediterranean, also without loss of life. +Next on the list was the steamer _Algonquin_, sunk on March 12, 1917, +near the Scilly Islands without loss of life. Four days later, March +16, 1917, the steamer _Vigilancia_ went down with a loss of fifteen +men. On March 17, 1917, the _City of Memphis_ was torpedoed, and on +March 18, 1917, the _Illinois_, both without loss of life. The sinking +of the steamer _Healdon_ in the North Sea on March 21, 1917, however, +brought about the loss of twenty-one members of her crew, seven of +whom were Americans. On April 2, 1917, the sinking of the armed +steamer _Aztec_ was reported. With her twenty-eight of the crew, +including a U. S. N. boat-swain's mate, perished. The _Missourian_ +went down on April 4, 1917, and the _Seward_ on April 7, 1917, both in +the Mediterranean. On April 24, 1917, the sinking of the schooner +_Percy Birdsall_ was reported. The crew was rescued. Later that month +another small schooner, the _Woodward Abrahams_ was sent to the +bottom. On April 28, 1917, off the north coast of Ireland, the oil +tanker _Vacuum_ was sunk. As a result of exposure in lifeboats, +seventeen of her crew, including some naval gunners, died. On May 2, +1917, the loss of the steamer _Rockingham_ was reported, two of her +crew being lost. During May, 1917, the following American-owned boats +were sunk: _Hilonian_, _Harpagus_, _Dirigo_, _Frances M._, _Barbara_, +and _Margaret B. Rouss_. Between June 12, 1917, and July 16, 1917, the +American merchant marine lost, besides some small boats, the following +eight vessels with a total tonnage of over 38,000: _Hansau_, +_Haverford_, _Bay State_, _Moreni_, _Petrolite_, _Massapequa_, +_Orleans_, and _Grace_. + +The following list shows the losses of the British merchant marine +during the period from February 25, 1917, to July 22, 1917. The +figures are those published weekly by the British admiralty. During +the month of February, 1917, 110 British ships of varying size and of +a total tonnage of 316,204 were sunk: + + Week Ending Over Under Fishing + 1,600 Tons 1,600 Tons Vessels + + March 4 14 9 3 + March 11 13 4 3 + March 18 16 8 21 + March 25 18 17 10 + April 1 18 13 3 + April 8 17 2 6 + April 15 19 9 12 + April 22 40 15 9 + April 29 38 13 8 + May 6 24 22 16 + May 13 18 5 3 + May 20 18 9 3 + May 27 18 1 2 + June 3 15 3 5 + June 10 22 10 6 + June 17 27 5 0 + June 24 21 7 0 + July 1 15 5 11 + July 8 14 3 7 + July 15 14 4 8 + July 22 21 3 1 + July 29 18 3 0 + +These figures show that in twenty-two weeks England lost 438 vessels +over 1,600 tons, 170 vessels under 1,600 tons, and 187 fishing +vessels. The average tonnage of vessels over 1,600 tons has been said +to be 4,500. On that basis the loss in this class alone would amount +to about 2,000,000 tons. If we add to this the total loss during +February, 1917, and an approximate figure representing the loss of +vessels under 1,600 tons and of fishing vessels, it is safe to assume +that the total loss suffered by the British merchant marine between +February 1, 1917, and July 29, 1917, was about 2,650,000 tons. + +On June 30, 1917, the German admiralty claimed that since the +beginning of the war more than 5,500,000 tons of shipping available +for Great Britain's supply of food, munitions, and materials had been +destroyed up to June 1, 1917, and that, on that date, there was +available for this purpose from all sources only about 4,500,000 tons +which, it was claimed, could be destroyed at the rate of from 800,000 +to 1,000,000 tons a month. + +Of the other Allied countries only France supplied from time to time +definite figures. During February, March, and April, 1917, seventeen +French vessels were sunk while nine others were attacked, but escaped. +During May, 1917, twenty-eight French vessels were attacked. Of these +eighteen escaped and ten were sunk. In June, 1917, fourteen French +boats were sunk and twenty escaped. During the early part of July, +1917, two more French steamers were reported sunk having a tonnage of +almost 10,000. On June 22, 1917, a debate in the French Chamber of +Deputies developed the fact that the French merchant fleet was +2,500,000 tons at the beginning of the war and since that time had +lost 560,000 tons, 460,000 by acts of war. During the same period +680,000 tons had been built or bought and another 140,000 was on the +stocks, so that the fleet was actually greater now than before the +war. + +The grand total of submarine operations during February, 1917, +according to figures compiled by the British admiralty, showed the +following results: + +Number of ships sunk--British, 110; American, 2; other belligerents, +20; neutrals, 51. + +Total tonnage destroyed--British, 316,204; American, 3,322; other +belligerents, 44,272; neutrals, 93,019. Grand total February 1-28, +456,817 tons. + +On the other hand the German admiralty made the following official +announcement on March 19, 1917; "In February 368 merchant ships of an +aggregate gross tonnage of 781,500 were lost by the war measures of +the Central Powers. Among them were 292 hostile ships, with an +aggregate gross tonnage of 644,000 and seventy-six neutral ships of an +aggregate gross tonnage of 137,500." + +The State Department in Washington on April 10, 1917, gave out the +following official figures regarding neutral losses inflicted by +submarines: + +"Information has been received by the department that since the +beginning of the war, including April 3, a total of 686 vessels have +been sunk by German submarines, as follows: Norwegian, 410; Swedish, +111; Dutch, 61; Greek, 50; Spanish, 33; American, 10; Peruvian, 1; +Argentine, 1; total, 686. Neutral vessels attacked and escaped: +Norwegian, 32; Swedish, 9; Danish, 5; Greek, 8; Spanish, 2; Argentine, +1; Brazilian, 1; American, 8; total, 66." + +On May 8, 1917, a debate in the Reichstag brought out the fact that +the German admiralty claimed to have sunk during February, March, and +April, 1917, 1,325 vessels of all sizes and nationalities with a +tonnage of 2,800,000. + +Denmark on May 22, 1917, announced that since the beginning of the war +150 ships had been lost and 210 Danish seamen had perished. + +On May 28, 1917, the Athens newspaper "Patris" printed a list of 102 +Greek ships of a total tonnage of 300,000 which had been sunk by +submarines, leaving 149 Greek ships with a displacement of 500,000 +tons still afloat. + +Norway during March, 1917, lost sixty-four ships, during April, 1917, +seventy-five; and during May, 1917, forty-nine. + +On June 25, 1917, it was announced that from the beginning of the war +up to that date Norway had lost 572 vessels of 815,000 tons, 431 of +these of 680,000 tons being steamers. This made Norway by far the +heaviest loser among all neutrals. + +From all various sources it appears that the total tonnage sunk during +the six months from February 1, 1917, to July 31, 1917, amounted to +somewhere between five and six millions. + +Of course the submarine fleet of the Central Powers suffered severe +losses during the six months' period, February to August, 1917. The +means employed to put submarines out of business were manifold. Large +flotillas of small but swift patrol boats, squadrons of destroyers, +guns mounted forward and aft on merchantmen, dragnets, mine fields, +and last but not least aeroplanes, all contributed their share toward +the combating of submarine warfare. Just how many submarines have been +sunk or captured is not even approximately known. From good +authorities, however, it appears that the Germans up to now have been +able to put new submarines into commission at a greater rate than the +Allies have been able to maintain in destroying them. + +Only one case of a submarine fighting and destroying another submarine +became known. This occurred on June 2, 1917, when a French submarine +sank a hostile submarine just as it was sailing out of the harbor of +Cattaro on the Dalmatian (Austro-Hungarian) coast of the Adriatic Sea. + + + + +CHAPTER C + +NAVAL OPERATIONS + + +The principal feature of naval warfare, aside from that conducted by +and against submarines, was the absence of major engagements. Such +engagements as occurred were of a minor nature and confined to +meetings between patrol units or to local raids. + +On February 25, 1917, German destroyers bombarded Broadstairs and +Margate on the English coast. Two deaths but no material damage +resulted. + +About the same time it was announced that on February 15, 1917, a +British cruiser had fought a successful engagement against three +German raiders off the coast of Brazil, damaging two of them. The +third escaped. + +Not until March 22, 1917, did the German Government announce that the +raider _Moewe_ had returned to her home port from a very successful +second raiding trip in the Atlantic Ocean which had yielded +twenty-seven captured vessels, most of which of course had been sunk. + +Still another German raider was heard of on March 30, 1917. On that +day the French bark _Cambronne_ arrived at the Brazilian port of Rio +de Janeiro, having on board the crews of eleven vessels which had been +captured and sunk by the raider. The latter was said to have been the +former American bark _Pass of Balmaha_ which had been captured by the +Germans in August, 1915, and at that time had been taken into +Cuxhaven. She had been renamed _Seeadler_ and was a three-master of +about 2,800 tons, square rigged, with a speed of about twelve knots, +and was equipped with a powerful wireless plant. Her armament was said +to have consisted of two 105-mm. guns and sixteen machine guns, and a +crew of sixty-four men. The boat apparently had left Germany in +December, 1916, escorted by a submarine, and had successfully evaded +the British patrol, not mounting her guns until she had run the +British blockade. The eleven ships known to have been sunk by the +_Seeadler_ were: + +_Antonin_, French sailing vessel, 3,071 tons, owned in Dunkirk; 31 men +on board. + +_British Yeoman_, British sailing vessel, 1,963 tons, owned in +Victoria, B. C.; 21 men. + +_Buenos Ayres_, Italian sailing vessel, 1,811 tons, owned in Naples; +21 men. + +_Charles Gounod_, French sailing vessel, 2,199 tons, owned in Nantes; +24 men. + +_Dupleix_, French sailing vessel, 2,206 tons, owned in Nantes; 22 men. + +_Gladys Royle_, British steamship, 3,268 tons, owned in Sunderland; 26 +men. + +_Horngarth_, British steamship, 3,609 tons gross, owned in Cardiff; +33 men. + +_Lady Island_ (or _Landy Island_), 4,500 tons; 25 men. + +_La Rochefoucauld_, French sailing vessel, 2,200 tons; owned in +Nantes; 24 men. + +_Perce_, British schooner, 364 tons, owned in Halifax; 6 men, 1 woman. + +_Pinmore_, British sailing vessel, 2,431 tons, owned in Greenock, 29 +men. + +_The Cambronne_, which on her arrival at Rio de Janeiro had on board +263 men, had been brought up by the raider on March 7, 1917, in the +Atlantic Ocean in latitude 21 south, longitude 7 west, or almost on a +straight line with Rio, but twenty-two days east. + +During March, 1917, the British Government announced an extension of +the danger area in the North Sea, which affected chiefly the protected +area off Holland and Denmark. On March 28, 1917, German warships, +cruising off the south coast of England, attacked and sank the British +patrol boat _Mascot_. + +On April 8, 1917, an engagement occurred between British boats and +German destroyers off Zeebrugge on the Belgian coast. One of the +German destroyers was sunk and another was seriously damaged. + +Various raids were carried out during April, 1917, against the English +coast. On April 21, 1917, six German destroyers attempted an attack on +Dover. Two of them were sunk by British destroyers. The Germans also +claimed to have sunk two British patrol boats. Six days later, on +April 27, 1917, another German destroyer squadron attacked Ramsgate, +killing two civilians before they were driven off by land batteries. +During another engagement a few days later between British light +cruisers and destroyers and eleven German destroyers off Holland, one +German boat was damaged. + +Both Calais and Dunkirk were bombarded by German destroyers. In the +former town some civilians were killed. As a result of the attack on +Dunkirk one French destroyer was sunk. + +On May 10, 1917, a squadron of eleven German destroyers about to sail +out of Zeebrugge was attacked by a British naval force and forced back +into the former Belgian harbor, then serving as a German naval base. +Two days later, May 12, 1917, the same British force assisted by an +air squadron successfully attacked Zeebrugge, destroying two submarine +sheds and killing sixty-three persons. + +During May, 1917, it was also announced that American warships had +arrived safely in British waters and had begun patrol operations in +the North Sea. At about the same time Japanese warships made their +appearance at Marseilles to assist in the war against submarines +operating off the French coast. + +On May 15, 1917, Austrian light cruisers operating in the Adriatic +Sea, sunk fourteen British mine sweepers, torpedoed the British light +cruiser _Dartmouth_, and sunk an Italian destroyer. + +An engagement occurred between a French and a German torpedo-boat +flotilla on May 20, 1917, during which one of the French boats was +damaged. A few days later British warships bombarded Ostend and +Zeebrugge. Six German destroyers engaged in a running fight with a +British squadron, as a result of which one German destroyer was sunk +and another damaged. On May 29, 1917, a Russian squadron, operating +along the Anatolian (south) coast of the Black Sea bombarded four +Turkish-Armenian ports and destroyed 147 sailing vessels carrying +supplies. + +Thirteen Bulgarian ships successfully bombarded the Greek port of +Kavala, then occupied by Allied forces. + +Fort Saliff on the Red Sea was captured by British warships. Fort +Saliff is a Turkish fortress on the Arabian coast of the Red Sea. + +Nothing of importance happened during June, 1917. + +Early in July, 1917, a German submarine bombarded Ponta Delgada in the +Azores, but was beaten off by ships lying in the harbor, including an +American transport. + +On July 17, 1917, it was announced that British destroyers had +attacked a flotilla of German merchant ships on their way from the +Dutch port of Rotterdam to Germany, sinking four and capturing four +others. + +Mines, submarines, and explosions also made inroads on the naval +establishments of the various belligerents. During February, 1917, the +Russian cruiser _Rurik_ was damaged by a mine in the Gulf of Finland. +On February 28, 1917, a French torpedo destroyer was sunk by a +submarine in the Mediterranean. + +On March 19, 1917, the French warship _Danton_ was torpedoed in the +Mediterranean, 296 of her crew having perished. + +A mine was responsible for the sinking of a British destroyer on May +4, 1917, causing the loss of one officer and sixty-one men. + +Mines also were responsible for the sinking of the French armored +cruiser _Kleber_ off Point St. Mathieu on June 27, 1917, with a loss +of thirty-eight men, of a British destroyer and of a German torpedo +boat in the North Sea, and, on June 30, 1917, of a Russian torpedo +boat in the Black Sea. + +A torpedo sent the British auxiliary cruiser _Hilary_ to the bottom of +the North Sea with the loss of four men, while a collision was the +cause of the loss of a British torpedo boat. + +On July 9, 1917, the British battleship _Vanguard_ of the dreadnought +class, 19,250 tons, was destroyed by an internal explosion while at +anchor in a British port. + +According to figures compiled by the New York "Times" the naval losses +at the end of the third year of the war (August 1, 1917) had reached +approximately the following figures: Allied navies, 120 ships with a +total tonnage of 662,715; Central Powers, 122 ships with a total +tonnage of 387,911. + + + + +PART XIII--WAR IN THE AIR + + + + +CHAPTER CI + +AERIAL WARFARE + + +As the war progressed the use of aeroplanes of all kinds became more +and more extensive. This was due chiefly to the wonderful progress +which had been made in aeronautics, the full story of which will not +be told until the end of the war has come. Not only have aeroplanes, +since the beginning of the war, become safer, but they have also +become marvelously swifter and more powerful. As this is being written +news comes from Washington that some recently imported very big and +powerful Italian aeroplanes have made successfully a flight from +Newport News to the Federal capital--a distance of some 150 miles--at +the rate of 135 miles per hour and carrying ten passengers. This is +typical of the recent development in the science of flying. + +The result of this development has been the more varied uses to which +aeroplanes are now being put. Not only do they continue to act as +observers of hostile positions and movements and as guides to +artillery operations, but they have also come into vogue as offensive +weapons. With increased carrying capacity and extended radius of +action it has become possible to utilize aeroplanes extensively for +the bombardment of important positions or localities far behind +hostile lines. Even for the purpose of hunting down and destroying +submarines aeroplanes are being used to-day, and frequently they +cooperate with naval forces in strictly offensive operations. + +The six months' period covering February, 1917 to August, 1917, +therefore, shows the greatest activity of the various aerial forces +since the beginning of the war. On the other hand there has been a +greater lack of news and an extreme scarcity of details concerning +aerial operations than ever before. However, in spite of this latter +condition, it is possible to state that aeroplanes were used more +frequently and more extensively than ever before on all fronts, +especially the western front. From such reports as are available it +appears that the combined English and French aerial forces have become +superior, both in number and in efficiency, to those of Germany. The +latter, however, have maintained a remarkably high standard. + +It is impossible from the reports which are available to give anything +like a complete history of aerial warfare during the period from +February to August, 1917. Throughout February, 1917, English, French, +German, Italian, Russian, and Austrian aeroplanes were extensively +employed wherever and whenever conditions permitted. Furnes in +Flanders was one of the places frequently bombed by German aeroplanes, +while British planes with even greater frequency visited the harbor of +Bruges (Zeebrugge) where heavy damage was inflicted on German torpedo +boats, docks, and railway lines. Zeebrugge is the German submarine +base in Belgium. + +On February 10, 1917, aeroplanes were especially active on the western +front. German machines unsuccessfully attacked Nancy and Pont St. +Vincent. During the same night French air squadrons visited many +places in Lorraine and bombed factories at Hauts Fourreaux, La Sarre, +Hagodange, Esch, and Mezieres-les-Metz. A fire was caused in the +neighborhood of the Arnaville station. The aviation ground at Colmar +and the fort of Zeebrugge were likewise bombarded. + +February 13, 1917, was an especially active day for Russian aeroplanes +on the eastern front. They dropped bombs on the Povursk railway +station, east of Kovel, and on the depots north of the Povursk +station. Bombs were dropped on the station at Rodenrois, east of Riga; +on the little town of Lihinhof, in the vicinity of Friedrichstadt; on +Valeika, the village of Sviatica, north of Vygonov Lake, south of +Kiselin; on Radzivilov, and in the regions south of Brody. + +On the same day French and German aviators were busily attacking many +places on the western front. A German aviator dropped bombs on +Dunkirk. There were no victims and no damage was done. In the vicinity +of Pompey, Meurthe-et-Moselle, bombs were dropped. Two civilians were +killed and two were wounded. Nancy, too, was visited. During the night +French air squadrons dropped projectiles on aviation grounds at +Etreillers (Aisne), and Rancourt (Somme), on the railway stations at +Athies, Hombleux, Voyenne, Curchy, St. Quentin, and Ham; and also on +manufactories east of Tergnier, where several explosions occurred. + +Similar activities were reported almost daily, and of course +observation flights were made continuously by the aerial forces of all +the belligerents. + +On February 25, 1917, a French dirigible was shot down by German +antiaircraft guns near Weelferdingen, west of Saargemund, in Lorraine. +It was completely destroyed and its entire crew of fourteen perished. + +On February 28, 1917, the German admiralty made the following +announcement: + +"In the northern AEgean Sea a German seaplane successfully dropped +bombs on a hostile transport. Notwithstanding the fact that it was +fired on by artillery and pursued by two enemy aeroplanes, the +seaplane returned safely." + +This well illustrates the superiority which aeroplanes had achieved +when they could, far from their base, successfully attack steamships +guarded in every possible way. + +During the great advance of the Allied troops in France in March, +1917, unusual activity in the air played an important part. This was +especially the case on March 17, 1917, when the British either +destroyed or damaged sixteen German planes, the French ten, and the +Germans accounted for a total of twenty-two British and French +machines. At this time aeroplanes were active not only in +reconnaissance work, but even attacked with bombs and machine guns +smaller units of the retreating Germans. The British official report +covering March 18, 1917, for instance, contains the following passage: +"Our aeroplanes did much valuable work yesterday in cooperation with +our infantry. Enemy troops were engaged successfully with machine +guns, and bombs were dropped on a number of places behind the enemy +lines," while the French report says: "During the evening of March 17 +and the following night a French air squadron bombarded the factories +and blast furnaces at Thionville and in the Briey Valley, as well as +certain convoys of enemy troops which were marching in the region of +Guiscard." + +The same kind of aerial activity was an almost daily occurrence during +April, 1917. The last days of that month, however, were red-letter +days for military aeronautics. On April 29, 1917, the British claimed +to have winged twenty German machines, while the Germans stated that +they had shot down during April 28 and 29, 1917, a total of +thirty-four British and French planes. + +Again on May 7, 1917, the British accounted for fifteen German +machines, while the French claimed to have brought down during the +week May 1 to 7, 1917, seventy-six German aeroplanes, of which +twenty-five were known to have been destroyed. + +During the last days of May, 1917, Allied aeroplanes were especially +active in Belgium. On May 26 and 30, 1917, Hest, Blankenberghe, +Zeebrugge, and Ghent were attacked and considerable damage was +inflicted on railway stations, docks, and other buildings of military +value. + +Again on June 4, 1917, British aeroplanes attacked and severely +damaged German vessels in Zeebrugge. + +French airmen were busy, too, in June, 1917. The French War Office on +June 21, 1917 published the following statement covering their +activities: + +"Fourteen aeroplanes and a German captive balloon were destroyed on +our front in the period from June 8 to 20. Eleven of these machines +were brought down by our pilots during aerial combats, and three of +them by the fire of our machine or antiaircraft guns. In addition, +seven enemy machines seriously damaged fell in our lines. + +"In the same period our squadrons effected numerous sorties. They +bombarded notably the railroad station at Bensdorf, factories at +Hayatge-Jesuf at Moyeuvre, blast furnaces at Burbach and in the Saar +Valley, railroad stations at Bethienville, Chatelet-sur-Retourne, +Bethel, Mezieres, Charleville, and Molshelm; the bivouacs in Suippes +Valley, and munitions depots in the region of Laon, etc. Thirteen +thousand kilograms of projectiles were dropped during the expeditions, +which caused serious damage to enemy establishments." + +British, French, and German air squadrons continued their activities +throughout June and July, 1917. July 12, 1917, was particularly +successful for the British airmen, who claimed to have brought down +near Ypres thirty-one German planes without loss to their own forces. + +On the Russian and Italian fronts and in the Balkans and the Near East +aerial activities were slightly fewer and less extensive than on the +western, due to the difference in conditions, such as the greater +scarcity of machines and the greater distance from the source of +supplies. + +A novel use of aeroplanes was made after the entrance of the United +States into the war. On April 4, 1917, it was stated that British and +French aviators dropped large numbers of German translations of +President Wilson's war message over the German lines and Italian +aviators did the same over the Austrian lines. + +On a few occasions aircraft violated the neutrality of countries +adjoining belligerent territory. In one case a French aeroplane +dropped bombs on a Swiss town. A prompt and complete apology on the +part of the French Government followed. On March 13, 1917, Dutch +troops shot down a German plane which had flown over Sluis in Holland, +ten miles northeast of Burges. Before they could capture the aviator, +he succeeded in restarting his machine and in making his escape to +the German lines. On June 1, 1917, a Zeppelin appeared first over +Swedish territory near Malmoe and then over Danish territory south of +Copenhagen. Swedish torpedo boats and Danish troops fired on it +successively and it quickly disappeared in a southerly direction. + +One remarkable enterprise of Russian airmen was reported officially on +April 3, 1917, from Petrograd and deserves, on account of its highly +adventurous nature, detailed repetition. The statement read: "On the +Black Sea on March 27, 1917, during a raid by our seaplanes on Derkas, +one of them was hit by the enemy. The petrol tank being punctured, the +machine was compelled to descend. + +"The aviators, Lieutenant Sergeev and Sublieutenant Thur, seeing a +Turkish schooner, attacked it by opening machine-gun fire. The crew +thereupon left the schooner. Our aviators, having sunk their machine +after taking from it the compass, machine gun, and valuable +belongings, boarded the schooner and set sail for our shores. + +"They encountered a heavy storm during their adventure, but arrived +with the schooner at the Duarlidatch Peninsula, west of Perekop, on +Sunday. From this place our aviators returned to Sebastopol on a +torpedo boat. The only provisions available on the schooner consisted +of a few pieces of bread and a little fresh water." + +Naturally interest in the activities of American airmen in the French +service continued unabated. They continued to cover themselves with +glory. During the second half of May, 1917, members of the Lafayette +Escadrille engaged in twenty-five combats with German machines. +Adjutant Raoul Lufbery was engaged five times, Sergeant Willis +Haviland (Minneapolis) twice, Sergeant Dovell three times, Corporal +Thomas Hewitt (New York) twice, and Corporal Kenneth Marr (San +Francisco) twice. + +As a result of these activities an official report announced the +decoration of Adjutant Lufbery with the Military Medal by the King of +England, and cited the meritorious conduct of this aviator and also of +Sergeant Haviland, Sergeant Charles Johnson (St. Louis), and +Lieutenant William Thaw (Pittsburgh). + +In June, 1917, the American aviators flying under the French flag +were even more active. In the short period from June 10 to 16, 1917, +they made fifty-four patrol flights and fought nine air battles, of +which Adjutant Raoul Lufbery, Edwin Parsons, and Sergeant Robert +Soubiran each fought two, and Stephen Bigelow, Sergeant Walter Lowell +and Thomas Hewitt each fought one. + +Unfortunately death claimed two American flyers. On April 16, 1917, +Pilot Edmond C. C. Genet of Ossining, N. Y., was killed during a fight +with a German aeroplane over French territory. Genet was twenty years +old and was the great-great-great-grandson of Governor Clinton and the +great-great-grandson of Citizen Genet, who was French Minister in the +days of Washington. He had originally fought in the Foreign Legion, +but had later been transferred to the aviation service. + +In March, 1917, Sergeant J. R. McConnell, also a member of the +Escadrille, had been killed in action. On May 24, 1917, it was +announced that the commander of the Escadrille, Captain de Laage of +the French army, had been killed while flying near Ham on the Somme +front. + +Another death of interest to this country and caused by aerial +operations was that of H. E. M. Suckley of Rhinebeck, N. Y., who was +in charge of a unit of the American Ambulance Field Service. He was +wounded while on duty near Saloniki by an aeroplane bomb and died the +following day. He was thirty years old and had been with the Ambulance +Service almost from the beginning of the war, first in the Vosges, +then at Pont-a-Mousson, and finally with General Sarrail's army. + +Regarding the losses suffered by the various aerial forces, authentic +information available is very scant and incomplete. Up to February 1, +1917, the Germans claimed to have destroyed 1,002 Allied aeroplanes +and to have put out of commission a total of 1,700, valued at +$12,500,000. During April, 1917, according to the London "Times," a +total of 714 machines was brought down on the western front. These +were distributed as follows: German machines, 366; British, 147; +French and Belgian, 201. Of the 366 German aeroplanes brought down 269 +fell to the British, ninety-five to the French, and two to the +Belgians. British airmen accounted for 263 German aeroplanes and +antiaircraft gunners for six. On the other hand the Germans admitted +the loss of only seventy-four machines, but claimed to have brought +down 362 Allied aeroplanes and twenty-nine captive balloons. + +During May, 1917, according to London newspapers, 713 aeroplanes were +brought down on the western front. Of these 442 were said to have been +German and 271 French and British. + + + + +CHAPTER CII + +AIR RAIDS + + +The second phase of aerial warfare was represented by the raids +carried out by the various belligerents over enemy territory at a +considerable distance from the actual theaters of war. In these +operations the Germans, as in the past, were the most active and +England was the greatest sufferer. But unlike their previous custom, +the Germans, during the period from February to August, 1917, used +aeroplanes more frequently than Zeppelins. + +On February 25, 1917, British naval aeroplanes raided iron-works near +Saarbruecken in Rhenish Prussia, about fifty miles beyond the border. + +On March 1, 1917, one German plane bombed Broadstairs, an English +watering place on the island of Thanet off the Kentish coast. + +During the night of March 4-5, 1917, French aeroplanes bombed +Freiburg-im-Breisgau (Black Forest) and Kehl near Strassburg. + +German airships bombed the southeastern counties of England during the +night of March 16-17, 1917. Margate was attacked by a German seaplane +at the same time. One of the Zeppelins was brought down later by +French antiaircraft guns near Compiegne, northeast of Paris, its +entire crew being killed. + +A French aeroplane bombed Frankfort-on-the-Main on March 17, 1917, +causing only little damage. + +On April 5, 1917, a German aeroplane again bombed the Kentish coast +town without causing any damage. + +Freiburg-im-Breisgau was once more the object of an attack by English +aeroplanes, made, as announced later, in reprisal for the torpedoing +of British hospital ships. Ten civilians and one soldier were killed, +and twenty-seven civilians, mostly women and children, wounded. Three +of the British aeroplanes were shot down. Considerable damage to +public buildings was caused. + +On May 5, 1917, Odessa, the Russian port on the north shore of the +Black Sea, was visited for the first time by a German aeroplane. + +On May 14, 1917, British naval forces detected a Zeppelin in the act +of approaching the English coast. The alarm was given immediately and +a squadron of British seaplanes was sent after the invader. The fire +from the machine gun of one of these soon reached the big airship, and +before long the latter was seen to burst into flames and disappeared. + +During the night of May 23, 1917, four or five Zeppelins appeared over +East Anglia and penetrated some distance inland. Bombs were dropped in +a number of country districts. One man was killed, but otherwise the +damage was negligible. + +Two days later, May 25, 1917, early in the evening, seventeen +aeroplanes appeared over Folkestone on the southeast coast of England. +They dropped about fifty bombs. As a result seventy-six persons were +killed and 174 injured, most of them civilians, and a large percentage +of these women and children. The returning German aeroplanes were +pursued by machines of the British Naval Air Service from Dunkirk and +attacked. Three German machines were shot down. + +Again on June 5, 1917, sixteen German aeroplanes appeared over Essex +and the Medway. They succeeded in dropping a large number of bombs +which caused two casualties and considerable material damage and +injured twenty-nine persons before antiaircraft guns and British +planes drove them off. At least four German machines were shot down. + +On June 11, 1917, a British patrol boat sighted five German +aeroplanes off Dover. Attacking them at once, the British craft +destroyed two of the machines and captured their pilots. The remaining +three German machines fled. + +At noon of June 13, 1917, London was subjected to the most extensive +and destructive raid in its experience. In the middle of a beautiful +summer day fifteen German aeroplanes appeared over London and +dispatched their death-dealing burden of explosives on England's +capital; 157 men, women, and children were killed, and 432 injured. +Considerable material damage was caused, although the raid lasted only +fifteen minutes. All but one of the German planes escaped. The East +End, London's tenement district, inhabited chiefly by the poor, was +the principal sufferer. + +On the same day British naval forces attacked and brought down a +Zeppelin in the North Sea. The airship was a total loss and apparently +the entire crew perished. + +On June 16, 1917, two Zeppelins attacked the East Anglian and Kentish +coast. Considerable damage was done by the bombs dropped. Three deaths +and injuries to about twenty people resulted. A British aeroplane +succeeded in bringing down one of the Zeppelins, which, with its crew, +was destroyed completely. + +Three times in July, 1917, German aeroplane squadrons appeared in +England. On July 4, 1917, about twelve attacked Harwich, a port in +Essex; two of the planes were shot down, but not until the attackers +had inflicted considerable damage, killed eleven people and injured +thirty-six. Three days later, July 7, 1917, twenty aeroplanes bombed +London, forty-three people were killed and 197 injured, while three of +the German planes were destroyed. Again on July 22, 1917, fifteen to +twenty German aeroplanes reached the English coast. Felixstowe and +Harwich were raided. Eleven persons were killed and twenty-six +injured. On the way back to their base one of the German planes was +brought down off the Belgian coast. + +During the third year of the war, that is from August, 1916, to +August, 1917, air attacks on England caused death to 393 people and +injuries to 1,174, according to figures compiled by the New York +"Times." The same source claims that from the beginning of the war up +to August 1, 1917, or during a period of practically three years, 751 +people were killed and 2,007 injured in England as a result of German +air raids, of which there were officially recorded eighteen in 1915, +twenty-two in 1916, and eleven in the first seven months of 1917. + +A fitting end to this chapter is the record of the deaths at the age +of seventy-nine of the Zeppelin's inventor, Count Ferdinand von +Zeppelin, which occurred at Charlottenburg on March 8, 1917, as a +result of an attack of pneumonia. + + + + +INDEX + + + Abyssinia, Italian defeat in, I, 192 + + Adige River, fighting along, V, 280 + + Adige Valley, operations in, VI, 460 + + Admiral Sims, commanding American destroyer flotilla, VI, 357 + + Aerial combats, number of, V, 426 + + Aerial maneuvering, French, IV, 55 + + Aerial raids, VI, 492 + + Aerodromes, attacks on, IV, 473 + + Aerodromes, German, IV, 470 + + Aeroplane attack by Germans on Lemnos, VI, 169 + + Aeroplane coast battle, IV, 471 + + Aeroplanes, losses in, VI, 255 + + Aeroplanes, number of, V, 420 + + Aeroplanes, western front, VI, 486 + + Aeroplanes and submarines, I, 23 + + Aeroplane warfare, VI, 168-181 + + Aeroplane warfare on submarines, V, 414 + + Africa, British possessions in, I, 181 + + African coast, operations on, III, 493 + + Agadir, I, 140 + + Agar Khan, III, 24 + + Aircraft, losses in, IV, 479; VI, 51 + + Air fighting, strategy and tactics of, IV, 459 + + Air fights along the Somme, VI, 50 + + Air raids on England, IV, 16 + + Air raids on Paris, IV, 19 + + Aisne, battle of, II, 130-135 + + Aisne, counterattacks on the, VI, 248 + + Alaska, garrisons in, I, 11 + + Albania, Austrian advance, IV, 336 + + Albania, Serbian retreat, IV, 303 + + Albania, withdrawal of Serbian forces from, IV, 337 + + Albanian uprising, I, 247 + + Albanians, racial characteristics, I, 220 + + _Alcantara_, merchantman, V, 59 + + Alexander II, assassination, I, 152 + + Alexander III and France, I, 152 + + Alexandretta, III, 503 + + Alexiev, General, commander in chief Russian army, VI, 429 + + _Algonquin_, sinking of, by German submarine, VI, 317 + + Allenstein, capture of, II, 437 + + Allied aviators, work of, V, 421 + + Allied commands in Champagne, IV, 80 + + Allied demands on Greece, V, 224-227 + + Allied nations, policy of, I, 105 + + Allied offensive, March, 1915, IV, 45 + + Allied raid, Houlthulst Forest, IV, 56 + + Allies, withdrawal of, into Greece, IV, 308 + + Alsace, French in, IV, 40 + + Alsace-Lorraine, conditions in, I, 138 + + Alsace and Lorraine, campaign in, II, 38-45 + + Altkirch, capture of, IV, 40 + + American airmen in France, VI, 490 + + American army, I, 11 + + American aviators, VI, 181, 490 + + American citizens, rights of, defended by President Wilson, IV, 503 + + American Commission to Russia, VI, 416 + + American Congress, resolution on sinking armed merchantmen, IV, 502 + + American destroyer flotilla, VI, 357 + + American expedition in France, VI, 357 + + American Government's assertion of neutral rights at sea, IV, 480 + + American merchant marine, VI, 476 + + American navy, strength of, I, 11 + + American navy, work of, in foreign waters, VI, 357 + + American negotiations over _Ancona_ sinking, IV, 490-496 + + American note to Austria on _Ancona_ issue, character of, IV, 492 + + American war preparations, VI, 328 + + American Prussian treaties, VI, 298 + + American response to German note on _Sussex_, V, 458 + + American second note on _Ancona_ issue, IV, 494 + + American training camp in France, VI, 361 + + American troops, transportation of, to France, VI, 358 + + American vessels sunk, VI, 202 + + American warships in European waters, VI, 482 + + Anafarta Ridge, attack on, IV, 352 + + _Ancona_, destruction of, IV, 490 + + _Ancona_, yielding of Austria-Hungary on issue, IV, 494 + + Ancre, British gains in, VI, 223 + + Anglo-American trade balance, V, 52 + + Anglo-Chinese conference, I, 184 + + Anglo-French agreement, I, 136 + + Anglo-Russian agreement, I, 136 + + Anti-Catholic movement in France, I, 163 + + Anti-Serbian riots, I, 260 + + Antwerp, Belgian withdrawal to, IV, 40 + + Antwerp, fall of, II, 167 + + Anzacs, heroism of, III, 460, 462 + + _Appam_, capture of, IV, 160 + + _Arabic_, sinking of, IV, 150, 480-490 + + _Arabic_, German version, IV, 483 + + Arabs, assistance given British in Mesopotamia, IV, 423 + + Arabs, confederation of, IV, 429 + + Arbitration, failure of, I, 14 + + Archibald papers, V, 11 + + Area of British Empire, I, 286 + + Area of France, I, 286 + + Area of German Empire, I, 286 + + Area of Russia, I, 286 + + Argechu River, VI, 117 + + Argonne, activity in, III, 158 + + Argonne, campaign in, II, 193-194 + + Argonne Forest, fighting in, IV, 48 + + Argonne, German attacks in, in September, 1915, IV, 55 + + Argonne, operations in, V, 375 + + _Argyll_, loss of, IV, 154 + + Armed-merchantman resolution, final form of, in Congress, V, 439 + + Armed-merchantmen resolutions, debate in Congress, V, 434-435 + + Armed neutrality, address of President Wilson, VI, 304 + + Armed-shipping resolution in Congress, V, 436 + + Armenian atrocities, III, 472 + + Armenians, massacre of, IV, 378 + + Army, American, strength of, I, 11 + + Arras, Canadian victories at, VI, 56 + + Arras, fourth blow by Haig, VI, 256 + + Arras, operations around, IV, 127 + + Arras, operations around, VI, 39 + + Arras, second phase of, VI, 249 + + Artillery, II, 366 + + Artillery activity on the western front in September, 1915, IV, 55 + + Artois, British successes in, IV, 85 + + Artois, fighting in, III, 121-128 + + Artois, French campaign in, IV, 85 + + Artois sector, V, 373 + + Asia Minor, Germany in, I, 50 + + Asiago, Austrian advance, V, 256 + + Asiatic Turkey, disorders in, IV, 377 + + Asphyxiation from gas, I, 53 + + Assassination of crown prince, Austrian report on, I, 350 + + Athens, street fighting in, VI, 147 + + Atkutur, battle at, III, 474 + + Aubers Ridge, attacks on, III, 128 + + Augustovo, Battle of, II, 444 + + Ausgleich, I, 146 + + Australians at Suvla Bay, IV, 356 + + Australian troops at Pozieres, V, 409 + + Austria and Prussia, I, 127 + + Austria-Hungary, American relations with, VI, 328 + + Austria-Hungary, area of, I, 286 + + Austria-Hungary, explanation of sinking of _Ancona_, IV, 465 + + Austria-Hungary, position of, I, 142 + + Austria-Hungary, request for recall of Dr. Dumba, V, 10 + + Austrian air attacks on Italian cities, V. 291 + + Austrian army, I, 309 + + Austrian armies in Poland and Galicia, command of, IV, 181 + + Austrian army in Serbia, IV, 259 + + Austrian and Balkan nationality, I, 258-259 + + Austrian captures of Durazzo, IV, 338 + + Austrian note, July 27, 1914, I, 270 + + Austrian counterattack, repulsed by Italians, V, 269 + + Austrian defenses in Alps, IV, 394 + + Austrian demands on Serbia, I, 261-265 + + Austrian fleet in the Danube, VI, 97 + + Austrian forces along the Italian front, increase of, V, 245 + + Austrian-Italian aviators, V, 428 + + Austrian-Italian front, V, 229 + + Austrian losses at Lutsk, V, 159 + + Austrian losses in Serbia, II, 343 + + Austrian naval strength, II, 206 + + Austrian note to Serbia, I, 261 + + Austrian offensive in Trentino, V, 246 + + Austrian offensive in Trentino, increase of, V, 235 + + Austrian offensive in Volhynia, V, 138 + + Austrian press, accusations, I, 353 + + Austrian proposals to Rumania, III, 377 + + Austrian raids on Italian coast, III, 394 + + Austrian rupture with the United States, VI, 328 + + Austrian squadron shells Italian coast cities, IV, 168 + + Austro-German capture of Bucharest, VI, 119 + + Austro-Hungarians defeated near Kuty, V, 190 + + Austro-German invasion of Serbia, IV, 263 + + Austro-German resistance to the Russians, VI, 73 + + Austro-Hungarian press, I, 351 + + Austro-Hungarian reply to _Ancona_ note, IV, 492 + + Austro-Italian line, V, 233, 234 + + Austro-Russian front, III, 236 + + Austro-Russian operations, resumption of, V, 133-141 + + Aviators, loss among, V, 425-426 + + Avlona, battle between Austrians and Italians near, V, 220 + + Avlona, Italians at, IV, 327 + + Avocourt Wood, German occupation of, V, 351 + + Aylmer, General, IV, 446 + + Azerbayan, failures in, III, 477 + + + Babuna Pass, resistance of Serbians, IV, 283 + + Bagdad, British at, IV, 419-425 + + Bagdad, expedition against, I, 62 + + Bagdad, Russian advance, V, 330 + + Baiburt, capture of, by Russians, V, 337 + + Balfour, Arthur J., reply to Churchill, V, 61 + + Balkan League, I, 248 + + Balkans, conditions in, 1916, V, 212 + + Balkans, countries, II, 275-286 + + Balkans, diplomacy in, I, 59 + + Balkans, summary of first year's conditions, IV, 255 + + Baltic Sea, operations in, III, 191 + + Ban-de-Sapt, attacks on, III, 164 + + Bapaume, capture of, VI, 232 + + Basra, capture of, II, 508 + + Battle cruisers, British, lost in Jutland naval battle, V, 90-91 + + Battle cruisers, importance of, I, 21 + + Battle line on eastern front, II, 262 + + Battle line on the eastern front in the spring of 1916, V, 116 + + Battleships and fortifications, I, 24 + + Battleships, advantages of, I, 21 + + Battleships at Jutland battle, V, 80 + + Bavarians, bravery of, at Eaucourt, VI, 30 + + Beatty, Admiral, movements at Jutland naval battle, V, 75-78 + + Beaucourt, attacks on, VI, 218 + + Beaumont, abandonment of, by French, IV, 142 + + Belgian coast, bombardment of, by British fleet, IV, 60, 112 + + Belgian neutrality, I, 276 + + Belgian neutrality, unity of powers, I, 476 + + Belgian territory, alleged violation of, I, 283 + + Belgian envoys, visit of, to United States, VI, 352 + + Belgian withdrawal, IV, 40 + + Belgium, American lessons from, I, 12 + + Belgium appealed to powers guaranteeing neutrality, I, 384 + + Belgium, area of, I, 287 + + Belgium, location of, I, 197 + + Belgium, attacks in, July, VI, 279 + + Belgium, German attacks on the French lines in, VI, 250 + + Belgium, operations in, VI, 61 + + Belgium, German proposals to, I, 281 + + Belgrade, bombardment of, IV, 265 + + Belgrade, capture of, II, 347, 353 + + Belgrade, riot following assassination of crown prince, I, 346 + + Benckendorff, A., I, 320 + + Berchtold, L., I, 324 + + Berlin, Treaty of, I, 228 + + Bernhardi, I, 83 + + Bertie, Sir Francis, I, 317 + + Bethlehem, efforts to start munition strikes in, V, 9 + + Bethmann-Hollweg, I, 323 + + Bethmann-Hollweg, circular letter to powers, I, 368 + + Bethmann-Hollweg's statement in Reichstag, I, 498 + + Beyers, General, III, 70 + + Bieberstein, Marshal von, II, 496 + + Bight, Battle of, II, 208 + + Bismarck Archipelago, II, 243 + + Bismarck, growth of power of, I, 127 + + Bismarck, retirement of, I, 134 + + Bitlis, massacre at, IV, 378 + + Bitlis, occupation of, by Russians, V, 293 + + Blockade against Germany, III, 181 + + _Bluecher_, sinking of, II, 255 + + Bolimow, fighting around, II, 470 + + Bombs in trenches, I, 74 + + Bosnia, annexation of, I, 147 + + Bosnia, fighting in, II, 360 + + Botha, General, III, 74 + + Boy-Ed, Karl, activities, V, 14 + + Brabant, abandonment of, by French, IV, 140 + + Bregalnitza, battle of, I, 257 + + _Bremen_, exploits of, VI, 190 + + Brenta River, fighting along, V, 278 + + Brescia, bombardment of, IV, 468 + + Breslau, II, 494 + + Brest-Litovsk, II, 447 + + Brest-Litovsk, capture of, IV, 196 + + Briand, resignation of, I, 170 + + British in Macedonia, VI, 135 + + British advance on Arras, VI, 251 + + British aerodromes, IV, 473 + + British air raids, IV, 18 + + British, mobilization of, I, 304 + + British attack around Lens, IV, 82 + + British attacks on the Stuff Redoubt, VI, 49 + + British attacks on Zeebrugge, VI, 482 + + British cabinet declaration, I, 473 + + British declaration of war against Germany, I, 283 + + British East Africa, I, 180 + + British Empire, area of, I, 286 + + British expeditionary force, II, 34 + + British expeditionary force landing in France, IV, 40 + + British fleet shells Zeebrugge, V, 67 + + British forces, disposition of, V, 380 + + British and French offensive, VI, 27 + + British and French successes, VI, 17 + + British gains on the Somme, VI, 14 + + British guns at Gallipoli, IV, 359 + + British losses at Jutland naval battle, V, 94-98 + + British losses to 1916, IV, 117 + + British navy, effect on war, I, 18 + + British offensive in Artois, IV, 82 + + British operations south of the Ancre, VI, 39 + + British policy of isolation, I, 42 + + British position, August 1, 1915, IV, 46 + + British position in Persia, IV, 419 + + British prize court, proceedings, effect of, in United States, V, 32 + + British raids on the German trenches, VI, 32, 39, 57 + + British reverses in Belgium, VI, 281 + + British seizure of ships of American registry, V, 49 + + British shipping, loss to, IV, 170 + + British squadron bombards Belgian coast in November, 1915, IV, 112 + + British statement in regard to Greece, IV, 312-313 + + British successes in Artois, IV, 85 + + British successes near Ypres, VI, 264 + + British at Jutland battle, V, 98-104 + + British troops on the Ancre, successes of, VI. 224 + + British troops, suffering of, at Kut-el-Amara, V, 320 + + British use of tanks, VI, 21 + + Brody, battle near, IV, 204 + + Bruges, occupation of, II, 168 + + Brussels, surrender of, II, 31 + + Brussilov, in Galicia, V, 167 + + Bryan, William Jennings, connection with peace propaganda, VI, 295 + + Buchanan, Sir George, interview with Sazonof, I, 376 + + Bucharest, capture of, VI, 119 + + Buczacz, capture of, by Russians, V, 160 + + Bukoba, capture of, III, 494 + + Bukowina, operations in, IV, 227 + + Bukowina, Russian occupation, III, 238 + + Bukowina, Russian reconquest of, V, 162-172 + + Bulgar attacks on Rumania, VI, 98-102 + + Bulgaria, after second Balkan war, I, 257 + + Bulgaria, conditions for neutrality, IV, 257 + + Bulgaria, position of, III, 370 + + Bulgarian army, IV, 270 + + Bulgarian bombardment of Galatz, VI, 121 + + Bulgarian declaration of war on Serbia, IV, 269 + + Bulgarian demands, III, 378 + + Bulgarian movements in Serbia, IV, 305 + + Bulgarian pursuit of Serbians, IV, 209 + + Bulgarians cross Greek frontier, V, 221 + + Bulgarians, defeat of, in November, 1916, VI, 138 + + Bullecourt, occupation of, VI, 261 + + Burian, Baron, letter of Ambassador Dumba proposing munition + strikes in United States, V, 9 + + Bzura, battle along, II, 492 + + + Cadorna, General, III, 404 + + Caillette Wood, German repulse at, V, 354 + + Calais, air raids on, IV, 24 + + Calais, bombardment of, by destroyer flotilla, VI, 482 + + _California_, destruction of, VI, 292 + + Cambon, J., I, 328-330 + + Cameroons campaign, III, 62, 481 + + Campbell-Bannerman, Sir, I, 185 + + Canadians at Arras, VI, 56 + + Canadians' capture of Vimy, VI, 241 + + Canadians, raids by, VI, 222 + + Candler, Edmund, description of operations in Mesopotamia, IV, 448 + + _Canopus_, sinking of, II, 223 + + Carency, surrender of, III, 125 + + Carinthian front, bombardment by Italian artillery, V, 230 + + Carlos I, murder of, I, 204 + + Carnic Alps, conditions in, V, 289 + + Carpathian fighting, VI, 91, 442 + + Carpathian Mountain passes, advance of Russians toward. V, 207 + + Carpathian Mountains, II, 275 + + Carpathians, campaign in, III, 235-241 + + Carso Plateau, attack on, by Italian artillery, VI, 155, 464 + + Castelnau, General de, II, 43 + + Catholics, movement against, in France, I, 163 + + Cattaro, bombardment of, II, 359 + + Caucasus, campaign in, IV, 380 + + Caucasus, operations in, III, 9 + + Caucasus, reasons for Russian offensive against, IV, 382 + + Caucasus, the, II, 286 + + Cavell, Edith, case of, IV, 98-101 + + Central powers, area of, I, 286 + + Central powers, homogeneity of, I, 291 + + Central powers, military plans of, I, 33 + + Central powers, position of, on the eastern front, V, 117-121 + + Champagne campaign, IV, 62 + + Champagne, French in, VI, 249 + + Champagne, German attacks in, March, 1917, VI, 230 + + Champagne offensive, IV, 61 + + Charleroi, battle of, II, 54-59; IV, 40 + + Charles Francis Joseph, Archduke, V, 249 + + Chemistry in war, I, 11 + + Chicago meat packers' cases, V, 47 + + Chino-Russian treaty, I, 154 + + Church and State, separation of, I, 168 + + Churchill, Winston Spencer, V, 61 + + "Circular Note" to powers, I, 270 + + Citizen soldiery, training of, I, 12 + + _City of Memphis_, sinking of, VI, 317 + + Climate in Mesopotamia as a factor in war, IV, 421 + + Col di Lana, attack on, V, 231 + + Collo, Italian successes in, IV, 413 + + Colonial beginnings of Germany, I, 133 + + Colonial possessions of Great Britain, I, 174 + + Combes, I, 167 + + Combles, British attack on, VI, 26 + + Combles, repulse of German attack on, VI, 18, 25 + + Concentration camps, VI, 350 + + Confederation of North German States, I, 128 + + Congress, American, McLemore resolution in, IV, 505 + + Congress, opposition of, to President Wilson's policies, VI, 306 + + Congress, war discussion in, V, 433-438 + + Constantine of Greece, IV, 341 + + Constantinople, operations in, IV, 475 + + Constanza, attacks on, VI, 110 + + Contalmaison, capture of, V, 397 + + Cossacks, II, 383 + + Cossacks, repulse of Turkish troops by, V, 303 + + Cotes de Meuse, attack at, V, 348 + + Council of Workingmen and Soldiers, VI, 405-410 + + Courcelette, capture of, by the British, VI, 23 + + Courland coast, bombardment of, by Russian torpedo boats, V, 194 + + Courland, invasion of, III, 337 + + Courland, operations in, IV, 185 + + Cracow, attack on, II, 414-416 + + Craiova, capture of, VI, 114 + + Craonne, capture of, VI, 256 + + Craonne, German attacks on, VI, 252 + + Craonne sector, operations around, July, 1917, VI, 282 + + Ctesiphon, battle of, IV, 437-443 + + Cumieres, German attempts to retake, V, 347 + + Curtain of fire, I, 74 + + Cyril, Grand Duke, II, 486 + + Czar of Russia, escape from aeroplane bomb, V, 429 + + Czarina, influence of, VI, 373 + + Czernowitz, capture of, V, 169 + + Czernowitz, retreat at, II, 413 + + + Dankl, retreat of, II, 392 + + Danube, Rumanian raid across the, VI, 102-111 + + Dardanelles, aeroplanes at, I, 23 + + Dardanelles campaign, abandonment of, reasons for, IV, 363 + + Dardanelles, naval attacks, III, 174-179 + + Dates, important, I, 325-329 + + Death's Head Hussars, II, 154 + + Delarey, General, III, 73 + + Delcasse, Theophile, I, 319 + + Deniecourt, capture of, VI, 26 + + Denman, William, controversy with General Goethals, VI, 343 + + Destroyers, achievements of, I, 17 + + _Deutschland_, V, 111-112 + + De Wet, General, III, 70 + + Diarbekr, struggle for, V, 299-306 + + Diplomacy in the Balkans, I, 59 + + Diplomatic exchanges, first, I, 322 + + Diplomatic papers, I, 313 + + Disraeli, I, 179 + + Dixmude, III, 166 + + Dixmude, British and French attacks at, VI, 287 + + Dixmude, German attack on, IV, 87 + + Djemel Pasha, II, 500 + + Doberdo, operations along, V, 232 + + Dobrudja, operations in, VI, 101 + + Dobrudja, situation in, October, 1916, VI, 109, 112 + + Dolomite district, Italian successes in, IV, 397 + + Dolomite passes, fighting in, III, 393 + + Dolomites, operations in, V, 243 + + Douai, aeroplane attack on, IV, 474 + + Douaumont, French attempts to retake, V, 363 + + Douaumont, French recapture of, VI, 34 + + Douaumont, German attack at, V, 344 + + _Dresden_, German raider, III, 182 + + Dreyfus affair, I, 165 + + Dubno, fortress, capture of, V, 161 + + Dubno, fortress, strength of, IV, 210-211 + + Dukla Pass, fighting at, III, 261 + + Duma, defiance of czar by, VI, 389 + + Duma, disturbance in, VI, 394 + + Duma, inability of, to meet crisis, VI, 392 + + Duma, meeting of, in 1916, VI, 383 + + Dumba, Dr., explanation of efforts to V, 9 + + Dumba, Dr., recall of, by Austro-Hungarian government, V, 11 + + Dunajec, battle of, III, 267, 273 + + Dunkirk, bombardment of, by German destroyers, VI, 482 + + Durazzo, Austrian capture of, IV, 328 + + Durazzo, evacuation of, IV, 414 + + Dvina, crossing, by Russians, VI, 89 + + Dvina, Russian attempt to cross, VI, 80 + + Dvinsk, fighting around, IV, 213 + + Dvinsk, fortress, strength of, IV, 214 + + Dvinsk, Russian bombardment around, V, 143 + + + _E-13_, British submarine, IV, 153 + + Eastern battle front, conditions in spring of 1916, V, 116 + + Eastern front, winter on the, IV, 250-254 + + Eastern front, winter on the, VI, 93, 121-124 + + East Prussia, devastation in, winter battles in, III, 313, 317 + + Eaucourt l'Abbaye, British capture of, VI, 28 + + Edea, capture of, III, 67 + + Edward VII, I, 182 + + Effectiveness, naval, I, 19 + + Egypt, attack on, III, 15 + + Egypt, Turkish attack on, III, 507 + + El Kantara, fighting at, IV, 10 + + _Emden_, career of, II, 226 + + _Emden_, story of, III, 193-205 + + Emmich, General von, II, 18 + + England, air raids on, IV, 21 + + England, east coast, attacked by German Zeppelins, II, 460 + + Enver Pasha, II, 499 + + Epine de Vedegrange sector, movements in, IV, 68-70 + + Erzerum, beginning of Russian advance toward, IV, 383 + + Erzerum, evacuation of, IV, 389 + + Erzerum, operations around, III, 9 + + Erzerum, Turkish losses at, IV, 391 + + Erzerum, Turkish plan for defense of, IV, 387 + + Erzingan, capture of, by Russians, V, 339 + + Erzingan, Russian advance, V, 294 + + Espionage Bill, divisions of, VI, 338 + + Explosions at Messines, VI, 267 + + Explosives, quantity of, I, 68 + + Exports, embargo on, VI, 341 + + Eydtkuhnen, attack on, III, 317 + + + Falkenhayn, stroke of, VI, 113 + + Falklands, battle off, II, 230 + + Fallieres, M., I, 168 + + Far eastern problem in 1910, I, 140 + + Farman speed plane, V, 421 + + Fashoda, I, 166 + + Faure, Felix, death of, I, 166 + + Fay, Robert, activities of, V, 15 + + Federal control for militia, I, 13 + + Ferdinand, King, decision to join central powers, IV, 257 + + Festubert, battle of, III, 128-134 + + Fighting on western front, August, 1915, character of, IV, 47 + + Finland, disturbances in, I, 156 + + Fire, curtain of, I, 74 + + Fire of machine guns, I, 67 + + First Ontario regiment, III, 143 + + First year's operations on eastern front, summary of, IV, 174-178 + + First year's operations on the western front, summary of, IV, 39-46 + + Fisher, Sir John, V, 61 + + Flags, neutral use of, III, 173 + + Flame jets, German use of, on the Somme, VI, 20 + + Flame projectors, German use of, IV, 58 + + Flanders, extensive operations in, VI, 286 + + Flanders sector, operations in, V, 376 + + Flers, capture of, by British, VI, 23 + + Fleury, German repulse at, V, 368 + + Floods on the eastern front, effect of, V, 141 + + Foch, General, II, 122 + + Ford peace expedition, V, 53 + + Ford permanent peace board, V, 55 + + Foreign policy of Russia, I, 151 + + Foreign trade of Germany, I, 49 + + Forges, German occupation of, V, 345 + + Fortifications, land, and battleships, I, 24 + + France, declaration of war, I, 281 + + Francis Ferdinand, assassination of, I, 260 + + Franco-Bulgarian operations, IV, 317-318 + + Franco-Prussian War, I, 128-129 + + Franco-Russian friendship, I, 154 + + Franz Ferdinand, diplomatic exchanges in regard to + assassination, I, 341 + + Frederick III, accession of, I, 134 + + French, Sir John, II, 34 + + French, Sir John, relieved of command, IV, 115 + + French advance in the Champagne VI, 231 + + French aerial maneuvering, IV, 55 + + French and British envoys, visit of, VI, 351 + + French armies, mobilization of, I, 297-303 + + French attack on Douaumont, account of, V, 342-344 + + French attacks in the Vosges in July and August, 1915, IV, 51 + + French attack on Souchez, IV, 84 + + French aviators, activity in December, 1915, and January, 1916, IV, 475 + + French aviators bombard Saarbruecken, IV, 48 + + French battle plane, V, 429 + + French campaign in Artois, IV, 46 + + French colonial expansion, I, 164 + + French fleet at Kronstadt, I, 154 + + French General Staff, V, 355 + + French in Alsace, IV, 40 + + French indemnity to Germany, I, 130 + + French in North Africa, I, 136 + + French influence on Dardanelles campaign, IV, 365 + + French occupation of Tunis, I, 163 + + French offensive, VI, 13 + + French progress in 1917, VI, 248 + + French strength in 1917, VI, 290 + + French troops in Serbia, IV, 279 + + Fresnoy, German success at, VI, 259 + + Fricourt, British attack upon, V, 393 + + + Galatz, bombardment of, VI, 121 + + Galicia, operations in, IV, 185 + + Gallipoli, concentration of Turkish troops at, IV, 357 + + Gallipoli, conditions in, August, 1915, IV, 345 + + Gallipoli, landing on, III, 429-469 + + Gallipoli, Peninsula of, II, 285 + + Gallipoli, withdrawal from, IV, 366 + + Garua, capture of, III, 483 + + Gas, use and effects of, I, 53 + + Gas attack at Hooge, III, 148 + + Gastein Alliance, I, 132 + + George V, accident to, IV, 102-103 + + Gerard, Ambassador, request for passport from German + Government, VI, 297 + + German achievement in two years of war; + statement by Mumm von Schwarzenstein, V, 508-509 + + German aeroplanes, VI, 488 + + German airdrome, VI, 170 + + German and Austrian merchandise prohibited in Italy, IV, 410 + + German answer to American note on _Sussex_, V, 447 + + German armies in Poland, IV, 181 + + German armies, I, 292 + + German army in Belgium, II, 10 + + German artillery, II, 264 + + German attacks at Verdun, VI, 58 + + German attacks in Rumania, cessation of, VI, 120 + + German attacks near Dvinsk, V, 184 + + German capture of Craiova, VI, 114 + + German casualties in the Somme offensive, VI, 9 + + German claims of losses by submarines, VI, 478 + + Germans on the Aisne, VI, 248 + + German counterattacks on the Somme, VI, 16 + + Germans before Kovel, V, 178-183 + + German declaration of intentions toward Belgium, I, 487 + + German declaration of war, I, 278 + + German defenses of Messines Ridge, VI, 265 + + German edict against armed merchantmen, V, 50 + + German Empire, creation of, I, 130 + + German forces, disposition of, in the Somme sector, V, 378 + + German forces in Serbia, IV, 259 + + German foreign policy, I, 136 + + German foreign trade, I, 49 + + German intrigues in Mexico, VI, 312 + + German invasion of Luxemburg, I, 33 + + German losses, IV, 79-80 + + German losses at Jutland, V, 94-98 + + German losses in Russo-German campaign, II, 482 + + German merchant ships, V, 60 + + German naval policy, I, 46 + + German Navy League, I, 141 + + German offensive, IV, 79 + + German plots, in United States, in autumn and winter of 1915, V, 12 + + German position in 1915, IV, 46 + + German prisoners, VI, 217 + + German proposals to Belgium, I, 280 + + German raiders, damage by, III, 183 + + German raids on England, VI, 482 + + German rupture with the United States, VI, 205-216 + + German Samoa, II, 242 + + German Southwest Africa, III, 68 + + German steamers, requisition by Italian government, IV, 412 + + German submarines, VI, 202 + + German submarine campaign, IV, 166 + + German submarine decree on the United States, VI, 291 + + German submarine war zone, VI, 205 + + German tactics at Jutland, V, 104 + + German trenches, raids on, VI, 32 + + German version of the sinking of the _Arabic_, IV, 484 + + German vessels interned, VI, 329 + + Germany yielding to America, V, 451 + + Germany in Asia Minor, I, 50 + + Germany, Japanese declaration of war against, I, 284 + + Germany's declaration of war on Russia, I, 282 + + Ghent, air raids on, IV, 34 + + Ginchy, German operations, VI, 16 + + Givenchy, operations around, III, 187 + + Gladstone, I, 179 + + _Goeben_, German cruiser, II, 494 + + Gore, Senator, V, 436 + + Goritz bridgehead, V, 231 + + Goritz, capture of, VI, 149 + + Goritz, operations around, VI, 466 + + Gorizia, attacks on, III, 408 + + Gorringe, General, V, 314 + + Goschen, Sir Edward, I, 431 + + Gough, Sir Hubert, VI, 59 + + Gouraud, General, succeeded by General Sarrail, IV, 52 + + Government in Russia, VI, 395 + + Grand Duke Sergius, murder of, I, 157 + + Great Britain in Persia, I, 185 + + Greece, attitude of, IV, 280 + + Greek forces, V, 223 + + Greek frontier, V, 214 + + Greek government, attacked by Venizelos, IV, 311 + + Greek fleet, seizure of, VI, 137 + + Greek Macedonia, revolt in, VI, 128 + + Greek provisional government declares war on Germany, VI, 144 + + Greek troops surrender of, VI, 129 + + Grevillers, capture of, by British, VI, 230 + + Grey, Sir Edward, I, 281, 316 + + Grey, Sir Edward, note to American government, V, 30 + + Grodno, fall of, IV, 187 + + Guillemont, British attack on, VI, 12 + + + Haig, Sir Douglas, promoted to commander in chief, VI, 59 + + Haig, Sir Douglas, succeeds Sir John French, IV, 116 + + Haldane, R. B., I, 315 + + Halicz, battle of, III, 249 + + Halicz, capture of, by Russians, VI, 437 + + Hamilton, Sir Ian, plans of, III, 437 + + Hamilton, Sir Ian, report of Gallipoli operations, IV, 362 + + _Hampshire_, cruiser, loss of, V, 108 + + Harrington, German raids on, IV, 149 + + Hartmannsweilerkopf, III, 115 + + Hartmannsweilerkopf, IV, 123 + + Haucourt-Malancourt, V, 351 + + Haumont, capture of, IV, 137 + + Herbecourt, capture of, V, 390 + + Hermannstadt, attack on, VI, 105 + + Herzegovina, annexation of, I, 147 + + Hill 304, battle of, V, 361-371 + + Hill 185, capture of, VI, 229 + + Hill 304, German attacks on, VI, 61 + + Hindenburg, General von, II, 439 + + Hindenburg, Von, offensive, V, 164 + + Hohenzollern, redoubt, V, 373 + + "Holy War," III, 21 + + Home Rule Bill in Ireland, I, 43 + + Hooge, operations at, III, 146-151 + + Hoover, Herbert C, named food administrator, VI, 335 + + Hostages at Gallipoli, French and British, IV, 359 + + _Housatonic_, sunk, VI, 292 + + House of Commons, Sir E. Grey's statement, I, 490 + + Hulluch, operations around, IV, 92 + + Humin, battle of, II, 470 + + Hungarian frontier, VI, 103 + + + _Illinois_, sunk by submarine, VI, 317 + + Illuxt, Russian offensive near, V, 186 + + India, Russian invasion of, I, 62 + + Internal policy of Bismarck, I, 133 + + Ireland, situation in, I, 43 + + Irles, capture of by British, VI, 229 + + Isolation, British, I, 42 + + Isonzo, battles of, VI, 470 + + Isonzo front, Italian activity, V, 267 + + Isonzo frontier, battle on, IV, 394 + + Isonzo front, operation on, VI, 149 + + Ispaha, capture of, V, 334 + + Isvolsky, A. P., I, 320 + + Italian aeroplane service, IV, 469 + + Italian Alpine troops, V, 268 + + Italian army, strength of, III, 388 + + Italian cities shelled, IV, 168 + + Italian front, VI, 452 + + Italian landing at Avlona, IV, 327 + + Italian losses, offensive, V, 257 + + Italian navy, operations of, IV, 168 + + Italian objective in Istria, IV, 417 + + Italian offensive, VI, 468-473 + + Italian retreat in Trentino, V, 253 + + Italian strategy, III, 382 + + Italian Third Army, IV, 393 + + Italian war loans, IV, 411 + + Italo-Turkish War, I, 195 + + Italy, neutrality of, I, 281 + + Ivangorod, capture of, III, 365 + + Ivangorod, fighting around, II, 458 + + + Jablonica, Russian advance against, V, 206 + + Jablonitza, evacuation of, by Russians, VI, 75 + + Jacobstadt, Russian attack on, V, 126 + + Jagow, von G., I, 323 + + Japan and Russia, friendly relations between, V, 61 + + Japanese declaration of war against Germany, I, 283 + + Jaroslov, recapture of, II, 411 + + Jellicoe, Admiral, V, 78-94 + + Jellicoe, Admiral, report by, V, 90 + + Jewish persecutions in Russia, I, 153 + + Joffre, General, II, 38 + + Joffre, General, IV, 41, 61, 115 + + Joffre, General, order before Champagne offensive, IV, 61 + + Joffre, plan of retreat, IV, 41 + + Judenich, General, IV, 385 + + Julian front, battles along, VI, 462 + + Jusserand, J. J., statement in regard to second anniversary + of the war, V, 504 + + Jutland Bank, battle of, V, 70-108 + + Jutland, engagement off, IV, 150 + + + Kaiser and King of Belgium, I, 341 + + Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, I, 135 + + Kalkfield, capture of, III, 489 + + Kalusz, capture of, VI, 439 + + Kantara, aeroplane raid on, V, 431 + + Kara-Urgau, battle of, III, 12 + + Kars, attacks on, III, 471 + + Kasr-i-Shirin, capture of, V, 334 + + Katshanik Pass, IV, 293 + + Kerensky, Alexander, assumption of supreme command in Russia, VI, 412 + + Kermanshah, capture of, V, 332 + + _Kheyr-ed Din Barbarossa_, IV, 148 + + Kiao-chau, I, 285 + + _King Edward VII_, loss of, IV, 164 + + King Humbert, I, 192 + + King of Montenegro, IV, 330 + + Kitchener, Earl, II, 34 + + Kitchener, Earl, death of, V, 108 + + Kluck, Von, retreat of, II, 12 + + Knight, Rear Admiral, I, 17 + + Kolomea, capture of, V, 192 + + Koenigsberg, fighting around, II, 479 + + Kossovo plain, IV, 297-298 + + Kovel, resistance near, V, 167 + + Kovel, Russian attacks on, VI, 86 + + Kovno, capture of, IV, 183 + + Koziowa, attacks on, III, 246 + + Kragujevatz, capture of, IV, 280 + + Krasnik, battle of, III, 348 + + Krithia, attacks on, III, 454 + + _Kronprinz Wilhelm_, cruiser, II, 226 + + _Kronprinz Wilhelm_, raider, III, 187 + + Kronstadt, French fleet at, I, 154 + + Kronstadt, mutiny, VI, 414 + + Kuropatkin, General, V, 120 + + Kut-el-Amara, V, 307 + + Kut-el-Amara, British stand at, IV, 444 + + Kut-el-Amara, surrender of, III, 502 + + Kuty, capture of, V, 185 + + + La Bassee, attacks on, II, 178-192 + + La Boisselle, attack upon, V, 385 + + Labor Peace Council, organization of, V, 24 + + Labyrinth, attacks on, III, 122-123 + + Labyrinth, IV, 108 + + _Laconia_, destruction of, VI, 293 + + Lafayette Escadrille, VI, 490 + + Lake Nyassa, battle on, II, 243 + + Lansing, Secretary, VI, 294 + + _La Provence_, sinking of, IV, 172 + + Ledro Valley, operations in, V, 237 + + Leman, General, II, 15 + + Lemberg, capture of, II, 387 + + Lemberg, drive against, VI, 70-76 + + Lemberg, V, 163 + + Lenine, influence of, in Russia, VI, 408 + + Le Mesnil, German attacks, IV, 107 + + Lens, attack around, IV, 82 + + Lens, conditions in, VI, 245 + + Les Eparges, fighting at, III, 118 + + Liberty Bond Loan, VI, 344 + + Lichnowsky, K. M., I, 323 + + Liege, capture of, II, 22 + + Liege forts, fall of, IV, 39 + + Linievka, capture of, V, 190 + + Lipa River, crossing of, V, 207 + + Lloyd-George, David, I, 185 + + Lombaertzyde, III, 156 + + London, air attacks on, VI, 174 + + London, Zeppelin raids, IV, 29, 463 + + Longueval, British recapture of, V, 408 + + Loos, capture of, IV, 83 + + Lorraine front, IV, 57-58 + + Lorraine, German successes in, VI, 219 + + Loubet, President, I, 166 + + Louvain, capture of, II, 28 + + Lowestoft, air raid on, IV, 22 + + Lowitz, fighting around, II, 465-467 + + Lukoff, capture of, IV, 194 + + Luneville, bombardment of, IV, 54 + + _Lusitania_, crisis, IV, 502-503 + + _Lusitania_ deadlock, IV, 496 + + _Lusitania_, sinking of, III, 185, 222 + + Lutsk, capture of, IV, 202 + + Lutsk, capture of, V, 158 + + Lutsk fortress, strength of, IV, 210 + + Lutsk, Russian attacks on, VI, 86 + + Lvov, Prince George, VI, 398 + + _Lyman M. Law_, VI, 293 + + Luxemburg, bombardment of, by aeroplanes, IV, 466 + + Luxemburg, invasion of, I, 280 + + + McLemore resolution, in House of Representatives, IV, 505; + V, 440 + + McNeely, Robert N., IV, 157 + + Macedonia, invasion of, IV, 277 + + Macedonia, conditions in, V, 214 + + Macedonia, reforms in, I, 238 + + Macedonian Bulgars, II, 282 + + Macedonia, Allied forces in, VI, 124 + + Macedonia, Serbian advance in, VI, 132 + + Mackensen, in Dobrudja, VI, 109, 115 + + Madagascar, I, 164 + + Maldon, air raid on, IV, 22 + + Malines, Belgian control of, II, 32 + + Mama Khatum, V, 335 + + Mangin, General, plans of, VI, 35 + + Manoury, General, II, 134 + + Margate, air attack on, VI, 171 + + Mariakerke, V, 431 + + Maritz, Colonel, III, 70 + + Marne, battle of the, II, 88-138 + + Martinpuich, capture of, VI, 23 + + Massiges, German attack at, IV, 124 + + Massiges sector, IV, 76 + + _Matoppo_, British ship, V, 65 + + Maurepas, French capture of, VI, 15 + + Maximalists, in Russia, VI, 418 + + Mazurian Lakes, battles of, II, 439 + + Mazurian Lakes, battles of, III, 313 + + Memel, raid on, III, 334 + + Merchantmen, armed, V, 60 + + Merchantmen, submarine warfare on, IV, 499 + + Messines Ridge, attack on, VI, 264 + + Metzeral, capture of, III, 165 + + Meuse, battles on the left bank of, V, 345-348 + + Meuse, French successes, VI, 64 + + Microphone, I, 21 + + Milan, demonstrations in, III, 379 + + Military operations in the Balkans, V, 214 + + Military plans of Central powers, I, 33 + + Military training, I, 14 + + Militia under Federal control, I, 13 + + Milukov, Paul, VI, 398, 413 + + _Minneapolis_, sinking of, V, 64 + + Mitrovitza, capture of, IV, 300 + + Mlawa, movements before, III, 324 + + _Moewe_, German raider, achievements of, IV, 159 + + Monastir, capture of, VI, 141-143 + + Monchy, capture of, VI, 242 + + _Monmouth_, cruiser, II, 223 + + Monro, Sir Charles, IV, 366 + + Mons, battle of, II, 60-68 + + Monte Adamello zone, V, 243 + + Monte Altissimo, IV, 396 + + Monte Ancora, attack on, V, 243 + + Monte Barro, capture of, V, 258 + + Montenegrin surrender, IV, 336 + + Montenegro in the war, II, 358-361 + + Montenegro, conquest of, IV, 329 + + Monte Rombon, attacks on, V, 230 + + Mont St. Elio, III, 121 + + Morgenthau, Henry, IV, 359 + + Mort Homme, battles of, V, 345, 354, 360, 362 + + Motor-Zeppelins, V, 418 + + Mountain fighting, VI, 159-166 + + Mount Lovcen, effect of capture of, on Italian campaign, IV, 399 + + Muelhausen, capture of, IV, 40 + + Mueller, Captain von, II, 229 + + Mush, massacre at, IV, 378 + + Mush, Russian capture of, III, 479 + + + Namur, capture of, II, 53 + + Narotch Lake, V, 124 + + _Natal_, British cruiser, destruction of, IV, 163 + + National growth in Balkans, I, 258 + + Nationality in Serbia, I, 259 + + Naval battle of Jutland, V, 70-108 + + Naval lessons of the war, I, 17 + + Naval losses, IV, 143-144; + V, 113-115; + VI, 484 + + Naval policy, German, I, 44 + + Naval strength of Austria, II, 206 + + Naval strength of Germany, II, 204 + + Naval strength of Great Britain, II, 197 + + Naval warfare, I, 26; VI, 480 + + Navy, American, strength of, I, 11 + + Navy, British, effect on war, I, 18 + + Navy, increase in personnel, VI, 362 + + Navy League, German, I, 141 + + Near East and Russia, I, 153 + + Near Eastern question, I, 131 + + Neutral shipping, loss of, IV, 170 + + Neutrality of Belgium, I, 276 + + Neutrality terms refused, I, 281 + + Neuve Chapelle, battle of, III, 83-92 + + Neuville St. Vaast, capture, III, 127 + + New Zealanders, gallantry of, at Suvla Bay, IV, 356 + + Nicholas II assumes command of Russian army, IV, 188 + + Nicholas, Grand Duke, II, 373; + IV, 189; + VI, 490 + + Nicholas, Grand Duke, transferred to the Caucasus, IV, 382 + + Nicholas, King of Montenegro, IV, 330 + + Nicholas II, abdication of, VI, 403 + + Nicholas II, indifference to conditions, VI, 385 + + Nicholas II, reply to kaiser's message, I, 440 + + Niemen, operations along, III, 330 + + Nieuport, attack on, III, 269 + + Nihilism in Russia, I, 153; + VI, 365 + + Nish, fall of, IV, 288 + + Nivelle, General, victories, VI, 246 + + Nixon, Sir John, available forces for capturing Bagdad, IV, 421 + + North Sea, battle of, II, 252 + + Notre Dame de Lorette, attacks on, III, 155; + IV, 88 + + Novo Georgievsk, capture of, III, 364; + IV, 184 + + Nuredin Pasha, IV, 426 + + _Nuernberg_, II, 224 + + Nyassaland, fighting in, III, 495 + + + Odessa, bombardment of, VI, 493 + + Olti, battle of, III, 478 + + Ortelsburg, capture of, II, 437 + + Oslavia Heights, capture, IV, 408 + + Ossowitz, bombardment of, III, 328 + + Ostend, raids on, IV, 56; + VI, 173 + + Otavi, battle of, III, 490 + + + _Palembang_, Dutch steamer, V, 62 + + Palmer, Frederick, the world's war, I, 31 + + Pan-Slavism, I, 153 + + Paris, air raids on, IV, 19, 462 + + Paris, arrival of American troops in, VI, 360 + + Paris, siege of, I, 129 + + Pashitch, N. P., I, 321; + IV, 289 + + Passes, battle of, III, 241-244 + + Peace of Tilsit, I, 84 + + Pegoud, Alfonse, IV, 50 + + Pepper Hill, successes at, V, 358 + + Persia, interests in, I, 185 + + Persia, British position in, IV, 419 + + Peronne, V, 390; + VI, 232 + + Pershing, General John J., commander of the American expeditionary + force, VI, 356 + + _Persia_, destruction of, negotiations over, IV, 500 + + _Persia_, British steamship, sinking of, IV, 157 + + Persian Gulf, importance of, II, 505 + + Perthes, III, 79; IV, 72 + + Petain, General, report on operations at Verdun, V, 358 + + Peter, King of Serbia, IV, 290, 302 + + Pinsk, IV, 205, 207 + + Pinsk marshes, Russian successes in, V, 197 + + Poland, campaigns in, II, 462; + III, 345 + + Poland, Austrian, II, 272 + + Political situation in Ireland, I, 43 + + Political conditions in Germany, I, 53 + + _Portugal_, sinking of, V, 64 + + Portuguese seizure of German merchant ships, V, 60 + + Power of Bismarck, growth of, I, 127 + + Powers, Central, military plans of, I, 33 + + Pourtales, F., I, 323 + + Pozieres, bombardment of, VI, 11 + + Pozieres Wood, advance on, V, 407 + + _Prinz Eitel Friedrich_, German raider, III, 179 + + Prinzip, Gabrilo, I, 260 + + Pripet Marshes, IV, 209 + + Pripet Marshes, operations in, V, 152; + VI, 81 + + Pro-German propaganda in United States, IV, 505 + + Protopopoff, treason of, VI, 388 + + Provisional Government in Russia, VI, 398 + + Prussian alliance with Italy, I, 127 + + Przasnysz, battles of, III, 324 + + Przemysl, II, 249, 405; + III, 324 + + + Radautz, capture of, V, 183 + + Radoslavov, Premier of Bulgaria, III, 372 + + Ramsgate, air raids on, IV, 26 + + Rancourt, capture of, VI, 27 + + Rasputin, VI, 374-377, 385 + + Rawa-Russka, battle of, II, 395 + + Regime, new, in Russia, VI, 404 + + Reichstag, Bethmann-Hollweg's statement in, I, 502 + + Rennenkampf, General, II, 443 + + Revolution in Russia, VI, 390 + + Rheims, bombardment of, II, 146-153; + III, 152-154; + VI, 237 + + Rhodesia, border fighting in, III, 495 + + Rifles used in different armies, I, 26 + + Riga-Dvinsk sector, V, 125, 128, 204 + + Riga, Gulf of, Russian torpedo boats in, V, 151 + + Rockwell, Kiffin, death of, VI, 181 + + Rodzianko, Michael, VI, 391 + + Roosevelt, Theodore, efforts to take troops to France, VI, 335 + + Root, Elihu, arrival of, in Russia as American Commissioner, VI, 417 + + Rovereto, Italian attack on, IV, 396; + V, 244 + + Rovno fortress, strength of, IV, 212 + + Royal British Corps, loss in, V, 425 + + _Royal Edward_, sunk, IV, 149 + + Rozau, capture of, III, 361 + + Ruhl, Arthur, the war correspondent, I, 113 + + Rumania, III, 370; + VI, 93-96 + + Rumania, neutrality of, IV, 256 + + Rumanian raid across the Danube, VI, 106-110 + + Russia and Great Britain in Persia, I, 185 + + Russia and Japan, V, 61 + + Russia and the Near East, I, 153 + + Russia in European politics, I, 148 + + Russian advance on the eastern front, V, 120 + + Russian mobilization, I, 306 + + Russian army, rehabilitation of, VI, 428 + + Russian artillery activity, V, 134 + + Russian attempts to extend time limit for hostilities, I, 385 + + Russian autocracy, VI, 364 + + Russian defeat, effect of, IV, 364 + + Russian disorganization, VI, 422 + + Russian fleet, mutiny, VI, 414 + + Russian foreign policy, I, 151 + + Russian internal troubles, I, 155 + + Russian losses in August, 1915, IV, 202-203 + + Russian mobilization, I, 405 + + Russian offensive, VI, 431, 440 + + Russian offensive in the East, V, 154 + + Russian offensive, temporary lull in, V, 188-192 + + Russian people and German diplomacy, I, 56 + + Russian persecution of Jews, I, 153 + + Russian Poland, II, 268 + + Russian pursuit of Turks, V, 292 + + Russian retreat, IV, 229-239 + + Russian revolution, foreshadowing of, VI, 363-365 + + Russian rout in Galicia, VI, 445-447 + + Russian troops in Rumania, VI, 97 + + Russian troops on the Black Sea coast, V, 61 + + Russia's attitude on Serbia, I, 377 + + Russia's strategy in East, II, 433 + + Russky, General, II, 377 + + Russo-German treaty, I, 319 + + Russo-Japanese War, I, 155 + + Russo-Turkish War, I, 132 + + + Saarbruecken, bombardment, IV, 48 + + St. Julien, assaults on, III, 102 + + St. Mihiel, salient, attacks on, III, 116 + + Sakharoff, General, V, 205 + + Salandra, I, 322 + + Salisbury, Marquis of, I, 179 + + Saloniki, II, 284; + IV, 261, 321; + V, 215, 429 + + Saloniki, German air raid on, V, 216 + + Saloniki, importance of, I, 61 + + Saloniki, Allies at, IV, 261 + + Samogneux, abandonment of, by French, IV, 137 + + Samsonoff, General, II, 436 + + San, battle of, III, 297-301 + + San, battles of the, II, 398 + + San Stefano, treaty of, I, 227 + + Sarafoff, Boris, I, 242 + + Sarajevo, I, 260; + II, 277 + + Sari Bair, attack on, IV, 348 + + Sarrail, General, commands French troops in Balkans, IV, 279; + V, 215 + + Sazonov, Russian Minister, VI, 380 + + Scarpe River, operations on, VI, 253 + + Scarborough, raids on, II, 247 + + Schiller, Ernest, V, 65 + + Schleswig-Holstein, war for, I, 127 + + Sea command and troop transportation, I, 24 + + Selective Draft Law, VI, 346 + + Semendria, bombardment of, IV, 269 + + Serbia, invasion of, II, 301; + IV, 177 + + Serbia, offers of peace, III, 376 + + Serbian retreat to Albania, IV, 303 + + Serbian army, strength of, in November, 1915, IV, 293-294 + + Serbian nationality, I, 258 + + Serbian reply to Austrian note, I, 265-270 + + Serbian resistance at Babuna Pass, IV, 283 + + Serbian troops, transport across Greek territory, V, 218 + + Serbians in Macedonia, VI, 132 + + Sereth River, crossing by Russian forces, V, 178 + + Servetsch region, V, 146 + + Sette Comuni Plateau, Italian successes on, V, 270 + + Shabatz, battle of, II, 317 + + Shevket Pasha, I, 244 + + Shipbuilding program, VI, 343 + + Shipping Board, creation of, VI, 213 + + Shipping, neutral loss of, IV, 170 + + Ships of American registry, seizure by British, V, 49 + + Shumadia division of Serbian army, heroism of, IV, 275 + + Sibert, General, with American expeditionary force, VI, 357 + + Siege of Paris, I, 129 + + Simonds, Frank H, summary of two years of war, V, 461-502 + + Simonds, F. H., the theatres of the wars' campaigns, I, 83 + + Sims, Admiral, commander of American destroyer flotilla, VI, 357 + + Smith-Dorrien, General, II, 60 + + Smoke screen, I, 74 + + Smorgon, fighting around, V, 179 + + Smorgon, operations around, VI, 80 + + Soissons, operations around, V, 376 + + Soldau, capture of, II, 437 + + Somme, British, and French offensive on the, VI, 27 + + Somme, battles of, beginning, V, 377 + + Somme, conditions in situation south of, on July 9, V, 399 + + Somme front, French and British gains, VI, 19 + + Somme offensive, German casualties in the, VI, 9 + + Somme offensive, object of Allies in, V, 377 + + Somme offensive, spring of 1916, VI, 9 + + Somme, second phase, V, 401 + + Souain sector, IV, 71-72 + + Souchez, attacks on, III, 124-125 + + Souchez, Canadian raids at, VI, 222 + + Souchez, French attack on, IV, 84 + + Southwest Africa, British conquest of, III, 484-493 + + Souville, attacks on, V, 368 + + Spee, Admiral von, II, 230 + + Speed plane, in warfare, V, 421 + + Stambuloff, I, 233 + + Stanislau, operations around, VI, 435 + + Stanislau, advance on, V, 193; + VI, 72 + + Steenstraete, capture of, VI, 287 + + Stokhod River, V, 198-207; + VI, 76-81, 423 + + Strikes in munitions factories, planned by Germans, V, 10 + + Strypa River, fighting along, IV, 223-229 + + Strypa River, Russian artillery attacks along, V, 138 + + St. Mihiel, French gains, VI, 231 + + St. Quentin, VI, 236 + + Stuff Redoubt, VI, 32, 49 + + Sturmer Boris, VI, 379 + + Stuttgart, bombardment of, by French aviators, IV, 60 + + Styr River, IV, 223-229; + V, 178 + + Submarine attacks on American transports, VI, 358 + + Submarine campaign, IV, 116 + + Submarine campaign against merchant ships, V, 59 + + Submarine, detecting, I, 21 + + Submarine, effectiveness of, I, 19 + + Submarine, efficiency of, IV, 145 + + Submarine negotiations, VI, 193 + + Submarine warfare, III, 209-222 + + Submarine warfare, VI, 182-188 + + Submarine warfare in 1917, VI, 475 + + Submarine warfare on armed merchantmen, IV, 499 + + Submarines, aeroplane warfare on, V, 414 + + Suchomlinof, V. A., I, 320 + + Suez Canal, defenses of, III, 18-19; + IV, 11 + + Summary of first year's operation on western front, IV, 39-46 + + _Sussex_, sinking of, V, 63, 443 + + Suvla Bay, IV, 346-356 + + Suwalki, occupation of, II, 448 + + + Talaat Bey, II, 499 + + Tanks, VI, 21, 46 + + Tannenberg, battle of, II, 438 + + Tarnow, battles around, III, 286 + + Tergovistea, capture of, by Austro-Germans, VI, 117 + + Terrorism in Russia, I, 153 + + Thiepval, British successes around, VI, 17 + + Tigris River, IV, 426; + V, 326-330 + + Tigris valley, campaign in, V, 307 + + Tilsit, peace of, I, 84 + + Togoland, campaign in, III, 62 + + Townshend, General, V, 311 + + Trade, foreign, of Germany, I, 49 + + Transloy, British successes at, VI, 65 + + Transportation of troops, I, 24 + + Transports, protection of, I, 18 + + Trans-Siberian Railway, I, 153 + + Trebizond-Erzerum road, V, 299 + + Trebizond, occupation of, V, 297 + + Trench bombs, I, 76 + + Trench fighting, I, 68 + + Trentino, Austrian offensive in, V, 244-255 + + Trentino front, VI, 154, 455 + + Trieste, Italian drive, VI, 159, 452 + + Triple Alliance, I, 133, 141 + + Triple Entente, formation of, I, 158 + + Trones Wood, V, 402-403 + + Troops, transportation of, I, 24 + + Tsing-tau, defenses, attacks on, capture, III, 48, 52, 60 + + _Tubantia_, Dutch steamer, V, 62 + + Turkey, American relations with, VI, 328 + + Turkish navy, operations of, IV, 170 + + Turkish troops on the eastern front, VI, 83 + + Typhus, epidemic of, II, 356; + III, 475 + + + Uganda, protectorate, I, 180 + + Undersea warfare, IV, 155 + + Unification of Germany, I, 130 + + Union of South Africa, rebellion in, III, 70 + + United States, development of pro-German propaganda in, IV, 505 + + _U-53_, exploits of, VI, 194 + + Union of Towns in Russia, VI, 377 + + + Van, concentration of Armenians in, IV, 378 + + Van, Russian successes in, III, 477 + + Vaux, French defense of, V, 351, 367 + + Vaux Fort, French recapture of, VI, 37, 39 + + Veles, resistance at, by Serbians, IV, 278 + + Venice, air raids on, III, 426; + VI, 169 + + Venizelos, attacks of, on Greek Government, IV, 311 + + Venizelos, E., I, 60; + V, 217 + + Verdun, attack on, I, 64 + + Verdun, effect of five months' siege, V, 371 + + Verdun, French victories at, VI, 54 + + Verdun, operations around, VI, 19, 53, 281 + + Verdun, struggle for, IV, 131-142 + + Victor Emmanuel, address to army, V, 254 + + Victor Emmanuel III, I, 194 + + Vienna, congress of 1814, I, 260 + + _Vigilancia_, sunk, VI, 318 + + Vilna, campaign against, IV, 187, 192 + + Vimy Ridge, capture of, VI, 239 + + Viviani, Rene, I, 318 + + Viviani, instruction to French ambassador at Vienna, I, 379 + + Volhynia, Austrians in, V, 138 + + Von Bernstorff, note to Secretary Lansing in reply to _Lusitania_ + protest in Germany, IV, 485 + + Von Bethmann-Hollweg, IV, 485 + + Von Buelow, Prince, I, 136 + + Von Caprivi, General, I, 134 + + Von Jagow, interviews with, I, 33, 502 + + Von Mackensen, commands German forces in Serbia, IV, 258 + + Von Papen, recalled, V, 26 + + Von Plehve, murder of, I, 156 + + Von Rintelen, Franz, V, 22-28 + + Von Tirpitz, Grand Admiral, attitude toward submarine warfare, IV, 484 + + Vosges, German activities in, IV, 51, 108 + + Vulkan Pass, capture of, by Germans, VI, 103 + + + War, German declaration of, I, 278 + + War, declaration of, between United States and Germany, VI, 325 + + War Revenue Bill, VI, 333 + + War zone, establishment of, III, 170 + + Warsaw, attack on, II, 450 + + Warsaw, capture of, III, 366-368 + + Warsaw, movements upon, III, 346 + + Warsaw, occupation of, IV, 178 + + Washburn, Stanley, on conditions on eastern front, V, 180-183 + + Western front, summary of first year's operations on, IV, 39-46 + + Western front on February 1, 1916, IV, 126 + + What the war means to America, I, 9 + + Whitby, raids on, II, 247 + + Whitlock, Brand, efforts to aid Miss Cavell, IV, 100-101 + + William II, accession of, I, 134 + + Wilson, President, address before Congress, April, 1917, VI, 320-326 + + Wilson, President, on armed neutrality before Congress, VI, 304 + + Wilson, President, and British blockade of Germany, V, 457 + + Wilson, President, and Congress, V, 434 + + Wilson, President, denouncement of unpatriotism, V, 26 + + Wilson, President, letter to Congress, IV, 503 + + Wilson, President, note to Russia, VI, 415 + + Wilson, President, proclamation convening Congress, VI, 319 + + Wilson's address on relations with Germany, VI, 210 + + Windhoek, capture of, III, 489 + + Wood, Major General Leonard, what the war means to America, I, 9 + + + Yarmouth, raids on, II, 246 + + _Yarrowdale_, prisoners, VI, 297 + + Younghusband, General, IV, 446 + + Yperlee Canal, III, 107 + + Ypres, attack on, II, 171, 172, 174 + + Ypres, bombardment of, III, 95 + + Ypres, British successes south of, VI, 264 + + Ypres, first battle of, IV, 44 + + Ypres, German success at, in February, 1916, IV, 122 + + Ypres, second battle of, III, 99-106 + + Ypres sector, operations in, in March, 1916, V, 372, 375 + + Yser, II, 169; + III, 167; + IV, 122 + + Yser region, flood in, IV, 117 + + + Zanzibar, I, 180 + + Zeebrugge shelled, V, 67; VI, 482 + + Zeppelin attack on Warsaw, IV, 19 + + Zeppelin, Count Ferdinand, death of, VI, 494 + + Zeppelin raids on England, IV, 16, 466; + V, 422; + VI, 494 + + Zeppelin, value of, V, 412 + + Zeppelins, loss of, IV, 468; + V, 430; + VI, 179 + + Zugan Torta, V, 247 + + Zungar Valley, V, 247 + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Story of the Great War, Volume VI +(of VIII), by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF THE GREAT WAR *** + +***** This file should be named 29385.txt or 29385.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/9/3/8/29385/ + +Produced by Charlene Taylor, Christine P. 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