diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:20:19 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:20:19 -0700 |
| commit | 0276fc7fd641e6ed8a74e5211d395e64879cf91b (patch) | |
| tree | 5e86527f1f86e5e0e46336c6fb9b1455e8cef373 | |
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 3034-h.zip | bin | 0 -> 113025 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 3034-h/3034-h.htm | 5363 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 3034.txt | 4916 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 3034.zip | bin | 0 -> 109717 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/ascru10.txt | 5283 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/ascru10.zip | bin | 0 -> 108677 bytes |
9 files changed, 15578 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/3034-h.zip b/3034-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..af3ebac --- /dev/null +++ b/3034-h.zip diff --git a/3034-h/3034-h.htm b/3034-h/3034-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..60f01bb --- /dev/null +++ b/3034-h/3034-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5363 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + The Anti-slavery Crusade, by Jesse Macy + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Anti-Slavery Crusade, by Jesse Macy + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Anti-Slavery Crusade + Volume 28 In The Chronicles Of America Series + +Author: Jesse Macy + +Editor: Allen Johnson + +Release Date: January 15, 2009 [EBook #3034] +Last Updated: February 6, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ANTI-SLAVERY CRUSADE *** + + + + +Produced by The James J. Kelly Library of St. Gregory's +University, Dianne Bean, Doug Levy, Alev Akman, and David Widger + + + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE ANTI-SLAVERY CRUSADE, + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + A CHRONICLE OF THE GATHERING STORM + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Jesse Macy + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h4> + New Haven: Yale University Press <br /><br /> Toronto: Glasgow, Brook & + Co. <br /><br /> London: Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press <br /><br /> + 1919 + </h4> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + Contents + </h2> + <table summary="" style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: auto"> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. </a> + </td> + <td> + INTRODUCTION + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. </a> + </td> + <td> + THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE CRUSADE + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. </a> + </td> + <td> + EARLY CRUSADERS + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. </a> + </td> + <td> + THE TURNING-POINT + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. </a> + </td> + <td> + THE VINDICATION OF LIBERTY + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. </a> + </td> + <td> + THE SLAVERY ISSUE IN POLITICS + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII. </a> + </td> + <td> + THE PASSING OF THE WHIG PARTY + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII. </a> + </td> + <td> + THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX. </a> + </td> + <td> + BOOKS AS ANTI-SLAVERY WEAPONS + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X. </a> + </td> + <td> + "BLEEDING KANSAS" + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI. </a> + </td> + <td> + CHARLES SUMNER + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII. </a> + </td> + <td> + KANSAS AND BUCHANAN + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII. </a> + </td> + <td> + THE SUPREME COURT IN POLITICS + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XIV. </a> + </td> + <td> + JOHN BROWN + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2H_4_0015"> BIBLIOGRAPHICAL. </a> + </td> + <td> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE ANTI-SLAVERY CRUSADE + </h1> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION + </h2> + <p> + The Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln marks the beginning of + the end of a long chapter in human history. Among the earliest forms of + private property was the ownership of slaves. Slavery as an institution + had persisted throughout the ages, always under protest, always provoking + opposition, insurrection, social and civil war, and ever bearing within + itself the seeds of its own destruction. Among the historic powers of the + world the United States was the last to uphold slavery, and when, a few + years after Lincoln's proclamation, Brazil emancipated her slaves, + property in man as a legally recognized institution came to an end in all + civilized countries. + </p> + <p> + Emancipation in the United States marked the conclusion of a century of + continuous debate, in which the entire history of western civilization was + traversed. The literature of American slavery is, indeed, a summary of the + literature of the world on the subject. The Bible was made a standard + text-book both for and against slavery. Hebrew and Christian experiences + were exploited in the interest of the contending parties in this crucial + controversy. Churches of the same name and order were divided among + themselves and became half pro-slavery and half anti-slavery. + </p> + <p> + Greek experience and Greek literature were likewise drawn into the + controversy. The Greeks themselves had set the example of arguing both for + and against slavery. Their practice and their prevailing teaching, + however, gave support to this institution. They clearly enunciated the + doctrine that there is a natural division among human beings; that some + are born to command and others to obey; that it is natural to some men to + be masters and to others to be slaves; that each of these classes should + fulfill the destiny which nature assigns. The Greeks also recognized a + difference between races and held that some were by nature fitted to serve + as slaves, and others to command as masters. The defenders of American + slavery therefore found among the writings of the Greeks their chief + arguments already stated in classic form. + </p> + <p> + Though the Romans added little to the theory of the fundamental problem + involved, their history proved rich in practical experience. There were + times, in parts of the Roman Empire, when personal slavery either did not + exist or was limited and insignificant in extent. But the institution grew + with Roman wars and conquests. In rural districts, slave labor displaced + free labor, and in the cities servants multiplied with the concentration + of wealth. The size and character of the slave population eventually + became a perpetual menace to the State. Insurrections proved formidable, + and every slave came to be looked upon as an enemy to the public. It is + generally conceded that the extension of slavery was a primary cause of + the decline and fall of Rome. In the American controversy, therefore, the + lesson to be drawn from Roman experience was utilized to support the cause + of free labor. + </p> + <p> + After the Middle Ages, in which slavery under the modified form of + feudalism ran its course, there was a reversion to the ancient classical + controversy. The issue became clearly defined in the hands of the English + and French philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In + place of the time-honored doctrine that the masses of mankind are by + nature subject to the few who are born to rule, the contradictory dogma + that all men are by nature free and equal was clearly enunciated. + According to this later view, it is of the very nature of spirit, or + personality, to be free. All men are endowed with personal qualities of + will and choice and a conscious sense of right and wrong. To subject these + native faculties to an alien force is to make war upon human nature. + Slavery and despotism are, therefore, in their nature but a species of + warfare. They involve the forcing of men to act in violation of their true + selves. The older doctrine makes government a matter of force. The strong + command the weak, or the rich exercise lordship over the poor. The new + doctrine makes of government an achievement of adult citizens who agree + among themselves as to what is fit and proper for the good of the State + and who freely observe the rules adopted and apply force only to the + abnormal, the delinquent, and the defective. + </p> + <p> + Between the upholders of these contradictory views of human nature there + always has been and there always must be perpetual warfare. Their + difference is such as to admit of no compromise; no middle ground is + possible. The conflict is indeed irresistible. The chief interest in the + American crusade against slavery arises from its relation to this general + world conflict between liberty and despotism. + </p> + <p> + The Athenians could be democrats and at the same time could uphold and + defend the institution of slavery. They were committed to the doctrine + that the masses of the people were slaves by nature. By definition, they + made slaves creatures void of will and personality, and they conveniently + ignored them in matters of state. But Americans living in States founded + in the era of the Declaration of Independence could not be good democrats + and at the same time uphold and defend the institution of slavery, for the + Declaration gives the lie to all such assumptions of human inequality by + accepting the cardinal axiom that all men are created equal and are + endowed with certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, + and the pursuit of happiness. The doctrine of equality had been developed + in Europe without special reference to questions of distinct race or + color. But the terms, which are universal and as broad as humanity in + their denotation, came to be applied to black men as well as to white men. + Massachusetts embodied in her state constitution in 1780 the words, "All + men are born free and equal," and the courts ruled that these words in the + state constitution had the effect of liberating the slaves and of giving + to them the same rights as other citizens. This is a perfectly logical + application of the doctrine of the Revolution. + </p> + <p> + The African slave-trade, however, developed earlier than the doctrine of + the Declaration of Independence. Negro slavery had long been an + established institution in all the American colonies. Opposition to the + slave-trade and to slavery was an integral part of the evolution of the + doctrine of equal rights. As the colonists contended for their own + freedom, they became anti-slavery in sentiment. A standard complaint + against British rule was the continued imposition of the slave-trade upon + the colonists against their oft-repeated protest. + </p> + <p> + In the original draft of the Declaration of Independence, there appeared + the following charges against the King of Great Britain: + </p> + <p> + "He has waged cruel war against human nature itself, violating its most + sacred rights of life and liberty in the persons of distant people who + never offended him, captivating and carrying them into slavery in another + hemisphere, or to incur miserable death in their transportation thither. + This piratical warfare, the opprobrium of infidel powers, is the warfare + of the Christian King of Great Britain. Determined to keep open a market + where men should be bought and sold, he has prostituted his negative for + suppressing every legislative attempt to prohibit or to restrain this + execrable commerce." + </p> + <p> + Though this clause was omitted from the document as finally adopted, the + evidence is abundant that the language expressed the prevailing sentiment + of the country. To the believer in liberty and equality, slavery and the + slave-trade are instances of war against human nature. No one attempted to + justify slavery or to reconcile it with the principles of free government. + Slavery was accepted as an inheritance for which others were to blame. + Colonists at first blamed Great Britain; later apologists for slavery + blamed New England for her share in the continuance of the slave-trade. + </p> + <p> + The fact should be clearly comprehended that the sentiments which led to + the American Revolution, and later to the French Revolution in Europe, + were as broad in their application as the human race itself—that + there were no limitations nor exceptions. These new principles involved a + complete revolution in the previously recognized principles of government. + The French sought to make a master-stroke at immediate achievement and + they incurred counterrevolutions and delays. The Americans moved in a more + moderate and tentative manner towards the great achievement, but with them + also a counter-revolution finally appeared in the rise of an influential + class who, by openly defending slavery, repudiated the principles upon + which the government was founded. + </p> + <p> + At first the impression was general, in the South as well as in the North, + that slavery was a temporary institution. The cause of emancipation was + already advocated by the Society of Friends and some other sects. A + majority of the States adopted measures for the gradual abolition of + slavery, but in other cases there proved to be industrial barriers to + emancipation. Slaves were found to be profitably employed in clearing away + the forests; they were not profitably employed in general agriculture. A + marked exception was found in small districts in the Carolinas and Georgia + where indigo and rice were produced; and though cotton later became a + profitable crop for slave labor, it was the producers of rice and indigo + who furnished the original barrier to the immediate extension of the + policy of emancipation. Representatives from their States secured the + introduction of a clause into the Constitution which delayed for twenty + years the execution of the will of the country against the African + slave-trade. It is said that a slave imported from Africa paid for himself + in a single year in the production of rice. There were thus a few planters + in Georgia and the Carolinas who had an obvious interest in the + prolongation of the institution of slavery and who had influence enough, + to secure constitutional recognition for both slavery and the slave-trade. + </p> + <p> + The principles involved were not seriously debated. In theory all were + abolitionists; in practice slavery extended to all the States. In some, + actual abolition was comparatively easy; in others, it was difficult. By + the end of the first quarter of the nineteenth century, actual abolition + had extended to the line separating Pennsylvania from Maryland. Of the + original thirteen States seven became free and six remained slave. + </p> + <p> + The absence of ardent or prolonged debate upon this issue in the early + history of the United States is easily accounted for. No principle of + importance was drawn into the controversy; few presumed to defend slavery + as a just or righteous institution. As to conduct, each individual, each + neighborhood enjoyed the freedom of a large, roomy country. Even within + state lines there was liberty enough. No keen sense of responsibility for + a uniform state policy existed. It was therefore not difficult for those + who were growing wealthy by the use of imported negroes to maintain their + privileges in the State. + </p> + <p> + If the sense of active responsibility was wanting within the separate + States, much more was this true of the citizens of different States. + Slavery was regarded as strictly a domestic institution. Families bought + and owned slaves as a matter of individual preference. None of the + original colonies or States adopted slavery by law. The citizens of the + various colonies became slaveholders simply because there was no law + against it. * The abolition of slavery was at first an individual matter + or a church or a state policy. When the Constitution was formulated, the + separate States had been accustomed to regard themselves as possessed of + sovereign powers; hence there was no occasion for the citizens of one + State to have a sense of responsibility on account of the domestic + institutions of other States. The consciousness of national responsibility + was of slow growth, and the conditions did not then exist which favored a + general crusade against slavery or a prolonged acrimonious debate on the + subject, such as arose forty years later. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In the case of Georgia there was a prohibitory law, which + was disregarded. +</pre> + <p> + In many of the States, however, there were organized abolition societies, + whose object was to promote the cause of emancipation already in progress + and to protect the rights of free negroes. The Friends, or Quakers, were + especially active in the promotion of a propaganda for universal + emancipation. A petition which was presented to the first Congress in + February, 1790, with the signature of Benjamin Franklin as President of + the Pennsylvania Abolition Society, contained this concluding paragraph: + </p> + <p> + "From a persuasion that equal liberty was originally, and is still, the + birthright of all men, and influenced by the strong ties of humanity and + the principles of their institutions, your memorialists conceive + themselves bound to use all justifiable endeavors to loosen the bonds of + slavery, and to promote the general enjoyment of the blessings of freedom. + Under these impressions they earnestly entreat your attention to the + subject of slavery; that you will be pleased to countenance the + restoration to liberty of those unhappy men, who, alone, in this land of + freemen, are groaning in servile subjection; that you will devise means + for removing this inconsistency of character from the American people; + that you will promote mercy and justice towards this distressed race; and + that you will step to the very verge of the power vested in you for + discouraging every species of traffic in the persons of our fellowmen." * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * William Goodell, "Slavery and Anti-Slavery," p. 99. +</pre> + <p> + The memorialists were treated with profound respect. Cordial support and + encouragement came from representatives from Virginia and other slave + States. Opposition was expressed by members from South Carolina and + Georgia. These for the most part relied upon their constitutional + guaranties. But for these guaranties, said Smith, of South Carolina, his + State would not have entered the Union. In the extreme utterances in + opposition to the petition there is a suggestion of the revolution which + was to occur forty years later. + </p> + <p> + Active abolitionists who gave time and money to the promotion of the cause + were always few in numbers. Previous to 1830 abolition societies resembled + associations for the prevention of cruelty to animals—in fact, in + one instance at least this was made one of the professed objects. These + societies labored to induce men to act in harmony with generally + acknowledged obligations, and they had no occasion for violence or + persecution. Abolitionists were distinguished for their benevolence and + their unselfish devotion to the interests of the needy and the + unfortunate. It was only when the ruling classes resorted to mob violence + and began to defend slavery as a divinely ordained institution that there + was a radical change in the spirit of the controversy. The irrepressible + conflict between liberty and despotism which has persisted in all ages + became manifest when slave-masters substituted the Greek doctrine of + inequality and slavery for the previously accepted Christian doctrine of + equality and universal brotherhood. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE CRUSADE + </h2> + <p> + It was a mere accident that the line drawn by Mason and Dixon between + Pennsylvania and Maryland became known in later years as the dividing line + between slavery and freedom. The six States south of that line ultimately + neglected or refused to abolish slavery, while the seven Northern States + became free. Vermont became a State in 1791 and Kentucky in 1792. The + third State to be added to the original thirteen was Tennessee in 1796. At + that time, counting the States as they were finally classified, eight were + destined to be slave and eight free. Ohio entered the Union as a State in + 1802, thus giving to the free States a majority of one. The balance, + however, was restored in 1812 by the admission of Louisiana as a slave + State. The admission of Indiana in 1816 on the one side and of Mississippi + in 1817 on the other still maintained the balance: ten free States stood + against ten slave States. During the next two years Illinois and Alabama + were admitted, making twenty-two States in all, still evenly divided. + </p> + <p> + The ordinance for the government of the territory north of the Ohio River, + passed in 1787 and reenacted by Congress after the adoption of the + Constitution, proved to be an act of great significance in its relation to + the limitation of slavery. By this ordinance slavery was forever + prohibited in the Northwest Territory. In the territory south of the Ohio + River slavery became permanently established. The river, therefore, became + an extension of the original Mason and Dixon's Line with the new meaning + attached: it became a division between free and slave territory. + </p> + <p> + It was apparently at first a mere matter of chance that a balance was + struck between the two losses of States. While Virginia remained a slave + State, it was natural that slavery should extend into Kentucky, which had + been a part of Virginia. Likewise Tennessee, being a part of North + Carolina, became slave territory. When these two Territories became slave + States, the equal division began. There was yet an abundance of territory + both north and south to be taken into the Union and, without any special + plan or agitation, States were admitted in pairs, one free and the other + slave. In the meantime there was distinctly developed the idea of the + possible or probable permanence of slavery in the South and of a rivalry + or even a future conflict between the two sections. + </p> + <p> + When in 1819 Missouri applied for admission to the Union with a state + constitution permitting slavery, there was a prolonged debate over the + whole question, not only in Congress but throughout the entire country. + North and South were distinctly pitted against each other with rival + systems of labor. The following year Congress passed a law providing for + the admission of Missouri, but, to restore the balance, Maine was + separated from Massachusetts and was admitted to the Union as a State. It + was further enacted that slavery should be forever prohibited from all + territory of the United States north of the parallel 36 degrees 30', that + is, north of the southern boundary of Missouri. It is this part of the act + which is known as the Missouri Compromise. It was accepted as a permanent + limitation of the institution of slavery. By this act Mason and Dixon's + Line was extended through the Louisiana Purchase. As the western boundary + was then defined, slavery could still be extended into Arkansas and into a + part of what is now Oklahoma, while a great empire to the northwest was + reserved for the formation of free States. Arkansas became a slave State + in 1836 and Michigan was admitted as a free State in the following year. + </p> + <p> + With the admission of Arkansas and Michigan, thirteen slave States were + balanced by a like number of free States. The South still had Florida, + which would in time become a slave State. Against this single Territory + there was an immense region to the northwest, equal in area to all the + slave States combined, which, according to the Ordinance of 1787 and the + Missouri Compromise, had been consecrated to freedom. Foreseeing this + condition, a few Southern planters began a movement for the extension of + territory to the south and west immediately after the adoption of the + Missouri Compromise. When Arkansas was admitted in 1836, there was a + prospect of the immediate annexation of Texas as a slave State. This did + not take place until nine years later, but the propaganda, the object of + which was the extension of slave territory, could not be maintained by + those who contended that slavery was a curse to the country. Virginia, + therefore, and other border slave States, as they became committed to the + policy of expansion, ceased to tolerate official public utterances against + slavery. + </p> + <p> + Three more or less clearly defined sections appear in the later + development of the crusade. These are the New England States, the Middle + States, and the States south of North Carolina and Tennessee. In New + England, few negroes were ever held as slaves, and the institution + disappeared during the first years of the Republic. The inhabitants had + little experience arising from actual contact with slavery. When slavery + disappeared from New England and before there had been developed in the + country at large a national feeling of responsibility for its continued + existence, interest in the subject declined. For twenty years previous to + the founding of Garrison's Liberator in 1831, organized abolition + movements had been almost unknown in New England. In various ways the + people were isolated, separated from contact with slavery. Their knowledge + of this subject of discussion was academic, theoretical, acquired at + second-hand. + </p> + <p> + In New York and New Jersey slaves were much more numerous than in New + England. There were still slaves in considerable numbers until about 1825. + The people had a knowledge of the institution from experience and + observation, and there was no break in the continuity of their organized + abolition societies. Chief among the objects of these societies was the + effort to prevent kidnapping and to guard the rights of free negroes. For + both of these purposes there was a continuous call for activity. + Pennsylvania also had freedmen of her own whose rights called for + guardianship, as well as many freedmen from farther south who had come + into the State. + </p> + <p> + The movement of protest and protection did not stop at Mason and Dixon's + Line, but extended far into the South. In both North Carolina and + Tennessee an active protest against slavery was at all times maintained. + In this great middle section of the country, between New England and South + Carolina, there was no cessation in the conflict between free and slave + labor. Some of these States became free while others remained slave; but + between the people of the two sections there was continuous communication. + Slaveholders came into free States to liberate their slaves. + Non-slaveholders came to get rid of the competition of slave labor, and + free negroes came to avoid reenslavement. Slaves fled thither on their way + to liberty. It was not a matter of choice; it was an unavoidable condition + which compelled the people of the border States to give continuous + attention to the institution of slavery. + </p> + <p> + The modern anti-slavery movement had its origin in this great middle + section, and from the same source it derived its chief support. The great + body of active abolitionists were from the slave States or else derived + their inspiration from personal contact with slavery. As compared with New + England abolitionists, the middlestate folk were less extreme in their + views. They had a keener appreciation of the difficulties involved in + emancipation. They were more tolerant towards the idea of letting the + country at large share the burdens involved in the liberation of the + slaves. Border-state abolitionists naturally favored the policy of gradual + emancipation which had been followed in New York, New Jersey, and + Pennsylvania. Abolitionists who continued to reside in the slave States + were forced to recognize the fact that emancipation involved serious + questions of race adjustment. From the border States came the colonization + society, a characteristic institution, as well as compromise of every + variety. + </p> + <p> + The southernmost section, including South Carolina, Georgia, and the Gulf + States, was even more sharply defined in the attitude it assumed toward + the anti-slavery movement. At no time did the cause of emancipation become + formidable in this section. In all these States there was, of course, a + large class of non-slaveholding whites, who were opposed to slavery and + who realized that they were victims of an injurious system; but they had + no effective organ for expression. The ruling minority gained an early and + an easy victory and to the end held a firm hand. To the inhabitants of + this section it appeared to be a self-evident truth that the white race + was born to rule and the black race was born to serve. Where negroes + outnumbered the whites fourfold, the mere suggestion of emancipation + raised a race question which seemed appalling in its proportions. Either + in the Union or out of the Union, the rulers were determined to perpetuate + slavery. + </p> + <p> + Slavery as an economic institution became dependent upon a few + semitropical plantation crops. When the Constitution was framed, rice and + indigo, produced in South Carolina and Georgia, were the two most + important. Indigo declined in relative importance, and the production of + sugar was developed, especially after the annexation of the Louisiana + Purchase. But by far the most important crop for its effects upon slavery + and upon the entire country was cotton. This single product finally + absorbed the labor of half the slaves of the entire country. Mr. Rhodes is + not at all unreasonable in his surmise that, had it not been for the + unforeseen development of the cotton industry, the expectation of the + founders of the Republic that slavery would soon disappear would actually + have been realized. + </p> + <p> + It was more difficult to carry out a policy of emancipation when slaves + were quoted in the market at a thousand dollars than when the price was a + few hundred dollars. All slave-owners felt richer; emancipation appeared + to involve a greater sacrifice. Thus the cotton industry went far towards + accounting for the changed attitude of the entire country on the subject + of slavery. The North as well as the South became financially interested. + </p> + <p> + It was not generally perceived before it actually happened that the border + States would take the place of Africa in furnishing the required supply of + laborers for Southern plantations. The interstate slave-trade gave to the + system a solidarity of interest which was new. All slave-owners became + partakers of a common responsibility for the system as a whole. It was the + newly developed trade quite as much as the system of slavery itself which + furnished the ground for the later anti-slavery appeal. The consciousness + of a common guilt for the sin of slavery grew with the increase of actual + interstate relations. + </p> + <p> + The abolition of the African slave-trade was an act of the general + Government. Congress passed the prohibitory statute in 1807, to go into + effect January, 1808. At no time, however, was the prohibition entirely + effective, and a limited illegal trade continued until slavery was + eventually abolished. This inefficiency of restraint furnished another + point of attack for the abolitionists. Through efforts to suppress the + African slave-trade, the entire country became conscious of a common + responsibility. Before the Revolutionary War, Great Britain had been + censured for forcing cheap slaves from Africa upon her unwilling colonies. + After the Revolution, New England was blamed for the activity of her + citizens in this nefarious trade both before and after it was made + illegal. All of this tended to increase the sense of responsibility in + every section of the country. Congress had made the foreign slave-trade + illegal; and citizens in all sections gradually became aware of the + possibility that Congress might likewise restrict or forbid interstate + commerce in slaves. + </p> + <p> + The West Indies and Mexico were also closely associated with the United + States in the matter of slavery. When Jamestown was founded, negro slavery + was already an old institution in the islands of the Caribbean Sea, and + thence came the first slaves to Virginia. The abolition of slavery in the + island of Hayti, or San Domingo, was accomplished during the French + Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. As incidental to the process of + emancipation, the Caucasian inhabitants were massacred or banished, and a + republican government was established, composed exclusively of negroes and + mulattoes. From the date of the Missouri Compromise to that of the Mexican + War, this island was united under a single republic, though it was + afterwards divided into the two republics of Hayti and San Domingo. + </p> + <p> + The "horrors of San Domingo" were never absent from the minds of those in + the United States who lived in communities composed chiefly of slaves. + What had happened on the island was accepted by Southern planters as proof + that the two races could live together in peace only under the relation of + master and slave, and that emancipation boded the extermination of one + race or the other. Abolitionists, however, interpreted the facts + differently: they emphasized the tyranny of the white rulers as a primary + cause of the massacres; they endowed some of the negro leaders with the + highest qualities of statesmanship and self-sacrificing generosity; and + Wendell Phillips, in an impassioned address which he delivered in 1861, + placed on the honor roll above the chief worthies of history—including + Cromwell and Washington—Toussaint L'Ouverture, the liberator of Hayti, + whom France had betrayed and murdered. + </p> + <p> + Abolitionists found support for their position in the contention that + other communities had abolished slavery without such accompanying horrors + as occurred in Hayti and without serious race conflict. Slavery had run + its course in Spanish America, and emancipation accompanied or followed + the formation of independent republics. In 1833 all slaves in the British + Empire were liberated, including those in the important island of Jamaica. + So it happened that, just at the time when Southern leaders were making up + their minds to defend their peculiar institution at all hazards, they were + beset on every side by the spirit of emancipation. Abolitionists, on the + other hand, were fully convinced that the attainment of some form of + emancipation in the United States was certain, and that, either peaceably + or through violence, the slaves would ultimately be liberated. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. EARLY CRUSADERS + </h2> + <p> + At the time when the new cotton industry was enhancing the value of slave + labor, there arose from the ranks of the people those who freely + consecrated their all to the freeing of the slave. Among these, Benjamin + Lundy, a New Jersey Quaker, holds a significant place. + </p> + <p> + Though the Society of Friends fills a large place in the anti-slavery + movement, its contribution to the growth of the conception of equality is + even more significant. This impetus to the idea arises from a fundamental + Quaker doctrine, announced at the middle of the seventeenth century, to + the erect that God reveals Himself to mankind, not through any priesthood + or specially chosen agents; not through any ordinance, form, or ceremony; + not through any church or institution; not through any book or written + record of any sort; but directly, through His Spirit, to each person. This + direct enlightening agency they deemed coextensive with humanity; no race + and no individual is left without the ever-present illuminating Spirit. If + men of old spoke as they were moved by the Holy Spirit, what they spoke or + wrote can furnish no reliable guidance to the men of a later generation, + except as their minds also are enlightened by the same Spirit in the same + way. "The letter killeth; it is the Spirit that giveth life." + </p> + <p> + This doctrine in its purity and simplicity places all men and all races on + an equality; all are alike ignorant and imperfect; all are alike in their + need of the more perfect revelation yet to be made. Master and slave are + equal before God; there can be no such relation, therefore, except by + doing violence to a personality, to a spiritual being. In harmony with + this fundamental principle, the Society of Friends early rid itself of all + connection with slavery. The Friends' Meeting became a refuge for those + who were moved by the Spirit to testify against slavery. + </p> + <p> + Born in 1789 in a State which was then undergoing the process of + emancipating its slaves, Benjamin Lundy moved at the age of nineteen to + Wheeling, West Virginia, which had already become the center of an active + domestic slave-trade. The pious young Quaker, now apprenticed to a + saddler, was brought into personal contact with this traffic in human + flesh. He felt keenly the national disgrace of the iniquity. So deep did + the iron enter into his soul that never again did he find peace of mind + except in efforts to relieve the oppressed. Like hundreds and thousands of + others, Lundy was led on to active opposition to the trade by an actual + knowledge of the inhumanity of the business as prosecuted before his eyes + and by his sympathy for human suffering. + </p> + <p> + His apprenticeship ended, Lundy was soon established in a prosperous + business in an Ohio village not far from Wheeling. Though he now lived in + a free State, the call of the oppressed was ever in his ears and he could + not rest. He drew together a few of his neighbors, and together they + organized the Union Humane Society, whose object was the relief of those + held in bondage. In a few months the society numbered several hundred + members, and Lundy issued an address to the philanthropists of the whole + country, urging them to unite in like manner with uniform constitutions, + and suggesting that societies so formed adopt a policy of correspondence + and cooperation. At about the same time, Lundy began to publish + anti-slavery articles in the Mount Pleasant Philanthropist and other + papers. + </p> + <p> + In 1819 he went on a business errand to St. Louis, Missouri, where he + found himself in the midst of an agitation over the question of the + extension of slavery in the States. With great zest he threw himself into + the discussion, making use of the newspapers in Missouri and Illinois. + Having lost his property, he returned poverty-stricken to Ohio, where he + founded in January, 1821, the Genius of Universal Emancipation. A few + months later he transferred his paper to the more congenial atmosphere of + Jonesborough, Tennessee, but in 1824 he went to Baltimore, Maryland. In + the meantime, Lundy had become much occupied in traveling, lecturing, and + organizing societies for the promotion of the cause of abolition. He + states that during the ten years previous to 1830 he had traveled upwards + of twenty-five thousand miles, five thousand of which were on foot. He now + became interested in plans for colonizing negroes in other countries as an + aid to emancipation, though he himself had no confidence in the + colonization society and its scheme of deportation to Africa. After + leading a few negroes to Hayti in 1829, he visited Canada, Texas, and + Mexico with a similar plan in view. + </p> + <p> + During a trip through the Middle States and New England in 1828, Lundy met + William Lloyd Garrison, and the following year he walked all the way from + Baltimore to Bennington, Vermont, for the express purpose of securing the + assistance of the youthful reformer as coeditor of his paper. Garrison had + previously favored colonization, but within the few weeks which elapsed + before he joined Lundy, he repudiated all forms of colonization and + advocated immediate and unconditional emancipation. He at once told Lundy + of his change of views. "Well," said Lundy, "thee may put thy initials to + thy articles, and I will put my witness to mine, and each will bear his + own burden." The two editors were, however, in complete accord in their + opposition to the slave-trade. Lundy had suffered a dangerous assault at + the hands of a Baltimore slave-trader before he was joined by Garrison. + During the year 1830, Garrison was convicted of libel and thrown into + prison on account of his scathing denunciation of Francis Todd of + Massachusetts, the owner of a vessel engaged in the slave-trade. + </p> + <p> + These events brought to a crisis the publication of the Genius of + Universal Emancipation. The editors now parted company. Again Lundy moved + the office of the paper, this time to Washington, D.C., but it soon became + a peripatetic monthly, printed wherever the editor chanced to be. In 1836 + Lundy began the issue of an anti-slavery paper in Philadelphia, called the + National Inquirer, and with this was merged the Genius of Universal + Emancipation. He was preparing to resume the issue of his original paper + under the old title, in La Salle County, Illinois, when he was overtaken + by death on August 22, 1839. + </p> + <p> + Here was a man without education, without wealth, of a slight frame, not + at all robust, who had undertaken, singlehanded and without the shadow of + a doubt of his ultimate success, to abolish American slavery. He began the + organization of societies which were to displace the anti-slavery + societies of the previous century. He established the first paper devoted + exclusively to the cause of emancipation. He foresaw that the question of + emancipation must be carried into politics and that it must become an + object of concern to the general Government as well as to the separate + States. In the early part of his career he found the most congenial + association and the larger measure of effective support south of Mason and + Dixon's Line, and in this section were the greater number of the abolition + societies which he organized. During the later years of his life, as it + was becoming increasingly difficult in the South to maintain a public + anti-slavery propaganda, he transferred his chief activities to the North. + Lundy serves as a connecting link between the earlier and the later + anti-slavery movements. Eleven years of his early life belong to the + century of the Revolution. Garrison recorded his indebtedness to Lundy in + the words: "If I have in any way, however humble, done anything towards + calling attention to slavery, or bringing out the glorious prospect of a + complete jubilee in our country at no distant day, I feel that I owe + everything in this matter, instrumentally under God, to Benjamin Lundy." + </p> + <p> + Different in type, yet even more significant on account of its peculiar + relations to the cause of abolition, was the life of James Gillespie + Birney, who was born in a wealthy slaveholding family at Dansville, + Kentucky, in the year 1792. The Birneys were anti-slavery planters of the + type of Washington and Jefferson. The father had labored to make Kentucky + a free State at the time of its admission to the Union. His son was + educated first at Princeton, where he graduated in 1810, and then in the + office of a distinguished lawyer in Philadelphia. He began the practice of + law at his home at the age of twenty-two. His home training and his + residence in States which were then in the process of gradual emancipation + served to confirm him in the traditional conviction of his family. While + Benjamin Lundy, at the age of twenty-seven, was engaged in organizing + anti-slavery societies north of the Ohio River, Birney at the age of + twenty-four was influential as a member of the Kentucky Legislature in the + prevention of the passing of a joint resolution calling upon Ohio and + Indiana to make laws providing for the return of fugitive slaves. He was + also conspicuous in his efforts to secure provisions for gradual + emancipation. Two years later he became a planter near Huntsville, + Alabama. Though not a member of the Constitutional Convention preparatory + to the admission of this Territory into the Union, Birney used his + influence to secure provisions in the constitution favorable to gradual + emancipation. As a member of the first Legislature, in 1819, he was the + author of a law providing a fair trial by jury for slaves indicted for + crimes above petty larceny, and in 1826 he became a regular contributor to + the American Colonization Society, believing it to be an aid to + emancipation. The following year he was able to induce the Legislature, + although he was not then a member of it, to pass an act forbidding the + importation of slaves into Alabama either for sale or for hire. This was + regarded as a step preliminary to emancipation. + </p> + <p> + The cause of education in Alabama had in Birney a trusted leader. During + the year 1830 he spent several months in the North Atlantic States for the + selection of a president and four professors for the State University and + three teachers for the Huntsville Female Seminary. These were all employed + upon his sole recommendation. On his return he had an important interview + with Henry Clay, of whose political party he had for several years been + the acknowledged leader in Alabama. He urged Clay to place himself at the + head of the movement in Kentucky for gradual emancipation. Upon Clay's + refusal their political cooperation terminated. Birney never again + supported Clay for office and regarded him as in a large measure + responsible for the pro-slavery reaction in Kentucky. + </p> + <p> + Birney, who had now become discouraged regarding the prospect of + emancipation, during the winter of 1831 and 1832 decided to remove his + family to Jacksonville, Illinois. He was deterred from carrying out his + plan, however, by his unexpected appointment as agent of the colonization + society in the Southwest—a mission which he undertook from a sense + of duty. + </p> + <p> + In his travels throughout the region assigned to him, Birney became aware + of the aggressive designs of the planters of the Gulf States to secure new + slave territories in the Southwest. In view of these facts the methods of + the colonization society appeared utterly futile. Birney surrendered his + commission and, in 1833, returned to Kentucky with the intention of doing + himself what Henry Clay had refused to do three years earlier, still + hoping that Kentucky, Virginia, and Tennessee might be induced to abolish + slavery and thus place the slave power in a hopeless minority. His + disappointment was extreme at the pro-slavery reaction which had taken + place in Kentucky. The condition called for more drastic measures, and + Birney decided to forsake entirely the colonization society and cast in + his lot with the abolitionists. He freed his slaves in 1834, and in the + following year he delivered the principal address at the annual meeting of + the American Anti-Slavery Society held in New York. His gift of leadership + was at once recognized. As vice-president of the society he began to + travel on its behalf, to address public assemblies, and especially to + confer with members of state legislatures and to address the legislative + bodies. He now devoted his entire time to the service of the society, and + as early as September, 1835, issued the prospectus of a paper devoted to + the cause of emancipation. This called forth such a display of force + against the movement that he could neither find a printer nor obtain the + use of a building in Dansville, Kentucky, for the publication. As a result + he transferred his activities to Cincinnati, where he began publication of + the Philanthropist in 1836. With the connivance of the authorities and + encouragement from leading citizens of Cincinnati, the office of the + Philanthropist was three times looted by the mob, and the proprietor's + life was greatly endangered. The paper, however, rapidly grew in favor and + influence and thoroughly vindicated the right of free discussion of the + slavery question. Another editor was installed when Birney, who became + secretary of the Anti-slavery Society in 1837, transferred his residence + to New York City. + </p> + <p> + Twenty-three years before Lincoln's famous utterance in which he + proclaimed the doctrine that a house divided against itself cannot stand, + and before Seward's declaration of an irrepressible conflict between + slavery and freedom, Birney had said: "There will be no cessation of + conflict until slavery shall be exterminated or liberty destroyed. Liberty + and slavery cannot live in juxtaposition." He spoke out of the fullness of + his own experience. A thoroughly trained lawyer and statesman, well + acquainted with the trend of public sentiment in both North and South, he + was fully persuaded that the new pro-slavery crusade against liberty boded + civil war. He knew that the white men in North and South would not, + without a struggle, consent to be permanently deprived of their liberties + at the behest of a few Southern planters. Being himself of the + slaveholding class, he was peculiarly fitted to appreciate their position. + To him the new issue meant war, unless the belligerent leaders should be + shown that war was hopeless. By his moderation in speech, his candor in + statement, his lack of rancor, his carefully considered, thoroughly fair + arguments, he had the rare faculty of convincing opponents of the + correctness of his own view. + </p> + <p> + There could be little sympathy between Birney and William Lloyd Garrison, + whose style of denunciation appeared to the former as an incitement to war + and an excuse for mob violence. As soon as Birney became the accepted + leader in the national society, there was friction between his followers + and those of Garrison. To denounce the Constitution and repudiate + political action were, from Birney's standpoint, a surrender of the only + hope of forestalling a dire calamity. He had always fought slavery by the + use of legal and constitutional methods, and he continued so to fight. In + this policy he had the support of a large majority of abolitionists in New + England and elsewhere. Only a few personal friends accepted Garrison's + injunction to forswear politics and repudiate the Constitution. + </p> + <p> + The followers of Birney, failing to secure recognition for their views in + either of the political parties, organized the Liberty party and, while + Birney was in Europe in 1840, nominated him as their candidate for the + Presidency. The vote which he received was a little over seven thousand, + but four years later he was again the candidate of the party and received + over sixty thousand votes. He suffered an injury during the following year + which condemned him to hopeless invalidism and brought his public career + to an end. + </p> + <p> + Though Lundy and Birney were contemporaries and were engaged in the same + great cause, they were wholly independent in their work. Lundy addressed + himself almost entirely to the non-slaveholding class, while all of + Birney's early efforts were "those of a slaveholder seeking to induce his + own class to support the policy of emancipation." Though a Northern man, + Lundy found his chief support in the South until he was driven out by + persecution. Birney also resided in the South until he was forced to leave + for the same reason. The two men were in general accord in their main + lines of policy: both believed firmly in the use of political means to + effect their objects; both were at first colonizationists, though Lundy + favored colonization in adjacent territory rather than by deportation to + Africa. + </p> + <p> + Women were not a whit behind men in their devotion to the cause of + freedom. Conspicuous among them were Sarah and Angelina Grimke, born in + Charleston, South Carolina, of a slaveholding family noted for learning, + refinement, and culture. Sarah was born in the same year as James G. + Birney, 1792; Angelina was thirteen years younger. Angelina was the + typical crusader: her sympathies from the first were with the slave. As a + child she collected and concealed oil and other simple remedies so that + she might steal out by night and alleviate the sufferings of slaves who + had been cruelly whipped or abused. At the age of fourteen she refused to + be confirmed in the Episcopal Church because the ceremony involved giving + sanction to words which seemed to her untrue. Two years later her mother + offered her a present of a slave girl for a servant and companion. This + gift she refused to accept, for in her view the servant had a right to be + free, and, as for her own needs, Angelina felt quite capable of waiting + upon herself. + </p> + <p> + Of her own free will she joined the Presbyterian Church and labored + earnestly with the officers of the church to induce them to espouse the + cause of the slave. When she failed to secure cooperation, she decided + that the church was not Christian and she therefore withdrew her + membership. Her sister Sarah had gone North in 1821 and had become a + member of the Society of Friends in Philadelphia. In Charleston, South + Carolina, there was a Friends' meeting-house where two old Quakers still + met at the appointed time and sat for an hour in solemn silence. Angelina + donned the Quaker garb, joined this meeting, and for an entire year was + the third of the silent worshipers. This quiet testimony, however, did not + wholly satisfy her energetic nature, and when, in 1830, she heard of the + imprisonment of Garrison in Baltimore, she was convinced that effective + labors against slavery could not be carried on in the South. With great + sorrow she determined to sever her connection with home and family and + join her sister in Philadelphia. There the exile from the South poured out + her soul in an Appeal to the Christian Women of the South. The manuscript + was handed to the officers of the Anti-slavery Society in the city and, as + they read, tears filled their eyes. The Appeal was immediately printed in + large quantities for distribution in Southern States. + </p> + <p> + Copies of the Appeal which had been sent to Charleston were seized by a + mob and publicly burned. When it became known soon afterwards that the + author of the offensive document was intending to return to Charleston to + spend the winter with her family, there was intense excitement, and the + mayor of the city informed the mother that her daughter would not be + permitted to land in Charleston nor to communicate with any one there, and + that, if she did elude the police and come ashore, she would be imprisoned + and guarded until the departure of the next boat. On account of the + distress which she would cause to her friends, Miss Grimke reluctantly + gave up the exercise of her constitutional right to visit her native city + and in a very literal sense she became a permanent exile. + </p> + <p> + The two sisters let their light shine among Philadelphia Quakers. In the + religious meetings negro women were consigned to a special seat. The + Grimkes, having first protested against this discrimination, took their + own places on the seat with the colored women. In Charleston, Angelina had + scrupulously adhered to the Quaker garb because it was viewed as a protest + against slavery. In Philadelphia, however, no such meaning was attached to + the costume, and she adopted clothing suited to the climate regardless of + conventions. A series of parlor talks to women which had been organized by + the sisters grew in interest until the parlors became inadequate, and the + speakers were at last addressing large audiences of women in the public + meeting-places of Philadelphia. + </p> + <p> + At this time when Angelina was making effective use of her unrivaled power + as a public speaker, she received in 1836 an invitation from the + Anti-slavery Society of New York to address the women of that city. She + informed her sister that she believed this to be a call from God and that + it was her duty to accept. Sarah decided to be her companion and assistant + in the work in the new field, which was similar to that in Philadelphia. + Its fame soon extended to Boston, whence came an urgent invitation to + visit that city. It was in Massachusetts that men began to steal into the + women's meetings and listen from the back seats. In Lynn all barriers were + broken down, and a modest, refined, and naturally diffident young woman + found herself addressing immense audiences of men and women. In the old + theater in Boston for six nights in succession, audiences filling all the + space listened entranced to the messenger of emancipation. There is + uniform testimony that, in an age distinguished for oratory, no more + effective speaker appeared than Angelina Grimke. It was she above all + others who first vindicated the right of women to speak to men from the + public platform on political topics. But it must be remembered that scores + of other women were laboring to the same end and were fully prepared to + utilize the new opportunity. + </p> + <p> + The great world movement from slavery towards freedom, from despotism to + democracy, is characterized by a tendency towards the equality of the + sexes. Women have been slaves where men were free. In barbarous ages women + have been ignored or have been treated as mere adjuncts to the ruling sex. + But wherever there has been a distinct contribution to the cause of + liberty there has been a distinct recognition of woman's share in the + work. The Society of Friends was organized on the principle that men and + women are alike moral beings, hence are equal in the sight of God. As a + matter of experience, women were quite as often moved to break the silence + of a religious meeting as were the men. + </p> + <p> + For two hundred years women had been accustomed to talk to both men and + women in Friends' meetings and, when the moral war against slavery brought + religion and politics into close relation, they were ready speakers upon + both topics. When the Grimke sisters came into the church with a fresh + baptism of the Spirit, they overcame all obstacles and, with a passion for + righteousness, moral and spiritual and political, they carried the war + against slavery into politics. + </p> + <p> + In 1833, at the organization of the American Anti-Slavery Society in + Philadelphia, a number of women were present. Lucretia Mott, a + distinguished "minister" in the Society of Friends, took part in the + proceedings. She was careful to state that she spoke as a mere visitor, + having no place in the organization, but she ventured to suggest various + modifications in the report of Garrison's committee on a declaration of + principles which rendered it more acceptable to the meeting. It had not + then been seriously considered whether women could become members of the + Anti-Slavery Society, which was at that time composed exclusively of men, + with the women maintaining their separate organizations as auxiliaries. + </p> + <p> + The women of the West were already better organized than the men and were + doing a work which men could not do. They were, for the most part, + unconscious of any conflict between the peculiar duties of men and those + of women in their relations to common objects. The "library associations" + of Indiana, which were in fact effective anti-slavery societies, were to a + large extent composed of women. To the library were added numerous other + disguises, such as "reading circles," "sewing societies," "women's clubs." + In many communities the appearance of men in any of these enterprises + would create suspicion or even raise a mob. But the women worked on + quietly, effectively, and unnoticed. + </p> + <p> + The matron of a family would be provided with the best riding-horse which + the neighborhood could furnish. Mounted upon her steed, she would sally + forth in the morning, meet her carefully selected friends in a town twenty + miles away, gain information as to what had been accomplished, give + information as to the work in other parts of the district, distribute new + literature, confer as to the best means of extending their labors, and + return in the afternoon. The father of such a family was quite content + with the humbler task of cooperation by supplying the sinews of war. There + was complete equality between husband and wife because their aims were + identical and each rendered the service most convenient and most needed. + Women did what men could not do. In the territory of the enemy the men + were reached through the gradual and tentative efforts of women whom the + uninitiated supposed to be spending idle hours at a sewing circle. + Interest was maintained by the use of information of the same general + character as that which later took the country by storm in Uncle Tom's + Cabin. In course of time all disguise was thrown aside. A public speaker + of national reputation would appear, a meeting would be announced, and a + rousing abolition speech would be delivered; the mere men of the + neighborhood would have little conception how the surprising change had + been accomplished. + </p> + <p> + On rare occasions the public presentation of the anti-slavery view would + be undertaken prematurely, as in 1840 at Pendleton, Indiana, when + Frederick Douglass attempted to address a public meeting and was almost + slain by missiles from the mob. Pendleton, however, was not given over to + the enemy. The victim of the assault was restored to health in the family + of a leading citizen. The outrage was judiciously utilized to convince the + fair-minded that one of the evils of slavery was the development of minds + void of candor and justice. On the twenty-fifth anniversary of the + Pendleton disturbance there was another great meeting in the town. + Frederick Douglass was the hero of the occasion. The woman who was the + head of the family that restored him to health was on the platform. Some + of the men who threw the brickbats were there to make public confession + and to apologize for the brutal deed. + </p> + <p> + In the minds of a few persons of rare intellectual and logical endowment, + democracy has always implied the equality of the sexes. From the time of + the French Revolution there have been advocates of this doctrine. As early + as 1820, Frances Wright, a young woman in Scotland having knowledge of the + Western republic founded upon the professed principles of liberty and + equality, came to America for the express purpose of pleading the cause of + equal rights for women. To the general public her doctrine seemed + revolutionary, threatening the very foundations of religion and morality. + In the midst of opposition and persecution she proclaimed views respecting + the rights and duties of women which today are generally accepted as + axiomatic. + </p> + <p> + The women who attended the meetings for the organization of the American + Anti-Slavery Society were not suffragists, nor had they espoused any + special theories respecting the position of women. They did not wish to be + members of the men's organizations but were quite content with their own + separate one, which served its purpose very well under prevailing local + conditions. James G. Birney, the candidate of the Liberty party for the + Presidency in 1840, had good reasons for opposition to the inclusion of + men and women in the same organization. He knew that by acting separately + they were winning their way. The introduction of a novel theory involving + a different issue seemed to him likely to be a source of weakness. The + cause of women was, however, gaining ground and winning converts. Lucretia + Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton were delegates to the World's Anti-Slavery + Convention at London. They listened to the debate which ended in the + refusal to recognize them as members of the Convention because they were + women. The tone of the discussion convinced them that women were looked + upon by men with disdain and contempt. Because the laws of the land and + the customs of society consigned women to an inferior position, and + because there would be no place for effective public work on the part of + women until these laws were changed, both these women became advocates of + women's rights and conspicuous leaders in the initiation of the + propaganda. The Reverend Samuel J. May, of Syracuse, New York, preached a + sermon in 1845 in which he stated his belief that women need not expect to + have their wrongs fully redressed until they themselves had a hand in the + making and in the administration of the laws. This is an early suggestion + that equal suffrage would become the ultimate goal of the efforts for + righting women's wrongs. + </p> + <p> + At the same time there were accessions to the cause from a different + source. In 1833 Oberlin College was founded in northern Ohio. Into some of + the first classes there women were admitted on equal terms with men. In + 1835 the trustees offered the presidency to Professor Asa Mahan, of Lane + Seminary. He was himself an abolitionist from a slave State, and he + refused to be President of Oberlin College unless negroes were admitted on + equal terms with other students. Oberlin thus became the first institution + in the country which extended the privileges of the higher education to + both sexes of all races. It was a distinctly religious institution devoted + to radical reforms of many kinds. Not only was the use of all intoxicating + beverages discarded by faculty and students but the use of tobacco as well + was discouraged. + </p> + <p> + Within fifteen years after the founding of Oberlin, there were women + graduates who had something to say on numerous questions of public + interest. Especially was this true of the subject of temperance. + Intemperance was a vice peculiar to men. Women and children were the chief + sufferers, while men were the chief sinners. It was important, therefore, + that men should be reached. In 1847 Lucy Stone, an Oberlin graduate, began + to address public audiences on the subject. At the same time Susan B. + Anthony appeared as a temperance lecturer. The manner of their reception + and the nature of their subject induced them to unite heartily in the + pending crusade for the equal rights of women. The three causes thus + became united in one. + </p> + <p> + Along with the crusade against slavery, intemperance, and women's wrongs, + arose a fourth, which was fundamentally connected with the slavery + question: Quakers and Southern and Western abolitionists were ardently + devoted to the interests of peace. They would abolish slavery by peaceable + means because they believed the alternative was a terrible war. To escape + an impending war they were nerved to do and dare and to incur great risks. + New England abolitionists who labored in harmony with those of the West + and South were actuated by similar motives. Sumner first gained public + notice by a distinguished oration against war. Garrison went farther: he + was a professional non-resistant, a root and branch opponent of both war + and slavery. John Brown was a fanatical antagonist of war until he reached + the conclusion that according to the Divine Will there should be a short + war of liberation in place of the continuance of slavery, which was itself + in his opinion the most cruel form of war. + </p> + <p> + Slavery as a legally recognized institution disappeared with the Civil + War. The war against intemperance has made continuous progress and this + problem is apparently approaching a solution. The war against war as a + recognized institution has become the one all-absorbing problem of + civilization. The war against the wrongs of women is being supplanted by + efforts to harmonize the mutual privileges and duties of men and women on + the basis of complete equality. As Samuel May predicted more than seventy + years ago, in the future women are certain to take a hand both in the + making and in the administration of law. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. THE TURNING-POINT + </h2> + <p> + The year 1831 is notable for three events in the history of the + anti-slavery controversy: on the first day of January in that year William + Lloyd Garrison began in Boston the publication of the Liberator; in August + there occurred in Southampton, Virginia, an insurrection of slaves led by + a negro, Nat Turner, in which sixty-one white persons were massacred; and + in December the Virginia Legislature began its long debate on the question + of slavery. + </p> + <p> + On the part of the abolitionists there was at no time any sudden break in + the principles which they advocated. Lundy did nothing but revive and + continue the work of the Quakers and other non-slaveholding classes of the + revolutionary period. Birney was and continued to be a typical + slaveholding abolitionist of the earlier period. Garrison began his work + as a disciple of Lundy, whom he followed in the condemnation of the + African colonization scheme, though he went farther and rejected every + form of colonization. Garrison likewise repudiated every plan for gradual + emancipation and proclaimed the duty of immediate and unconditional + liberation of the slaves. + </p> + <p> + The first number of the Liberator contained an Address to the Public, + which sounded the keynote of Garrison's career. "I shall contend for the + immediate enfranchisement of our slave population—I will be as harsh + as truth and as uncompromising as justice on this subject—I do not + wish to think, or speak, or write with moderation—I am in earnest—I + will not equivocate—I will not retreat a single inch, and I WILL BE + HEARD!" + </p> + <p> + The New England Anti-Slavery Society, of which Garrison was the chief + organizer, was in essential harmony with the societies which Lundy had + organized in other sections. Its first address to the public in 1833 + distinctly recognized the separate States as the sole authority in the + matter of emancipation within their own boundaries. Through moral suasion, + eschewing all violence and sedition, its authors proposed to secure their + object. In the spirit of civil and religious liberty and by appealing to + the Declaration of Independence, the Liberty party of 1840 and 1844, by + the Freesoil party of 1848, and later by the Republican party, and that + nearly all of the abolitionists continued to be faithful adherents to + those principles, are sufficient proof of the essential unity of the great + anti-slavery movement. The apparent lack of harmony and the real confusion + in the history of the subject arose from the peculiar character of one + remarkable man. + </p> + <p> + The few owners of slaves who had assumed the role of public defenders of + the institution were in the habit of using violent and abusive language + against anti-slavery agitators. This appeared in the first debate on the + subject during Washington's administration. Every form of rhetorical abuse + also accompanied the outbreak of mob violence against the reformers at the + time of Garrison's advent into the controversy. He was especially fitted + to reply in kind. "I am accused," said he, "of using hard language. I + admit the charge. I have not been able to find a soft word to describe + villainy, or to identify the perpetrator of it." This was a new departure + which was instantly recognized by Southern leaders. But from the beginning + to the bitter end, Garrison stands alone as preeminently the + representative of this form of attack. It was significant, also, that the + Liberator was published in Boston, the literary center of the country. + </p> + <p> + There is no evidence that there was any direct connection between the + publication of the Liberator and the servile insurrection which occurred + during the following August. * It was, however, but natural that the South + should associate the two events. A few utterances of the paper were + fitted, if not intended, to incite insurrection. One passage reads: + "Whenever there is a contest between the oppressed and the oppressor—the + weapons being equal between the parties—God knows that my heart must + be with the oppressed, and always against the oppressor. Therefore, + whenever commenced, I cannot but wish success to all slave insurrections." + Again: "Rather than see men wearing their chains in a cowardly and servile + spirit, I would, as an advocate of peace, much rather see them breaking + the heads of the tyrant with their chains." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Garrison himself denied any direct connection with the Nat + Turner insurrection. See "William Lloyd Garrison, the Story + of His Life told by His Children," vol. I, p. 251. +</pre> + <p> + George Thompson, an English co-laborer with Garrison, is quoted as saying + in a public address in 1835 that "Southern slaves ought, or at least had a + right, to cut the throats of their masters." * Such utterances are rare, + and they express a passing mood not in the least characteristic of the + general spirit of the abolition movement; yet the fact that such + statements did emanate from such a source made it comparatively easy for + extremists of the opposition to cast odium upon all abolitionists. The + only type of abolition known in South Carolina was that of the extreme + Garrisonian agitators, and it furnished at least a shadow of excuse for + mob violence in the North and for complete suppression of discussion in + the South. To encourage slaves to cut the throats of their masters was far + from being a rhetorical figure of speech in communities where slaves were + in the majority. Santo Domingo was at the time a prosperous republic + founded by former slaves who had exterminated the Caucasian residents of + the island. Negroes from Santo Domingo had fomented insurrection in South + Carolina. The Nat Turner incident was more than a suggestion of the dire + possibilities of the situation. Turner was a trusted slave, a preacher + among the blacks. He succeeded in concealing his plot for weeks. When the + massacre began, slaves not in the secret were induced to join. A majority + of the slain were women and children. Abolitionists who had lived in slave + States never indulged in flippant remarks fitted to incite insurrection. + This was reserved for the few agitators far removed from the scene of + action. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Schouler, "History of the United States under the + Constitution," vol. V, p. 217. +</pre> + <p> + Southern planters who had determined at all hazards to perpetuate the + institution of slavery were peculiarly sensitive on account of what was + taking place in Spanish America and in the British West Indies. Mexico + abolished slavery in 1829, and united with Colombia in encouraging Cuba to + throw off the Spanish yoke, abolish slavery, and join the sisterhood of + New World republics. This led to an effective protest on the part of the + United States. Both Spain and Mexico were advised that the United States + could not with safety to its own interests permit the emancipation of + slaves in the island of Cuba. But with the British Emancipation Act of + 1833, Cuba became the only neighboring territory in which slavery was + legal. These acts of emancipation added zeal to the determination of the + Southern planters to secure territory for the indefinite extension of + slavery to the southwest. When Lundy and Birney discovered these plans, + their desire to husband and extend the direct political influence of + abolitionists was greatly stimulated. To this end they maintained a + moderate and conservative attitude. They took care that no abuse or + misrepresentation should betray them into any expression which would + diminish their influence with fair-minded, reasonable men. They were + convinced that a clear and complete revelation of the facts would lead a + majority of the people to adopt their views. + </p> + <p> + The debate in the Virginia Legislature in the session which met three + months after the Southampton massacre furnishes a demonstration that the + traditional anti-slavery sentiment still persisted among the rulers of the + Old Dominion. It arose out of a petition from the Quakers of the State + asking for an investigation preparatory to a gradual emancipation of the + slaves. The debate, which lasted for several weeks, was able and thorough. + No stronger utterances in condemnation of slavery were ever voiced than + appear in this debate. Different speakers made the statement that no one + presumed to defend slavery on principle—that apologists for slavery + existed but no defenders. Opposition to the petition was in the main + apologetic in tone. + </p> + <p> + A darker picture of the blighting effects of slavery on the industries of + the country was never drawn than appears in these speeches. Slavery was + declared to be driving free laborers from the State, to have already + destroyed every industry except agriculture, and to have exhausted the + soil so that profitable agriculture was becoming extinct, while pine brush + was encroaching upon former fruitful fields. "Even the wolf," said one, + "driven back long since by the approach of man, now returns, after the + lapse of a hundred years, to howl over the desolations of slavery." + Contrasts between free labor in northern industry and that of the South + were vividly portrayed. In a speech of great power, one member referred to + Kentucky and Ohio as States "providentially designated to exhibit in their + future histories the differences which necessarily result from a country + free from, and a country afflicted with the curse of slavery." + </p> + <p> + The debate was by no means confined to industrial or material + considerations. McDowell, who was afterwards elected Governor of the + State, thus portrays the personal relations of master and slave "You may + place the slave where you please—you may put him under any process, + which, without destroying his value as a slave, will debase and crush him + as a rational being—you may do all this, and the idea that he was + born to be free will survive it all. It is allied to his hope of + immortality—it is the ethereal part of his nature which oppression + cannot reach—it is a torch lit up in his soul by the hand of the + Deity, and never meant to be extinguished by the hand of man." + </p> + <p> + Various speakers assumed that the continuance of slavery involved a bloody + conflict; that either peaceably or through violence, slavery as contrary + to the spirit of the age must come to an end; that the agitation against + it could not be suppressed. Faulkner drew a lurid picture of the danger + from servile insurrection, in which he referred to the utterances of two + former speakers, one of whom had said that, unless something effective was + done to ward off the danger, "the throats of all the white people of + Virginia will be cut." The other replied, "No, the whites cannot be + conquered—the throats of the blacks will be cut." Faulkner's + rejoinder was that the difference was a trifling one, "for the fact is + conceded that one race or the other must be exterminated." + </p> + <p> + The public press joined in the debate. Leading editorials appeared in the + Richmond Enquirer urging that effective measures be instituted to put an + end to slavery. The debate aroused much interest throughout the South. + Substantially all the current abolition arguments appeared in the speeches + of the slave-owning members of the Virginia Legislature. And what was done + about it? Nothing at all. The petition was not granted; no action looking + towards emancipation was taken. This was indeed a turning-point. Men do + not continue to denounce in public their own conduct unless their action + results in some effort toward corrective measures. + </p> + <p> + Professor Thomas Dew, of the chair of history and metaphysics in William + and Mary College and later President of the College, published an essay + reviewing the debate in the Legislature and arguing that any plan for + emancipation in Virginia was either undesirable or impossible. This essay + was among the first of the direct pro-slavery arguments. Statements in + support of the view soon followed. In 1835 the Governor of South Carolina + in a message to the Legislature said, "Domestic slavery is the + corner-stone of our republican edifice." Senator Calhoun, speaking in the + Senate two years later, declared slavery to be a positive good. W. G. + Simms, Southern poet and novelist, writing in 1852, felicitates himself as + being among the first who about fifteen years earlier advocated slavery as + a great good and a blessing. Harriet Martineau, an English author who + traveled extensively in the South in 1835, found few slaveholders who + justified the institution as being in itself just. But after the debates + in the Virginia Legislature, there were few owners of slaves who publicly + advocated abolition. The spirit of mob violence had set in, and, contrary + to the utterances of Virginia statesmen, free speech on the subject of + slavery was suppressed in the slave States. This did not mean that + Southern statesmen had lost the power to perceive the evil effects of + slavery or that they were convinced that their former views were + erroneous. It meant simply that they had failed to agree upon a policy of + gradual emancipation, and the only recourse left seemed to be to follow + the example of James G. Birney and leave the South or to submit in silence + to the new order. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. THE VINDICATION OF LIBERTY + </h2> + <p> + With the changed attitude of the South towards emancipation there was + associated an active hostility to dearly bought human liberty. Freedom of + speech, freedom of the press, freedom of worship, the right of assembly, + trial by jury, the right of petition, free use of the mails, and numerous + other fundamental human rights were assailed. Birney and other + abolitionists who had immediate knowledge of slavery early perceived that + the real question at issue was quite as much the continued liberty of the + white man as it was the liberation of the black man and that the + enslavement of one race involved also the ultimate essential enslavement + of the other. + </p> + <p> + In 1831 two slave States and six free States still extended to free + negroes the right to vote. During the pro-slavery crusade these privileges + disappeared; and not only so, but free negroes were banished from certain + States, or were not permitted to enter them, or were allowed to remain + only by choosing a white man for a guardian. It was made a crime to teach + negroes, whether slaves or free men, to read and write. Under various + pretexts free negroes were reduced to slavery. Freedom of worship was + denied to negroes, and they were not allowed to assemble for any purpose + except under the strict surveillance of white men. Negro testimony in a + court of law was invalid where the rights of a white man were involved. + The right of a negro to his freedom was decided by an arbitrary court + without a jury, while the disputed right of a white man to the ownership + of a horse was conditioned by the safeguard of trial by jury. + </p> + <p> + The maintenance of such policies carries with it of necessity the + suppression of free discussion. When Southern leaders adopted the policy + of defending slavery as a righteous institution, abolitionists in the + South either emigrated to the North or were silenced. In either case they + were deprived of a fundamental right. The spirit of persecution followed + them into the free States. Birney could not publish his paper in Kentucky, + nor even at Cincinnati, save at the risk of his life. Elijah Lovejoy was + not allowed to publish his paper in Missouri, and, when he persisted in + publishing it in Illinois, he was brutally murdered. Even in Boston it + required men of courage and determination to meet and organize an + anti-slavery society in 1832, though only a few years earlier Benjamin + Lundy had traveled freely through the South itself delivering anti-slavery + lectures and organizing scores of such societies. The New York + Anti-Slavery Society was secretly organized in 1832 in spite of the + opposition of a determined mob. Mob violence was everywhere rife. Meetings + were broken up, negro quarters attacked, property destroyed, murders + committed. + </p> + <p> + Fair-minded men became abolitionists on account of the crusade against the + rights of white men quite as much as from their interest in the rights of + negroes. Salmon P. Chase of Ohio was led to espouse the cause by observing + the attacks upon the freedom of the press in Cincinnati. Gerrit Smith + witnessed the breaking up of an anti-slavery meeting in Utica, New York, + and thereafter consecrated his time, his talents, and his great wealth to + the cause of liberty. Wendell Phillips saw Garrison in the hands of a + Boston mob, and that experience determined him to make common cause with + the martyr. And the murder of Lovejoy in 1837 made many active + abolitionists. + </p> + <p> + It is difficult to imagine a more inoffensive practice than giving to + negro girls the rudiments of an education. Yet a school for this purpose, + taught by Miss Prudence Crandall in Canterbury, Connecticut, was broken up + by persistent persecution, a special act of the Legislature being passed + for the purpose, forbidding the teaching of negroes from outside the State + without the consent of the town authorities. Under this act Miss Crandall + was arrested, convicted, and imprisoned. + </p> + <p> + Having eliminated free discussion from the South, the Southern States + sought to accomplish the same object in the North. In pursuance of a + resolution of the Legislature, the Governor of Georgia offered a reward of + five thousand dollars to any one who should arrest, bring to trial, and + prosecute to conviction under the laws of Georgia the editor of the + Liberator. R. G. Williams, publishing agent for the American Anti-Slavery + Society, was indicted by a grand jury of Tuscaloosa County, Alabama, and + Governor Gayle of Alabama made a requisition on Governor Marcy of New York + for his extradition. Williams had never been in Alabama. His offense + consisted in publishing in the New York Emancipator a few rather mild + utterances against slavery. + </p> + <p> + Governor McDuffie of South Carolina in an official message declared that + slavery was the very corner-stone of the republic, adding that the + laboring population of any country, "bleached or unbleached," was a + dangerous element in the body politic, and predicting that within + twenty-five years the laboring people of the North would be virtually + reduced to slavery. Referring to abolitionists, he said: "The laws of + every community should punish this species of interference with death + without benefit of clergy." Pursuant to the Governor's recommendation, the + Legislature adopted a resolution calling upon non-slaveholding States to + pass laws to suppress promptly and effectively all abolition societies. In + nearly all the slave States similar resolutions were adopted, and + concerted action against anti-slavery effort was undertaken. During the + winter of 1835 and 1836, the Governors of the free States received these + resolutions from the South and, instead of resenting them as an + uncalled-for interference with the rights of free commonwealths, they + treated them with respect. Edward Everett, Governor of Massachusetts, in + his message presenting the Southern documents to the Legislature, said: + "Whatever by direct and necessary operation is calculated to excite an + insurrection among the slaves has been held, by highly respectable legal + authority, an offense against this Commonwealth which may be prosecuted as + a misdemeanor at common law." Governor Marcy of New York, in a like + document, declared that "without the power to pass such laws the States + would not possess all the necessary means for preserving their external + relations of peace among themselves." Even before the Southern requests + reached Rhode Island, the Legislature had under consideration a bill to + suppress abolition societies. + </p> + <p> + When a committee of the Massachusetts Legislature had been duly organized + to consider the documents received from the slave States, the + abolitionists requested the privilege of a hearing before the committee. + Receiving no reply, they proceeded to formulate a statement of their case; + but before they could publish it, they were invited to appear before the + joint committee of the two houses. The public had been aroused by the + issue and there was a large audience. The case for the abolitionists was + stated by their ablest speakers, among whom was William Lloyd Garrison. + They labored to convince the committee that their utterances were not + incendiary, and that any legislative censure directed against them would + be an encouragement to mob violence and the persecution which was already + their lot. After the defensive arguments had been fully presented, William + Goodell took the floor and proceeded to charge upon the Southern States + which had made these demands a conspiracy against the liberties of the + North. In the midst of great excitement and many interruptions by the + chairman of the committee, he quoted the language of Governor McDuffie's + message, and characterized the documents lying on the table before him as + "fetters for Northern freemen." Then, turning to the committee, he began, + "Mr. Chairman, are you prepared to attempt to put them on?"—but the + sentence was only half finished when the stentorian voice of the chairman + interrupted him: "Sit down, sir!" and he sat down. The committee then + arose and left the room. But the audience did not rise; they waited till + other abolitionists found their tongues and gave expression to a fixed + determination to uphold the liberties purchased for them by the blood of + their fathers. The Massachusetts Legislature did not comply with the + request of Governor McDuffie of South Carolina to take the first step + towards the enslavement of all laborers, white as well as black. And Rhode + Island refused to enact into law the pending bill for the suppression of + anti-slavery societies. They declined to violate the plain requirements of + their Constitution that the interests of slavery might be promoted. Not + many years later they were ready to strain or break the Constitution for + the sake of liberty. + </p> + <p> + In the general crusade against liberty churches proved more pliable than + States. The authority of nearly all the leading denominations was directed + against the abolitionists. The General Conference of the Methodist + Episcopal Church passed in 1836 a resolution censuring two of their + members who had lectured in favor of modern abolitionism. The Ohio + Conference of the same denomination had passed resolutions urging + resistance to the anti-slavery movement. In June, 1836, the New York + Conference decided that no one should be chosen as deacon or elder who did + not give pledge that he would refrain from agitating the church on the + subject. + </p> + <p> + The same spirit appeared in theological seminaries. The trustees of Lane + Seminary, near Cincinnati, Ohio, voted that students should not organize + or be members of anti-slavery societies or hold meetings or lecture or + speak on the subject. Whereupon the students left in a body, and many of + the professors withdrew and united with others in the founding of an + anti-slavery college at Oberlin. + </p> + <p> + A persistent attack was also directed against the use of the United States + mails for the distribution of anti-slavery literature. Mob violence which + involved the post-office began as early as 1830, when printed copies of + Miss Grimke's Appeal to the Christian Women of the South were seized and + burned in Charleston. In 1835 large quantities of anti-slavery literature + were removed from the Charleston office and in the presence of the + assembled citizens committed to the flames. Postmasters on their own + motion examined the mails and refused to deliver any matter that they + deemed incendiary. Amos Kendall, Postmaster-General, was requested to + issue an order authorizing such conduct. He replied that he had no legal + authority to issue such an order. Yet he would not recommend the delivery + of such papers. "We owe," said he, "an obligation to the laws, but a + higher one to the communities in which we live, and if the former be + perverted to destroy the latter, it is patriotism to disregard them. + Entertaining these views, I cannot sanction, and will not condemn, the + step you have taken." This is an early instance of the appeal to the + "higher law" in the pro-slavery controversy. The higher law was invoked + against the freedom of the press. The New York postmaster sought to + dissuade the Anti-slavery Society from the attempt to send its + publications through the mails into Southern States. In reply to a request + for authorization to refuse to accept such publications, the + Postmaster-General replied: "I am deterred from giving an order to exclude + the whole series of abolition publications from the Southern mails only by + a want of legal power, and if I were situated as you are, I would do as + you have done." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Kendall's letters to the postmasters of Charleston and New York were + written in July and August, 1835. In December of the same year, presumably + with full knowledge that a member of his Cabinet was encouraging + violations of law in the interest of slavery, President Jackson undertook + to supply the need of legal authorization. In his annual message he made a + savage attack upon the abolitionists and recommended to Congress the + "passing of such a law as will prohibit, under severe penalties, the + circulation in the Southern States, through the mail, of incendiary + publications." + </p> + <p> + This part of the President's message was referred to a select committee, + of which John C. Calhoun was chairman. The chairman's report was against + the adoption of the President's recommendation because a subject of such + vital interest to the States ought not to be left to Congress. The + admission of the right of Congress to decide what is incendiary, asserted + the report, carries with it the power to decide what is not incendiary and + hence Congress might authorize and enforce the circulation of abolition + literature through the mails in all the States. The States should + themselves severally decide what in their judgment is incendiary, and then + it would become the duty of the general Government to give effect to such + state laws. The bill recommended was in harmony with this view. It was + made illegal for any deputy postmaster "to deliver to any person + whatsoever, any pamphlet, newspaper, handbill, or other printed paper, or + pictorial representation touching the subject of slavery, where by the + laws of the said State, territory, or district their circulation is + prohibited." The bill was defeated in the Senate by a small margin. + Altogether there was an enlightening debate on the whole subject. The + exposure of the abuse of tampering with the mail created a general + reaction, which enabled the abolitionists to win a spectacular victory. + Instead of a law forbidding the circulation of anti-slavery publications, + Congress enacted a law requiring postal officials under heavy penalties to + deliver without discrimination all matter committed to their charge. This + act was signed by President Jackson, and Calhoun himself was induced to + admit that the purposes of the abolitionists were not violent and + revolutionary. Henceforth abolitionists enjoyed their full privileges in + the use of the United States mail. An even more dramatic victory was + thrust upon the abolitionists by the inordinate violence of their + opponents in their attack upon the right of petition. John Quincy Adams, + who became their distinguished champion, was not himself an abolitionist. + When, as a member of the lower House of Congress in 1831, he presented + petitions from certain citizens of Pennsylvania, presumably Quakers, + requesting Congress to abolish slavery and the slave-trade in the District + of Columbia, he refused to countenance their prayer, and expressed the + wish that the memorial might be referred without debate. At the very time + when a New England ex-President was thus advising abolitionists to desist + from sending petitions to Congress, the Virginia Legislature was engaged + in the memorable debate upon a similar petition from Virginia Quakers, in + which most radical abolition sentiment was expressed by actual + slaveowners. Adams continued to present anti-slavery memorials and at the + same time to express his opposition to the demands of the petitioners. + When in 1835 there arose a decided opposition to the reception of such + documents, Adams, still in apparent sympathy with the pro-slavery South on + the main issue, gave wise counsel on the method of dealing with petitions. + They should be received, said he, and referred to a committee; because the + right of petition is sacred. This, he maintained, was the best way to + avoid disturbing debate on the subject of slavery. He quoted his own + previous experience; he had made known his opposition to the purposes of + the petitioners; their memorials were duly referred to a committee and + there they slept the sleep of death. At that time only one voice had been + raised in the House in support of the abolition petitioners, that of John + Dickson of New York, who had delivered a speech of two hours in length + advocating their cause; but not a voice was raised in reply. Mr. Adams + mentioned this incident with approval. The way to forestall disturbing + debate in Congress, he said, was scrupulously to concede all + constitutional rights and then simply to refrain from speaking on the + subject. + </p> + <p> + This sound advice was not followed. For several months a considerable part + of the time of the House was occupied with the question of handling + abolition petitions. And finally, in May, 1836, the following resolution + passed the House: "Resolved, That all petitions, memorials, resolutions, + propositions, or papers relating in any way or to any extent whatever to + the subject of slavery or the abolition of slavery, shall, without being + either printed or referred, be laid on the table, and that no further + action whatever shall be had thereon." This is commonly known as the "gag + resolution." During four successive years it was reenacted in one form or + another and was not repealed by direct vote until 1844. + </p> + <p> + When the name of Mr. Adams was called in the vote upon the passage of the + above resolution, instead of answering in the ordinary way, he said: "I + hold the resolution to be a direct violation of the Constitution of the + United States, of the rules of this House, and of the rights of my + constituents." This was the beginning of the duel between the "old man + eloquent" and a determined majority in the House of Representatives. Adams + developed undreamed-of resources as a debater and parliamentarian. He made + it his special business to break down the barrier against the right of + petition. Abolitionists cooperated with zeal in the effort. Their champion + was abundantly supplied with petitions. The gag resolution was designed to + prevent all debate on the subject of slavery. Its effect in the hands of + the shrewd parliamentarian was to foment debate. On one occasion, with + great apparent innocence, after presenting the usual abolition petitions, + Adams called the attention of the Speaker to one which purported to be + signed by twenty-two slaves and asked whether such a petition should be + presented to the House, since he was himself in doubt as to the rules + applicable in such a case. This led to a furious outbreak in the House + which lasted for three days. Adams was threatened with censure at the bar + of the House, with expulsion, with the grand jury, with the penitentiary; + and it is believed that only his great age and national repute shielded + him from personal violence. After numerous passionate speeches had been + delivered, Adams injected a few important corrections into the debate. He + reminded the House that he had not presented a petition purporting to + emanate from slaves; on the contrary, he had expressly declined to present + it until the Speaker had decided whether a petition from slaves was + covered by the rule. Moreover, the petition was not against slavery but in + favor of slavery. He was then charged with the crime of trifling with the + sensibilities of the House; and finally the champion of the right of + petition took the floor in his own defense. His language cut to the quick. + His calumniators were made to feel the force of his biting sarcasm. They + were convicted of injustice, and all their resolutions of censure were + withdrawn. The victory was complete. + </p> + <p> + After the year 1838 John Quincy Adams had the effective support of Joshua + R. Giddings from the Western Reserve, Ohio—who also fought a pitched + battle of his own which illustrates another phase of the crusade against + liberty. The ship Creole had sailed from Baltimore to New Orleans in 1841 + with a cargo of slaves. The negroes mutinied on the high seas, slew one + man, gained possession of the vessel, sailed to Nassau, and were there set + free by the British Government. Prolonged diplomatic negotiations followed + in which our Government held that, as slaves were property in the United + States, they continued to be such on the high seas. In the midst of the + controversy, Giddings introduced a resolution into the House, declaring + that slavery, being an abridgment of liberty, could exist only under local + rules, and that on the high seas there can be no slavery. For this act + Giddings was arraigned and censured by the House. He at once resigned, but + was reelected with instructions to continue the fight for freedom of + debate in the House. + </p> + <p> + In the campaign against the rights of freemen mob violence was first + employed, but in the South the weapon of repressive legislation was soon + substituted, and this was powerfully supplemented by social and religious + ostracism. Except in a few districts in the border States, these measures + were successful. Public profession of abolitionism was suppressed. The + violence of the mob was of much longer duration in the North and reached + its height in the years 1834 and 1835. But Northern mobs only quickened + the zeal of the abolitionists and made converts to their cause. The + attempt to substitute repressive state legislation had the same effect, + and the use of church authority for making an end of the agitation for + human liberty was only temporarily influential. + </p> + <p> + As early as 1838 the Presbyterian Church was divided over questions of + doctrine into Old School and New School Presbyterians. This served to + forestall the impending division on the slavery question. The Old School + in the South became pro-slavery and the New School in the North became + anti-slavery. At the same time the Methodist Church of the entire country + was beset by a division on the main question. In 1844 Southern Methodist + Episcopalian conferences resolved upon separation and committed themselves + to the defense of slavery. The division in the Methodist Church was + completed in 1846. A corresponding division took place in the Baptist + Church in 1845. The controversy was dividing the country into a free North + and an enslaved South, and Southern white men as well as negroes were + threatened with subjection to the demands of the dominant institution. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. THE SLAVERY ISSUE IN POLITICS + </h2> + <p> + Some who opposed mob violence became active abolitionists; others were led + to defend the rights of abolitionists because to do otherwise would + encourage anarchy and general disorder. The same was true of those who + defended the right of petition and the free use of the mails and the + entire list of the fundamental rights of freemen which were threatened by + the crusade against abolitionists. Birney's contention that unless the + slave is freed no one can be free was thus vindicated: the issue involved + vastly more than the mere emancipation of slaves. + </p> + <p> + The attack made in defense of slavery upon the rights of freemen was early + recognized as involving civil war unless peaceable emancipation could be + attained. So soon as John Quincy Adams faced the new spirit in Congress, + he was convinced that it meant probable war. As early as May, 1836, he + warned the South, saying: "From the instant that your slaveholding States + become the theater of war, civil, servile, or foreign, from that moment + the war powers of the Constitution extend to interference with the + institution of slavery." This sentiment he reiterated and amplified on + various occasions. The South was duly warned that an attempt to disrupt + the Union would involve a war of which emancipation would be one of the + consequences. With the exception of Garrison and a few of his personal + followers, abolitionists were unionists: they stood for the perpetual + union of the States. + </p> + <p> + This is not the place to give an extended account of the Mexican War. * + There are, however, certain incidents connected with the annexation of + Texas and the resulting war which profoundly affected the crusade against + slavery. Both Lundy and Birney in their missions to promote emancipation + through the process of colonization believed that they had unearthed a + plan on the part of Southern leaders to acquire territory from Mexico for + the purpose of extending slavery. This discovery coincided with the + suppression of abolition propaganda in the South. Hitherto John Quincy + Adams had favored the western expansion of our territory. He had labored + diligently to make the Rio Grande the western boundary of the Louisiana + Purchase at the time of the treaty with Spain in 1819. But though in 1825 + he had supported a measure to purchase Texas from Mexico, under the new + conditions he threw himself heartily against the annexation of Texas, and + in 1838 he defeated in the House of Representatives a resolution favoring + annexation. To this end Adams occupied the morning hour of the House each + day from the 16th of June to the 7th of July, within two days of the time + fixed for adjournment. This was only a beginning of his fight against the + extension of slavery. There was no relenting in his opposition to + pro-slavery demands until he was stricken down with paralysis in the + streets of Boston, in November, 1846. He never again addressed a public + assembly. But he continued to occupy his seat in Congress until February + 23, 1848. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See "Texas and the Mexican War" (in "The Chronicles of + America"). +</pre> + <p> + The debate inaugurated in Congress by Adams and others over the extension + of slave territory rapidly spread to the country at large, and interest in + the question became general. Abolitionists were thereby greatly stimulated + to put into practice their professed duty of seeking to accomplish their + ends by political action. Their first effort was to secure recognition in + the regular parties. The Democrats answered in their platform of 1840 by a + plank specifically denouncing the abolitionists, and the Whigs proved + either noncommittal or unfriendly. The result was that abolitionists + organized a party of their own in 1840 and nominated James G. Birney for + the Presidency. Both of the older parties during this campaign evaded the + issue of the annexation of Texas. In 1844 the Whigs again refrained from + giving in their platform any official utterance on the Texas issue, though + they were understood to be opposed to annexation. The Democrats adroitly + asserted in their platform their approval of the re-annexation of Texas + and reoccupation of Oregon. There was a shadowy prior claim to both these + regions, and by combining them in this way the party avoided any odious + partiality towards the acquisition of slave territory. But the voters in + both parties had become interested in the specific question whether the + country was to enter upon a war of conquest whose primary object should be + the extension of slavery. In the North it became generally understood that + a vote for Henry Clay, the Whig candidate, was an expression of opposition + to annexation. This issue, however, was not made clear in the South. In + the absence of telegraph and daily paper it was quite possible to maintain + contradictory positions in different sections of the country. But since + the Democrats everywhere openly favored annexation, the election of their + candidate, James K. Polk, was generally accepted as a popular approval of + the annexation of Texas. Indeed, action immediately followed the election + and, before the President-elect had been inaugurated, the joint resolution + for the annexation of Texas passed both Houses of Congress. + </p> + <p> + The popular vote was almost equally divided between Whigs and Democrats. + Had the vote for Birney, who was again the candidate of the Liberty party, + been cast for Clay electors, Clay would have been chosen President. The + Birney vote was over sixty-two thousand. The Liberty party, therefore, + held the balance of power and determined the result of the election. + </p> + <p> + The Liberty party has often been censured for defeating the Whigs at this + election of 1844. But many incidents, too early forgotten by historians, + go far to justify the course of the leaders. Birney and Clay were at one + time members of the same party. They were personal friends, and as slave + holders they shared the view that slavery was a menace to the country and + ought to be abolished. It was just fourteen years before this election + that Birney made a visit to Clay to induce him to accept the leadership of + an organized movement to abolish slavery in Kentucky. Three years later, + when Birney returned to Kentucky to do himself what Henry Clay had refused + to do, he became convinced that the reaction which had taken place in + favor of slavery was largely due to Clay's influence. This was a common + impression among active abolitionists. It is not strange, therefore, that + they refused to support him as a candidate for the Presidency, and it is + not at all certain that his election in 1844 would have prevented the war + with Mexico. + </p> + <p> + Northern Whigs accused the Democrats of fomenting a war with Mexico with + the intention of gaining territory for the purpose of extending slavery. + Democrats denied that the annexation of Texas would lead to war, and many + of them proclaimed their opposition to the farther extension of slavery. + In harmony with this sentiment, when President Polk asked for a grant of + two million dollars to aid in making a treaty with Mexico, they attached + to the bill granting the amount a proviso to the effect that slavery + should forever be prohibited in any territory which might be obtained from + Mexico by the contemplated treaty. The proviso was written by an Ohio + Democrat and was introduced in the House by David A. Wilmot, a + Pennsylvania Democrat, after whom it is known. It passed the House by a + fair majority with the support of both Whigs and Democrats. At the time of + the original introduction in August, 1846, the Senate did not vote upon + the measure. Davis of Massachusetts moved its adoption but inadvertently + prolonged his speech in its favor until the hour for adjournment. Hence + there was no vote on the subject. Subsequently the proviso in a new form + again passed the House but failed of adoption in the Senate. + </p> + <p> + During the war the Wilmot Proviso was the subject of frequent debate in + Congress and of continuous debate throughout the country until the treaty + with Mexico was signed in 1848. A vast territory had been acquired as a + result of the war, and no decision had been reached as to whether it + should remain free or be opened to settlement by slave-owners. Another + presidential election was at hand. For fully ten years there had been + ever-increasing excitement over the question of the limitation or the + extension of slavery. This had clearly become the topic of supreme + interest throughout the country, and yet the two leading parties avoided + the issue. Their own membership was divided. Northern Democrats, many of + them, were decidedly opposed to slavery extension. Southern Whigs with + equal intensity favored the extension of slavery into the new territory. + The platforms of the two parties were silent on the subject. The Whigs + nominated Taylor, a Southern general who had never voted their party + ticket, but they made no formal declaration of principles. The Democrats + repeated with colorless additions their platforms of 1840 anti 1844 and + sought to win the election with a Northern man, Lewis Cass of Michigan, as + candidate. + </p> + <p> + There was, therefore, a clear field for a party having fully defined views + to express on a topic of commanding interest. The cleavage in the + Democratic party already begun by the debate over the Wilmot Proviso was + farther promoted by a factional division of New York Democrats. Martin Van + Buren became the leader of the liberal faction, the "Barnburners," who + nominated him for President at a convention at Utica. The spirit of + independence now seized disaffected Whigs and Democrats everywhere in the + North and Northwest. Men of anti-slavery proclivities held nonpartizan + meetings and conventions. The movement finally culminated in the famous + Buffalo convention which gave birth to the Freesoil party. The delegates + of all political persuasions united on the one principle of opposition to + slavery. They adopted a ringing platform closing with the words: + "Resolved, That we inscribe on our banner 'Free Soil, Free Speech, Free + Labor, and Free Men,' and under it will fight on, and fight ever, until a + triumphant victory shall reward our exertions." They accepted Van Buren as + their candidate. The vote at the ensuing election was more than fourfold + that given to Birney in 1844. The Van Buren supporters held the balance of + power between Whigs and Democrats in twelve States. Taylor was elected by + the vote of New York, which except for the division in the party would + have gone to Cass. There was no longer any doubt of the fact that a + political force had arisen which could no longer be ignored by the ruling + parties. One of the parties must either support the new issue or give + place to a party which would do so. + </p> + <p> + A political party for the defense of liberty was the fulfillment of the + aspirations of all earnest anti-slavery men and of all abolitionists not + of the radical Garrisonian persuasion. The national anti-slavery societies + were for the most part limited in their operations to the Atlantic + seaboard. The West organized local and state associations with little + reference to the national association. When the disruption occurred + between Garrison and his opponents in 1840, the Western abolitionists + continued their former methods of local organization. They recognized no + divisions in their ranks and continued to work in harmony with all who in + any way opposed the institution of slavery. The political party was their + first really effective national organization. Through party committees, + caucuses, and conventions, they became a part of the forces that + controlled the nation. The older local clubs and associations were either + displaced by the party or became mere adjuncts to the party. + </p> + <p> + The lines for political action were now clearly defined. In the States + emancipation should be accomplished by state action. With a few individual + exceptions the leaders conceded that Congress had no power to abolish + slavery in the States. Upon the general Government they urged the duty of + abolishing both slavery and the slave-trade in the District of Columbia + and in all areas under direct federal control. They further urged upon the + Government the strict enforcement of the laws prohibiting the foreign + slave-trade and the enactment of laws forbidding the interstate + slave-trade. The constitutionality of these main lines of action has been + generally conceded. + </p> + <p> + Abolitionists were pioneers in the formulation of political platforms. The + declaration of principles drawn up by Garrison in 1833 and adopted by the + American Anti-Slavery Society was of the nature of a political platform. + The duty of voting in furtherance of the policy of emancipation was + inculcated. No platform was adopted for the first political campaign, that + of 1840; but four years later there was an elaborate party platform of + twenty-one resolutions. Many things had happened in the eleven years + intervening since the declaration of principles of the American + Anti-Slavery Society. In the earlier platform the freedom of the slave + appears as the primary object. That of the Liberty party assumes the broad + principle of human brotherhood as the foundation for a democracy or a + republic. It denies that the party is organized merely to free the slave. + Slaveholding as the grossest form of despotism must indeed be attacked + first, but the aim of the party is to carry the principle of equal rights + into all social relations. It is not a sectional party nor a party + organized for a single purpose. "It is not a new party, nor a third party, + but it is the party of 1776, reviving the principles of that memorable + era, and striving to carry them into practical application." The spirit of + '76 rings, indeed, throughout the document, which declares that it was + understood at the time of the Declaration and the Constitution that the + existence of slavery was in derogation of the principles of American + liberty. The implied faith of the Nation and the States was pledged to + remove this stain upon the national character. Some States had nobly + fulfilled that pledge; others shamelessly had neglected to do so. + </p> + <p> + These principles are reasserted in succeeding platforms. The later + opponents of slavery in their principles and policies thus allied + themselves with the founders of the republic. They claimed the right to + continue to repeat the words of Washington and Jefferson and those of the + members of the Virginia Legislature of 1832. No new doctrines were + required. It was enough simply to reaffirm the fundamental principles of + democracy. + </p> + <p> + The names attached to the party are significant. It was at first popularly + styled the Abolition party, then officially in turn the Liberty party, the + Freesoil party, and finally the Republican party. Republican was the name + first applied to the Democratic party—the party of Jefferson. The + term Democrat was gradually substituted under the leadership of Jackson + before 1830. Some of the men who participated in the organization of the + later Republican party had themselves been Republicans in the party of + Jefferson. They not only accepted the name which Jefferson gave to his + party, but they adopted the principles which Jefferson proclaimed on the + subject of slavery, free soil, and human rights in general. This was the + final stage in the identification of the later anti-slavery crusade with + the earlier contest for liberty. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. THE PASSING OF THE WHIG PARTY + </h2> + <p> + The middle of the last century was marked by many incidents which have + left a permanent impress upon politics in general and upon the slavery + question in particular. Europe was again in the throes of popular + uprisings. New constitutions were adopted in France, Switzerland, Prussia, + and Austria. Reactions in favor of autocracy in Austria and Germany sent + multitudes of lovers of liberty to America. Kossuth, the Hungarian + revolutionist, electrified American audiences by his appeals on behalf of + the downtrodden in Europe. Already the world was growing smaller. America + did not stop at the Pacific but crossed the ocean to establish permanent + political and commercial relations with Japan and China. + </p> + <p> + The industries of the country were being reorganized to meet new + conditions created by recent inventions. The electric telegraph was just + coming into use, giving rise to a new era in communication. The discovery + of gold in California in 1848 was followed by competing projects to + construct railroads to the Pacific with Chicago and St. Louis as the rival + eastern terminals. The telegraph, the railway, and the resulting + industrial development proved great nationalizing influences. They served + also to give increased emphasis to the contrast between the industries of + the free and those of the slave States. The Census of 1850 became an + effective anti-slavery argument. + </p> + <p> + The telegraph also gave new life to the public press. The presidential + campaign of 1848 was the last one in which it was possible to carry on + contradictory arguments in support of the same candidate. If slavery could + not endure the test of untrammeled discussion when there were no means of + rapid intercommunication such as the telegraph supplied, how could it + contend against the revelations of the daily press with the new type of + reporter and interviewer which was now developed? + </p> + <p> + It is a remarkable coincidence that in the midst of the passing of the old + and the coming in of the new order there should be a change in the + political leadership of the country. Webster, Clay, Calhoun, John Quincy + Adams, not to mention others, all died near the middle of the century, and + their political power passed to younger men. Adams gave his blessing to a + young friend and co-laborer, William H. Seward of New York, intimating + that he expected him to do much to curb the threatening power of the + slaveholding oligarchy; while Andrew Jackson, who died earlier, had + already conferred a like distinction upon young Stephen A. Douglas. There + was no lack of aspirants for the fallen mantles. + </p> + <p> + John C. Calhoun continued almost to the day of his death to modify his + interpretation of the Constitution in the interest of his section. As a + young man he avowed protectionist principles. Becoming convinced that + slave labor was not suited to manufacture, he urged South Carolina to + declare the protective tariff laws null and void within her limits. When + his section seemed endangered by the distribution of anti-slavery + literature through the mail, he extemporized a theory that each State had + a right to pass statutes to protect itself in such an emergency, in which + case it became the duty of the general Government and of all other States + to respect such laws. When it finally appeared that the territory acquired + from Mexico was likely to remain free, the same statesman made further + discoveries. He found that Congress had no right to exclude slavery from + any Territory belonging to the United States; that the owners of slaves + had equal rights with the owners of other property; that neither Congress + nor a territorial authority had any power to exclude slaves from a + Territory. This doctrine was accepted by extremists in the South and was + finally embodied in the Dred Scott decision of 1857. + </p> + <p> + Abolitionists had meantime evolved a precisely contradictory theory. They + asserted that the Constitution gave no warrant for property in man, except + as held under state laws; that with this exception freedom was guaranteed + to all; that Congress had no more right to make a slave than it had to + make a king; and that it was the duty of Congress to maintain freedom in + all the Territories. Extremists expressed the view that all past acts + whereby slavery had been extended were unconstitutional and therefore + void. Between these extreme conflicting views was every imaginable grade + of opinion. The prevailing view of opponents of slavery, however, was in + harmony with their past conduct and maintained that Congress had complete + control over slavery in the Territories. + </p> + <p> + When the Mexican territory was acquired, Stephen A. Douglas, as the + experienced chairman of the Committee on Territories in the Senate, was + already developing a theory respecting slavery in the Territories which + was destined to play a leading part in the later crusade against slavery. + Douglas was the most thoroughgoing of expansionists and would acknowledge + no northern boundary on this side of the North Pole, no southern boundary + nearer than Panama. He regarded the United States, with its great + principle of local autonomy, as fitted to become eventually the United + States of the whole world, while he held it to be an immediate duty to + make it the United States of North America. As the son-in-law of a + Southern planter in North Carolina, and as the father of sons who + inherited slave property, Douglas, although born in Vermont, knew the + South as did no other Northern statesman. He knew also the institution of + slavery at first hand. As a pronounced expansionist and as the + congressional leader in all matters pertaining to the Territories, he + acquired detailed information as to the qualities of these new + possessions, and he spoke, therefore, with a good degree of authority when + he said, "If there was one inch of territory in the whole of our + acquisitions from Mexico where slavery could exist, it was in the valleys + of the Sacramento and the San Joaquin." But this region was at once + preempted for freedom upon the discovery of gold. + </p> + <p> + Douglas did not admit that even the whole of Texas would remain dedicated + to slavery. Some of the States to be formed from it would be free, by the + same laws of climate and resources which determined that the entire West + would remain free. Before the Mexican War the Senator had become convinced + that the extension of slavery had reached its limit; that the Missouri + Compromise was a dead letter except as a psychological palliative; that + Nature had already ordained that slave labor should be forever excluded + from all Western territory both north and south of that line. His reply to + Calhoun's contention that a balance must be maintained between slave and + free States was that he had plans for forming seventeen new States out of + the vast Western domains, every one of which would be free. And besides, + said he, "we all look forward with confidence to the time when Delaware, + Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri, and probably North Carolina + and Tennessee will adopt a gradual system of emancipation." Douglas was + one of the first to favor the admission of California as a free State. + According to the Missouri Compromise law and the laws of Mexico, all + Western territory was free, and he was opposed to interference with + existing conditions. The Missouri Compromise was still held sacred. + Finally, however, it was with Douglas's assistance that the Compromise + measures of 1850 were passed, one of which provided for territorial + Governments for Utah and New Mexico with the proviso that, when admitted + as States, slavery should be permitted or prohibited as the citizens of + those States should determine at the time. Congress refrained from any + declaration as to slavery in the Territories. It was this policy of + "non-intervention" which four years later furnished plausible excuse for + the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. + </p> + <p> + It was not strange that there was general ignorance in all parts of the + country as to the resources of the newly acquired territory. The rush to + the goldfields precipitated action in respect to California. Before + General Taylor, the newly elected President, was inaugurated, there was + imminent need of an efficient government. An early act of the + Administration was to send an agent to assist in the formation of a state + Government, and a convention was immediately called to frame a + constitution. By unanimous vote of the convention, slavery was excluded. + The constitution was approved by popular vote and was presented to + Congress for final acceptance in December, 1849. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime a great commotion had arisen among the people. Southern + state legislatures passed resolutions demanding that the rights of their + peculiar institution should be recognized in the new Territory. Northern + legislatures responded with resolutions favoring the admission of + California as a State and the application of the Wilmot Proviso to the + remaining territory. Northern Democrats had very generally denied that the + affair with Mexico had as a chief purpose the extension of slavery. + Democrats therefore united with Whigs in maintaining the principle of free + soil. In the South there was a corresponding fusion of the two parties in + support of the sectional issue. + </p> + <p> + General concern prevailed as to the attitude of the Administration. + Taylor's election had been effected by both a Southern and a Northern + split in the Democratic party. Northern Democrats had voted for the + Free-soil candidate because of the alleged pro-slavery tendencies of their + own party. Southern Democrats voted for Taylor because of their distrust + of Lewis Cass, their own candidate. Some of these met in convention and + formally nominated Taylor, and Taylor accepted their nomination with + thanks. Northern anti-slavery Whigs had a difficult task to keep their + members in line. There is evidence that Taylor held the traditional + Southern view that the anti-slavery North was disposed to encroach upon + the rights of the South. Meeting fewer Northern Whig supporters, he became + convinced that the more active spirit of encroachment was in the + pro-slavery South. California needed a state Government, and the President + took the most direct method to supply that need. As the inhabitants were + unanimous in their desire to exclude slavery, their wish should be + respected. New Mexico was in a similar situation. As slavery was already + excluded from the territory under Mexican law, and as there was no wish on + the part of the inhabitants to introduce slavery, the President recognized + existing facts and made no change. When Southern leaders projected a + scheme to enlarge the boundaries of Texas so as to extend slavery over a + large part of New Mexico, President Taylor set a guard of United States + troops to maintain the integrity of the Territory. When a deputation of + Southern Whigs endeavored to dissuade him from his purpose, threatening a + dissolution of the Union and intimating that army officers would refuse to + act against citizens of Texas, the soldier President replied that in such + an event he would take command in person and would hang any one caught in + acts of treason. When Henry Clay introduced an elaborate project for a + compromise between the North and the South, the President insisted that + each question should be settled on its own merits and directed the forces + of the Administration against any sort of compromise. The debate over + Clay's Omnibus Bill was long and acrimonious. On July 4, 1850, the + President seemed triumphant. But upon that day, notwithstanding his + apparent robust health, he was stricken down with an acute disease and + died five days later. With his passing, the opposing Whig faction came + into power. The so-called compromise measures were at length one by one + passed by Congress and approved by President Fillmore. + </p> + <p> + California was admitted as a free State; but as a palliative to the South, + Congress passed bills for the organization of territorial Governments for + New Mexico and Utah without positive declarations regarding the powers of + the territorial Legislatures over slavery. All questions relating to title + to slaves were to be left to the courts. Meantime it was left in doubt + whether Mexican law excluding slavery was still in force. Southern + malcontents maintained that this act was a mere hoax, using words which + suggested concession when no concession was intended. Northern + anti-slavery men criticized the act as the entering wedge for another + great surrender to the enemy. Because of the uncertainty regarding the + meaning of the law and the false hopes likely to be created, they + maintained that it was fitted to foment discord and prolong the period of + distrust between the two sections. At all events such was its actual + effect. + </p> + <p> + A third act in this unhappy series gave to Texas ten millions of dollars + for the alleged surrender of claims to a part of New Mexico. This had + little bearing on the general subject of compromise; yet anti-slavery men + criticized it on the ground that the issue raised was insincere; that the + appropriation was in fact a bribe to secure votes necessary to pass the + other measures; that the bill was passed through Congress by shameless + bribery, and that even the boundaries conceded to Texas involved the + surrender of free territory. + </p> + <p> + The abolition of the slave-trade in the District of Columbia was supported + by both sections of the country. The removal of the slave pens within + sight of the Capitol to a neighboring city deprived the abolitionists of + one of their weapons for effective agitation, but it did not otherwise + affect the position of slavery. + </p> + <p> + Of the five acts included in the compromise measures, the one which + provided for the return of fugitive slaves was most effective in the + promotion of hostility between the two sections. During the six months of + debate on the Omnibus Bill, numerous bills were presented to take the + place of the law of 1793. Webster brought forward a bill which provided + for the use of a jury to establish the validity of a claim to an escaped + slave. But that which was finally adopted by a worn-out Congress is + characterized as one of the most barbarous pieces of legislation ever + enacted by a civilized country. A single incident may indicate the nature + of the act. James Hamlet, for three years a resident of New York City, a + husband and a father and a member of the Methodist Church, was seized + eight days after the law went into effect by order of the agent of Mary + Brown of Baltimore, cut off from all communication with his friends, + hurried before a commissioner, and on ex parte testimony was delivered + into the hands of the agent, by whom he was handcuffed and secretly + conveyed to Baltimore. Mr. Rhodes accounts for the enactment in the + following words: "If we look below the surface we shall find a strong + impelling motive of the Southern clamor for this harsh enactment other + than the natural desire to recover lost property. Early in the session it + took air that a part of the game of the disunionists was to press a + stringent fugitive slave law, for which no Northern man could vote; and + when it was defeated, the North would be charged with refusal to carry out + a stipulation of the Constitution.... The admission of California was a + bitter pill for the Southern ultras, but they were forced to take it. The + Fugitive Slave Law was a taunt and a reproach to that part of the North + where the anti-slavery sentiment ruled supremely, and was deemed a partial + compensation." Clay expressed surprise that States from which few slaves + escaped demanded a more stringent law than Kentucky, from which many + escaped. + </p> + <p> + Whatever may have been the motives leading to the enactment, its immediate + effect was the elimination of one of the great national parties, thus + paving the way for the formation of parties along sectional lines. Two + years after the passage of the compromise acts the Democratic national + convention assembled to nominate a candidate for the Presidency. The + platform adopted by the party promised a faithful execution of the acts + known as the compromise measures and added "the act for reclaiming + fugitives from service or labor included; which act, being designed to + carry out an express provision of the Constitution, cannot, with fidelity + thereto, be repealed nor so changed as to destroy or impair its + efficiency." When this was read, the convention broke out in uproarious + applause. Then there was a demand that it should be read again. Again + there was loud applause. + </p> + <p> + Why was there this demand that a law which every one knew had proved a + complete failure should be made a permanent part of the Constitution? And + why the ungovernable hilarity over the demand that its "efficiency" should + never be impaired? Surely the motive was something other than a desire to + recover lost property. Upon the Whig party had been fastened the odium for + the enactment of the law, and the act unrepealed meant the death of the + party. The Democrats saw good reason for laughter. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII. THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD + </h2> + <p> + Wherever there are slaves there are fugitives if there is an available + place of refuge. The wilds of Florida were such a refuge during the early + part of last century. When the Northern States became free, fugitive + slaves began to escape thither, and Canada, when it could be reached, was, + of course, the goal of perfect security and liberty for all. + </p> + <p> + A professed object of the early anti-slavery societies was to prevent the + enslavement of free negroes and in other ways to protect their rights. + During the process of emancipation in Northern States large numbers of + colored persons were spirited off to the South and sold into slavery. At + various places along the border there were those who made it their duty to + guard the rights of negroes and to prevent kidnapping. These guardians of + the border furnished a nucleus for the development of what was later known + as the Underground Railroad. + </p> + <p> + In 1796 President Washington wrote a letter to a friend in New Hampshire + with reference to obtaining the return of a negro servant. He was careful + to state that the servant should remain unmolested rather than "excite a + mob or riot or even uneasy sensations in the minds of well disposed + citizens." The result was that the servant remained free. President + Washington here assumed that "well disposed citizens" would oppose her + return to slavery. Three years earlier the President had himself signed a + bill to facilitate by legal process the return of fugitives escaping into + other States. He was certainly aware that such an act was on the statute + books when he wrote his request to his friend in New Hampshire, yet he + expected that, if an attempt were made to remove the refugee by force, + riot and resistance by a mob would be the result. + </p> + <p> + Not until after the foreign slave-trade had been prohibited and the + domestic trade had been developed, and not until there was a pro-slavery + reaction in the South which banished from the slave States all + anti-slavery propaganda, did the systematic assistance rendered to + fugitive slaves assume any large proportions or arouse bitter resentment. + It began in the late twenties and early thirties of the nineteenth + century, extended with the spread of anti-slavery organization, and was + greatly encouraged and stimulated by the enactment of the law of 1850. + </p> + <p> + The Underground Railroad was never coextensive with the abolition + movement. There were always abolitionists who disapproved the practice of + assisting fugitives, and others who took no part in it. Of those who were + active participants, the larger proportion confined their activities to + assisting those who had escaped and would take no part in seeking to + induce slaves to leave their masters. Efforts of that kind were limited to + a few individuals only. + </p> + <p> + Incidents drawn from the reminiscences of Levi Coffin, the reputed + president of the Underground Railroad, may serve to illustrate the origin + and growth of the system. He was seven years old when he first saw near + his home in North Carolina a coffle of slaves being driven to the Southern + market by a man on horseback with a long whip. "The driver was some + distance behind with the wagon. My father addressed the slaves pleasantly + and then asked, 'Well, boys, why do they chain you?' One of the men whose + countenance betrayed unusual intelligence and whose expression denoted the + deepest sadness replied: 'They have taken us from our wives and children + and they chain us lest we should make our escape and go back to them."' + When Coffin was fifteen, he rendered assistance to a man in bondage. + Having an opportunity to talk with the members of a gang in the hands of a + trader bound for the Southern market, he learned that one of the company, + named Stephen, was a freeman who had been kidnapped and sold. Letters were + written to Northern friends of Stephen who confirmed his assertion. Money + was raised in the Quaker meeting and men were sent to recover the negro. + Stephen was found in Georgia and after six months was liberated. + </p> + <p> + During the year 1821 other incidents occurred in the Quaker community at + New Garden, near Greensboro, North Carolina, which illustrate different + phases of the subject. Jack Barnes was the slave of a bachelor who became + so greatly attached to his servant that he bequeathed to him not only his + freedom but also a large share of his property. Relatives instituted + measures to break the will, and Jack in alarm took refuge among the + Quakers at New Garden. The suit went against the negro, and the newspapers + contained advertisements offering a hundred dollars for information which + should result in his recovery. To prevent his return to bondage, it was + decided that Jack should join a family of Coffins who were moving to + Indiana. + </p> + <p> + At the same time a negro by the name of Sam had for several months been + abiding in the Quaker neighborhood. He belonged to a Mr. Osborne, a + prototype of Simon Legree, who was so notoriously cruel that other + slave-owners assisted in protecting his victims. After the Coffins, with + Jack, had been on the road for a few days, Osborne learned that a negro + was with them and, feeling sure that it was his Sam, he started in hot + haste after them. This becoming known to the Friends, young Levi Coffin + was sent after Osborne to forestall disaster. The descriptions given of + Jack and Sam were practically identical and it was surmised that when + Osborne should overtake the party and discover his mistake, he would seize + Jack for the sake of the offered reward. Coffin soon came up with Osborne + and decided to ride with him for a time to learn his plans. In the course + of their conversation, it was finally agreed that Coffin should assist in + the recovery of Sam. Osborne was also generous and insisted that if it + proved to be the other "nigger" who was with the company, Coffin should + have half the reward. How the young Quaker outwitted the tyrant, gained + his point, sent Jack on his way to liberty, and at the same time retained + the confidence of Osborne so that upon their return home he was definitely + engaged to assist Osborne in finding Sam, is a fascinating story. The + abolitionist won from the slaveholder the doubtful compliment that "there + was not a man in that neighborhood worth a d—n to help him hunt his + negro except young Levi Coffin." + </p> + <p> + Sam was perfectly safe so long as Levi Coffin was guide for the + hunting-party, but matters were becoming desperate. For the fugitive + something had to be done. Another family was planning to move to Indiana, + and in their wagon Sam was to be concealed and thus conveyed to a free + State. The business had now become serious. The laws of the State affixed + the death penalty for stealing a slave. At night when young Coffin and his + father, with Sam, were on their way to complete arrangements for the + departure, horsemen appeared in the road near by. They had only time to + throw themselves flat on the ground behind a log. From the conversation + overheard, they were assured that they had narrowly escaped the + night-riders on the lookout for stray negroes. The next year, 1822, Coffin + himself joined a party going to Indiana by the southern route through + Tennessee and Kentucky. In the latter State they were at one time + overtaken by men who professed to be looking for a pet dog, but whose real + purpose was to recover runaway slaves. They insisted upon examining the + contents of the wagons, for in this way only a short time previous a + fugitive had been captured. + </p> + <p> + These incidents show the origin of the system. The first case of + assistance rendered a negro was not in itself illegal, but was intended + merely to prevent the crime of kidnapping. The second was illegal in form, + but the aid was given to one who, having been set free by will, was being + reenslaved, it was believed, by an unjust decision of a court. The third + was a case of outrageous abuse on the part of the owner. The negro Sam had + himself gone to a trader begging that he would buy him and preferring to + take his chances on a Mississippi plantation rather than return to his + master. The trader offered the customary price and was met with the reply + that he could have the rascal if he would wait until after the enraged + owner had taken his revenge, otherwise the price would be twice the amount + offered. A large proportion of the fugitives belonged to this maltreated + class. Others were goaded to escape by the prospect of deportation to the + Gulf States. The fugitives generally followed the beaten line of travel to + the North and West. + </p> + <p> + In 1826 Levi Coffin became a merchant in Newport, Indiana, a town near the + Ohio line not far from Richmond. In the town and in its neighborhood lived + a large number of free negroes who were the descendants of former slaves + whom North Carolina Quakers had set free and had colonized in the new + country. Coffin found that these blacks were accustomed to assist + fugitives on their way to Canada. When he also learnt that some had been + captured and returned to bondage merely through lack of skill on the part + of the negroes, he assumed active operations as a conductor on the + Underground Railroad. + </p> + <p> + Coffin used the Underground Railroad as a means of making converts to the + cause. One who berated him for negro-stealing was adroitly induced to meet + a newly arrived passenger and listen to his pathetic story. At the + psychological moment the objector was skillfully led to hand the fugitive + a dollar to assist him in reaching a place of safety. Coffin then + explained to this benevolent non-abolitionist the nature of his act, + assuring him that he was liable to heavy damages therefor. The reply was + in this case more forcible than elegant: "Damn it! You've got me!" This + conversion he publicly proclaimed for the sake of its influence upon + others. Many were the instances in which those of supposed pro-slavery + convictions were brought face to face with an actual case of the + threatened reenslavement of a human being escaping from bondage and were, + to their own surprise, overcome by the natural, humane sentiment which + asserted itself. For example, a Cincinnati merchant, who at the time was + supposed to be assisting one of his Southern customers to recover an + escaped fugitive, was confronted at his own home by the poor half-starved + victim. Yielding to the impulse of compassion, he gave the slave food and + personal assistance and directed the destitute creature to a place of + refuge. + </p> + <p> + The division in the Quaker meeting in Indiana with which Levi Coffin was + intimately associated may serve to exemplify a corresponding attitude in + other churches on the question of slavery. The Quakers availed themselves + of the first great anti-slavery movement to rid themselves completely of + the burden. Their Society itself became an anti-slavery organization. Yet + even so the Friends had differences of opinion as to fit methods of + action. Not only did many of them disapprove of rendering aid to fugitives + but they also objected to the use of the meetinghouses for anti-slavery + lectures. The formation of the Liberty party served to accentuate the + division. The great body of the Friends were anti-slavery Whigs. + </p> + <p> + A crisis in the affairs of the Society of Friends in the State of Indiana + was reached in 1843 when the radicals seceded and organized an independent + "Anti-Slavery Friends Society." Immediately there appeared in numerous + localities duplicate Friends' meeting-houses. In and around one of these, + distinguished as "Liberty Hall," were gathered those whose supreme + religious interest was directed against the sin of slavery. Never was + there a church division which involved less bad blood or sense of injury + or injustice. Members of the same family attended separate churches + without the least difference in their cordial relations. No important + principle was involved; there were apparently good reasons for both lines + of policy, and each party understood and respected the other's position. + After the adoption of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 and the passing of + the Whig party, these differences disappeared, the separate organization + was disbanded, and all Friends' meetinghouses became "liberty halls." + </p> + <p> + The disposition to aid the fugitive was by no means confined to the North + nor to Quakers in the South. Richard Dillingham, a young Quaker who had + yielded to the solicitations of escaped fugitives in Cincinnati and had + undertaken a mission to Nashville, Tennessee, to rescue their relatives + from a "hard master," was arrested with three stolen slaves on his hands. + He made confession in open court and frankly explained his motives. The + Nashville Daily Gazette of April 13, 1849, has words of commendation for + the prisoner and his family and states that "he was not without the + sympathy of those who attended the trial." Though Dillingham committed a + crime to which the death penalty was attached in some of the States, the + jury affixed the minimum penalty of three years' imprisonment for the + offense. As Nashville was far removed from Quaker influence or any sort of + anti-slavery propaganda, Dillingham was himself astonished and was + profoundly grateful for the leniency shown him by Court, jury, and + prosecutors. This incident occurred in the year before the adoption of the + Fugitive Slave Law of 1850. It is well known that in all times and places + which were free from partizan bitterness there was a general natural + sympathy for those who imperiled their life and liberty to free the slave. + Throughout the South men of both races were ready to give aid to slaves + seeking to escape from dangers or burdens which they regarded as + intolerable. While such a man as Frederick Douglass, when still a slave, + was an agent of the Underground Railroad, Southern anti-slavery people + themselves were to a large extent the original projectors of the movement. + Even members of the families of slaveholders have been known to assist + fugitives in their escape to the North. + </p> + <p> + The fugitives traveled in various ways which were determined partly by + geographical conditions and partly by the character of the inhabitants of + a region. On the Atlantic coast, from Florida to Delaware, slaves were + concealed in ships and were thus conveyed to free States. Thence some made + their way towards Canada by steamboat or railroad, though most made the + journey on foot or, less frequently, in private conveyances. Stalwart + slaves sometimes walked from the Gulf States to the free States, traveling + chiefly by night and guided by the North Star. Having reached a free + State, they found friends among those of their own race, or were taken in + hand by officers of the Underground Railroad and were thus helped across + the Canadian border. + </p> + <p> + From the seacoast the valley of the Connecticut River furnished a + convenient route for completing the journey northward, though the way of + the fugitives was often deflected to the Lake Champlain region. In later + years, when New England became generally sympathetic, numerous lines of + escape traversed that entire section. Other courses extended northward + from the vicinity of Philadelphia, Delaware, and Maryland. Here, through + the center of American Quakerdom, all conditions favored the escape of + fugitives, for slavery and freedom were at close quarters. The activities + of the Quakers, who were at first engaged merely in preventing the + reenslavement of those who had a legal right to freedom, naturally + expanded until aid was given without reservation to any fugitive. From + Philadelphia as a distributing point the route went by way of New York and + the Hudson River or up the river valleys of eastern Pennsylvania through + western New York. + </p> + <p> + In addition to the routes to freedom which the seacoast and river valleys + afforded, the Appalachian chain of mountains formed an attractive highway + of escape from slavery, though these mountain paths lead us to another + branch of our subject not immediately connected with the Underground + Railroad—the escape from bondage by the initiative of the slaves + themselves or by the aid of their own people. Mountains have always been a + refuge and a defense for the outlaw, and the few dwellers in this almost + unknown wilderness were not infrequently either indifferent or friendly to + the fugitives. The escaped slaves might, if they chose, adopt for an + indefinite time the free life of the hills; but in most cases they + naturally drifted northward for greater security until they found + themselves in a free State. Through the mountainous regions of Virginia + many thus escaped, and they were induced to remain there by the example + and advice of residents of their own color. The negroes themselves + excelled all others in furnishing places of refuge to fugitives from + slavery and in concealing their status. For this reason John Brown and his + associates were influenced to select this region for their great venture + in 1859. + </p> + <p> + But there were other than geographical conditions which helped to + determine the direction of the lines of the Underground Railroad. West of + the Alleghanies are the broad plains of the Mississippi Valley, and in + this great region human elements rather than physical characteristics + proved influential. Northern Ohio was occupied by settlers from the East, + many of whom were anti-slavery. Southern Ohio was populated largely by + Quakers and other people from the slave States who abhorred slavery. On + the east and south the State bordered on slave territory, and every part + of the region was traversed by lines of travel for the slave. In eastern + and northern Indiana a favorable attitude prevailed. Southwestern Indiana, + however, and southern Illinois were occupied by those less friendly to the + slave, so that in these sections there is little evidence of systematic + aid to fugitives. But with St. Louis, Missouri, as a starting-point, + northern Illinois became honeycombed with refuges for patrons of the + Underground Railroad. The negro also found friends in all the settled + portions of Iowa, and at the outbreak of the Civil War a lively traffic + was being developed, extending from Lawrence, Kansas, to Keokuk, Iowa. + </p> + <p> + There is respectable authority for a variety of opinions as to the + requirements of the rendition clause in the Constitution and of the Act of + Congress of 1793 to facilitate the return of fugitives from service or + labor; but there is no respectable authority in support of the view that + neither the spirit nor the letter of the law was violated by the + supporters of the Underground Railroad. This was a source of real weakness + to anti-slavery leaders in politics. It was always true that only a small + minority of their numbers were actual violators of the law, yet such was + their relation to the organized anti-slavery movement that responsibility + attached to all. The platform of the Liberty party for 1844 declared that + the provisions of the Constitution for reclaiming fugitive slaves were + dangerous to liberty and ought to be abrogated. It further declared that + the members of the party would treat these provisions as void, because + they involved an order to commit an immoral act. The platform thus + explicitly committed the party to the support of the policy of rendering + aid to fugitive slaves. Four years later the platform of the Free-soil + party contained no reference whatever to fugitive slaves, but that of 1852 + denounced the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 as repugnant to the Constitution + and the spirit of Christianity and denied its binding force on the + American people. The Republican platform of 1856 made no reference to the + subject. + </p> + <p> + The Underground Railroad filled an insignificant place in the general plan + for emancipation, even in the minds of the directors. It was a lesser task + preparatory to the great work. As to the numbers of slaves who gained + their freedom by means of it, there is a wide range of opinion. Statements + in Congress by Southern members that a hundred thousand had escaped must + be regarded as gross exaggerations. In any event the loss was confined + chiefly to the border States. Besides, it has been stated with some show + of reason that the danger of servile insurrection was diminished by the + escape of potential leaders. + </p> + <p> + From the standpoint of the great body of anti-slavery men who expected to + settle the slavery question by peaceable means, it was a calamity of the + first magnitude that, just at the time when conditions were most favorable + for transferring the active crusade from the general Government to the + separate States, public attention should be directed to the one point at + which the conflict was most acute and irrepressible. + </p> + <p> + Previous to 1850 there had been no general acrimonious debate in Congress + on the rendition of fugitive slaves. About half of those who had + previously escaped from bondage had not taken the trouble to go as far as + Canada, but were living at peace in the Northern States. Few people at the + North knew or cared anything about the details of a law that had been on + the statute books since 1793. Members of Congress were duly warned of the + dangers involved in any attempt to enforce a more stringent law than the + previous act which had proved a dead letter. To those who understood the + conditions, the new law also was doomed to failure. So said Senator Butler + of South Carolina. An attempt to enforce it would be met by violence. + </p> + <p> + This prediction came true. The twenty thousand potential victims residing + in Northern States were thrown into panic. Some rushed off to Canada; + others organized means for protection. A father and son from Baltimore + came to a town in Pennsylvania to recover a fugitive. An alarm was + sounded; men, mostly colored, rushed to the protection of the one whose + liberty was threatened. Two Quakers appeared on the scene and warned the + slavehunters to desist and upon their refusal one slave-hunter was + instantly killed and the other wounded. The fugitive was conveyed to a + place of safety, and to the murderers no punishment was meted out, though + the general Government made strenuous efforts to discover and punish them. + In New York, though Gerrit Smith and a local clergyman with a few + assistants rescued a fugitive from the officers of the law and sent him to + Canada, openly proclaiming and justifying the act, no attempt was made to + punish the offenders. + </p> + <p> + After a dozen years of intense and ever-increasing excitement, when other + causes of friction between North and South had apparently been removed and + good citizens in the two sections were rejoicing at the prospect of an era + of peace and harmony, public attention was concentrated upon the one + problem of conduct which would not admit of peaceable legal adjustment. + Abolitionists had always been stigmatized as lawbreakers whose aim was the + destruction of slavery in utter disregard of the rights of the States. + This charge was absolutely false; their settled program involved full + recognition of state and municipal control over slavery. Yet after public + attention had become fixed upon conduct on the part of the abolitionists + which was illegal, it was difficult to escape the implication that their + whole course was illegal. This was the tragic significance of the Fugitive + Slave Act of 1850. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX. BOOKS AS ANTI-SLAVERY WEAPONS + </h2> + <p> + Whittier offered up "thanks for the fugitive slave law; for it gave + occasion for 'Uncle Tom's Cabin.'" Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe had been + mistress of a station on the Underground Railroad at Cincinnati, the + storm-center of the West, and out of her experience she has transmitted to + the world a knowledge of the elemental and tragic human experiences of the + slaves which would otherwise have been restricted to a select few. The + mistress of a similar station in eastern Indiana, though she held novel + reading a deadly sin, said: "'Uncle Tom's Cabin' is not a novel, it is a + record of facts. I myself have listened to the same stories." The reading + public in all lands soon became sympathetic participants in the labors of + those who, in defiance of law, were lending a hand to the aspirants for + liberty. At the time of the publication of the story in book form in + March, 1852, America was being profoundly stirred by the stories of + fugitives who had escaped from European despotism. Mrs. Stowe refers to + these incidents in her question: "When despairing Hungarian fugitives make + their way, against all the search-warrants and authorities of their lawful + governments to America, press and political cabinet ring with applause and + welcome. When despairing African fugitives do the same thing—it is—what + IS it?" Little did she think that when the eloquence of the Hungarian + refugee had been forgotten, the story of Eliza and Uncle Tom would ring + throughout the world. + </p> + <p> + The book did far more than vindicate the conduct of those who rendered + assistance to the fugitive from slavery; it let in daylight upon the + essential nature of slavery. Humane and just masters are shown to be + forced into participation in acts which result in intolerable cruelty. + Full justice is done to the noble and admirable character of Southern + slave-owners. The author had been a guest in the home of the "Shelbys," in + Kentucky. She had taken great pains to understand the Southern point of + view on the subject of slavery; she had entered into the real trials and + difficulties involved in any plan of emancipation. St. Clair, speaking to + Miss Ophelia, his New England cousin, says: + </p> + <p> + "If we emancipate, are you willing to educate? How many families of your + town would take in a negro man or woman, teach them, bear with them, and + seek to make them Christians? How many merchants would take Adolph, if I + wanted to make him a clerk; or mechanics, if I wanted to teach him a + trade? If I wanted to put Jane and Rosa to a school, how many schools are + there in the Northern States that would take them in? How many families + that would board them? And yet they are as white as many a woman north or + south. You see, cousin, I want justice done us. We are in a bad position. + We are the more obvious oppressors of the negro; but the unchristian + prejudice of the north is an oppressor almost equally severe." + </p> + <p> + Throughout the book the idea is elaborated in many ways. Miss Ophelia is + introduced for the purpose of contrasting Northern ignorance and New + England prejudice with the patience and forbearance of the better class of + slave-owners of the South. The genuine affection of an unspoiled child for + negro friends is made especially emphatic. Miss Ophelia objected to Eva's + expressions of devotion to Uncle Tom. Her father insists that his daughter + shall not be robbed of the free utterance of her high regard, observing + that "the child is the only true democrat." There is only one Simon Legree + in the book, and he is of New England extraction. The story is as + distinctly intended to inform Northern ignorance and to remove Northern + prejudice as it is to justify the conduct of abolitionists. + </p> + <p> + What was the effect of the publication? In European countries far removed + from local partizan prejudice, it was immediately received as a great + revelation of the spirit of liberty. It was translated into twenty-three + different languages. So devoted were the Italians to the reading of the + story that there was earnest effort to suppress its circulation. As a + drama it proved a great success, not only in America and England but in + France and other countries as well. More than a million copies of the + story were sold in the British Empire. Lord Palmerston avers that he had + not read a novel for thirty years, yet he read Uncle Tom's Cabin three + times and commended the book for the statesmanship displayed in it. + </p> + <p> + What is in the story to call forth such commendation from the cold-blooded + English statesman? The book revealed, in a way fitted to carry conviction + to every unprejudiced reader, the impossibility of uniting slavery with + freedom under the same Government. Either all must be free or the mass + subject to the few—or there is actual war. This principle is finely + brought out in the predicament of the Quaker confronted by a fugitive with + wife and child who had seen a sister sold and conveyed to a life of shame + on a Southern plantation. "Am I going to stand by and see them take my + wife and sell her?" exclaimed the negro. "No, God help me! I'll fight to + the last breath before they shall take my wife and son. Can you blame me?" + To which the Quaker replied: "Mortal man cannot blame thee, George. Flesh + and blood could not do otherwise. 'Woe unto the world because of offences + but woe unto them through whom the offence cometh.'" "Would not even you, + sir, do the same, in my place?" "I pray that I be not tried." And in the + ensuing events the Quaker played an important part. + </p> + <p> + Laws enacted for the protection of slave property are shown to be + destructive of the fundamental rights of freemen; they are inhuman. The + Ohio Senator, who in his lofty preserve at the capital of his country + could discourse eloquently of his readiness to keep faith with the South + in the matter of the faithful execution of the Fugitive Slave Law, + becomes, when at home with his family, a flagrant violator of the law. + Elemental human nature is pitted against the apparent interests of a few + individual slaveowners. The story of Uncle Tom placed all supporters of + the new law on the defensive. It was read by all classes North and South. + "Uncle Tom's Cabin as it is" was called forth from the South as a reply to + Mrs. Stowe's book, and there ensued a general discussion of the subject + which was on the whole enlightening. Yet the immediate political effect of + the publication was less than might have been expected from a book so + widely read and discussed. Its appearance early in the decade did not + prevent the apparent pro-slavery reaction already described. But Mr. + Rhodes calls attention to the different impression which the book made + upon adults and boys. Hardened sinners in partizan politics could read the + book, laugh and weep over the passing incidents, and then go on as if + nothing had happened. Not so with the thirteen-year-old boy. He never + could be the same again. The Republican party of 1860 was especially + successful in gaining the first vote of the youthful citizen and + undoubtedly owed much of its influence to "Uncle Tom's Cabin." + </p> + <p> + Two lines of attack were rapidly rendering impossible the continuance of + slavery in the United States. Mrs. Stowe gave effective expression to the + moral, religious, and humanitarian sentiment against slavery. In the year + in which her work was published, Frederick Law Olmsted began his extended + journeys throughout the South. He represents the impartial scientific + observer. His books were published during the years 1856, 1857, and 1861. + They constitute in their own way an indictment against slavery quite as + forcible as that of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," but an indictment that rests + chiefly upon the blighting influence of the institution of slavery upon + agriculture, manufactures, and the general industrial and social order. + The crisis came too soon for these publications to have any marked effect + upon the issue. Their appeal was to the deliberate and thoughtful reader, + and political control had already drifted into the hands of those who were + not deliberate and composed. + </p> + <p> + In 1857, however, there appeared a book which did exert a marked influence + upon immediate political issues. There is no evidence that Hinton Rowan + Helper, the author of "The Impending Crisis," had any knowledge of the + writings of Olmsted; but he was familiar with Northern anti-slavery + literature. "I have considered my subject more particularly," he states in + his preface, "with reference to its economic aspects as regards the whites—not + with reference, except in a very slight degree, to its humanitarian or + religious aspects. To the latter side of the question, Northern writers + have already done full and timely justice.... Yankee wives have written + the most popular anti-slavery literature of the day. Against this I have + nothing to say; it is all well enough for women to give the fictions of + slavery; men should give the facts." He denies that it had been his + purpose to cast unmerited opprobium upon slaveholders; yet a sense of + personal injury breathes throughout the pages. If he had no intention of + casting unmerited opprobrium upon slaveholders, it is difficult to imagine + what language he could have used if he had undertaken to pass the limit of + deserved reprobation. In this regard the book is quite in line with the + style of Southern utterance against abolitionists. + </p> + <p> + Helper belonged to a slaveholding family, for a hundred years resident in + the Carolinas. The dedication is significant. It is to three personal + friends from three slave States who at the time were residing in + California, in Oregon, and in Washington Territory, "and to the + non-slaveholding whites of the South generally, whether at home or + abroad." Out of the South had come the inspiration for the religious and + humanitarian attack upon slavery. From the same source came the call for + relief of the poverty-stricken white victims of the institution. + </p> + <p> + Helper's book revived the controversy which had been forcibly terminated a + quarter of a century before. He resumes the argument of the members of the + Virginia legislature of 1832. He reprints extended selections from that + memorable debate and then, by extended references to later official + reports, points out how slavery is impoverishing the South. The South is + shown to have continuously declined, while the North has made immense + gains. In a few years the relation of the South to the North would + resemble that of Poland to Russia or of Ireland to England. The author + sees no call for any arguments against slavery as an economic system; he + would simply bring the earlier characterization of the situation down to + date. + </p> + <p> + Helper differs radically from all earlier speakers and writers in that he + outlines a program for definite action. He estimates that for the entire + South there are seven white non-slaveholders for every three slaveholders. + He would organize these non-slaveholding whites into an independent + political party and would hold a general convention of non-slaveholders + from every slave State to adopt measures to restrain "the diabolical + excesses of the oligarchy" and to annihilate slavery. Slaveholders should + be entirely excluded from any share in government. They should be treated + as criminals ostracized from respectable society. He is careful to state, + however, that by slaveholder he does not mean such men as Benton of + Missouri and many others throughout the slave States who retain the + sentiments on the slavery question of the "immortal Fathers of the + Republic." He has in mind only the new order of owners, who have + determined by criminal methods to inflict the crime of slavery upon an + overwhelming majority of their white fellow-citizens. + </p> + <p> + The publication of "The Impending Crisis" created a profound sensation + among Southern leaders. So long as the attack upon the peculiar + institution emanated from the North, the defenders had the full benefit of + local prejudice and resentment against outside intrusion. Helper was + himself a thorough-going believer in state rights. Slavery was to be + abolished, as he thought, by the action of the separate States. Here he + was in accord with Northern abolitionists. If such literature as Helper's + volume should find its way into the South, it would be no longer possible + to palm off upon the unthinking public the patent falsehood that + abolitionists of the North were attempting to impose by force a change in + Southern institutions. All that Southern abolitionists ever asked was the + privilege of remaining at home in their own South in the full exercise of + their constitutional rights. + </p> + <p> + Southern leaders were undoubtedly aware of the concurrent publications of + travelers and newspaper reporters, of which Olmsted's books were + conspicuous examples. Olmsted and Helper were both sources of proof that + slavery was bringing the South to financial ruin. The facts were getting + hold of the minds of the Southern people. The debate which had been + adjourned was on the eve of being resumed. Complete suppression of the new + scientific industrial argument against slavery seemed to slave-owners to + furnish their only defense. + </p> + <p> + The Appalachian ranges of mountains drove a wedge of liberty and freedom + from Pennsylvania almost to the Gulf. In the upland regions slavery could + not flourish. There was always enmity between the planters of the coast + and the dwellers on the upland. The slaveholding oligarchy had always + ruled, but the day of the uplanders was at hand. This is the explanation + of the veritable panic which Helper's publication created. A debate which + should follow the line of this old division between the peoples of the + Atlantic slave States would, under existing conditions, be fatal to the + institution of slavery. West Virginia did become a free State at the first + opportunity. Counties in western North Carolina claim to have furnished a + larger proportion of their men to the Union army than any other counties + in the country. Had the plan for peaceable emancipation projected by + abolitionists been permitted to take its course, the uplands of South + Carolina would have been pitted against the lowlands, and Senator Tillman + would have appeared as a rampant abolitionist. There might have been + violence, but it would have been confined to limited areas in the separate + States. Had the crisis been postponed, there surely would have been a + revival of abolitionism within the Southern States. Slavery in Missouri + was already approaching a crisis. Southern leaders had long foreseen that + the State would abolish slavery if a free State should be established on + the western boundary. This was actually taking place. Kansas was filling + up with free-state settlers and, by the act of its own citizens, a few + years later did abolish slavery. + </p> + <p> + Republicans naturally made use of Helper's book for party purposes. A + cheap abridged edition was brought out. Several Republican leaders were + induced to sign their names to a paper commending the publication. Among + these was John Sherman of Ohio, who in the organization of the newly + elected House of Representatives in 1859 was the leading candidate of the + Republicans for the speakership. During the contest the fact that his name + was on this paper was made public, and Southern leaders were furious. + Extracts were read to prove that the book was incendiary. Millson of + Virginia said that "one who consciously, deliberately, and of purpose + lends his name and influence to the propagation of such writings is not + only not fit to be speaker, but he is not-fit to live." It is one of the + ironies of the situation that the passage selected to prove the incendiary + character of the book is almost a literal quotation from the debate in the + Virginia Legislature of 1832. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X. "BLEEDING KANSAS" + </h2> + <p> + Both the leading political parties were, in the campaign of 1852, fully + committed to the acceptance of the so-called Compromise of 1850 as a final + settlement of the slavery question; both were committed to the support of + the Fugitive Slave Act. The Free-soil party, with John P. Hale as its + candidate, did make a vigorous attack upon the Fugitive Slave Act, and + opposed all compromises respecting slavery, but Free-soilers had been to a + large extent reabsorbed into the Democratic party, their vote of 1852 + being only about half that of 1848. Though the Whig vote was large and + only about two hundred thousand less than that of the Democrats, yet it + was so distributed that the Whigs carried only four States, Massachusetts, + Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee. The other States gave a Democratic + plurality. + </p> + <p> + Had there been time for readjustment, the Whig party might have recovered + lost ground, but no time was permitted. There was in progress in Missouri + a political conflict which was already commanding national attention. + Thomas H. Benton, for thirty years a Senator from Missouri, and a national + figure, was the storm-center. His enemies accused him of being a + Free-soiler, an abolitionist in disguise. He was professedly a stanch and + uncompromising unionist, a personal and political opponent of John C. + Calhoun. According to his own statement he had been opposed to the + extension of slavery since 1804, although he had advocated the admission + of Missouri with a pro-slavery constitution in 1820. He was, from the + first, senior Senator from the State, and by a peculiar combination of + influences incurred his first defeat for reelection in 1851. + </p> + <p> + Benton's defeat in the Missouri Legislature was largely the result of + national pro-slavery influences. In a former chapter, reference was made + to the Ohio River as furnishing a "providential argument against slavery." + The Mississippi River as the eastern boundary of Missouri furnished a like + argument, but on the north not even a prairie brook separated free labor + in Iowa from slave labor in Missouri. The inhabitants of western Missouri, + realizing that the tenure of their peculiar institution was becoming + weaker in the east and north, early became convinced that the organization + of a free State along their western boundary would be followed by the + abolition of slavery in their own State. This condition attracted the + attention of the national guardians of pro-slavery interests. Calhoun, + Davis, Breckinridge, Toombs, and others were in constant communication + with local leaders. A certain Judge W. C. Price, a religious fanatic, and + a pro-slavery devotee, was induced to visit every part of the State in + 1844, calling the attention of all slaveholders to the perils of the + situation and preparing the way for the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. + Senator Benton, who was approached on the subject, replied in such a way + that all radical defenders of slavery, both national leaders and local + politicians, were moved to unite for his political defeat. + </p> + <p> + David R. Atchison, junior Senator from Missouri, had been made the leader + of the pro-slavery forces. The defeat of Benton in the Missouri + Legislature did not end the strife. He at once became a candidate for + Atchison's place in the election which was to occur in 1855, and he was in + the meantime elected to the House of Representatives in 1852. The most + telling consideration in Benton's favor was the general demand, in which + he himself joined, for the immediate organization of the western territory + in order to facilitate the building of a system of railways reaching the + Pacific, with St. Louis as the point of departure. For a time, in 1852, + and 1853, Benton was apparently triumphant, and Atchison was himself + willing to consent to the organization of the new territory with slavery + excluded. The national leaders, however, were not of the same mind. The + real issue was the continuance of slavery in the State; the one thing + which must not be permitted was the transfer of anti-slavery agitation to + the separate States. Henry Clay's proposal of 1849 to provide for gradual + emancipation in Kentucky was bitterly resented. It had long been an axiom + with the slavocracy that the institution would perish unless it had the + opportunity to expand. Out of this conviction arose Calhoun's famous + theory that slaveowners had under the Constitution an equal right with the + owners of all other forms of property in all the Territories. The theory + itself assumed that the act prohibiting slavery in the territory north of + the southern boundary of Missouri was unconstitutional and void. But this + theory had not yet received judicial sanction, and the time was at hand + when the question of freedom or slavery in the western territory was to be + determined. Between March and December, 1853, the discovery was made that + the Act of 1850 organizing the Territories of New Mexico and Utah had + superseded the Compromise of 1820; that a principle had been recognized + applicable to all the Territories; that all were open to settlement on + equal terms to slaveholders and non-slaveholders; that the subject of + slavery should be removed from Congress to the people of the Territories; + and that they should decide, either when a territorial legislature was + organized or at the time of the adoption of a constitution preparatory to + statehood, whether or not slavery should be authorized. These ideas found + expression in various newspapers during the month of December, 1853. + Though the authorship of the new theory is still a matter of dispute, it + is well known that Stephen A. Douglas became its chief sponsor and + champion. The real motives and intentions of Douglas himself and of many + of his supporters will always remain obscure and uncertain. But no + uncertainty attaches to the motives of Senator Atchison and the leaders of + the Calhoun section of the Democratic party. For ten years at least they + had been laboring to get rid of the Missouri Compromise. Their motive was + to defend slavery and especially to forestall a successful movement for + emancipation in the State of Missouri. + </p> + <p> + From early in January, 1854, until late in May, Douglas's Nebraska bill + held the attention of Congress and of the entire country. At first the + measure simply assumed that the Missouri Compromise had been superseded by + the Act of 1850. Later the bill was amended in such a way as to repeal + distinctly that time-honored act. At first the plan was to organize + Nebraska as a single Territory extending from Texas to Canada. Later it + was proposed to organize separate Territories, one west of Missouri under + the name of Kansas, the other west of Iowa under the name of Nebraska. + Opposition came from Free-soilers, from Northern Whigs and a few Whigs + from the South, and from a large proportion of Northern Democrats. The + repeal of the Missouri Compromise came like a thunderbolt out of a clear + sky to the people of the North. For a time Douglas was the most unpopular + of political leaders and was apparently repudiated by his party. The first + name designating the opponents of the Douglas bill was "Anti-Nebraska + men," for which the name Republican was gradually substituted and in 1856 + became the accepted title of the party. + </p> + <p> + The provision for two territorial governments instead of one carried with + it the idea of a continued balance between slave and free States; Kansas, + being on a geographical parallel with the slave States, would probably + permit slavery, while Nebraska would be occupied by free-state immigrants. + Though this was a commonly accepted view, Eli Thayer of Worcester, + Massachusetts, and a few others took a different view. They proposed to + make an end of the discussion of the extension of slavery by sending free + men who were opposed to slavery to occupy the territory open for + settlement. To attain this object they organized an Emigrant Aid Company + incorporated under the laws of the State. Even before the bill was passed, + the corporation was in full working order. Thayer himself traveled + extensively throughout the Northern States stimulating interest in western + emigration, with the conviction that the disturbing question could be + peacefully settled in this way. California had thus been saved to freedom; + why not all other Territories? The new company had as adviser and + co-laborer Dr. Charles Robinson, who had crossed the Kansas Territory on + his way to California and had acquired valuable experience in the art of + state-building under peculiar conditions. + </p> + <p> + The first party sent out by the Emigrant Aid Company arrived in Kansas + early in August, 1854, and selected the site for the town of Lawrence. + During the later months of the year, four other parties were sent out, in + all numbering nearly seven hundred. Through extensive advertisement by the + company, through the general interest in the subject and the natural flow + of emigration to the West, Kansas was receiving large accessions of + free-state settlers. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the men of Missouri, some of whom had striven for a decade to + secure the privilege of extending slavery into the new Territory, were not + idle. Instantly upon the removal of legal barriers, they occupied adjacent + lands, founded towns, staked out claims, formed plans for preempting the + entire region and for forestalling or driving out all intruders. They had + at first the advantage of position, for they did not find it difficult to + maintain two homes, one in Kansas for purposes of voting and fighting and + another in Missouri for actual residence. Andrew H. Reeder, a Pennsylvania + Democrat of strong pro-slavery prejudices, was appointed first Governor of + the Territory. When he arrived in Kansas in October, 1854, there were + already several thousand settlers on the ground and others were + continually arriving. He appointed the 29th of November for the election + of a delegate to Congress. On that day several hundred Missourians came + into the Territory and voted. There was no violence and no contest; the + free-state men had no separate candidate. Notwithstanding the violence of + language used by opposing factions, notwithstanding the organization of + secret societies pledged to drive out all Northern intruders, there was no + serious disturbance until March 30, 1855, the day appointed for the + election of members of the territorial Legislature. On that day the + Missourians came full five thousand strong, armed with guns, bowie-knives, + and revolvers. They met with no resistance from the residents, who were + unarmed. They took charge of the precincts and chose pro-slavery delegates + with one exception. Governor Reeder protested and recommended to the + precincts the filing of protests. Only seven responded, however, and in + these cases new elections were held and contesting delegates elected. + </p> + <p> + The Governor issued certificates to these and to all those who in other + precincts had been chosen by the horde from Missouri. When the Legislature + met in July, the seven contests were decided in favor of the pro-slavery + party, the single freestate member resigned, and the assembly was + unanimous. + </p> + <p> + Governor Reeder fully expected that President Pierce would nullify the + election, and to this end he made a journey to Washington in April. On the + way he delivered a public address at Easton, Pennsylvania, describing in + lurid colors the outrage which had been perpetrated upon the people of + Kansas by the "border ruffians" from Missouri, and asserting that the + accounts in the Northern press had not been exaggerated. + </p> + <p> + While Governor Reeder in contact with the actual events in Kansas was + becoming an active Free-soiler, President Pierce in association with + Jefferson Davis and others of his party was developing active sympathies + with the people of western Missouri. To the President this invasion of + territory west of the slave State by Northern men aided by Northern + corporations seemed a violation of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and he sought + to induce Reeder to resign. This, however, the Governor positively refused + to do unless the President would formally approve his conduct in Kansas—an + endorsement which required more fortitude than President Pierce possessed. + On his return to Kansas, determined to do what he could to protect the + Kansas people from injustice, he called the Legislature to meet at Pawnee, + a point far removed from the Missouri border. Immediately upon their + organization at that place the members of the Legislature adjourned to + meet at Shawnee, near the border of Missouri. The Governor, who decided + that this action was illegal, then refused to recognize the Assembly at + the new place. A deadlock thus ensued which was broken on the 15th of + August by the removal of Governor Reeder and the appointment of Wilson + Shannon of Ohio in his place. In the meantime the territorial Legislature + had adjourned, having "enacted" an elaborate proslavery code made up from + the slave code of Missouri with a number of special adaptations. For + example, it was made a penitentiary offense to deny by speaking or + writing, or by printing, or by introducing any printed matter, the right + of persons to hold slaves in the Territory; no man was eligible to jury + service who was conscientiously opposed to holding slaves; and lawyers + were bound by oath to support the territorial statutes. + </p> + <p> + The free-state men, with the approval of Reeder, refused to recognize the + Legislature and inaugurated a movement in the fall of 1855 to adopt a + constitution and to organize a provisional territorial Government + preparatory to admission as a State, following in this respect the + procedure in California and Michigan. A convention met in Topeka in + October, 1855, and completed on the 11th of November the draft of a + constitution which prohibited slavery. On the 15th of December the + constitution was approved by a practically unanimous vote, only free-state + men taking part in the election. A month later a Legislature was elected + and at the same time Charles Robinson was elected Governor of the new + commonwealth. In the previous October, Reeder had been chosen Free-soil + delegate to Congress. The Topeka freestate Legislature met on the 4th of + March, 1856, and after petitioning Congress to admit Kansas under the + Topeka constitution, adjourned until the 4th of July pending the action of + Congress. Thus at the end of two years two distinct Governments had come + into existence within the Territory of Kansas. It speaks volumes for the + self-control and moderation of the two parties that no hostile encounter + had occurred between the contestants. When the armed Missourians came in + March, 1855, the unarmed settlers offered no resistance. Afterward, + however, they supplied themselves with Sharp's rifles and organized a + militia. With the advent of Governor Shannon in September, 1855, the + proslavery position was much strengthened. In November, in a quarrel over + a land claim, a free-state settler by the name of Dow was killed. The + murderer escaped, but a friend of the victim was accused of uttering + threats against a friend of the murderer. For this offense a posse led by + Sheriff Jones, a Missourian, seized him, and would have carried him away + if fourteen freestate men had not "persuaded" the Sheriff to surrender his + prisoner. This interference was accepted by the Missourians as a signal + for battle. The rescuers must be arrested and punished. A large force of + infuriated Missourians and pro-slavery settlers assembled for a raid upon + the town of Lawrence. In the meantime the Lawrence militia planned and + executed a systematic defense of the town. When the two armies came within + speaking distance, a parley ensued in which the Governor took a leading + part in settling the affair without a hostile shot. This is known in + Kansas history as the "Wakarusa War." + </p> + <p> + The progress of affairs in Kansas was followed with intense interest in + all parts of the country. North and South vied with each other in the + encouragement of emigration to Kansas. Colonel Buford of Alabama sold a + large number of slaves and devoted the proceeds to meeting the expense of + conducting a troop of three hundred men to Kansas in the winter of 1856. + They went armed with "the sword of the spirit," and all provided with + Bibles supplied by the leading churches. Arrived in the territory, they + were duly furnished with more worldly weapons and were drilled for action. + About the same time a parallel incident is said to have occurred in New + Haven, Connecticut. A deacon in one of the churches had enlisted a company + of seventy bound for Kansas. A meeting was held in the church to raise + money to defray expenses. The leader of the company declared that they + also needed rifles for self-defense. Forthwith Professor Silliman, of the + University, subscribed one Sharp's rifle, and others followed with like + pledges. Finally Henry Ward Beecher, who was the speaker of the occasion, + rose and promised that, if twenty-five rifles were pledged on the spot, + Plymouth Church in Brooklyn would be responsible for the remaining + twenty-five that were needed. He had already said in a previous address + that for the slaveholders of Kansas, Sharp's rifles were a greater moral + agency than the Bible. This led to the designation of the weapons as + "Beecher's Bibles." Such was the spirit which prevailed in the two + sections of the country. + </p> + <p> + President Pierce had now become intensely hostile towards the free-state + inhabitants of Kansas. Having recognized the Legislature elected on March + 30, 1855, as the legitimate Government, he sent a special message to + Congress on January 24, 1856, in which he characterized as revolutionary + the movement of the free-state men to organize a separate Government in + Kansas. From the President's point of view, the emissaries of the New + England Emigrant Aid Association were unlawful invaders. In this position + he not only had the support of the South, but was powerfully seconded by + Stephen A. Douglas and other Northern Democrats. + </p> + <p> + The attitude of the Administration at Washington was a source of great + encouragement to Sheriff Jones and his associates, who were anxious to + wreak their vengeance on the city of Lawrence for the outcome of the + Wakarusa War. Jones came to Lawrence apparently for the express purpose of + picking a quarrel, for he revived the old dispute about the rescuing party + of the previous fall. As a consequence one enraged opponent slapped him in + the face, and at last an unknown assassin entered the sheriff's tent by + night and inflicted a revolver wound in his back. Though the citizens of + Lawrence were greatly chagrined at this event and offered a reward for the + discovery of the assailant, the attack upon the sheriff was made the + signal for drastic procedure against the town of Lawrence. A grand jury + found indictments for treason against Reeder, Robinson, and other leading + citizens of the town. The United States marshal gave notice that he + expected resistance in making arrests and called upon all law-abiding + citizens of the Territory to aid in executing the law. It was a welcome + summons to the pro-slavery forces. Not only local militia companies + responded but also Buford's company and various companies from Missouri, + in all more than seven hundred men, with two cannon. It had always been + the set purpose of the free-state men not to resist federal authority by + force, unless as a last resort, and they had no intention of opposing the + marshal in making arrests. He performed his duty without hindrance and + then placed the armed troops under the command of Sheriff Jones, who + proceeded first to destroy the printing-press of the town of Lawrence. + Then, against the protest of the marshal and Colonel Buford, the + vindictive sheriff trained his guns upon the new hotel which was the pride + of the city; the ruin of the building was made complete by fire, while a + drunken mob pillaged the town. + </p> + <p> + On May 22, 1856, the day following the attack upon Lawrence, Charles + Sumner was struck down in the United States Senate on account of a speech + made in defense of the rights of Kansas settlers. The two events, which + were reported at the same time in the daily press, furnished the key-note + to the presidential campaign of that year, for nominating conventions + followed in a few days and "bleeding Kansas" was the all-absorbing issue. + In spite of the destruction of property in Lawrence and the arrest of the + leaders of the free-state party, Kansas had not been plunged into a state + of civil war. The free-state party had fired no hostile shot. Governor + Robinson and his associates still relied upon public opinion and they + accepted the wanton attack upon Lawrence as the best assurance that they + would yet win their cause by legal means. + </p> + <p> + A change, however, soon took place which is associated with the entrance + of John Brown into the history of Kansas. Brown and his sons were living + at Osawatomie, some thirty miles south of Lawrence. They were present at + the Wakarusa War in December, 1855, and were on their way to the defense + of Lawrence on May 21, 1856, when they were informed that the town had + been destroyed. Three days after this event Brown and his sons with two or + three others made a midnight raid upon their pro-slavery neighbors living + in the Pottawatomie valley and slew five men. The authors of this deed + were not certainly known until the publication of a confession of one of + the party in 1879, twenty years after the chief actor had won the + reputation of a martyr to the cause of liberty. The Browns, however, were + suspected at the time; warrants were out for their arrest; and their homes + were destroyed. + </p> + <p> + For more than three months after this incident, Kansas was in a state of + war; in fact, two distinct varieties of warfare were carried on. Publicly + organized companies on both sides engaged in acts of attack and defense, + while at the same time irresponsible secret bands were busy in violent + reprisals, in plunder and assassination. In both of these forms of + warfare, the free-state men proved themselves fully equal to their + opponents, and Governor Shannon was entirely unable to cope with the + situation. It is estimated that two hundred men were slain and two million + dollars' worth of property was destroyed. + </p> + <p> + The state of affairs in Kansas served to win many Northern Democrats to + the support of the Republicans. The Administration at Washington was held + responsible for the violence and bloodshed. The Democratic leaders in the + political campaign, determined now upon a complete change in the + Government of the Territory, appointed J. W. Geary as Governor and placed + General Smith in charge of the troops. The new incumbents, both from + Pennsylvania, entered upon their labors early in September, and before the + October state elections Geary was able to report that peace reigned + throughout the Territory. A prompt reaction in favor of the Democrats + followed. Buchanan, their presidential candidate, rejoiced in the fact + that order had been restored by two citizens of his own State. It was now + very generally conceded that Kansas would become a free State, and + intimate associates of Buchanan assured the public that he was himself of + that opinion and that if elected he would insure to the free-state party + evenhanded justice. Thousands of voters were thus won to Buchanan's + support. There was a general distrust of the Republican candidate as a man + lacking political experience, and a strong conservative reaction against + the idea of electing a President by the votes of only one section of the + country. At the election in November, Buchanan received a majority of + sixty of the electoral votes over Fremont, but in the popular vote he fell + short of a majority by nearly 400,000. Fillmore, candidate of the Whig and + the American parties, received 874,000 votes. + </p> + <p> + There was still profound distrust of the administration of the Territory + of Kansas, and the free-state settlers refused to vote at the election set + for the choosing of a new territorial Legislature in October. The result + was another pro-slavery assembly. Governor Geary, however, determined to + secure and enforce just treatment of both parties. He was at once brought + into violent conflict with the Legislature in an experience which was + almost an exact counterpart of that of Governor Reeder; and Washington did + not support his efforts to secure fair dealings. A pro-slavery deputation + visited President Pierce in February, 1857, and returned with the + assurance that Governor Geary would be removed. Without waiting for the + President to act, Geary resigned in disgust on the 4th of March. Of the + three Governors whom President Pierce appointed, two became active + supporters of the free-state party and a third, Governor Shannon, fled + from the territory in mortal terror lest he should be slain by members of + the party which he had tried to serve. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI. CHARLES SUMNER + </h2> + <p> + The real successor to John Quincy Adams as the protagonist of the + anti-slavery cause in Congress proved to be not Seward but Charles Sumner + of Massachusetts. This newcomer entered the Senate without previous + legislative experience but with an unusual equipment for the role he was + to play. A graduate of Harvard College at the age of nineteen, he had + entered upon the study of law in the newly organized law school in which + Joseph Story held one of the two professorships. He was admitted to the + bar in 1834, but three years later he left his slender law practice for a + long period of European travel. This three years' sojourn brought him into + intimate touch with the leading spirits in arts, letters, and public life + in England and on the Continent, and thus ripened his talents to their + full maturity. He returned to his law practice poor in pocket but rich in + the possession of lifelong friendships and happy memories. + </p> + <p> + Sumner's political career did not begin until 1847, when as a Whig he not + only opposed any further extension of slavery but strove to commit his + party to the policy of emancipation in all the States. Failing in this + attempt, Sumner became an active Free-soiler in 1848. He was twice a + candidate for Congress on the Free-soil ticket but failed of election. In + 1851 he was elected to the United States Senate by a coalition between his + party and the Democrats. This is the only public office he ever held, but + he was continuously reelected until his death in 1874. + </p> + <p> + John Quincy Adams had addressed audiences trained in the old school, which + did not defend slavery on moral grounds. Charles Sumner faced audiences of + the new school, which upheld the institution as a righteous moral order. + This explains the chief difference in the attitude of the two leaders. + Sumner, like Adams, began as an opponent of pro-slavery aggression, but he + went farther: he attacked the institution itself as a great moral evil. + </p> + <p> + As a constitutional lawyer Sumner is not the equal of his predecessor, + Daniel Webster. He is less original, less convincing in the enunciation of + broad general principles. He appears rather as a special pleader + marshaling all available forces against the one institution which assailed + the Union. In this particular work, he surpassed all others, for, with his + unbounded industry, he permitted no precedent, no legal advantage, no + incident of history, no fact in current politics fitted to strengthen his + cause, to escape his untiring search. He showed a marvelous skill in the + selection, arrangement, and presentation of his materials, and for his + models he took the highest forms of classic forensic utterance. + </p> + <p> + Sumner exhibited the ordinary aloofness and lack of familiarity with + actual conditions in the South which was characteristic of the New England + abolitionist. He perceived no race problem, no peculiar difficulty in the + readjustments of master and slave which were involved in emancipation, and + he ignored all obstacles to the accomplishment of his ends. Webster's + arraignment of South Carolina was directed against an alleged erroneous + dogma and only incidentally affected personal morality. The reaction, + therefore, was void of bitter resentment. Sumner's charges were directed + against alleged moral turpitude, and the classic form and scrupulous + regard for parliamentary rules which he observed only added to the feeling + of personal resentment on the part of his opponents. Some of the defenders + of slavery were themselves devoted students of the classics, but they + found that the orations of Demosthenes furnished nothing suited to their + purpose. The result was a humiliating exhibition of weakness, personal + abuse, and vindictiveness on their part. + </p> + <p> + There was a conspiracy of silence on the slavery question in 1852. Each of + the national parties was definitely committed to the support of the + compromise and especially to the faithful observance of the Fugitive Slave + Law. Free-soilers had distinctly declined in numbers and influence during + the four preceding years. Only a handful of members in each House of + Congress remained unaffiliated with the parties whose platforms had + ordained silence on the one issue of chief public concern. It was by a + mere accident in Massachusetts politics that Charles Sumner was sent to + the Senate as a man free on all public questions. + </p> + <p> + While the parties were making their nominations for the Presidency, Sumner + sought diligently for an opportunity in the Senate to give utterance to + the sentiments of his party on the repeal of the Fugitive Slave Act. But + not until late in August did he overcome the resistance of the combined + opposition and gain the floor. The watchmen were caught off guard when + Sumner introduced an amendment to an appropriation bill which enabled him + to deliver a carefully prepared address, several hours in length, calling + for the repeal of the law. + </p> + <p> + The first part of this speech is devoted to the general topic of the + relation of the national Government to slavery and was made in answer to + the demand of Calhoun and his followers for the direct national + recognition of slavery. For such a demand Sumner found no warrant. By the + decision of Lord Mansfield, said he, "the state of slavery" was declared + to be "of such a nature, that it is incapable of being introduced on any + reasons, moral or political, but ONLY BY POSITIVE LAW.... it is so odious, + that nothing can be suffered to support it but positive law." Adopting the + same principle, the Supreme Court of the State of Mississippi, a tribunal + of slaveholders, asserted that "slavery is condemned by reason and the + Laws of Nature. It exists, and can ONLY exist, through municipal + regulations." So also declared the Supreme Court of Kentucky and numerous + other tribunals. This aspect of the subject furnished Sumner occasion for + a masterly array of all the utterances in favor of liberty to be found in + the Constitution, in the Declaration of Independence, in the + constitutional conventions, in the principles of common law. All these led + up to and supported the one grand conclusion that, when Washington took + the oath as President of the United States, "slavery existed nowhere on + the national territory" and therefore "is in no respect a national + institution." Apply the principles of the Constitution in their purity, + then, and "in all national territories slavery will be impossible. On the + high seas, under the national flag, slavery will be impossible. In the + District of Columbia, slavery will instantly cease. Inspired by these + principles, Congress can give no sanction to slavery by the admission of + new slave States. Nowhere under the Constitution can the Nation by + legislation or otherwise, support slavery, hunt slaves, or hold property + in man.... As slavery is banished from the national jurisdiction, it will + cease to vex our national politics. It may linger in the States as a local + institution; but it will no longer engender national animosities when it + no longer demands national support." + </p> + <p> + The second part of Sumner's address dealt directly with the Fugitive Slave + Act of 1860. It is much less convincing and suggests more of the + characteristics of the special pleader with a difficult case. Sumner here + undertook to prove that Congress exceeded its powers when it presumed to + lay down rules for the rendition of fugitive slaves, and this task + exceeded even his power as a constitutional lawyer. + </p> + <p> + The circumstances under which Sumner attacked slavery were such as to have + alarmed a less self-centered man, for the two years following the + introduction of the Nebraska bill were marked by the most acrimonious + debate in the history of Congress, and by physical encounters, challenges, + and threats of violence. But though Congressmen carried concealed weapons, + Sumner went his way unarmed and apparently in complete unconcern as to any + personal danger, though it is known that he was fully aware that in the + faithful performance of what he deemed to be his duty he was incurring the + risk of assassination. + </p> + <p> + The pro-slavery party manifested on all occasions a disposition to make + the most of the weak point in Sumner's constitutional argument against the + Fugitive Slave Law. He was accused of taking an oath to support the + Constitution though at the same time intending to violate one of its + provisions. In a discussion, in June, 1854, over a petition praying for + the repeal of the Fugitive Slave Act, Senator Butler of South Carolina put + the question directly to Senator Sumner whether he would himself unite + with others in returning a fugitive to his master. Sumner's quick reply + was, "Is thy servant a dog that he should do this thing?" Enraged + Southerners followed this remark with a most bitter onslaught upon Sumner + which lasted for two days. When Sumner again got the floor, he said in + reference to Senator Butler's remark: "In fitful phrase, which seemed to + come from unconscious excitement, so common with the Senator, he shot + forth various cries about 'dogs,' and, among other things, asked if there + was any 'dog' in the Constitution? The Senator did not seem to bear in + mind, through the heady currents of that moment that, by the false + interpretation he fastens upon the Constitution, he has helped to nurture + there a whole kennel of Carolina bloodhounds, trained, with savage jaw and + insatiable in scent, for the hunt of flying bondmen. No, sir, I do not + believe that there is any 'kennel of bloodhounds,' or even any 'dog' in + the Constitution." Thereafter offensive personal references between the + Senators from Massachusetts and South Carolina became habitual. These + personalities were a source of regret to many of Sumner's best friends, + but they fill a small place, after all, in his great work. Nor were they + the chief source of rancor on the part of his enemies, for Southern + orators were accustomed to personalities in debate. Sumner was feared and + hated principally because his presence in Congress endangered the + institution of slavery. + </p> + <p> + Sumner's speech on the crime against Kansas was perhaps the most + remarkable effort of his career. It had been known for many weeks that + Sumner was preparing to speak upon the burning question, and his friends + had already expressed anxiety for his personal safety. For the larger part + of two days, May 19 and 20, 1856, he held the reluctant attention of the + Senate. For the delivery of this speech he chose a time which was most + opportune. The crime against Kansas had, in a sense, culminated in March + of the previous year, but the settlers had refused to submit to the + Government set up by hostile invaders. They had armed themselves for the + defense of their rights, had elected a Governor and a Legislature by + voluntary association, had called a convention, and had adopted a + constitution preparatory to admission to the Union. That constitution was + now before the Senate for approval. President Pierce, Stephen A. Douglas, + and all the Southern leaders had decided to treat as treasonable acts the + efforts of Kansas settlers to secure an orderly government. Their plans + for the arrest of the leaders were well advanced and the arrests were + actually made on the day after Sumner had concluded his speech. + </p> + <p> + A paragraph in the address is prophetic of what occurred within a week. + Douglas had introduced a bill recognizing the Legislature chosen by the + Missourians as the legal Government and providing for the formation of a + constitution under its initiative at some future date. After describing + this proposed action as a continuation of the crime against Kansas, Sumner + declared: "Sir, you cannot expect that the people of Kansas will submit to + the usurpation which this bill sets up and bids them bow before, as the + Austrian tyrant set up the ducal hat in the Swiss market-place. If you + madly persevere, Kansas will not be without her William Tell, who will + refuse at all hazards to recognize the tyrannical edict; and this will be + the beginning of civil war." + </p> + <p> + To keep historical sequence clear at this point, all thought of John Brown + should be eliminated, for he was then unknown to the public. It must be + remembered that Governor Robinson and the free-state settlers were, as + Sumner probably knew, prepared to resist the general Government as soon as + there should be a clear case of outrage for which the Administration at + Washington could be held directly responsible. Such a case occurred when + the United States marshal placed federal troops in the hands of Sheriff + Jones to assist in looting the town of Lawrence. Governor Robinson no + longer had any scruples in advising forcible resistance to all who used + force to impose upon Kansas a Government which the people had rejected. + </p> + <p> + In the course of his address Sumner compared Senators Butler and Douglas + to Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, saying: "The Senator from South Carolina + has read many books of chivalry, and believes himself a chivalrous knight, + with sentiments of honor and courage. Of course he has chosen a mistress + to whom he has made his vows, and who, though ugly to others, is always + lovely to him; though polluted in the sight of the world, is chaste in his + sight. I mean the harlot Slavery. Let her be impeached in character, or + any proposition be made to shut her out from the extension of her + wantonness, and no extravagance of manner or hardihood of assertion is + then too great for the Senator." + </p> + <p> + When Sumner concluded, the gathering storm broke forth. Cass of Michigan, + after saying that he had listened to the address with equal surprise and + regret, characterized it as "the most unAmerican and unpatriotic that ever + grated on the ears of the members of that high body." Douglas and Mason + were personal and abusive. Douglas, recalling Sumner's answer to Senator + Butler's question whether he would assist in returning a slave, renewed + the charge made two years earlier that Sumner had violated his oath of + office. This attack called forth from Sumner another attempt to defend the + one weak point in his speech of 1852, for he was always irritated by + reference to this subject, and at the same time he enjoyed a fine facility + in the use of language which irritated others. + </p> + <p> + One utterance in Douglas's reply to Sumner is of special significance in + view of what occurred two days later: "Is it his object to provoke some of + us to kick him as we would a dog in the street, that he may get sympathy + upon the just chastisement?" Two days later Sumner was sitting alone at + his desk in the Senate chamber after adjournment when Preston Brooks, a + nephew of Senator Butler and a member of the lower House, entered and + accosted him with the statement that he had read Sumner's speech twice and + that it was a libel on South Carolina and upon a kinsman of his. Thereupon + Brooks followed his words by striking Sumner on the head with a cane. + Though the Senator was dazed and blinded by the unexpected attack, his + assailant rained blow after blow until he had broken the cane and Sumner + lay prostrate and bleeding at his feet. Brooks's remarks in the House of + Representatives almost a month after the event leave no doubt of his + determination to commit murder had he failed to overcome his antagonist + with a cane. He had also taken the precaution to have two of his friends + ready to prevent any interference before the punishment was completed. + Toombs of Georgia witnessed a part of the assault and expressed approval + of the act, and everywhere throughout the South, in the public press, in + legislative halls, in public meetings, Brooks was hailed as a hero. The + resolution for his expulsion introduced in the House received the support + of only one vote from south of Mason and Dixon's Line. A large majority + favored the resolution, but not the required two-thirds majority. Brooks, + however, thought best to resign but was triumphantly returned to his seat + with only six votes against him. Nothing was left undone to express + Southern gratitude, and he received gifts of canes innumerable as symbols + of his valor. Yet before his death, which occurred in the following + January, he confessed to his friend Orr that he was sick of being regarded + as the representative of bullies and disgusted at receiving testimonials + of their esteem. + </p> + <p> + With similar unanimity the North condemned and resented the assault that + had been made upon Sumner. From party considerations, if for no other + reasons, Democrats regretted the event. Republicans saw in the brutal + attack and in the manner of its reception in the South another evidence of + the irrepressible conflict between slavery and freedom. They were ready to + take up the issue so forcibly presented by their fallen leader. A part of + the regular order of exercises at public meetings of Republicans was to + express sympathy with their wounded champion and with the Kansas people of + the pillaged town of Lawrence, and to adopt ways and means to bring to an + end the Administration which they held responsible for these outrages. + Sumner, though silenced, was eloquent in a new and more effective way. A + half million copies of "The Crime against Kansas" were printed and + circulated. On the issue thus presented, Northern Democrats became + convinced that their defeat at the pending election was certain, and their + leaders instituted the change in their program which has been described in + a previous chapter. They had made an end of the war in Kansas and drew + from their candidate for the Presidency the assurance that just treatment + should at last be meted out to harassed Kansas. + </p> + <p> + Though Sumner's injuries were at first regarded as slight, they eventually + proved to be extremely serious. After two attempts to resume his place in + the Senate, he found that he was unable to remain; yet when his term + expired, he was almost unanimously reelected. Much of his time for three + and a half years he spent in Europe. In December, 1859, he seemed + sufficiently recovered to resume senatorial duties, but it was not until + the following June that he again addressed the Senate. On that occasion he + delivered his last great philippic against slavery. The subject under + discussion was still the admission of Kansas as a free State, and, as he + remarked in his opening sentences, he resumed the discussion precisely + where he had left off more than four years before. + </p> + <p> + Sumner had assumed the task of uttering a final word against slavery as + barbarism and a barrier to civilization. He spoke under the impelling + power of a conviction in his God-given mission to utilize a great occasion + to the full and for a noble end. For this work his whole life had been a + preparation. Accustomed from early youth to spend ten hours a day with + books on law, history, and classic literature, he knew as no other man + then knew what aid the past could offer to the struggle for freedom. The + bludgeon of the would-be assassin had not impaired his memory, and four + years of enforced leisure enabled him to fulfill his highest ideals of + perfect oratorical form. Personalities he eliminated from this final + address, and blemishes he pruned away. In his earlier speeches he had been + limited by the demands of the particular question under discussion, but in + "The Barbarism of Slavery" he was free to deal with the general subject, + and he utilized incidents in American slavery to demonstrate the general + upward trend of history. The orator was sustained by the full + consciousness that his utterances were in harmony with the grand sweep of + historic truth as well as with the spirit of the present age. + </p> + <p> + Sumner was not a party man and was at no time in complete harmony with his + coworkers. It was always a question whether his speeches had a favorable + effect upon the immediate action of Congress; there can, however, be no + doubt of the fact that the larger public was edified and influenced. + Copies of "The Crime against Kansas" and "The Barbarism of Slavery" were + printed and circulated by the million and were eagerly read from beginning + to end. They gave final form to the thoughts and utterances of many + political leaders both in America and in Europe. More than any other man + it was Charles Sumner who, with a wealth of historical learning and great + skill in forensic art, put the irrepressible conflict between slavery and + freedom in its proper setting in human history. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII. KANSAS AND BUCHANAN + </h2> + <p> + In view of the presidential election of 1856 Northern Democrats + entertained no doubts that Kansas, now occupied by a majority of + free-state men, would be received as a free State without further ado. The + case was different with the Democrats of western Missouri, already for ten + years in close touch with those Southern leaders who were determined + either to secure new safeguards for slavery or to form an independent + confederacy. Their program was to continue their efforts to make Kansas a + slave State or at least to maintain the disturbance there until the + conditions appeared favorable for secession. + </p> + <p> + In February, 1857, the pro-slavery territorial Legislature provided for + the election of delegates to a constitutional convention, but Governor + Geary vetoed the act because no provision was made for submitting the + proposed constitution to the vote of the people. The bill was passed over + his veto, and arrangements were made for registration which free-state men + regarded as imperfect, inadequate, or fraudulent. + </p> + <p> + President Buchanan undoubtedly intended to do full justice to the people + of Kansas. To this end he chose Robert J. Walker, a Mississippi Democrat, + as Governor of Kansas. Walker was a statesman of high rank, who had been + associated with Buchanan in the Cabinet of James K. Polk. Three times he + refused to accept the office and finally undertook the mission only from a + sense of duty. Being aware of the fate of Governor Geary, Walker insisted + on an explicit understanding with Buchanan that his policies should not be + repudiated by the federal Administration. Late in May he went to Kansas + with high hopes and expectations. But the free-state party had persisted + in the repudiation of a Government which had been first set up by an + invading army and, as they alleged, had since then been perpetuated by + fraud. They had absolutely refused to take part in any election called by + that Government and had continued to keep alive their own legislative + assembly. Despite Walker's efforts to persuade them to take part in the + election of delegates to the constitutional convention, they resolutely + held aloof. Yet, as they became convinced that he was acting in good + faith, they did participate in the October elections to the territorial + Legislature, electing nine out of the thirteen councilors and twenty-four + out of the thirty-nine representatives. Gross frauds had been perpetrated + in two districts, and the Governor made good his promise by rejecting the + fraudulent votes. In one case a poll list had been made up by copying an + old Cincinnati register. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime, thanks to the abstention of the free-state people, the + pro-slavery party had secured absolute control of the constitutional + convention. Yet there was the most absolute assurance by the Governor in + the name of the President of the United States that no constitution would + be sent to Congress for approval which had not received the sanction of a + majority of the voters of the Territory. This was Walker's reiterated + promise, and President Buchanan had on this point been equally explicit. + </p> + <p> + When, therefore, the pro-slavery constitutional convention met at + Lecompton in October, Kansas had a free-state Legislature duly elected. To + make Kansas still a slave State it was necessary to get rid of that + Legislature and of the Governor through whose agency it had been chosen, + and at the same time to frame a constitution which would secure the + approval of the Buchanan Administration. Incredible as it may seem, all + this was actually accomplished. + </p> + <p> + John Calhoun, who had been chosen president of the Lecompton convention, + spent some time in Washington before the adjourned meeting of the + convention. He secured the aid of master-hands at manipulation. Walker had + already been discredited at the White House on account of his rejection of + fraudulent returns at the October election of members to the Legislature. + The convention was unwilling to take further chances on a matter of that + sort, and it consequently made it a part of the constitution that the + president of the convention should have entire charge of the election to + be held for its approval. The free-state legislature was disposed of by + placing in the constitution a provision that all existing laws should + remain in force until the election of a Legislature provided for under the + constitution. + </p> + <p> + The master-stroke of the convention, however, was the provision for + submitting the constitution to the vote of the people. Voters were not + permitted to accept or reject the instrument; all votes were to be for the + constitution either "with slavery" or "with no slavery." But the document + itself recognized slavery as already existing and declared the right of + slave property like other property "before and higher than any + constitutional sanction." Other provisions made emancipation difficult by + providing in any case for complete monetary remuneration and for the + consent of the owners. There were numerous other provisions offensive to + free-state men. It had been rightly surmised that they would take no part + in such an election and that "the constitution with slavery" would be + approved. The vote on the constitution was set for the 21st of December. + For the constitution with slavery 6226 votes were recorded and 569 for the + constitution without slavery. + </p> + <p> + While these events were taking place, Walker went to Washington to enter + his protest but resigned after finding only a hostile reception by the + President and his Cabinet. Stanton, who was acting Governor in the absence + of Walker, then called together the free-state Legislature, which set + January 4, 1858, as the date for approving or rejecting the Lecompton + Constitution. At this election the votes cast were 138 for the + constitution with slavery, 24 for the constitution without slavery, and + 10,226 against the constitution. But President Buchanan had become + thoroughly committed to the support of the Lecompton Constitution. + Disregarding the advice of the new Governor, he sent the Lecompton + Constitution to Congress with the recommendation that Kansas be admitted + to the Union as a slave State. + </p> + <p> + Here was a crisis big with the fate of the Democratic party, if not of the + Union. Stephen A. Douglas had already given notice that he would oppose + the Lecompton Constitution. In favor of its rejection he made a notable + speech which called forth the bitterest enmity from the South and arrayed + all the forces of the Administration against him. Supporters of Douglas + were removed from office, and anti-Douglas men were put in their places. + In his fight against the fraudulent constitution Douglas himself, however, + still had the support of a majority of Northern Democrats, especially in + the Western States, and that of all the Republicans in Congress. A bill to + admit Kansas passed the Senate, but in the House a proviso was attached + requiring that the constitution should first be submitted to the people of + Kansas for acceptance or rejection. This amendment was finally accepted by + the Senate with the modification that, if the people voted for the + constitution, the State should have a large donation of public land, but + that if they rejected it, they should not be admitted as a State until + they had a population large enough to entitle them to a representative in + the lower House. The vote of the people was cast on August 2, 1858, and + the constitution was finally rejected by a majority of nearly twelve + thousand. Thus resulted the last effort to impose slavery on the people of + Kansas. + </p> + <p> + Although the war between slavery and freedom was fought out in miniature + in Kansas, the immediate issue was the preservation of slavery in + Missouri. This, however, involved directly the prospect of emancipation in + other border States and ultimate complete emancipation in all the States. + The issue is well stated in a Fourth of July address which Charles + Robinson delivered at Lawrence, Kansas, in 1855, after the invasion of + Missourians to influence the March election of that year, but before the + beginning of bloody conflict: + </p> + <p> + "What reason is given for the cowardly invasion of our rights by our + neighbors? They say that if Kansas is allowed to be free the institution + of slavery in their own State will be in danger.... If the people of + Missouri make it necessary, by their unlawful course, for us to establish + freedom in that State in order to enjoy the liberty of governing ourselves + in Kansas, then let that be the issue. If Kansas and the whole North must + be enslaved, or Missouri become free, then let her be made free. Aye! and + if to be free ourselves, slavery must be abolished in the whole country, + then let us accept that due. If black slavery in a part of the States is + incompatible with white freedom in any State, then let black slavery be + abolished from all. As men espousing the principles of the Declaration of + the Fathers, we can do nothing else than accept these issues." + </p> + <p> + The men who saved Kansas to freedom were not abolitionists in the + restricted sense. Governor Walker found in 1857 that a considerable + majority of the free-state men were Democrats and that some were from the + South. Nearly all actual settlers, from whatever source they came, were + free-state men who felt that a slave was a burden in such a country as + Kansas. For example, during the first winter of the occupation of Kansas, + an owner of nineteen slaves was himself forced to work like a trooper to + keep them from freezing; and, indeed, one of them did freeze to death and + another was seriously injured. + </p> + <p> + In spite of all the advertising of opportunity and all the pressure + brought to bear upon Southerners to settle in Kansas, at no time did the + number of slaves in the Territory reach three hundred. The climate and the + soil made for freedom, and the Governors were not the only persons who + were converted to free-state principles by residence in the Territory. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII. THE SUPREME COURT IN POLITICS + </h2> + <p> + The decision and arguments of the Supreme Court upon the Dred Scott case + were published on March 6, 1857, two days after the inauguration of + President Buchanan. The decision had been agreed upon many months before, + and the appeal of the negro, Dred Scott, had been decided by rulings which + in no way involved the validity of the Missouri Compromise. Nevertheless, + a majority of the judges determined to give to the newly developed theory + of John C. Calhoun the appearance of the sanctity of law. According to + Chief Justice Taney's dictum, those who made the Constitution gave to + those clauses defining the power of Congress over the Territories an + erroneous meaning. On numerous occasions Congress had by statute excluded + slavery from the public domain. This, in the judgment of the Chief + Justice, they had no right to do, and such legislation was + unconstitutional and void. Specifically the Missouri Compromise had never + had any binding force as law. Property in slaves was as sacred as property + in any other form, and slave-owners had equal claim with other property + owners to protection in all the Territories of the United States. Neither + Congress nor a territorial Legislature could infringe such equal rights. + </p> + <p> + According to popular understanding, the Supreme Court declared "that the + negro has no rights which the white man is bound to respect." But Chief + Justice Taney did not use these words merely as an expression of his own + or of the Court's opinion. He used them in a way much more contemptible + and inexcusable to the minds of men of strong anti-slavery convictions. He + put them into the mouths of the fathers of the Republic, who wrote the + Declaration of Independence, framed the Constitution, organized state + Governments, and gave to negroes full rights of citizenship, including the + right to vote. But how explain this strange inconsistency? The Chief + Justice was equal to the occasion. He insisted that in recent years there + had come about a better understanding of the phraseology of the + Declaration of Independence. The words, "All men are created equal," he + admitted, "would seem to embrace the whole human family, and if they were + used in a similar instrument at this day they would be so understood." But + the writers of that instrument had not, he said, intended to include men + of the African race, who were at that time regarded as not forming any + part of the people. Therefore—strange logic!—these men of the + revolutionary era who treated negroes actually as citizens having full + equal rights did not understand the meaning of their own words, which + could be comprehended only after three-quarters of a century when, + forsooth, equal rights had been denied to all persons of African descent. + </p> + <p> + The ruling of the Court in the Dred Scott case came at a time when + Northern people had a better idea of the spirit and teachings of the + founders of the Republic regarding the slavery question than any + generation before or since has had. The campaign that had just closed had + been characterized by a high order of discussion, and it was also + emphatically a reading campaign. The new Republican party planted itself + squarely on the principles enunciated by Thomas Jefferson, the reputed + founder of the old Republican party. They went back to the policy of the + fathers, whose words on the subject of slavery they eagerly read. From + this source also came the chief material for their public addresses. To + the common man who was thus indoctrinated, the Chief Justice, in + describing the sentiments of the fathers respecting slavery, appeared to + be doing what Horace Greeley was wont to describe as "saying a thing and + being conscious while saying it that the thing is not true." + </p> + <p> + The Dred Scott decision laid the Republicans open to the charge of seeking + by unlawful means to deprive slaveowners of their rights, and it was to + the partizan interest of the Democrats to stand by the Court and thus + discredit their opponents. This action tended to carry the entire + Democratic party to the support of Calhoun's extreme position on the + slavery question. Republicans had proclaimed that liberty was national and + slavery municipal; that slavery had no warrant for existence except by + state enactment; that under the Constitution Congress had no more right to + make a slave than it had to make a king; that Congress had no power to + establish or permit slavery in the Territories; that it was, on the + contrary, the duty of Congress to exclude slavery. On these points the + Supreme Court and the Republican party held directly contradictory + opinions. + </p> + <p> + The Democratic platform of 1856 endorsed the doctrine of popular + sovereignty as embodied in the Kansas-Nebraska legislation, which implied + that Congress should neither prohibit nor introduce slavery into the + Territories, but should leave the inhabitants free to decide that question + for themselves, the public domains being open to slaveowners on equal + terms with others. But once they had an organized territorial Government + and a duly elected territorial Legislature, the residents of a Territory + were empowered to choose either slave labor or exclusively free labor. + This at least was the view expounded by Stephen A. Douglas, though the + theory was apparently rendered untenable by the ruling of the Court which + extended protection to slave-owners in all the Territories remaining under + the control of the general Government. It followed that if Congress had no + power to interfere with that right, much less had a local territorial + Government, which is itself a creature of Congress. A state Government + alone might control the status of slave property. A Territory when + adopting a constitution preparatory to becoming a State would find it then + in order to decide whether the proposed State should be free or slave. + This was the view held by Jefferson Davis and the extreme pro-slavery + leaders. Aided by the authority of the Supreme Court, they were prepared + to insist upon a new plank in future Democratic platforms which should + guarantee to all slave-owners equal rights in all Territories until they + ceased to be Territories. Over this issue the party again divided in 1860. + </p> + <p> + Republicans naturally imagined that there had been collusion between + Democratic politicians and members of the Supreme Court. Mr. Seward made + an explicit statement to that effect, and affirmed that President Buchanan + was admitted into the secret, alleging as proof a few words in his + inaugural address referring to the decision soon to be delivered. Nothing + of the sort, however, was ever proven. The historian Von Holst presents + the view that there had been a most elaborate and comprehensive program on + the part of the slavocracy to control the judiciary of the federal + Government. The actual facts, however, admit of a simpler and more + satisfactory explanation. + </p> + <p> + Judges are affected by their environment, as are other men. The transition + from the view that slavery was an evil to the view that it is right and + just did not come in ways open to general observation, and probably few + individuals were conscious of having altered their views. Leading churches + throughout the South began to preach the doctrine that slavery is a + divinely ordained institution, and by the time of the decision in the Dred + Scott case a whole generation had grown up under such teaching. + </p> + <p> + A large proportion of Southern leaders had become thoroughly convinced of + the righteousness of their peculiar system. Not otherwise could they have + been so successful in persuading others to accept their views. Even before + the Dred Scott decision had crystallized opinion, Franklin Pierce, + although a New Hampshire Democrat of anti-slavery traditions, came, as a + result of his intimate personal and political association with Southern + leaders, to accept their guidance and strove to give effect to their + policies. President Buchanan was a man of similar antecedents, and, + contrary to the expectation of his Northern supporters, did precisely as + Pierce had done. It is a matter of record that the arguments of the Chief + Justice had captivated his mind before he began to show his changed + attitude towards Kansas. In August, 1857, the President wrote that, at the + time of the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, slavery already existed + and that it still existed in Kansas under the Constitution of the United + States. "This point," said he, "has at last been settled by the highest + tribunal known in our laws. How it could ever have been seriously doubted + is a mystery." Granted that slavery is recognized as a permanent + institution in itself—just and of divine ordinance and especially + united to one section of the country—how could any one question the + equal rights of the people of that section to occupy with their slaves + lands acquired by common sacrifice? Such was undoubtedly the view of both + Pierce and Buchanan. It seemed to them "wicked" that Northern + abolitionists should seek to infringe this sacred right. + </p> + <p> + By a similar process a majority of the Supreme Court justices had become + converts to Calhoun's newly announced theory of 1847. It undoubtedly + seemed strange to them, as it did later to President Buchanan, that any + one should ever have held a different view. If the Court with the force of + its prestige should give legal sanction to the new doctrine, it would + allay popular agitation, ensure the preservation of the Union, and secure + to each section its legitimate rights. Such apparently was the expectation + of the majority of the Court in rendering the decision. But the decision + was not unanimous. Each judge presented an individual opinion. Five + supported the Chief Justice on the main points as to the status of the + African race and the validity of the Missouri Compromise. Judge Nelson + registered a protest against the entrance of the Court into the political + arena. Curtis and McLean wrote elaborate dissenting opinions. Not only did + the decision have no tendency to allay party debate, but it added greatly + to the acrimony of the discussion. Republicans accepted the dissenting + opinions of Curtis and McLean as a complete refutation of the arguments of + the Chief Justice; and the Court itself, through division among its + members, became a partizan institution. The arguments of the justices thus + present a complete summary of the views of the proslavery and anti-slavery + parties, and the opposing opinions stand as permanent evidence of the + impossibility of reconciling slavery and freedom in the same government. + </p> + <p> + It was through the masterful leadership of Stephen A. Douglas that the + Lecompton Constitution was defeated. In 1858 an election was to be held in + Illinois to determine whether or not Douglas should be reelected to the + United States Senate. The Buchanan Administration was using its utmost + influence to insure Douglas's defeat. Many eastern Republicans believed + that in this emergency Illinois Republicans should support Douglas, or at + least that they should do nothing to diminish his chances for reelection; + but Illinois Republicans decided otherwise and nominated Abraham Lincoln + as their candidate for the senatorship. Then followed the memorable + Lincoln-Douglas debates. + </p> + <p> + This is not the place for any extended account of the famous duel between + the rival leaders, but a few facts must be stated. Lincoln had slowly come + to the perception that a large portion of the people abhorred slavery, and + that the weak point in the armor of Douglas was to be found in the fact + that he did not recognize this growing moral sense. Douglas had never been + a defender of slavery on ethical grounds, nor had he expressed any + distinct aversion to the system. In support of his policy of popular + sovereignty his favorite dictum had been, "I do not care whether slavery + is voted up or voted down." + </p> + <p> + This apparent moral obtuseness furnished to Lincoln his great opportunity, + for his opponent was apparently without a conscience in respect to the + great question of the day. Lincoln, on the contrary, had reached the + conclusion not only that slavery was wrong, but that the relation between + slavery and freedom was such that they could not be harmonized within the + same government. In the debates he again put forth his famous utterance, + "A house divided against itself cannot stand," with the explanation that + in course of time either this country would become all slave territory or + slavery would be restricted and placed in a position which would involve + its final extinction. In other words, Lincoln's position was similar to + that of the conservative abolitionists. As we know, Birney had given + expression to a similar conviction of the impossibility of maintaining + both liberty and slavery in this country, but Lincoln spoke at a time when + the whole country had been aroused upon the great question; when it was + still uncertain whether slavery would not be forced upon the people of + Kansas; when the highest court in the land had rendered a decision which + was apparently intended to legalize slavery in all Territories; and when + the alarming question had been raised whether the next step would not be + legalization in all the States. + </p> + <p> + Lincoln was a long-headed politician, as well as a man of sincere moral + judgments. He was defining issues for the campaign of 1860 and was putting + Douglas on record so that it would be impossible for him, as the candidate + of his party, to become President. Douglas had many an uncomfortable hour + as Lincoln exposed his vain efforts to reconcile his popular sovereignty + doctrine with the Dred Scott decision. As Lincoln expected, Douglas won + the senatorship, but he lost the greater prize. + </p> + <p> + The crusade against slavery was nearing its final stage. Under the + leadership of such men as Sumner, Seward, and Lincoln, a political party + was being formed whose policies were based upon the assumption that + slavery is both a moral and a political evil. Even at this stage the party + had assumed such proportions that it was likely to carry the ensuing + presidential election. Davis and Yancey, the chief defenders of slavery, + were at the same time reaching a definite conclusion as to what should + follow the election of a Republican President. And that conclusion + involved nothing less than the fate of the Union. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV. JOHN BROWN + </h2> + <p> + The crusade against slavery was based upon the assumption that slavery, + like war, is an abnormal state of society. As the tyrant produces the + assassin, so on a larger scale slavery calls forth servile insurrection, + or, as in the United States, an implacable struggle between free white + persons and the defenders of slavery. + </p> + <p> + The propaganda of Southern and Western abolitionists had as a primary + object the prevention of both servile insurrection and civil war. It was + as clear to Southern abolitionists in the thirties as it was to Seward and + Lincoln in the fifties that, unless the newly aroused slave power should + be effectively checked, a terrible civil war would ensue. To forestall + this dreaded calamity, they freely devoted their lives and fortunes. + Peaceable emancipation by state action, according to the original program, + was prevented by the rise of a sectional animosity which beclouded the + issue. As the leadership drifted into the hands of extremists, the + conservative masses were confused, misled, or deceived. The South + undoubtedly became the victim of the erroneous teachings of alarmists who + believed that the anti-slavery North intended, by unlawful and + unconstitutional federal action, to abolish slavery in all the States; + while the North had equally exaggerated notions as to the aggressive + intentions of the South. + </p> + <p> + The opposing forces finally met on the plains of Kansas, and extreme + Northern opposition became personified in John Brown of Osawatomie. He was + born in Connecticut in May, 1800, of New England ancestry, the sixth + generation from the Mayflower. A Calvinist, a mystic, a Bible-reading + Puritan, he was trained to anti-slavery sentiments in the family of Owen + Brown, his father. He passed his early childhood in the Western Reserve of + Ohio, and subsequently moved from Ohio to New York, to Pennsylvania, to + Ohio again, to Connecticut, to Massachusetts, and finally to New York once + more. He was at various times tanner, farmer, sheep-raiser, horse-breeder, + wool-merchant, and a follower of other callings as well. From a business + standpoint he may be regarded as a failure, for he had been more than once + a bankrupt and involved in much litigation. He was twice married and was + the father of twenty children, eight of whom died in infancy. + </p> + <p> + Until the Kansas excitement nothing had occurred in the history of the + Brown family to attract public attention. John Brown was not conspicuous + in anti-slavery efforts or in any line of public reform. As a mere lad + during the War of 1812 he accompanied his father, who was furnishing + supplies to the army, and thus he saw much of soldiers and their officers. + The result was that he acquired a feeling of disgust for everything + military, and he consistently refused to perform the required military + drill until he had passed the age for service. Not quite in harmony with + these facts is the statement that he was a great admirer of Oliver + Cromwell, and Rhodes says of him that he admired Nat Turner, the leader of + the servile insurrection in Virginia, as much as he did George Washington. + There seems to be no reason to doubt the testimony of the members of his + family that John Brown always cherished a lively interest in the African + race and a deep sympathy with them. As a youth he had chosen for a + companion a slave boy of his own age, to whom he became greatly attached. + This slave, badly clad and poorly fed, beaten with iron shovel or anything + that came first to hand, young Brown grew to regard as his equal if not + his superior. And it was the contrast between their respective conditions + that first led Brown to "swear eternal war with slavery." In later years + John Brown, Junior, tells us that, on seeing a negro for the first time, + he felt so great a sympathy for him that he wanted to take the negro home + with him. This sympathy, he assures us, was a result of his father's + teaching. Upon the testimony of two of John Brown's sons rests the + oft-repeated story that he declared eternal war against slavery and also + induced the members of his family to unite with him in formal consecration + to his mission. The time given for this incident is previous to the year + 1840; the idea that he was a divinely chosen agent for the deliverance of + the slaves was of later development. + </p> + <p> + As early as 1834 Brown had shown some active interest in the education of + negro children, first in Pennsylvania and later in Ohio. In 1848 the Brown + family became associated with an enterprise of Gerrit Smith in northern + New York, where a hundred thousand acres of land were offered to negro + families for settlement. During the excitement over the Fugitive Slave Act + of 1850 Brown organized among the colored people of Springfield, + Massachusetts, "The United States League of Gileadites." As an + organization this undertaking proved a failure, but Brown's formal written + instructions to the "Gileadites" are interesting on account of their + relation to what subsequently happened. In this document, by referring to + the multitudes who had suffered in their behalf, he encouraged the negroes + to stand for their liberties. He instructed them to be armed and ready to + rush to the rescue of any of their number who might be attacked: + </p> + <p> + "Should one of your number be arrested, you must collect together as + quickly as possible, so as to outnumber your adversaries who are taking an + active part against you. Let no able-bodied man appear on the ground + unequipped, or with his weapons exposed to view: let that be understood + beforehand. Your plans must be known only to yourself, and with the + understanding that all traitors must die, wherever caught and proven to be + guilty. Whosoever is fearful or afraid, let him return and depart early + from Mount Gilead" (Judges, vii. 3; Deut. xx. 8). Give all cowards an + opportunity to show it on condition of holding their peace. Do NOT DELAY + ONE MOMENT AFTER YOU ARE READY: YOU WILL LOSE ALL YOUR RESOLUTION IF YOU + DO. LET THE FIRST BLOW BE THE SIGNAL FOR ALL TO ENGAGE: AND WHEN ENGAGED + DO NOT DO YOUR WORK BY HALVES, BUT MAKE CLEAN WORK WITH YOUR ENEMIES,—AND + BE SURE YOU MEDDLE NOT WITH ANY OTHERS. By going about your business + quietly, you will get the job disposed of before the number that an uproar + would bring together can collect; and you will have the advantage of those + who come out against you, for they will be wholly unprepared with either + equipments or matured plans; all with them will be confusion and terror. + Your enemies will be slow to attack you after you have done up the work + nicely; and if they should, they will have to encounter your white friends + as well as you; for you may safely calculate on a division of the whites, + and may by that means get to an honorable parley." + </p> + <p> + He gives here a distinct suggestion of the plans and methods which he + later developed and extended. + </p> + <p> + When Kansas was opened for settlement, John Brown was fifty-four years + old. Early in the spring of 1855, five of his sons took up claims near + Osawatomie. They went, as did others, as peaceable settlers without arms. + After the election of March 30, 1855, at which armed Missourians overawed + the Kansas settlers and thus secured a unanimous pro-slavery Legislature, + the freestate men, under the leadership of Robinson, began to import + Sharp's rifles and other weapons for defense. Brown's sons thereupon wrote + to their father, describing their helpless condition and urging him to + come to their relief. In October, 1855, John Brown himself arrived with an + adequate supply of rifles and some broadswords and revolvers. The process + of organization and drill thereupon began, and when the Wakarusa War + occurred early in December, 1855, John Brown was on hand with a small + company from Osawatomie to assist in the defense of Lawrence. The + statement that he disapproved of the agreement with Governor Shannon which + prevented bloodshed is not in accord with a letter which John Brown wrote + to his wife immediately after the event. The Governor granted practically + all that the freestate men desired and recognized their trainbands as a + part of the police force of the Territory. Brown by this stipulation + became Captain John Brown, commander of a company of the territorial + militia. + </p> + <p> + Soon after the Battle of Wakarusa, Captain Brown passed the command of the + company of militia to his son John, while he became the leader of a small + band composed chiefly of members of his own family. Writing to his wife on + April 7, 1856, he said: "We hear that preparations are making in the + United States Court for numerous arrests of free-state men. For one I have + not desired (all things considered) to have the slave power cease from its + acts of aggression. 'Their foot shall slide in due time.'" This letter of + Brown's indicates that the writer was pleased at the prospect of + approaching trouble. + </p> + <p> + When, six weeks later, notice came of the attack upon Lawrence, John + Brown, Junior, went with the company of Osawatomie Rifles to the relief of + the town, while the elder Brown with a little company of six moved in the + same direction. In a letter to his wife, dated June 26, 1856, more than a + month after the massacre in Pottawatomie Valley, Brown said: + </p> + <p> + "On our way to Lawrence we learned that it had been already destroyed, and + we encamped with John's company overnight.... On the second day and + evening after we left John's men, we encountered quite a number of + pro-slavery men and took quite a number of prisoners. Our prisoners we let + go, but kept some four or five horses. We were immediately after this + accused of murdering five men at Pottawatomie and great efforts have been + made by the Missourians and their ruffian allies to capture us. John's + company soon afterwards disbanded, and also the Osawatomie men. Since + then, we have, like David of old, had our dwelling with the serpents of + the rocks and the wild beasts of the wilderness." + </p> + <p> + There will probably never be agreement as to Brown's motives in slaying + his five neighbors on May 24, 1856. Opinions likewise differ as to the + effect which this incident had on the history of Kansas. Abolitionists of + every class had said much about war and about servile insurrection, but + the conservative people of the West and South had mentioned the subject + only by way of warning and that they might point out ways of prevention. + Garrison and his followers had used language which gave rise to the + impression that they favored violent revolution and were not averse to + fomenting servile insurrection. They had no faith in the efforts of + Northern emigrants to save Kansas from the clutches of the slaveholding + South, and they denounced in severe terms the Robinson leadership there, + believing it sure to result in failure. To this class of abolitionists + John Brown distinctly belonged. He believed that so high was the tension + on the slavery question throughout the country that revolution, if + inaugurated at any point, would sweep the land and liberate the slaves. + Brown was also possessed of the belief that he was himself the divinely + chosen agent to let loose the forces of freedom; and that this was the + chief motive which prompted the deed at Pottawatomie is as probable as any + other. + </p> + <p> + Viewed in this light, the Pottawatomie massacre was measurably successful. + Opposing forces became more clearly defined and were pitted against each + other in hostile array. There were reprisals and counter-reprisals. Kansas + was plunged into a state of civil war, but it is quite probable that this + condition would have followed the looting of Lawrence even if John Brown + had been absent from the Territory. + </p> + <p> + Coincident with the warfare by organized companies, small irregular bands + infested the country. Kansas became a paradise for adventurers, soldiers + of fortune, horse thieves, cattle thieves, and marauders of various sorts. + Spoiling the enemy in the interest of a righteous cause easily degenerated + into common robbery and murder. It was chiefly in this sort of conflict + that two hundred persons were slain and that two million dollars' worth of + property was destroyed. + </p> + <p> + During this period of civil war the members of the Brown family were not + much in evidence. John Brown, Junior, captain of the Osawatomie Rifles, + was a political prisoner at Topeka. Swift destruction of their property + was visited upon all those members who were suspected of having a share in + the Pottawatomie murders, and their houses were burned and their other + property was seized. Warrants were out for the arrest of the elder Brown + and his sons. Captain Pate who, in command of a small troop, was in + pursuit of Brown and his company, was surprised at Black Jack in the early + morning and induced to surrender. Brown thus gained control of a number of + horses and other supplies and began to arrange terms for the exchange of + his son and Captain Pate as prisoners of war. The negotiations were + interrupted, however, by the arrival of Colonel Sumner with United States + troops, who restored the horses and other booty and disbanded all the + troops. With the Colonel was a deputy marshal with warrants for the arrest + of the Browns. When ordered to proceed with his duty, however, the marshal + was so overawed that, even though a federal officer was present, he merely + remarked, "I do not recognize any one for whom I have warrants." + </p> + <p> + After the capture of Captain Pate at Black Jack early in June, little is + known about Brown and his troops for two months. Apart from an encounter + of opposing forces near Osawatomie in which he and his band were engaged, + Brown took no share in the open fighting between the organized companies + of opposing forces, and his part in the irregular guerrilla warfare of the + period is uncertain. Towards the close of the war one of his sons was shot + by a preacher who alleged that he had been robbed by the Browns. After + peace had been restored to Kansas by the vigorous action of Governor + Geary, Brown left the scene and never again took an active part in the + local affairs of the Territory. + </p> + <p> + John Brown's influence upon the course of affairs in Kansas, like William + Lloyd Garrison's upon the general anti-slavery movement of the country, + has been greatly misunderstood and exaggerated. Brown's object and + intention were fundamentally contradictory to those of the freestate + settlers. They strove to build a free commonwealth by legal and + constitutional methods. He strove to inaugurate a revolution which would + extend to all pro-slavery States and result in universal emancipation. + John Brown was in Kansas only one year, and he never made himself at one + with those who should have been his fellow-workers but went his solitary + way. Only in three instances did he pretend to cooperate with the regular + freestate forces. He could not work with them because his conception of + the means to be adopted to attain the end was different from theirs. + Probably before he left the Territory in 1856, he had realized that his + work in Kansas was a failure and that the law-and-order forces were too + strong for the execution of his plans. Certain it is that within a few + weeks after his departure he had transferred the field of his operations + to the mountains of Virginia. Kansas became free through the persistent + determination of the rank and file of Northern settlers under the wise + leadership of Governor Robinson. It is difficult to determine whether the + cause of Kansas was aided or hindered by the advent of John Brown and the + adventurers with whom his name became associated. + </p> + <p> + During the fall of 1856 and until the late summer of 1857 Brown was in the + East raising funds for the redemption of Kansas and for the reimbursement + of those who had incurred or were likely to incur losses in defense of the + cause. For the equipment of a troop of soldiers under his own command he + formulated plans for raising $30,000 by private subscription, and in this + he was to a considerable extent successful. It can never be known how much + was given in this way to Brown for the equipment of his army of + liberation. It is estimated that George L. Stearns alone gave in all fully + $10,000. Because Eastern abolitionists had lost confidence in Robinson's + leadership, they lent a willing ear to the plea that Captain Brown with a + well-equipped and trained company of soldiers was the last hope for + checking the enemy. Not only would Kansas become a slave State without + such help, it was said, but the institution of slavery would spread into + all the Territories and become invincible. + </p> + <p> + The money was given to Brown to redeem Kansas, but he had developed an + alternative plan. Early in the year 1857, he met in New York Colonel Hugh + Forbes, a soldier of fortune who had seen service with Garibaldi in Italy. + They discussed general plans for an aggressive attack upon the South for + the liberation of the slaves, and with these plans the needs of Kansas had + little or no connection. "Kansas was to be a prologue to the real drama," + writes his latest biographer; "the properties of the one were to serve in + the other." In April six months' salary was advanced out of the Kansas + fund to Forbes, who was employed at a hundred dollars a month to aid in + the execution of their plans. Another significant expenditure of the + Kansas fund was in pursuance of a contract with a Mr. Blair, a Connecticut + manufacturer, to furnish at a dollar each one thousand pikes. Though the + contract was dated March 80, 1857, it was not completed until the fall of + 1859, when the weapons were delivered to Brown in Pennsylvania for use at + Harper's Ferry. + </p> + <p> + Instead of rushing to the relief of Kansas, as contributors had expected, + the leader exercised remarkable deliberation. When August arrived, it + found him only as far as Tabor, Iowa, where a considerable quantity of + arms had been previously assembled. Here he was joined by Colonel Forbes, + and together they organized a school of military tactics with Forbes as + instructor. But as Forbes could find no one but Brown and his son to + drill, he soon returned to the East, still trusted by Brown as a + co-worker. It would seem that Forbes himself wished to play the chief part + in the liberation of America. + </p> + <p> + While he was at Tabor, Brown was urged by Lane and other former associates + of his in Kansas to come to their relief with all his forces. There had, + indeed, been a full year of peace since Geary's arrival, but early in + October there was to occur the election of a territorial Legislature in + which the free-state forces had agreed to participate, and Lane feared an + invasion from Missouri. But although the appeal was not effective, the + election proved a complete triumph for the North. Late in October, after + the signal victory of the law-and-order party at the election, Brown was + again urged with even greater insistence to muster all his forces and come + to Kansas, and there were hints in Lane's letter that an aggressive + campaign was afoot to rid the Territory of the enemy. Instead of going in + force, however, Brown stole into the Territory alone. On his arrival, two + days after the date set for a decisive council of the revolutionary + faction, he did not make himself known to Governor Robinson or to any of + his party but persuaded several of his former associates to join his + "school" in Iowa. From Tabor he subsequently transferred the school to + Springdale, a quiet Quaker community in Cedar County, Iowa, seven miles + from any railway station. Here the company went into winter quarters and + spent the time in rigid drill in preparation for the campaign of + liberation which they expected to undertake the following season. + </p> + <p> + While he was at Tabor, Brown began to intimate to his Eastern friends that + he had other and different plans for the promotion of the general cause. + In January, 1858, he went East with the definite intention of obtaining + additional support for the greater scheme. On February 22, 1858, at the + home of Gerrit Smith in New York, there was held a council at which Brown + definitely outlined his purpose to begin operations at some point in the + mountains of Virginia. Smith and Sanborn at first tried to dissuade him, + but finally consented to cooperate. The secret was carefully guarded: some + half-dozen Eastern friends were apprised of it, including Stearns, their + most liberal contributor, and two or three friends at Springdale. + </p> + <p> + As early as December, 1857, Forbes began to write mysterious letters to + Sanborn, Stearns, and others of the circle, in which he complained of + ill-usage at the hands of Brown. It appears that Forbes erroneously + assumed that the Boston friends were aware of Brown's contract with him + and of his plans for the attack upon Virginia; but, since they were + entirely ignorant on both points, the correspondence was conducted at + cross-purposes for several months. Finally, early in May, 1858, it + transpired that Forbes had all the time been fully informed of Brown's + intentions to begin the effort for emancipation in Virginia. Not only so, + but he had given detailed information on the subject to Senators Sumner, + Seward, Hale, Wilson, and possibly others. Senator Wilson was told that + the arms purchased by the New England Aid Society for use in Kansas were + to be used by Brown for an attack on Virginia. Wilson, in entire ignorance + of Brown's plans, demanded that the Aid Society be effectively protected + against any such charge of betrayal of trust. The officers of the Society + were, in fact, aware that the arms which had been purchased with Society + funds the year before and shipped to Tabor, Iowa, had been placed in + Brown's hands and that, without their consent, those arms had been shipped + to Ohio and just at that time were on the point of being transported to + Virginia. This knowledge placed the officers of the New England Aid + Society in a most awkward position. Stearns, the treasurer, had advanced + large sums to meet pressing needs during the starvation times in Kansas in + 1857. Now the arms in Brown's possession were, by vote of the officers, + given to the treasurer in part payment of the Society's debt, and he of + course left them just where they were. * On the basis of this arrangement + Senator Wilson and the public were assured that none of the property given + for the benefit of Kansas had been or would be diverted to other purposes + by the Kansas Committee. It was decided, however, that on account of the + Forbes revelations the attack upon Harper's Ferry must be delayed for one + year and that Brown must go to Kansas to take part in the pending + elections. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * "When the denouement finally came, however, the public and + press did not take a very favorable view of the transaction; + it was too difficult to distinguish between George L. + Stearns, the benefactor of the Kansas Committee, and George + L. Stearns, the Chairman of that Committee." Villard, "John + Brown," p. 341. +</pre> + <p> + Though Brown arrived in Kansas late in June, he took no active part in the + pending measures for the final triumph of the free-state cause. It is + something of a mystery how he was occupied between the 1st of July and the + middle of December. Under the pseudonym of "Shubal Morgan" he was + commander of a small band in which were a number of his followers in + training for the Eastern mission. The occupation of this band is not + matter of history until December 20, 1858, when they made a raid into the + State of Missouri, slew one white man, took eleven slaves, a large number + of horses, some oxen, wagons, much food, arms, and various other supplies. + This action was in direct violation of a solemn agreement between the + border settlers of State and Territory. The people in Kansas were in + terror lest retaliatory raids should follow, as would undoubtedly have + happened had not the people of Missouri taken active measures to prevent + such reprisals. + </p> + <p> + Rewards were offered for Brown's arrest, and free-state residents served + notice that he must leave the Territory. In the dead of winter he started + North with some slaves and many horses, accompanied by Kagi and Gill, two + of his faithful followers. In northern Kansas, where they were delayed by + a swollen stream, a band of horsemen appeared to dispute their passage. + Brown's party quickly mustered assistance and, giving chase to the enemy, + took three prisoners with four horses as spoils of war. In Kansas parlance + the affair is called "The Battle of the Spurs." The leaders in the chase + were seasoned soldiers on their way to Harper's Ferry with the intention + of spending their lives collecting slaves and conducting them to places of + safety. For this sort of warfare they were winning their spurs. It was + their intention to teach all defenders of slavery to use their utmost + endeavor to keep out of their reach. As Brown and his company passed + through Tabor, the citizens took occasion at a public meeting to resolve + "that we have no sympathy with those who go to slave States to entice away + slaves, and take property or life when necessary to attain that end." + </p> + <p> + A few days later the party was at Grinnell, Iowa. According to the + detailed account which J. B. Grinnell gives in his autobiography, Brown + appeared on Saturday afternoon, stacked his arms in Grinnell's parlor and + disposed of his people and horses partly in Grinnell's house and barn and + partly at the hotel. In the evening Brown and Kagi addressed a large + meeting in a public hall. Brown gave a lurid account of experiences in + Kansas, justified his raid into Missouri by saying the slaves were to be + sold for shipment to the South, and gave notice that his surplus horses + would be offered for sale on Monday. "What title can you give?" was the + question that came from the audience. "The best—the affidavit that + they were taken by black men from land they had cleared and tilled; taken + in part payment for labor which is kept back." + </p> + <p> + Brown again addressed a large meeting on Sunday evening at which each of + the three clergymen present invoked the divine blessing upon Brown and his + labors. The present writer was told by an eye-witness that one of the + ministers prayed for forgiveness for any wrongful acts which their guest + may have committed. Convinced of the rectitude of his actions, however, + Brown objected and said that he thanked no one for asking forgiveness for + anything he had done. + </p> + <p> + Returning from church on Sunday evening, Grinnell found a message awaiting + him from Mr. Werkman, United States marshal at Iowa City, who was a friend + of Grinnell. The message in part read: "You can see that it will give your + town a bad name to have a fight there; then all who aid are liable, and + there will be an arrest or blood. Get the old Devil away to save trouble, + for he will be taken, dead or alive." Grinnell showed the message to + Brown, who remarked: "Yes, I have heard of him ever since I came into the + State.... Tell him we are ready to be taken, but will wait one day more + for his military squad." True to his word he waited till the following + afternoon and then moved directly towards Iowa City, the home of the + marshal, passing beyond the city fourteen miles to his Quaker friends at + Springdale. Here he remained about two weeks until he had completed + arrangements for shipping his fugitives by rail to Chicago. In the + meantime, where was Marshal Werkman of Iowa City? Was he of the same mind + as the deputy marshal who had accompanied Colonel Sumner? Two of Brown's + men had visited the city to make arrangements for the shipment. The + situation was obvious enough to those who would see. The entire incident + is an illuminating commentary on the attitude of both government and + people towards the Fugitive Slave Law. In March the fugitives were safely + landed in Canada and the rest of the horses were sold in Cleveland, Ohio. + The time was approaching for the move on Virginia. + </p> + <p> + Brown now expended much time and attention upon a constitution for the + provisional government which he was to set up. In January and February, + 1858, Brown had labored over this document for several weeks at the home + of Frederick Douglass at Rochester, New York. A copy was in evidence at + the conference with Sanborn and Gerrit Smith in February, and the document + was approved at a conference held in Chatham, Canada, on May 8, 1858, just + at the time when Forbes's revelations caused the postponement of the + enterprise. It is an elaborate constitution containing forty-eight + articles. The preamble indicates the general purport: + </p> + <p> + Whereas, Slavery throughout its entire existence in the United States is + none other than a most barbarous, unprovoked, and unjustifiable war of one + portion of its citizens upon another portion the only conditions of which + are perpetual imprisonment and hopeless servitude or absolute + extermination; in utter disregard and violation of those eternal and + self-evident truths set forth in our Declaration of Independence: + Therefore, we the citizens of the United States, and the Oppressed People, + who, by a decision of the Supreme Court are declared to have no rights + which the White Man is bound to respect; together with all other people + degraded by the laws thereof, Do, for the time being ordain and establish + for ourselves, the following PROVISIONAL CONSTITUTION AND ORDINANCES, the + better to protect our Persons, Property, Lives and Liberties and to govern + our actions. + </p> + <p> + Article Forty-six reads: + </p> + <p> + The foregoing articles shall not be construed so as in any way to + encourage the overthrow of any State Government or of the general + government of the United States; and look to no dissolution of the Union, + but simply to Amendment and Repeal. And our flag shall be the same that + our Fathers fought under in the Revolution. + </p> + <p> + In Article Forty, "profane swearing, filthy conversation, and indecent + behavior" are forbidden. The document indicates an obvious intention to + effect a revolution by a restrained and regulated use of force. + </p> + <p> + Mobilization of forces began in June, 1859. Cook, one of the original + party, had spent the year in the region of Harper's Ferry. In July the + Kennedy farm, five miles from Harper's Ferry, was leased. The Northern + immigrants posed as farmers, stock-raisers, and dealers in cattle, seeking + a milder climate. To assist in the disguise, Brown's daughter and + daughter-in-law, mere girls, joined the community. Even so it was + difficult to allay troublesome curiosity on the part of neighbors at the + gathering of so many men with no apparent occupation. Suspicion might + easily have been aroused by the assembling of numerous boxes of arms from + the West and the thousand pikes from Connecticut. Late in August, Floyd, + Secretary of War, received an anonymous letter emanating from Springdale, + Iowa, giving information which, if acted upon, would have led to an + investigation and stopped the enterprise. + </p> + <p> + The 24th of October was the day appointed for taking possession of + Harper's Ferry, but fear of exposure led to a change of plan and the move + was begun on the 16th of October. Six of the party who would have been + present at the later date were absent. The march from Kennedy farm began + about eight o'clock Sunday evening. Before midnight the bridges, the town, + and the arsenal were in the hands of the invaders without a gun having + been fired. Before noon on Monday some forty citizens of the neighborhood + had been assembled as prisoners and held, it was explained, as hostages + for the safety of members of the party who might be taken. During the + early forenoon Kagi strongly urged that they should escape into the + mountains; but Brown, who was influenced, as he said, by sympathy for his + prisoners and their distressed families, refused to move and at last found + himself surrounded by opposing forces. Brown's men, having been assigned + to different duties, were separated. Six of them escaped; others were + killed or wounded or taken prisoners. Brown himself with six of his men + and a few of his prisoners made a final stand in the engine-house. This + was early in the afternoon. All avenues of escape were now closed. Brown + made two efforts to communicate with his assailants by means of a flag of + truce, sending first Thompson, one of his men, with one of his prisoners, + and then Stevens and Watson Brown with another of the prisoners. Thompson + was received but was held as a prisoner; Stevens and Watson Brown were + shot down, the first dangerously wounded and the other mortally wounded. + Later in the afternoon Brown received a flag of truce with a demand that + he surrender. He stated the conditions under which he would restore the + prisoners whom he held, but he refused the unconditional surrender which + was demanded. + </p> + <p> + About midnight Colonel Robert E. Lee arrived from Washington with a + company of marines. He took full command, set a guard of his own men + around the engine-house and made preparation to effect a forcible entrance + at sunrise on Tuesday morning in case a peaceable surrender was refused. + Lee first offered to two of the local companies the honor of storming the + castle. These, however, declined to undertake the perilous task, and the + honor fell to Lieutenant Green of the marines, who thereupon selected two + squads of twelve men each to attempt an entrance through the door. To + Lee's aide, Lieutenant Stuart, who had known Brown in Kansas, was + committed the task of making the formal demand for surrender. Brown and + Stuart, who recognized each other instantly upon their meeting at the + door, held a long parley, which resulted, as had been expected, in Brown's + refusal to yield. Stuart then gave the signal which had been agreed upon + to Lieutenant Green, who ordered the first squad to advance. Failing to + break down the door with sledge-hammers, they seized a heavy ladder and at + the second stroke made an opening near the ground large enough to admit a + man. Green instantly entered, rushed to the back part of the room, and + climbed upon an engine to command a better view. Colonel Lewis Washington, + the most distinguished of the prisoners, pointed to Brown, saying, "This + is Osawatomie." Green leaped forward and by thrust or stroke bent his + light sword double against Brown's body. Other blows were administered and + his victim fell senseless, and it was believed that the leader had been + slain in action according to his wish. + </p> + <p> + The first of the twelve men to attempt to follow their leader was + instantly killed by gunshot. Others rushed in and slew two of Brown's men + by the use of the bayonet. To save the prisoners from harm, Lee had given + careful instruction to fire no shot, to use only bayonets. The other + insurgents were made prisoners. "The whole fight," Green reported, "had + not lasted over three minutes." + </p> + <p> + Of all the prisoners taken and held as hostages, not one was killed or + wounded. They were made as safe as the conditions permitted. The eleven + prisoners who were with Brown in the engine-house were profoundly + impressed with the courage, the bearing, and the self-restraint of the + leader and his men. Colonel Washington describes Brown as holding a + carbine in one hand, with one dead son by his side, while feeling the + pulse of another son, who had received a mortal wound, all the time + watching every movement for the defense and forbidding his men to fire + upon any one who was unarmed. The testimony is uniform that Brown + exercised special care to prevent his men from shooting unarmed citizens, + and this conduct was undoubtedly influential in securing generous + treatment for him and his men after the surrender. + </p> + <p> + For six weeks afterwards, until his execution on the 2d of December, John + Brown remained a conspicuous figure. He won universal admiration for + courage, coolness, and deliberation, and for his skill in parrying all + attempts to incriminate others. Probably less than a hundred people knew + beforehand anything about the enterprise, and less than a dozen of these + rendered aid and encouragement. It was emphatically a personal exploit. On + the part of both leader and followers, no occasion was omitted to drive + home the lesson that men were willing to imperil their lives for the + oppressed with no hope or desire for personal gain. Brown especially + served notice upon the South that the day of final reckoning was at hand. + </p> + <p> + It is natural that the consequences of an event so spectacular as the + capture of Harper's Ferry should be greatly exaggerated. Brown's + contribution to Kansas history has been distorted beyond all recognition. + The Harper's Ferry affair, however, because it came on the eve of the + final election before the war, undoubtedly had considerable influence. It + sharpened the issue. It played into the hands of extremists in both + sections. On one side, Brown was at once made a martyr and a hero; on the + other, his acts were accepted as a demonstration of Northern malignity and + hatred, whose fitting expression was seen in the incitement of slaves to + massacre their masters. + </p> + <p> + The distinctive contribution of John Brown to American history does not + consist in the things which he did but rather in that which he has been + made to represent. He has been accepted as the personification of the + irrepressible conflict. + </p> + <p> + Of all the men of his generation John Brown is best fitted to exemplify + the most difficult lesson which history teaches: that slavery and + despotism are themselves forms of war, that the shedding of blood is + likely to continue so long as the rich, the strong, the educated, or the + efficient, strive to force their will upon the poor, the weak, and the + ignorant. Lincoln uttered a final word on the subject when he said that no + man is good enough to rule over another man; if he were good enough he + would not be willing to do it. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0015" id="link2H_4_0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + </h2> + <p> + Among the many political histories which furnish a background for the + study of the anti-slavery crusade, the following have special value: + </p> + <p> + J. F. Rhodes, "History of the United States from the Compromise of 1860," + 7 vols. (1893-1906). The first two volumes cover the decade to 1860. This + is the best-balanced account of the period, written in an admirable + judicial temper. H. E. von Holst, Constitutional anal Political History of + the United States," 8 vols. (1877-1892). A vast mine of information on the + slavery controversy. The work is vitiated by an almost virulent antipathy + toward the South. James Schouler, "History of the United States," 7 vols. + (1895-1901). A sober, reliable narrative of events. Henry Wilson, "History + of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America," 3 vols. (1872-1877). + The fullest account of the subject, written by a contemporary. The + material was thrown together by an overworked statesman and lacks + proportion. + </p> + <p> + Three volumes in the "American Nation Series" aim to combine the treatment + of special topics of commanding interest with general political history. + A. B. Hart's "Slavery and Abolition" (1906) gives an account of the origin + of the controversy and carries the history down to 1841. G. P. Garrison's + "Westward Extension" (1906) deals especially with the Mexican War and its + results. T. C. Smith's "Parties and Slavery" (1906) follows the gradual + disruption of parties under the pressure of the slavery controversy. + </p> + <p> + From the mass of contemporary controversial literature a few titles of + more permanent interest may be selected. William Goodell's "Slavery and + Anti-slavery" (1852) presents the anti-slavery arguments. A. T. Bledsoe's + "An Essay on Liberty and Slavery" (1856) and "The Pro-slavery Argument" + (1852), a series of essays by various writers, undertake the defense of + slavery. + </p> + <p> + Only a few of the biographies which throw light on the crusade can be + mentioned. "William Lloyd Garrison," 4 vols. (1885-1889) is the story of + the editor of the Liberator told exhaustively by his children. Less + voluminous but equally important are the following: W. Birney, "James G. + Birney and His Times" (1890); G. W. Julian, "Joshua R. Giddings" (1892); + Catherine H. Birney, "Sarah and Angelina Grimke" (1885); John T. Morse, + "John Quincy Adams." Those who have not patience to read E. L. Pierce's + ponderous "Memoir and Letters of Charles Sumner," 4 vols. (1877-1893), + would do well to read G. H. Haynes's "Charles Sumner" (1909). + </p> + <p> + The history of the conflict in Kansas is closely associated with the lives + of two rival candidates for the honor of leadership in the cause of + freedom. James Redpath in his "Public Life of Captain John Brown" (1860), + Frank B. Sanborn in his "Life and Letters of John Brown" (1885), and + numerous other writers give to Brown the credit of leadership. The + opposition view is held by F. W. Blackmar in his "Life of Charles + Robinson" (1902), and by Robinson himself in his Kansas Conflict (2d ed., + 1898). The best non-partizan biography of Brown is O. G. Villard's "John + Brown, A Biography Fifty Years After" (1910). + </p> + <p> + The Underground Railroad has been adequately treated in W. H. Siebert's + "The Underground Railroad from Slavery to Freedom" (1898), but Levi + Coffin's "Reminiscences" (1876) gives an earlier autobiographical account + of the origin and management of an important line, while Mrs. Stowe's + "Uncle Tom's Cabin" throws the glamour of romance over the system. + </p> + <p> + For additional bibliographical information the reader is referred to the + articles on "Slavery, Fugitive Slave Laws, Kansas, William Lloyd Garrison, + John Brown, James Gillespie Birney," and "Frederick Douglass" in "The + Encyclopaedia Britannica" (11th Edition). + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Anti-Slavery Crusade, by Jesse Macy + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ANTI-SLAVERY CRUSADE *** + +***** This file should be named 3034-h.htm or 3034-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/0/3/3034/ + +Produced by The James J. Kelly Library of St. Gregory's +University, Dianne Bean, Doug Levy, Alev Akman, and David Widger + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + </body> +</html> diff --git a/3034.txt b/3034.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0c49b16 --- /dev/null +++ b/3034.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4916 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Anti-Slavery Crusade, by Jesse Macy + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Anti-Slavery Crusade + Volume 28 In The Chronicles Of America Series + +Author: Jesse Macy + +Editor: Allen Johnson + +Posting Date: January 15, 2009 [EBook #3034] +Release Date: January, 2002 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ANTI-SLAVERY CRUSADE *** + + + + +Produced by The James J. Kelly Library of St. Gregory's +University, Dianne Bean, Doug Levy, and Alev Akman + + + + + + +THE ANTI-SLAVERY CRUSADE, + +A CHRONICLE OF THE GATHERING STORM + +By Jesse Macy + + +New Haven: Yale University Press + +Toronto: Glasgow, Brook & Co. + +London: Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press + +1919 + + +CONTENTS + + I. INTRODUCTION + + II. THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE CRUSADE + + III. EARLY CRUSADERS + + IV. THE TURNING-POINT + + V. THE VINDICATION OF LIBERTY + + VI. THE SLAVERY ISSUE IN POLITICS + + VII. THE PASSING OF THE WHIG PARTY + + VIII. THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD + + IX. BOOKS AS ANTI-SLAVERY WEAPONS + + X. "BLEEDING KANSAS" + + XI. CHARLES SUMNER + + XII. KANSAS AND BUCHANAN + + XIII. THE SUPREME COURT IN POLITICS + + XIV. JOHN BROWN + + BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + + + + +THE ANTI-SLAVERY CRUSADE + + + +CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION + +The Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln marks the beginning +of the end of a long chapter in human history. Among the earliest +forms of private property was the ownership of slaves. Slavery as an +institution had persisted throughout the ages, always under protest, +always provoking opposition, insurrection, social and civil war, and +ever bearing within itself the seeds of its own destruction. Among the +historic powers of the world the United States was the last to uphold +slavery, and when, a few years after Lincoln's proclamation, Brazil +emancipated her slaves, property in man as a legally recognized +institution came to an end in all civilized countries. + +Emancipation in the United States marked the conclusion of a century of +continuous debate, in which the entire history of western civilization +was traversed. The literature of American slavery is, indeed, a summary +of the literature of the world on the subject. The Bible was made a +standard text-book both for and against slavery. Hebrew and Christian +experiences were exploited in the interest of the contending parties +in this crucial controversy. Churches of the same name and order +were divided among themselves and became half pro-slavery and half +anti-slavery. + +Greek experience and Greek literature were likewise drawn into the +controversy. The Greeks themselves had set the example of arguing both +for and against slavery. Their practice and their prevailing teaching, +however, gave support to this institution. They clearly enunciated the +doctrine that there is a natural division among human beings; that some +are born to command and others to obey; that it is natural to some men +to be masters and to others to be slaves; that each of these classes +should fulfill the destiny which nature assigns. The Greeks also +recognized a difference between races and held that some were by +nature fitted to serve as slaves, and others to command as masters. The +defenders of American slavery therefore found among the writings of the +Greeks their chief arguments already stated in classic form. + +Though the Romans added little to the theory of the fundamental problem +involved, their history proved rich in practical experience. There were +times, in parts of the Roman Empire, when personal slavery either +did not exist or was limited and insignificant in extent. But the +institution grew with Roman wars and conquests. In rural districts, +slave labor displaced free labor, and in the cities servants multiplied +with the concentration of wealth. The size and character of the +slave population eventually became a perpetual menace to the State. +Insurrections proved formidable, and every slave came to be looked upon +as an enemy to the public. It is generally conceded that the extension +of slavery was a primary cause of the decline and fall of Rome. In +the American controversy, therefore, the lesson to be drawn from Roman +experience was utilized to support the cause of free labor. + +After the Middle Ages, in which slavery under the modified form of +feudalism ran its course, there was a reversion to the ancient classical +controversy. The issue became clearly defined in the hands of the +English and French philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth +centuries. In place of the time-honored doctrine that the masses of +mankind are by nature subject to the few who are born to rule, the +contradictory dogma that all men are by nature free and equal was +clearly enunciated. According to this later view, it is of the very +nature of spirit, or personality, to be free. All men are endowed with +personal qualities of will and choice and a conscious sense of right and +wrong. To subject these native faculties to an alien force is to make +war upon human nature. Slavery and despotism are, therefore, in their +nature but a species of warfare. They involve the forcing of men to act +in violation of their true selves. The older doctrine makes government +a matter of force. The strong command the weak, or the rich exercise +lordship over the poor. The new doctrine makes of government an +achievement of adult citizens who agree among themselves as to what +is fit and proper for the good of the State and who freely observe the +rules adopted and apply force only to the abnormal, the delinquent, and +the defective. + +Between the upholders of these contradictory views of human nature +there always has been and there always must be perpetual warfare. Their +difference is such as to admit of no compromise; no middle ground is +possible. The conflict is indeed irresistible. The chief interest in +the American crusade against slavery arises from its relation to this +general world conflict between liberty and despotism. + +The Athenians could be democrats and at the same time could uphold and +defend the institution of slavery. They were committed to the doctrine +that the masses of the people were slaves by nature. By definition, +they made slaves creatures void of will and personality, and they +conveniently ignored them in matters of state. But Americans living in +States founded in the era of the Declaration of Independence could not +be good democrats and at the same time uphold and defend the institution +of slavery, for the Declaration gives the lie to all such assumptions +of human inequality by accepting the cardinal axiom that all men are +created equal and are endowed with certain inalienable rights, among +which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. The doctrine +of equality had been developed in Europe without special reference to +questions of distinct race or color. But the terms, which are universal +and as broad as humanity in their denotation, came to be applied to +black men as well as to white men. Massachusetts embodied in her state +constitution in 1780 the words, "All men are born free and equal," and +the courts ruled that these words in the state constitution had the +effect of liberating the slaves and of giving to them the same rights as +other citizens. This is a perfectly logical application of the doctrine +of the Revolution. + +The African slave-trade, however, developed earlier than the doctrine +of the Declaration of Independence. Negro slavery had long been an +established institution in all the American colonies. Opposition to the +slave-trade and to slavery was an integral part of the evolution of +the doctrine of equal rights. As the colonists contended for their own +freedom, they became anti-slavery in sentiment. A standard complaint +against British rule was the continued imposition of the slave-trade +upon the colonists against their oft-repeated protest. + +In the original draft of the Declaration of Independence, there appeared +the following charges against the King of Great Britain: + +"He has waged cruel war against human nature itself, violating its most +sacred rights of life and liberty in the persons of distant people +who never offended him, captivating and carrying them into slavery in +another hemisphere, or to incur miserable death in their transportation +thither. This piratical warfare, the opprobrium of infidel powers, is +the warfare of the Christian King of Great Britain. Determined to keep +open a market where men should be bought and sold, he has prostituted +his negative for suppressing every legislative attempt to prohibit or to +restrain this execrable commerce." + +Though this clause was omitted from the document as finally adopted, +the evidence is abundant that the language expressed the prevailing +sentiment of the country. To the believer in liberty and equality, +slavery and the slave-trade are instances of war against human nature. +No one attempted to justify slavery or to reconcile it with the +principles of free government. Slavery was accepted as an inheritance +for which others were to blame. Colonists at first blamed Great Britain; +later apologists for slavery blamed New England for her share in the +continuance of the slave-trade. + +The fact should be clearly comprehended that the sentiments which led to +the American Revolution, and later to the French Revolution in Europe, +were as broad in their application as the human race itself--that there +were no limitations nor exceptions. These new principles involved +a complete revolution in the previously recognized principles of +government. The French sought to make a master-stroke at immediate +achievement and they incurred counterrevolutions and delays. The +Americans moved in a more moderate and tentative manner towards the +great achievement, but with them also a counter-revolution finally +appeared in the rise of an influential class who, by openly defending +slavery, repudiated the principles upon which the government was +founded. + +At first the impression was general, in the South as well as in +the North, that slavery was a temporary institution. The cause of +emancipation was already advocated by the Society of Friends and some +other sects. A majority of the States adopted measures for the gradual +abolition of slavery, but in other cases there proved to be industrial +barriers to emancipation. Slaves were found to be profitably employed in +clearing away the forests; they were not profitably employed in general +agriculture. A marked exception was found in small districts in the +Carolinas and Georgia where indigo and rice were produced; and though +cotton later became a profitable crop for slave labor, it was the +producers of rice and indigo who furnished the original barrier to the +immediate extension of the policy of emancipation. Representatives from +their States secured the introduction of a clause into the Constitution +which delayed for twenty years the execution of the will of the country +against the African slave-trade. It is said that a slave imported from +Africa paid for himself in a single year in the production of rice. +There were thus a few planters in Georgia and the Carolinas who had an +obvious interest in the prolongation of the institution of slavery and +who had influence enough, to secure constitutional recognition for both +slavery and the slave-trade. + +The principles involved were not seriously debated. In theory all were +abolitionists; in practice slavery extended to all the States. In some, +actual abolition was comparatively easy; in others, it was difficult. By +the end of the first quarter of the nineteenth century, actual abolition +had extended to the line separating Pennsylvania from Maryland. Of the +original thirteen States seven became free and six remained slave. + +The absence of ardent or prolonged debate upon this issue in the early +history of the United States is easily accounted for. No principle +of importance was drawn into the controversy; few presumed to defend +slavery as a just or righteous institution. As to conduct, each +individual, each neighborhood enjoyed the freedom of a large, roomy +country. Even within state lines there was liberty enough. No keen sense +of responsibility for a uniform state policy existed. It was therefore +not difficult for those who were growing wealthy by the use of imported +negroes to maintain their privileges in the State. + +If the sense of active responsibility was wanting within the separate +States, much more was this true of the citizens of different States. +Slavery was regarded as strictly a domestic institution. Families bought +and owned slaves as a matter of individual preference. None of the +original colonies or States adopted slavery by law. The citizens of the +various colonies became slaveholders simply because there was no law +against it. * The abolition of slavery was at first an individual matter +or a church or a state policy. When the Constitution was formulated, the +separate States had been accustomed to regard themselves as possessed +of sovereign powers; hence there was no occasion for the citizens of +one State to have a sense of responsibility on account of the +domestic institutions of other States. The consciousness of national +responsibility was of slow growth, and the conditions did not then +exist which favored a general crusade against slavery or a prolonged +acrimonious debate on the subject, such as arose forty years later. + + * In the case of Georgia there was a prohibitory law, which + was disregarded. + +In many of the States, however, there were organized abolition +societies, whose object was to promote the cause of emancipation already +in progress and to protect the rights of free negroes. The Friends, or +Quakers, were especially active in the promotion of a propaganda for +universal emancipation. A petition which was presented to the first +Congress in February, 1790, with the signature of Benjamin Franklin +as President of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society, contained this +concluding paragraph: + +"From a persuasion that equal liberty was originally, and is still, the +birthright of all men, and influenced by the strong ties of humanity +and the principles of their institutions, your memorialists conceive +themselves bound to use all justifiable endeavors to loosen the bonds +of slavery, and to promote the general enjoyment of the blessings of +freedom. Under these impressions they earnestly entreat your attention +to the subject of slavery; that you will be pleased to countenance the +restoration to liberty of those unhappy men, who, alone, in this land of +freemen, are groaning in servile subjection; that you will devise means +for removing this inconsistency of character from the American people; +that you will promote mercy and justice towards this distressed race; +and that you will step to the very verge of the power vested in you for +discouraging every species of traffic in the persons of our fellowmen." +* + + * William Goodell, "Slavery and Anti-Slavery," p. 99. + +The memorialists were treated with profound respect. Cordial support and +encouragement came from representatives from Virginia and other slave +States. Opposition was expressed by members from South Carolina and +Georgia. These for the most part relied upon their constitutional +guaranties. But for these guaranties, said Smith, of South Carolina, +his State would not have entered the Union. In the extreme utterances in +opposition to the petition there is a suggestion of the revolution which +was to occur forty years later. + +Active abolitionists who gave time and money to the promotion of the +cause were always few in numbers. Previous to 1830 abolition societies +resembled associations for the prevention of cruelty to animals--in +fact, in one instance at least this was made one of the professed +objects. These societies labored to induce men to act in harmony +with generally acknowledged obligations, and they had no occasion for +violence or persecution. Abolitionists were distinguished for their +benevolence and their unselfish devotion to the interests of the needy +and the unfortunate. It was only when the ruling classes resorted to mob +violence and began to defend slavery as a divinely ordained institution +that there was a radical change in the spirit of the controversy. The +irrepressible conflict between liberty and despotism which has persisted +in all ages became manifest when slave-masters substituted the Greek +doctrine of inequality and slavery for the previously accepted Christian +doctrine of equality and universal brotherhood. + + + +CHAPTER II. THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE CRUSADE + +It was a mere accident that the line drawn by Mason and Dixon between +Pennsylvania and Maryland became known in later years as the dividing +line between slavery and freedom. The six States south of that line +ultimately neglected or refused to abolish slavery, while the seven +Northern States became free. Vermont became a State in 1791 and Kentucky +in 1792. The third State to be added to the original thirteen was +Tennessee in 1796. At that time, counting the States as they were +finally classified, eight were destined to be slave and eight free. Ohio +entered the Union as a State in 1802, thus giving to the free States +a majority of one. The balance, however, was restored in 1812 by the +admission of Louisiana as a slave State. The admission of Indiana in +1816 on the one side and of Mississippi in 1817 on the other still +maintained the balance: ten free States stood against ten slave States. +During the next two years Illinois and Alabama were admitted, making +twenty-two States in all, still evenly divided. + +The ordinance for the government of the territory north of the Ohio +River, passed in 1787 and reenacted by Congress after the adoption +of the Constitution, proved to be an act of great significance in its +relation to the limitation of slavery. By this ordinance slavery was +forever prohibited in the Northwest Territory. In the territory south +of the Ohio River slavery became permanently established. The river, +therefore, became an extension of the original Mason and Dixon's Line +with the new meaning attached: it became a division between free and +slave territory. + +It was apparently at first a mere matter of chance that a balance was +struck between the two losses of States. While Virginia remained a slave +State, it was natural that slavery should extend into Kentucky, which +had been a part of Virginia. Likewise Tennessee, being a part of North +Carolina, became slave territory. When these two Territories became +slave States, the equal division began. There was yet an abundance of +territory both north and south to be taken into the Union and, without +any special plan or agitation, States were admitted in pairs, one free +and the other slave. In the meantime there was distinctly developed the +idea of the possible or probable permanence of slavery in the South and +of a rivalry or even a future conflict between the two sections. + +When in 1819 Missouri applied for admission to the Union with a state +constitution permitting slavery, there was a prolonged debate over the +whole question, not only in Congress but throughout the entire country. +North and South were distinctly pitted against each other with rival +systems of labor. The following year Congress passed a law providing +for the admission of Missouri, but, to restore the balance, Maine was +separated from Massachusetts and was admitted to the Union as a State. +It was further enacted that slavery should be forever prohibited from +all territory of the United States north of the parallel 36 degrees 30', +that is, north of the southern boundary of Missouri. It is this part of +the act which is known as the Missouri Compromise. It was accepted as +a permanent limitation of the institution of slavery. By this act Mason +and Dixon's Line was extended through the Louisiana Purchase. As the +western boundary was then defined, slavery could still be extended into +Arkansas and into a part of what is now Oklahoma, while a great empire +to the northwest was reserved for the formation of free States. Arkansas +became a slave State in 1836 and Michigan was admitted as a free State +in the following year. + +With the admission of Arkansas and Michigan, thirteen slave States were +balanced by a like number of free States. The South still had Florida, +which would in time become a slave State. Against this single Territory +there was an immense region to the northwest, equal in area to all the +slave States combined, which, according to the Ordinance of 1787 and the +Missouri Compromise, had been consecrated to freedom. Foreseeing this +condition, a few Southern planters began a movement for the extension +of territory to the south and west immediately after the adoption of +the Missouri Compromise. When Arkansas was admitted in 1836, there was a +prospect of the immediate annexation of Texas as a slave State. This did +not take place until nine years later, but the propaganda, the object of +which was the extension of slave territory, could not be maintained by +those who contended that slavery was a curse to the country. Virginia, +therefore, and other border slave States, as they became committed to +the policy of expansion, ceased to tolerate official public utterances +against slavery. + +Three more or less clearly defined sections appear in the later +development of the crusade. These are the New England States, the Middle +States, and the States south of North Carolina and Tennessee. In New +England, few negroes were ever held as slaves, and the institution +disappeared during the first years of the Republic. The inhabitants had +little experience arising from actual contact with slavery. When slavery +disappeared from New England and before there had been developed in the +country at large a national feeling of responsibility for its continued +existence, interest in the subject declined. For twenty years previous +to the founding of Garrison's Liberator in 1831, organized abolition +movements had been almost unknown in New England. In various ways +the people were isolated, separated from contact with slavery. Their +knowledge of this subject of discussion was academic, theoretical, +acquired at second-hand. + +In New York and New Jersey slaves were much more numerous than in New +England. There were still slaves in considerable numbers until about +1825. The people had a knowledge of the institution from experience and +observation, and there was no break in the continuity of their organized +abolition societies. Chief among the objects of these societies was the +effort to prevent kidnapping and to guard the rights of free negroes. +For both of these purposes there was a continuous call for activity. +Pennsylvania also had freedmen of her own whose rights called for +guardianship, as well as many freedmen from farther south who had come +into the State. + +The movement of protest and protection did not stop at Mason and Dixon's +Line, but extended far into the South. In both North Carolina and +Tennessee an active protest against slavery was at all times maintained. +In this great middle section of the country, between New England and +South Carolina, there was no cessation in the conflict between free +and slave labor. Some of these States became free while others remained +slave; but between the people of the two sections there was continuous +communication. Slaveholders came into free States to liberate their +slaves. Non-slaveholders came to get rid of the competition of slave +labor, and free negroes came to avoid reenslavement. Slaves fled thither +on their way to liberty. It was not a matter of choice; it was an +unavoidable condition which compelled the people of the border States to +give continuous attention to the institution of slavery. + +The modern anti-slavery movement had its origin in this great middle +section, and from the same source it derived its chief support. The +great body of active abolitionists were from the slave States or +else derived their inspiration from personal contact with slavery. As +compared with New England abolitionists, the middlestate folk were +less extreme in their views. They had a keener appreciation of the +difficulties involved in emancipation. They were more tolerant towards +the idea of letting the country at large share the burdens involved +in the liberation of the slaves. Border-state abolitionists naturally +favored the policy of gradual emancipation which had been followed in +New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Abolitionists who continued +to reside in the slave States were forced to recognize the fact that +emancipation involved serious questions of race adjustment. From +the border States came the colonization society, a characteristic +institution, as well as compromise of every variety. + +The southernmost section, including South Carolina, Georgia, and the +Gulf States, was even more sharply defined in the attitude it +assumed toward the anti-slavery movement. At no time did the cause of +emancipation become formidable in this section. In all these States +there was, of course, a large class of non-slaveholding whites, who +were opposed to slavery and who realized that they were victims of an +injurious system; but they had no effective organ for expression. The +ruling minority gained an early and an easy victory and to the end held +a firm hand. To the inhabitants of this section it appeared to be a +self-evident truth that the white race was born to rule and the black +race was born to serve. Where negroes outnumbered the whites fourfold, +the mere suggestion of emancipation raised a race question which seemed +appalling in its proportions. Either in the Union or out of the Union, +the rulers were determined to perpetuate slavery. + +Slavery as an economic institution became dependent upon a few +semitropical plantation crops. When the Constitution was framed, rice +and indigo, produced in South Carolina and Georgia, were the two most +important. Indigo declined in relative importance, and the production +of sugar was developed, especially after the annexation of the Louisiana +Purchase. But by far the most important crop for its effects upon +slavery and upon the entire country was cotton. This single product +finally absorbed the labor of half the slaves of the entire country. Mr. +Rhodes is not at all unreasonable in his surmise that, had it not been +for the unforeseen development of the cotton industry, the expectation +of the founders of the Republic that slavery would soon disappear would +actually have been realized. + +It was more difficult to carry out a policy of emancipation when slaves +were quoted in the market at a thousand dollars than when the price +was a few hundred dollars. All slave-owners felt richer; emancipation +appeared to involve a greater sacrifice. Thus the cotton industry went +far towards accounting for the changed attitude of the entire country +on the subject of slavery. The North as well as the South became +financially interested. + +It was not generally perceived before it actually happened that the +border States would take the place of Africa in furnishing the required +supply of laborers for Southern plantations. The interstate slave-trade +gave to the system a solidarity of interest which was new. All +slave-owners became partakers of a common responsibility for the system +as a whole. It was the newly developed trade quite as much as the system +of slavery itself which furnished the ground for the later anti-slavery +appeal. The consciousness of a common guilt for the sin of slavery grew +with the increase of actual interstate relations. + +The abolition of the African slave-trade was an act of the general +Government. Congress passed the prohibitory statute in 1807, to go into +effect January, 1808. At no time, however, was the prohibition entirely +effective, and a limited illegal trade continued until slavery was +eventually abolished. This inefficiency of restraint furnished another +point of attack for the abolitionists. Through efforts to suppress the +African slave-trade, the entire country became conscious of a common +responsibility. Before the Revolutionary War, Great Britain had been +censured for forcing cheap slaves from Africa upon her unwilling +colonies. After the Revolution, New England was blamed for the activity +of her citizens in this nefarious trade both before and after it was +made illegal. All of this tended to increase the sense of responsibility +in every section of the country. Congress had made the foreign +slave-trade illegal; and citizens in all sections gradually became +aware of the possibility that Congress might likewise restrict or forbid +interstate commerce in slaves. + +The West Indies and Mexico were also closely associated with the United +States in the matter of slavery. When Jamestown was founded, negro +slavery was already an old institution in the islands of the Caribbean +Sea, and thence came the first slaves to Virginia. The abolition of +slavery in the island of Hayti, or San Domingo, was accomplished during +the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. As incidental to the +process of emancipation, the Caucasian inhabitants were massacred +or banished, and a republican government was established, composed +exclusively of negroes and mulattoes. From the date of the Missouri +Compromise to that of the Mexican War, this island was united under a +single republic, though it was afterwards divided into the two republics +of Hayti and San Domingo. + +The "horrors of San Domingo" were never absent from the minds of those +in the United States who lived in communities composed chiefly of +slaves. What had happened on the island was accepted by Southern +planters as proof that the two races could live together in peace only +under the relation of master and slave, and that emancipation boded +the extermination of one race or the other. Abolitionists, however, +interpreted the facts differently: they emphasized the tyranny of the +white rulers as a primary cause of the massacres; they endowed some +of the negro leaders with the highest qualities of statesmanship and +self-sacrificing generosity; and Wendell Phillips, in an impassioned +address which he delivered in 1861, placed on the honor roll above the +chief worthies of history--including Cromwell and Washington--Toussaint +L'Ouverture, the liberator of Hayti, whom France had betrayed and +murdered. + +Abolitionists found support for their position in the contention that +other communities had abolished slavery without such accompanying +horrors as occurred in Hayti and without serious race conflict. Slavery +had run its course in Spanish America, and emancipation accompanied or +followed the formation of independent republics. In 1833 all slaves +in the British Empire were liberated, including those in the important +island of Jamaica. So it happened that, just at the time when Southern +leaders were making up their minds to defend their peculiar institution +at all hazards, they were beset on every side by the spirit of +emancipation. Abolitionists, on the other hand, were fully convinced +that the attainment of some form of emancipation in the United States +was certain, and that, either peaceably or through violence, the slaves +would ultimately be liberated. + + + +CHAPTER III. EARLY CRUSADERS + +At the time when the new cotton industry was enhancing the value of +slave labor, there arose from the ranks of the people those who freely +consecrated their all to the freeing of the slave. Among these, Benjamin +Lundy, a New Jersey Quaker, holds a significant place. + +Though the Society of Friends fills a large place in the anti-slavery +movement, its contribution to the growth of the conception of equality +is even more significant. This impetus to the idea arises from a +fundamental Quaker doctrine, announced at the middle of the seventeenth +century, to the erect that God reveals Himself to mankind, not through +any priesthood or specially chosen agents; not through any ordinance, +form, or ceremony; not through any church or institution; not through +any book or written record of any sort; but directly, through His +Spirit, to each person. This direct enlightening agency they deemed +coextensive with humanity; no race and no individual is left without the +ever-present illuminating Spirit. If men of old spoke as they were moved +by the Holy Spirit, what they spoke or wrote can furnish no reliable +guidance to the men of a later generation, except as their minds also +are enlightened by the same Spirit in the same way. "The letter killeth; +it is the Spirit that giveth life." + +This doctrine in its purity and simplicity places all men and all races +on an equality; all are alike ignorant and imperfect; all are alike in +their need of the more perfect revelation yet to be made. Master and +slave are equal before God; there can be no such relation, therefore, +except by doing violence to a personality, to a spiritual being. In +harmony with this fundamental principle, the Society of Friends early +rid itself of all connection with slavery. The Friends' Meeting became +a refuge for those who were moved by the Spirit to testify against +slavery. + +Born in 1789 in a State which was then undergoing the process of +emancipating its slaves, Benjamin Lundy moved at the age of nineteen +to Wheeling, West Virginia, which had already become the center of an +active domestic slave-trade. The pious young Quaker, now apprenticed to +a saddler, was brought into personal contact with this traffic in human +flesh. He felt keenly the national disgrace of the iniquity. So deep did +the iron enter into his soul that never again did he find peace of mind +except in efforts to relieve the oppressed. Like hundreds and thousands +of others, Lundy was led on to active opposition to the trade by an +actual knowledge of the inhumanity of the business as prosecuted before +his eyes and by his sympathy for human suffering. + +His apprenticeship ended, Lundy was soon established in a prosperous +business in an Ohio village not far from Wheeling. Though he now lived +in a free State, the call of the oppressed was ever in his ears and he +could not rest. He drew together a few of his neighbors, and together +they organized the Union Humane Society, whose object was the relief +of those held in bondage. In a few months the society numbered several +hundred members, and Lundy issued an address to the philanthropists +of the whole country, urging them to unite in like manner with uniform +constitutions, and suggesting that societies so formed adopt a policy of +correspondence and cooperation. At about the same time, Lundy began to +publish anti-slavery articles in the Mount Pleasant Philanthropist and +other papers. + +In 1819 he went on a business errand to St. Louis, Missouri, where he +found himself in the midst of an agitation over the question of the +extension of slavery in the States. With great zest he threw himself +into the discussion, making use of the newspapers in Missouri and +Illinois. Having lost his property, he returned poverty-stricken +to Ohio, where he founded in January, 1821, the Genius of Universal +Emancipation. A few months later he transferred his paper to the more +congenial atmosphere of Jonesborough, Tennessee, but in 1824 he went to +Baltimore, Maryland. In the meantime, Lundy had become much occupied in +traveling, lecturing, and organizing societies for the promotion of the +cause of abolition. He states that during the ten years previous to 1830 +he had traveled upwards of twenty-five thousand miles, five thousand +of which were on foot. He now became interested in plans for colonizing +negroes in other countries as an aid to emancipation, though he +himself had no confidence in the colonization society and its scheme of +deportation to Africa. After leading a few negroes to Hayti in 1829, he +visited Canada, Texas, and Mexico with a similar plan in view. + +During a trip through the Middle States and New England in 1828, Lundy +met William Lloyd Garrison, and the following year he walked all the +way from Baltimore to Bennington, Vermont, for the express purpose of +securing the assistance of the youthful reformer as coeditor of his +paper. Garrison had previously favored colonization, but within the few +weeks which elapsed before he joined Lundy, he repudiated all forms of +colonization and advocated immediate and unconditional emancipation. He +at once told Lundy of his change of views. "Well," said Lundy, "thee may +put thy initials to thy articles, and I will put my witness to mine, +and each will bear his own burden." The two editors were, however, +in complete accord in their opposition to the slave-trade. Lundy had +suffered a dangerous assault at the hands of a Baltimore slave-trader +before he was joined by Garrison. During the year 1830, Garrison was +convicted of libel and thrown into prison on account of his scathing +denunciation of Francis Todd of Massachusetts, the owner of a vessel +engaged in the slave-trade. + +These events brought to a crisis the publication of the Genius of +Universal Emancipation. The editors now parted company. Again Lundy +moved the office of the paper, this time to Washington, D.C., but it +soon became a peripatetic monthly, printed wherever the editor chanced +to be. In 1836 Lundy began the issue of an anti-slavery paper in +Philadelphia, called the National Inquirer, and with this was merged the +Genius of Universal Emancipation. He was preparing to resume the issue +of his original paper under the old title, in La Salle County, Illinois, +when he was overtaken by death on August 22, 1839. + +Here was a man without education, without wealth, of a slight frame, not +at all robust, who had undertaken, singlehanded and without the shadow +of a doubt of his ultimate success, to abolish American slavery. +He began the organization of societies which were to displace the +anti-slavery societies of the previous century. He established the first +paper devoted exclusively to the cause of emancipation. He foresaw that +the question of emancipation must be carried into politics and that it +must become an object of concern to the general Government as well as to +the separate States. In the early part of his career he found the most +congenial association and the larger measure of effective support south +of Mason and Dixon's Line, and in this section were the greater number +of the abolition societies which he organized. During the later years +of his life, as it was becoming increasingly difficult in the South +to maintain a public anti-slavery propaganda, he transferred his chief +activities to the North. Lundy serves as a connecting link between the +earlier and the later anti-slavery movements. Eleven years of his early +life belong to the century of the Revolution. Garrison recorded his +indebtedness to Lundy in the words: "If I have in any way, however +humble, done anything towards calling attention to slavery, or bringing +out the glorious prospect of a complete jubilee in our country at no +distant day, I feel that I owe everything in this matter, instrumentally +under God, to Benjamin Lundy." + +Different in type, yet even more significant on account of its peculiar +relations to the cause of abolition, was the life of James Gillespie +Birney, who was born in a wealthy slaveholding family at Dansville, +Kentucky, in the year 1792. The Birneys were anti-slavery planters of +the type of Washington and Jefferson. The father had labored to make +Kentucky a free State at the time of its admission to the Union. His son +was educated first at Princeton, where he graduated in 1810, and then +in the office of a distinguished lawyer in Philadelphia. He began the +practice of law at his home at the age of twenty-two. His home training +and his residence in States which were then in the process of gradual +emancipation served to confirm him in the traditional conviction of his +family. While Benjamin Lundy, at the age of twenty-seven, was engaged in +organizing anti-slavery societies north of the Ohio River, Birney at +the age of twenty-four was influential as a member of the Kentucky +Legislature in the prevention of the passing of a joint resolution +calling upon Ohio and Indiana to make laws providing for the return +of fugitive slaves. He was also conspicuous in his efforts to secure +provisions for gradual emancipation. Two years later he became a planter +near Huntsville, Alabama. Though not a member of the Constitutional +Convention preparatory to the admission of this Territory into +the Union, Birney used his influence to secure provisions in the +constitution favorable to gradual emancipation. As a member of the first +Legislature, in 1819, he was the author of a law providing a fair trial +by jury for slaves indicted for crimes above petty larceny, and in 1826 +he became a regular contributor to the American Colonization Society, +believing it to be an aid to emancipation. The following year he was +able to induce the Legislature, although he was not then a member of it, +to pass an act forbidding the importation of slaves into Alabama +either for sale or for hire. This was regarded as a step preliminary to +emancipation. + +The cause of education in Alabama had in Birney a trusted leader. During +the year 1830 he spent several months in the North Atlantic States +for the selection of a president and four professors for the State +University and three teachers for the Huntsville Female Seminary. These +were all employed upon his sole recommendation. On his return he had an +important interview with Henry Clay, of whose political party he had for +several years been the acknowledged leader in Alabama. He urged Clay +to place himself at the head of the movement in Kentucky for gradual +emancipation. Upon Clay's refusal their political cooperation +terminated. Birney never again supported Clay for office and regarded +him as in a large measure responsible for the pro-slavery reaction in +Kentucky. + +Birney, who had now become discouraged regarding the prospect of +emancipation, during the winter of 1831 and 1832 decided to remove his +family to Jacksonville, Illinois. He was deterred from carrying out +his plan, however, by his unexpected appointment as agent of the +colonization society in the Southwest--a mission which he undertook from +a sense of duty. + +In his travels throughout the region assigned to him, Birney became +aware of the aggressive designs of the planters of the Gulf States to +secure new slave territories in the Southwest. In view of these facts +the methods of the colonization society appeared utterly futile. Birney +surrendered his commission and, in 1833, returned to Kentucky with the +intention of doing himself what Henry Clay had refused to do three years +earlier, still hoping that Kentucky, Virginia, and Tennessee might be +induced to abolish slavery and thus place the slave power in a hopeless +minority. His disappointment was extreme at the pro-slavery reaction +which had taken place in Kentucky. The condition called for more drastic +measures, and Birney decided to forsake entirely the colonization +society and cast in his lot with the abolitionists. He freed his slaves +in 1834, and in the following year he delivered the principal address +at the annual meeting of the American Anti-Slavery Society held in New +York. His gift of leadership was at once recognized. As vice-president +of the society he began to travel on its behalf, to address public +assemblies, and especially to confer with members of state legislatures +and to address the legislative bodies. He now devoted his entire time to +the service of the society, and as early as September, 1835, issued the +prospectus of a paper devoted to the cause of emancipation. This called +forth such a display of force against the movement that he could neither +find a printer nor obtain the use of a building in Dansville, Kentucky, +for the publication. As a result he transferred his activities to +Cincinnati, where he began publication of the Philanthropist in 1836. +With the connivance of the authorities and encouragement from leading +citizens of Cincinnati, the office of the Philanthropist was three times +looted by the mob, and the proprietor's life was greatly endangered. +The paper, however, rapidly grew in favor and influence and thoroughly +vindicated the right of free discussion of the slavery question. +Another editor was installed when Birney, who became secretary of the +Anti-slavery Society in 1837, transferred his residence to New York +City. + +Twenty-three years before Lincoln's famous utterance in which he +proclaimed the doctrine that a house divided against itself cannot +stand, and before Seward's declaration of an irrepressible conflict +between slavery and freedom, Birney had said: "There will be no +cessation of conflict until slavery shall be exterminated or liberty +destroyed. Liberty and slavery cannot live in juxtaposition." He spoke +out of the fullness of his own experience. A thoroughly trained lawyer +and statesman, well acquainted with the trend of public sentiment in +both North and South, he was fully persuaded that the new pro-slavery +crusade against liberty boded civil war. He knew that the white men in +North and South would not, without a struggle, consent to be permanently +deprived of their liberties at the behest of a few Southern planters. +Being himself of the slaveholding class, he was peculiarly fitted to +appreciate their position. To him the new issue meant war, unless +the belligerent leaders should be shown that war was hopeless. By his +moderation in speech, his candor in statement, his lack of rancor, his +carefully considered, thoroughly fair arguments, he had the rare faculty +of convincing opponents of the correctness of his own view. + +There could be little sympathy between Birney and William Lloyd +Garrison, whose style of denunciation appeared to the former as an +incitement to war and an excuse for mob violence. As soon as Birney +became the accepted leader in the national society, there was +friction between his followers and those of Garrison. To denounce +the Constitution and repudiate political action were, from Birney's +standpoint, a surrender of the only hope of forestalling a dire +calamity. He had always fought slavery by the use of legal and +constitutional methods, and he continued so to fight. In this policy he +had the support of a large majority of abolitionists in New England and +elsewhere. Only a few personal friends accepted Garrison's injunction to +forswear politics and repudiate the Constitution. + +The followers of Birney, failing to secure recognition for their views +in either of the political parties, organized the Liberty party and, +while Birney was in Europe in 1840, nominated him as their candidate +for the Presidency. The vote which he received was a little over seven +thousand, but four years later he was again the candidate of the party +and received over sixty thousand votes. He suffered an injury during the +following year which condemned him to hopeless invalidism and brought +his public career to an end. + +Though Lundy and Birney were contemporaries and were engaged in the same +great cause, they were wholly independent in their work. Lundy addressed +himself almost entirely to the non-slaveholding class, while all of +Birney's early efforts were "those of a slaveholder seeking to induce +his own class to support the policy of emancipation." Though a Northern +man, Lundy found his chief support in the South until he was driven out +by persecution. Birney also resided in the South until he was forced to +leave for the same reason. The two men were in general accord in their +main lines of policy: both believed firmly in the use of political means +to effect their objects; both were at first colonizationists, though +Lundy favored colonization in adjacent territory rather than by +deportation to Africa. + +Women were not a whit behind men in their devotion to the cause of +freedom. Conspicuous among them were Sarah and Angelina Grimke, born in +Charleston, South Carolina, of a slaveholding family noted for learning, +refinement, and culture. Sarah was born in the same year as James G. +Birney, 1792; Angelina was thirteen years younger. Angelina was the +typical crusader: her sympathies from the first were with the slave. +As a child she collected and concealed oil and other simple remedies so +that she might steal out by night and alleviate the sufferings of slaves +who had been cruelly whipped or abused. At the age of fourteen she +refused to be confirmed in the Episcopal Church because the ceremony +involved giving sanction to words which seemed to her untrue. Two years +later her mother offered her a present of a slave girl for a servant and +companion. This gift she refused to accept, for in her view the servant +had a right to be free, and, as for her own needs, Angelina felt quite +capable of waiting upon herself. + +Of her own free will she joined the Presbyterian Church and labored +earnestly with the officers of the church to induce them to espouse the +cause of the slave. When she failed to secure cooperation, she decided +that the church was not Christian and she therefore withdrew her +membership. Her sister Sarah had gone North in 1821 and had become a +member of the Society of Friends in Philadelphia. In Charleston, South +Carolina, there was a Friends' meeting-house where two old Quakers +still met at the appointed time and sat for an hour in solemn silence. +Angelina donned the Quaker garb, joined this meeting, and for an entire +year was the third of the silent worshipers. This quiet testimony, +however, did not wholly satisfy her energetic nature, and when, in +1830, she heard of the imprisonment of Garrison in Baltimore, she was +convinced that effective labors against slavery could not be carried on +in the South. With great sorrow she determined to sever her connection +with home and family and join her sister in Philadelphia. There the +exile from the South poured out her soul in an Appeal to the Christian +Women of the South. The manuscript was handed to the officers of the +Anti-slavery Society in the city and, as they read, tears filled +their eyes. The Appeal was immediately printed in large quantities for +distribution in Southern States. + +Copies of the Appeal which had been sent to Charleston were seized by a +mob and publicly burned. When it became known soon afterwards that the +author of the offensive document was intending to return to Charleston +to spend the winter with her family, there was intense excitement, and +the mayor of the city informed the mother that her daughter would not be +permitted to land in Charleston nor to communicate with any one there, +and that, if she did elude the police and come ashore, she would be +imprisoned and guarded until the departure of the next boat. On account +of the distress which she would cause to her friends, Miss Grimke +reluctantly gave up the exercise of her constitutional right to visit +her native city and in a very literal sense she became a permanent +exile. + +The two sisters let their light shine among Philadelphia Quakers. In +the religious meetings negro women were consigned to a special seat. The +Grimkes, having first protested against this discrimination, took their +own places on the seat with the colored women. In Charleston, Angelina +had scrupulously adhered to the Quaker garb because it was viewed as a +protest against slavery. In Philadelphia, however, no such meaning was +attached to the costume, and she adopted clothing suited to the climate +regardless of conventions. A series of parlor talks to women which had +been organized by the sisters grew in interest until the parlors became +inadequate, and the speakers were at last addressing large audiences of +women in the public meeting-places of Philadelphia. + +At this time when Angelina was making effective use of her unrivaled +power as a public speaker, she received in 1836 an invitation from the +Anti-slavery Society of New York to address the women of that city. She +informed her sister that she believed this to be a call from God and +that it was her duty to accept. Sarah decided to be her companion and +assistant in the work in the new field, which was similar to that in +Philadelphia. Its fame soon extended to Boston, whence came an urgent +invitation to visit that city. It was in Massachusetts that men began to +steal into the women's meetings and listen from the back seats. In Lynn +all barriers were broken down, and a modest, refined, and naturally +diffident young woman found herself addressing immense audiences of men +and women. In the old theater in Boston for six nights in succession, +audiences filling all the space listened entranced to the messenger of +emancipation. There is uniform testimony that, in an age distinguished +for oratory, no more effective speaker appeared than Angelina Grimke. +It was she above all others who first vindicated the right of women to +speak to men from the public platform on political topics. But it must +be remembered that scores of other women were laboring to the same end +and were fully prepared to utilize the new opportunity. + +The great world movement from slavery towards freedom, from despotism +to democracy, is characterized by a tendency towards the equality of +the sexes. Women have been slaves where men were free. In barbarous ages +women have been ignored or have been treated as mere adjuncts to the +ruling sex. But wherever there has been a distinct contribution to the +cause of liberty there has been a distinct recognition of woman's share +in the work. The Society of Friends was organized on the principle that +men and women are alike moral beings, hence are equal in the sight of +God. As a matter of experience, women were quite as often moved to break +the silence of a religious meeting as were the men. + +For two hundred years women had been accustomed to talk to both men +and women in Friends' meetings and, when the moral war against slavery +brought religion and politics into close relation, they were ready +speakers upon both topics. When the Grimke sisters came into the church +with a fresh baptism of the Spirit, they overcame all obstacles and, +with a passion for righteousness, moral and spiritual and political, +they carried the war against slavery into politics. + +In 1833, at the organization of the American Anti-Slavery Society +in Philadelphia, a number of women were present. Lucretia Mott, a +distinguished "minister" in the Society of Friends, took part in the +proceedings. She was careful to state that she spoke as a mere visitor, +having no place in the organization, but she ventured to suggest various +modifications in the report of Garrison's committee on a declaration of +principles which rendered it more acceptable to the meeting. It had not +then been seriously considered whether women could become members of +the Anti-Slavery Society, which was at that time composed exclusively +of men, with the women maintaining their separate organizations as +auxiliaries. + +The women of the West were already better organized than the men and +were doing a work which men could not do. They were, for the most part, +unconscious of any conflict between the peculiar duties of men and +those of women in their relations to common objects. The "library +associations" of Indiana, which were in fact effective anti-slavery +societies, were to a large extent composed of women. To the library +were added numerous other disguises, such as "reading circles," "sewing +societies," "women's clubs." In many communities the appearance of men +in any of these enterprises would create suspicion or even raise a mob. +But the women worked on quietly, effectively, and unnoticed. + +The matron of a family would be provided with the best riding-horse +which the neighborhood could furnish. Mounted upon her steed, she would +sally forth in the morning, meet her carefully selected friends in +a town twenty miles away, gain information as to what had been +accomplished, give information as to the work in other parts of the +district, distribute new literature, confer as to the best means of +extending their labors, and return in the afternoon. The father of +such a family was quite content with the humbler task of cooperation by +supplying the sinews of war. There was complete equality between husband +and wife because their aims were identical and each rendered the service +most convenient and most needed. Women did what men could not do. In +the territory of the enemy the men were reached through the gradual and +tentative efforts of women whom the uninitiated supposed to be spending +idle hours at a sewing circle. Interest was maintained by the use of +information of the same general character as that which later took the +country by storm in Uncle Tom's Cabin. In course of time all disguise +was thrown aside. A public speaker of national reputation would appear, +a meeting would be announced, and a rousing abolition speech would be +delivered; the mere men of the neighborhood would have little conception +how the surprising change had been accomplished. + +On rare occasions the public presentation of the anti-slavery view +would be undertaken prematurely, as in 1840 at Pendleton, Indiana, when +Frederick Douglass attempted to address a public meeting and was almost +slain by missiles from the mob. Pendleton, however, was not given over +to the enemy. The victim of the assault was restored to health in the +family of a leading citizen. The outrage was judiciously utilized +to convince the fair-minded that one of the evils of slavery was the +development of minds void of candor and justice. On the twenty-fifth +anniversary of the Pendleton disturbance there was another great meeting +in the town. Frederick Douglass was the hero of the occasion. The woman +who was the head of the family that restored him to health was on the +platform. Some of the men who threw the brickbats were there to make +public confession and to apologize for the brutal deed. + +In the minds of a few persons of rare intellectual and logical +endowment, democracy has always implied the equality of the sexes. From +the time of the French Revolution there have been advocates of this +doctrine. As early as 1820, Frances Wright, a young woman in Scotland +having knowledge of the Western republic founded upon the professed +principles of liberty and equality, came to America for the express +purpose of pleading the cause of equal rights for women. To the +general public her doctrine seemed revolutionary, threatening the very +foundations of religion and morality. In the midst of opposition and +persecution she proclaimed views respecting the rights and duties of +women which today are generally accepted as axiomatic. + +The women who attended the meetings for the organization of the American +Anti-Slavery Society were not suffragists, nor had they espoused any +special theories respecting the position of women. They did not wish to +be members of the men's organizations but were quite content with their +own separate one, which served its purpose very well under prevailing +local conditions. James G. Birney, the candidate of the Liberty party +for the Presidency in 1840, had good reasons for opposition to the +inclusion of men and women in the same organization. He knew that by +acting separately they were winning their way. The introduction of a +novel theory involving a different issue seemed to him likely to be a +source of weakness. The cause of women was, however, gaining ground +and winning converts. Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton were +delegates to the World's Anti-Slavery Convention at London. They +listened to the debate which ended in the refusal to recognize them +as members of the Convention because they were women. The tone of +the discussion convinced them that women were looked upon by men with +disdain and contempt. Because the laws of the land and the customs of +society consigned women to an inferior position, and because there would +be no place for effective public work on the part of women until these +laws were changed, both these women became advocates of women's rights +and conspicuous leaders in the initiation of the propaganda. The +Reverend Samuel J. May, of Syracuse, New York, preached a sermon in 1845 +in which he stated his belief that women need not expect to have their +wrongs fully redressed until they themselves had a hand in the making +and in the administration of the laws. This is an early suggestion +that equal suffrage would become the ultimate goal of the efforts for +righting women's wrongs. + +At the same time there were accessions to the cause from a different +source. In 1833 Oberlin College was founded in northern Ohio. Into some +of the first classes there women were admitted on equal terms with men. +In 1885 the trustees offered the presidency to Professor Asa Mahan, of +Lane Seminary. He was himself an abolitionist from a slave State, and he +refused to be President of Oberlin College unless negroes were admitted +on equal terms with other students. Oberlin thus became the first +institution in the country which extended the privileges of the higher +education to both sexes of all races. It was a distinctly religious +institution devoted to radical reforms of many kinds. Not only was the +use of all intoxicating beverages discarded by faculty and students but +the use of tobacco as well was discouraged. + +Within fifteen years after the founding of Oberlin, there were women +graduates who had something to say on numerous questions of public +interest. Especially was this true of the subject of temperance. +Intemperance was a vice peculiar to men. Women and children were the +chief sufferers, while men were the chief sinners. It was important, +therefore, that men should be reached. In 1847 Lucy Stone, an Oberlin +graduate, began to address public audiences on the subject. At the same +time Susan B. Anthony appeared as a temperance lecturer. The manner of +their reception and the nature of their subject induced them to unite +heartily in the pending crusade for the equal rights of women. The three +causes thus became united in one. + +Along with the crusade against slavery, intemperance, and women's +wrongs, arose a fourth, which was fundamentally connected with the +slavery question: Quakers and Southern and Western abolitionists were +ardently devoted to the interests of peace. They would abolish slavery +by peaceable means because they believed the alternative was a terrible +war. To escape an impending war they were nerved to do and dare and to +incur great risks. New England abolitionists who labored in harmony with +those of the West and South were actuated by similar motives. Sumner +first gained public notice by a distinguished oration against war. +Garrison went farther: he was a professional non-resistant, a root and +branch opponent of both war and slavery. John Brown was a fanatical +antagonist of war until he reached the conclusion that according to the +Divine Will there should be a short war of liberation in place of the +continuance of slavery, which was itself in his opinion the most cruel +form of war. + +Slavery as a legally recognized institution disappeared with the Civil +War. The war against intemperance has made continuous progress and this +problem is apparently approaching a solution. The war against war as +a recognized institution has become the one all-absorbing problem of +civilization. The war against the wrongs of women is being supplanted by +efforts to harmonize the mutual privileges and duties of men and women +on the basis of complete equality. As Samuel May predicted more than +seventy years ago, in the future women are certain to take a hand both +in the making and in the administration of law. + + + +CHAPTER IV. THE TURNING-POINT + +The year 1831 is notable for three events in the history of the +anti-slavery controversy: on the first day of January in that year +William Lloyd Garrison began in Boston the publication of the Liberator; +in August there occurred in Southampton, Virginia, an insurrection of +slaves led by a negro, Nat Turner, in which sixty-one white persons +were massacred; and in December the Virginia Legislature began its long +debate on the question of slavery. + +On the part of the abolitionists there was at no time any sudden break +in the principles which they advocated. Lundy did nothing but revive and +continue the work of the Quakers and other non-slaveholding classes +of the revolutionary period. Birney was and continued to be a typical +slaveholding abolitionist of the earlier period. Garrison began his +work as a disciple of Lundy, whom he followed in the condemnation of the +African colonization scheme, though he went farther and rejected every +form of colonization. Garrison likewise repudiated every plan +for gradual emancipation and proclaimed the duty of immediate and +unconditional liberation of the slaves. + +The first number of the Liberator contained an Address to the Public, +which sounded the keynote of Garrison's career. "I shall contend for the +immediate enfranchisement of our slave population--I will be as harsh as +truth and as uncompromising as justice on this subject--I do not wish to +think, or speak, or write with moderation--I am in earnest--I will not +equivocate--I will not retreat a single inch, and I WILL BE HEARD!" + +The New England Anti-Slavery Society, of which Garrison was the chief +organizer, was in essential harmony with the societies which Lundy had +organized in other sections. Its first address to the public in 1833 +distinctly recognized the separate States as the sole authority in +the matter of emancipation within their own boundaries. Through moral +suasion, eschewing all violence and sedition, its authors proposed to +secure their object. In the spirit of civil and religious liberty and by +appealing to the Declaration of Independence, the Liberty party of 1840 +and 1844, by the Freesoil party of 1848, and later by the Republican +party, and that nearly all of the abolitionists continued to be faithful +adherents to those principles, are sufficient proof of the essential +unity of the great anti-slavery movement. The apparent lack of harmony +and the real confusion in the history of the subject arose from the +peculiar character of one remarkable man. + +The few owners of slaves who had assumed the role of public defenders of +the institution were in the habit of using violent and abusive language +against anti-slavery agitators. This appeared in the first debate on +the subject during Washington's administration. Every form of rhetorical +abuse also accompanied the outbreak of mob violence against the +reformers at the time of Garrison's advent into the controversy. He was +especially fitted to reply in kind. "I am accused," said he, "of using +hard language. I admit the charge. I have not been able to find a soft +word to describe villainy, or to identify the perpetrator of it." This +was a new departure which was instantly recognized by Southern leaders. +But from the beginning to the bitter end, Garrison stands alone +as preeminently the representative of this form of attack. It was +significant, also, that the Liberator was published in Boston, the +literary center of the country. + +There is no evidence that there was any direct connection between the +publication of the Liberator and the servile insurrection which occurred +during the following August. * It was, however, but natural that the +South should associate the two events. A few utterances of the paper +were fitted, if not intended, to incite insurrection. One passage +reads: "Whenever there is a contest between the oppressed and the +oppressor--the weapons being equal between the parties--God knows that +my heart must be with the oppressed, and always against the oppressor. +Therefore, whenever commenced, I cannot but wish success to all slave +insurrections." Again: "Rather than see men wearing their chains in +a cowardly and servile spirit, I would, as an advocate of peace, much +rather see them breaking the heads of the tyrant with their chains." + + * Garrison himself denied any direct connection with the Nat + Turner insurrection. See "William Lloyd Garrison, the Story + of His Life told by His Children," vol. I, p. 251. + +George Thompson, an English co-laborer with Garrison, is quoted as +saying in a public address in 1835 that "Southern slaves ought, or +at least had a right, to cut the throats of their masters." * Such +utterances are rare, and they express a passing mood not in the least +characteristic of the general spirit of the abolition movement; yet +the fact that such statements did emanate from such a source made it +comparatively easy for extremists of the opposition to cast odium upon +all abolitionists. The only type of abolition known in South Carolina +was that of the extreme Garrisonian agitators, and it furnished at +least a shadow of excuse for mob violence in the North and for complete +suppression of discussion in the South. To encourage slaves to cut +the throats of their masters was far from being a rhetorical figure of +speech in communities where slaves were in the majority. Santo Domingo +was at the time a prosperous republic founded by former slaves who had +exterminated the Caucasian residents of the island. Negroes from Santo +Domingo had fomented insurrection in South Carolina. The Nat Turner +incident was more than a suggestion of the dire possibilities of the +situation. Turner was a trusted slave, a preacher among the blacks. He +succeeded in concealing his plot for weeks. When the massacre began, +slaves not in the secret were induced to join. A majority of the slain +were women and children. Abolitionists who had lived in slave States +never indulged in flippant remarks fitted to incite insurrection. This +was reserved for the few agitators far removed from the scene of action. + + * Schouler, "History of the United States under the + Constitution," vol. V, p. 217. + +Southern planters who had determined at all hazards to perpetuate the +institution of slavery were peculiarly sensitive on account of what was +taking place in Spanish America and in the British West Indies. Mexico +abolished slavery in 1829, and united with Colombia in encouraging Cuba +to throw off the Spanish yoke, abolish slavery, and join the sisterhood +of New World republics. This led to an effective protest on the part of +the United States. Both Spain and Mexico were advised that the +United States could not with safety to its own interests permit the +emancipation of slaves in the island of Cuba. But with the British +Emancipation Act of 1833, Cuba became the only neighboring territory in +which slavery was legal. These acts of emancipation added zeal to the +determination of the Southern planters to secure territory for the +indefinite extension of slavery to the southwest. When Lundy and Birney +discovered these plans, their desire to husband and extend the direct +political influence of abolitionists was greatly stimulated. To this +end they maintained a moderate and conservative attitude. They took +care that no abuse or misrepresentation should betray them into any +expression which would diminish their influence with fair-minded, +reasonable men. They were convinced that a clear and complete revelation +of the facts would lead a majority of the people to adopt their views. + +The debate in the Virginia Legislature in the session which met three +months after the Southampton massacre furnishes a demonstration that the +traditional anti-slavery sentiment still persisted among the rulers of +the Old Dominion. It arose out of a petition from the Quakers of the +State asking for an investigation preparatory to a gradual emancipation +of the slaves. The debate, which lasted for several weeks, was able and +thorough. No stronger utterances in condemnation of slavery were ever +voiced than appear in this debate. Different speakers made the statement +that no one presumed to defend slavery on principle--that apologists for +slavery existed but no defenders. Opposition to the petition was in the +main apologetic in tone. + +A darker picture of the blighting effects of slavery on the industries +of the country was never drawn than appears in these speeches. Slavery +was declared to be driving free laborers from the State, to have already +destroyed every industry except agriculture, and to have exhausted the +soil so that profitable agriculture was becoming extinct, while pine +brush was encroaching upon former fruitful fields. "Even the wolf," said +one, "driven back long since by the approach of man, now returns, after +the lapse of a hundred years, to howl over the desolations of slavery." +Contrasts between free labor in northern industry and that of the South +were vividly portrayed. In a speech of great power, one member referred +to Kentucky and Ohio as States "providentially designated to exhibit in +their future histories the differences which necessarily result from a +country free from, and a country afflicted with the curse of slavery." + +The debate was by no means confined to industrial or material +considerations. McDowell, who was afterwards elected Governor of the +State, thus portrays the personal relations of master and slave "You +may place the slave where you please--you may put him under any process, +which, without destroying his value as a slave, will debase and crush +him as a rational being--you may do all this, and the idea that he +was born to be free will survive it all. It is allied to his hope of +immortality--it is the ethereal part of his nature which oppression +cannot reach--it is a torch lit up in his soul by the hand of the Deity, +and never meant to be extinguished by the hand of man." + +Various speakers assumed that the continuance of slavery involved a +bloody conflict; that either peaceably or through violence, slavery +as contrary to the spirit of the age must come to an end; that the +agitation against it could not be suppressed. Faulkner drew a lurid +picture of the danger from servile insurrection, in which he referred to +the utterances of two former speakers, one of whom had said that, unless +something effective was done to ward off the danger, "the throats of all +the white people of Virginia will be cut." The other replied, "No, the +whites cannot be conquered--the throats of the blacks will be cut." +Faulkner's rejoinder was that the difference was a trifling one, "for +the fact is conceded that one race or the other must be exterminated." + +The public press joined in the debate. Leading editorials appeared in +the Richmond Enquirer urging that effective measures be instituted to +put an end to slavery. The debate aroused much interest throughout the +South. Substantially all the current abolition arguments appeared in the +speeches of the slave-owning members of the Virginia Legislature. And +what was done about it? Nothing at all. The petition was not granted; +no action looking towards emancipation was taken. This was indeed a +turning-point. Men do not continue to denounce in public their own +conduct unless their action results in some effort toward corrective +measures. + +Professor Thomas Dew, of the chair of history and metaphysics in William +and Mary College and later President of the College, published an essay +reviewing the debate in the Legislature and arguing that any plan for +emancipation in Virginia was either undesirable or impossible. +This essay was among the first of the direct pro-slavery arguments. +Statements in support of the view soon followed. In 1835 the Governor of +South Carolina in a message to the Legislature said, "Domestic slavery +is the corner-stone of our republican edifice." Senator Calhoun, +speaking in the Senate two years later, declared slavery to be a +positive good. W. G. Simms, Southern poet and novelist, writing in 1852, +felicitates himself as being among the first who about fifteen years +earlier advocated slavery as a great good and a blessing. Harriet +Martineau, an English author who traveled extensively in the South in +1885, found few slaveholders who justified the institution as being in +itself just. But after the debates in the Virginia Legislature, there +were few owners of slaves who publicly advocated abolition. The spirit +of mob violence had set in, and, contrary to the utterances of Virginia +statesmen, free speech on the subject of slavery was suppressed in the +slave States. This did not mean that Southern statesmen had lost +the power to perceive the evil effects of slavery or that they were +convinced that their former views were erroneous. It meant simply that +they had failed to agree upon a policy of gradual emancipation, and the +only recourse left seemed to be to follow the example of James G. Birney +and leave the South or to submit in silence to the new order. + + + +CHAPTER V. THE VINDICATION OF LIBERTY + +With the changed attitude of the South towards emancipation there was +associated an active hostility to dearly bought human liberty. Freedom +of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of worship, the right of +assembly, trial by jury, the right of petition, free use of the mails, +and numerous other fundamental human rights were assailed. Birney +and other abolitionists who had immediate knowledge of slavery early +perceived that the real question at issue was quite as much the +continued liberty of the white man as it was the liberation of the black +man and that the enslavement of one race involved also the ultimate +essential enslavement of the other. + +In 1831 two slave States and six free States still extended to free +negroes the right to vote. During the pro-slavery crusade these +privileges disappeared; and not only so, but free negroes were banished +from certain States, or were not permitted to enter them, or were +allowed to remain only by choosing a white man for a guardian. It was +made a crime to teach negroes, whether slaves or free men, to read and +write. Under various pretexts free negroes were reduced to slavery. +Freedom of worship was denied to negroes, and they were not allowed to +assemble for any purpose except under the strict surveillance of white +men. Negro testimony in a court of law was invalid where the rights of a +white man were involved. The right of a negro to his freedom was decided +by an arbitrary court without a jury, while the disputed right of a +white man to the ownership of a horse was conditioned by the safeguard +of trial by jury. + +The maintenance of such policies carries with it of necessity the +suppression of free discussion. When Southern leaders adopted the policy +of defending slavery as a righteous institution, abolitionists in the +South either emigrated to the North or were silenced. In either case +they were deprived of a fundamental right. The spirit of persecution +followed them into the free States. Birney could not publish his paper +in Kentucky, nor even at Cincinnati, save at the risk of his life. +Elijah Lovejoy was not allowed to publish his paper in Missouri, +and, when he persisted in publishing it in Illinois, he was brutally +murdered. Even in Boston it required men of courage and determination +to meet and organize an anti-slavery society in 1832, though only a +few years earlier Benjamin Lundy had traveled freely through the South +itself delivering anti-slavery lectures and organizing scores of such +societies. The New York Anti-Slavery Society was secretly organized in +1832 in spite of the opposition of a determined mob. Mob violence was +everywhere rife. Meetings were broken up, negro quarters attacked, +property destroyed, murders committed. + +Fair-minded men became abolitionists on account of the crusade against +the rights of white men quite as much as from their interest in the +rights of negroes. Salmon P. Chase of Ohio was led to espouse the cause +by observing the attacks upon the freedom of the press in Cincinnati. +Gerrit Smith witnessed the breaking up of an anti-slavery meeting in +Utica, New York, and thereafter consecrated his time, his talents, and +his great wealth to the cause of liberty. Wendell Phillips saw Garrison +in the hands of a Boston mob, and that experience determined him to make +common cause with the martyr. And the murder of Lovejoy in 1837 made +many active abolitionists. + +It is difficult to imagine a more inoffensive practice than giving +to negro girls the rudiments of an education. Yet a school for this +purpose, taught by Miss Prudence Crandall in Canterbury, Connecticut, +was broken up by persistent persecution, a special act of the +Legislature being passed for the purpose, forbidding the teaching +of negroes from outside the State without the consent of the town +authorities. Under this act Miss Crandall was arrested, convicted, and +imprisoned. + +Having eliminated free discussion from the South, the Southern States +sought to accomplish the same object in the North. In pursuance of a +resolution of the Legislature, the Governor of Georgia offered a reward +of five thousand dollars to any one who should arrest, bring to trial, +and prosecute to conviction under the laws of Georgia the editor of +the Liberator. R. G. Williams, publishing agent for the American +Anti-Slavery Society, was indicted by a grand jury of Tuscaloosa County, +Alabama, and Governor Gayle of Alabama made a requisition on Governor +Marcy of New York for his extradition. Williams had never been in +Alabama. His offense consisted in publishing in the New York Emancipator +a few rather mild utterances against slavery. + +Governor McDuffie of South Carolina in an official message declared +that slavery was the very corner-stone of the republic, adding that +the laboring population of any country, "bleached or unbleached," was +a dangerous element in the body politic, and predicting that within +twenty-five years the laboring people of the North would be virtually +reduced to slavery. Referring to abolitionists, he said: "The laws of +every community should punish this species of interference with death +without benefit of clergy." Pursuant to the Governor's recommendation, +the Legislature adopted a resolution calling upon non-slaveholding +States to pass laws to suppress promptly and effectively all abolition +societies. In nearly all the slave States similar resolutions +were adopted, and concerted action against anti-slavery effort was +undertaken. During the winter of 1835 and 1836, the Governors of the +free States received these resolutions from the South and, instead of +resenting them as an uncalled-for interference with the rights of free +commonwealths, they treated them with respect. Edward Everett, Governor +of Massachusetts, in his message presenting the Southern documents to +the Legislature, said: "Whatever by direct and necessary operation is +calculated to excite an insurrection among the slaves has been held, by +highly respectable legal authority, an offense against this Commonwealth +which may be prosecuted as a misdemeanor at common law." Governor Marcy +of New York, in a like document, declared that "without the power to +pass such laws the States would not possess all the necessary means for +preserving their external relations of peace among themselves." Even +before the Southern requests reached Rhode Island, the Legislature had +under consideration a bill to suppress abolition societies. + +When a committee of the Massachusetts Legislature had been duly +organized to consider the documents received from the slave States, the +abolitionists requested the privilege of a hearing before the committee. +Receiving no reply, they proceeded to formulate a statement of their +case; but before they could publish it, they were invited to appear +before the joint committee of the two houses. The public had been +aroused by the issue and there was a large audience. The case for +the abolitionists was stated by their ablest speakers, among whom was +William Lloyd Garrison. They labored to convince the committee that +their utterances were not incendiary, and that any legislative censure +directed against them would be an encouragement to mob violence and the +persecution which was already their lot. After the defensive arguments +had been fully presented, William Goodell took the floor and proceeded +to charge upon the Southern States which had made these demands a +conspiracy against the liberties of the North. In the midst of great +excitement and many interruptions by the chairman of the committee, he +quoted the language of Governor McDuffie's message, and characterized +the documents lying on the table before him as "fetters for Northern +freemen." Then, turning to the committee, he began, "Mr. Chairman, are +you prepared to attempt to put them on?"--but the sentence was only half +finished when the stentorian voice of the chairman interrupted him: "Sit +down, sir!" and he sat down. The committee then arose and left the room. +But the audience did not rise; they waited till other abolitionists +found their tongues and gave expression to a fixed determination to +uphold the liberties purchased for them by the blood of their fathers. +The Massachusetts Legislature did not comply with the request of +Governor McDuffie of South Carolina to take the first step towards the +enslavement of all laborers, white as well as black. And Rhode Island +refused to enact into law the pending bill for the suppression of +anti-slavery societies. They declined to violate the plain requirements +of their Constitution that the interests of slavery might be promoted. +Not many years later they were ready to strain or break the Constitution +for the sake of liberty. + +In the general crusade against liberty churches proved more pliable +than States. The authority of nearly all the leading denominations +was directed against the abolitionists. The General Conference of the +Methodist Episcopal Church passed in 1836 a resolution censuring two of +their members who had lectured in favor of modern abolitionism. The +Ohio Conference of the same denomination had passed resolutions urging +resistance to the anti-slavery movement. In June, 1836, the New York +Conference decided that no one should be chosen as deacon or elder who +did not give pledge that he would refrain from agitating the church on +the subject. + +The same spirit appeared in theological seminaries. The trustees of Lane +Seminary, near Cincinnati, Ohio, voted that students should not organize +or be members of anti-slavery societies or hold meetings or lecture or +speak on the subject. Whereupon the students left in a body, and many +of the professors withdrew and united with others in the founding of an +anti-slavery college at Oberlin. + +A persistent attack was also directed against the use of the United +States mails for the distribution of anti-slavery literature. Mob +violence which involved the post-office began as early as 1830, when +printed copies of Miss Grimke's Appeal to the Christian Women of the +South were seized and burned in Charleston. In 1835 large quantities of +anti-slavery literature were removed from the Charleston office and +in the presence of the assembled citizens committed to the flames. +Postmasters on their own motion examined the mails and refused +to deliver any matter that they deemed incendiary. Amos Kendall, +Postmaster-General, was requested to issue an order authorizing such +conduct. He replied that he had no legal authority to issue such an +order. Yet he would not recommend the delivery of such papers. "We owe," +said he, "an obligation to the laws, but a higher one to the communities +in which we live, and if the former be perverted to destroy the latter, +it is patriotism to disregard them. Entertaining these views, I cannot +sanction, and will not condemn, the step you have taken." This is an +early instance of the appeal to the "higher law" in the pro-slavery +controversy. The higher law was invoked against the freedom of the +press. The New York postmaster sought to dissuade the Anti-slavery +Society from the attempt to send its publications through the mails into +Southern States. In reply to a request for authorization to refuse to +accept such publications, the Postmaster-General replied: "I am +deterred from giving an order to exclude the whole series of abolition +publications from the Southern mails only by a want of legal power, and +if I were situated as you are, I would do as you have done." + +Mr. Kendall's letters to the postmasters of Charleston and New York +were written in July and August, 1835. In December of the same year, +presumably with full knowledge that a member of his Cabinet was +encouraging violations of law in the interest of slavery, President +Jackson undertook to supply the need of legal authorization. In his +annual message he made a savage attack upon the abolitionists and +recommended to Congress the "passing of such a law as will prohibit, +under severe penalties, the circulation in the Southern States, through +the mail, of incendiary publications." + +This part of the President's message was referred to a select committee, +of which John C. Calhoun was chairman. The chairman's report was against +the adoption of the President's recommendation because a subject of +such vital interest to the States ought not to be left to Congress. +The admission of the right of Congress to decide what is incendiary, +asserted the report, carries with it the power to decide what is +not incendiary and hence Congress might authorize and enforce the +circulation of abolition literature through the mails in all the States. +The States should themselves severally decide what in their judgment is +incendiary, and then it would become the duty of the general Government +to give effect to such state laws. The bill recommended was in harmony +with this view. It was made illegal for any deputy postmaster "to +deliver to any person whatsoever, any pamphlet, newspaper, handbill, or +other printed paper, or pictorial representation touching the subject +of slavery, where by the laws of the said State, territory, or district +their circulation is prohibited." The bill was defeated in the Senate by +a small margin. Altogether there was an enlightening debate on the whole +subject. The exposure of the abuse of tampering with the mail created a +general reaction, which enabled the abolitionists to win a spectacular +victory. Instead of a law forbidding the circulation of anti-slavery +publications, Congress enacted a law requiring postal officials under +heavy penalties to deliver without discrimination all matter committed +to their charge. This act was signed by President Jackson, and Calhoun +himself was induced to admit that the purposes of the abolitionists were +not violent and revolutionary. Henceforth abolitionists enjoyed their +full privileges in the use of the United States mail. An even more +dramatic victory was thrust upon the abolitionists by the inordinate +violence of their opponents in their attack upon the right of petition. +John Quincy Adams, who became their distinguished champion, was not +himself an abolitionist. When, as a member of the lower House of +Congress in 1831, he presented petitions from certain citizens of +Pennsylvania, presumably Quakers, requesting Congress to abolish +slavery and the slave-trade in the District of Columbia, he refused to +countenance their prayer, and expressed the wish that the memorial +might be referred without debate. At the very time when a New England +ex-President was thus advising abolitionists to desist from sending +petitions to Congress, the Virginia Legislature was engaged in the +memorable debate upon a similar petition from Virginia Quakers, in which +most radical abolition sentiment was expressed by actual slaveowners. +Adams continued to present anti-slavery memorials and at the same time +to express his opposition to the demands of the petitioners. When +in 1835 there arose a decided opposition to the reception of such +documents, Adams, still in apparent sympathy with the pro-slavery South +on the main issue, gave wise counsel on the method of dealing with +petitions. They should be received, said he, and referred to a +committee; because the right of petition is sacred. This, he maintained, +was the best way to avoid disturbing debate on the subject of slavery. +He quoted his own previous experience; he had made known his opposition +to the purposes of the petitioners; their memorials were duly referred +to a committee and there they slept the sleep of death. At that time +only one voice had been raised in the House in support of the abolition +petitioners, that of John Dickson of New York, who had delivered a +speech of two hours in length advocating their cause; but not a voice +was raised in reply. Mr. Adams mentioned this incident with approval. +The way to forestall disturbing debate in Congress, he said, was +scrupulously to concede all constitutional rights and then simply to +refrain from speaking on the subject. + +This sound advice was not followed. For several months a considerable +part of the time of the House was occupied with the question of handling +abolition petitions. And finally, in May, 1836, the following resolution +passed the House: "Resolved, That all petitions, memorials, resolutions, +propositions, or papers relating in any way or to any extent whatever to +the subject of slavery or the abolition of slavery, shall, without being +either printed or referred, be laid on the table, and that no further +action whatever shall be had thereon." This is commonly known as the +"gag resolution." During four successive years it was reenacted in one +form or another and was not repealed by direct vote until 1844. + +When the name of Mr. Adams was called in the vote upon the passage of +the above resolution, instead of answering in the ordinary way, he said: +"I hold the resolution to be a direct violation of the Constitution of +the United States, of the rules of this House, and of the rights of my +constituents." This was the beginning of the duel between the "old man +eloquent" and a determined majority in the House of Representatives. +Adams developed undreamed-of resources as a debater and parliamentarian. +He made it his special business to break down the barrier against the +right of petition. Abolitionists cooperated with zeal in the effort. +Their champion was abundantly supplied with petitions. The gag +resolution was designed to prevent all debate on the subject of slavery. +Its effect in the hands of the shrewd parliamentarian was to foment +debate. On one occasion, with great apparent innocence, after presenting +the usual abolition petitions, Adams called the attention of the Speaker +to one which purported to be signed by twenty-two slaves and asked +whether such a petition should be presented to the House, since he was +himself in doubt as to the rules applicable in such a case. This led to +a furious outbreak in the House which lasted for three days. Adams was +threatened with censure at the bar of the House, with expulsion, with +the grand jury, with the penitentiary; and it is believed that only his +great age and national repute shielded him from personal violence. After +numerous passionate speeches had been delivered, Adams injected a few +important corrections into the debate. He reminded the House that he +had not presented a petition purporting to emanate from slaves; on the +contrary, he had expressly declined to present it until the Speaker +had decided whether a petition from slaves was covered by the rule. +Moreover, the petition was not against slavery but in favor of slavery. +He was then charged with the crime of trifling with the sensibilities +of the House; and finally the champion of the right of petition took +the floor in his own defense. His language cut to the quick. His +calumniators were made to feel the force of his biting sarcasm. They +were convicted of injustice, and all their resolutions of censure were +withdrawn. The victory was complete. + +After the year 1838 John Quincy Adams had the effective support of +Joshua R. Giddings from the Western Reserve, Ohio--who also fought a +pitched battle of his own which illustrates another phase of the crusade +against liberty. The ship Creole had sailed from Baltimore to New +Orleans in 1841 with a cargo of slaves. The negroes mutinied on the high +seas, slew one man, gained possession of the vessel, sailed to Nassau, +and were there set free by the British Government. Prolonged diplomatic +negotiations followed in which our Government held that, as slaves were +property in the United States, they continued to be such on the high +seas. In the midst of the controversy, Giddings introduced a resolution +into the House, declaring that slavery, being an abridgment of liberty, +could exist only under local rules, and that on the high seas there can +be no slavery. For this act Giddings was arraigned and censured by +the House. He at once resigned, but was reelected with instructions to +continue the fight for freedom of debate in the House. + +In the campaign against the rights of freemen mob violence was first +employed, but in the South the weapon of repressive legislation was +soon substituted, and this was powerfully supplemented by social and +religious ostracism. Except in a few districts in the border States, +these measures were successful. Public profession of abolitionism was +suppressed. The violence of the mob was of much longer duration in the +North and reached its height in the years 1834 and 1835. But Northern +mobs only quickened the zeal of the abolitionists and made converts to +their cause. The attempt to substitute repressive state legislation had +the same effect, and the use of church authority for making an end of +the agitation for human liberty was only temporarily influential. + +As early as 1838 the Presbyterian Church was divided over questions of +doctrine into Old School and New School Presbyterians. This served to +forestall the impending division on the slavery question. The Old School +in the South became pro-slavery and the New School in the North became +anti-slavery. At the same time the Methodist Church of the entire +country was beset by a division on the main question. In 1844 Southern +Methodist Episcopalian conferences resolved upon separation and +committed themselves to the defense of slavery. The division in the +Methodist Church was completed in 1846. A corresponding division took +place in the Baptist Church in 1845. The controversy was dividing the +country into a free North and an enslaved South, and Southern white men +as well as negroes were threatened with subjection to the demands of the +dominant institution. + + + +CHAPTER VI. THE SLAVERY ISSUE IN POLITICS + +Some who opposed mob violence became active abolitionists; others were +led to defend the rights of abolitionists because to do otherwise would +encourage anarchy and general disorder. The same was true of those who +defended the right of petition and the free use of the mails and the +entire list of the fundamental rights of freemen which were threatened +by the crusade against abolitionists. Birney's contention that unless +the slave is freed no one can be free was thus vindicated: the issue +involved vastly more than the mere emancipation of slaves. + +The attack made in defense of slavery upon the rights of freemen was +early recognized as involving civil war unless peaceable emancipation +could be attained. So soon as John Quincy Adams faced the new spirit in +Congress, he was convinced that it meant probable war. As early as +May, 1836, he warned the South, saying: "From the instant that your +slaveholding States become the theater of war, civil, servile, or +foreign, from that moment the war powers of the Constitution extend +to interference with the institution of slavery." This sentiment he +reiterated and amplified on various occasions. The South was duly +warned that an attempt to disrupt the Union would involve a war of which +emancipation would be one of the consequences. With the exception +of Garrison and a few of his personal followers, abolitionists were +unionists: they stood for the perpetual union of the States. + +This is not the place to give an extended account of the Mexican War. * +There are, however, certain incidents connected with the annexation +of Texas and the resulting war which profoundly affected the crusade +against slavery. Both Lundy and Birney in their missions to promote +emancipation through the process of colonization believed that they had +unearthed a plan on the part of Southern leaders to acquire territory +from Mexico for the purpose of extending slavery. This discovery +coincided with the suppression of abolition propaganda in the South. +Hitherto John Quincy Adams had favored the western expansion of our +territory. He had labored diligently to make the Rio Grande the western +boundary of the Louisiana Purchase at the time of the treaty with Spain +in 1819. But though in 1825 he had supported a measure to purchase Texas +from Mexico, under the new conditions he threw himself heartily against +the annexation of Texas, and in 1838 he defeated in the House of +Representatives a resolution favoring annexation. To this end Adams +occupied the morning hour of the House each day from the 16th of June to +the 7th of July, within two days of the time fixed for adjournment. +This was only a beginning of his fight against the extension of slavery. +There was no relenting in his opposition to pro-slavery demands until he +was stricken down with paralysis in the streets of Boston, in November, +1846. He never again addressed a public assembly. But he continued to +occupy his seat in Congress until February 23, 1848. + + * See "Texas and the Mexican War" (in "The Chronicles of + America"). + +The debate inaugurated in Congress by Adams and others over the +extension of slave territory rapidly spread to the country at large, +and interest in the question became general. Abolitionists were thereby +greatly stimulated to put into practice their professed duty of seeking +to accomplish their ends by political action. Their first effort was +to secure recognition in the regular parties. The Democrats answered +in their platform of 1840 by a plank specifically denouncing the +abolitionists, and the Whigs proved either noncommittal or unfriendly. +The result was that abolitionists organized a party of their own in +1840 and nominated James G. Birney for the Presidency. Both of the +older parties during this campaign evaded the issue of the annexation of +Texas. In 1844 the Whigs again refrained from giving in their platform +any official utterance on the Texas issue, though they were understood +to be opposed to annexation. The Democrats adroitly asserted in their +platform their approval of the re-annexation of Texas and reoccupation +of Oregon. There was a shadowy prior claim to both these regions, and +by combining them in this way the party avoided any odious partiality +towards the acquisition of slave territory. But the voters in both +parties had become interested in the specific question whether the +country was to enter upon a war of conquest whose primary object should +be the extension of slavery. In the North it became generally understood +that a vote for Henry Clay, the Whig candidate, was an expression of +opposition to annexation. This issue, however, was not made clear in the +South. In the absence of telegraph and daily paper it was quite possible +to maintain contradictory positions in different sections of the +country. But since the Democrats everywhere openly favored annexation, +the election of their candidate, James K. Polk, was generally accepted +as a popular approval of the annexation of Texas. Indeed, action +immediately followed the election and, before the President-elect had +been inaugurated, the joint resolution for the annexation of Texas +passed both Houses of Congress. + +The popular vote was almost equally divided between Whigs and Democrats. +Had the vote for Birney, who was again the candidate of the Liberty +party, been cast for Clay electors, Clay would have been chosen +President. The Birney vote was over sixty-two thousand. The Liberty +party, therefore, held the balance of power and determined the result of +the election. + +The Liberty party has often been censured for defeating the Whigs +at this election of 1844. But many incidents, too early forgotten by +historians, go far to justify the course of the leaders. Birney and Clay +were at one time members of the same party. They were personal friends, +and as slave holders they shared the view that slavery was a menace to +the country and ought to be abolished. It was just fourteen years before +this election that Birney made a visit to Clay to induce him to accept +the leadership of an organized movement to abolish slavery in Kentucky. +Three years later, when Birney returned to Kentucky to do himself what +Henry Clay had refused to do, he became convinced that the reaction +which had taken place in favor of slavery was largely due to Clay's +influence. This was a common impression among active abolitionists. +It is not strange, therefore, that they refused to support him as a +candidate for the Presidency, and it is not at all certain that his +election in 1844 would have prevented the war with Mexico. + +Northern Whigs accused the Democrats of fomenting a war with Mexico with +the intention of gaining territory for the purpose of extending slavery. +Democrats denied that the annexation of Texas would lead to war, and +many of them proclaimed their opposition to the farther extension of +slavery. In harmony with this sentiment, when President Polk asked for a +grant of two million dollars to aid in making a treaty with Mexico, they +attached to the bill granting the amount a proviso to the effect that +slavery should forever be prohibited in any territory which might be +obtained from Mexico by the contemplated treaty. The proviso was written +by an Ohio Democrat and was introduced in the House by David A. Wilmot, +a Pennsylvania Democrat, after whom it is known. It passed the House +by a fair majority with the support of both Whigs and Democrats. At the +time of the original introduction in August, 1846, the Senate did not +vote upon the measure. Davis of Massachusetts moved its adoption but +inadvertently prolonged his speech in its favor until the hour for +adjournment. Hence there was no vote on the subject. Subsequently the +proviso in a new form again passed the House but failed of adoption in +the Senate. + +During the war the Wilmot Proviso was the subject of frequent debate +in Congress and of continuous debate throughout the country until +the treaty with Mexico was signed in 1848. A vast territory had been +acquired as a result of the war, and no decision had been reached as +to whether it should remain free or be opened to settlement by +slave-owners. Another presidential election was at hand. For fully ten +years there had been ever-increasing excitement over the question of +the limitation or the extension of slavery. This had clearly become +the topic of supreme interest throughout the country, and yet the two +leading parties avoided the issue. Their own membership was divided. +Northern Democrats, many of them, were decidedly opposed to slavery +extension. Southern Whigs with equal intensity favored the extension of +slavery into the new territory. The platforms of the two parties were +silent on the subject. The Whigs nominated Taylor, a Southern general +who had never voted their party ticket, but they made no formal +declaration of principles. The Democrats repeated with colorless +additions their platforms of 1840 anti 1844 and sought to win the +election with a Northern man, Lewis Cass of Michigan, as candidate. + +There was, therefore, a clear field for a party having fully defined +views to express on a topic of commanding interest. The cleavage in the +Democratic party already begun by the debate over the Wilmot Proviso was +farther promoted by a factional division of New York Democrats. Martin +Van Buren became the leader of the liberal faction, the "Barnburners," +who nominated him for President at a convention at Utica. The spirit of +independence now seized disaffected Whigs and Democrats everywhere +in the North and Northwest. Men of anti-slavery proclivities held +nonpartizan meetings and conventions. The movement finally culminated +in the famous Buffalo convention which gave birth to the Freesoil party. +The delegates of all political persuasions united on the one principle +of opposition to slavery. They adopted a ringing platform closing with +the words: "Resolved, That we inscribe on our banner 'Free Soil, Free +Speech, Free Labor, and Free Men,' and under it will fight on, and +fight ever, until a triumphant victory shall reward our exertions." They +accepted Van Buren as their candidate. The vote at the ensuing election +was more than fourfold that given to Birney in 1844. The Van Buren +supporters held the balance of power between Whigs and Democrats in +twelve States. Taylor was elected by the vote of New York, which except +for the division in the party would have gone to Cass. There was no +longer any doubt of the fact that a political force had arisen which +could no longer be ignored by the ruling parties. One of the parties +must either support the new issue or give place to a party which would +do so. + +A political party for the defense of liberty was the fulfillment of the +aspirations of all earnest anti-slavery men and of all abolitionists +not of the radical Garrisonian persuasion. The national anti-slavery +societies were for the most part limited in their operations to the +Atlantic seaboard. The West organized local and state associations +with little reference to the national association. When the disruption +occurred between Garrison and his opponents in 1840, the Western +abolitionists continued their former methods of local organization. They +recognized no divisions in their ranks and continued to work in +harmony with all who in any way opposed the institution of slavery. The +political party was their first really effective national organization. +Through party committees, caucuses, and conventions, they became a part +of the forces that controlled the nation. The older local clubs and +associations were either displaced by the party or became mere adjuncts +to the party. + +The lines for political action were now clearly defined. In the +States emancipation should be accomplished by state action. With a few +individual exceptions the leaders conceded that Congress had no power +to abolish slavery in the States. Upon the general Government they urged +the duty of abolishing both slavery and the slave-trade in the District +of Columbia and in all areas under direct federal control. They further +urged upon the Government the strict enforcement of the laws prohibiting +the foreign slave-trade and the enactment of laws forbidding the +interstate slave-trade. The constitutionality of these main lines of +action has been generally conceded. + +Abolitionists were pioneers in the formulation of political platforms. +The declaration of principles drawn up by Garrison in 1833 and adopted +by the American Anti-Slavery Society was of the nature of a political +platform. The duty of voting in furtherance of the policy of +emancipation was inculcated. No platform was adopted for the first +political campaign, that of 1840; but four years later there was an +elaborate party platform of twenty-one resolutions. Many things had +happened in the eleven years intervening since the declaration of +principles of the American Anti-Slavery Society. In the earlier platform +the freedom of the slave appears as the primary object. That of the +Liberty party assumes the broad principle of human brotherhood as the +foundation for a democracy or a republic. It denies that the party is +organized merely to free the slave. Slaveholding as the grossest form of +despotism must indeed be attacked first, but the aim of the party is to +carry the principle of equal rights into all social relations. It is not +a sectional party nor a party organized for a single purpose. "It is not +a new party, nor a third party, but it is the party of 1776, reviving +the principles of that memorable era, and striving to carry them into +practical application." The spirit of '76 rings, indeed, throughout +the document, which declares that it was understood at the time of the +Declaration and the Constitution that the existence of slavery was in +derogation of the principles of American liberty. The implied faith +of the Nation and the States was pledged to remove this stain upon the +national character. Some States had nobly fulfilled that pledge; others +shamelessly had neglected to do so. + +These principles are reasserted in succeeding platforms. The later +opponents of slavery in their principles and policies thus allied +themselves with the founders of the republic. They claimed the right to +continue to repeat the words of Washington and Jefferson and those of +the members of the Virginia Legislature of 1832. No new doctrines were +required. It was enough simply to reaffirm the fundamental principles of +democracy. + +The names attached to the party are significant. It was at first +popularly styled the Abolition party, then officially in turn the +Liberty party, the Freesoil party, and finally the Republican party. +Republican was the name first applied to the Democratic party--the party +of Jefferson. The term Democrat was gradually substituted under the +leadership of Jackson before 1830. Some of the men who participated +in the organization of the later Republican party had themselves been +Republicans in the party of Jefferson. They not only accepted the name +which Jefferson gave to his party, but they adopted the principles which +Jefferson proclaimed on the subject of slavery, free soil, and human +rights in general. This was the final stage in the identification of the +later anti-slavery crusade with the earlier contest for liberty. + + + +CHAPTER VII. THE PASSING OF THE WHIG PARTY + +The middle of the last century was marked by many incidents which have +left a permanent impress upon politics in general and upon the slavery +question in particular. Europe was again in the throes of popular +uprisings. New constitutions were adopted in France, Switzerland, +Prussia, and Austria. Reactions in favor of autocracy in Austria and +Germany sent multitudes of lovers of liberty to America. Kossuth, the +Hungarian revolutionist, electrified American audiences by his appeals +on behalf of the downtrodden in Europe. Already the world was growing +smaller. America did not stop at the Pacific but crossed the ocean to +establish permanent political and commercial relations with Japan and +China. + +The industries of the country were being reorganized to meet new +conditions created by recent inventions. The electric telegraph was +just coming into use, giving rise to a new era in communication. The +discovery of gold in California in 1848 was followed by competing +projects to construct railroads to the Pacific with Chicago and St. +Louis as the rival eastern terminals. The telegraph, the railway, +and the resulting industrial development proved great nationalizing +influences. They served also to give increased emphasis to the contrast +between the industries of the free and those of the slave States. The +Census of 1850 became an effective anti-slavery argument. + +The telegraph also gave new life to the public press. The presidential +campaign of 1848 was the last one in which it was possible to carry on +contradictory arguments in support of the same candidate. If slavery +could not endure the test of untrammeled discussion when there were no +means of rapid intercommunication such as the telegraph supplied, how +could it contend against the revelations of the daily press with the new +type of reporter and interviewer which was now developed? + +It is a remarkable coincidence that in the midst of the passing of the +old and the coming in of the new order there should be a change in the +political leadership of the country. Webster, Clay, Calhoun, John Quincy +Adams, not to mention others, all died near the middle of the century, +and their political power passed to younger men. Adams gave his blessing +to a young friend and co-laborer, William H. Seward of New York, +intimating that he expected him to do much to curb the threatening power +of the slaveholding oligarchy; while Andrew Jackson, who died earlier, +had already conferred a like distinction upon young Stephen A. Douglas. +There was no lack of aspirants for the fallen mantles. + +John C. Calhoun continued almost to the day of his death to modify his +interpretation of the Constitution in the interest of his section. As +a young man he avowed protectionist principles. Becoming convinced that +slave labor was not suited to manufacture, he urged South Carolina to +declare the protective tariff laws null and void within her limits. +When his section seemed endangered by the distribution of anti-slavery +literature through the mail, he extemporized a theory that each State +had a right to pass statutes to protect itself in such an emergency, in +which case it became the duty of the general Government and of all other +States to respect such laws. When it finally appeared that the territory +acquired from Mexico was likely to remain free, the same statesman made +further discoveries. He found that Congress had no right to exclude +slavery from any Territory belonging to the United States; that the +owners of slaves had equal rights with the owners of other property; +that neither Congress nor a territorial authority had any power +to exclude slaves from a Territory. This doctrine was accepted by +extremists in the South and was finally embodied in the Dred Scott +decision of 1857. + +Abolitionists had meantime evolved a precisely contradictory theory. +They asserted that the Constitution gave no warrant for property in man, +except as held under state laws; that with this exception freedom was +guaranteed to all; that Congress had no more right to make a slave than +it had to make a king; and that it was the duty of Congress to maintain +freedom in all the Territories. Extremists expressed the view that all +past acts whereby slavery had been extended were unconstitutional +and therefore void. Between these extreme conflicting views was every +imaginable grade of opinion. The prevailing view of opponents of +slavery, however, was in harmony with their past conduct and maintained +that Congress had complete control over slavery in the Territories. + +When the Mexican territory was acquired, Stephen A. Douglas, as the +experienced chairman of the Committee on Territories in the Senate, was +already developing a theory respecting slavery in the Territories +which was destined to play a leading part in the later crusade against +slavery. Douglas was the most thoroughgoing of expansionists and would +acknowledge no northern boundary on this side of the North Pole, no +southern boundary nearer than Panama. He regarded the United States, +with its great principle of local autonomy, as fitted to become +eventually the United States of the whole world, while he held it to be +an immediate duty to make it the United States of North America. As the +son-in-law of a Southern planter in North Carolina, and as the father +of sons who inherited slave property, Douglas, although born in Vermont, +knew the South as did no other Northern statesman. He knew also the +institution of slavery at first hand. As a pronounced expansionist +and as the congressional leader in all matters pertaining to the +Territories, he acquired detailed information as to the qualities of +these new possessions, and he spoke, therefore, with a good degree of +authority when he said, "If there was one inch of territory in the whole +of our acquisitions from Mexico where slavery could exist, it was in the +valleys of the Sacramento and the San Joaquin." But this region was at +once preempted for freedom upon the discovery of gold. + +Douglas did not admit that even the whole of Texas would remain +dedicated to slavery. Some of the States to be formed from it would be +free, by the same laws of climate and resources which determined that +the entire West would remain free. Before the Mexican War the Senator +had become convinced that the extension of slavery had reached its +limit; that the Missouri Compromise was a dead letter except as a +psychological palliative; that Nature had already ordained that slave +labor should be forever excluded from all Western territory both north +and south of that line. His reply to Calhoun's contention that a balance +must be maintained between slave and free States was that he had plans +for forming seventeen new States out of the vast Western domains, every +one of which would be free. And besides, said he, "we all look forward +with confidence to the time when Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, +and Missouri, and probably North Carolina and Tennessee will adopt a +gradual system of emancipation." Douglas was one of the first to favor +the admission of California as a free State. According to the Missouri +Compromise law and the laws of Mexico, all Western territory was +free, and he was opposed to interference with existing conditions. The +Missouri Compromise was still held sacred. Finally, however, it was with +Douglas's assistance that the Compromise measures of 1850 were passed, +one of which provided for territorial Governments for Utah and New +Mexico with the proviso that, when admitted as States, slavery should be +permitted or prohibited as the citizens of those States should determine +at the time. Congress refrained from any declaration as to slavery in +the Territories. It was this policy of "non-intervention" which four +years later furnished plausible excuse for the repeal of the Missouri +Compromise. + +It was not strange that there was general ignorance in all parts of the +country as to the resources of the newly acquired territory. The rush +to the goldfields precipitated action in respect to California. Before +General Taylor, the newly elected President, was inaugurated, there +was imminent need of an efficient government. An early act of the +Administration was to send an agent to assist in the formation of a +state Government, and a convention was immediately called to frame a +constitution. By unanimous vote of the convention, slavery was excluded. +The constitution was approved by popular vote and was presented to +Congress for final acceptance in December, 1849. + +In the meantime a great commotion had arisen among the people. Southern +state legislatures passed resolutions demanding that the rights of their +peculiar institution should be recognized in the new Territory. Northern +legislatures responded with resolutions favoring the admission of +California as a State and the application of the Wilmot Proviso to the +remaining territory. Northern Democrats had very generally denied that +the affair with Mexico had as a chief purpose the extension of slavery. +Democrats therefore united with Whigs in maintaining the principle of +free soil. In the South there was a corresponding fusion of the two +parties in support of the sectional issue. + +General concern prevailed as to the attitude of the Administration. +Taylor's election had been effected by both a Southern and a Northern +split in the Democratic party. Northern Democrats had voted for the +Free-soil candidate because of the alleged pro-slavery tendencies of +their own party. Southern Democrats voted for Taylor because of their +distrust of Lewis Cass, their own candidate. Some of these met in +convention and formally nominated Taylor, and Taylor accepted their +nomination with thanks. Northern anti-slavery Whigs had a difficult task +to keep their members in line. There is evidence that Taylor held the +traditional Southern view that the anti-slavery North was disposed +to encroach upon the rights of the South. Meeting fewer Northern +Whig supporters, he became convinced that the more active spirit of +encroachment was in the pro-slavery South. California needed a state +Government, and the President took the most direct method to supply +that need. As the inhabitants were unanimous in their desire to exclude +slavery, their wish should be respected. New Mexico was in a similar +situation. As slavery was already excluded from the territory under +Mexican law, and as there was no wish on the part of the inhabitants to +introduce slavery, the President recognized existing facts and made +no change. When Southern leaders projected a scheme to enlarge the +boundaries of Texas so as to extend slavery over a large part of New +Mexico, President Taylor set a guard of United States troops to maintain +the integrity of the Territory. When a deputation of Southern Whigs +endeavored to dissuade him from his purpose, threatening a dissolution +of the Union and intimating that army officers would refuse to act +against citizens of Texas, the soldier President replied that in such an +event he would take command in person and would hang any one caught in +acts of treason. When Henry Clay introduced an elaborate project for a +compromise between the North and the South, the President insisted +that each question should be settled on its own merits and directed the +forces of the Administration against any sort of compromise. The debate +over Clay's Omnibus Bill was long and acrimonious. On July 4, 1850, +the President seemed triumphant. But upon that day, notwithstanding his +apparent robust health, he was stricken down with an acute disease and +died five days later. With his passing, the opposing Whig faction came +into power. The so-called compromise measures were at length one by one +passed by Congress and approved by President Fillmore. + +California was admitted as a free State; but as a palliative to the +South, Congress passed bills for the organization of territorial +Governments for New Mexico and Utah without positive declarations +regarding the powers of the territorial Legislatures over slavery. All +questions relating to title to slaves were to be left to the courts. +Meantime it was left in doubt whether Mexican law excluding slavery was +still in force. Southern malcontents maintained that this act was a +mere hoax, using words which suggested concession when no concession was +intended. Northern anti-slavery men criticized the act as the entering +wedge for another great surrender to the enemy. Because of the +uncertainty regarding the meaning of the law and the false hopes likely +to be created, they maintained that it was fitted to foment discord and +prolong the period of distrust between the two sections. At all events +such was its actual effect. + +A third act in this unhappy series gave to Texas ten millions of dollars +for the alleged surrender of claims to a part of New Mexico. This had +little bearing on the general subject of compromise; yet anti-slavery +men criticized it on the ground that the issue raised was insincere; +that the appropriation was in fact a bribe to secure votes necessary to +pass the other measures; that the bill was passed through Congress +by shameless bribery, and that even the boundaries conceded to Texas +involved the surrender of free territory. + +The abolition of the slave-trade in the District of Columbia was +supported by both sections of the country. The removal of the slave +pens within sight of the Capitol to a neighboring city deprived the +abolitionists of one of their weapons for effective agitation, but it +did not otherwise affect the position of slavery. + +Of the five acts included in the compromise measures, the one which +provided for the return of fugitive slaves was most effective in the +promotion of hostility between the two sections. During the six months +of debate on the Omnibus Bill, numerous bills were presented to take the +place of the law of 1793. Webster brought forward a bill which provided +for the use of a jury to establish the validity of a claim to an escaped +slave. But that which was finally adopted by a worn-out Congress is +characterized as one of the most barbarous pieces of legislation ever +enacted by a civilized country. A single incident may indicate the +nature of the act. James Hamlet, for three years a resident of New York +City, a husband and a father and a member of the Methodist Church, was +seized eight days after the law went into effect by order of the agent +of Mary Brown of Baltimore, cut off from all communication with his +friends, hurried before a commissioner, and on ex parte testimony was +delivered into the hands of the agent, by whom he was handcuffed and +secretly conveyed to Baltimore. Mr. Rhodes accounts for the enactment +in the following words: "If we look below the surface we shall find a +strong impelling motive of the Southern clamor for this harsh enactment +other than the natural desire to recover lost property. Early in the +session it took air that a part of the game of the disunionists was to +press a stringent fugitive slave law, for which no Northern man could +vote; and when it was defeated, the North would be charged with refusal +to carry out a stipulation of the Constitution.... The admission of +California was a bitter pill for the Southern ultras, but they were +forced to take it. The Fugitive Slave Law was a taunt and a reproach to +that part of the North where the anti-slavery sentiment ruled supremely, +and was deemed a partial compensation." Clay expressed surprise that +States from which few slaves escaped demanded a more stringent law than +Kentucky, from which many escaped. + +Whatever may have been the motives leading to the enactment, its +immediate effect was the elimination of one of the great national +parties, thus paving the way for the formation of parties along +sectional lines. Two years after the passage of the compromise acts the +Democratic national convention assembled to nominate a candidate for +the Presidency. The platform adopted by the party promised a faithful +execution of the acts known as the compromise measures and added "the +act for reclaiming fugitives from service or labor included; which act, +being designed to carry out an express provision of the Constitution, +cannot, with fidelity thereto, be repealed nor so changed as to destroy +or impair its efficiency." When this was read, the convention broke out +in uproarious applause. Then there was a demand that it should be read +again. Again there was loud applause. + +Why was there this demand that a law which every one knew had proved a +complete failure should be made a permanent part of the Constitution? +And why the ungovernable hilarity over the demand that its "efficiency" +should never be impaired? Surely the motive was something other than a +desire to recover lost property. Upon the Whig party had been fastened +the odium for the enactment of the law, and the act unrepealed meant the +death of the party. The Democrats saw good reason for laughter. + + + +CHAPTER VIII. THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD + +Wherever there are slaves there are fugitives if there is an available +place of refuge. The wilds of Florida were such a refuge during the +early part of last century. When the Northern States became free, +fugitive slaves began to escape thither, and Canada, when it could be +reached, was, of course, the goal of perfect security and liberty for +all. + +A professed object of the early anti-slavery societies was to prevent +the enslavement of free negroes and in other ways to protect their +rights. During the process of emancipation in Northern States large +numbers of colored persons were spirited off to the South and sold into +slavery. At various places along the border there were those who made +it their duty to guard the rights of negroes and to prevent kidnapping. +These guardians of the border furnished a nucleus for the development of +what was later known as the Underground Railroad. + +In 1796 President Washington wrote a letter to a friend in New Hampshire +with reference to obtaining the return of a negro servant. He was +careful to state that the servant should remain unmolested rather than +"excite a mob or riot or even uneasy sensations in the minds of well +disposed citizens." The result was that the servant remained free. +President Washington here assumed that "well disposed citizens" would +oppose her return to slavery. Three years earlier the President had +himself signed a bill to facilitate by legal process the return of +fugitives escaping into other States. He was certainly aware that such +an act was on the statute books when he wrote his request to his friend +in New Hampshire, yet he expected that, if an attempt were made to +remove the refugee by force, riot and resistance by a mob would be the +result. + +Not until after the foreign slave-trade had been prohibited and the +domestic trade had been developed, and not until there was a pro-slavery +reaction in the South which banished from the slave States all +anti-slavery propaganda, did the systematic assistance rendered +to fugitive slaves assume any large proportions or arouse bitter +resentment. It began in the late twenties and early thirties of +the nineteenth century, extended with the spread of anti-slavery +organization, and was greatly encouraged and stimulated by the enactment +of the law of 1850. + +The Underground Railroad was never coextensive with the abolition +movement. There were always abolitionists who disapproved the practice +of assisting fugitives, and others who took no part in it. Of those +who were active participants, the larger proportion confined their +activities to assisting those who had escaped and would take no part in +seeking to induce slaves to leave their masters. Efforts of that kind +were limited to a few individuals only. + +Incidents drawn from the reminiscences of Levi Coffin, the reputed +president of the Underground Railroad, may serve to illustrate the +origin and growth of the system. He was seven years old when he first +saw near his home in North Carolina a coffle of slaves being driven to +the Southern market by a man on horseback with a long whip. "The driver +was some distance behind with the wagon. My father addressed the slaves +pleasantly and then asked, 'Well, boys, why do they chain you?' One +of the men whose countenance betrayed unusual intelligence and whose +expression denoted the deepest sadness replied: 'They have taken us from +our wives and children and they chain us lest we should make our escape +and go back to them."' When Coffin was fifteen, he rendered assistance +to a man in bondage. Having an opportunity to talk with the members of a +gang in the hands of a trader bound for the Southern market, he learned +that one of the company, named Stephen, was a freeman who had been +kidnapped and sold. Letters were written to Northern friends of Stephen +who confirmed his assertion. Money was raised in the Quaker meeting and +men were sent to recover the negro. Stephen was found in Georgia and +after six months was liberated. + +During the year 1821 other incidents occurred in the Quaker community at +New Garden, near Greensboro, North Carolina, which illustrate different +phases of the subject. Jack Barnes was the slave of a bachelor who +became so greatly attached to his servant that he bequeathed to him +not only his freedom but also a large share of his property. Relatives +instituted measures to break the will, and Jack in alarm took refuge +among the Quakers at New Garden. The suit went against the negro, and +the newspapers contained advertisements offering a hundred dollars for +information which should result in his recovery. To prevent his return +to bondage, it was decided that Jack should join a family of Coffins who +were moving to Indiana. + +At the same time a negro by the name of Sam had for several months been +abiding in the Quaker neighborhood. He belonged to a Mr. Osborne, a +prototype of Simon Legree, who was so notoriously cruel that other +slave-owners assisted in protecting his victims. After the Coffins, with +Jack, had been on the road for a few days, Osborne learned that a negro +was with them and, feeling sure that it was his Sam, he started in hot +haste after them. This becoming known to the Friends, young Levi Coffin +was sent after Osborne to forestall disaster. The descriptions given of +Jack and Sam were practically identical and it was surmised that when +Osborne should overtake the party and discover his mistake, he would +seize Jack for the sake of the offered reward. Coffin soon came up with +Osborne and decided to ride with him for a time to learn his plans. +In the course of their conversation, it was finally agreed that Coffin +should assist in the recovery of Sam. Osborne was also generous and +insisted that if it proved to be the other "nigger" who was with the +company, Coffin should have half the reward. How the young Quaker +outwitted the tyrant, gained his point, sent Jack on his way to liberty, +and at the same time retained the confidence of Osborne so that upon +their return home he was definitely engaged to assist Osborne in finding +Sam, is a fascinating story. The abolitionist won from the slaveholder +the doubtful compliment that "there was not a man in that neighborhood +worth a d--n to help him hunt his negro except young Levi Coffin." + +Sam was perfectly safe so long as Levi Coffin was guide for the +hunting-party, but matters were becoming desperate. For the fugitive +something had to be done. Another family was planning to move to +Indiana, and in their wagon Sam was to be concealed and thus conveyed to +a free State. The business had now become serious. The laws of the State +affixed the death penalty for stealing a slave. At night when young +Coffin and his father, with Sam, were on their way to complete +arrangements for the departure, horsemen appeared in the road near by. +They had only time to throw themselves flat on the ground behind a +log. From the conversation overheard, they were assured that they had +narrowly escaped the night-riders on the lookout for stray negroes. The +next year, 1822, Coffin himself joined a party going to Indiana by the +southern route through Tennessee and Kentucky. In the latter State they +were at one time overtaken by men who professed to be looking for a pet +dog, but whose real purpose was to recover runaway slaves. They insisted +upon examining the contents of the wagons, for in this way only a short +time previous a fugitive had been captured. + +These incidents show the origin of the system. The first case of +assistance rendered a negro was not in itself illegal, but was intended +merely to prevent the crime of kidnapping. The second was illegal in +form, but the aid was given to one who, having been set free by will, +was being reenslaved, it was believed, by an unjust decision of a court. +The third was a case of outrageous abuse on the part of the owner. The +negro Sam had himself gone to a trader begging that he would buy him and +preferring to take his chances on a Mississippi plantation rather than +return to his master. The trader offered the customary price and was +met with the reply that he could have the rascal if he would wait until +after the enraged owner had taken his revenge, otherwise the price +would be twice the amount offered. A large proportion of the fugitives +belonged to this maltreated class. Others were goaded to escape by the +prospect of deportation to the Gulf States. The fugitives generally +followed the beaten line of travel to the North and West. + +In 1826 Levi Coffin became a merchant in Newport, Indiana, a town near +the Ohio line not far from Richmond. In the town and in its neighborhood +lived a large number of free negroes who were the descendants of former +slaves whom North Carolina Quakers had set free and had colonized in the +new country. Coffin found that these blacks were accustomed to assist +fugitives on their way to Canada. When he also learnt that some had been +captured and returned to bondage merely through lack of skill on the +part of the negroes, he assumed active operations as a conductor on the +Underground Railroad. + +Coffin used the Underground Railroad as a means of making converts to +the cause. One who berated him for negro-stealing was adroitly induced +to meet a newly arrived passenger and listen to his pathetic story. At +the psychological moment the objector was skillfully led to hand the +fugitive a dollar to assist him in reaching a place of safety. Coffin +then explained to this benevolent non-abolitionist the nature of his +act, assuring him that he was liable to heavy damages therefor. The +reply was in this case more forcible than elegant: "Damn it! You've +got me!" This conversion he publicly proclaimed for the sake of its +influence upon others. Many were the instances in which those of +supposed pro-slavery convictions were brought face to face with an +actual case of the threatened reenslavement of a human being escaping +from bondage and were, to their own surprise, overcome by the natural, +humane sentiment which asserted itself. For example, a Cincinnati +merchant, who at the time was supposed to be assisting one of his +Southern customers to recover an escaped fugitive, was confronted at +his own home by the poor half-starved victim. Yielding to the impulse of +compassion, he gave the slave food and personal assistance and directed +the destitute creature to a place of refuge. + +The division in the Quaker meeting in Indiana with which Levi Coffin was +intimately associated may serve to exemplify a corresponding attitude +in other churches on the question of slavery. The Quakers availed +themselves of the first great anti-slavery movement to rid themselves +completely of the burden. Their Society itself became an anti-slavery +organization. Yet even so the Friends had differences of opinion as to +fit methods of action. Not only did many of them disapprove of rendering +aid to fugitives but they also objected to the use of the meetinghouses +for anti-slavery lectures. The formation of the Liberty party served to +accentuate the division. The great body of the Friends were anti-slavery +Whigs. + +A crisis in the affairs of the Society of Friends in the State of +Indiana was reached in 1843 when the radicals seceded and organized an +independent "Anti-Slavery Friends Society." Immediately there appeared +in numerous localities duplicate Friends' meeting-houses. In and around +one of these, distinguished as "Liberty Hall," were gathered those whose +supreme religious interest was directed against the sin of slavery. +Never was there a church division which involved less bad blood or sense +of injury or injustice. Members of the same family attended separate +churches without the least difference in their cordial relations. No +important principle was involved; there were apparently good reasons +for both lines of policy, and each party understood and respected the +other's position. After the adoption of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 +and the passing of the Whig party, these differences disappeared, the +separate organization was disbanded, and all Friends' meetinghouses +became "liberty halls." + +The disposition to aid the fugitive was by no means confined to the +North nor to Quakers in the South. Richard Dillingham, a young Quaker +who had yielded to the solicitations of escaped fugitives in Cincinnati +and had undertaken a mission to Nashville, Tennessee, to rescue their +relatives from a "hard master," was arrested with three stolen slaves +on his hands. He made confession in open court and frankly explained +his motives. The Nashville Daily Gazette of April 13, 1849, has words of +commendation for the prisoner and his family and states that "he was not +without the sympathy of those who attended the trial." Though Dillingham +committed a crime to which the death penalty was attached in some of +the States, the jury affixed the minimum penalty of three years' +imprisonment for the offense. As Nashville was far removed from Quaker +influence or any sort of anti-slavery propaganda, Dillingham was himself +astonished and was profoundly grateful for the leniency shown him by +Court, jury, and prosecutors. This incident occurred in the year before +the adoption of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850. It is well known that in +all times and places which were free from partizan bitterness there +was a general natural sympathy for those who imperiled their life and +liberty to free the slave. Throughout the South men of both races were +ready to give aid to slaves seeking to escape from dangers or burdens +which they regarded as intolerable. While such a man as Frederick +Douglass, when still a slave, was an agent of the Underground Railroad, +Southern anti-slavery people themselves were to a large extent the +original projectors of the movement. Even members of the families of +slaveholders have been known to assist fugitives in their escape to the +North. + +The fugitives traveled in various ways which were determined partly by +geographical conditions and partly by the character of the inhabitants +of a region. On the Atlantic coast, from Florida to Delaware, slaves +were concealed in ships and were thus conveyed to free States. Thence +some made their way towards Canada by steamboat or railroad, though most +made the journey on foot or, less frequently, in private conveyances. +Stalwart slaves sometimes walked from the Gulf States to the free +States, traveling chiefly by night and guided by the North Star. Having +reached a free State, they found friends among those of their own race, +or were taken in hand by officers of the Underground Railroad and were +thus helped across the Canadian border. + +From the seacoast the valley of the Connecticut River furnished a +convenient route for completing the journey northward, though the way of +the fugitives was often deflected to the Lake Champlain region. In later +years, when New England became generally sympathetic, numerous lines of +escape traversed that entire section. Other courses extended northward +from the vicinity of Philadelphia, Delaware, and Maryland. Here, through +the center of American Quakerdom, all conditions favored the escape +of fugitives, for slavery and freedom were at close quarters. The +activities of the Quakers, who were at first engaged merely in +preventing the reenslavement of those who had a legal right to freedom, +naturally expanded until aid was given without reservation to any +fugitive. From Philadelphia as a distributing point the route went by +way of New York and the Hudson River or up the river valleys of eastern +Pennsylvania through western New York. + +In addition to the routes to freedom which the seacoast and river +valleys afforded, the Appalachian chain of mountains formed an +attractive highway of escape from slavery, though these mountain paths +lead us to another branch of our subject not immediately connected with +the Underground Railroad--the escape from bondage by the initiative of +the slaves themselves or by the aid of their own people. Mountains have +always been a refuge and a defense for the outlaw, and the few +dwellers in this almost unknown wilderness were not infrequently either +indifferent or friendly to the fugitives. The escaped slaves might, if +they chose, adopt for an indefinite time the free life of the hills; +but in most cases they naturally drifted northward for greater security +until they found themselves in a free State. Through the mountainous +regions of Virginia many thus escaped, and they were induced to remain +there by the example and advice of residents of their own color. The +negroes themselves excelled all others in furnishing places of refuge to +fugitives from slavery and in concealing their status. For this reason +John Brown and his associates were influenced to select this region for +their great venture in 1859. + +But there were other than geographical conditions which helped to +determine the direction of the lines of the Underground Railroad. West +of the Alleghanies are the broad plains of the Mississippi Valley, and +in this great region human elements rather than physical characteristics +proved influential. Northern Ohio was occupied by settlers from the +East, many of whom were anti-slavery. Southern Ohio was populated +largely by Quakers and other people from the slave States who abhorred +slavery. On the east and south the State bordered on slave territory, +and every part of the region was traversed by lines of travel for the +slave. In eastern and northern Indiana a favorable attitude prevailed. +Southwestern Indiana, however, and southern Illinois were occupied by +those less friendly to the slave, so that in these sections there is +little evidence of systematic aid to fugitives. But with St. Louis, +Missouri, as a starting-point, northern Illinois became honeycombed with +refuges for patrons of the Underground Railroad. The negro also found +friends in all the settled portions of Iowa, and at the outbreak of the +Civil War a lively traffic was being developed, extending from Lawrence, +Kansas, to Keokuk, Iowa. + +There is respectable authority for a variety of opinions as to the +requirements of the rendition clause in the Constitution and of the Act +of Congress of 1793 to facilitate the return of fugitives from service +or labor; but there is no respectable authority in support of the view +that neither the spirit nor the letter of the law was violated by +the supporters of the Underground Railroad. This was a source of real +weakness to anti-slavery leaders in politics. It was always true that +only a small minority of their numbers were actual violators of the law, +yet such was their relation to the organized anti-slavery movement that +responsibility attached to all. The platform of the Liberty party for +1844 declared that the provisions of the Constitution for reclaiming +fugitive slaves were dangerous to liberty and ought to be abrogated. +It further declared that the members of the party would treat these +provisions as void, because they involved an order to commit an immoral +act. The platform thus explicitly committed the party to the support +of the policy of rendering aid to fugitive slaves. Four years later +the platform of the Free-soil party contained no reference whatever to +fugitive slaves, but that of 1852 denounced the Fugitive Slave Act of +1850 as repugnant to the Constitution and the spirit of Christianity and +denied its binding force on the American people. The Republican platform +of 1856 made no reference to the subject. + +The Underground Railroad filled an insignificant place in the general +plan for emancipation, even in the minds of the directors. It was a +lesser task preparatory to the great work. As to the numbers of slaves +who gained their freedom by means of it, there is a wide range of +opinion. Statements in Congress by Southern members that a hundred +thousand had escaped must be regarded as gross exaggerations. In any +event the loss was confined chiefly to the border States. Besides, it +has been stated with some show of reason that the danger of servile +insurrection was diminished by the escape of potential leaders. + +From the standpoint of the great body of anti-slavery men who expected +to settle the slavery question by peaceable means, it was a calamity +of the first magnitude that, just at the time when conditions were +most favorable for transferring the active crusade from the general +Government to the separate States, public attention should be directed +to the one point at which the conflict was most acute and irrepressible. + +Previous to 1850 there had been no general acrimonious debate in +Congress on the rendition of fugitive slaves. About half of those who +had previously escaped from bondage had not taken the trouble to go +as far as Canada, but were living at peace in the Northern States. Few +people at the North knew or cared anything about the details of a law +that had been on the statute books since 1793. Members of Congress were +duly warned of the dangers involved in any attempt to enforce a more +stringent law than the previous act which had proved a dead letter. +To those who understood the conditions, the new law also was doomed to +failure. So said Senator Butler of South Carolina. An attempt to enforce +it would be met by violence. + +This prediction came true. The twenty thousand potential victims +residing in Northern States were thrown into panic. Some rushed off to +Canada; others organized means for protection. A father and son from +Baltimore came to a town in Pennsylvania to recover a fugitive. An alarm +was sounded; men, mostly colored, rushed to the protection of the one +whose liberty was threatened. Two Quakers appeared on the scene +and warned the slavehunters to desist and upon their refusal one +slave-hunter was instantly killed and the other wounded. The fugitive +was conveyed to a place of safety, and to the murderers no punishment +was meted out, though the general Government made strenuous efforts to +discover and punish them. In New York, though Gerrit Smith and a local +clergyman with a few assistants rescued a fugitive from the officers of +the law and sent him to Canada, openly proclaiming and justifying the +act, no attempt was made to punish the offenders. + +After a dozen years of intense and ever-increasing excitement, when +other causes of friction between North and South had apparently been +removed and good citizens in the two sections were rejoicing at +the prospect of an era of peace and harmony, public attention was +concentrated upon the one problem of conduct which would not admit of +peaceable legal adjustment. Abolitionists had always been stigmatized as +lawbreakers whose aim was the destruction of slavery in utter disregard +of the rights of the States. This charge was absolutely false; their +settled program involved full recognition of state and municipal control +over slavery. Yet after public attention had become fixed upon conduct +on the part of the abolitionists which was illegal, it was difficult to +escape the implication that their whole course was illegal. This was the +tragic significance of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. + + + +CHAPTER IX. BOOKS AS ANTI-SLAVERY WEAPONS + +Whittier offered up "thanks for the fugitive slave law; for it gave +occasion for 'Uncle Tom's Cabin.'" Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe had been +mistress of a station on the Underground Railroad at Cincinnati, the +storm-center of the West, and out of her experience she has transmitted +to the world a knowledge of the elemental and tragic human experiences +of the slaves which would otherwise have been restricted to a select +few. The mistress of a similar station in eastern Indiana, though she +held novel reading a deadly sin, said: "'Uncle Tom's Cabin' is not +a novel, it is a record of facts. I myself have listened to the same +stories." The reading public in all lands soon became sympathetic +participants in the labors of those who, in defiance of law, were +lending a hand to the aspirants for liberty. At the time of the +publication of the story in book form in March, 1852, America was being +profoundly stirred by the stories of fugitives who had escaped from +European despotism. Mrs. Stowe refers to these incidents in her +question: "When despairing Hungarian fugitives make their way, against +all the search-warrants and authorities of their lawful governments to +America, press and political cabinet ring with applause and welcome. +When despairing African fugitives do the same thing--it is--what IS it?" +Little did she think that when the eloquence of the Hungarian refugee +had been forgotten, the story of Eliza and Uncle Tom would ring +throughout the world. + +The book did far more than vindicate the conduct of those who rendered +assistance to the fugitive from slavery; it let in daylight upon the +essential nature of slavery. Humane and just masters are shown to be +forced into participation in acts which result in intolerable cruelty. +Full justice is done to the noble and admirable character of Southern +slave-owners. The author had been a guest in the home of the "Shelbys," +in Kentucky. She had taken great pains to understand the Southern point +of view on the subject of slavery; she had entered into the real trials +and difficulties involved in any plan of emancipation. St. Clair, +speaking to Miss Ophelia, his New England cousin, says: + +"If we emancipate, are you willing to educate? How many families of your +town would take in a negro man or woman, teach them, bear with them, and +seek to make them Christians? How many merchants would take Adolph, if +I wanted to make him a clerk; or mechanics, if I wanted to teach him a +trade? If I wanted to put Jane and Rosa to a school, how many schools +are there in the Northern States that would take them in? How many +families that would board them? And yet they are as white as many a +woman north or south. You see, cousin, I want justice done us. We are in +a bad position. We are the more obvious oppressors of the negro; but +the unchristian prejudice of the north is an oppressor almost equally +severe." + +Throughout the book the idea is elaborated in many ways. Miss Ophelia +is introduced for the purpose of contrasting Northern ignorance and New +England prejudice with the patience and forbearance of the better class +of slave-owners of the South. The genuine affection of an unspoiled +child for negro friends is made especially emphatic. Miss Ophelia +objected to Eva's expressions of devotion to Uncle Tom. Her father +insists that his daughter shall not be robbed of the free utterance of +her high regard, observing that "the child is the only true democrat." +There is only one Simon Legree in the book, and he is of New England +extraction. The story is as distinctly intended to inform Northern +ignorance and to remove Northern prejudice as it is to justify the +conduct of abolitionists. + +What was the effect of the publication? In European countries far +removed from local partizan prejudice, it was immediately received as +a great revelation of the spirit of liberty. It was translated into +twenty-three different languages. So devoted were the Italians to the +reading of the story that there was earnest effort to suppress its +circulation. As a drama it proved a great success, not only in America +and England but in France and other countries as well. More than a +million copies of the story were sold in the British Empire. Lord +Palmerston avers that he had not read a novel for thirty years, yet +he read Uncle Tom's Cabin three times and commended the book for the +statesmanship displayed in it. + +What is in the story to call forth such commendation from the +cold-blooded English statesman? The book revealed, in a way fitted to +carry conviction to every unprejudiced reader, the impossibility of +uniting slavery with freedom under the same Government. Either all must +be free or the mass subject to the few--or there is actual war. This +principle is finely brought out in the predicament of the Quaker +confronted by a fugitive with wife and child who had seen a sister sold +and conveyed to a life of shame on a Southern plantation. "Am I going to +stand by and see them take my wife and sell her?" exclaimed the negro. +"No, God help me! I'll fight to the last breath before they shall take +my wife and son. Can you blame me?" To which the Quaker replied: "Mortal +man cannot blame thee, George. Flesh and blood could not do otherwise. +'Woe unto the world because of offences but woe unto them through whom +the offence cometh.'" "Would not even you, sir, do the same, in my +place?" "I pray that I be not tried." And in the ensuing events the +Quaker played an important part. + +Laws enacted for the protection of slave property are shown to be +destructive of the fundamental rights of freemen; they are inhuman. The +Ohio Senator, who in his lofty preserve at the capital of his country +could discourse eloquently of his readiness to keep faith with the +South in the matter of the faithful execution of the Fugitive Slave Law, +becomes, when at home with his family, a flagrant violator of the law. +Elemental human nature is pitted against the apparent interests of a few +individual slaveowners. The story of Uncle Tom placed all supporters +of the new law on the defensive. It was read by all classes North and +South. "Uncle Tom's Cabin as it is" was called forth from the South as a +reply to Mrs. Stowe's book, and there ensued a general discussion of the +subject which was on the whole enlightening. Yet the immediate political +effect of the publication was less than might have been expected from +a book so widely read and discussed. Its appearance early in the decade +did not prevent the apparent pro-slavery reaction already described. But +Mr. Rhodes calls attention to the different impression which the book +made upon adults and boys. Hardened sinners in partizan politics could +read the book, laugh and weep over the passing incidents, and then go +on as if nothing had happened. Not so with the thirteen-year-old boy. +He never could be the same again. The Republican party of 1860 was +especially successful in gaining the first vote of the youthful citizen +and undoubtedly owed much of its influence to "Uncle Tom's Cabin." + +Two lines of attack were rapidly rendering impossible the continuance +of slavery in the United States. Mrs. Stowe gave effective expression to +the moral, religious, and humanitarian sentiment against slavery. In the +year in which her work was published, Frederick Law Olmsted began his +extended journeys throughout the South. He represents the impartial +scientific observer. His books were published during the years 1856, +1857, and 1861. They constitute in their own way an indictment against +slavery quite as forcible as that of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," but an +indictment that rests chiefly upon the blighting influence of the +institution of slavery upon agriculture, manufactures, and the general +industrial and social order. The crisis came too soon for these +publications to have any marked effect upon the issue. Their appeal +was to the deliberate and thoughtful reader, and political control had +already drifted into the hands of those who were not deliberate and +composed. + +In 1857, however, there appeared a book which did exert a marked +influence upon immediate political issues. There is no evidence that +Hinton Rowan Helper, the author of "The Impending Crisis," had any +knowledge of the writings of Olmsted; but he was familiar with +Northern anti-slavery literature. "I have considered my subject more +particularly," he states in his preface, "with reference to its economic +aspects as regards the whites--not with reference, except in a very +slight degree, to its humanitarian or religious aspects. To the latter +side of the question, Northern writers have already done full and timely +justice.... Yankee wives have written the most popular anti-slavery +literature of the day. Against this I have nothing to say; it is all +well enough for women to give the fictions of slavery; men should give +the facts." He denies that it had been his purpose to cast unmerited +opprobium upon slaveholders; yet a sense of personal injury breathes +throughout the pages. If he had no intention of casting unmerited +opprobrium upon slaveholders, it is difficult to imagine what language +he could have used if he had undertaken to pass the limit of deserved +reprobation. In this regard the book is quite in line with the style of +Southern utterance against abolitionists. + +Helper belonged to a slaveholding family, for a hundred years resident +in the Carolinas. The dedication is significant. It is to three personal +friends from three slave States who at the time were residing in +California, in Oregon, and in Washington Territory, "and to the +non-slaveholding whites of the South generally, whether at home or +abroad." Out of the South had come the inspiration for the religious and +humanitarian attack upon slavery. From the same source came the call for +relief of the poverty-stricken white victims of the institution. + +Helper's book revived the controversy which had been forcibly terminated +a quarter of a century before. He resumes the argument of the members of +the Virginia legislature of 1832. He reprints extended selections from +that memorable debate and then, by extended references to later official +reports, points out how slavery is impoverishing the South. The South +is shown to have continuously declined, while the North has made immense +gains. In a few years the relation of the South to the North would +resemble that of Poland to Russia or of Ireland to England. The author +sees no call for any arguments against slavery as an economic system; he +would simply bring the earlier characterization of the situation down to +date. + +Helper differs radically from all earlier speakers and writers in that +he outlines a program for definite action. He estimates that for the +entire South there are seven white non-slaveholders for every three +slaveholders. He would organize these non-slaveholding whites into +an independent political party and would hold a general convention of +non-slaveholders from every slave State to adopt measures to restrain +"the diabolical excesses of the oligarchy" and to annihilate slavery. +Slaveholders should be entirely excluded from any share in government. +They should be treated as criminals ostracized from respectable society. +He is careful to state, however, that by slaveholder he does not mean +such men as Benton of Missouri and many others throughout the slave +States who retain the sentiments on the slavery question of the +"immortal Fathers of the Republic." He has in mind only the new order of +owners, who have determined by criminal methods to inflict the crime of +slavery upon an overwhelming majority of their white fellow-citizens. + +The publication of "The Impending Crisis" created a profound sensation +among Southern leaders. So long as the attack upon the peculiar +institution emanated from the North, the defenders had the full benefit +of local prejudice and resentment against outside intrusion. Helper was +himself a thorough-going believer in state rights. Slavery was to be +abolished, as he thought, by the action of the separate States. Here +he was in accord with Northern abolitionists. If such literature as +Helper's volume should find its way into the South, it would be no +longer possible to palm off upon the unthinking public the patent +falsehood that abolitionists of the North were attempting to impose by +force a change in Southern institutions. All that Southern abolitionists +ever asked was the privilege of remaining at home in their own South in +the full exercise of their constitutional rights. + +Southern leaders were undoubtedly aware of the concurrent publications +of travelers and newspaper reporters, of which Olmsted's books were +conspicuous examples. Olmsted and Helper were both sources of proof that +slavery was bringing the South to financial ruin. The facts were getting +hold of the minds of the Southern people. The debate which had been +adjourned was on the eve of being resumed. Complete suppression of +the new scientific industrial argument against slavery seemed to +slave-owners to furnish their only defense. + +The Appalachian ranges of mountains drove a wedge of liberty and freedom +from Pennsylvania almost to the Gulf. In the upland regions slavery +could not flourish. There was always enmity between the planters of the +coast and the dwellers on the upland. The slaveholding oligarchy had +always ruled, but the day of the uplanders was at hand. This is the +explanation of the veritable panic which Helper's publication created. +A debate which should follow the line of this old division between the +peoples of the Atlantic slave States would, under existing conditions, +be fatal to the institution of slavery. West Virginia did become a free +State at the first opportunity. Counties in western North Carolina claim +to have furnished a larger proportion of their men to the Union army +than any other counties in the country. Had the plan for peaceable +emancipation projected by abolitionists been permitted to take its +course, the uplands of South Carolina would have been pitted against +the lowlands, and Senator Tillman would have appeared as a rampant +abolitionist. There might have been violence, but it would have been +confined to limited areas in the separate States. Had the crisis been +postponed, there surely would have been a revival of abolitionism within +the Southern States. Slavery in Missouri was already approaching a +crisis. Southern leaders had long foreseen that the State would abolish +slavery if a free State should be established on the western boundary. +This was actually taking place. Kansas was filling up with free-state +settlers and, by the act of its own citizens, a few years later did +abolish slavery. + +Republicans naturally made use of Helper's book for party purposes. A +cheap abridged edition was brought out. Several Republican leaders were +induced to sign their names to a paper commending the publication. Among +these was John Sherman of Ohio, who in the organization of the newly +elected House of Representatives in 1859 was the leading candidate of +the Republicans for the speakership. During the contest the fact that +his name was on this paper was made public, and Southern leaders were +furious. Extracts were read to prove that the book was incendiary. +Millson of Virginia said that "one who consciously, deliberately, and of +purpose lends his name and influence to the propagation of such writings +is not only not fit to be speaker, but he is not-fit to live." It is one +of the ironies of the situation that the passage selected to prove the +incendiary character of the book is almost a literal quotation from the +debate in the Virginia Legislature of 1832. + + + +CHAPTER X. "BLEEDING KANSAS" + +Both the leading political parties were, in the campaign of 1852, fully +committed to the acceptance of the so-called Compromise of 1850 as a +final settlement of the slavery question; both were committed to the +support of the Fugitive Slave Act. The Free-soil party, with John P. +Hale as its candidate, did make a vigorous attack upon the Fugitive +Slave Act, and opposed all compromises respecting slavery, but +Free-soilers had been to a large extent reabsorbed into the Democratic +party, their vote of 1852 being only about half that of 1848. Though the +Whig vote was large and only about two hundred thousand less than that +of the Democrats, yet it was so distributed that the Whigs carried only +four States, Massachusetts, Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee. The other +States gave a Democratic plurality. + +Had there been time for readjustment, the Whig party might have +recovered lost ground, but no time was permitted. There was in progress +in Missouri a political conflict which was already commanding national +attention. Thomas H. Benton, for thirty years a Senator from Missouri, +and a national figure, was the storm-center. His enemies accused him of +being a Free-soiler, an abolitionist in disguise. He was professedly a +stanch and uncompromising unionist, a personal and political opponent of +John C. Calhoun. According to his own statement he had been opposed +to the extension of slavery since 1804, although he had advocated the +admission of Missouri with a pro-slavery constitution in 180. He +was, from the first, senior Senator from the State, and by a peculiar +combination of influences incurred his first defeat for reelection in +1851. + +Benton's defeat in the Missouri Legislature was largely the result of +national pro-slavery influences. In a former chapter, reference was +made to the Ohio River as furnishing a "providential argument against +slavery." The Mississippi River as the eastern boundary of Missouri +furnished a like argument, but on the north not even a prairie +brook separated free labor in Iowa from slave labor in Missouri. The +inhabitants of western Missouri, realizing that the tenure of their +peculiar institution was becoming weaker in the east and north, early +became convinced that the organization of a free State along their +western boundary would be followed by the abolition of slavery in +their own State. This condition attracted the attention of the national +guardians of pro-slavery interests. Calhoun, Davis, Breckinridge, +Toombs, and others were in constant communication with local leaders. +A certain Judge W. C. Price, a religious fanatic, and a pro-slavery +devotee, was induced to visit every part of the State in 1844, calling +the attention of all slaveholders to the perils of the situation and +preparing the way for the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. Senator +Benton, who was approached on the subject, replied in such a way that +all radical defenders of slavery, both national leaders and local +politicians, were moved to unite for his political defeat. + +David R. Atchison, junior Senator from Missouri, had been made the +leader of the pro-slavery forces. The defeat of Benton in the Missouri +Legislature did not end the strife. He at once became a candidate for +Atchison's place in the election which was to occur in 1855, and he was +in the meantime elected to the House of Representatives in 1852. The +most telling consideration in Benton's favor was the general demand, in +which he himself joined, for the immediate organization of the western +territory in order to facilitate the building of a system of railways +reaching the Pacific, with St. Louis as the point of departure. For a +time, in 1859, and 1853, Benton was apparently triumphant, and Atchison +was himself willing to consent to the organization of the new territory +with slavery excluded. The national leaders, however, were not of the +same mind. The real issue was the continuance of slavery in the +State; the one thing which must not be permitted was the transfer of +anti-slavery agitation to the separate States. Henry Clay's proposal +of 1849 to provide for gradual emancipation in Kentucky was bitterly +resented. It had long been an axiom with the slavocracy that the +institution would perish unless it had the opportunity to expand. Out of +this conviction arose Calhoun's famous theory that slaveowners had under +the Constitution an equal right with the owners of all other forms of +property in all the Territories. The theory itself assumed that the act +prohibiting slavery in the territory north of the southern boundary +of Missouri was unconstitutional and void. But this theory had not yet +received judicial sanction, and the time was at hand when the question +of freedom or slavery in the western territory was to be determined. +Between March and December, 1853, the discovery was made that the Act +of 1850 organizing the Territories of New Mexico and Utah had superseded +the Compromise of 1820; that a principle had been recognized applicable +to all the Territories; that all were open to settlement on equal terms +to slaveholders and non-slaveholders; that the subject of slavery should +be removed from Congress to the people of the Territories; and that they +should decide, either when a territorial legislature was organized or +at the time of the adoption of a constitution preparatory to statehood, +whether or not slavery should be authorized. These ideas found +expression in various newspapers during the month of December, 1853. +Though the authorship of the new theory is still a matter of dispute, +it is well known that Stephen A. Douglas became its chief sponsor and +champion. The real motives and intentions of Douglas himself and of +many of his supporters will always remain obscure and uncertain. But no +uncertainty attaches to the motives of Senator Atchison and the leaders +of the Calhoun section of the Democratic party. For ten years at least +they had been laboring to get rid of the Missouri Compromise. Their +motive was to defend slavery and especially to forestall a successful +movement for emancipation in the State of Missouri. + +From early in January, 1854, until late in May, Douglas's Nebraska bill +held the attention of Congress and of the entire country. At first the +measure simply assumed that the Missouri Compromise had been superseded +by the Act of 1850. Later the bill was amended in such a way as to +repeal distinctly that time-honored act. At first the plan was to +organize Nebraska as a single Territory extending from Texas to Canada. +Later it was proposed to organize separate Territories, one west of +Missouri under the name of Kansas, the other west of Iowa under the name +of Nebraska. Opposition came from Free-soilers, from Northern Whigs +and a few Whigs from the South, and from a large proportion of Northern +Democrats. The repeal of the Missouri Compromise came like a thunderbolt +out of a clear sky to the people of the North. For a time Douglas was +the most unpopular of political leaders and was apparently repudiated by +his party. The first name designating the opponents of the Douglas bill +was "Anti-Nebraska men," for which the name Republican was gradually +substituted and in 1856 became the accepted title of the party. + +The provision for two territorial governments instead of one carried +with it the idea of a continued balance between slave and free States; +Kansas, being on a geographical parallel with the slave States, would +probably permit slavery, while Nebraska would be occupied by free-state +immigrants. Though this was a commonly accepted view, Eli Thayer of +Worcester, Massachusetts, and a few others took a different view. They +proposed to make an end of the discussion of the extension of slavery +by sending free men who were opposed to slavery to occupy the territory +open for settlement. To attain this object they organized an Emigrant +Aid Company incorporated under the laws of the State. Even before the +bill was passed, the corporation was in full working order. Thayer +himself traveled extensively throughout the Northern States stimulating +interest in western emigration, with the conviction that the disturbing +question could be peacefully settled in this way. California had thus +been saved to freedom; why not all other Territories? The new company +had as adviser and co-laborer Dr. Charles Robinson, who had crossed +the Kansas Territory on his way to California and had acquired valuable +experience in the art of state-building under peculiar conditions. + +The first party sent out by the Emigrant Aid Company arrived in Kansas +early in August, 1854, and selected the site for the town of Lawrence. +During the later months of the year, four other parties were sent out, +in all numbering nearly seven hundred. Through extensive advertisement +by the company, through the general interest in the subject and the +natural flow of emigration to the West, Kansas was receiving large +accessions of free-state settlers. + +Meanwhile the men of Missouri, some of whom had striven for a decade to +secure the privilege of extending slavery into the new Territory, were +not idle. Instantly upon the removal of legal barriers, they occupied +adjacent lands, founded towns, staked out claims, formed plans for +preempting the entire region and for forestalling or driving out all +intruders. They had at first the advantage of position, for they did not +find it difficult to maintain two homes, one in Kansas for purposes of +voting and fighting and another in Missouri for actual residence. Andrew +H. Reeder, a Pennsylvania Democrat of strong pro-slavery prejudices, was +appointed first Governor of the Territory. When he arrived in Kansas +in October, 1854, there were already several thousand settlers on the +ground and others were continually arriving. He appointed the 29th of +November for the election of a delegate to Congress. On that day several +hundred Missourians came into the Territory and voted. There was no +violence and no contest; the free-state men had no separate candidate. +Notwithstanding the violence of language used by opposing factions, +notwithstanding the organization of secret societies pledged to drive +out all Northern intruders, there was no serious disturbance until +March 30, 1855, the day appointed for the election of members of the +territorial Legislature. On that day the Missourians came full five +thousand strong, armed with guns, bowie-knives, and revolvers. They +met with no resistance from the residents, who were unarmed. They +took charge of the precincts and chose pro-slavery delegates with one +exception. Governor Reeder protested and recommended to the precincts +the filing of protests. Only seven responded, however, and in these +cases new elections were held and contesting delegates elected. + +The Governor issued certificates to these and to all those who in +other precincts had been chosen by the horde from Missouri. When the +Legislature met in July, the seven contests were decided in favor of +the pro-slavery party, the single freestate member resigned, and the +assembly was unanimous. + +Governor Reeder fully expected that President Pierce would nullify the +election, and to this end he made a journey to Washington in April. +On the way he delivered a public address at Easton, Pennsylvania, +describing in lurid colors the outrage which had been perpetrated +upon the people of Kansas by the "border ruffians" from Missouri, +and asserting that the accounts in the Northern press had not been +exaggerated. + +While Governor Reeder in contact with the actual events in Kansas was +becoming an active Free-soiler, President Pierce in association with +Jefferson Davis and others of his party was developing active sympathies +with the people of western Missouri. To the President this invasion +of territory west of the slave State by Northern men aided by Northern +corporations seemed a violation of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and +he sought to induce Reeder to resign. This, however, the Governor +positively refused to do unless the President would formally approve +his conduct in Kansas--an endorsement which required more fortitude than +President Pierce possessed. On his return to Kansas, determined to do +what he could to protect the Kansas people from injustice, he called +the Legislature to meet at Pawnee, a point far removed from the Missouri +border. Immediately upon their organization at that place the members +of the Legislature adjourned to meet at Shawnee, near the border of +Missouri. The Governor, who decided that this action was illegal, then +refused to recognize the Assembly at the new place. A deadlock thus +ensued which was broken on the 15th of August by the removal of Governor +Reeder and the appointment of Wilson Shannon of Ohio in his place. In +the meantime the territorial Legislature had adjourned, having "enacted" +an elaborate proslavery code made up from the slave code of Missouri +with a number of special adaptations. For example, it was made a +penitentiary offense to deny by speaking or writing, or by printing, or +by introducing any printed matter, the right of persons to hold +slaves in the Territory; no man was eligible to jury service who was +conscientiously opposed to holding slaves; and lawyers were bound by +oath to support the territorial statutes. + +The free-state men, with the approval of Reeder, refused to recognize +the Legislature and inaugurated a movement in the fall of 1855 to adopt +a constitution and to organize a provisional territorial Government +preparatory to admission as a State, following in this respect the +procedure in California and Michigan. A convention met in Topeka in +October, 1855, and completed on the 11th of November the draft of a +constitution which prohibited slavery. On the 15th of December the +constitution was approved by a practically unanimous vote, only +free-state men taking part in the election. A month later a Legislature +was elected and at the same time Charles Robinson was elected Governor +of the new commonwealth. In the previous October, Reeder had been chosen +Free-soil delegate to Congress. The Topeka freestate Legislature met on +the 4th of March, 1856, and after petitioning Congress to admit Kansas +under the Topeka constitution, adjourned until the 4th of July pending +the action of Congress. Thus at the end of two years two distinct +Governments had come into existence within the Territory of Kansas. It +speaks volumes for the self-control and moderation of the two parties +that no hostile encounter had occurred between the contestants. When the +armed Missourians came in March, 1855, the unarmed settlers offered no +resistance. Afterward, however, they supplied themselves with Sharp's +rifles and organized a militia. With the advent of Governor Shannon +in September, 1855, the proslavery position was much strengthened. In +November, in a quarrel over a land claim, a free-state settler by the +name of Dow was killed. The murderer escaped, but a friend of the victim +was accused of uttering threats against a friend of the murderer. For +this offense a posse led by Sheriff Jones, a Missourian, seized him, +and would have carried him away if fourteen freestate men had not +"persuaded" the Sheriff to surrender his prisoner. This interference was +accepted by the Missourians as a signal for battle. The rescuers must +be arrested and punished. A large force of infuriated Missourians and +pro-slavery settlers assembled for a raid upon the town of Lawrence. +In the meantime the Lawrence militia planned and executed a systematic +defense of the town. When the two armies came within speaking distance, +a parley ensued in which the Governor took a leading part in settling +the affair without a hostile shot. This is known in Kansas history as +the "Wakarusa War." + +The progress of affairs in Kansas was followed with intense interest in +all parts of the country. North and South vied with each other in the +encouragement of emigration to Kansas. Colonel Buford of Alabama sold a +large number of slaves and devoted the proceeds to meeting the expense +of conducting a troop of three hundred men to Kansas in the winter of +1856. They went armed with "the sword of the spirit," and all provided +with Bibles supplied by the leading churches. Arrived in the territory, +they were duly furnished with more worldly weapons and were drilled for +action. About the same time a parallel incident is said to have occurred +in New Haven, Connecticut. A deacon in one of the churches had enlisted +a company of seventy bound for Kansas. A meeting was held in the church +to raise money to defray expenses. The leader of the company declared +that they also needed rifles for self-defense. Forthwith Professor +Silliman, of the University, subscribed one Sharp's rifle, and others +followed with like pledges. Finally Henry Ward Beecher, who was the +speaker of the occasion, rose and promised that, if twenty-five +rifles were pledged on the spot, Plymouth Church in Brooklyn would +be responsible for the remaining twenty-five that were needed. He had +already said in a previous address that for the slaveholders of Kansas, +Sharp's rifles were a greater moral agency than the Bible. This led +to the designation of the weapons as "Beecher's Bibles." Such was the +spirit which prevailed in the two sections of the country. + +President Pierce had now become intensely hostile towards the free-state +inhabitants of Kansas. Having recognized the Legislature elected on +March 30, 1855, as the legitimate Government, he sent a special +message to Congress on January 24, 1856, in which he characterized as +revolutionary the movement of the free-state men to organize a separate +Government in Kansas. From the President's point of view, the emissaries +of the New England Emigrant Aid Association were unlawful invaders. +In this position he not only had the support of the South, but was +powerfully seconded by Stephen A. Douglas and other Northern Democrats. + +The attitude of the Administration at Washington was a source of great +encouragement to Sheriff Jones and his associates, who were anxious to +wreak their vengeance on the city of Lawrence for the outcome of the +Wakarusa War. Jones came to Lawrence apparently for the express purpose +of picking a quarrel, for he revived the old dispute about the rescuing +party of the previous fall. As a consequence one enraged opponent +slapped him in the face, and at last an unknown assassin entered the +sheriff's tent by night and inflicted a revolver wound in his back. +Though the citizens of Lawrence were greatly chagrined at this event and +offered a reward for the discovery of the assailant, the attack upon the +sheriff was made the signal for drastic procedure against the town of +Lawrence. A grand jury found indictments for treason against Reeder, +Robinson, and other leading citizens of the town. The United States +marshal gave notice that he expected resistance in making arrests +and called upon all law-abiding citizens of the Territory to aid in +executing the law. It was a welcome summons to the pro-slavery forces. +Not only local militia companies responded but also Buford's company +and various companies from Missouri, in all more than seven hundred men, +with two cannon. It had always been the set purpose of the free-state +men not to resist federal authority by force, unless as a last resort, +and they had no intention of opposing the marshal in making arrests. He +performed his duty without hindrance and then placed the armed troops +under the command of Sheriff Jones, who proceeded first to destroy the +printing-press of the town of Lawrence. Then, against the protest of the +marshal and Colonel Buford, the vindictive sheriff trained his guns upon +the new hotel which was the pride of the city; the ruin of the building +was made complete by fire, while a drunken mob pillaged the town. + +On May 22, 1856, the day following the attack upon Lawrence, Charles +Sumner was struck down in the United States Senate on account of a +speech made in defense of the rights of Kansas settlers. The two events, +which were reported at the same time in the daily press, furnished +the key-note to the presidential campaign of that year, for nominating +conventions followed in a few days and "bleeding Kansas" was the +all-absorbing issue. In spite of the destruction of property in Lawrence +and the arrest of the leaders of the free-state party, Kansas had not +been plunged into a state of civil war. The free-state party had fired +no hostile shot. Governor Robinson and his associates still relied upon +public opinion and they accepted the wanton attack upon Lawrence as the +best assurance that they would yet win their cause by legal means. + +A change, however, soon took place which is associated with the entrance +of John Brown into the history of Kansas. Brown and his sons were living +at Osawatomie, some thirty miles south of Lawrence. They were present at +the Wakarusa War in December, 1855, and were on their way to the defense +of Lawrence on May 21, 1856, when they were informed that the town had +been destroyed. Three days after this event Brown and his sons with two +or three others made a midnight raid upon their pro-slavery neighbors +living in the Pottawatomie valley and slew five men. The authors of this +deed were not certainly known until the publication of a confession of +one of the party in 1879, twenty years after the chief actor had won +the reputation of a martyr to the cause of liberty. The Browns, however, +were suspected at the time; warrants were out for their arrest; and +their homes were destroyed. + +For more than three months after this incident, Kansas was in a state +of war; in fact, two distinct varieties of warfare were carried on. +Publicly organized companies on both sides engaged in acts of attack and +defense, while at the same time irresponsible secret bands were busy in +violent reprisals, in plunder and assassination. In both of these forms +of warfare, the free-state men proved themselves fully equal to their +opponents, and Governor Shannon was entirely unable to cope with the +situation. It is estimated that two hundred men were slain and two +million dollars' worth of property was destroyed. + +The state of affairs in Kansas served to win many Northern Democrats +to the support of the Republicans. The Administration at Washington was +held responsible for the violence and bloodshed. The Democratic leaders +in the political campaign, determined now upon a complete change in +the Government of the Territory, appointed J. W. Geary as Governor and +placed General Smith in charge of the troops. The new incumbents, both +from Pennsylvania, entered upon their labors early in September, and +before the October state elections Geary was able to report that peace +reigned throughout the Territory. A prompt reaction in favor of the +Democrats followed. Buchanan, their presidential candidate, rejoiced in +the fact that order had been restored by two citizens of his own State. +It was now very generally conceded that Kansas would become a free +State, and intimate associates of Buchanan assured the public that he +was himself of that opinion and that if elected he would insure to the +free-state party evenhanded justice. Thousands of voters were thus won +to Buchanan's support. There was a general distrust of the Republican +candidate as a man lacking political experience, and a strong +conservative reaction against the idea of electing a President by the +votes of only one section of the country. At the election in November, +Buchanan received a majority of sixty of the electoral votes over +Fremont, but in the popular vote he fell short of a majority by nearly +400,000. Fillmore, candidate of the Whig and the American parties, +received 874,000 votes. + +There was still profound distrust of the administration of the Territory +of Kansas, and the free-state settlers refused to vote at the election +set for the choosing of a new territorial Legislature in October. +The result was another pro-slavery assembly. Governor Geary, however, +determined to secure and enforce just treatment of both parties. He +was at once brought into violent conflict with the Legislature in an +experience which was almost an exact counterpart of that of Governor +Reeder; and Washington did not support his efforts to secure fair +dealings. A pro-slavery deputation visited President Pierce in February, +1857, and returned with the assurance that Governor Geary would be +removed. Without waiting for the President to act, Geary resigned in +disgust on the 4th of March. Of the three Governors whom President +Pierce appointed, two became active supporters of the free-state party +and a third, Governor Shannon, fled from the territory in mortal terror +lest he should be slain by members of the party which he had tried to +serve. + + + +CHAPTER XI. CHARLES SUMNER + +The real successor to John Quincy Adams as the protagonist of the +anti-slavery cause in Congress proved to be not Seward but Charles +Sumner of Massachusetts. This newcomer entered the Senate without +previous legislative experience but with an unusual equipment for +the role he was to play. A graduate of Harvard College at the age of +nineteen, he had entered upon the study of law in the newly organized +law school in which Joseph Story held one of the two professorships. +He was admitted to the bar in 1834, but three years later he left his +slender law practice for a long period of European travel. This three +years' sojourn brought him into intimate touch with the leading spirits +in arts, letters, and public life in England and on the Continent, and +thus ripened his talents to their full maturity. He returned to his +law practice poor in pocket but rich in the possession of lifelong +friendships and happy memories. + +Sumner's political career did not begin until 1847, when as a Whig he +not only opposed any further extension of slavery but strove to commit +his party to the policy of emancipation in all the States. Failing in +this attempt, Sumner became an active Free-soiler in 1848. He was twice +a candidate for Congress on the Free-soil ticket but failed of election. +In 1851 he was elected to the United States Senate by a coalition +between his party and the Democrats. This is the only public office he +ever held, but he was continuously reelected until his death in 1874. + +John Quincy Adams had addressed audiences trained in the old school, +which did not defend slavery on moral grounds. Charles Sumner faced +audiences of the new school, which upheld the institution as a righteous +moral order. This explains the chief difference in the attitude of the +two leaders. Sumner, like Adams, began as an opponent of pro-slavery +aggression, but he went farther: he attacked the institution itself as a +great moral evil. + +As a constitutional lawyer Sumner is not the equal of his predecessor, +Daniel Webster. He is less original, less convincing in the enunciation +of broad general principles. He appears rather as a special pleader +marshaling all available forces against the one institution which +assailed the Union. In this particular work, he surpassed all others, +for, with his unbounded industry, he permitted no precedent, no legal +advantage, no incident of history, no fact in current politics fitted +to strengthen his cause, to escape his untiring search. He showed a +marvelous skill in the selection, arrangement, and presentation of +his materials, and for his models he took the highest forms of classic +forensic utterance. + +Sumner exhibited the ordinary aloofness and lack of familiarity with +actual conditions in the South which was characteristic of the New +England abolitionist. He perceived no race problem, no peculiar +difficulty in the readjustments of master and slave which were involved +in emancipation, and he ignored all obstacles to the accomplishment of +his ends. Webster's arraignment of South Carolina was directed against +an alleged erroneous dogma and only incidentally affected personal +morality. The reaction, therefore, was void of bitter resentment. +Sumner's charges were directed against alleged moral turpitude, and +the classic form and scrupulous regard for parliamentary rules which he +observed only added to the feeling of personal resentment on the part of +his opponents. Some of the defenders of slavery were themselves +devoted students of the classics, but they found that the orations of +Demosthenes furnished nothing suited to their purpose. The result was a +humiliating exhibition of weakness, personal abuse, and vindictiveness +on their part. + +There was a conspiracy of silence on the slavery question in 1852. Each +of the national parties was definitely committed to the support of the +compromise and especially to the faithful observance of the Fugitive +Slave Law. Free-soilers had distinctly declined in numbers and influence +during the four preceding years. Only a handful of members in each House +of Congress remained unaffiliated with the parties whose platforms had +ordained silence on the one issue of chief public concern. It was by a +mere accident in Massachusetts politics that Charles Sumner was sent to +the Senate as a man free on all public questions. + +While the parties were making their nominations for the Presidency, +Sumner sought diligently for an opportunity in the Senate to give +utterance to the sentiments of his party on the repeal of the Fugitive +Slave Act. But not until late in August did he overcome the resistance +of the combined opposition and gain the floor. The watchmen were caught +off guard when Sumner introduced an amendment to an appropriation bill +which enabled him to deliver a carefully prepared address, several hours +in length, calling for the repeal of the law. + +The first part of this speech is devoted to the general topic of the +relation of the national Government to slavery and was made in answer +to the demand of Calhoun and his followers for the direct national +recognition of slavery. For such a demand Sumner found no warrant. By +the decision of Lord Mansfield, said he, "the state of slavery" +was declared to be "of such a nature, that it is incapable of being +introduced on any reasons, moral or political, but ONLY BY POSITIVE +LAW.... it is so odious, that nothing can be suffered to support it but +positive law." Adopting the same principle, the Supreme Court of the +State of Mississippi, a tribunal of slaveholders, asserted that "slavery +is condemned by reason and the Laws of Nature. It exists, and can ONLY +exist, through municipal regulations." So also declared the Supreme +Court of Kentucky and numerous other tribunals. This aspect of the +subject furnished Sumner occasion for a masterly array of all the +utterances in favor of liberty to be found in the Constitution, in the +Declaration of Independence, in the constitutional conventions, in the +principles of common law. All these led up to and supported the one +grand conclusion that, when Washington took the oath as President of the +United States, "slavery existed nowhere on the national territory" +and therefore "is in no respect a national institution." Apply the +principles of the Constitution in their purity, then, and "in all +national territories slavery will be impossible. On the high seas, +under the national flag, slavery will be impossible. In the District of +Columbia, slavery will instantly cease. Inspired by these principles, +Congress can give no sanction to slavery by the admission of new slave +States. Nowhere under the Constitution can the Nation by legislation or +otherwise, support slavery, hunt slaves, or hold property in man.... As +slavery is banished from the national jurisdiction, it will cease to +vex our national politics. It may linger in the States as a local +institution; but it will no longer engender national animosities when it +no longer demands national support." + +The second part of Sumner's address dealt directly with the Fugitive +Slave Act of 1860. It is much less convincing and suggests more of the +characteristics of the special pleader with a difficult case. Sumner +here undertook to prove that Congress exceeded its powers when it +presumed to lay down rules for the rendition of fugitive slaves, and +this task exceeded even his power as a constitutional lawyer. + +The circumstances under which Sumner attacked slavery were such as to +have alarmed a less self-centered man, for the two years following the +introduction of the Nebraska bill were marked by the most acrimonious +debate in the history of Congress, and by physical encounters, +challenges, and threats of violence. But though Congressmen carried +concealed weapons, Sumner went his way unarmed and apparently in +complete unconcern as to any personal danger, though it is known that he +was fully aware that in the faithful performance of what he deemed to be +his duty he was incurring the risk of assassination. + +The pro-slavery party manifested on all occasions a disposition to make +the most of the weak point in Sumner's constitutional argument against +the Fugitive Slave Law. He was accused of taking an oath to support the +Constitution though at the same time intending to violate one of its +provisions. In a discussion, in June, 1854, over a petition praying for +the repeal of the Fugitive Slave Act, Senator Butler of South Carolina +put the question directly to Senator Sumner whether he would himself +unite with others in returning a fugitive to his master. Sumner's quick +reply was, "Is thy servant a dog that he should do this thing?" Enraged +Southerners followed this remark with a most bitter onslaught upon +Sumner which lasted for two days. When Sumner again got the floor, he +said in reference to Senator Butler's remark: "In fitful phrase, which +seemed to come from unconscious excitement, so common with the Senator, +he shot forth various cries about 'dogs,' and, among other things, asked +if there was any 'dog' in the Constitution? The Senator did not seem +to bear in mind, through the heady currents of that moment that, by the +false interpretation he fastens upon the Constitution, he has helped +to nurture there a whole kennel of Carolina bloodhounds, trained, with +savage jaw and insatiable in scent, for the hunt of flying bondmen. No, +sir, I do not believe that there is any 'kennel of bloodhounds,' or even +any 'dog' in the Constitution." Thereafter offensive personal references +between the Senators from Massachusetts and South Carolina became +habitual. These personalities were a source of regret to many of +Sumner's best friends, but they fill a small place, after all, in his +great work. Nor were they the chief source of rancor on the part of +his enemies, for Southern orators were accustomed to personalities in +debate. Sumner was feared and hated principally because his presence in +Congress endangered the institution of slavery. + +Sumner's speech on the crime against Kansas was perhaps the most +remarkable effort of his career. It had been known for many weeks that +Sumner was preparing to speak upon the burning question, and his friends +had already expressed anxiety for his personal safety. For the larger +part of two days, May 19 and 20, 1856, he held the reluctant attention +of the Senate. For the delivery of this speech he chose a time which was +most opportune. The crime against Kansas had, in a sense, culminated in +March of the previous year, but the settlers had refused to submit to +the Government set up by hostile invaders. They had armed themselves for +the defense of their rights, had elected a Governor and a Legislature +by voluntary association, had called a convention, and had adopted a +constitution preparatory to admission to the Union. That constitution +was now before the Senate for approval. President Pierce, Stephen +A. Douglas, and all the Southern leaders had decided to treat as +treasonable acts the efforts of Kansas settlers to secure an orderly +government. Their plans for the arrest of the leaders were well advanced +and the arrests were actually made on the day after Sumner had concluded +his speech. + +A paragraph in the address is prophetic of what occurred within a week. +Douglas had introduced a bill recognizing the Legislature chosen by the +Missourians as the legal Government and providing for the formation of a +constitution under its initiative at some future date. After describing +this proposed action as a continuation of the crime against Kansas, +Sumner declared: "Sir, you cannot expect that the people of Kansas +will submit to the usurpation which this bill sets up and bids them +bow before, as the Austrian tyrant set up the ducal hat in the Swiss +market-place. If you madly persevere, Kansas will not be without her +William Tell, who will refuse at all hazards to recognize the tyrannical +edict; and this will be the beginning of civil war." + +To keep historical sequence clear at this point, all thought of John +Brown should be eliminated, for he was then unknown to the public. It +must be remembered that Governor Robinson and the free-state settlers +were, as Sumner probably knew, prepared to resist the general Government +as soon as there should be a clear case of outrage for which the +Administration at Washington could be held directly responsible. Such +a case occurred when the United States marshal placed federal troops in +the hands of Sheriff Jones to assist in looting the town of Lawrence. +Governor Robinson no longer had any scruples in advising forcible +resistance to all who used force to impose upon Kansas a Government +which the people had rejected. + +In the course of his address Sumner compared Senators Butler and +Douglas to Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, saying: "The Senator from +South Carolina has read many books of chivalry, and believes himself a +chivalrous knight, with sentiments of honor and courage. Of course he +has chosen a mistress to whom he has made his vows, and who, though ugly +to others, is always lovely to him; though polluted in the sight of the +world, is chaste in his sight. I mean the harlot Slavery. Let her be +impeached in character, or any proposition be made to shut her out +from the extension of her wantonness, and no extravagance of manner or +hardihood of assertion is then too great for the Senator." + +When Sumner concluded, the gathering storm broke forth. Cass of +Michigan, after saying that he had listened to the address with equal +surprise and regret, characterized it as "the most unAmerican and +unpatriotic that ever grated on the ears of the members of that high +body." Douglas and Mason were personal and abusive. Douglas, recalling +Sumner's answer to Senator Butler's question whether he would assist in +returning a slave, renewed the charge made two years earlier that Sumner +had violated his oath of office. This attack called forth from Sumner +another attempt to defend the one weak point in his speech of 1852, for +he was always irritated by reference to this subject, and at the same +time he enjoyed a fine facility in the use of language which irritated +others. + +One utterance in Douglas's reply to Sumner is of special significance in +view of what occurred two days later: "Is it his object to provoke +some of us to kick him as we would a dog in the street, that he may get +sympathy upon the just chastisement?" Two days later Sumner was sitting +alone at his desk in the Senate chamber after adjournment when Preston +Brooks, a nephew of Senator Butler and a member of the lower House, +entered and accosted him with the statement that he had read Sumner's +speech twice and that it was a libel on South Carolina and upon a +kinsman of his. Thereupon Brooks followed his words by striking Sumner +on the head with a cane. Though the Senator was dazed and blinded by +the unexpected attack, his assailant rained blow after blow until he +had broken the cane and Sumner lay prostrate and bleeding at his feet. +Brooks's remarks in the House of Representatives almost a month after +the event leave no doubt of his determination to commit murder had he +failed to overcome his antagonist with a cane. He had also taken the +precaution to have two of his friends ready to prevent any interference +before the punishment was completed. Toombs of Georgia witnessed a +part of the assault and expressed approval of the act, and everywhere +throughout the South, in the public press, in legislative halls, in +public meetings, Brooks was hailed as a hero. The resolution for his +expulsion introduced in the House received the support of only one +vote from south of Mason and Dixon's Line. A large majority favored the +resolution, but not the required two-thirds majority. Brooks, however, +thought best to resign but was triumphantly returned to his seat with +only six votes against him. Nothing was left undone to express Southern +gratitude, and he received gifts of canes innumerable as symbols of his +valor. Yet before his death, which occurred in the following January, +he confessed to his friend Orr that he was sick of being regarded as +the representative of bullies and disgusted at receiving testimonials of +their esteem. + +With similar unanimity the North condemned and resented the assault that +had been made upon Sumner. From party considerations, if for no other +reasons, Democrats regretted the event. Republicans saw in the brutal +attack and in the manner of its reception in the South another evidence +of the irrepressible conflict between slavery and freedom. They were +ready to take up the issue so forcibly presented by their fallen +leader. A part of the regular order of exercises at public meetings of +Republicans was to express sympathy with their wounded champion and with +the Kansas people of the pillaged town of Lawrence, and to adopt +ways and means to bring to an end the Administration which they held +responsible for these outrages. Sumner, though silenced, was eloquent +in a new and more effective way. A half million copies of "The +Crime against Kansas" were printed and circulated. On the issue thus +presented, Northern Democrats became convinced that their defeat at the +pending election was certain, and their leaders instituted the change in +their program which has been described in a previous chapter. They had +made an end of the war in Kansas and drew from their candidate for the +Presidency the assurance that just treatment should at last be meted out +to harassed Kansas. + +Though Sumner's injuries were at first regarded as slight, they +eventually proved to be extremely serious. After two attempts to resume +his place in the Senate, he found that he was unable to remain; yet when +his term expired, he was almost unanimously reelected. Much of his time +for three and a half years he spent in Europe. In December, 1859, he +seemed sufficiently recovered to resume senatorial duties, but it was +not until the following June that he again addressed the Senate. On +that occasion he delivered his last great philippic against slavery. +The subject under discussion was still the admission of Kansas as a +free State, and, as he remarked in his opening sentences, he resumed the +discussion precisely where he had left off more than four years before. + +Sumner had assumed the task of uttering a final word against slavery as +barbarism and a barrier to civilization. He spoke under the impelling +power of a conviction in his God-given mission to utilize a great +occasion to the full and for a noble end. For this work his whole life +had been a preparation. Accustomed from early youth to spend ten hours +a day with books on law, history, and classic literature, he knew as no +other man then knew what aid the past could offer to the struggle for +freedom. The bludgeon of the would-be assassin had not impaired his +memory, and four years of enforced leisure enabled him to fulfill his +highest ideals of perfect oratorical form. Personalities he eliminated +from this final address, and blemishes he pruned away. In his earlier +speeches he had been limited by the demands of the particular question +under discussion, but in "The Barbarism of Slavery" he was free to deal +with the general subject, and he utilized incidents in American slavery +to demonstrate the general upward trend of history. The orator was +sustained by the full consciousness that his utterances were in harmony +with the grand sweep of historic truth as well as with the spirit of the +present age. + +Sumner was not a party man and was at no time in complete harmony with +his coworkers. It was always a question whether his speeches had a +favorable effect upon the immediate action of Congress; there can, +however, be no doubt of the fact that the larger public was edified and +influenced. Copies of "The Crime against Kansas" and "The Barbarism of +Slavery" were printed and circulated by the million and were eagerly +read from beginning to end. They gave final form to the thoughts and +utterances of many political leaders both in America and in Europe. +More than any other man it was Charles Sumner who, with a wealth +of historical learning and great skill in forensic art, put the +irrepressible conflict between slavery and freedom in its proper setting +in human history. + + + +CHAPTER XII. KANSAS AND BUCHANAN + +In view of the presidential election of 1856 Northern Democrats +entertained no doubts that Kansas, now occupied by a majority of +free-state men, would be received as a free State without further ado. +The case was different with the Democrats of western Missouri, already +for ten years in close touch with those Southern leaders who were +determined either to secure new safeguards for slavery or to form an +independent confederacy. Their program was to continue their efforts to +make Kansas a slave State or at least to maintain the disturbance there +until the conditions appeared favorable for secession. + +In February, 1857, the pro-slavery territorial Legislature provided for +the election of delegates to a constitutional convention, but Governor +Geary vetoed the act because no provision was made for submitting the +proposed constitution to the vote of the people. The bill was passed +over his veto, and arrangements were made for registration which +free-state men regarded as imperfect, inadequate, or fraudulent. + +President Buchanan undoubtedly intended to do full justice to the +people of Kansas. To this end he chose Robert J. Walker, a Mississippi +Democrat, as Governor of Kansas. Walker was a statesman of high rank, +who had been associated with Buchanan in the Cabinet of James K. Polk. +Three times he refused to accept the office and finally undertook the +mission only from a sense of duty. Being aware of the fate of Governor +Geary, Walker insisted on an explicit understanding with Buchanan that +his policies should not be repudiated by the federal Administration. +Late in May he went to Kansas with high hopes and expectations. But the +free-state party had persisted in the repudiation of a Government which +had been first set up by an invading army and, as they alleged, had +since then been perpetuated by fraud. They had absolutely refused to +take part in any election called by that Government and had continued to +keep alive their own legislative assembly. Despite Walker's efforts +to persuade them to take part in the election of delegates to the +constitutional convention, they resolutely held aloof. Yet, as they +became convinced that he was acting in good faith, they did participate +in the October elections to the territorial Legislature, electing nine +out of the thirteen councilors and twenty-four out of the thirty-nine +representatives. Gross frauds had been perpetrated in two districts, and +the Governor made good his promise by rejecting the fraudulent votes. +In one case a poll list had been made up by copying an old Cincinnati +register. + +In the meantime, thanks to the abstention of the free-state people, the +pro-slavery party had secured absolute control of the constitutional +convention. Yet there was the most absolute assurance by the Governor +in the name of the President of the United States that no constitution +would be sent to Congress for approval which had not received the +sanction of a majority of the voters of the Territory. This was Walker's +reiterated promise, and President Buchanan had on this point been +equally explicit. + +When, therefore, the pro-slavery constitutional convention met at +Lecompton in October, Kansas had a free-state Legislature duly elected. +To make Kansas still a slave State it was necessary to get rid of that +Legislature and of the Governor through whose agency it had been chosen, +and at the same time to frame a constitution which would secure the +approval of the Buchanan Administration. Incredible as it may seem, all +this was actually accomplished. + +John Calhoun, who had been chosen president of the Lecompton convention, +spent some time in Washington before the adjourned meeting of the +convention. He secured the aid of master-hands at manipulation. Walker +had already been discredited at the White House on account of his +rejection of fraudulent returns at the October election of members to +the Legislature. The convention was unwilling to take further chances +on a matter of that sort, and it consequently made it a part of the +constitution that the president of the convention should have entire +charge of the election to be held for its approval. The free-state +legislature was disposed of by placing in the constitution a provision +that all existing laws should remain in force until the election of a +Legislature provided for under the constitution. + +The master-stroke of the convention, however, was the provision for +submitting the constitution to the vote of the people. Voters were not +permitted to accept or reject the instrument; all votes were to be for +the constitution either "with slavery" or "with no slavery." But the +document itself recognized slavery as already existing and declared the +right of slave property like other property "before and higher than any +constitutional sanction." Other provisions made emancipation difficult +by providing in any case for complete monetary remuneration and for the +consent of the owners. There were numerous other provisions offensive +to free-state men. It had been rightly surmised that they would take no +part in such an election and that "the constitution with slavery" +would be approved. The vote on the constitution was set for the 21st of +December. For the constitution with slavery 6226 votes were recorded and +569 for the constitution without slavery. + +While these events were taking place, Walker went to Washington to enter +his protest but resigned after finding only a hostile reception by +the President and his Cabinet. Stanton, who was acting Governor in the +absence of Walker, then called together the free-state Legislature, +which set January 4, 1858, as the date for approving or rejecting the +Lecompton Constitution. At this election the votes cast were 138 for the +constitution with slavery, 24 for the constitution without slavery, +and 10,226 against the constitution. But President Buchanan had become +thoroughly committed to the support of the Lecompton Constitution. +Disregarding the advice of the new Governor, he sent the Lecompton +Constitution to Congress with the recommendation that Kansas be admitted +to the Union as a slave State. + +Here was a crisis big with the fate of the Democratic party, if not of +the Union. Stephen A. Douglas had already given notice that he would +oppose the Lecompton Constitution. In favor of its rejection he made a +notable speech which called forth the bitterest enmity from the South +and arrayed all the forces of the Administration against him. Supporters +of Douglas were removed from office, and anti-Douglas men were put in +their places. In his fight against the fraudulent constitution Douglas +himself, however, still had the support of a majority of Northern +Democrats, especially in the Western States, and that of all the +Republicans in Congress. A bill to admit Kansas passed the Senate, but +in the House a proviso was attached requiring that the constitution +should first be submitted to the people of Kansas for acceptance or +rejection. This amendment was finally accepted by the Senate with the +modification that, if the people voted for the constitution, the State +should have a large donation of public land, but that if they rejected +it, they should not be admitted as a State until they had a population +large enough to entitle them to a representative in the lower House. The +vote of the people was cast on August 2, 1858, and the constitution was +finally rejected by a majority of nearly twelve thousand. Thus resulted +the last effort to impose slavery on the people of Kansas. + +Although the war between slavery and freedom was fought out in miniature +in Kansas, the immediate issue was the preservation of slavery in +Missouri. This, however, involved directly the prospect of emancipation +in other border States and ultimate complete emancipation in all the +States. The issue is well stated in a Fourth of July address which +Charles Robinson delivered at Lawrence, Kansas, in 1855, after the +invasion of Missourians to influence the March election of that year, +but before the beginning of bloody conflict: + +"What reason is given for the cowardly invasion of our rights by our +neighbors? They say that if Kansas is allowed to be free the institution +of slavery in their own State will be in danger.... If the people +of Missouri make it necessary, by their unlawful course, for us to +establish freedom in that State in order to enjoy the liberty of +governing ourselves in Kansas, then let that be the issue. If Kansas and +the whole North must be enslaved, or Missouri become free, then let +her be made free. Aye! and if to be free ourselves, slavery must be +abolished in the whole country, then let us accept that due. If black +slavery in a part of the States is incompatible with white freedom +in any State, then let black slavery be abolished from all. As men +espousing the principles of the Declaration of the Fathers, we can do +nothing else than accept these issues." + +The men who saved Kansas to freedom were not abolitionists in the +restricted sense. Governor Walker found in 1857 that a considerable +majority of the free-state men were Democrats and that some were from +the South. Nearly all actual settlers, from whatever source they came, +were free-state men who felt that a slave was a burden in such a country +as Kansas. For example, during the first winter of the occupation of +Kansas, an owner of nineteen slaves was himself forced to work like a +trooper to keep them from freezing; and, indeed, one of them did freeze +to death and another was seriously injured. + +In spite of all the advertising of opportunity and all the pressure +brought to bear upon Southerners to settle in Kansas, at no time did the +number of slaves in the Territory reach three hundred. The climate and +the soil made for freedom, and the Governors were not the only persons +who were converted to free-state principles by residence in the +Territory. + + + +CHAPTER XIII. THE SUPREME COURT IN POLITICS + +The decision and arguments of the Supreme Court upon the Dred Scott +case were published on March 6, 1857, two days after the inauguration +of President Buchanan. The decision had been agreed upon many months +before, and the appeal of the negro, Dred Scott, had been decided +by rulings which in no way involved the validity of the Missouri +Compromise. Nevertheless, a majority of the judges determined to give +to the newly developed theory of John C. Calhoun the appearance of the +sanctity of law. According to Chief Justice Taney's dictum, those +who made the Constitution gave to those clauses defining the power +of Congress over the Territories an erroneous meaning. On numerous +occasions Congress had by statute excluded slavery from the public +domain. This, in the judgment of the Chief Justice, they had no right to +do, and such legislation was unconstitutional and void. Specifically the +Missouri Compromise had never had any binding force as law. Property in +slaves was as sacred as property in any other form, and slave-owners +had equal claim with other property owners to protection in all the +Territories of the United States. Neither Congress nor a territorial +Legislature could infringe such equal rights. + +According to popular understanding, the Supreme Court declared "that the +negro has no rights which the white man is bound to respect." But Chief +Justice Taney did not use these words merely as an expression of his own +or of the Court's opinion. He used them in a way much more contemptible +and inexcusable to the minds of men of strong anti-slavery convictions. +He put them into the mouths of the fathers of the Republic, who wrote +the Declaration of Independence, framed the Constitution, organized +state Governments, and gave to negroes full rights of citizenship, +including the right to vote. But how explain this strange inconsistency? +The Chief Justice was equal to the occasion. He insisted that in recent +years there had come about a better understanding of the phraseology of +the Declaration of Independence. The words, "All men are created equal," +he admitted, "would seem to embrace the whole human family, and if +they were used in a similar instrument at this day they would be so +understood." But the writers of that instrument had not, he said, +intended to include men of the African race, who were at that time +regarded as not forming any part of the people. Therefore--strange +logic!--these men of the revolutionary era who treated negroes actually +as citizens having full equal rights did not understand the meaning of +their own words, which could be comprehended only after three-quarters +of a century when, forsooth, equal rights had been denied to all persons +of African descent. + +The ruling of the Court in the Dred Scott case came at a time when +Northern people had a better idea of the spirit and teachings of +the founders of the Republic regarding the slavery question than any +generation before or since has had. The campaign that had just closed +had been characterized by a high order of discussion, and it was also +emphatically a reading campaign. The new Republican party planted itself +squarely on the principles enunciated by Thomas Jefferson, the reputed +founder of the old Republican party. They went back to the policy of the +fathers, whose words on the subject of slavery they eagerly read. From +this source also came the chief material for their public addresses. +To the common man who was thus indoctrinated, the Chief Justice, in +describing the sentiments of the fathers respecting slavery, appeared to +be doing what Horace Greeley was wont to describe as "saying a thing and +being conscious while saying it that the thing is not true." + +The Dred Scott decision laid the Republicans open to the charge of +seeking by unlawful means to deprive slaveowners of their rights, and it +was to the partizan interest of the Democrats to stand by the Court and +thus discredit their opponents. This action tended to carry the entire +Democratic party to the support of Calhoun's extreme position on the +slavery question. Republicans had proclaimed that liberty was national +and slavery municipal; that slavery had no warrant for existence except +by state enactment; that under the Constitution Congress had no more +right to make a slave than it had to make a king; that Congress had no +power to establish or permit slavery in the Territories; that it was, on +the contrary, the duty of Congress to exclude slavery. On these points +the Supreme Court and the Republican party held directly contradictory +opinions. + +The Democratic platform of 1856 endorsed the doctrine of popular +sovereignty as embodied in the Kansas-Nebraska legislation, which +implied that Congress should neither prohibit nor introduce slavery into +the Territories, but should leave the inhabitants free to decide that +question for themselves, the public domains being open to slaveowners +on equal terms with others. But once they had an organized territorial +Government and a duly elected territorial Legislature, the residents of +a Territory were empowered to choose either slave labor or exclusively +free labor. This at least was the view expounded by Stephen A. Douglas, +though the theory was apparently rendered untenable by the ruling of the +Court which extended protection to slave-owners in all the Territories +remaining under the control of the general Government. It followed that +if Congress had no power to interfere with that right, much less had a +local territorial Government, which is itself a creature of Congress. +A state Government alone might control the status of slave property. A +Territory when adopting a constitution preparatory to becoming a State +would find it then in order to decide whether the proposed State should +be free or slave. This was the view held by Jefferson Davis and the +extreme pro-slavery leaders. Aided by the authority of the Supreme +Court, they were prepared to insist upon a new plank in future +Democratic platforms which should guarantee to all slave-owners equal +rights in all Territories until they ceased to be Territories. Over this +issue the party again divided in 1860. + +Republicans naturally imagined that there had been collusion between +Democratic politicians and members of the Supreme Court. Mr. Seward +made an explicit statement to that effect, and affirmed that President +Buchanan was admitted into the secret, alleging as proof a few words in +his inaugural address referring to the decision soon to be delivered. +Nothing of the sort, however, was ever proven. The historian Von Holst +presents the view that there had been a most elaborate and comprehensive +program on the part of the slavocracy to control the judiciary of the +federal Government. The actual facts, however, admit of a simpler and +more satisfactory explanation. + +Judges are affected by their environment, as are other men. The +transition from the view that slavery was an evil to the view that it +is right and just did not come in ways open to general observation, and +probably few individuals were conscious of having altered their views. +Leading churches throughout the South began to preach the doctrine +that slavery is a divinely ordained institution, and by the time of the +decision in the Dred Scott case a whole generation had grown up under +such teaching. + +A large proportion of Southern leaders had become thoroughly convinced +of the righteousness of their peculiar system. Not otherwise could they +have been so successful in persuading others to accept their views. +Even before the Dred Scott decision had crystallized opinion, Franklin +Pierce, although a New Hampshire Democrat of anti-slavery traditions, +came, as a result of his intimate personal and political association +with Southern leaders, to accept their guidance and strove to give +effect to their policies. President Buchanan was a man of similar +antecedents, and, contrary to the expectation of his Northern +supporters, did precisely as Pierce had done. It is a matter of record +that the arguments of the Chief Justice had captivated his mind before +he began to show his changed attitude towards Kansas. In August, +1857, the President wrote that, at the time of the passage of the +Kansas-Nebraska Act, slavery already existed and that it still existed +in Kansas under the Constitution of the United States. "This point," +said he, "has at last been settled by the highest tribunal known in +our laws. How it could ever have been seriously doubted is a mystery." +Granted that slavery is recognized as a permanent institution in +itself--just and of divine ordinance and especially united to one +section of the country--how could any one question the equal rights of +the people of that section to occupy with their slaves lands acquired +by common sacrifice? Such was undoubtedly the view of both Pierce and +Buchanan. It seemed to them "wicked" that Northern abolitionists should +seek to infringe this sacred right. + +By a similar process a majority of the Supreme Court justices had become +converts to Calhoun's newly announced theory of 1847. It undoubtedly +seemed strange to them, as it did later to President Buchanan, that any +one should ever have held a different view. If the Court with the force +of its prestige should give legal sanction to the new doctrine, it +would allay popular agitation, ensure the preservation of the Union, and +secure to each section its legitimate rights. Such apparently was the +expectation of the majority of the Court in rendering the decision. +But the decision was not unanimous. Each judge presented an individual +opinion. Five supported the Chief Justice on the main points as to the +status of the African race and the validity of the Missouri Compromise. +Judge Nelson registered a protest against the entrance of the Court +into the political arena. Curtis and McLean wrote elaborate dissenting +opinions. Not only did the decision have no tendency to allay party +debate, but it added greatly to the acrimony of the discussion. +Republicans accepted the dissenting opinions of Curtis and McLean as a +complete refutation of the arguments of the Chief Justice; and the +Court itself, through division among its members, became a partizan +institution. The arguments of the justices thus present a complete +summary of the views of the proslavery and anti-slavery parties, and the +opposing opinions stand as permanent evidence of the impossibility of +reconciling slavery and freedom in the same government. + +It was through the masterful leadership of Stephen A. Douglas that the +Lecompton Constitution was defeated. In 1858 an election was to be held +in Illinois to determine whether or not Douglas should be reelected +to the United States Senate. The Buchanan Administration was using its +utmost influence to insure Douglas's defeat. Many eastern Republicans +believed that in this emergency Illinois Republicans should support +Douglas, or at least that they should do nothing to diminish his chances +for reelection; but Illinois Republicans decided otherwise and nominated +Abraham Lincoln as their candidate for the senatorship. Then followed +the memorable Lincoln-Douglas debates. + +This is not the place for any extended account of the famous duel +between the rival leaders, but a few facts must be stated. Lincoln +had slowly come to the perception that a large portion of the people +abhorred slavery, and that the weak point in the armor of Douglas was to +be found in the fact that he did not recognize this growing moral sense. +Douglas had never been a defender of slavery on ethical grounds, nor +had he expressed any distinct aversion to the system. In support of his +policy of popular sovereignty his favorite dictum had been, "I do not +care whether slavery is voted up or voted down." + +This apparent moral obtuseness furnished to Lincoln his great +opportunity, for his opponent was apparently without a conscience in +respect to the great question of the day. Lincoln, on the contrary, had +reached the conclusion not only that slavery was wrong, but that the +relation between slavery and freedom was such that they could not be +harmonized within the same government. In the debates he again put forth +his famous utterance, "A house divided against itself cannot stand," +with the explanation that in course of time either this country would +become all slave territory or slavery would be restricted and placed +in a position which would involve its final extinction. In other +words, Lincoln's position was similar to that of the conservative +abolitionists. As we know, Birney had given expression to a similar +conviction of the impossibility of maintaining both liberty and slavery +in this country, but Lincoln spoke at a time when the whole country +had been aroused upon the great question; when it was still uncertain +whether slavery would not be forced upon the people of Kansas; when the +highest court in the land had rendered a decision which was apparently +intended to legalize slavery in all Territories; and when the alarming +question had been raised whether the next step would not be legalization +in all the States. + +Lincoln was a long-headed politician, as well as a man of sincere moral +judgments. He was defining issues for the campaign of 1860 and was +putting Douglas on record so that it would be impossible for him, as +the candidate of his party, to become President. Douglas had many an +uncomfortable hour as Lincoln exposed his vain efforts to reconcile his +popular sovereignty doctrine with the Dred Scott decision. As Lincoln +expected, Douglas won the senatorship, but he lost the greater prize. + +The crusade against slavery was nearing its final stage. Under the +leadership of such men as Sumner, Seward, and Lincoln, a political party +was being formed whose policies were based upon the assumption that +slavery is both a moral and a political evil. Even at this stage the +party had assumed such proportions that it was likely to carry the +ensuing presidential election. Davis and Yancey, the chief defenders of +slavery, were at the same time reaching a definite conclusion as to +what should follow the election of a Republican President. And that +conclusion involved nothing less than the fate of the Union. + + + +CHAPTER XIV. JOHN BROWN + +The crusade against slavery was based upon the assumption that slavery, +like war, is an abnormal state of society. As the tyrant produces the +assassin, so on a larger scale slavery calls forth servile insurrection, +or, as in the United States, an implacable struggle between free white +persons and the defenders of slavery. + +The propaganda of Southern and Western abolitionists had as a primary +object the prevention of both servile insurrection and civil war. It was +as clear to Southern abolitionists in the thirties as it was to Seward +and Lincoln in the fifties that, unless the newly aroused slave power +should be effectively checked, a terrible civil war would ensue. To +forestall this dreaded calamity, they freely devoted their lives and +fortunes. Peaceable emancipation by state action, according to the +original program, was prevented by the rise of a sectional animosity +which beclouded the issue. As the leadership drifted into the hands of +extremists, the conservative masses were confused, misled, or deceived. +The South undoubtedly became the victim of the erroneous teachings of +alarmists who believed that the anti-slavery North intended, by unlawful +and unconstitutional federal action, to abolish slavery in all the +States; while the North had equally exaggerated notions as to the +aggressive intentions of the South. + +The opposing forces finally met on the plains of Kansas, and extreme +Northern opposition became personified in John Brown of Osawatomie. He +was born in Connecticut in May, 1800, of New England ancestry, the sixth +generation from the Mayflower. A Calvinist, a mystic, a Bible-reading +Puritan, he was trained to anti-slavery sentiments in the family of Owen +Brown, his father. He passed his early childhood in the Western Reserve +of Ohio, and subsequently moved from Ohio to New York, to Pennsylvania, +to Ohio again, to Connecticut, to Massachusetts, and finally to New +York once more. He was at various times tanner, farmer, sheep-raiser, +horse-breeder, wool-merchant, and a follower of other callings as well. +From a business standpoint he may be regarded as a failure, for he had +been more than once a bankrupt and involved in much litigation. He was +twice married and was the father of twenty children, eight of whom died +in infancy. + +Until the Kansas excitement nothing had occurred in the history of the +Brown family to attract public attention. John Brown was not conspicuous +in anti-slavery efforts or in any line of public reform. As a mere lad +during the War of 1812 he accompanied his father, who was furnishing +supplies to the army, and thus he saw much of soldiers and their +officers. The result was that he acquired a feeling of disgust for +everything military, and he consistently refused to perform the required +military drill until he had passed the age for service. Not quite in +harmony with these facts is the statement that he was a great admirer of +Oliver Cromwell, and Rhodes says of him that he admired Nat Turner, the +leader of the servile insurrection in Virginia, as much as he did George +Washington. There seems to be no reason to doubt the testimony of the +members of his family that John Brown always cherished a lively interest +in the African race and a deep sympathy with them. As a youth he had +chosen for a companion a slave boy of his own age, to whom he became +greatly attached. This slave, badly clad and poorly fed, beaten with +iron shovel or anything that came first to hand, young Brown grew to +regard as his equal if not his superior. And it was the contrast between +their respective conditions that first led Brown to "swear eternal war +with slavery." In later years John Brown, Junior, tells us that, on +seeing a negro for the first time, he felt so great a sympathy for +him that he wanted to take the negro home with him. This sympathy, he +assures us, was a result of his father's teaching. Upon the testimony of +two of John Brown's sons rests the oft-repeated story that he declared +eternal war against slavery and also induced the members of his family +to unite with him in formal consecration to his mission. The time given +for this incident is previous to the year 1840; the idea that he was +a divinely chosen agent for the deliverance of the slaves was of later +development. + +As early as 1834 Brown had shown some active interest in the education +of negro children, first in Pennsylvania and later in Ohio. In 1848 the +Brown family became associated with an enterprise of Gerrit Smith in +northern New York, where a hundred thousand acres of land were offered +to negro families for settlement. During the excitement over the +Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 Brown organized among the colored people of +Springfield, Massachusetts, "The United States League of Gileadites." +As an organization this undertaking proved a failure, but Brown's formal +written instructions to the "Gileadites" are interesting on account +of their relation to what subsequently happened. In this document, +by referring to the multitudes who had suffered in their behalf, he +encouraged the negroes to stand for their liberties. He instructed them +to be armed and ready to rush to the rescue of any of their number who +might be attacked: + +"Should one of your number be arrested, you must collect together as +quickly as possible, so as to outnumber your adversaries who are taking +an active part against you. Let no able-bodied man appear on the ground +unequipped, or with his weapons exposed to view: let that be understood +beforehand. Your plans must be known only to yourself, and with the +understanding that all traitors must die, wherever caught and proven to +be guilty. Whosoever is fearful or afraid, let him return and depart +early from Mount Gilead" (Judges, vii. 3; Deut. xx. 8). Give all cowards +an opportunity to show it on condition of holding their peace. Do NOT +DELAY ONE MOMENT AFTER YOU ARE READY: YOU WILL LOSE ALL YOUR RESOLUTION +IF YOU DO. LET THE FIRST BLOW BE THE SIGNAL FOR ALL TO ENGAGE: AND WHEN +ENGAGED DO NOT DO YOUR WORK BY HALVES, BUT MAKE CLEAN WORK WITH YOUR +ENEMIES,--AND BE SURE YOU MEDDLE NOT WITH ANY OTHERS. By going about +your business quietly, you will get the job disposed of before the +number that an uproar would bring together can collect; and you will +have the advantage of those who come out against you, for they will be +wholly unprepared with either equipments or matured plans; all with them +will be confusion and terror. Your enemies will be slow to attack you +after you have done up the work nicely; and if they should, they will +have to encounter your white friends as well as you; for you may safely +calculate on a division of the whites, and may by that means get to an +honorable parley." + +He gives here a distinct suggestion of the plans and methods which he +later developed and extended. + +When Kansas was opened for settlement, John Brown was fifty-four years +old. Early in the spring of 1855, five of his sons took up claims near +Osawatomie. They went, as did others, as peaceable settlers without +arms. After the election of March 30, 1855, at which armed Missourians +overawed the Kansas settlers and thus secured a unanimous pro-slavery +Legislature, the freestate men, under the leadership of Robinson, began +to import Sharp's rifles and other weapons for defense. Brown's sons +thereupon wrote to their father, describing their helpless condition and +urging him to come to their relief. In October, 1855, John Brown himself +arrived with an adequate supply of rifles and some broadswords and +revolvers. The process of organization and drill thereupon began, and +when the Wakarusa War occurred early in December, 1855, John Brown was +on hand with a small company from Osawatomie to assist in the defense +of Lawrence. The statement that he disapproved of the agreement with +Governor Shannon which prevented bloodshed is not in accord with a +letter which John Brown wrote to his wife immediately after the event. +The Governor granted practically all that the freestate men desired +and recognized their trainbands as a part of the police force of +the Territory. Brown by this stipulation became Captain John Brown, +commander of a company of the territorial militia. + +Soon after the Battle of Wakarusa, Captain Brown passed the command of +the company of militia to his son John, while he became the leader of a +small band composed chiefly of members of his own family. Writing to his +wife on April 7, 1856, he said: "We hear that preparations are making in +the United States Court for numerous arrests of free-state men. For one +I have not desired (all things considered) to have the slave power cease +from its acts of aggression. 'Their foot shall slide in due time.'" This +letter of Brown's indicates that the writer was pleased at the prospect +of approaching trouble. + +When, six weeks later, notice came of the attack upon Lawrence, John +Brown, Junior, went with the company of Osawatomie Rifles to the relief +of the town, while the elder Brown with a little company of six moved in +the same direction. In a letter to his wife, dated June 26, 1856, more +than a month after the massacre in Pottawatomie Valley, Brown said: + +"On our way to Lawrence we learned that it had been already destroyed, +and we encamped with John's company overnight.... On the second day +and evening after we left John's men, we encountered quite a number of +pro-slavery men and took quite a number of prisoners. Our prisoners we +let go, but kept some four or five horses. We were immediately after +this accused of murdering five men at Pottawatomie and great efforts +have been made by the Missourians and their ruffian allies to capture +us. John's company soon afterwards disbanded, and also the Osawatomie +men. Since then, we have, like David of old, had our dwelling with the +serpents of the rocks and the wild beasts of the wilderness." + +There will probably never be agreement as to Brown's motives in slaying +his five neighbors on May 24, 1856. Opinions likewise differ as to the +effect which this incident had on the history of Kansas. Abolitionists +of every class had said much about war and about servile insurrection, +but the conservative people of the West and South had mentioned the +subject only by way of warning and that they might point out ways of +prevention. Garrison and his followers had used language which gave +rise to the impression that they favored violent revolution and were +not averse to fomenting servile insurrection. They had no faith in the +efforts of Northern emigrants to save Kansas from the clutches of the +slaveholding South, and they denounced in severe terms the Robinson +leadership there, believing it sure to result in failure. To this class +of abolitionists John Brown distinctly belonged. He believed that so +high was the tension on the slavery question throughout the country +that revolution, if inaugurated at any point, would sweep the land and +liberate the slaves. Brown was also possessed of the belief that he was +himself the divinely chosen agent to let loose the forces of freedom; +and that this was the chief motive which prompted the deed at +Pottawatomie is as probable as any other. + +Viewed in this light, the Pottawatomie massacre was measurably +successful. Opposing forces became more clearly defined and were +pitted against each other in hostile array. There were reprisals and +counter-reprisals. Kansas was plunged into a state of civil war, but it +is quite probable that this condition would have followed the looting of +Lawrence even if John Brown had been absent from the Territory. + +Coincident with the warfare by organized companies, small irregular +bands infested the country. Kansas became a paradise for adventurers, +soldiers of fortune, horse thieves, cattle thieves, and marauders of +various sorts. Spoiling the enemy in the interest of a righteous cause +easily degenerated into common robbery and murder. It was chiefly in +this sort of conflict that two hundred persons were slain and that two +million dollars' worth of property was destroyed. + +During this period of civil war the members of the Brown family were not +much in evidence. John Brown, Junior, captain of the Osawatomie Rifles, +was a political prisoner at Topeka. Swift destruction of their property +was visited upon all those members who were suspected of having a share +in the Pottawatomie murders, and their houses were burned and their +other property was seized. Warrants were out for the arrest of the elder +Brown and his sons. Captain Pate who, in command of a small troop, was +in pursuit of Brown and his company, was surprised at Black Jack in the +early morning and induced to surrender. Brown thus gained control of a +number of horses and other supplies and began to arrange terms for +the exchange of his son and Captain Pate as prisoners of war. The +negotiations were interrupted, however, by the arrival of Colonel Sumner +with United States troops, who restored the horses and other booty and +disbanded all the troops. With the Colonel was a deputy marshal with +warrants for the arrest of the Browns. When ordered to proceed with his +duty, however, the marshal was so overawed that, even though a federal +officer was present, he merely remarked, "I do not recognize any one for +whom I have warrants." + +After the capture of Captain Pate at Black Jack early in June, little is +known about Brown and his troops for two months. Apart from an encounter +of opposing forces near Osawatomie in which he and his band were +engaged, Brown took no share in the open fighting between the organized +companies of opposing forces, and his part in the irregular guerrilla +warfare of the period is uncertain. Towards the close of the war one of +his sons was shot by a preacher who alleged that he had been robbed +by the Browns. After peace had been restored to Kansas by the vigorous +action of Governor Geary, Brown left the scene and never again took an +active part in the local affairs of the Territory. + +John Brown's influence upon the course of affairs in Kansas, like +William Lloyd Garrison's upon the general anti-slavery movement of the +country, has been greatly misunderstood and exaggerated. Brown's object +and intention were fundamentally contradictory to those of the freestate +settlers. They strove to build a free commonwealth by legal and +constitutional methods. He strove to inaugurate a revolution which would +extend to all pro-slavery States and result in universal emancipation. +John Brown was in Kansas only one year, and he never made himself at one +with those who should have been his fellow-workers but went his solitary +way. Only in three instances did he pretend to cooperate with the +regular freestate forces. He could not work with them because his +conception of the means to be adopted to attain the end was different +from theirs. Probably before he left the Territory in 1856, he +had realized that his work in Kansas was a failure and that the +law-and-order forces were too strong for the execution of his plans. +Certain it is that within a few weeks after his departure he had +transferred the field of his operations to the mountains of Virginia. +Kansas became free through the persistent determination of the rank +and file of Northern settlers under the wise leadership of Governor +Robinson. It is difficult to determine whether the cause of Kansas was +aided or hindered by the advent of John Brown and the adventurers with +whom his name became associated. + +During the fall of 1856 and until the late summer of 1857 Brown was +in the East raising funds for the redemption of Kansas and for the +reimbursement of those who had incurred or were likely to incur losses +in defense of the cause. For the equipment of a troop of soldiers under +his own command he formulated plans for raising $30,000 by private +subscription, and in this he was to a considerable extent successful. +It can never be known how much was given in this way to Brown for the +equipment of his army of liberation. It is estimated that George L. +Stearns alone gave in all fully $10,000. Because Eastern abolitionists +had lost confidence in Robinson's leadership, they lent a willing ear to +the plea that Captain Brown with a well-equipped and trained company of +soldiers was the last hope for checking the enemy. Not only would Kansas +become a slave State without such help, it was said, but the institution +of slavery would spread into all the Territories and become invincible. + +The money was given to Brown to redeem Kansas, but he had developed an +alternative plan. Early in the year 1857, he met in New York Colonel +Hugh Forbes, a soldier of fortune who had seen service with Garibaldi +in Italy. They discussed general plans for an aggressive attack upon the +South for the liberation of the slaves, and with these plans the needs +of Kansas had little or no connection. "Kansas was to be a prologue to +the real drama," writes his latest biographer; "the properties of +the one were to serve in the other." In April six months' salary was +advanced out of the Kansas fund to Forbes, who was employed at a +hundred dollars a month to aid in the execution of their plans. Another +significant expenditure of the Kansas fund was in pursuance of a +contract with a Mr. Blair, a Connecticut manufacturer, to furnish at a +dollar each one thousand pikes. Though the contract was dated March 80, +1857, it was not completed until the fall of 1859, when the weapons were +delivered to Brown in Pennsylvania for use at Harper's Ferry. + +Instead of rushing to the relief of Kansas, as contributors had +expected, the leader exercised remarkable deliberation. When August +arrived, it found him only as far as Tabor, Iowa, where a considerable +quantity of arms had been previously assembled. Here he was joined by +Colonel Forbes, and together they organized a school of military tactics +with Forbes as instructor. But as Forbes could find no one but Brown and +his son to drill, he soon returned to the East, still trusted by Brown +as a co-worker. It would seem that Forbes himself wished to play the +chief part in the liberation of America. + +While he was at Tabor, Brown was urged by Lane and other former +associates of his in Kansas to come to their relief with all his forces. +There had, indeed, been a full year of peace since Geary's arrival, +but early in October there was to occur the election of a territorial +Legislature in which the free-state forces had agreed to participate, +and Lane feared an invasion from Missouri. But although the appeal was +not effective, the election proved a complete triumph for the North. +Late in October, after the signal victory of the law-and-order party +at the election, Brown was again urged with even greater insistence to +muster all his forces and come to Kansas, and there were hints in Lane's +letter that an aggressive campaign was afoot to rid the Territory of +the enemy. Instead of going in force, however, Brown stole into the +Territory alone. On his arrival, two days after the date set for a +decisive council of the revolutionary faction, he did not make himself +known to Governor Robinson or to any of his party but persuaded several +of his former associates to join his "school" in Iowa. From Tabor +he subsequently transferred the school to Springdale, a quiet Quaker +community in Cedar County, Iowa, seven miles from any railway station. +Here the company went into winter quarters and spent the time in rigid +drill in preparation for the campaign of liberation which they expected +to undertake the following season. + +While he was at Tabor, Brown began to intimate to his Eastern friends +that he had other and different plans for the promotion of the general +cause. In January, 1858, he went East with the definite intention of +obtaining additional support for the greater scheme. On February 22, +1858, at the home of Gerrit Smith in New York, there was held a council +at which Brown definitely outlined his purpose to begin operations at +some point in the mountains of Virginia. Smith and Sanborn at first +tried to dissuade him, but finally consented to cooperate. The secret +was carefully guarded: some half-dozen Eastern friends were apprised of +it, including Stearns, their most liberal contributor, and two or three +friends at Springdale. + +As early as December, 1857, Forbes began to write mysterious letters to +Sanborn, Stearns, and others of the circle, in which he complained of +ill-usage at the hands of Brown. It appears that Forbes erroneously +assumed that the Boston friends were aware of Brown's contract with +him and of his plans for the attack upon Virginia; but, since they were +entirely ignorant on both points, the correspondence was conducted +at cross-purposes for several months. Finally, early in May, 1858, it +transpired that Forbes had all the time been fully informed of Brown's +intentions to begin the effort for emancipation in Virginia. Not only +so, but he had given detailed information on the subject to Senators +Sumner, Seward, Hale, Wilson, and possibly others. Senator Wilson was +told that the arms purchased by the New England Aid Society for use in +Kansas were to be used by Brown for an attack on Virginia. Wilson, in +entire ignorance of Brown's plans, demanded that the Aid Society be +effectively protected against any such charge of betrayal of trust. The +officers of the Society were, in fact, aware that the arms which had +been purchased with Society funds the year before and shipped to Tabor, +Iowa, had been placed in Brown's hands and that, without their consent, +those arms had been shipped to Ohio and just at that time were on +the point of being transported to Virginia. This knowledge placed the +officers of the New England Aid Society in a most awkward position. +Stearns, the treasurer, had advanced large sums to meet pressing needs +during the starvation times in Kansas in 1857. Now the arms in Brown's +possession were, by vote of the officers, given to the treasurer in part +payment of the Society's debt, and he of course left them just where +they were. * On the basis of this arrangement Senator Wilson and the +public were assured that none of the property given for the benefit of +Kansas had been or would be diverted to other purposes by the Kansas +Committee. It was decided, however, that on account of the Forbes +revelations the attack upon Harper's Ferry must be delayed for one year +and that Brown must go to Kansas to take part in the pending elections. + + * "When the denouement finally came, however, the public and + press did not take a very favorable view of the transaction; + it was too difficult to distinguish between George L. + Stearns, the benefactor of the Kansas Committee, and George + L. Stearns, the Chairman of that Committee." Villard, "John + Brown," p. 341. + +Though Brown arrived in Kansas late in June, he took no active part in +the pending measures for the final triumph of the free-state cause. It +is something of a mystery how he was occupied between the 1st of July +and the middle of December. Under the pseudonym of "Shubal Morgan" he +was commander of a small band in which were a number of his followers +in training for the Eastern mission. The occupation of this band is not +matter of history until December 20, 1858, when they made a raid into +the State of Missouri, slew one white man, took eleven slaves, a large +number of horses, some oxen, wagons, much food, arms, and various other +supplies. This action was in direct violation of a solemn agreement +between the border settlers of State and Territory. The people in +Kansas were in terror lest retaliatory raids should follow, as would +undoubtedly have happened had not the people of Missouri taken active +measures to prevent such reprisals. + +Rewards were offered for Brown's arrest, and free-state residents +served notice that he must leave the Territory. In the dead of winter he +started North with some slaves and many horses, accompanied by Kagi and +Gill, two of his faithful followers. In northern Kansas, where they +were delayed by a swollen stream, a band of horsemen appeared to dispute +their passage. Brown's party quickly mustered assistance and, giving +chase to the enemy, took three prisoners with four horses as spoils of +war. In Kansas parlance the affair is called "The Battle of the Spurs." +The leaders in the chase were seasoned soldiers on their way to Harper's +Ferry with the intention of spending their lives collecting slaves and +conducting them to places of safety. For this sort of warfare they were +winning their spurs. It was their intention to teach all defenders of +slavery to use their utmost endeavor to keep out of their reach. As +Brown and his company passed through Tabor, the citizens took occasion +at a public meeting to resolve "that we have no sympathy with those who +go to slave States to entice away slaves, and take property or life when +necessary to attain that end." + +A few days later the party was at Grinnell, Iowa. According to the +detailed account which J. B. Grinnell gives in his autobiography, Brown +appeared on Saturday afternoon, stacked his arms in Grinnell's parlor +and disposed of his people and horses partly in Grinnell's house and +barn and partly at the hotel. In the evening Brown and Kagi addressed +a large meeting in a public hall. Brown gave a lurid account of +experiences in Kansas, justified his raid into Missouri by saying the +slaves were to be sold for shipment to the South, and gave notice that +his surplus horses would be offered for sale on Monday. "What title can +you give?" was the question that came from the audience. "The best--the +affidavit that they were taken by black men from land they had cleared +and tilled; taken in part payment for labor which is kept back." + +Brown again addressed a large meeting on Sunday evening at which each of +the three clergymen present invoked the divine blessing upon Brown and +his labors. The present writer was told by an eye-witness that one of +the ministers prayed for forgiveness for any wrongful acts which their +guest may have committed. Convinced of the rectitude of his actions, +however, Brown objected and said that he thanked no one for asking +forgiveness for anything he had done. + +Returning from church on Sunday evening, Grinnell found a message +awaiting him from Mr. Werkman, United States marshal at Iowa City, who +was a friend of Grinnell. The message in part read: "You can see that it +will give your town a bad name to have a fight there; then all who aid +are liable, and there will be an arrest or blood. Get the old Devil away +to save trouble, for he will be taken, dead or alive." Grinnell showed +the message to Brown, who remarked: "Yes, I have heard of him ever since +I came into the State.... Tell him we are ready to be taken, but will +wait one day more for his military squad." True to his word he waited +till the following afternoon and then moved directly towards Iowa City, +the home of the marshal, passing beyond the city fourteen miles to his +Quaker friends at Springdale. Here he remained about two weeks until +he had completed arrangements for shipping his fugitives by rail to +Chicago. In the meantime, where was Marshal Werkman of Iowa City? Was +he of the same mind as the deputy marshal who had accompanied Colonel +Sumner? Two of Brown's men had visited the city to make arrangements for +the shipment. The situation was obvious enough to those who would see. +The entire incident is an illuminating commentary on the attitude of +both government and people towards the Fugitive Slave Law. In March the +fugitives were safely landed in Canada and the rest of the horses +were sold in Cleveland, Ohio. The time was approaching for the move on +Virginia. + +Brown now expended much time and attention upon a constitution for the +provisional government which he was to set up. In January and February, +1858, Brown had labored over this document for several weeks at the home +of Frederick Douglass at Rochester, New York. A copy was in evidence +at the conference with Sanborn and Gerrit Smith in February, and the +document was approved at a conference held in Chatham, Canada, on May 8, +1858, just at the time when Forbes's revelations caused the postponement +of the enterprise. It is an elaborate constitution containing +forty-eight articles. The preamble indicates the general purport: + +Whereas, Slavery throughout its entire existence in the United States is +none other than a most barbarous, unprovoked, and unjustifiable war of +one portion of its citizens upon another portion the only conditions +of which are perpetual imprisonment and hopeless servitude or absolute +extermination; in utter disregard and violation of those eternal and +self-evident truths set forth in our Declaration of Independence: +Therefore, we the citizens of the United States, and the Oppressed +People, who, by a decision of the Supreme Court are declared to have no +rights which the White Man is bound to respect; together with all other +people degraded by the laws thereof, Do, for the time being ordain and +establish for ourselves, the following PROVISIONAL CONSTITUTION AND +ORDINANCES, the better to protect our Persons, Property, Lives and +Liberties and to govern our actions. + +Article Forty-six reads: + +The foregoing articles shall not be construed so as in any way to +encourage the overthrow of any State Government or of the general +government of the United States; and look to no dissolution of the +Union, but simply to Amendment and Repeal. And our flag shall be the +same that our Fathers fought under in the Revolution. + +In Article Forty, "profane swearing, filthy conversation, and indecent +behavior" are forbidden. The document indicates an obvious intention to +effect a revolution by a restrained and regulated use of force. + +Mobilization of forces began in June, 1859. Cook, one of the original +party, had spent the year in the region of Harper's Ferry. In July the +Kennedy farm, five miles from Harper's Ferry, was leased. The Northern +immigrants posed as farmers, stock-raisers, and dealers in cattle, +seeking a milder climate. To assist in the disguise, Brown's daughter +and daughter-in-law, mere girls, joined the community. Even so it was +difficult to allay troublesome curiosity on the part of neighbors at the +gathering of so many men with no apparent occupation. Suspicion might +easily have been aroused by the assembling of numerous boxes of arms +from the West and the thousand pikes from Connecticut. Late in August, +Floyd, Secretary of War, received an anonymous letter emanating from +Springdale, Iowa, giving information which, if acted upon, would have +led to an investigation and stopped the enterprise. + +The 24th of October was the day appointed for taking possession of +Harper's Ferry, but fear of exposure led to a change of plan and the +move was begun on the 16th of October. Six of the party who would have +been present at the later date were absent. The march from Kennedy farm +began about eight o'clock Sunday evening. Before midnight the bridges, +the town, and the arsenal were in the hands of the invaders without a +gun having been fired. Before noon on Monday some forty citizens of the +neighborhood had been assembled as prisoners and held, it was explained, +as hostages for the safety of members of the party who might be taken. +During the early forenoon Kagi strongly urged that they should escape +into the mountains; but Brown, who was influenced, as he said, by +sympathy for his prisoners and their distressed families, refused to +move and at last found himself surrounded by opposing forces. Brown's +men, having been assigned to different duties, were separated. Six of +them escaped; others were killed or wounded or taken prisoners. Brown +himself with six of his men and a few of his prisoners made a final +stand in the engine-house. This was early in the afternoon. All avenues +of escape were now closed. Brown made two efforts to communicate with +his assailants by means of a flag of truce, sending first Thompson, one +of his men, with one of his prisoners, and then Stevens and Watson Brown +with another of the prisoners. Thompson was received but was held as a +prisoner; Stevens and Watson Brown were shot down, the first dangerously +wounded and the other mortally wounded. Later in the afternoon Brown +received a flag of truce with a demand that he surrender. He stated the +conditions under which he would restore the prisoners whom he held, but +he refused the unconditional surrender which was demanded. + +About midnight Colonel Robert E. Lee arrived from Washington with a +company of marines. He took full command, set a guard of his own men +around the engine-house and made preparation to effect a forcible +entrance at sunrise on Tuesday morning in case a peaceable surrender was +refused. Lee first offered to two of the local companies the honor of +storming the castle. These, however, declined to undertake the perilous +task, and the honor fell to Lieutenant Green of the marines, who +thereupon selected two squads of twelve men each to attempt an entrance +through the door. To Lee's aide, Lieutenant Stuart, who had known +Brown in Kansas, was committed the task of making the formal demand for +surrender. Brown and Stuart, who recognized each other instantly upon +their meeting at the door, held a long parley, which resulted, as had +been expected, in Brown's refusal to yield. Stuart then gave the signal +which had been agreed upon to Lieutenant Green, who ordered the first +squad to advance. Failing to break down the door with sledge-hammers, +they seized a heavy ladder and at the second stroke made an opening near +the ground large enough to admit a man. Green instantly entered, rushed +to the back part of the room, and climbed upon an engine to command a +better view. Colonel Lewis Washington, the most distinguished of the +prisoners, pointed to Brown, saying, "This is Osawatomie." Green leaped +forward and by thrust or stroke bent his light sword double against +Brown's body. Other blows were administered and his victim fell +senseless, and it was believed that the leader had been slain in action +according to his wish. + +The first of the twelve men to attempt to follow their leader was +instantly killed by gunshot. Others rushed in and slew two of Brown's +men by the use of the bayonet. To save the prisoners from harm, Lee had +given careful instruction to fire no shot, to use only bayonets. The +other insurgents were made prisoners. "The whole fight," Green reported, +"had not lasted over three minutes." + +Of all the prisoners taken and held as hostages, not one was killed or +wounded. They were made as safe as the conditions permitted. The eleven +prisoners who were with Brown in the engine-house were profoundly +impressed with the courage, the bearing, and the self-restraint of the +leader and his men. Colonel Washington describes Brown as holding a +carbine in one hand, with one dead son by his side, while feeling the +pulse of another son, who had received a mortal wound, all the time +watching every movement for the defense and forbidding his men to +fire upon any one who was unarmed. The testimony is uniform that +Brown exercised special care to prevent his men from shooting unarmed +citizens, and this conduct was undoubtedly influential in securing +generous treatment for him and his men after the surrender. + +For six weeks afterwards, until his execution on the 2d of December, +John Brown remained a conspicuous figure. He won universal admiration +for courage, coolness, and deliberation, and for his skill in parrying +all attempts to incriminate others. Probably less than a hundred people +knew beforehand anything about the enterprise, and less than a dozen +of these rendered aid and encouragement. It was emphatically a personal +exploit. On the part of both leader and followers, no occasion was +omitted to drive home the lesson that men were willing to imperil their +lives for the oppressed with no hope or desire for personal gain. Brown +especially served notice upon the South that the day of final reckoning +was at hand. + +It is natural that the consequences of an event so spectacular as +the capture of Harper's Ferry should be greatly exaggerated. +Brown's contribution to Kansas history has been distorted beyond all +recognition. The Harper's Ferry affair, however, because it came on the +eve of the final election before the war, undoubtedly had considerable +influence. It sharpened the issue. It played into the hands of +extremists in both sections. On one side, Brown was at once made +a martyr and a hero; on the other, his acts were accepted as a +demonstration of Northern malignity and hatred, whose fitting expression +was seen in the incitement of slaves to massacre their masters. + +The distinctive contribution of John Brown to American history does not +consist in the things which he did but rather in that which he has been +made to represent. He has been accepted as the personification of the +irrepressible conflict. + +Of all the men of his generation John Brown is best fitted to exemplify +the most difficult lesson which history teaches: that slavery and +despotism are themselves forms of war, that the shedding of blood is +likely to continue so long as the rich, the strong, the educated, or the +efficient, strive to force their will upon the poor, the weak, and the +ignorant. Lincoln uttered a final word on the subject when he said that +no man is good enough to rule over another man; if he were good enough +he would not be willing to do it. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + +Among the many political histories which furnish a background for the +study of the anti-slavery crusade, the following have special value: + +J. F. Rhodes, "History of the United States from the Compromise of +1860," 7 vols. (1893-1906). The first two volumes cover the decade to +1860. This is the best-balanced account of the period, written in +an admirable judicial temper. H. E. von Holst, Constitutional anal +Political History of the United States," 8 vols. (1877-1892). A vast +mine of information on the slavery controversy. The work is vitiated by +an almost virulent antipathy toward the South. James Schouler, "History +of the United States," 7 vols. (1895-1901). A sober, reliable narrative +of events. Henry Wilson, "History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave +Power in America," 3 vols. (1872-1877). The fullest account of the +subject, written by a contemporary. The material was thrown together by +an overworked statesman and lacks proportion. + +Three volumes in the "American Nation Series" aim to combine the +treatment of special topics of commanding interest with general +political history. A. B. Hart's "Slavery and Abolition" (1906) gives an +account of the origin of the controversy and carries the history down to +1841. G. P. Garrison's "Westward Extension" (1906) deals especially with +the Mexican War and its results. T. C. Smith's "Parties and Slavery" +(1906) follows the gradual disruption of parties under the pressure of +the slavery controversy. + +From the mass of contemporary controversial literature a few titles of +more permanent interest may be selected. William Goodell's "Slavery +and Anti-slavery" (1852) presents the anti-slavery arguments. A. T. +Bledsoe's "An Essay on Liberty and Slavery" (1856) and "The Pro-slavery +Argument" (1852), a series of essays by various writers, undertake the +defense of slavery. + +Only a few of the biographies which throw light on the crusade can be +mentioned. "William Lloyd Garrison," 4 vols. (1885-1889) is the story +of the editor of the Liberator told exhaustively by his children. Less +voluminous but equally important are the following: W. Birney, "James G. +Birney and His Times" (1890); G. W. Julian, "Joshua R. Giddings" (1892); +Catherine H. Birney, "Sarah and Angelina Grimke" (1885); John T. Morse, +"John Quincy Adams." Those who have not patience to read E. L. Pierce's +ponderous "Memoir and Letters of Charles Sumner," 4 vols. (1877-1893), +would do well to read G. H. Haynes's "Charles Sumner" (1909). + +The history of the conflict in Kansas is closely associated with the +lives of two rival candidates for the honor of leadership in the cause +of freedom. James Redpath in his "Public Life of Captain John Brown" +(1860), Frank B. Sanborn in his "Life and Letters of John Brown" (1885), +and numerous other writers give to Brown the credit of leadership. +The opposition view is held by F. W. Blackmar in his "Life of Charles +Robinson" (1902), and by Robinson himself in his Kansas Conflict (2d +ed., 1898). The best non-partizan biography of Brown is O. G. Villard's +"John Brown, A Biography Fifty Years After" (1910). + +The Underground Railroad has been adequately treated in W. H. Siebert's +"The Underground Railroad from Slavery to Freedom" (1898), but Levi +Coffin's "Reminiscences" (1876) gives an earlier autobiographical +account of the origin and management of an important line, while Mrs. +Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin" throws the glamour of romance over the +system. + +For additional bibliographical information the reader is referred to +the articles on "Slavery, Fugitive Slave Laws, Kansas, William Lloyd +Garrison, John Brown, James Gillespie Birney," and "Frederick Douglass" +in "The Encyclopaedia Britannica" (11th Edition). + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Anti-Slavery Crusade, by Jesse Macy + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ANTI-SLAVERY CRUSADE *** + +***** This file should be named 3034.txt or 3034.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/0/3/3034/ + +Produced by The James J. Kelly Library of St. Gregory's +University, Dianne Bean, Doug Levy, and Alev Akman + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/3034.zip b/3034.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..335863f --- /dev/null +++ b/3034.zip diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a285d73 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #3034 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3034) diff --git a/old/ascru10.txt b/old/ascru10.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a91eccf --- /dev/null +++ b/old/ascru10.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5283 @@ +The Project Gutenberg Etext of The Anti-Slavery Crusade +by Jesse Macy + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world, be sure to check +the laws for your country before redistributing these files!!! + +Please take a look at the important information in this header. +We encourage you to keep this file on your own disk, keeping an +electronic path open for the next readers. + +Please do not remove this. + +This should be the first thing seen when anyone opens the book. +Do not change or edit it without written permission. The words +are carefully chosen to provide users with the information they +need about what they can legally do with the texts. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**Etexts Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*These Etexts Prepared By Hundreds of Volunteers and Donations* + +Information on contacting Project Gutenberg to get Etexts, and +further information is included below. We need your donations. + +Presently, contributions are only being solicited from people in: +Texas, Nevada, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, South Dakota, +Iowa, Indiana, and Vermont. As the requirements for other states +are met, additions to this list will be made and fund raising will +begin in the additional states. These donations should be made to: + +Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +PMB 113 +1739 University Ave. +Oxford, MS 38655 + + +Title: The Anti-Slavery Crusade + +Author: Jesse Macy + +Release Date: January, 2002 [Etext #3034] +[Yes, we are about one year ahead of schedule] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +The Project Gutenberg Etext of The Anti-Slavery Crusade +by Jesse Macy +******This file should be named ascru10.txt or ascru10.zip****** + +Corrected EDITIONS of our etexts get a new NUMBER, ascru11.txt +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, ascru10a.txt + +Project Gutenberg Etexts are usually created from multiple editions, +all of which are in the Public Domain in the United States, unless a +copyright notice is included. Therefore, we usually do NOT keep any +of these books in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +We are now trying to release all our books one year in advance +of the official release dates, leaving time for better editing. +Please be encouraged to send us error messages even years after +the official publication date. + +Please note: neither this list nor its contents are final till +midnight of the last day of the month of any such announcement. +The official release date of all Project Gutenberg Etexts is at +Midnight, Central Time, of the last day of the stated month. A +preliminary version may often be posted for suggestion, comment +and editing by those who wish to do so. + +Most people start at our sites at: +http://gutenberg.net +http://promo.net/pg + + +Those of you who want to download any Etext before announcement +can surf to them as follows, and just download by date; this is +also a good way to get them instantly upon announcement, as the +indexes our cataloguers produce obviously take a while after an +announcement goes out in the Project Gutenberg Newsletter. + +http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext02 +or +ftp://ftp.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext02 + +Or /etext01, 00, 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 92, 91 or 90 + +Just search by the first five letters of the filename you want, +as it appears in our Newsletters. + + +Information about Project Gutenberg (one page) + +We produce about two million dollars for each hour we work. The +time it takes us, a rather conservative estimate, is fifty hours +to get any etext selected, entered, proofread, edited, copyright +searched and analyzed, the copyright letters written, etc. This +projected audience is one hundred million readers. If our value +per text is nominally estimated at one dollar then we produce $2 +million dollars per hour this year as we release fifty new Etext +files per month, or 500 more Etexts in 2000 for a total of 3000+ +If they reach just 1-2% of the world's population then the total +should reach over 300 billion Etexts given away by year's end. + +The Goal of Project Gutenberg is to Give Away One Trillion Etext +Files by December 31, 2001. [10,000 x 100,000,000 = 1 Trillion] +This is ten thousand titles each to one hundred million readers, +which is only about 4% of the present number of computer users. + +At our revised rates of production, we will reach only one-third +of that goal by the end of 2001, or about 3,333 Etexts unless we +manage to get some real funding. + +Something is needed to create a future for Project Gutenberg for +the next 100 years. + +We need your donations more than ever! + +Presently, contributions are only being solicited from people in: +Texas, Nevada, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, South Dakota, +Iowa, Indiana, and Vermont. As the requirements for other states +are met, additions to this list will be made and fund raising will +begin in the additional states. + +All donations should be made to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation and will be tax deductible to the extent +permitted by law. + +Mail to: + +Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +PMB 113 +1739 University Avenue +Oxford, MS 38655 [USA] + +We are working with the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation to build more stable support and ensure the +future of Project Gutenberg. + +We need your donations more than ever! + +You can get up to date donation information at: + +http://www.gutenberg.net/donation.html + + +*** + +You can always email directly to: + +Michael S. Hart <hart@pobox.com> + +hart@pobox.com forwards to hart@prairienet.org and archive.org +if your mail bounces from archive.org, I will still see it, if +it bounces from prairienet.org, better resend later on. . . . + +We would prefer to send you this information by email. + + +Example command-line FTP session: + +ftp ftp.ibiblio.org +login: anonymous +password: your@login +cd pub/docs/books/gutenberg +cd etext90 through etext99 or etext00 through etext02, etc. +dir [to see files] +get or mget [to get files. . .set bin for zip files] +GET GUTINDEX.?? [to get a year's listing of books, e.g., GUTINDEX.99] +GET GUTINDEX.ALL [to get a listing of ALL books] + + +**The Legal Small Print** + + +(Three Pages) + +***START**THE SMALL PRINT!**FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS**START*** +Why is this "Small Print!" statement here? You know: lawyers. +They tell us you might sue us if there is something wrong with +your copy of this etext, even if you got it for free from +someone other than us, and even if what's wrong is not our +fault. So, among other things, this "Small Print!" statement +disclaims most of our liability to you. It also tells you how +you can distribute copies of this etext if you want to. + +*BEFORE!* YOU USE OR READ THIS ETEXT +By using or reading any part of this PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm +etext, you indicate that you understand, agree to and accept +this "Small Print!" statement. If you do not, you can receive +a refund of the money (if any) you paid for this etext by +sending a request within 30 days of receiving it to the person +you got it from. If you received this etext on a physical +medium (such as a disk), you must return it with your request. + +ABOUT PROJECT GUTENBERG-TM ETEXTS +This PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm etext, like most PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm etexts, +is a "public domain" work distributed by Professor Michael S. Hart +through the Project Gutenberg Association (the "Project"). +Among other things, this means that no one owns a United States copyright +on or for this work, so the Project (and you!) can copy and +distribute it in the United States without permission and +without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth +below, apply if you wish to copy and distribute this etext +under the Project's "PROJECT GUTENBERG" trademark. + +Please do not use the "PROJECT GUTENBERG" trademark to market +any commercial products without permission. + +To create these etexts, the Project expends considerable +efforts to identify, transcribe and proofread public domain +works. Despite these efforts, the Project's etexts and any +medium they may be on may contain "Defects". Among other +things, Defects may take the form of incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other +intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged +disk or other etext medium, a computer virus, or computer +codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment. + +LIMITED WARRANTY; DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES +But for the "Right of Replacement or Refund" described below, +[1] the Project (and any other party you may receive this +etext from as a PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm etext) disclaims all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including +legal fees, and [2] YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE OR +UNDER STRICT LIABILITY, OR FOR BREACH OF WARRANTY OR CONTRACT, +INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE +OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE +POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. + +If you discover a Defect in this etext within 90 days of +receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) +you paid for it by sending an explanatory note within that +time to the person you received it from. If you received it +on a physical medium, you must return it with your note, and +such person may choose to alternatively give you a replacement +copy. If you received it electronically, such person may +choose to alternatively give you a second opportunity to +receive it electronically. + +THIS ETEXT IS OTHERWISE PROVIDED TO YOU "AS-IS". NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, ARE MADE TO YOU AS +TO THE ETEXT OR ANY MEDIUM IT MAY BE ON, INCLUDING BUT NOT +LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A +PARTICULAR PURPOSE. + +Some states do not allow disclaimers of implied warranties or +the exclusion or limitation of consequential damages, so the +above disclaimers and exclusions may not apply to you, and you +may have other legal rights. + +INDEMNITY +You will indemnify and hold the Project, its directors, +officers, members and agents harmless from all liability, cost +and expense, including legal fees, that arise directly or +indirectly from any of the following that you do or cause: +[1] distribution of this etext, [2] alteration, modification, +or addition to the etext, or [3] any Defect. + +DISTRIBUTION UNDER "PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm" +You may distribute copies of this etext electronically, or by +disk, book or any other medium if you either delete this +"Small Print!" and all other references to Project Gutenberg, +or: + +[1] Only give exact copies of it. Among other things, this + requires that you do not remove, alter or modify the + etext or this "small print!" statement. You may however, + if you wish, distribute this etext in machine readable + binary, compressed, mark-up, or proprietary form, + including any form resulting from conversion by word + processing or hypertext software, but only so long as + *EITHER*: + + [*] The etext, when displayed, is clearly readable, and + does *not* contain characters other than those + intended by the author of the work, although tilde + (~), asterisk (*) and underline (_) characters may + be used to convey punctuation intended by the + author, and additional characters may be used to + indicate hypertext links; OR + + [*] The etext may be readily converted by the reader at + no expense into plain ASCII, EBCDIC or equivalent + form by the program that displays the etext (as is + the case, for instance, with most word processors); + OR + + [*] You provide, or agree to also provide on request at + no additional cost, fee or expense, a copy of the + etext in its original plain ASCII form (or in EBCDIC + or other equivalent proprietary form). + +[2] Honor the etext refund and replacement provisions of this + "Small Print!" statement. + +[3] Pay a trademark license fee to the Project of 20% of the + gross profits you derive calculated using the method you + already use to calculate your applicable taxes. If you + don't derive profits, no royalty is due. Royalties are + payable to "Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation" + the 60 days following each date you prepare (or were + legally required to prepare) your annual (or equivalent + periodic) tax return. Please contact us beforehand to + let us know your plans and to work out the details. + +WHAT IF YOU *WANT* TO SEND MONEY EVEN IF YOU DON'T HAVE TO? +The Project gratefully accepts contributions of money, time, +public domain etexts, and royalty free copyright licenses. +If you are interested in contributing scanning equipment or +software or other items, please contact Michael Hart at: +hart@pobox.com + +*END THE SMALL PRINT! FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS*Ver.04.07.00*END* + + + + +Title: The Anti-Slavery Crusade, A Chronicle of the Gathering Storm + +Author: Jesse Macy + +THIS BOOK, VOLUME 28 IN THE CHRONICLES OF AMERICA SERIES, ALLEN +JOHNSON, EDITOR, WAS DONATED TO PROJECT GUTENBERG BY THE JAMES +J. KELLY LIBRARY OF ST. GREGORY'S UNIVERSITY; THANKS TO ALEV +AKMAN. + +Scanned by Dianne Bean. +Proofed by Doug Levy. + +THE ANTI-SLAVERY CRUSADE, A CHRONICLE OF THE GATHERING STORM +BY JESSE MACY + +NEW HAVEN: YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS +TORONTO: GLASGOW, BROOK & CO. +LONDON: HUMPHREY MILFORD +OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS +1919 + +CONTENTS + +I. INTRODUCTION + +II. THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE CRUSADE + +III. EARLY CRUSADERS + +IV. THE TURNING-POINT + +V. THE VINDICATION OF LIBERTY + +VI. THE SLAVERY ISSUE IN POLITICS + +VII. THE PASSING OF THE WHIG PARTY + +VIII. THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD + +IX. BOOKS AS ANTI-SLAVERY WEAPONS + +X. "BLEEDING KANSAS" + +XI. CHARLES SUMNER + +XII. KANSAS AND BUCHANAN + +XIII. THE SUPREME COURT IN POLITICS + +XIV. JOHN BROWN + +BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + + + + +THE ANTI-SLAVERY CRUSADE + +CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION + +The Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln marks the +beginning of the end of a long chapter in human history. Among +the earliest forms of private property was the ownership of +slaves. Slavery as an institution had persisted throughout the +ages, always under protest, always provoking opposition, +insurrection, social and civil war, and ever bearing within +itself the seeds of its own destruction. Among the historic +powers of the world the United States was the last to uphold +slavery, and when, a few years after Lincoln's proclamation, +Brazil emancipated her slaves, property in man as a legally +recognized institution came to an end in all civilized countries. + +Emancipation in the United States marked the conclusion of a +century of continuous debate, in which the entire history of +western civilization was traversed. The literature of American +slavery is, indeed, a summary of the literature of the world on +the subject. The Bible was made a standard text-book both for and +against slavery. Hebrew and Christian experiences were exploited +in the interest of the contending parties in this crucial +controversy. Churches of the same name and order were divided +among themselves and became half pro-slavery and half +anti-slavery. + +Greek experience and Greek literature were likewise drawn into +the controversy. The Greeks themselves had set the example of +arguing both for and against slavery. Their practice and their +prevailing teaching, however, gave support to this institution. +They clearly enunciated the doctrine that there is a natural +division among human beings; that some are born to command and +others to obey; that it is natural to some men to be masters and +to others to be slaves; that each of these classes should fulfill +the destiny which nature assigns. The Greeks also recognized a +difference between races and held that some were by nature fitted +to serve as slaves, and others to command as masters. The +defenders of American slavery therefore found among the writings +of the Greeks their chief arguments already stated in classic +form. + +Though the Romans added little to the theory of the fundamental +problem involved, their history proved rich in practical +experience. There were times, in parts of the Roman Empire, when +personal slavery either did not exist or was limited and +insignificant in extent. But the institution grew with Roman wars +and conquests. In rural districts, slave labor displaced free +labor, and in the cities servants multiplied with the +concentration of wealth. The size and character of the slave +population eventually became a perpetual menace to the State. +Insurrections proved formidable, and every slave came to be +looked upon as an enemy to the public. It is generally conceded +that the extension of slavery was a primary cause of the decline +and fall of Rome. In the American controversy, therefore, the +lesson to be drawn from Roman experience was utilized to support +the cause of free labor. + +After the Middle Ages, in which slavery under the modified form +of feudalism ran its course, there was a reversion to the ancient +classical controversy. The issue became clearly defined in the +hands of the English and French philosophers of the seventeenth +and eighteenth centuries. In place of the time-honored doctrine +that the masses of mankind are by nature subject to the few who +are born to rule, the contradictory dogma that all men are by +nature free and equal was clearly enunciated. According to this +later view, it is of the very nature of spirit, or personality, +to be free. All men are endowed with personal qualities of will +and choice and a conscious sense of right and wrong. To subject +these native faculties to an alien force is to make war upon +human nature. Slavery and despotism are, therefore, in their +nature but a species of warfare. They involve the forcing of men +to act in violation of their true selves. The older doctrine +makes government a matter of force. The strong command the weak, +or the rich exercise lordship over the poor. The new doctrine +makes of government an achievement of adult citizens who agree +among themselves as to what is fit and proper for the good of the +State and who freely observe the rules adopted and apply force +only to the abnormal, the delinquent, and the defective. + +Between the upholders of these contradictory views of human +nature there always has been and there always must be perpetual +warfare. Their difference is such as to admit of no compromise; +no middle ground is possible. The conflict is indeed +irresistible. The chief interest in the American crusade against +slavery arises from its relation to this general world conflict +between liberty and despotism. + +The Athenians could be democrats and at the same time could +uphold and defend the institution of slavery. They were committed +to the doctrine that the masses of the people were slaves by +nature. By definition, they made slaves creatures void of will +and personality, and they conveniently ignored them in matters of +state. But Americans living in States founded in the era of the +Declaration of Independence could not be good democrats and at +the same time uphold and defend the institution of slavery, for +the Declaration gives the lie to all such assumptions of human +inequality by accepting the cardinal axiom that all men are +created equal and are endowed with certain inalienable rights, +among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. The +doctrine of equality had been developed in Europe without special +reference to questions of distinct race or color. But the terms, +which are universal and as broad as humanity in their denotation, +came to be applied to black men as well as to white men. +Massachusetts embodied in her state constitution in 1780 the +words, "All men are born free and equal," and the courts ruled +that these words in the state constitution had the effect of +liberating the slaves and of giving to them the same rights as +other citizens. This is a perfectly logical application of the +doctrine of the Revolution. + +The African slave-trade, however, developed earlier than the +doctrine of the Declaration of Independence. Negro slavery had +long been an established institution in all the American +colonies. Opposition to the slave-trade and to slavery was an +integral part of the evolution of the doctrine of equal rights. +As the colonists contended for their own freedom, they became +anti-slavery in sentiment. A standard complaint against British +rule was the continued imposition of the slave-trade upon the +colonists against their oft-repeated protest. + +In the original draft of the Declaration of Independence, there +appeared the following charges against the King of Great Britain: + +"He has waged cruel war against human nature itself, violating +its most sacred rights of life and liberty in the persons of +distant people who never offended him, captivating and carrying +them into slavery in another hemisphere, or to incur miserable +death in their transportation thither. This piratical warfare, +the opprobrium of infidel powers, is the warfare of the Christian +King of Great Britain. Determined to keep open a market where men +should be bought and sold, he has prostituted his negative for +suppressing every legislative attempt to prohibit or to restrain +this execrable commerce." + +Though this clause was omitted from the document as finally +adopted, the evidence is abundant that the language expressed the +prevailing sentiment of the country. To the believer in liberty +and equality, slavery and the slave-trade are instances of war +against human nature. No one attempted to justify slavery or to +reconcile it with the principles of free government. Slavery was +accepted as an inheritance for which others were to blame. +Colonists at first blamed Great Britain; later apologists for +slavery blamed New England for her share in the continuance of +the slave-trade. + +The fact should be clearly comprehended that the sentiments which +led to the American Revolution, and later to the French +Revolution in Europe, were as broad in their application as the +human race itself--that there were no limitations nor exceptions. +These new principles involved a complete revolution in the +previously recognized principles of government. The French sought +to make a master-stroke at immediate achievement and they +incurred counterrevolutions and delays. The Americans moved in a +more moderate and tentative manner towards the great achievement, +but with them also a counter-revolution finally appeared in the +rise of an influential class who, by openly defending slavery, +repudiated the principles upon which the government was founded. + +At first the impression was general, in the South as well as in +the North, that slavery was a temporary institution. The cause of +emancipation was already advocated by the Society of Friends and +some other sects. A majority of the States adopted measures for +the gradual abolition of slavery, but in other cases there proved +to be industrial barriers to emancipation. Slaves were found to +be profitably employed in clearing away the forests; they were +not profitably employed in general agriculture. A marked +exception was found in small districts in the Carolinas and +Georgia where indigo and rice were produced; and though cotton +later became a profitable crop for slave labor, it was the +producers of rice and indigo who furnished the original barrier +to the immediate extension of the policy of emancipation. +Representatives from their States secured the introduction of a +clause into the Constitution which delayed for twenty years the +execution of the will of the country against the African +slave-trade. It is said that a slave imported from Africa paid +for himself in a single year in the production of rice. There +were thus a few planters in Georgia and the Carolinas who had an +obvious interest in the prolongation of the institution of +slavery and who had influence enough, to secure constitutional +recognition for both slavery and the slave-trade. + +The principles involved were not seriously debated. In theory all +were abolitionists; in practice slavery extended to all the +States. In some, actual abolition was comparatively easy; in +others, it was difficult. By the end of the first quarter of the +nineteenth century, actual abolition had extended to the line +separating Pennsylvania from Maryland. Of the original thirteen +States seven became free and six remained slave. + +The absence of ardent or prolonged debate upon this issue in the +early history of the United States is easily accounted for. No +principle of importance was drawn into the controversy; few +presumed to defend slavery as a just or righteous institution. As +to conduct, each individual, each neighborhood enjoyed the +freedom of a large, roomy country. Even within state lines there +was liberty enough. No keen sense of responsibility for a uniform +state policy existed. It was therefore not difficult for those +who were growing wealthy by the use of imported negroes to +maintain their privileges in the State. + +If the sense of active responsibility was wanting within the +separate States, much more was this true of the citizens of +different States. Slavery was regarded as strictly a domestic +institution. Families bought and owned slaves as a matter of +individual preference. None of the original colonies or States +adopted slavery by law. The citizens of the various colonies +became slaveholders simply because there was no law against it.* +The abolition of slavery was at first an individual matter or a +church or a state policy. When the Constitution was formulated, +the separate States had been accustomed to regard themselves as +possessed of sovereign powers; hence there was no occasion for +the citizens of one State to have a sense of responsibility on +account of the domestic institutions of other States. The +consciousness of national responsibility was of slow growth, and +the conditions did not then exist which favored a general crusade +against slavery or a prolonged acrimonious debate on the subject, +such as arose forty years later. + +* In the case of Georgia there was a prohibitory law, which was +disregarded. + +In many of the States, however, there were organized abolition +societies, whose object was to promote the cause of emancipation +already in progress and to protect the rights of free negroes. +The Friends, or Quakers, were especially active in the promotion +of a propaganda for universal emancipation. A petition which was +presented to the first Congress in February, 1790, with the +signature of Benjamin Franklin as President of the Pennsylvania +Abolition Society, contained this concluding paragraph + +"From a persuasion that equal liberty was originally, and is +still, the birthright of all men, and influenced by the strong +ties of humanity and the principles of their institutions, your +memorialists conceive themselves bound to use all justifiable +endeavors to loosen the bonds of slavery, and to promote the +general enjoyment of the blessings of freedom. Under these +impressions they earnestly entreat your attention to the subject +of slavery; that you will be pleased to countenance the +restoration to liberty of those unhappy men, who, alone, in this +land of freemen, are groaning in servile subjection; that you +will devise means for removing this inconsistency of character +from the American people; that you will promote mercy and justice +towards this distressed race; and that you will step to the very +verge of the power vested in you for discouraging every species +of traffic in the persons of our fellowmen."* + +* William Goodell, "Slavery and Anti-Slavery," p. 99. + +The memorialists were treated with profound respect. Cordial +support and encouragement came from representatives from Virginia +and other slave States. Opposition was expressed by members from +South Carolina and Georgia. These for the most part relied upon +their constitutional guaranties. But for these guaranties, said +Smith, of South Carolina, his State would not have entered the +Union. In the extreme utterances in opposition to the petition +there is a suggestion of the revolution which was to occur forty +years later. + +Active abolitionists who gave time and money to the promotion of +the cause were always few in numbers. Previous to 1830 abolition +societies resembled associations for the prevention of cruelty to +animals--in fact, in one instance at least this was made one of +the professed objects. These societies labored to induce men to +act in harmony with generally acknowledged obligations, and they +had no occasion for violence or persecution. Abolitionists were +distinguished for their benevolence and their unselfish devotion +to the interests of the needy and the unfortunate. It was only +when the ruling classes resorted to mob violence and began to +defend slavery as a divinely ordained institution that there was +a radical change in the spirit of the controversy. The +irrepressible conflict between liberty and despotism which has +persisted in all ages became manifest when slave-masters +substituted the Greek doctrine of inequality and slavery for the +previously accepted Christian doctrine of equality and universal +brotherhood. + + + +CHAPTER II. THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE CRUSADE + +It was a mere accident that the line drawn by Mason and Dixon +between Pennsylvania and Maryland became known in later years as +the dividing line between slavery and freedom. The six States +south of that line ultimately neglected or refused to abolish +slavery, while the seven Northern States became free. Vermont +became a State in 1791 and Kentucky in 1792. The third State to +be added to the original thirteen was Tennessee in 1796. At that +time, counting the States as they were finally classified, eight +were destined to be slave and eight free. Ohio entered the Union +as a State in 1802, thus giving to the free States a majority of +one. The balance, however, was restored in 1812 by the admission +of Louisiana as a slave State. The admission of Indiana in 1816 +on the one side and of Mississippi in 1817 on the other still +maintained the balance: ten free States stood against ten slave +States. During the next two years Illinois and Alabama were +admitted, making twenty-two States in all, still evenly divided. + +The ordinance for the government of the territory north of the +Ohio River, passed in 1787 and reenacted by Congress after the +adoption of the Constitution, proved to be an act of great +significance in its relation to the limitation of slavery. By +this ordinance slavery was forever prohibited in the Northwest +Territory. In the territory south of the Ohio River slavery +became permanently established. The river, therefore, became an +extension of the original Mason and Dixon's Line with the new +meaning attached: it became a division between free and slave +territory. + +It was apparently at first a mere matter of chance that a balance +was struck between the two losses of States. While Virginia +remained a slave State, it was natural that slavery should extend +into Kentucky, which had been a part of Virginia. Likewise +Tennessee, being a part of North Carolina, became slave +territory. When these two Territories became slave States, the +equal division began. There was yet an abundance of territory +both north and south to be taken into the Union and, without any +special plan or agitation, States were admitted in pairs, one +free and the other slave. In the meantime there was distinctly +developed the idea of the possible or probable permanence of +slavery in the South and of a rivalry or even a future conflict +between the two sections. + +When in 1819 Missouri applied for admission to the Union with a +state constitution permitting slavery, there was a prolonged +debate over the whole question, not only in Congress but +throughout the entire country. North and South were distinctly +pitted against each other with rival systems of labor. The +following year Congress passed a law providing for the admission +of Missouri, but, to restore the balance, Maine was separated +from Massachusetts and was admitted to the Union as a State. It +was further enacted that slavery should be forever prohibited +from all territory of the United States north of the parallel 36 +degrees 30', that is, north of the southern boundary of Missouri. +It is this part of the act which is known as the Missouri +Compromise. It was accepted as a permanent limitation of the +institution of slavery. By this act Mason and Dixon's Line was +extended through the Louisiana Purchase. As the western boundary +was then defined, slavery could still be extended into Arkansas +and into a part of what is now Oklahoma, while a great empire to +the northwest was reserved for the formation of free States. +Arkansas became a slave State in 1836 and Michigan was admitted +as a free State in the following year. + +With the admission of Arkansas and Michigan, thirteen slave +States were balanced by a like number of free States. The South +still had Florida, which would in time become a slave State. +Against this single Territory there was an immense region to the +northwest, equal in area to all the slave States combined, which, +according to the Ordinance of 1787 and the Missouri Compromise, +had been consecrated to freedom. Foreseeing this condition, a few +Southern planters began a movement for the extension of territory +to the south and west immediately after the adoption of the +Missouri Compromise. When Arkansas was admitted in 1836, there +was a prospect of the immediate annexation of Texas as a slave +State. This did not take place until nine years later, but the +propaganda, the object of which was the extension of slave +territory, could not be maintained by those Who contended that +slavery was a curse to the country. Virginia, therefore, and +other border slave States, as they became committed to the policy +of expansion, ceased to tolerate official public utterances +against slavery. + +Three more or less clearly defined sections appear in the later +development of the crusade. These are the New England States, the +Middle States, and the States south of North Carolina and +Tennessee. In New England, few negroes were ever held as slaves, +and the institution disappeared during the first years of the +Republic. The inhabitants had little experience arising from +actual contact with slavery. When slavery disappeared from New +England and before there had been developed in the country at +large a national feeling of responsibility for its continued +existence, interest in the subject declined. For twenty years +previous to the founding of Garrison's Liberator in 1831, +organized abolition movements had been almost unknown in New +England. In various ways the people were isolated, separated from +contact with slavery. Their knowledge of this subject of +discussion was academic, theoretical, acquired at second-hand. + +In New York and New Jersey slaves were much more numerous than in +New England. There were still slaves in considerable numbers +until about 1825. The people had a knowledge of the institution +from experience and observation, and there was no break in the +continuity of their organized abolition societies. Chief among +the objects of these societies was the effort to prevent +kidnapping and to guard the rights of free negroes. For both of +these purposes there was a continuous call for activity. +Pennsylvania also had freedmen of her own whose rights called for +guardianship, as well as many freedmen from farther south who had +come into the State. + +The movement of protest and protection did not stop at Mason and +Dixon's Line, but extended far into the South. In both North +Carolina and Tennessee an active protest against slavery was at +all times maintained. In this great middle section of the +country, between New England and South Carolina, there was no +cessation in the conflict between free and slave labor. Some of +these States became free while others remained slave; but between +the people of the two sections there was continuous +communication. Slaveholders came into free States to liberate +their slaves. Non-slaveholders came to get rid of the competition +of slave labor, and free negroes came to avoid reenslavement. +Slaves fled thither on their way to liberty. It was not a matter +of choice; it was an unavoidable condition which compelled the +people of the border States to give continuous attention to the +institution of slavery. + +The modern anti-slavery movement had its origin in this great +middle section, and from the same source it derived its chief +support. The great body of active abolitionists were from the +slave States or else derived their inspiration from personal +contact with slavery. As compared with New England abolitionists, +the middlestate folk were less extreme in their views. They had a +keener appreciation of the difficulties involved in emancipation. +They were more tolerant towards the idea of letting the country +at large share the burdens involved in the liberation of the +slaves. Border-state abolitionists naturally favored the policy +of gradual emancipation which had been followed in New York, New +Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Abolitionists who continued to reside +in the slave States were forced to recognize the fact that +emancipation involved serious questions of race adjustment. From +the border States came the colonization society, a characteristic +institution, as well as compromise of every variety. + +The southernmost section, including South Carolina, Georgia, and +the Gulf States, was even more sharply defined in the attitude it +assumed toward the anti-slavery movement. At no time did the +cause of emancipation become formidable in this section. In all +these States there was, of course, a large class of +non-slaveholding whites, who were opposed to slavery and who +realized that they were victims of an injurious system; but they +had no effective organ for expression. The ruling minority gained +an early and an easy victory and to the end held a firm hand. To +the inhabitants of this section it appeared to be a self-evident +truth that the white race was born to rule and the black race was +born to serve. Where negroes outnumbered the whites fourfold, the +mere suggestion of emancipation raised a race question which +seemed appalling in its proportions. Either in the Union or out +of the Union, the rulers were determined to perpetuate slavery. + +Slavery as an economic institution became dependent upon a few +semitropical plantation crops. When the Constitution was framed, +rice and indigo, produced in South Carolina and Georgia, were the +two most important. Indigo declined in relative importance, and +the production of sugar was developed, especially after the +annexation of the Louisiana Purchase. But by far the most +important crop for its effects upon slavery and upon the entire +country was cotton. This single product finally absorbed the +labor of half the slaves of the entire country. Mr. Rhodes is not +at all unreasonable in his surmise that, had it not been for the +unforeseen development of the cotton industry, the expectation of +the founders of the Republic that slavery would soon disappear +would actually have been realized. + +It was more difficult to carry out a policy of emancipation when +slaves were quoted in the market at a thousand dollars than when +the price was a few hundred dollars. All slave-owners felt +richer; emancipation appeared to involve a greater sacrifice. +Thus the cotton industry went far towards accounting for the +changed attitude of the entire country on the subject of slavery. +The North as well as the South became financially interested. + +It was not generally perceived before it actually happened that +the border States would take the place of Africa in furnishing +the required supply of laborers for Southern plantations. The +interstate slave-trade gave to the system a solidarity of +interest which was new. All slave-owners became partakers of a +common responsibility for the system as a whole. It was the newly +developed trade quite as much as the system of slavery itself +which furnished the ground for the later anti-slavery appeal. The +consciousness of a common guilt for the sin of slavery grew with +the increase of actual interstate relations. + +The abolition of the African slave-trade was an act of the +general Government. Congress passed the prohibitory statute in +1807, to go into effect January, 1808. At no time, however, was +the prohibition entirely effective, and a limited illegal trade +continued until slavery was eventually abolished. This +inefficiency of restraint furnished another point of attack for +the abolitionists. Through efforts to suppress the African +slave-trade, the entire country became conscious of a common +responsibility. Before the Revolutionary War, Great Britain had +been censured for forcing cheap slaves from Africa upon her +unwilling colonies. After the Revolution, New England was blamed +for the activity of her citizens in this nefarious trade both +before and after it was made illegal. All of this tended to +increase the sense of responsibility in every section of the +country. Congress had made the foreign slave-trade illegal; and +citizens in all sections gradually became aware of the +possibility that Congress might likewise restrict or forbid +interstate commerce in slaves. + +The West Indies and Mexico were also closely associated with the +United States in the matter of slavery. When Jamestown was +founded, negro slavery was already an old institution in the +islands of the Caribbean Sea, and thence came the first slaves to +Virginia. The abolition of slavery in the island of Hayti, or San +Domingo, was accomplished during the French Revolution and the +Napoleonic Wars. As incidental to the process of emancipation, +the Caucasian inhabitants were massacred or banished, and a +republican government was established, composed exclusively of +negroes and mulattoes. From the date of the Missouri Compromise +to that of the Mexican War, this island was united under a single +republic, though it was afterwards divided into the two republics +of Hayti and San Domingo. + +The "horrors of San Domingo" were never absent from the minds of +those in the United States who lived in communities composed +chiefly of slaves. What had happened on the island was accepted +by Southern planters as proof that the two races could live +together in peace only under the relation of master and slave, +and that emancipation boded the extermination of one race or the +other. Abolitionists, however, interpreted the facts differently: +they emphasized the tyranny of the white rulers as a primary +cause of the massacres; they endowed some of the negro leaders +with the highest qualities of statesmanship and self-sacrificing +generosity; and Wendell Phillips, in an impassioned address which +he delivered in 1861, placed on the honor roll above the chief +worthies of history--including Cromwell and Washington Toussaint +L'Ouverture, the liberator of Hayti, whom France had betrayed and +murdered. + +Abolitionists found support for their position in the contention +that other communities had abolished slavery without such +accompanying horrors as occurred in Hayti and without serious +race conflict. Slavery had run its course in Spanish America, and +emancipation accompanied or followed the formation of independent +republics. In 1833 all slaves in the British Empire were +liberated, including those in the important island of Jamaica. So +it happened that, just at the time when Southern leaders were +making up their minds to defend their peculiar institution at all +hazards, they were beset on every side by the spirit of +emancipation. Abolitionists, on the other hand, were fully +convinced that the attainment of some form of emancipation in the +United States was certain, and that, either peaceably or through +violence, the slaves would ultimately be liberated. + + + +CHAPTER III. EARLY CRUSADERS + +At the time when the new cotton industry was enhancing the value +of slave labor, there arose from the ranks of the people those +who freely consecrated their all to the freeing of the slave. +Among these, Benjamin Lundy, a New Jersey Quaker, holds a +significant place. + +Though the Society of Friends fills a large place in the +anti-slavery movement, its contribution to the growth of the +conception of equality is even more significant. This impetus to +the idea arises from a fundamental Quaker doctrine, announced at +the middle of the seventeenth century, to the erect that God +reveals Himself to mankind, not through any priesthood or +specially chosen agents; not through any ordinance, form, or +ceremony; not through any church or institution; not through any +book or written record of any sort; but directly, through His +Spirit, to each person. This direct enlightening agency they +deemed coextensive with humanity; no race and no individual is +left without the ever-present illuminating Spirit. If men of old +spoke as they were moved by the Holy Spirit, what they spoke or +wrote can furnish no reliable guidance to the men of a later +generation, except as their minds also are enlightened by the +same Spirit in the same way. "The letter killeth; it is the +Spirit that giveth life." + +This doctrine in its purity and simplicity places all men and all +races on an equality; all are alike ignorant and imperfect; all +are alike in their need of the more perfect revelation yet to be +made. Master and slave are equal before God; there can be no such +relation, therefore, except by doing violence to a personality, +to a spiritual being. In harmony with this fundamental principle, +the Society of Friends early rid itself of all connection with +slavery. The Friends' Meeting became a refuge for those who were +moved by the Spirit to testify against slavery. + +Born in 1789 in a State which was then undergoing the process of +emancipating its slaves, Benjamin Lundy moved at the age of +nineteen to Wheeling, West Virginia, which had already become the +center of an active domestic slave-trade. The pious young Quaker, +now apprenticed to a saddler, was brought into personal contact +with this traffic in human flesh. He felt keenly the national +disgrace of the iniquity. So deep did the iron enter into his +soul that never again did he find peace of mind except in efforts +to relieve the oppressed. Like hundreds and thousands of others, +Lundy was led on to active opposition to the trade by an actual +knowledge of the inhumanity of the business as prosecuted before +his eyes and by his sympathy for human suffering. + +His apprenticeship ended, Lundy was soon established in a +prosperous business in an Ohio village not far from Wheeling. +Though he now lived in a free State, the call of the oppressed +was ever in his ears and he could not rest. He drew together a +few of his neighbors, and together they organized the Union +Humane Society, whose object was the relief of those held in +bondage. In a few months the society numbered several hundred +members, and Lundy issued an address to the philanthropists of +the whole country, urging them to unite in like manner with +uniform constitutions, and suggesting that societies so formed +adopt a policy of correspondence and cooperation. At about the +same time, Lundy began to publish anti-slavery articles in the +Mount Pleasant Philanthropist and other papers. + +In 1819 he went on a business errand to St. Louis, Missouri, +where he found himself in the midst of an agitation over the +question of the extension of slavery in the States. With great +zest he threw himself into the discussion, making use of the +newspapers in Missouri and Illinois. Having lost his property, he +returned poverty-stricken to Ohio, where he founded in January, +1821, the Genius of Universal Emancipation. A few months later he +transferred his paper to the more congenial atmosphere of +Jonesborough, Tennessee, but in 1824 he went to Baltimore, +Maryland. In the meantime, Lundy had become much occupied in +traveling, lecturing, and organizing societies for the promotion +of the cause of abolition. He states that during the ten years +previous to 1830 he had traveled upwards of twenty-five thousand +miles, five thousand of which were on foot. He now became +interested in plans for colonizing negroes in other countries as +an aid to emancipation, though he himself had no confidence in +the colonization society and its scheme of deportation to Africa. +After leading a few negroes to Hayti in 1829, he visited Canada, +Texas, and Mexico with a similar plan in view. + +During a trip through the Middle States and New England in 1828, +Lundy met William Lloyd Garrison, and the following year he +walked all the way from Baltimore to Bennington, Vermont, for the +express purpose of securing the assistance of the youthful +reformer as coeditor of his paper. Garrison had previously +favored colonization, but within the few weeks which elapsed +before he joined Lundy, he repudiated all forms of colonization +and advocated immediate and unconditional emancipation. He at +once told Lundy of his change of views. "Well," said Lundy, "thee +may put thy initials to thy articles, and I will put my witness +to mine, and each will bear his own burden." The two editors +were, however, in complete accord in their opposition to the +slave-trade. Lundy had suffered a dangerous assault at the hands +of a Baltimore slave-trader before he was joined by Garrison. +During the year 1830, Garrison was convicted of libel and thrown +into prison on account of his scathing denunciation of Francis +Todd of Massachusetts, the owner of a vessel engaged in the +slave-trade. + +These events brought to a crisis the publication of the Genius of +Universal Emancipation. The editors now parted company. Again +Lundy moved the office of the paper, this time to Washington, +D.C., but it soon became a peripatetic monthly, printed wherever +the editor chanced to be. In 1836 Lundy began the issue of an +anti-slavery paper in Philadelphia, called the National Inquirer, +and with this was merged the Genius of Universal Emancipation. He +was preparing to resume the issue of his original paper under the +old title, in La Salle County, Illinois, when he was overtaken by +death on August 22, 1839. + +Here was a man without education, without wealth, of a slight +frame, not at all robust, who had undertaken, singlehanded and +without the shadow of a doubt of his ultimate success, to abolish +American slavery. He began the organization of societies which +were to displace the anti-slavery societies of the previous +century. He established the first paper devoted exclusively to +the cause of emancipation. He foresaw that the question of +emancipation must be carried into politics and that it must +become an object of concern to the general Government as well as +to the separate States. In the early part of his career he found +the most congenial association and the larger measure of +effective support south of Mason and Dixon's Line, and in this +section were the greater number of the abolition societies which +he organized. During the later years of his life, as it was +becoming increasingly difficult in the South to maintain a public +anti-slavery propaganda, he transferred his chief activities to +the North. Lundy serves as a connecting link between the earlier +and the later anti-slavery movements. Eleven years of his early +life belong to the century of the Revolution. Garrison recorded +his indebtedness to Lundy in the words: "If I have in any way, +however humble, done anything towards calling attention to +slavery, or bringing out the glorious prospect of a complete +jubilee in our country at no distant day, I feel that I owe +everything in this matter, instrumentally under God, to Benjamin +Lundy." + +Different in type, yet even more significant on account of its +peculiar relations to the cause of abolition, was the life of +James Gillespie Birney, who was born in a wealthy slaveholding +family at Dansville, Kentucky, in the year 1792. The Birneys were +anti-slavery planters of the type of Washington and Jefferson. +The father had labored to make Kentucky a free State at the time +of its admission to the Union. His son was educated first at +Princeton, where he graduated in 1810, and then in the office of +a distinguished lawyer in Philadelphia. He began the practice of +law at his home at the age of twenty-two. His home training and +his residence in States which were then in the process of gradual +emancipation served to confirm him in the traditional conviction +of his family. While Benjamin Lundy, at the age of twenty-seven, +was engaged in organizing anti-slavery societies north of the +Ohio River, Birney at the age of twenty-four was influential as a +member of the Kentucky Legislature in the prevention of the +passing of a joint resolution calling upon Ohio and Indiana to +make laws providing for the return of fugitive slaves. He was +also conspicuous in his efforts to secure provisions for gradual +emancipation. Two years later he became a planter near +Huntsville, Alabama. Though not a member of the Constitutional +Convention preparatory to the admission of this Territory into +the Union, Birney used his influence to secure provisions in the +constitution favorable to gradual emancipation. As a member of +the first Legislature, in 1819, he was the author of a law +providing a fair trial by jury for slaves indicted for crimes +above petty larceny, and in 1826 he became a regular contributor +to the American Colonization Society, believing it to be an aid +to emancipation. The following year he was able to induce the +Legislature, although he was not then a member of it, to pass an +act forbidding the importation of slaves into Alabama either for +sale or for hire. This was regarded as a step preliminary to +emancipation. + +The cause of education in Alabama had in Birney a trusted leader. +During the year 1830 he spent several months in the North +Atlantic States for the selection of a president and four +professors for the State University and three teachers for the +Huntsville Female Seminary. These were all employed upon his sole +recommendation. On his return he had an important interview with +Henry Clay, of whose political party he had for several years +been the acknowledged leader in Alabama. He urged Clay to place +himself at the head of the movement in Kentucky for gradual +emancipation. Upon Clay's refusal their political cooperation +terminated. Birney never again supported Clay for office and +regarded him as in a large measure responsible for the +pro-slavery reaction in Kentucky. + +Birney, who had now become discouraged regarding the prospect of +emancipation, during the winter of 1831 and 1832 decided to +remove his family to Jacksonville, Illinois. He was deterred from +carrying out his plan, however, by his unexpected appointment as +agent of the colonization society in the Southwest--a mission +which he undertook from a sense of duty. + +In his travels throughout the region assigned to him, Birney +became aware of the aggressive designs of the planters of the +Gulf States to secure new slave territories in the Southwest. In +view of these facts the methods of the colonization society +appeared utterly futile. Birney surrendered his commission and, +in 1833, returned to Kentucky with the intention of doing himself +what Henry Clay had refused to do three years earlier, still +hoping that Kentucky, Virginia, and Tennessee might be induced to +abolish slavery and thus place the slave power in a hopeless +minority. His disappointment was extreme at the pro-slavery +reaction which had taken place in Kentucky. The condition called +for more drastic measures, and Birney decided to forsake entirely +the colonization society and cast in his lot with the +abolitionists. He freed his slaves in 1834, and in the following +year he delivered the principal address at the annual meeting of +the American Anti-Slavery Society held in New York. His gift of +leadership was at once recognized. As vice-president of the +society he began to travel on its behalf, to address public +assemblies, and especially to confer with members of state +legislatures and to address the legislative bodies. He now +devoted his entire time to the service of the society, and as +early as September, 1835, issued the prospectus of a paper +devoted to the cause of emancipation. This called forth such a +display of force against the movement that he could neither find +a printer nor obtain the use of a building in Dansville, +Kentucky, for the publication. As a result he transferred his +activities to Cincinnati, where he began publication of the +Philanthropist in 1836. With the connivance of the authorities +and encouragement from leading citizens of Cincinnati, the office +of the Philanthropist was three times looted by the mob, and the +proprietor's life was greatly endangered. The paper, however, +rapidly grew in favor and influence and thoroughly vindicated the +right of free discussion of the slavery question. Another editor +was installed when Birney, who became secretary of the Anti- +slavery Society in 1837, transferred his residence to New York +City. + +Twenty-three years before Lincoln's famous utterance in which he +proclaimed the doctrine that a house divided against itself +cannot stand, and before Seward's declaration of an irrepressible +conflict between slavery and freedom, Birney had said: "There +will be no cessation of conflict until slavery shall be +exterminated or liberty destroyed. Liberty and slavery cannot +live in juxtaposition." He spoke out of the fullness of his own +experience. A thoroughly trained lawyer and statesman, well +acquainted with the trend of public sentiment in both North and +South, he was fully persuaded that the new pro-slavery crusade +against liberty boded civil war. He knew that the white men in +North and South would not, without a struggle, consent to be +permanently deprived of their liberties at the behest of a few +Southern planters. Being himself of the slaveholding class, he +was peculiarly fitted to appreciate their position. To him the +new issue meant war, unless the belligerent leaders should be +shown that war was hopeless. By his moderation in speech, his +candor in statement, his lack of rancor, his carefully +considered, thoroughly fair arguments, he had the rare faculty of +convincing opponents of the correctness of his own view. + +There could be little sympathy between Birney and William Lloyd +Garrison, whose style of denunciation appeared to the former as +an incitement to war and an excuse for mob violence. As soon as +Birney became the accepted leader in the national society, there +was friction between his followers and those of Garrison. To +denounce the Constitution and repudiate political action were, +from Birney's standpoint, a surrender of the only hope of +forestalling a dire calamity. He had always fought slavery by the +use of legal and constitutional methods, and he continued so to +fight. In this policy he had the support of a large majority of +abolitionists in New England and elsewhere. Only a few personal +friends accepted Garrison's injunction to forswear politics and +repudiate the Constitution. + +The followers of Birney, failing to secure recognition for their +views in either of the political parties, organized the Liberty +party and, while Birney was in Europe in 1840, nominated him as +their candidate for the Presidency. The vote which he received +was a little over seven thousand, but four years later he was +again the candidate of the party and received over sixty thousand +votes. He suffered an injury during the following year which +condemned him to hopeless invalidism and brought his public +career to an end. + +Though Lundy and Birney were contemporaries and were engaged in +the same great cause, they were wholly independent in their work. +Lundy addressed himself almost entirely to the non-slaveholding +class, while all of Birney's early efforts were "those of a +slaveholder seeking to induce his own class to support the policy +of emancipation. Though a Northern man, Lundy found his chief +support in the South until he was driven out by persecution. +Birney also resided in the South until he was forced to leave for +the same reason. The two men were in general accord in their main +lines of policy: both believed firmly in the use of political +means to effect their objects; both were at first +colonizationists, though Lundy favored colonization in adjacent +territory rather than by deportation to Africa. + +Women were not a whit behind men in their devotion to the cause +of freedom. Conspicuous among them were Sarah and Angelina +Grimke, born in Charleston, South Carolina, of a slaveholding +family noted for learning, refinement, and culture. Sarah was +born in the same year as James G. Birney, 1792; Angelina was +thirteen years younger. Angelina was the typical crusader: her +sympathies from the first were with the slave. As a child she +collected and concealed oil and other simple remedies so that she +might steal out by night and alleviate the sufferings of slaves +who had been cruelly whipped or abused. At the age of fourteen +she refused to be confirmed in the Episcopal Church because the +ceremony involved giving sanction to words which seemed to her +untrue. Two years later her mother offered her a present of a +slave girl for a servant and companion. This gift she refused to +accept, for in her view the servant had a right to be free, and, +as for her own needs, Angelina felt quite capable of waiting upon +herself. + +Of her own free will she joined the Presbyterian Church and +labored earnestly with the officers of the church to induce them +to espouse the cause of the slave. When she failed to secure +cooperation, she decided that the church was not Christian and +she therefore withdrew her membership. Her sister Sarah had gone +North in 1821 and had become a member of the Society of Friends +in Philadelphia. In Charleston, South Carolina, there was a +Friends' meeting-house where two old Quakers still met at the +appointed time and sat for an hour in solemn silence. Angelina +donned the Quaker garb, joined this meeting, and for an entire +year was the third of the silent worshipers. This quiet +testimony, however, did not wholly satisfy her energetic nature, +and when, in 1830, she heard of the imprisonment of Garrison in +Baltimore, she was convinced that effective labors against +slavery could not be carried on in the South. With great sorrow +she determined to sever her connection with home and family and +join her sister in Philadelphia. There the exile from the South +poured out her soul in an Appeal to the Christian Women of the +South. The manuscript was handed to the officers of the Anti- +slavery Society in the city and, as they read, tears filled their +eyes. The Appeal was immediately printed in large quantities for +distribution in Southern States. + +Copies of the Appeal which had been sent to Charleston were +seized by a mob and publicly burned. When it became known soon +afterwards that the author of the offensive document was +intending to return to Charleston to spend the winter with her +family, there was intense excitement, and the mayor of the city +informed the mother that her daughter would not be permitted to +land in Charleston nor to communicate with any one there, and +that, if she did elude the police and come ashore, she would be +imprisoned and guarded until the departure of the next boat. On +account of the distress which she would cause to her friends, +Miss Grimke reluctantly gave up the exercise of her +constitutional right to visit her native city and in a very +literal sense she became a permanent exile. + +The two sisters let their light shine among Philadelphia Quakers. +In the religious meetings negro women were consigned to a special +seat. The Grimkes, having first protested against this +discrimination, took their own places on the seat with the +colored women. In Charleston, Angelina had scrupulously adhered +to the Quaker garb because it was viewed as a protest against +slavery. In Philadelphia, however, no such meaning was attached +to the costume, and she adopted clothing suited to the climate +regardless of conventions. A series of parlor talks to women +which had been organized by the sisters grew in interest until +the parlors became inadequate, and the speakers were at last +addressing large audiences of women in the public meeting-places +of Philadelphia. + +At this time when Angelina was making effective use of her +unrivaled power as a public speaker, she received in 1836 an +invitation from the Anti-slavery Society of New York to address +the women of that city. She informed her sister that she believed +this to be a call from God and that it was her duty to accept. +Sarah decided to be her companion and assistant in the work in +the new field, which was similar to that in Philadelphia. Its +fame soon extended to Boston, whence came an urgent invitation to +visit that city. It was in Massachusetts that men began to steal +into the women's meetings and listen from the back seats. In Lynn +all barriers were broken down, and a modest, refined, and +naturally diffident young woman found herself addressing immense +audiences of men and women. In the old theater in Boston for six +nights in succession, audiences filling all the space listened +entranced to the messenger of emancipation. There is uniform +testimony that, in an age distinguished for oratory, no more +effective speaker appeared than Angelina Grimke. It was she above +all others who first vindicated the right of women to speak to +men from the public platform on political topics. But it must be +remembered that scores of other women were laboring to the same +end and were fully prepared to utilize the new opportunity. + +The great world movement from slavery towards freedom, from +despotism to democracy, is characterized by a tendency towards +the equality of the sexes. Women have been slaves where men were +free. In barbarous ages women have been ignored or have been +treated as mere adjuncts to the ruling sex. But wherever there +has been a distinct contribution to the cause of liberty there +has been a distinct recognition of woman's share in the work. The +Society of Friends was organized on the principle that men and +women are alike moral beings, hence are equal in the sight of +God. As a matter of experience, women were quite as often moved +to break the silence of a religious meeting as were the men. + +For two hundred years women had been accustomed to talk to both +men and women in Friends' meetings and, when the moral war +against slavery brought religion and politics into close +relation, they were ready speakers upon both topics. When the +Grimke sisters came into the church with a fresh baptism of the +Spirit, they overcame all obstacles and, with a passion for +righteousness, moral and spiritual and political, they carried +the war against slavery into politics. + +In 1833, at the organization of the American Anti-Slavery Society +in Philadelphia, a number of women were present. Lucretia Mott, a +distinguished "minister" in the Society of Friends, took part in +the proceedings. She was careful to state that she spoke as a +mere visitor, having no place in the organization, but she +ventured to suggest various modifications in the report of +Garrison's committee on a declaration of principles which +rendered it more acceptable to the meeting. It had not then been +seriously considered whether women could become members of the +Anti-Slavery Society, which was at that time composed exclusively +of men, with the women maintaining their separate organizations +as auxiliaries. + +The women of the West were already better organized than the men +and were doing a work which men could not do. They were, for the +most part, unconscious of any conflict between the peculiar +duties of men and those of women in their relations to common +objects. The "library associations" of Indiana, which were in +fact effective anti-slavery societies, were to a large extent +composed of women. To the library were added numerous other +disguises, such as "reading circles," "sewing societies," +"women's clubs." In many communities the appearance of men in any +of these enterprises would create suspicion or even raise a mob. +But the women worked on quietly, effectively, and unnoticed. + +The matron of a family would be provided with the best +riding-horse which the neighborhood could furnish. Mounted upon +her steed, she would sally forth in the morning, meet her +carefully selected friends in a town twenty miles away, gain +information as to what had been accomplished, give information as +to the work in other parts of the district, distribute new +literature, confer as to the best means of extending their +labors, and return in the afternoon. The father of such a family +was quite content with the humbler task of cooperation by +supplying the sinews of war. There was complete equality between +husband and wife because their aims were identical and each +rendered the service most convenient and most needed. Women did +what men could not do. In the territory of the enemy the men were +reached through the gradual and tentative efforts of women whom +the uninitiated supposed to be spending idle hours at a sewing +circle. Interest was maintained by the use of information of the +same general character as that which later took the country by +storm in Uncle Tom's Cabin. In course of time all disguise was +thrown aside. A public speaker of national reputation would +appear, a meeting would be announced, and a rousing abolition +speech would be delivered; the mere men of the neighborhood would +have little conception how the surprising change had been +accomplished. + +On rare occasions the public presentation of the anti-slavery +view would be undertaken prematurely, as in 1840 at Pendleton, +Indiana, when Frederick Douglass attempted to address a public +meeting and was almost slain by missiles from the mob. Pendleton, +however, was not given over to the enemy. The victim of the +assault was restored to health in the family of a leading +citizen. The outrage was judiciously utilized to convince the +fair-minded that one of the evils of slavery was the development +of minds void of candor and justice. On the twenty-fifth +anniversary of the Pendleton disturbance there was another great +meeting in the town. Frederick Douglass was the hero of the +occasion. The woman who was the head of the family that restored +him to health was on the platform. Some of the men who threw the +brickbats were there to make public confession and to apologize +for the brutal deed. + +In the minds of a few persons of rare intellectual and logical +endowment, democracy has always implied the equality of the +sexes. From the time of the French Revolution there have been +advocates of this doctrine. As early as 1820, Frances Wright, a +young woman in Scotland having knowledge of the Western republic +founded upon the professed principles of liberty and equality, +came to America for the express purpose of pleading the cause of +equal rights for women. To the general public her doctrine seemed +revolutionary, threatening the very foundations of religion and +morality. In the midst of opposition and persecution she +proclaimed views respecting the rights and duties of women which +today are generally accepted as axiomatic. + +The women who attended the meetings for the organization of the +American Anti-Slavery Society were not suffragists, nor had they +espoused any special theories respecting the position of women. +They did not wish to be members of the men's organizations but +were quite content with their own separate one, which served its +purpose very well under prevailing local conditions. James G. +Birney, the candidate of the Liberty party for the Presidency in +1840, had good reasons for opposition to the inclusion of men and +women in the same organization. He knew that by acting separately +they were winning their way. The introduction of a novel theory +involving a different issue seemed to him likely to be a source +of weakness. The cause of women was, however, gaining ground and +winning converts. Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton were +delegates to the World's Anti-Slavery Convention at London. They +listened to the debate which ended in the refusal to recognize +them as members of the Convention because they were women. The +tone of the discussion convinced them that women were looked upon +by men with disdain and contempt. Because the laws of the land +and the customs of society consigned women to an inferior +position, and because there would be no place for effective +public work on the part of women until these laws were changed, +both these women became advocates of women's rights and +conspicuous leaders in the initiation of the propaganda. The +Reverend Samuel J. May, of Syracuse, New York, preached a sermon +in 1845 in which he stated his belief that women need not expect +to have their wrongs fully redressed until they themselves had a +hand in the making and in the administration of the laws. This is +an early suggestion that equal suffrage would become the ultimate +goal of the efforts for righting women's wrongs. + +At the same time there were accessions to the cause from a +different source. In 1833 Oberlin College was founded in northern +Ohio. Into some of the first classes there women were admitted on +equal terms with men. In 1835 the trustees offered the presidency +to Professor Asa Mahan, of Lane Seminary. He was himself an +abolitionist from a slave State, and he refused to be President +of Oberlin College unless negroes were admitted on equal terms +with other students. Oberlin thus became the first institution in +the country which extended the privileges of the higher education +to both sexes of all races. It was a distinctly religious +institution devoted to radical reforms of many kinds. Not only +was the use of all intoxicating beverages discarded by faculty +and students but the use of tobacco as well was discouraged. + +Within fifteen years after the founding of Oberlin, there were +women graduates who had something to say on numerous questions of +public interest. Especially was this true of the subject of +temperance. Intemperance was a vice peculiar to men. Women and +children were the chief sufferers, while men were the chief +sinners. It was important, therefore, that men should be reached. +In 1847 Lucy Stone, an Oberlin graduate, began to address public +audiences on the subject. At the same time Susan B. Anthony +appeared as a temperance lecturer. The manner of their reception +and the nature of their subject induced them to unite heartily in +the pending crusade for the equal rights of women. The three +causes thus became united in one. + +Along with the crusade against slavery, intemperance, and women's +wrongs, arose a fourth, which was fundamentally connected with +the slavery question: Quakers and Southern and Western +abolitionists were ardently devoted to the interests of peace. +They would abolish slavery by peaceable means because they +believed the alternative was a terrible war. To escape an +impending war they were nerved to do and dare and to incur great +risks. New England abolitionists who labored in harmony with +those of the West and South were actuated by similar motives. +Sumner first gained public notice by a distinguished oration +against war. Garrison went farther: he was a professional +non-resistant, a root and branch opponent of both war and +slavery. John Brown was a fanatical antagonist of war until he +reached the conclusion that according to the Divine Will there +should be a short war of liberation in place of the continuance +of slavery, which was itself in his opinion the most cruel form +of war. + +Slavery as a legally recognized institution disappeared with the +Civil War. The war against intemperance has made continuous +progress and this problem is apparently approaching a solution. +The war against war as a recognized institution has become the +one all-absorbing problem of civilization. The war against the +wrongs of women is being supplanted by efforts to harmonize the +mutual privileges and duties of men and women on the basis of +complete equality. As Samuel May predicted more than seventy +years ago, in the future women are certain to take a hand both in +the making and in the administration of law. + + + +CHAPTER IV. THE TURNING-POINT + +The year 1831 is notable for three events in the history of the +anti-slavery controversy: on the first day of January in that +year William Lloyd Garrison began in Boston the publication of +the Liberator; in August there occurred in Southampton, Virginia, +an insurrection of slaves led by a negro, Nat Turner, in which +sixty-one white persons were massacred; and in December the +Virginia Legislature began its long debate on the question of +slavery. + +On the part of the abolitionists there was at no time any sudden +break in the principles which they advocated. Lundy did nothing +but revive and continue the work of the Quakers and other non- +slaveholding classes of the revolutionary period. Birney was and +continued to be a typical slaveholding abolitionist of the +earlier period. Garrison began his work as a disciple of Lundy, +whom he followed in the condemnation of the African colonization +scheme, though he went farther and rejected every form of +colonization. Garrison likewise repudiated every plan for gradual +emancipation and proclaimed the duty of immediate and +unconditional liberation of the slaves. + +The first number of the Liberator contained an Address to the +Public, which sounded the keynote of Garrison's career. "I shall +contend for the immediate enfranchisement of our slave +population--I will be as harsh as truth and as uncompromising as +justice on this subject--I do not wish to think, or speak, or +write with moderation--I am in earnest--I will not equivocate--I +will not retreat a single inch, and I WILL BE HEARD!" + +The New England Anti-Slavery Society, of which Garrison was the +chief organizer, was in essential harmony with the societies +which Lundy had organized in other sections. Its first address to +the public in 1833 distinctly recognized the separate States as +the sole authority in the matter of emancipation within their own +boundaries. Through moral suasion, eschewing all violence and +sedition, its authors proposed to secure their object. In the +spirit of civil and religious liberty and by appealing to the +Declaration of Independence, the Liberty party of 1840 and 1844, +by the Freesoil party of 1848, and later by the Republican party, +and that nearly all of the abolitionists continued to be faithful +adherents to those principles, are sufficient proof of the +essential unity of the great anti-slavery movement. The apparent +lack of harmony and the real confusion in the history of the +subject arose from the peculiar character of one remarkable man. + +The few owners of slaves who had assumed the role of public +defenders of the institution were in the habit of using violent +and abusive language against anti-slavery agitators. This +appeared in the first debate on the subject during Washington's +administration. Every form of rhetorical abuse also accompanied +the outbreak of mob violence against the reformers at the time of +Garrison's advent into the controversy. He was especially fitted +to reply in kind. "I am accused," said he, "of using hard +language. I admit the charge. I have not been able to find a soft +word to describe villainy, or to identify the perpetrator of it." +This was a new departure which was instantly recognized by +Southern leaders. But from the beginning to the bitter end, +Garrison stands alone as preeminently the representative of this +form of attack. It was significant, also, that the Liberator was +published in Boston, the literary center of the country. + +There is no evidence that there was any direct connection between +the publication of the Liberator and the servile insurrection +which occurred during the following August.* It was, however, but +natural that the South should associate the two events. A few +utterances of the paper were fitted, if not intended, to incite +insurrection. One passage reads: "Whenever there is a contest +between the oppressed and the oppressor--the weapons being equal +between the parties--God knows that my heart must be with the +oppressed, and always against the oppressor. Therefore, whenever +commenced, I cannot but wish success to all slave insurrections." +Again: "Rather than see men wearing their chains in a cowardly +and servile spirit, I would, as an advocate of peace, much rather +see them breaking the heads of the tyrant with their chains." + +* Garrison himself denied any direct connection with the Nat +Turner insurrection. See "William Lloyd Garrison, the Story of +His Life told by His Children," vol. I, p. 251. + +George Thompson, an English co-laborer with Garrison, is quoted +as saying in a public address in 1835 that "Southern slaves +ought, or at least had a right, to cut the throats of their +masters."* Such utterances are rare, and they express a passing +mood not in the least characteristic of the general spirit of the +abolition movement; yet the fact that such statements did emanate +from such a source made it comparatively easy for extremists of +the opposition to cast odium upon all abolitionists. The only +type of abolition known in South Carolina was that of the extreme +Garrisonian agitators, and it furnished at least a shadow of +excuse for mob violence in the North and for complete suppression +of discussion in the South. To encourage slaves to cut the +throats of their masters was far from being a rhetorical figure +of speech in communities where slaves were in the majority. Santo +Domingo was at the time a prosperous republic founded by former +slaves who had exterminated the Caucasian residents of the +island. Negroes from Santo Domingo had fomented insurrection in +South Carolina. The Nat Turner incident was more than a +suggestion of the dire possibilities of the situation. Turner was +a trusted slave, a preacher among the blacks. He succeeded in +concealing his plot for weeks. When the massacre began, slaves +not in the secret were induced to join. A majority of the slain +were women and children. Abolitionists who had lived in slave +States never indulged in flippant remarks fitted to incite +insurrection. This was reserved for the few agitators far removed +from the scene of action. + +* Schouler, "History of the United States under the +Constitution," vol. V, p. 217. + +Southern planters who had determined at all hazards to perpetuate +the institution of slavery were peculiarly sensitive on account +of what was taking place in Spanish America and in the British +West Indies. Mexico abolished slavery in 1829, and united with +Colombia in encouraging Cuba to throw off the Spanish yoke, +abolish slavery, and join the sisterhood of New World republics. +This led to an effective protest on the part of the United +States. Both Spain and Mexico were advised that the United States +could not with safety to its own interests permit the +emancipation of slaves in the island of Cuba. But with the +British Emancipation Act of 1833, Cuba became the only +neighboring territory in which slavery was legal. These acts of +emancipation added zeal to the determination of the Southern +planters to secure territory for the indefinite extension of +slavery to the southwest. When Lundy and Birney discovered these +plans, their desire to husband and extend the direct political +influence of abolitionists was greatly stimulated. To this end +they maintained a moderate and conservative attitude. They took +care that no abuse or misrepresentation should betray them into +any expression which would diminish their influence with +fair-minded, reasonable men. They were convinced that a clear and +complete revelation of the facts would lead a majority of the +people to adopt their views. + +The debate in the Virginia Legislature in the session which met +three months after the Southampton massacre furnishes a +demonstration that the traditional anti-slavery sentiment still +persisted among the rulers of the Old Dominion. It arose out of a +petition from the Quakers of the State asking for an +investigation preparatory to a gradual emancipation of the +slaves. The debate, which lasted for several weeks, was able and +thorough. No stronger utterances in condemnation of slavery were +ever voiced than appear in this debate. Different speakers made +the statement that no one presumed to defend slavery on +principle--that apologists for slavery existed but no defenders. +Opposition to the petition was in the main apologetic in tone. + +A darker picture of the blighting effects of slavery on the +industries of the country was never drawn than appears in these +speeches. Slavery was declared to be driving free laborers from +the State, to have already destroyed every industry except +agriculture, and to have exhausted the soil so that profitable +agriculture was becoming extinct, while pine brush was +encroaching upon former fruitful fields. "Even the wolf," said +one, "driven back long since by the approach of man, now returns, +after the lapse of a hundred years, to howl over the desolations +of slavery." Contrasts between free labor in northern industry +and that of the South were vividly portrayed. In a speech of +great power, one member referred to Kentucky and Ohio as States +"providentially designated to exhibit in their future histories +the differences which necessarily result from a country free +from, and a country afflicted with the curse of slavery." + +The debate was by no means confined to industrial or material +considerations. McDowell, who was afterwards elected Governor of +the State, thus portrays the personal relations of master and +slave "You may place the slave where you please--you may put him +under any process, which, without destroying his value as a +slave, will debase and crush him as a rational being--you may do +all this, and the idea that he was born to be free will survive +it all. It is allied to his hope of immortality--it is the +ethereal part of his nature which oppression cannot reach--it is +a torch lit up in his soul by the hand of the Deity, and never +meant to be extinguished by the hand of man." + +Various speakers assumed that the continuance of slavery involved +a bloody conflict; that either peaceably or through violence, +slavery as contrary to the spirit of the age must come to an end; +that the agitation against it could not be suppressed. Faulkner +drew a lurid picture of the danger from servile insurrection, in +which he referred to the utterances of two former speakers, one +of whom had said that, unless something effective was done to +ward off the danger, "the throats of all the white people of +Virginia will be cut." The other replied, "No, the whites cannot +be conquered--the throats of the blacks will be cut." Faulkner's +rejoinder was that the difference was a trifling one, "for the +fact is conceded that one race or the other must be +exterminated." + +The public press joined in the debate. Leading editorials +appeared in the Richmond Enquirer urging that effective measures +be instituted to put an end to slavery. The debate aroused much +interest throughout the South. Substantially all the current +abolition arguments appeared in the speeches of the slave-owning +members of the Virginia Legislature. And what was done about it? +Nothing at all. The petition was not granted; no action looking +towards emancipation was taken. This was indeed a turning-point. +Men do not continue to denounce in public their own conduct +unless their action results in some effort toward corrective +measures. + +Professor Thomas Dew, of the chair of history and metaphysics in +William and Mary College and later President of the College, +published an essay reviewing the debate in the Legislature and +arguing that any plan for emancipation in Virginia was either +undesirable or impossible. This essay was among the first of the +direct pro-slavery arguments. Statements in support of the view +soon followed. In 1885 the Governor of South Carolina in a +message to the Legislature said, "Domestic slavery is the +corner-stone of our republican edifice." Senator Calhoun, +speaking in the Senate two years later, declared slavery to be a +positive good. W. G. Simms, Southern poet and novelist, writing +in 1852, felicitates himself as being among the first who about +fifteen years earlier advocated slavery as a great good and a +blessing. Harriet Martineau, an English author who traveled +extensively in the South in 1885, found few slaveholders who +justified the institution as being in itself just. But after the +debates in the Virginia Legislature, there were few owners of +slaves who publicly advocated abolition. The spirit of mob +violence had set in, and, contrary to the utterances of Virginia +statesmen, free speech on the subject of slavery was suppressed +in the slave States. This did not mean that Southern statesmen +had lost the power to perceive the evil effects of slavery or +that they were convinced that their former views were erroneous. +It meant simply that they had failed to agree upon a policy of +gradual emancipation, and the only recourse left seemed to be to +follow the example of James G. Birney and leave the South or to +submit in silence to the new order. + + + +CHAPTER V. THE VINDICATION OF LIBERTY + +With the changed attitude of the South towards emancipation there +was associated an active hostility to dearly bought human +liberty. Freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of +worship, the right of assembly, trial by jury, the right of +petition, free use of the mails, and numerous other fundamental +human rights were assailed. Birney and other abolitionists who +had immediate knowledge of slavery early perceived that the real +question at issue was quite as much the continued liberty of the +white man as it was the liberation of the black man and that the +enslavement of one race involved also the ultimate essential +enslavement of the other. + +In 1831 two slave States and six free States still extended to +free negroes the right to vote. During the pro-slavery crusade +these privileges disappeared; and not only so, but free negroes +were banished from certain States, or were not permitted to enter +them, or were allowed to remain only by choosing a white man for +a guardian. It was made a crime to teach negroes, whether slaves +or free men, to read and write. Under various pretexts free +negroes were reduced to slavery. Freedom of worship was denied to +negroes, and they were not allowed to assemble for any purpose +except under the strict surveillance of white men. Negro +testimony in a court of law was invalid where the rights of a +white man were involved. The right of a negro to his freedom was +decided by an arbitrary court without a jury, while the disputed +right of a white man to the ownership of a horse was conditioned +by the safeguard of trial by jury. + +The maintenance of such policies carries with it of necessity the +suppression of free discussion. When Southern leaders adopted the +policy of defending slavery as a righteous institution, +abolitionists in the South either emigrated to the North or were +silenced. In either case they were deprived of a fundamental +right. The spirit of persecution followed them into the free +States. Birney could not publish his paper in Kentucky, nor even +at Cincinnati, save at the risk of his life. Elijah Lovejoy was +not allowed to publish his paper in Missouri, and, when he +persisted in publishing it in Illinois, he was brutally murdered. +Even in Boston it required men of courage and determination to +meet and organize an anti-slavery society in 1832, though only a +few years earlier Benjamin Lundy had traveled freely through the +South itself delivering anti-slavery lectures and organizing +scores of such societies. The New York Anti-Slavery Society was +secretly organized in 1832 in spite of the opposition of a +determined mob. Mob violence was everywhere rife. Meetings were +broken up, negro quarters attacked, property destroyed, murders +committed. + +Fair-minded men became abolitionists on account of the crusade +against the rights of white men quite as much as from their +interest in the rights of negroes. Salmon P. Chase of Ohio was +led to espouse the cause by observing the attacks upon the +freedom of the press in Cincinnati. Gerrit Smith witnessed the +breaking up of an anti-slavery meeting in Utica, New York, and +thereafter consecrated his time, his talents, and his great +wealth to the cause of liberty. Wendell Phillips saw Garrison in +the hands of a Boston mob, and that experience determined him to +make common cause with the martyr. And the murder of Lovejoy in +1837 made many active abolitionists. + +It is difficult to imagine a more inoffensive practice than +giving to negro girls the rudiments of an education. Yet a school +for this purpose, taught by Miss Prudence Crandall in Canterbury, +Connecticut, was broken up by persistent persecution, a special +act of the Legislature being passed for the purpose, forbidding +the teaching of negroes from outside the State without the +consent of the town authorities. Under this act Miss Crandall was +arrested, convicted, and imprisoned. + +Having eliminated free discussion from the South, the Southern +States sought to accomplish the same object in the North. In +pursuance of a resolution of the Legislature, the Governor of +Georgia offered a reward of five thousand dollars to any one who +should arrest, bring to trial, and prosecute to conviction under +the laws of Georgia the editor of the Liberator. R. G. Williams, +publishing agent for the American Anti-Slavery Society, was +indicted by a grand jury of Tuscaloosa County, Alabama, and +Governor Gayle of Alabama made a requisition on Governor Marcy of +New York for his extradition. Williams had never been in Alabama. +His offense consisted in publishing in the New York Emancipator a +few rather mild utterances against slavery. + +Governor McDuffie of South Carolina in an official message +declared that slavery was the very corner-stone of the republic, +adding that the laboring population of any country, "bleached or +unbleached," was a dangerous element in the body politic, and +predicting that within twenty-five years the laboring people of +the North would be virtually reduced to slavery. Referring to +abolitionists, he said: "The laws of every community should +punish this species of interference with death without benefit of +clergy." Pursuant to the Governor's recommendation, the +Legislature adopted a resolution calling upon non-slaveholding +States to pass laws to suppress promptly and effectively all +abolition societies. In nearly all the slave States similar +resolutions were adopted, and concerted action against +anti-slavery effort was undertaken. During the winter of 1835 and +1836, the Governors of the free States received these resolutions +from the South and, instead of resenting them as an uncalled-for +interference with the rights of free commonwealths, they treated +them with respect. Edward Everett, Governor of Massachusetts, in +his message presenting the Southern documents to the Legislature, +said: "Whatever by direct and necessary operation is calculated +to excite an insurrection among the slaves has been held, by +highly respectable legal authority, an offense against this +Commonwealth which may be prosecuted as a misdemeanor at common +law." Governor Marcy of New York, in a like document, declared +that "without the power to pass such laws the States would not +possess all the necessary means for preserving their external +relations of peace among themselves." Even before the Southern +requests reached Rhode Island, the Legislature had under +consideration a bill to suppress abolition societies. + +When a committee of the Massachusetts Legislature had been duly +organized to consider the documents received from the slave +States, the abolitionists requested the privilege of a hearing +before the committee. Receiving no reply, they proceeded to +formulate a statement of their case; but before they could +publish it, they were invited to appear before the joint +committee of the two houses. The public had been aroused by the +issue and there was a large audience. The case for the +abolitionists was stated by their ablest speakers, among whom was +William Lloyd Garrison. They labored to convince the committee +that their utterances were not incendiary, and that any +legislative censure directed against them would be an +encouragement to mob violence and the persecution which was +already their lot. After the defensive arguments had been fully +presented, William Goodell took the floor and proceeded to charge +upon the Southern States which had made these demands a +conspiracy against the liberties of the North. In the midst of +great excitement and many interruptions by the chairman of the +committee, he quoted the language of Governor McDuffie's message, +and characterized the documents lying on the table before him as +"fetters for Northern freemen." Then, turning to the committee, +he began, "Mr. Chairman, are you prepared to attempt to put them +on?"--but the sentence was only half finished when the stentorian +voice of the chairman interrupted him: "Sit down, sir!" and he +sat down. The committee then arose and left the room. But the +audience did not rise; they waited till other abolitionists found +their tongues and gave expression to a fixed determination to +uphold the liberties purchased for them by the blood of their +fathers. The Massachusetts Legislature did not comply with the +request of Governor McDuffie of South Carolina to take the first +step towards the enslavement of all laborers, white as well as +black. And Rhode Island refused to enact into law the pending +bill for the suppression of anti-slavery societies. They declined +to violate the plain requirements of their Constitution that the +interests of slavery might be promoted. Not many years later they +were ready to strain or break the Constitution for the sake of +liberty. + +In the general crusade against liberty churches proved more +pliable than States. The authority of nearly all the leading +denominations was directed against the abolitionists. The General +Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church passed in 1836 a +resolution censuring two of their members who had lectured in +favor of modern abolitionism. The Ohio Conference of the same +denomination had passed resolutions urging resistance to the +anti-slavery movement. In June, 1836, the New York Conference +decided that no one should be chosen as deacon or elder who did +not give pledge that he would refrain from agitating the church +on the subject. + +The same spirit appeared in theological seminaries. The trustees +of Lane Seminary, near Cincinnati, Ohio, voted that students +should not organize or be members of anti-slavery societies or +hold meetings or lecture or speak on the subject. Whereupon the +students left in a body, and many of the professors withdrew and +united with others in the founding of an anti-slavery college at +Oberlin. + +A persistent attack was also directed against the use of the +United States mails for the distribution of anti-slavery +literature. Mob violence which involved the post-office began as +early as 1830, when printed copies of Miss Grimke's Appeal to the +Christian Women of the South were seized and burned in +Charleston. In 1835 large quantities of anti-slavery literature +were removed from the Charleston office and in the presence of +the assembled citizens committed to the flames. Postmasters on +their own motion examined the mails and refused to deliver any +matter that they deemed incendiary. Amos Kendall, +Postmaster-General, was requested to issue an order authorizing +such conduct. He replied that he had no legal authority to issue +such an order. Yet he would not recommend the delivery of such +papers. "We owe," said he, "an obligation to the laws, but a +higher one to the communities in which we live, and if the former +be perverted to destroy the latter, it is patriotism to disregard +them. Entertaining these views, I cannot sanction, and will not +condemn, the step you have taken." This is an early instance of +the appeal to the "higher law" in the pro-slavery controversy. +The higher law was invoked against the freedom of the press. The +New York postmaster sought to dissuade the Anti-slavery Society +from the attempt to send its publications through the mails into +Southern States. In reply to a request for authorization to +refuse to accept such publications, the Postmaster-General +replied: "I am deterred from giving an order to exclude the whole +series of abolition publications from the Southern mails only by +a want of legal power, and if I were situated as you are, I would +do as you have done." + +Mr. Kendall's letters to the postmasters of Charleston and New +York were written in July and August, 1835. In December of the +same year, presumably with full knowledge that a member of his +Cabinet was encouraging violations of law in the interest of +slavery, President Jackson undertook to supply the need of legal +authorization. In his annual message he made a savage attack upon +the abolitionists and recommended to Congress the "passing of +such a law as will prohibit, under severe penalties, the +circulation in the Southern States, through the mail, of +incendiary publications." + +This part of the President's message was referred to a select +committee, of which John C. Calhoun was chairman. The chairman's +report was against the adoption of the President's recommendation +because a subject of such vital interest to the States ought not +to be left to Congress. The admission of the right of Congress to +decide what is incendiary, asserted the report, carries with it +the power to decide what is not incendiary and hence Congress +might authorize and enforce the circulation of abolition +literature through the mails in all the States. The States should +themselves severally decide what in their judgment is incendiary, +and then it would become the duty of the general Government to +give effect to such state laws. The bill recommended was in +harmony with this view. It was made illegal for any deputy +postmaster "to deliver to any person whatsoever, any pamphlet, +newspaper, handbill, or other printed paper, or pictorial +representation touching the subject of slavery, where by the laws +of the said State, territory, or district their circulation is +prohibited." The bill was defeated in the Senate by a small +margin. Altogether there was an enlightening debate on the whole +subject. The exposure of the abuse of tampering with the mail +created a general reaction, which enabled the abolitionists to +win a spectacular victory. Instead of a law forbidding the +circulation of anti-slavery publications, Congress enacted a law +requiring postal officials under heavy penalties to deliver +without discrimination all matter committed to their charge. This +act was signed by President Jackson, and Calhoun himself was +induced to admit that the purposes of the abolitionists were not +violent and revolutionary. Henceforth abolitionists enjoyed their +full privileges in the use of the United States mail. +An even more dramatic victory was thrust upon the abolitionists +by the inordinate violence of their opponents in their attack +upon the right of petition. John Quincy Adams, who became their +distinguished champion, was not himself an abolitionist. When, as +a member of the lower House of Congress in 1831, he presented +petitions from certain citizens of Pennsylvania, presumably +Quakers, requesting Congress to abolish slavery and the +slave-trade in the District of Columbia, he refused to +countenance their prayer, and expressed the wish that the +memorial might be referred without debate. At the very time when +a New England ex-President was thus advising abolitionists to +desist from sending petitions to Congress, the Virginia +Legislature was engaged in the memorable debate upon a similar +petition from Virginia Quakers, in which most radical abolition +sentiment was expressed by actual slaveowners. Adams continued to +present anti-slavery memorials and at the same time to express +his opposition to the demands of the petitioners. When in 1835 +there arose a decided opposition to the reception of such +documents, Adams, still in apparent sympathy with the pro-slavery +South on the main issue, gave wise counsel on the method of +dealing with petitions. They should be received, said he, and +referred to a committee; because the right of petition is sacred. +This, he maintained, was the best way to avoid disturbing debate +on the subject of slavery. He quoted his own previous experience; +he had made known his opposition to the purposes of the +petitioners; their memorials were duly referred to a committee +and there they slept the sleep of death. At that time only one +voice had been raised in the House in support of the abolition +petitioners, that of John Dickson of New York, who had delivered +a speech of two hours in length advocating their cause; but not a +voice was raised in reply. Mr. Adams mentioned this incident with +approval. The way to forestall disturbing debate in Congress, he +said, was scrupulously to concede all constitutional rights and +then simply to refrain from speaking on the subject. + +This sound advice was not followed. For several months a +considerable part of the time of the House was occupied with the +question of handling abolition petitions. And finally, in May, +1836, the following resolution passed the House: "Resolved, That +all petitions, memorials, resolutions, propositions, or papers +relating in any way or to any extent whatever to the subject of +slavery or the abolition of slavery, shall, without being either +printed or referred, be laid on the table, and that no further +action whatever shall be had thereon." This is commonly known as +the "gag resolution." During four successive years it was +reenacted in one form or another and was not repealed by direct +vote until 1844. + +When the name of Mr. Adams was called in the vote upon the +passage of the above resolution, instead of answering in the +ordinary way, he said: "I hold the resolution to be a direct +violation of the Constitution of the United States, of the rules +of this House, and of the rights of my constituents." This was +the beginning of the duel between the "old man eloquent" and a +determined majority in the House of Representatives. Adams +developed undreamed-of resources as a debater and +parliamentarian. He made it his special business to break down +the barrier against the right of petition. Abolitionists +cooperated with zeal in the effort. Their champion was abundantly +supplied with petitions. The gag resolution was designed to +prevent all debate on the subject of slavery. Its effect in the +hands of the shrewd parliamentarian was to foment debate. On one +occasion, with great apparent innocence, after presenting the +usual abolition petitions, Adams called the attention of the +Speaker to one which purported to be signed by twenty-two slaves +and asked whether such a petition should be presented to the +House, since he was himself in doubt as to the rules applicable +in such a case. This led to a furious outbreak in the House which +lasted for three days. Adams was threatened with censure at the +bar of the House, with expulsion, with the grand jury, with the +penitentiary; and it is believed that only his great age and +national repute shielded him from personal violence. After +numerous passionate speeches had been delivered, Adams injected a +few important corrections into the debate. He reminded the House +that he had not presented a petition purporting to emanate from +slaves; on the contrary, he had expressly declined to present it +until the Speaker had decided whether a petition from slaves was +covered by the rule. Moreover, the petition was not against +slavery but in favor of slavery. He was then charged with the +crime of trifling with the sensibilities of the House; and +finally the champion of the right of petition took the floor in +his own defense. His language cut to the quick. His calumniators +were made to feel the force of his biting sarcasm. They were +convicted of injustice, and all their resolutions of censure were +withdrawn. The victory was complete. + +After the year 1838 John Quincy Adams had the effective support +of Joshua R. Giddings from the Western Reserve, Ohio--who also +fought a pitched battle of his own which illustrates another +phase of the crusade against liberty. The ship Creole had sailed +from Baltimore to New Orleans in 1841 with a cargo of slaves. The +negroes mutinied on the high seas, slew one man, gained +possession of the vessel, sailed to Nassau, and were there set +free by the British Government. Prolonged diplomatic negotiations +followed in which our Government held that, as slaves were +property in the United States, they continued to be such on the +high seas. In the midst of the controversy, Giddings introduced a +resolution into the House, declaring that slavery, being an +abridgment of liberty, could exist only under local rules, and +that on the high seas there can be no slavery. For this act +Giddings was arraigned and censured by the House. He at once +resigned, but was reelected with instructions to continue the +fight for freedom of debate in the House. + +In the campaign against the rights of freemen mob violence was +first employed, but in the South the weapon of repressive +legislation was soon substituted, and this was powerfully +supplemented by social and religious ostracism. Except in a few +districts in the border States, these measures were successful. +Public profession of abolitionism was suppressed. The violence of +the mob was of much longer duration in the North and reached its +height in the years 1834 and 1835. But Northern mobs only +quickened the zeal of the abolitionists and made converts to +their cause. The attempt to substitute repressive state +legislation had the same effect, and the use of church authority +for making an end of the agitation for human liberty was only +temporarily influential. + +As early as 1838 the Presbyterian Church was divided over +questions of doctrine into Old School and New School +Presbyterians. This served to forestall the impending division on +the slavery question. The Old School in the South became +pro-slavery and the New School in the North became anti-slavery. +At the same time the Methodist Church of the entire country was +beset by a division on the main question. In 1844 Southern +Methodist Episcopalian conferences resolved upon separation and +committed themselves to the defense of slavery. The division in +the Methodist Church was completed in 1846. A corresponding +division took place in the Baptist Church in 1845. The +controversy was dividing the country into a free North and an +enslaved South, and Southern white men as well as negroes were +threatened with subjection to the demands of the dominant +institution. + + + +CHAPTER VI. THE SLAVERY ISSUE IN POLITICS + +Some who opposed mob violence became active abolitionists; others +were led to defend the rights of abolitionists because to do +otherwise would encourage anarchy and general disorder. The same +was true of those who defended the right of petition and the free +use of the mails and the entire list of the fundamental rights of +freemen which were threatened by the crusade against +abolitionists. Birney's contention that unless the slave is freed +no one can be free was thus vindicated: the issue involved vastly +more than the mere emancipation of slaves. + +The attack made in defense of slavery upon the rights of freemen +was early recognized as involving civil war unless peaceable +emancipation could be attained. So soon as John Quincy Adams +faced the new spirit in Congress, he was convinced that it meant +probable war. As early as May, 1836, he warned the South, saying: +"From the instant that your slaveholding States become the +theater of war, civil, servile, or foreign, from that moment the +war powers of the Constitution extend to interference with the +institution of slavery." This sentiment he reiterated and +amplified on various occasions. The South was duly warned that an +attempt to disrupt the Union would involve a war of which +emancipation would be one of the consequences. With the exception +of Garrison and a few of his personal followers, abolitionists +were unionists: they stood for the perpetual union of the States. + +This is not the place to give an extended account of the Mexican +War.* There are, however, certain incidents connected with the +annexation of Texas and the resulting war which profoundly +affected the crusade against slavery. Both Lundy and Birney in +their missions to promote emancipation through the process of +colonization believed that they had unearthed a plan on the part +of Southern leaders to acquire territory from Mexico for the +purpose of extending slavery. This discovery coincided with the +suppression of abolition propaganda in the South. Hitherto John +Quincy Adams had favored the western expansion of our territory. +He had labored diligently to make the Rio Grande the western +boundary of the Louisiana Purchase at the time of the treaty with +Spain in 1819. But though in 1825 he had supported a measure to +purchase Texas from Mexico, under the new conditions he threw +himself heartily against the annexation of Texas, and in 1838 he +defeated in the House of Representatives a resolution favoring +annexation. To this end Adams occupied the morning hour of the +House each day from the 16th of June to the 7th of July, within +two days of the time fixed for adjournment. This was only a +beginning of his fight against the extension of slavery. There +was no relenting in his opposition to pro-slavery demands until +he was stricken down with paralysis in the streets of Boston, in +November, 1846. He never again addressed a public assembly. But +he continued to occupy his seat in Congress until February 23, +1848. + +* See "Texas and the Mexican War" (in "The Chronicles of +America"). + +The debate inaugurated in Congress by Adams and others over the +extension of slave territory rapidly spread to the country at +large, and interest in the question became general. Abolitionists +were thereby greatly stimulated to put into practice their +professed duty of seeking to accomplish their ends by political +action. Their first effort was to secure recognition in the +regular parties. The Democrats answered in their platform of 1840 +by a plank specifically denouncing the abolitionists, and the +Whigs proved either noncommittal or unfriendly. The result was +that abolitionists organized a party of their own in 1840 and +nominated James G. Birney for the Presidency. Both of the older +parties during this campaign evaded the issue of the annexation +of Texas. In 1844 the Whigs again refrained from giving in their +platform any official utterance on the Texas issue, though they +were understood to be opposed to annexation. The Democrats +adroitly asserted in their platform their approval of the +re-annexation of Texas and reoccupation of Oregon. There was a +shadowy prior claim to both these regions, and by combining them +in this way the party avoided any odious partiality towards the +acquisition of slave territory. But the voters in both parties +had become interested in the specific question whether the +country was to enter upon a war of conquest whose primary object +should be the extension of slavery. In the North it became +generally understood that a vote for Henry Clay, the Whig +candidate, was an expression of opposition to annexation. This +issue, however, was not made clear in the South. In the absence +of telegraph and daily paper it was quite possible to maintain +contradictory positions in different sections of the country. But +since the Democrats everywhere openly favored annexation, the +election of their candidate, James K. Polk, was generally +accepted as a popular approval of the annexation of Texas. +Indeed, action immediately followed the election and, before the +President-elect had been inaugurated, the joint resolution for +the annexation of Texas passed both Houses of Congress. + +The popular vote was almost equally divided between Whigs and +Democrats. Had the vote for Birney, who was again the candidate +of the Liberty party, been cast for Clay electors, Clay would +have been chosen President. The Birney vote was over sixty-two +thousand. The Liberty party, therefore, held the balance of power +and determined the result of the election. + +The Liberty party has often been censured for defeating the Whigs +at this election of 1844. But many incidents, too early forgotten +by historians, go far to justify the course of the leaders. +Birney and Clay were at one time members of the same party. They +were personal friends, and as slave holders they shared the view +that slavery was a menace to the country and ought to be +abolished. It was just fourteen years before this election that +Birney made a visit to Clay to induce him to accept the +leadership of an organized movement to abolish slavery in +Kentucky. Three years later, when Birney returned to Kentucky to +do himself what Henry Clay had refused to do, he became convinced +that the reaction which had taken place in favor of slavery was +largely due to Clay's influence. This was a common impression +among active abolitionists. It is not strange, therefore, that +they refused to support him as a candidate for the Presidency, +and it is not at all certain that his election in 1844 would have +prevented the war with Mexico. + +Northern Whigs accused the Democrats of fomenting a war with +Mexico with the intention of gaining territory for the purpose of +extending slavery. Democrats denied that the annexation of Texas +would lead to war, and many of them proclaimed their opposition +to the farther extension of slavery. In harmony with this +sentiment, when President Polk asked for a grant of two million +dollars to aid in making a treaty with Mexico, they attached to +the bill granting the amount a proviso to the effect that slavery +should forever be prohibited in any territory which might be +obtained from Mexico by the contemplated treaty. The proviso was +written by an Ohio Democrat and was introduced in the House by +David A. Wilmot, a Pennsylvania Democrat, after whom it is known. +It passed the House by a fair majority with the support of both +Whigs and Democrats. At the time of the original introduction in +August, 1846, the Senate did not vote upon the measure. Davis of +Massachusetts moved its adoption but inadvertently prolonged his +speech in its favor until the hour for adjournment. Hence there +was no vote on the subject. Subsequently the proviso in a new +form again passed the House but failed of adoption in the Senate. + +During the war the Wilmot Proviso was the subject of frequent +debate in Congress and of continuous debate throughout the +country until the treaty with Mexico was signed in 1848. A vast +territory had been acquired as a result of the war, and no +decision had been reached as to whether it should remain free or +be opened to settlement by slave-owners. Another presidential +election was at hand. For fully ten years there had been +ever-increasing excitement over the question of the limitation or +the extension of slavery. This had clearly become the topic of +supreme interest throughout the country, and yet the two leading +parties avoided the issue. Their own membership was divided. +Northern Democrats, many of them, were decidedly opposed to +slavery extension. Southern Whigs with equal intensity favored +the extension of slavery into the new territory. The platforms of +the two parties were silent on the subject. The Whigs nominated +Taylor, a Southern general who had never voted their party +ticket, but they made no formal declaration of principles. The +Democrats repeated with colorless additions their platforms of +1840 anti 1844 and sought to win the election with a Northern +man, Lewis Cass of Michigan, as candidate. + +There was, therefore, a clear field for a party having fully +defined views to express on a topic of commanding interest. The +cleavage in the Democratic party already begun by the debate over +the Wilmot Proviso was farther promoted by a factional division +of New York Democrats. Martin Van Buren became the leader of the +liberal faction, the "Barnburners," who nominated him for +President at a convention at Utica. The spirit of independence +now seized disaffected Whigs and Democrats everywhere in the +North and Northwest. Men of anti-slavery proclivities held +nonpartizan meetings and conventions. The movement finally +culminated in the famous Buffalo convention which gave birth to +the Freesoil party. The delegates of all political persuasions +united on the one principle of opposition to slavery. They +adopted a ringing platform closing with the words: "Resolved, +That we inscribe on our banner 'Free Soil, Free Speech, Free +Labor, and Free Men,' and under it will fight on, and fight ever, +until a triumphant victory shall reward our exertions." They +accepted Van Buren as their candidate. The vote at the ensuing +election was more than fourfold that given to Birney in 1844. The +Van Buren supporters held the balance of power between Whigs and +Democrats in twelve States. Taylor was elected by the vote of New +York, which except for the division in the party would have gone +to Cass. There was no longer any doubt of the fact that a +political force had arisen which could no longer be ignored by +the ruling parties. One of the parties must either support the +new issue or give place to a party which would do so. + +A political party for the defense of liberty was the fulfillment +of the aspirations of all earnest anti-slavery men and of all +abolitionists not of the radical Garrisonian persuasion. The +national anti-slavery societies were for the most part limited in +their operations to the Atlantic seaboard. The West organized +local and state associations with little reference to the +national association. When the disruption occurred between +Garrison and his opponents in 1840, the Western abolitionists +continued their former methods of local organization. They +recognized no divisions in their ranks and continued to work in +harmony with all who in any way opposed the institution of +slavery. The political party was their first really effective +national organization. Through party committees, caucuses, and +conventions, they became a part of the forces that controlled the +nation. The older local clubs and associations were either +displaced by the party or became mere adjuncts to the party. + +The lines for political action were now clearly defined. In the +States emancipation should be accomplished by state action. With +a few individual exceptions the leaders conceded that Congress +had no power to abolish slavery in the States. Upon the general +Government they urged the duty of abolishing both slavery and the +slave-trade in the District of Columbia and in all areas under +direct federal control. They further urged upon the Government +the strict enforcement of the laws prohibiting the foreign +slave-trade and the enactment of laws forbidding the interstate +slave-trade. The constitutionality of these main lines of action +has been generally conceded. + +Abolitionists were pioneers in the formulation of political +platforms. The declaration of principles drawn up by Garrison in +1833 and adopted by the American Anti-Slavery Society was of the +nature of a political platform. The duty of voting in furtherance +of the policy of emancipation was inculcated. No platform was +adopted for the first political campaign, that of 1840; but four +years later there was an elaborate party platform of twenty-one +resolutions. Many things had happened in the eleven years +intervening since the declaration of principles of the American +Anti-Slavery Society. In the earlier platform the freedom of the +slave appears as the primary object. That of the Liberty party +assumes the broad principle of human brotherhood as the +foundation for a democracy or a republic. It denies that the +party is organized merely to free the slave. Slaveholding as the +grossest form of despotism must indeed be attacked first, but the +aim of the party is to carry the principle of equal rights into +all social relations. It is not a sectional party nor a party +organized for a single purpose. "It is not a new party, nor a +third party, but it is the party of 1776, reviving the principles +of that memorable era, and striving to carry them into practical +application." The spirit of '76 rings, indeed, throughout the +document, which declares that it was understood at the time of +the Declaration and the Constitution that the existence of +slavery was in derogation of the principles of American liberty. +The implied faith of the Nation and the States was pledged to +remove this stain upon the national character. Some States had +nobly fulfilled that pledge; others shamelessly had neglected to +do so. + +These principles are reasserted in succeeding platforms. The +later opponents of slavery in their principles and policies thus +allied themselves with the founders of the republic. They claimed +the right to continue to repeat the words of Washington and +Jefferson and those of the members of the Virginia Legislature of +1832. No new doctrines were required. It was enough simply to +reaffirm the fundamental principles of democracy. + +The names attached to the party are significant. It was at first +popularly styled the Abolition party, then officially in turn the +Liberty party, the Freesoil party, and finally the Republican +party. Republican was the name first applied to the Democratic +party--the party of Jefferson. The term Democrat was gradually +substituted under the leadership of Jackson before 1830. Some of +the men who participated in the organization of the later +Republican party had themselves been Republicans in the party of +Jefferson. They not only accepted the name which Jefferson gave +to his party, but they adopted the principles which Jefferson +proclaimed on the subject of slavery, free soil, and human rights +in general. This was the final stage in the identification of the +later anti-slavery crusade with the earlier contest for liberty. + + + +CHAPTER VII. THE PASSING OF THE WHIG PARTY + +The middle of the last century was marked by many incidents which +have left a permanent impress upon politics in general and upon +the slavery question in particular. Europe was again in the +throes of popular uprisings. New constitutions were adopted in +France, Switzerland, Prussia, and Austria. Reactions in favor of +autocracy in Austria and Germany sent multitudes of lovers of +liberty to America. Kossuth, the Hungarian revolutionist, +electrified American audiences by his appeals on behalf of the +downtrodden in Europe. Already the world was growing smaller. +America did not stop at the Pacific but crossed the ocean to +establish permanent political and commercial relations with Japan +and China. + +The industries of the country were being reorganized to meet new +conditions created by recent inventions. The electric telegraph +was just coming into use, giving rise to a new era in +communication. The discovery of gold in California in 1848 was +followed by competing projects to construct railroads to the +Pacific with Chicago and St. Louis as the rival eastern +terminals. The telegraph, the railway, and the resulting +industrial development proved great nationalizing influences. +They served also to give increased emphasis to the contrast +between the industries of the free and those of the slave States. +The Census of 1850 became an effective anti-slavery argument. + +The telegraph also gave new life to the public press. The +presidential campaign of 1848 was the last one in which it was +possible to carry on contradictory arguments in support of the +same candidate. If slavery could not endure the test of +untrammeled discussion when there were no means of rapid +intercommunication such as the telegraph supplied, how could it +contend against the revelations of the daily press with the new +type of reporter and interviewer which was now developed? + +It is a remarkable coincidence that in the midst of the passing +of the old and the coming in of the new order there should be a +change in the political leadership of the country. Webster, Clay, +Calhoun, John Quincy Adams, not to mention others, all died near +the middle of the century, and their political power passed to +younger men. Adams gave his blessing to a young friend and +co-laborer, William H. Seward of New York, intimating that he +expected him to do much to curb the threatening power of the +slaveholding oligarchy; while Andrew Jackson, who died earlier, +had already conferred a like distinction upon young Stephen A. +Douglas. There was no lack of aspirants for the fallen mantles. + +John C. Calhoun continued almost to the day of his death to +modify his interpretation of the Constitution in the interest of +his section. As a young man he avowed protectionist principles. +Becoming convinced that slave labor was not suited to +manufacture, he urged South Carolina to declare the protective +tariff laws null and void within her limits. When his section +seemed endangered by the distribution of anti-slavery literature +through the mail, he extemporized a theory that each State had a +right to pass statutes to protect itself in such an emergency, in +which case it became the duty of the general Government and of +all other States to respect such laws. When it finally appeared +that the territory acquired from Mexico was likely to remain +free, the same statesman made further discoveries. He found that +Congress had no right to exclude slavery from any Territory +belonging to the United States; that the owners of slaves had +equal rights with the owners of other property; that neither +Congress nor a territorial authority had any power to exclude +slaves from a Territory. This doctrine was accepted by extremists +in the South and was finally embodied in the Dred Scott decision +of 1857. + +Abolitionists had meantime evolved a precisely contradictory +theory. They asserted that the Constitution gave no warrant for +property in man, except as held under state laws; that with this +exception freedom was guaranteed to all; that Congress had no +more right to make a slave than it had to make a king; and that +it was the duty of Congress to maintain freedom in all the +Territories. Extremists expressed the view that all past acts +whereby slavery had been extended were unconstitutional and +therefore void. Between these extreme conflicting views was every +imaginable grade of opinion. The prevailing view of opponents of +slavery, however, was in harmony with their past conduct and +maintained that Congress had complete control over slavery in the +Territories. + +When the Mexican territory was acquired, Stephen A. Douglas, as +the experienced chairman of the Committee on Territories in the +Senate, was already developing a theory respecting slavery in the +Territories which was destined to play a leading part in the +later crusade against slavery. Douglas was the most thoroughgoing +of expansionists and would acknowledge no northern boundary on +this side of the North Pole, no southern boundary nearer than +Panama. He regarded the United States, with its great principle +of local autonomy, as fitted to become eventually the United +States of the whole world, while he held it to be an immediate +duty to make it the United States of North America. As the son- +in-law of a Southern planter in North Carolina, and as the father +of sons who inherited slave property, Douglas, although born in +Vermont, knew the South as did no other Northern statesman. He +knew also the institution of slavery at first hand. As a +pronounced expansionist and as the congressional leader in all +matters pertaining to the Territories, he acquired detailed +information as to the qualities of these new possessions, and he +spoke, therefore, with a good degree of authority when he said, +"If there was one inch of territory in the whole of our +acquisitions from Mexico where slavery could exist, it was in the +valleys of the Sacramento and the San Joaquin." But this region +was at once preempted for freedom upon the discovery of gold. + +Douglas did not admit that even the whole of Texas would remain +dedicated to slavery. Some of the States to be formed from it +would be free, by the same laws of climate and resources which +determined that the entire West would remain free. Before the +Mexican War the Senator had become convinced that the extension +of slavery had reached its limit; that the Missouri Compromise +was a dead letter except as a psychological palliative; that +Nature had already ordained that slave labor should be forever +excluded from all Western territory both north and south of that +line. His reply to Calhoun's contention that a balance must be +maintained between slave and free States was that he had plans +for forming seventeen new States out of the vast Western domains, +every one of which would be free. And besides, said he, "we all +look forward with confidence to the time when Delaware, Maryland, +Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri, and probably North Carolina and +Tennessee will adopt a gradual system of emancipation." Douglas +was one of the first to favor the admission of California as a +free State. According to the Missouri Compromise law and the laws +of Mexico, all Western territory was free, and he was opposed to +interference with existing conditions. The Missouri Compromise +was still held sacred. Finally, however, it was with Douglas's +assistance that the Compromise measures of 1850 were passed, one +of which provided for territorial Governments for Utah and New +Mexico with the proviso that, when admitted as States, slavery +should be permitted or prohibited as the citizens of those States +should determine at the time. Congress refrained from any +declaration as to slavery in the Territories. It was this policy +of "non-intervention" which four years later furnished plausible +excuse for the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. + +It was not strange that there was general ignorance in all parts +of the country as to the resources of the newly acquired +territory. The rush to the goldfields precipitated action in +respect to California. Before General Taylor, the newly elected +President, was inaugurated, there was imminent need of an +efficient government. An early act of the Administration was to +send an agent to assist in the formation of a state Government, +and a convention was immediately called to frame a constitution. +By unanimous vote of the convention, slavery was excluded. The +constitution was approved by popular vote and was presented to +Congress for final acceptance in December, 1849. + +In the meantime a great commotion had arisen among the people. +Southern state legislatures passed resolutions demanding that the +rights of their peculiar institution should be recognized in the +new Territory. Northern legislatures responded with resolutions +favoring the admission of California as a State and the +application of the Wilmot Proviso to the remaining territory. +Northern Democrats had very generally denied that the affair with +Mexico had as a chief purpose the extension of slavery. Democrats +therefore united with Whigs in maintaining the principle of free +soil. In the South there was a corresponding fusion of the two +parties in support of the sectional issue. + +General concern prevailed as to the attitude of the +Administration. Taylor's election had been effected by both a +Southern and a Northern split in the Democratic party. Northern +Democrats had voted for the Free-soil candidate because of the +alleged pro-slavery tendencies of their own party. Southern +Democrats voted for Taylor because of their distrust of Lewis +Cass, their own candidate. Some of these met in convention and +formally nominated Taylor, and Taylor accepted their nomination +with thanks. Northern anti-slavery Whigs had a difficult task to +keep their members in line. There is evidence that Taylor held +the traditional Southern view that the anti-slavery North was +disposed to encroach upon the rights of the South. Meeting fewer +Northern Whig supporters, he became convinced that the more +active spirit of encroachment was in the pro-slavery South. +California needed a state Government, and the President took the +most direct method to supply that need. As the inhabitants were +unanimous in their desire to exclude slavery, their wish should +be respected. New Mexico was in a similar situation. As slavery +was already excluded from the territory under Mexican law, and as +there was no wish on the part of the inhabitants to introduce +slavery, the President recognized existing facts and made no +change. When Southern leaders projected a scheme to enlarge the +boundaries of Texas so as to extend slavery over a large part of +New Mexico, President Taylor set a guard of United States troops +to maintain the integrity of the Territory. When a deputation of +Southern Whigs endeavored to dissuade him from his purpose, +threatening a dissolution of the Union and intimating that army +officers would refuse to act against citizens of Texas, the +soldier President replied that in such an event he would take +command in person and would hang any one caught in acts of +treason. When Henry Clay introduced an elaborate project for a +compromise between the North and the South, the President +insisted that each question should be settled on its own merits +and directed the forces of the Administration against any sort of +compromise. The debate over Clay's Omnibus Bill was long and +acrimonious. On July 4, 1850, the President seemed triumphant. +But upon that day, notwithstanding his apparent robust health, he +was stricken down with an acute disease and died five days later. +With his passing, the opposing Whig faction came into power. The +so-called compromise measures were at length one by one passed by +Congress and approved by President Fillmore. + +California was admitted as a free State; but as a palliative to +the South, Congress passed bills for the organization of +territorial Governments for New Mexico and Utah without positive +declarations regarding the powers of the territorial Legislatures +over slavery. All questions relating to title to slaves were to +be left to the courts. Meantime it was left in doubt whether +Mexican law excluding slavery was still in force. Southern +malcontents maintained that this act was a mere hoax, using words +which suggested concession when no concession was intended. +Northern anti-slavery men criticized the act as the entering +wedge for another great surrender to the enemy. Because of the +uncertainty regarding the meaning of the law and the false hopes +likely to be created, they maintained that it was fitted to +foment discord and prolong the period of distrust between the two +sections. At all events such was its actual effect. + +A third act in this unhappy series gave to Texas ten millions of +dollars for the alleged surrender of claims to a part of New +Mexico. This had little bearing on the general subject of +compromise; yet anti-slavery men criticized it on the ground that +the issue raised was insincere; that the appropriation was in +fact a bribe to secure votes necessary to pass the other +measures; that the bill was passed through Congress by shameless +bribery, and that even the boundaries conceded to Texas involved +the surrender of free territory. + +The abolition of the slave-trade in the District of Columbia was +supported by both sections of the country. The removal of the +slave pens within sight of the Capitol to a neighboring city +deprived the abolitionists of one of their weapons for effective +agitation, but it did not otherwise affect the position of +slavery. + +Of the five acts included in the compromise measures, the one +which provided for the return of fugitive slaves was most +effective in the promotion of hostility between the two sections. +During the six months of debate on the Omnibus Bill, numerous +bills were presented to take the place of the law of 1793. +Webster brought forward a bill which provided for the use of a +jury to establish the validity of a claim to an escaped slave. +But that which was finally adopted by a worn-out Congress is +characterized as one of the most barbarous pieces of legislation +ever enacted by a civilized country. A single incident may +indicate the nature of the act. James Hamlet, for three years a +resident of New York City, a husband and a father and a member of +the Methodist Church, was seized eight days after the law went +into effect by order of the agent of Mary Brown of Baltimore, cut +off from all communication with his friends, hurried before a +commissioner, and on ex parte testimony was delivered into the +hands of the agent, by whom he was handcuffed and secretly +conveyed to Baltimore. Mr. Rhodes accounts for the enactment in +the following words: "If we look below the surface we shall find +a strong impelling motive of the Southern clamor for this harsh +enactment other than the natural desire to recover lost property. +Early in the session it took air that a part of the game of the +disunionists was to press a stringent fugitive slave law, for +which no Northern man could vote; and when it was defeated, the +North would be charged with refusal to carry out a stipulation of +the Constitution . . . . The admission of California was a bitter +pill for the Southern ultras, but they were forced to take it. +The Fugitive Slave Law was a taunt and a reproach to that part of +the North where the anti-slavery sentiment ruled supremely, and +was deemed a partial compensation." Clay expressed surprise that +States from which few slaves escaped demanded a more stringent +law than Kentucky, from which many escaped. + +Whatever may have been the motives leading to the enactment, its +immediate effect was the elimination of one of the great national +parties, thus paving the way for the formation of parties along +sectional lines. Two years after the passage of the compromise +acts the Democratic national convention assembled to nominate a +candidate for the Presidency. The platform adopted by the party +promised a faithful execution of the acts known as the compromise +measures and added "the act for reclaiming fugitives from service +or labor included; which act, being designed to carry out an +express provision of the Constitution, cannot, with fidelity +thereto, be repealed nor so changed as to destroy or impair its +efficiency." When this was read, the convention broke out in +uproarious applause. Then there was a demand that it should be +read again. Again there was loud applause. + +Why was there this demand that a law which every one knew had +proved a complete failure should be made a permanent part of the +Constitution? And why the ungovernable hilarity over the demand +that its "efficiency" should never be impaired? Surely the motive +was something other than a desire to recover lost property. Upon +the Whig party had been fastened the odium for the enactment of +the law, and the act unrepealed meant the death of the party. The +Democrats saw good reason for laughter. + + + +CHAPTER VIII. THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD + +Wherever there are slaves there are fugitives if there is an +available place of refuge. The wilds of Florida were such a +refuge during the early part of last century. When the Northern +States became free, fugitive slaves began to escape thither, and +Canada, when it could be reached, was, of course, the goal of +perfect security and liberty for all. + +A professed object of the early anti-slavery societies was to +prevent the enslavement of free negroes and in other ways to +protect their rights. During the process of emancipation in +Northern States large numbers of colored persons were spirited +off to the South and sold into slavery. At various places along +the border there were those who made it their duty to guard the +rights of negroes and to prevent kidnapping. These guardians of +the border furnished a nucleus for the development of what was +later known as the Underground Railroad. + +In 1796 President Washington wrote a letter to a friend in New +Hampshire with reference to obtaining the return of a negro +servant. He was careful to state that the servant should remain +unmolested rather than "excite a mob or riot or even uneasy +sensations in the minds of well disposed citizens." The result +was that the servant remained free. President Washington here +assumed that "well disposed citizens" would oppose her return to +slavery. Three years earlier the President had himself signed a +bill to facilitate by legal process the return of fugitives +escaping into other States. He was certainly aware that such an +act was on the statute books when he wrote his request to his +friend in New Hampshire, yet he expected that, if an attempt were +made to remove the refugee by force, riot and resistance by a mob +would be the result. + +Not until after the foreign slave-trade had been prohibited and +the domestic trade had been developed, and not until there was a +pro-slavery reaction in the South which banished from the slave +States all anti-slavery propaganda, did the systematic assistance +rendered to fugitive slaves assume any large proportions or +arouse bitter resentment. It began in the late twenties and early +thirties of the nineteenth century, extended with the spread of +anti-slavery organization, and was greatly encouraged and +stimulated by the enactment of the law of 1850. + +The Underground Railroad was never coextensive with the abolition +movement. There were always abolitionists who disapproved the +practice of assisting fugitives, and others who took no part in +it. Of those who were active participants, the larger proportion +confined their activities to assisting those who had escaped and +would take no part in seeking to induce slaves to leave their +masters. Efforts of that kind were limited to a few individuals +only. + +Incidents drawn from the reminiscences of Levi Coffin, the +reputed president of the Underground Railroad, may serve to +illustrate the origin and growth of the system. He was seven +years old when he first saw near his home in North Carolina a +coffle of slaves being driven to the Southern market by a man on +horseback with a long whip. "The driver was some distance behind +with the wagon. My father addressed the slaves pleasantly and +then asked, 'Well, boys, why do they chain you?' One of the men +whose countenance betrayed unusual intelligence and whose +expression denoted the deepest sadness replied: 'They have taken +us from our wives and children and they chain us lest we should +make our escape and go back to them."' When Coffin was fifteen, +he rendered assistance to a man in bondage. Having an opportunity +to talk with the members of a gang in the hands of a trader bound +for the Southern market, he learned that one of the company, +named Stephen, was a freeman who had been kidnapped and sold. +Letters were written to Northern friends of Stephen who confirmed +his assertion. Money was raised in the Quaker meeting and men +were sent to recover the negro. Stephen was found in Georgia and +after six months was liberated. + +During the year 1821 other incidents occurred in the Quaker +community at New Garden, near Greensboro, North Carolina, which +illustrate different phases of the subject. Jack Barnes was the +slave of a bachelor who became so greatly attached to his servant +that he bequeathed to him not only his freedom but also a large +share of his property. Relatives instituted measures to break the +will, and Jack in alarm took refuge among the Quakers at New +Garden. The suit went against the negro, and the newspapers +contained advertisements offering a hundred dollars for +information which should result in his recovery. To prevent his +return to bondage, it was decided that Jack should join a family +of Coffins who were moving to Indiana. + +At the same time a negro by the name of Sam had for several +months been abiding in the Quaker neighborhood. He belonged to a +Mr. Osborne, a prototype of Simon Legree, who was so notoriously +cruel that other slave-owners assisted in protecting his victims. +After the Coffins, with Jack, had been on the road for a few +days, Osborne learned that a negro was with them and, feeling +sure that it was his Sam, he started in hot haste after them. +This becoming known to the Friends, young Levi Coffin was sent +after Osborne to forestall disaster. The descriptions given of +Jack and Sam were practically identical and it was surmised that +when Osborne should overtake the party and discover his mistake, +he would seize Jack for the sake of the offered reward. Coffin +soon came up with Osborne and decided to ride with him for a time +to learn his plans. In the course of their conversation, it was +finally agreed that Coffin should assist in the recovery of Sam. +Osborne was also generous and insisted that if it proved to be +the other "nigger" who was with the company, Coffin should have +half the reward. How the young Quaker outwitted the tyrant, +gained his point, sent Jack on his way to liberty, and at the +same time retained the confidence of Osborne so that upon their +return home he was definitely engaged to assist Osborne in +finding Sam, is a fascinating story. The abolitionist won from +the slaveholder the doubtful compliment that "there was not a man +in that neighborhood worth a d--n to help him hunt his negro +except young Levi Coffin." + +Sam was perfectly safe so long as Levi Coffin was guide for the +hunting-party, but matters were becoming desperate. For the +fugitive something had to be done. Another family was planning to +move to Indiana, and in their wagon Sam was to be concealed and +thus conveyed to a free State. The business had now become +serious. The laws of the State affixed the death penalty for +stealing a slave. At night when young Coffin and his father, with +Sam, were on their way to complete arrangements for the +departure, horsemen appeared in the road near by. They had only +time to throw themselves flat on the ground behind a log. From +the conversation overheard, they were assured that they had +narrowly escaped the night-riders on the lookout for stray +negroes. The next year, 1822, Coffin himself joined a party going +to Indiana by the southern route through Tennessee and Kentucky. +In the latter State they were at one time overtaken by men who +professed to be looking for a pet dog, but whose real purpose was +to recover runaway slaves. They insisted upon examining the +contents of the wagons, for in this way only a short time +previous a fugitive had been captured. + +These incidents show the origin of the system. The first case of +assistance rendered a negro was not in itself illegal, but was +intended merely to prevent the crime of kidnapping. The second +was illegal in form, but the aid was given to one who, having +been set free by will, was being reenslaved, it was believed, by +an unjust decision of a court. The third was a case of outrageous +abuse on the part of the owner. The negro Sam had himself gone to +a trader begging that he would buy him and preferring to take his +chances on a Mississippi plantation rather than return to his +master. The trader offered the customary price and was met with +the reply that he could have the rascal if he would wait until +after the enraged owner had taken his revenge, otherwise the +price would be twice the amount offered. A large proportion of +the fugitives belonged to this maltreated class. Others were +goaded to escape by the prospect of deportation to the Gulf +States. The fugitives generally followed the beaten line of +travel to the North and West. + +In 1826 Levi Coffin became a merchant in Newport, Indiana, a town +near the Ohio line not far from Richmond. In the town and in its +neighborhood lived a large number of free negroes who were the +descendants of former slaves whom North Carolina Quakers had set +free and had colonized in the new country. Coffin found that +these blacks were accustomed to assist fugitives on their way to +Canada. When he also learnt that some had been captured and +returned to bondage merely through lack of skill on the part of +the negroes, he assumed active operations as a conductor on the +Underground Railroad. + +Coffin used the Underground Railroad as a means of making +converts to the cause. One who berated him for negro-stealing was +adroitly induced to meet a newly arrived passenger and listen to +his pathetic story. At the psychological moment the objector was +skillfully led to hand the fugitive a dollar to assist him in +reaching a place of safety. Coffin then explained to this +benevolent non-abolitionist the nature of his act, assuring him +that he was liable to heavy damages therefor. The reply was in +this case more forcible than elegant: "Damn it! You've got me!" +This conversion he publicly proclaimed for the sake of its +influence upon others. Many were the instances in which those of +supposed pro-slavery convictions were brought face to face with +an actual case of the threatened reenslavement of a human being +escaping from bondage and were, to their own surprise, overcome +by the natural, humane sentiment which asserted itself. For +example, a Cincinnati merchant, who at the time was supposed to +be assisting one of his Southern customers to recover an escaped +fugitive, was confronted at his own home by the poor half-starved +victim. Yielding to the impulse of compassion, he gave the slave +food and personal assistance and directed the destitute creature +to a place of refuge. + +The division in the Quaker meeting in Indiana with which Levi +Coffin was intimately associated may serve to exemplify a +corresponding attitude in other churches on the question of +slavery. The Quakers availed themselves of the first great anti- +slavery movement to rid themselves completely of the burden. +Their Society itself became an anti-slavery organization. Yet +even so the Friends had differences of opinion as to fit methods +of action. Not only did many of them disapprove of rendering aid +to fugitives but they also objected to the use of the +meetinghouses for anti-slavery lectures. The formation of the +Liberty party served to accentuate the division. The great body +of the Friends were anti-slavery Whigs. + +A crisis in the affairs of the Society of Friends in the State of +Indiana was reached in 1843 when the radicals seceded and +organized an independent "Anti-Slavery Friends Society." +Immediately there appeared in numerous localities duplicate +Friends' meeting-houses. In and around one of these, +distinguished as "Liberty Hall," were gathered those whose +supreme religious interest was directed against the sin of +slavery. Never was there a church division which involved less +bad blood or sense of injury or injustice. Members of the same +family attended separate churches without the least difference in +their cordial relations. No important principle was involved; +there were apparently good reasons for both lines of policy, and +each party understood and respected the other's position. After +the adoption of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 and the passing of +the Whig party, these differences disappeared, the separate +organization was disbanded, and all Friends' meetinghouses became +"liberty halls." + +The disposition to aid the fugitive was by no means confined to +the North nor to Quakers in the South. Richard Dillingham, a +young Quaker who had yielded to the solicitations of escaped +fugitives in Cincinnati and had undertaken a mission to +Nashville, Tennessee, to rescue their relatives from a "hard +master," was arrested with three stolen slaves on his hands. He +made confession in open court and frankly explained his motives. +The Nashville Daily Gazette of April 13, 1849, has words of +commendation for the prisoner and his family and states that "he +was not without the sympathy of those who attended the trial." +Though Dillingham committed a crime to which the death penalty +was attached in some of the States, the jury affixed the minimum +penalty of three years' imprisonment for the offense. As +Nashville was far removed from Quaker influence or any sort of +anti-slavery propaganda, Dillingham was himself astonished and +was profoundly grateful for the leniency shown him by Court, +jury, and prosecutors. This incident occurred in the year before +the adoption of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850. It is well known +that in all times and places which were free from partizan +bitterness there was a general natural sympathy for those who +imperiled their life and liberty to free the slave. Throughout +the South men of both races were ready to give aid to slaves +seeking to escape from dangers or burdens which they regarded as +intolerable. While such a man as Frederick Douglass, when still a +slave, was an agent of the Underground Railroad, Southern anti- +slavery people themselves were to a large extent the original +projectors of the movement. Even members of the families of +slaveholders have been known to assist fugitives in their escape +to the North. + +The fugitives traveled in various ways which were determined +partly by geographical conditions and partly by the character of +the inhabitants of a region. On the Atlantic coast, from Florida +to Delaware, slaves were concealed in ships and were thus +conveyed to free States. Thence some made their way towards +Canada by steamboat or railroad, though most made the journey on +foot or, less frequently, in private conveyances. Stalwart slaves +sometimes walked from the Gulf States to the free States, +traveling chiefly by night and guided by the North Star. Having +reached a free State, they found friends among those of their own +race, or were taken in hand by officers of the Underground +Railroad and were thus helped across the Canadian border. + +>From the seacoast the valley of the Connecticut River furnished +a +convenient route for completing the journey northward, though the +way of the fugitives was often deflected to the Lake Champlain +region. In later years, when New England became generally +sympathetic, numerous lines of escape traversed that entire +section. Other courses extended northward from the vicinity of +Philadelphia, Delaware, and Maryland. Here, through the center of +American Quakerdom, all conditions favored the escape of +fugitives, for slavery and freedom were at close quarters. The +activities of the Quakers, who were at first engaged merely in +preventing the reenslavement of those who had a legal right to +freedom, naturally expanded until aid was given without +reservation to any fugitive. From Philadelphia as a distributing +point the route went by way of New York and the Hudson River or +up the river valleys of eastern Pennsylvania through western New +York. + +In addition to the routes to freedom which the seacoast and river +valleys afforded, the Appalachian chain of mountains formed an +attractive highway of escape from slavery, though these mountain +paths lead us to another branch of our subject not immediately +connected with the Underground Railroad--the escape from bondage +by the initiative of the slaves themselves or by the aid of their +own people. Mountains have always been a refuge and a defense for +the outlaw, and the few dwellers in this almost unknown +wilderness were not infrequently either indifferent or friendly +to the fugitives. The escaped slaves might, if they chose, adopt +for an indefinite time the free life of the hills; but in most +cases they naturally drifted northward for greater security until +they found themselves in a free State. Through the mountainous +regions of Virginia many thus escaped, and they were induced to +remain there by the example and advice of residents of their own +color. The negroes themselves excelled all others in furnishing +places of refuge to fugitives from slavery and in concealing +their status. For this reason John Brown and his associates were +influenced to select this region for their great venture in 1859. + +But there were other than geographical conditions which helped to +determine the direction of the lines of the Underground Railroad. +West of the Alleghanies are the broad plains of the Mississippi +Valley, and in this great region human elements rather than +physical characteristics proved influential. Northern Ohio was +occupied by settlers from the East, many of whom were anti- +slavery. Southern Ohio was populated largely by Quakers and other +people from the slave States who abhorred slavery. On the east +and south the State bordered on slave territory, and every part +of the region was traversed by lines of travel for the slave. In +eastern and northern Indiana a favorable attitude prevailed. +Southwestern Indiana, however, and southern Illinois were +occupied by those less friendly to the slave, so that in these +sections there is little evidence of systematic aid to fugitives. +But with St. Louis, Missouri, as a starting-point, northern +Illinois became honeycombed with refuges for patrons of the +Underground Railroad. The negro also found friends in all the +settled portions of Iowa, and at the outbreak of the Civil War a +lively traffic was being developed, extending from Lawrence, +Kansas, to Keokuk, Iowa. + +There is respectable authority for a variety of opinions as to +the requirements of the rendition clause in the Constitution and +of the Act of Congress of 1793 to facilitate the return of +fugitives from service or labor; but there is no respectable +authority in support of the view that neither the spirit nor the +letter of the law was violated by the supporters of the +Underground Railroad. This was a source of real weakness to +anti-slavery leaders in politics. It was always true that only a +small minority of their numbers were actual violators of the law, +yet such was their relation to the organized anti-slavery +movement that responsibility attached to all. The platform of the +Liberty party for 1844 declared that the provisions of the +Constitution for reclaiming fugitive slaves were dangerous to +liberty and ought to be abrogated. It further declared that the +members of the party would treat these provisions as void, +because they involved an order to commit an immoral act. The +platform thus explicitly committed the party to the support of +the policy of rendering aid to fugitive slaves. Four years later +the platform of the Free-soil party contained no reference +whatever to fugitive slaves, but that of 1852 denounced the +Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 as repugnant to the Constitution and +the spirit of Christianity and denied its binding force on the +American people. The Republican platform of 1856 made no +reference to the subject. + +The Underground Railroad filled an insignificant place in the +general plan for emancipation, even in the minds of the +directors. It was a lesser task preparatory to the great work. As +to the numbers of slaves who gained their freedom by means of it, +there is a wide range of opinion. Statements in Congress by +Southern members that a hundred thousand had escaped must be +regarded as gross exaggerations. In any event the loss was +confined chiefly to the border States. Besides, it has been +stated with some show of reason that the danger of servile +insurrection was diminished by the escape of potential leaders. + +>From the standpoint of the great body of anti-slavery men who +expected to settle the slavery question by peaceable means, it +was a calamity of the first magnitude that, just at the time when +conditions were most favorable for transferring the active +crusade from the general Government to the separate States, +public attention should be directed to the one point at which the +conflict was most acute and irrepressible. + +Previous to 1850 there had been no general acrimonious debate in +Congress on the rendition of fugitive slaves. About half of those +who had previously escaped from bondage had not taken the trouble +to go as far as Canada, but were living at peace in the Northern +States. Few people at the North knew or cared anything about the +details of a law that had been on the statute books since 1793. +Members of Congress were duly warned of the dangers involved in +any attempt to enforce a more stringent law than the previous act +which had proved a dead letter. To those who understood the +conditions, the new law also was doomed to failure. So said +Senator Butler of South Carolina. An attempt to enforce it would +be met by violence. + +This prediction came true. The twenty thousand potential victims +residing in Northern States were thrown into panic. Some rushed +off to Canada; others organized means for protection. A father +and son from Baltimore came to a town in Pennsylvania to recover +a fugitive. An alarm was sounded; men, mostly colored, rushed to +the protection of the one whose liberty was threatened. Two +Quakers appeared on the scene and warned the slavehunters to +desist and upon their refusal one slave-hunter was instantly +killed and the other wounded. The fugitive was conveyed to a +place of safety, and to the murderers no punishment was meted +out, though the general Government made strenuous efforts to +discover and punish them. In New York, though Gerrit Smith and a +local clergyman with a few assistants rescued a fugitive from the +officers of the law and sent him to Canada, openly proclaiming +and justifying the act, no attempt was made to punish the +offenders. + +After a dozen years of intense and ever-increasing excitement, +when other causes of friction between North and South had +apparently been removed and good citizens in the two sections +were rejoicing at the prospect of an era of peace and harmony, +public attention was concentrated upon the one problem of conduct +which would not admit of peaceable legal adjustment. +Abolitionists had always been stigmatized as lawbreakers whose +aim was the destruction of slavery in utter disregard of the +rights of the States. This charge was absolutely false; their +settled program involved full recognition of state and municipal +control over slavery. Yet after public attention had become fixed +upon conduct on the part of the abolitionists which was illegal, +it was difficult to escape the implication that their whole +course was illegal. This was the tragic significance of the +Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. + + + +CHAPTER IX. BOOKS AS ANTI-SLAVERY WEAPONS + +Whittier offered up "thanks for the fugitive slave law; for it +gave occasion for 'Uncle Tom's Cabin.'" Mrs. Harriet Beecher +Stowe had been mistress of a station on the Underground Railroad +at Cincinnati, the storm-center of the West, and out of her +experience she has transmitted to the world a knowledge of the +elemental and tragic human experiences of the slaves which would +otherwise have been restricted to a select few. The mistress of a +similar station in eastern Indiana, though she held novel reading +a deadly sin, said: "'Uncle Tom's Cabin' is not a novel, it is a +record of facts. I myself have listened to the same stories." The +reading public in all lands soon became sympathetic participants +in the labors of those who, in defiance of law, were lending a +hand to the aspirants for liberty. At the time of the publication +of the story in book form in March, 1852, America was being +profoundly stirred by the stories of fugitives who had escaped +from European despotism. Mrs. Stowe refers to these incidents in +her question: "When despairing Hungarian fugitives make their +way, against all the search-warrants and authorities of their +lawful governments to America, press and political cabinet ring +with applause and welcome. When despairing African fugitives do +the same thing--it is--what IS it?" Little did she think that +when the eloquence of the Hungarian refugee had been forgotten, +the story of Eliza and Uncle Tom would ring throughout the world. + +The book did far more than vindicate the conduct of those who +rendered assistance to the fugitive from slavery; it let in +daylight upon the essential nature of slavery. Humane and just +masters are shown to be forced into participation in acts which +result in intolerable cruelty. Full justice is done to the noble +and admirable character of Southern slave-owners. The author had +been a guest in the home of the "Shelbys," in Kentucky. She had +taken great pains to understand the Southern point of view on the +subject of slavery; she had entered into the real trials and +difficulties involved in any plan of emancipation. St. Clair, +speaking to Miss Ophelia, his New England cousin, says: + +"If we emancipate, are you willing to educate? How many families +of your town would take in a negro man or woman, teach them, bear +with them, and seek to make them Christians? How many merchants +would take Adolph, if I wanted to make him a clerk; or mechanics, +if I wanted to teach him a trade? If I wanted to put Jane and +Rosa to a school, how many schools are there in the Northern +States that would take them in? How many families that would +board them? And yet they are as white as many a woman north or +south. You see, cousin, I want justice done us. We are in a bad +position. We are the more obvious oppressors of the negro; but +the unchristian prejudice of the north is an oppressor almost +equally severe." + +Throughout the book the idea is elaborated in many ways. Miss +Ophelia is introduced for the purpose of contrasting Northern +ignorance and New England prejudice with the patience and +forbearance of the better class of slave-owners of the South. The +genuine affection of an unspoiled child for negro friends is made +especially emphatic. Miss Ophelia objected to Eva's expressions +of devotion to Uncle Tom. Her father insists that his daughter +shall not be robbed of the free utterance of her high regard, +observing that "the child is the only true democrat." There is +only one Simon Legree in the book, and he is of New England +extraction. The story is as distinctly intended to inform +Northern ignorance and to remove Northern prejudice as it is to +justify the conduct of abolitionists. + +What was the effect of the publication? In European countries far +removed from local partizan prejudice, it was immediately +received as a great revelation of the spirit of liberty. It was +translated into twenty-three different languages. So devoted were +the Italians to the reading of the story that there was earnest +effort to suppress its circulation. As a drama it proved a great +success, not only in America and England but in France and other +countries as well. More than a million copies of the story were +sold in the British Empire. Lord Palmerston avers that he had not +read a novel for thirty years, yet he read Uncle Tom's Cabin +three times and commended the book for the statesmanship +displayed in it. + +What is in the story to call forth such commendation from the +cold-blooded English statesman? The book revealed, in a way +fitted to carry conviction to every unprejudiced reader, the +impossibility of uniting slavery with freedom under the same +Government. Either all must be free or the mass subject to the +few--or there is actual war. This principle is finely brought out +in the predicament of the Quaker confronted by a fugitive with +wife and child who had seen a sister sold and conveyed to a life +of shame on a Southern plantation. "Am I going to stand by and +see them take my wife and sell her?" exclaimed the negro. "No, +God help me! I'll fight to the last breath before they shall take +my wife and son. Can you blame me?" To which the Quaker replied: +"Mortal man cannot blame thee, George. Flesh and blood could not +do otherwise. 'Woe unto the world because of offences but woe +unto them through whom the offence cometh.'" "Would not even you, +sir, do the same, in my place?" "I pray that I be not tried." And +in the ensuing events the Quaker played an important part. + +Laws enacted for the protection of slave property are shown to be +destructive of the fundamental rights of freemen; they are +inhuman. The Ohio Senator, who in his lofty preserve at the +capital of his country could discourse eloquently of his +readiness to keep faith with the South in the matter of the +faithful execution of the Fugitive Slave Law, becomes, when at +home with his family, a flagrant violator of the law. Elemental +human nature is pitted against the apparent interests of a few +individual slaveowners. The story of Uncle Tom placed all +supporters of the new law on the defensive. It was read by all +classes North and South. "Uncle Tom's Cabin as it is" was called +forth from the South as a reply to Mrs. Stowe's book, and there +ensued a general discussion of the subject which was on the whole +enlightening. Yet the immediate political effect of the +publication was less than might have been expected from a book so +widely read and discussed. Its appearance early in the decade did +not prevent the apparent pro-slavery reaction already described. +But Mr. Rhodes calls attention to the different impression which +the book made upon adults and boys. Hardened sinners in partizan +politics could read the book, laugh and weep over the passing +incidents, and then go on as if nothing had happened. Not so with +the thirteen-year-old boy. He never could be the same again. The +Republican party of 1860 was especially successful in gaining the +first vote of the youthful citizen and undoubtedly owed much of +its influence to "Uncle Tom's Cabin." + +Two lines of attack were rapidly rendering impossible the +continuance of slavery in the United States. Mrs. Stowe gave +effective expression to the moral, religious, and humanitarian +sentiment against slavery. In the year in which her work was +published, Frederick Law Olmsted began his extended journeys +throughout the South. He represents the impartial scientific +observer. His books were published during the years 1856, 1857, +and 1861. They constitute in their own way an indictment against +slavery quite as forcible as that of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," but an +indictment that rests chiefly upon the blighting influence of the +institution of slavery upon agriculture, manufactures, and the +general industrial and social order. The crisis came too soon for +these publications to have any marked effect upon the issue. +Their appeal was to the deliberate and thoughtful reader, and +political control had already drifted into the hands of those who +were not deliberate and composed. + +In 1857, however, there appeared a book which did exert a marked +influence upon immediate political issues. There is no evidence +that Hinton Rowan Helper, the author of "The Impending Crisis," +had any knowledge of the writings of Olmsted; but he was familiar +with Northern anti-slavery literature. "I have considered my +subject more particularly," he states in his preface, "with +reference to its economic aspects as regards the whites--not with +reference, except in a very slight degree, to its humanitarian or +religious aspects. To the latter side of the question, Northern +writers have already done full and timely justice . . . . Yankee +wives have written the most popular anti-slavery literature of +the day. Against this I have nothing to say; it is all well +enough for women to give the fictions of slavery; men should give +the facts." He denies that it had been his purpose to cast +unmerited opprobium upon slaveholders; yet a sense of personal +injury breathes throughout the pages. If he had no intention of +casting unmerited opprobrium upon slaveholders, it is difficult +to imagine what language he could have used if he had undertaken +to pass the limit of deserved reprobation. In this regard the +book is quite in line with the style of Southern utterance +against abolitionists. + +Helper belonged to a slaveholding family, for a hundred years +resident in the Carolinas. The dedication is significant. It is +to three personal friends from three slave States who at the time +were residing in California, in Oregon, and in Washington +Territory, "and to the non-slaveholding whites of the South +generally, whether at home or abroad." Out of the South had come +the inspiration for the religious and humanitarian attack upon +slavery. From the same source came the call for relief of the +poverty-stricken white victims of the institution. + +Helper's book revived the controversy which had been forcibly +terminated a quarter of a century before. He resumes the argument +of the members of the Virginia legislature of 1832. He reprints +extended selections from that memorable debate and then, by +extended references to later official reports, points out how +slavery is impoverishing the South. The South is shown to have +continuously declined, while the North has made immense gains. In +a few years the relation of the South to the North would resemble +that of Poland to Russia or of Ireland to England. The author +sees no call for any arguments against slavery as an economic +system; he would simply bring the earlier characterization of the +situation down to date. + +Helper differs radically from all earlier speakers and writers in +that he outlines a program for definite action. He estimates that +for the entire South there are seven white non-slaveholders for +every three slaveholders. He would organize these +non-slaveholding whites into an independent political party and +would hold a general convention of non-slaveholders from every +slave State to adopt measures to restrain "the diabolical +excesses of the oligarchy" and to annihilate slavery. +Slaveholders should be entirely excluded from any share in +government. They should be treated as criminals ostracized from +respectable society. He is careful to state, however, that by +slaveholder he does not mean such men as Benton of Missouri and +many others throughout the slave States who retain the sentiments +on the slavery question of the "immortal Fathers of the +Republic." He has in mind only the new order of owners, who have +determined by criminal methods to inflict the crime of slavery +upon an overwhelming majority of their white fellow-citizens. + +The publication of "The Impending Crisis" created a profound +sensation among Southern leaders. So long as the attack upon the +peculiar institution emanated from the North, the defenders had +the full benefit of local prejudice and resentment against +outside intrusion. Helper was himself a thorough-going believer +in state rights. Slavery was to be abolished, as he thought, by +the action of the separate States. Here he was in accord with +Northern abolitionists. If such literature as Helper's volume +should find its way into the South, it would be no longer +possible to palm off upon the unthinking public the patent +falsehood that abolitionists of the North were attempting to +impose by force a change in Southern institutions. All that +Southern abolitionists ever asked was the privilege of remaining +at home in their own South in the full exercise of their +constitutional rights. + +Southern leaders were undoubtedly aware of the concurrent +publications of travelers and newspaper reporters, of which +Olmsted's books were conspicuous examples. Olmsted and Helper +were both sources of proof that slavery was bringing the South to +financial ruin. The facts were getting hold of the minds of the +Southern people. The debate which had been adjourned was on the +eve of being resumed. Complete suppression of the new scientific +industrial argument against slavery seemed to slave-owners to +furnish their only defense. + +The Appalachian ranges of mountains drove a wedge of liberty and +freedom from Pennsylvania almost to the Gulf. In the upland +regions slavery could not flourish. There was always enmity +between the planters of the coast and the dwellers on the upland. +The slaveholding oligarchy had always ruled, but the day of the +uplanders was at hand. This is the explanation of the veritable +panic which Helper's publication created. A debate which should +follow the line of this old division between the peoples of the +Atlantic slave States would, under existing conditions, be fatal +to the institution of slavery. West Virginia did become a free +State at the first opportunity. Counties in western North +Carolina claim to have furnished a larger proportion of their men +to the Union army than any other counties in the country. Had the +plan for peaceable emancipation projected by abolitionists been +permitted to take its course, the uplands of South Carolina would +have been pitted against the lowlands, and Senator Tillman would +have appeared as a rampant abolitionist. There might have been +violence, but it would have been confined to limited areas in the +separate States. Had the crisis been postponed, there surely +would have been a revival of abolitionism within the Southern +States. Slavery in Missouri was already approaching a crisis. +Southern leaders had long foreseen that the State would abolish +slavery if a free State should be established on the western +boundary. This was actually taking place. Kansas was filling up +with free-state settlers and, by the act of its own citizens, a +few years later did abolish slavery. + +Republicans naturally made use of Helper's book for party +purposes. A cheap abridged edition was brought out. Several +Republican leaders were induced to sign their names to a paper +commending the publication. Among these was John Sherman of Ohio, +who in the organization of the newly elected House of +Representatives in 1859 was the leading candidate of the +Republicans for the speakership. During the contest the fact that +his name was on this paper was made public, and Southern leaders +were furious. Extracts were read to prove that the book was +incendiary. Millson of Virginia said that "one who consciously, +deliberately, and of purpose lends his name and influence to the +propagation of such writings is not only not fit to be speaker, +but he is not-fit to live." It is one of the ironies of the +situation that the passage selected to prove the incendiary +character of the book is almost a literal quotation from the +debate in the Virginia Legislature of 1832. + + + +CHAPTER X. "BLEEDING KANSAS" + +Both the leading political parties were, in the campaign of 1852, +fully committed to the acceptance of the so-called Compromise of +1850 as a final settlement of the slavery question; both were +committed to the support of the Fugitive Slave Act. The Free-soil +party, with John P. Hale as its candidate, did make a vigorous +attack upon the Fugitive Slave Act, and opposed all compromises +respecting slavery, but Free-Boilers had been to a large extent +reabsorbed into the Democratic party, their vote of 1852 being +only about half that of 1848. Though the Whig vote was large and +only about two hundred thousand less than that of the Democrats, +yet it was so distributed that the Whigs carried only four +States, Massachusetts, Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee. The +other States gave a Democratic plurality. + +Had there been time for readjustment, the Whig party might have +recovered lost ground, but no time was permitted. There was in +progress in Missouri a political conflict which was already +commanding national attention. Thomas H. Benton, for thirty years +a Senator from Missouri, and a national figure, was the +storm-center. His enemies accused him of being a Free-Boiler, an +abolitionist in disguise. He was professedly a stanch and +uncompromising unionist, a personal and political opponent of +John C. Calhoun. According to his own statement he had been +opposed to the extension of slavery since 1804, although he had +advocated the admission of Missouri with a pro-slavery +constitution in 180. He was, from the first, senior Senator from +the State, and by a peculiar combination of influences incurred +his first defeat for reelection in 1851. + +Benton's defeat in the Missouri Legislature was largely the +result of national pro-slavery influences. In a former chapter, +reference was made to the Ohio River as furnishing a +"providential argument against slavery." The Mississippi River as +the eastern boundary of Missouri furnished a like argument, but +on the north not even a prairie brook separated free labor in +Iowa from slave labor in Missouri. The inhabitants of western +Missouri, realizing that the tenure of their peculiar institution +was becoming weaker in the east and north, early became convinced +that the organization of a free State along their western +boundary would be followed by the abolition of slavery in their +own State. This condition attracted the attention of the national +guardians of pro-slavery interests. Calhoun, Davis, Breckinridge, +Toombs, and others were in constant communication with local +leaders. A certain Judge W. C. Price, a religious fanatic, and a +pro-slavery devotee, was induced to visit every part of the State +in 1844, calling the attention of all slaveholders to the perils +of the situation and preparing the way for the repeal of the +Missouri Compromise. Senator Benton, who was approached on the +subject, replied in such a way that all radical defenders of +slavery, both national leaders and local politicians, were moved +to unite for his political defeat. + +David R. Atchison, junior Senator from Missouri, had been made +the leader of the pro-slavery forces. The defeat of Benton in the +Missouri Legislature did not end the strife. He at once became a +candidate for Atchison's place in the election which was to occur +in 1855, and he was in the meantime elected to the House of +Representatives in 1852. The most telling consideration in +Benton's favor was the general demand, in which he himself +joined, for the immediate organization of the western territory +in order to facilitate the building of a system of railways +reaching the Pacific, with St. Louis as the point of departure. +For a time, in 1859, and 1853, Benton was apparently triumphant, +and Atchison was himself willing to consent to the organization +of the new territory with slavery excluded. The national leaders, +however, were not of the same mind. The real issue was the +continuance of slavery in the State; the one thing which must not +be permitted was the transfer of anti-slavery agitation to the +separate States. Henry Clay's proposal of 1849 to provide for +gradual emancipation in Kentucky was bitterly resented. It had +long been an axiom with the slavocracy that the institution would +perish unless it had the opportunity to expand. Out of this +conviction arose Calhoun's famous theory that slaveowners had +under the Constitution an equal right with the owners of all +other forms of property in all the Territories. The theory itself +assumed that the act prohibiting slavery in the territory north +of the southern boundary of Missouri was unconstitutional and +void. But this theory had not yet received judicial sanction, and +the time was at hand when the question of freedom or slavery in +the western territory was to be determined. Between March and +December, 1853, the discovery was made that the Act of 1850 +organizing the Territories of New Mexico and Utah had superseded +the Compromise of 1820; that a principle had been recognized +applicable to all the Territories; that all were open to +settlement on equal terms to slaveholders and non-slaveholders; +that the subject of slavery should be removed from Congress to +the people of the Territories; and that they should decide, +either when a territorial legislature was organized or at the +time of the adoption of a constitution preparatory to statehood, +whether or not slavery should be authorized. These ideas found +expression in various newspapers during the month of December, +1853. Though the authorship of the new theory is still a matter +of dispute, it is well known that Stephen A. Douglas became its +chief sponsor and champion. The real motives and intentions of +Douglas himself and of many of his supporters will always remain +obscure and uncertain. But no uncertainty attaches to the motives +of Senator Atchison and the leaders of the Calhoun section of the +Democratic party. For ten years at least they had been laboring +to get rid of the Missouri Compromise. Their motive was to defend +slavery and especially to forestall a successful movement for +emancipation in the State of Missouri. + +From early in January, 1854, until late in May, Douglas's +Nebraska bill held the attention of Congress and of the entire +country. At first the measure simply assumed that the Missouri +Compromise had been superseded by the Act of 1850. Later the bill +was amended in such a way as to repeal distinctly that +time-honored act. At first the plan was to organize Nebraska as a +single Territory extending from Texas to Canada. Later it was +proposed to organize separate Territories, one west of Missouri +under the name of Kansas, the other west of Iowa under the name +of Nebraska. Opposition came from Free-soilers, from Northern +Whigs and a few Whigs from the South, and from a large proportion +of Northern Democrats. The repeal of the Missouri Compromise came +like a thunderbolt out of a clear sky to the people of the North. +For a time Douglas was the most unpopular of political leaders +and was apparently repudiated by his party. The first name +designating the opponents of the Douglas bill was "Anti Nebraska +men," for which the name Republican was gradually substituted and +in 1858 became the accepted title of the party. + +The provision for two territorial governments instead of one +carried with it the idea of a continued balance between slave and +free States; Kansas, being on a geographical parallel with the +slave States, would probably permit slavery, while Nebraska would +be occupied by free-state immigrants. Though this was a commonly +accepted view, Eli Thayer of Worcester, Massachusetts, and a few +others took a different view. They proposed to make an end of the +discussion of the extension of slavery by sending free men who +were opposed to slavery to occupy the territory open for +settlement. To attain this object they organized an Emigrant Aid +Company incorporated under the laws of the State. Even before the +bill was passed, the corporation was in full working order. +Thayer himself traveled extensively throughout the Northern +States stimulating interest in western emigration, with the +conviction that the disturbing question could be peacefully +settled in this way. California had thus been saved to freedom; +why not all other Territories? The new company had as adviser and +co-laborer Dr. Charles Robinson, who had crossed the Kansas +Territory on his way to California and had acquired valuable +experience in the art of state-building under peculiar +conditions. + +The first party sent out by the Emigrant Aid Company arrived in +Kansas early in August, 1854, and selected the site for the town +of Lawrence. During the later months of the year, four other +parties were sent out, in all numbering nearly seven hundred. +Through extensive advertisement by the company, through the +general interest in the subject and the natural flow of +emigration to the West, Kansas was receiving large accessions of +free-state settlers. + +Meanwhile the men of Missouri, some of whom had striven for a +decade to secure the privilege of extending slavery into the new +Territory, were not idle. Instantly upon the removal of legal +barriers, they occupied adjacent lands, founded towns, staked out +claims, formed plans for preempting the entire region and for +forestalling or driving out all intruders. They had at first the +advantage of position, for they did not find it difficult to +maintain two homes, one in Kansas for purposes of voting and +fighting and another in Missouri for actual residence. Andrew H. +Reeder, a Pennsylvania Democrat of strong pro-slavery prejudices, +was appointed first Governor of the Territory. When he arrived in +Kansas in October, 1854, there were already several thousand +settlers on the ground and others were continually arriving. He +appointed the 29th of November for the election of a delegate to +Congress. On that day several hundred Missourians came into the +Territory and voted. There was no violence and no contest; the +free-state men had no separate candidate. Notwithstanding the +violence of language used by opposing factions, notwithstanding +the organization of secret societies pledged to drive out all +Northern intruders, there was no serious disturbance until March +30, 1855, the day appointed for the election of members of the +territorial Legislature. On that day the Missourians came full +five thousand strong, armed with guns, bowie-knives, and +revolvers. They met with no resistance from the residents, who +were unarmed. They took charge of the precincts and chose +pro-slavery delegates with one exception. Governor Reeder +protested and recommended to the precincts the filing of +protests. Only seven responded, however, and in these cases new +elections were held and contesting delegates elected. + +The Governor issued certificates to these and to all those who in +other precincts had been chosen by the horde from Missouri. When +the Legislature met in July, the seven contests were decided in +favor of the pro-slavery party, the single freestate member +resigned, and the assembly was unanimous. + +Governor Reeder fully expected that President Pierce would +nullify the election, and to this end he made a journey to +Washington in April. On the way he delivered a public address at +Easton, Pennsylvania, describing in lurid colors the outrage +which had been perpetrated upon the people of Kansas by the +"border ruffians" from Missouri, and asserting that the accounts +in the Northern press had not been exaggerated. + +While Governor Reeder in contact with the actual events in Kansas +was becoming an active Free-Boiler, President Pierce in +association with Jefferson Davis and others of his party was +developing active sympathies with the people of western Missouri. +To the President this invasion of territory west of the slave +State by Northern men aided by Northern corporations seemed a +violation of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and he sought to induce +Reeder to resign. This, however, the Governor positively refused +to do unless the President would formally approve his conduct in +Kansas--an endorsement which required more fortitude than +President Pierce possessed. On his return to Kansas, determined +to do what he could to protect the Kansas people from injustice, +he called the Legislature to meet at Pawnee, a point far removed +from the Missouri border. Immediately upon their organization at +that place the members of the Legislature adjourned to meet at +Shawnee, near the border of Missouri. The Governor, who decided +that this action was illegal, then refused to recognize the +Assembly at the new place. A deadlock thus ensued which was +broken on the 15th of August by the removal of Governor Reeder +and the appointment of Wilson Shannon of Ohio in his place. +In the meantime the territorial Legislature had adjourned, having +"enacted" an elaborate proslavery code made up from the slave +code of Missouri with a number of special adaptations. For +example, it was made a penitentiary offense to deny by speaking +or writing, or by printing, or by introducing any printed matter, +the right of persons to hold slaves in the Territory; no man was +eligible to jury service who was conscientiously opposed to +holding slaves; and lawyers were bound by oath to support the +territorial statutes. + +The free-state men, with the approval of Reeder, refused to +recognize the Legislature and inaugurated a movement in the fall +of 1855 to adopt a constitution and to organize a provisional +territorial Government preparatory to admission as a State, +following in this respect the procedure in California and +Michigan. A convention met in Topeka in October, 1855, and +completed on the 11th of November the draft of a constitution +which prohibited slavery. On the 15th of December the +constitution was approved by a practically unanimous vote, only +free-state men taking part in the election. A month later a +Legislature was elected and at the same time Charles Robinson was +elected Governor of the new commonwealth. In the previous +October, Reeder had been chosen Free-soil delegate to Congress. +The Topeka freestate Legislature met on the 4th of March, 1856, +and after petitioning Congress to admit Kansas under the Topeka +constitution, adjourned until the 4th of July pending the action +of Congress. Thus at the end of two years two distinct +Governments had come into existence within the Territory of +Kansas. It speaks volumes for the self-control and moderation of +the two parties that no hostile encounter had occurred between +the contestants. When the armed Missourians came in March, 1855, +the unarmed settlers offered no resistance. Afterward, however, +they supplied themselves with Sharp's rifles and organized a +militia. With the advent of Governor Shannon in September, 1855, +the proslavery position was much strengthened. In November, in a +quarrel over a land claim, a free-state settler by the name of +Dow was killed. The murderer escaped, but a friend of the victim +was accused of uttering threats against a friend of the murderer. +For this offense a posse led by Sheriff Jones, a Missourian, +seized him, and would have carried him away if fourteen freestate +men had not "persuaded" the Sheriff to surrender his prisoner. +This interference was accepted by the Missourians as a signal for +battle. The rescuers must be arrested and punished. A large force +of infuriated Missourians and pro-slavery settlers assembled for +a raid upon the town of Lawrence. In the meantime the Lawrence +militia planned and executed a systematic defense of the town. +When the two armies came within speaking distance, a parley +ensued in which the Governor took a leading part in settling the +affair without a hostile shot. This is known in Kansas history as +the "Wakarusa War." + +The progress of affairs in Kansas was followed with intense +interest in all parts of the country. North and South vied with +each other in the encouragement of emigration to Kansas. Colonel +Buford of Alabama sold a large number of slaves and devoted the +proceeds to meeting the expense of conducting a troop of three +hundred men to Kansas in the winter of 1856. They went armed with +"the sword of the spirit," and all provided with Bibles supplied +by the leading churches. Arrived in the territory, they were duly +furnished with more worldly weapons and were drilled for action. +About the same time a parallel incident is said to have occurred +in New Haven, Connecticut. A deacon in one of the churches had +enlisted a company of seventy bound for Kansas. A meeting was +held in the church to raise money to defray expenses. The leader +of the company declared that they also needed rifles for +self-defense. Forthwith Professor Silliman, of the University, +subscribed one Sharp's rifle, and others followed with like +pledges. Finally Henry Ward Beecher, who was the speaker of the +occasion, rose and promised that, if twenty-five rifles were +pledged on the spot, Plymouth Church in Brooklyn would be +responsible for the remaining twenty-five that were needed. He +had already said in a previous address that for the slaveholders +of Kansas, Sharp's rifles were a greater moral agency than the +Bible. This led to the designation of the weapons as "Beecher's +Bibles." Such was the spirit which prevailed in the two sections +of the country. + +President Pierce had now become intensely hostile towards the +free-state inhabitants of Kansas. Having recognized the +Legislature elected on March 30, 1855, as the legitimate +Government, he sent a special message to Congress on January 24, +1856, in which he characterized as revolutionary the movement of +the free-state men to organize a separate Government in Kansas. +>From the President's point of view, the emissaries of the New +England Emigrant Aid Association were unlawful invaders. In this +position he not only had the support of the South, but was +powerfully seconded by Stephen A. Douglas and other Northern +Democrats. + +The attitude of the Administration at Washington was a source of +great encouragement to Sheriff Jones and his associates, who were +anxious to wreak their vengeance on the city of Lawrence for the +outcome of the Wakarusa War. Jones came to Lawrence apparently +for the express purpose of picking a quarrel, for he revived the +old dispute about the rescuing party of the previous fall. As a +consequence one enraged opponent slapped him in the face, and at +last an unknown assassin entered the sheriff's tent by night and +inflicted a revolver wound in his back. Though the citizens of +Lawrence were greatly chagrined at this event and offered a +reward for the discovery of the assailant, the attack upon the +sheriff was made the signal for drastic procedure against the +town of Lawrence. A grand jury found indictments for treason +against Reeder, Robinson, and other leading citizens of the town. +The United States marshal gave notice that he expected resistance +in making arrests and called upon all law-abiding citizens of the +Territory to aid in executing the law. It was a welcome summons +to the pro-slavery forces. Not only local militia companies +responded but also Buford's company and various companies from +Missouri, in all more than seven hundred men, with two cannon. It +had always been the set purpose of the free-state men not to +resist federal authority by force, unless as a last resort, and +they had no intention of opposing the marshal in making arrests. +He performed his duty without hindrance and then placed the armed +troops under the command of Sheriff Jones, who proceeded first to +destroy the printing-press of the town of Lawrence. Then, against +the protest of the marshal and Colonel Buford, the vindictive +sheriff trained his guns upon the new hotel which was the pride +of the city; the ruin of the building was made complete by fire, +while a drunken mob pillaged the town. + +On May 22, 1856, the day following the attack upon Lawrence, +Charles Sumner was struck down in the United States Senate on +account of a speech made in defense of the rights of Kansas +settlers. The two events, which were reported at the same time in +the daily press, furnished the key-note to the presidential +campaign of that year, for nominating conventions followed in a +few days and "bleeding Kansas" was the all-absorbing issue. In +spite of the destruction of property in Lawrence and the arrest +of the leaders of the free-state party, Kansas had not been +plunged into a state of civil war. The free-state party had fired +no hostile shot. Governor Robinson and his associates still +relied upon public opinion and they accepted the wanton attack +upon Lawrence as the best assurance that they would yet win their +cause by legal means. + +A change, however, soon took place which is associated with the +entrance of John Brown into the history of Kansas. Brown and his +sons were living at Osawatomie, some thirty miles south of +Lawrence. They were present at the Wakarusa War in December, +1855, and were on their way to the defense of Lawrence on May 21, +1856, when they were informed that the town had been destroyed. +Three days after this event Brown and his sons with two or three +others made a midnight raid upon their pro-slavery neighbors +living in the Pottawatomie valley and slew five men. The authors +of this deed were not certainly known until the publication of a +confession of one of the party in 1879, twenty years after the +chief actor had won the reputation of a martyr to the cause of +liberty. The Browns, however, were suspected at the time; +warrants were out for their arrest; and their homes were +destroyed. + +For more than three months after this incident, Kansas was in a +state of war; in fact, two distinct varieties of warfare were +carried on. Publicly organized companies on both sides engaged in +acts of attack and defense, while at the same time irresponsible +secret bands were busy in violent reprisals, in plunder and +assassination. In both of these forms of warfare, the free-state +men proved themselves fully equal to their opponents, and +Governor Shannon was entirely unable to cope with the situation. +It is estimated that two hundred men were slain and two million +dollars' worth of property was destroyed. + +The state of affairs in Kansas served to win many Northern +Democrats to the support of the Republicans. The Administration +at Washington was held responsible for the violence and +bloodshed. The Democratic leaders in the political campaign, +determined now upon a complete change in the Government of the +Territory, appointed J. W. Geary as Governor and placed General +Smith in charge of the troops. The new incumbents, both from +Pennsylvania, entered upon their labors early in September, and +before the October state elections Geary was able to report that +peace reigned throughout the Territory. A prompt reaction in +favor of the Democrats followed. Buchanan, their presidential +candidate, rejoiced in the fact that order had been restored by +two citizens of his own State. It was now very generally conceded +that Kansas would become a free State, and intimate associates of +Buchanan assured the public that he was himself of that opinion +and that if elected he would insure to the free-state party +evenhanded justice. Thousands of voters were thus won to +Buchanan's support. There was a general distrust of the +Republican candidate as a man lacking political experience, and a +strong conservative reaction against the idea of electing a +President by the votes of only one section of the country. At the +election in November, Buchanan received a majority of sixty of +the electoral votes over Fremont, but in the popular vote he fell +short of a majority by nearly 400,000. Fillmore, candidate of the +Whig and the American parties, received 874,000 votes. + +There was still profound distrust of the administration of the +Territory of Kansas, and the free-state settlers refused to vote +at the election set for the choosing of a new territorial +Legislature in October. The result was another pro-slavery +assembly. Governor Geary, however, determined to secure and +enforce just treatment of both parties. He was at once brought +into violent conflict with the Legislature in an experience which +was almost an exact counterpart of that of Governor Reeder; and +Washington did not support his efforts to secure fair dealings. A +pro-slavery deputation visited President Pierce in February, +1857, and returned with the assurance that Governor Geary would +be removed. Without waiting for the President to act, Geary +resigned in disgust on the 4th of March. Of the three Governors +whom President Pierce appointed, two became active supporters of +the free-state party and a third, Governor Shannon, fled from the +territory in mortal terror lest he should be slain by members of +the party which he had tried to serve. + + + +CHAPTER XI. CHARLES SUMNER + +The real successor to John Quincy Adams as the protagonist of the +anti-slavery cause in Congress proved to be not Seward but +Charles Sumner of Massachusetts. This newcomer entered the Senate +without previous legislative experience but with an unusual +equipment for the role he was to play. A graduate of Harvard +College at the age of nineteen, he had entered upon the study of +law in the newly organized law school in which Joseph Story held +one of the two professorships. He was admitted to the bar in +1834, but three years later he left his slender law practice for +a long period of European travel. This three years' sojourn +brought him into intimate touch with the leading spirits in arts, +letters, and public life in England and on the Continent, and +thus ripened his talents to their full maturity. He returned to +his law practice poor in pocket but rich in the possession of +lifelong friendships and happy memories. + +Sumner's political career did not begin until 1847, when as a +Whig he not only opposed any further extension of slavery but +strove to commit his party to the policy of emancipation in all +the States. Failing in this attempt, Sumner became an active +Free-Boiler in 1848. He was twice a candidate for Congress on the +Free-soil ticket but failed of election. In 1851 he was elected +to the United States Senate by a coalition between his party and +the Democrats. This is the only public office he ever held, but +he was continuously reelected until his death in 1874. + +John Quincy Adams had addressed audiences trained in the old +school, which did not defend slavery on moral grounds. Charles +Sumner faced audiences of the new school, which upheld the +institution as a righteous moral order. This explains the chief +difference in the attitude of the two leaders. Sumner, like +Adams, began as an opponent of pro-slavery aggression, but he +went farther: he attacked the institution itself as a great moral +evil. + +As a constitutional lawyer Sumner is not the equal of his +predecessor, Daniel Webster. He is less original, less convincing +in the enunciation of broad general principles. He appears rather +as a special pleader marshaling all available forces against the +one institution which assailed the Union. In this particular +work, he surpassed all others, for, with his unbounded industry, +he permitted no precedent, no legal advantage, no incident of +history, no fact in current politics fitted to strengthen his +cause, to escape his untiring search. He showed a marvelous skill +in the selection, arrangement, and presentation of his materials, +and for his models he took the highest forms of classic forensic +utterance. + +Sumner exhibited the ordinary aloofness and lack of familiarity +with actual conditions in the South which was characteristic of +the New England abolitionist. He perceived no race problem, no +peculiar difficulty in the readjustments of master and slave +which were involved in emancipation, and he ignored all obstacles +to the accomplishment of his ends. Webster's arraignment of South +Carolina was directed against an alleged erroneous dogma and only +incidentally affected personal morality. The reaction, therefore, +was void of bitter resentment. Sumner's charges were directed +against alleged moral turpitude, and the classic form and +scrupulous regard for parliamentary rules which he observed only +added to the feeling of personal resentment on the part of his +opponents. Some of the defenders of slavery were themselves +devoted students of the classics, but they found that the +orations of Demosthenes furnished nothing suited to their +purpose. The result was a humiliating exhibition of weakness, +personal abuse, and vindictiveness on their part. + +There was a conspiracy of silence on the slavery question in +1852. Each of the national parties was definitely committed to +the support of the compromise and especially to the faithful +observance of the Fugitive Slave Law. Free-soilers had distinctly +declined in numbers and influence during the four preceding +years. Only a handful of members in each House of Congress +remained unaffiliated with the parties whose platforms had +ordained silence on the one issue of chief public concern. It was +by a mere accident in Massachusetts politics that Charles Sumner +was sent to the Senate as a man free on all public questions. + +While the parties were making their nominations for the +Presidency, Sumner sought diligently for an opportunity in the +Senate to give utterance to the sentiments of his party on the +repeal of the Fugitive Slave Act. But not until late in August +did he overcome the resistance of the combined opposition and +gain the floor. The watchmen were caught off guard when Sumner +introduced an amendment to an appropriation bill which enabled +him to deliver a carefully prepared address, several hours in +length, calling for the repeal of the law. + +The first part of this speech is devoted to the general topic of +the relation of the national Government to slavery and was made +in answer to the demand of Calhoun and his followers for the +direct national recognition of slavery. For such a demand Sumner +found no warrant. By the decision of Lord Mansfield, said he, +"the state of slavery" was declared to be "of such a nature, that +it is incapable of being introduced on any reasons, moral or +political, but ONLY BY POSITIVE LAW . . . . it is so odious, that +nothing can be suffered to support it but positive law." Adopting +the same principle, the Supreme Court of the State of +Mississippi, a tribunal of slaveholders, asserted that "slavery +is condemned by reason and the Laws of Nature. It exists, and can +ONLY exist, through municipal regulations." So also declared the +Supreme Court of Kentucky and numerous other tribunals. This +aspect of the subject furnished Sumner occasion for a masterly +array of all the utterances in favor of liberty to be found in +the Constitution, in the Declaration of Independence, in the +constitutional conventions, in the principles of common law. All +these led up to and supported the one grand conclusion that, when +Washington took the oath as President of the United States, +"slavery existed nowhere on the national territory" and therefore +"is in no respect a national institution." Apply the principles +of the Constitution in their purity, then, and "in all national +territories slavery will be impossible. On the high seas, under +the national flag, slavery will be impossible. In the District of +Columbia, slavery will instantly cease. Inspired by these +principles, Congress can give no sanction to slavery by the +admission of new slave States. Nowhere under the Constitution can +the Nation by legislation or otherwise, support slavery, hunt +slaves, or hold property in man . . . . As slavery is banished +from the national jurisdiction, it will cease to vex our national +politics. It may linger in the States as a local institution; but +it will no longer engender national animosities when it no longer +demands national support." + +The second part of Sumner's address dealt directly with the +Fugitive Slave Act of 1860. It is much less convincing and +suggests more of the characteristics of the special pleader with +a difficult case. Sumner here undertook to prove that Congress +exceeded its powers when it presumed to lay down rules for the +rendition of fugitive slaves, and this task exceeded even his +power as a constitutional lawyer. + +The circumstances under which Sumner attacked slavery were such +as to have alarmed a less self-centered man, for the two years +following the introduction of the Nebraska bill were marked by +the most acrimonious debate in the history of Congress, and by +physical encounters, challenges, and threats of violence. But +though Congressmen carried concealed weapons, Sumner went his way +unarmed and apparently in complete unconcern as to any personal +danger, though it is known that he was fully aware that in the +faithful performance of what he deemed to be his duty he was +incurring the risk of assassination. + +The pro-slavery party manifested on all occasions a disposition +to make the most of the weak point in Sumner's constitutional +argument against the Fugitive Slave Law. He was accused of taking +an oath to support the Constitution though at the same time +intending to violate one of its provisions. In a discussion, in +June, 1854, over a petition praying for the repeal of the +Fugitive Slave Act, Senator Butler of South Carolina put the +question directly to Senator Sumner whether he would himself +unite with others in returning a fugitive to his master. Sumner's +quick reply was, "Is thy servant a dog that he should do this +thing?" Enraged Southerners followed this remark with a most +bitter onslaught upon Sumner which lasted for two days. When +Sumner again got the floor, he said in reference to Senator +Butler's remark: "In fitful phrase, which seemed to come from +unconscious excitement, so common with the Senator, he shot forth +various cries about 'dogs,' and, among other things, asked if +there was any 'dog' in the Constitution? The Senator did not seem +to bear in mind, through the heady currents of that moment that, +by the false interpretation he fastens upon the Constitution, he +has helped to nurture there a whole kennel of Carolina +bloodhounds, trained, with savage jaw and insatiable in scent, +for the hunt of flying bondmen. No, sir, I do not believe that +there is any 'kennel of bloodhounds,' or even any 'dog' in the +Constitution." Thereafter offensive personal references between +the Senators from Massachusetts and South Carolina became +habitual. These personalities were a source of regret to many of +Sumner's best friends, but they fill a small place, after all, in +his great work. Nor were they the chief source of rancor on the +part of his enemies, for Southern orators were accustomed to +personalities in debate. Sumner was feared and hated principally +because his presence in Congress endangered the institution of +slavery. + +Sumner's speech on the crime against Kansas was perhaps the most +remarkable effort of his career. It had been known for many weeks +that Sumner was preparing to speak upon the burning question, and +his friends had already expressed anxiety for his personal +safety. For the larger part of two days, May 19 and 20, 1856, he +held the reluctant attention of the Senate. For the delivery of +this speech he chose a time which was most opportune. The crime +against Kansas had, in a sense, culminated in March of the +previous year, but the settlers had refused to submit to the +Government set up by hostile invaders. They had armed themselves +for the defense of their rights, had elected a Governor and a +Legislature by voluntary association, had called a convention, +and had adopted a constitution preparatory to admission to the +Union. That constitution was now before the Senate for approval. +President Pierce, Stephen A. Douglas, and all the Southern +leaders had decided to treat as treasonable acts the efforts of +Kansas settlers to secure an orderly government. Their plans for +the arrest of the leaders were well advanced and the arrests were +actually made on the day after Sumner had concluded his speech. + +A paragraph in the address is prophetic of what occurred within a +week. Douglas had introduced a bill recognizing the Legislature +chosen by the Missourians as the legal Government and providing +for the formation of a constitution under its initiative at some +future date. After describing this proposed action as a +continuation of the crime against Kansas, Sumner declared: "Sir, +you cannot expect that the people of Kansas will submit to the +usurpation which this bill sets up and bids them bow before, as +the Austrian tyrant set up the ducal hat in the Swiss +market-place. If you madly persevere, Kansas will not be without +her William Tell, who will refuse at all hazards to recognize the +tyrannical edict; and this will be the beginning of civil war." + +To keep historical sequence clear at this point, all thought of +John Brown should be eliminated, for he was then unknown to the +public. It must be remembered that Governor Robinson and the +free-state settlers were, as Sumner probably knew, prepared to +resist the general Government as soon as there should be a clear +case of outrage for which the Administration at Washington could +be held directly responsible. Such a case occurred when the +United States marshal placed federal troops in the hands of +Sheriff Jones to assist in looting the town of Lawrence. Governor +Robinson no longer had any scruples in advising forcible +resistance to all who used force to impose upon Kansas a +Government which the people had rejected. + +In the course of his address Sumner compared Senators Butler and +Douglas to Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, saying: "The Senator +from South Carolina has read many books of chivalry, and believes +himself a chivalrous knight, with sentiments of honor and +courage. Of course he has chosen a mistress to whom he has made +his vows, and who, though ugly to others, is always lovely to +him; though polluted in the sight of the world, is chaste in his +sight. I mean the harlot Slavery. Let her be impeached in +character, or any proposition be made to shut her out from the +extension of her wantonness, and no extravagance of manner or +hardihood of assertion is then too great for the Senator." + +When Sumner concluded, the gathering storm broke forth. Cass of +Michigan, after saying that he had listened to the address with +equal surprise and regret, characterized it as "the most +unAmerican and unpatriotic that ever grated on the ears of the +members of that high body." Douglas and Mason were personal and +abusive. Douglas, recalling Sumner's answer to Senator Butler's +question whether he would assist in returning a slave, renewed +the charge made two years earlier that Sumner had violated his +oath of office. This attack called forth from Sumner another +attempt to defend the one weak point in his speech of 1852, for +he was always irritated by reference to this subject, and at the +same time he enjoyed a fine facility in the use of language which +irritated others. + +One utterance in Douglas's reply to Sumner is of special +significance in view of what occurred two days later: "Is it his +object to provoke some of us to kick him as we would a dog in the +street, that he may get sympathy upon the just chastisement?" Two +days later Sumner was sitting alone at his desk in the Senate +chamber after adjournment when Preston Brooks, a nephew of +Senator Butler and a member of the lower House, entered and +accosted him with the statement that he had read Sumner's speech +twice and that it was a libel on South Carolina and upon a +kinsman of his. Thereupon Brooks followed his words by striking +Sumner on the head with a cane. Though the Senator was dazed and +blinded by the unexpected attack, his assailant rained blow after +blow until he had broken the cane and Sumner lay prostrate and +bleeding at his feet. Brooks's remarks in the House of +Representatives almost a month after the event leave no doubt of +his determination to commit murder had he failed to overcome his +antagonist with a cane. He had also taken the precaution to have +two of his friends ready to prevent any interference before the +punishment was completed. Toombs of Georgia witnessed a part of +the assault and expressed approval of the act, and everywhere +throughout the South, in the public press, in legislative halls, +in public meetings, Brooks was hailed as a hero. The resolution +for his expulsion introduced in the House received the support of +only one vote from south of Mason and Dixon's Line. A large +majority favored the resolution, but not the required two-thirds +majority. Brooks, however, thought best to resign but was +triumphantly returned to his seat with only six votes against +him. Nothing was left undone to express Southern gratitude, and +he received gifts of canes innumerable as symbols of his valor. +Yet before his death, which occurred in the following January, he +confessed to his friend Orr that he was sick of being regarded as +the representative of bullies and disgusted at receiving +testimonials of their esteem. + +With similar unanimity the North condemned and resented the +assault that had been made upon Sumner. From party +considerations, if for no other reasons, Democrats regretted the +event. Republicans saw in the brutal attack and in the manner of +its reception in the South another evidence of the irrepressible +conflict between slavery and freedom. They were ready to take up +the issue so forcibly presented by their fallen leader. A part of +the regular order of exercises at public meetings of Republicans +was to express sympathy with their wounded champion and with the +Kansas people of the pillaged town of Lawrence, and to adopt ways +and means to bring to an end the Administration which they held +responsible for these outrages. Sumner, though silenced, was +eloquent in a new and more effective way. A half million copies +of "The Crime against Kansas" were printed and circulated. On the +issue thus presented, Northern Democrats became convinced that +their defeat at the pending election was certain, and their +leaders instituted the change in their program which has been +described in a previous chapter. They had made an end of the war +in Kansas and drew from their candidate for the Presidency the +assurance that just treatment should at last be meted out to +harassed Kansas. + +Though Sumner's injuries were at first regarded as slight, they +eventually proved to be extremely serious. After two attempts to +resume his place in the Senate, he found that he was unable to +remain; yet when his term expired, he was almost unanimously +reelected. Much of his time for three and a half years he spent +in Europe. In December, 1859, he seemed sufficiently recovered to +resume senatorial duties, but it was not until the following June +that he again addressed the Senate. On that occasion he delivered +his last great philippic against slavery. The subject under +discussion was still the admission of Kansas as a free State, +and, as he remarked in his opening sentences, he resumed the +discussion precisely where he had left off more than four years +before. + +Sumner had assumed the task of uttering a final word against +slavery as barbarism and a barrier to civilization. He spoke +under the impelling power of a conviction in his God-given +mission to utilize a great occasion to the full and for a noble +end. For this work his whole life had been a preparation. +Accustomed from early youth to spend ten hours a day with books +on law, history, and classic literature, he knew as no other man +then knew what aid the past could offer to the struggle for +freedom. The bludgeon of the would-be assassin had not impaired +his memory, and four years of enforced leisure enabled him to +fulfill his highest ideals of perfect oratorical form. +Personalities he eliminated from this final address, and +blemishes he pruned away. In his earlier speeches he had been +limited by the demands of the particular question under +discussion, but in "The Barbarism of Slavery" he was free to deal +with the general subject, and he utilized incidents in American +slavery to demonstrate the general upward trend of history. The +orator was sustained by the full consciousness that his +utterances were in harmony with the grand sweep of historic truth +as well as with the spirit of the present age. + +Sumner was not a party man and was at no time in complete harmony +with his coworkers. It was always a question whether his speeches +had a favorable effect upon the immediate action of Congress; +there can, however, be no doubt of the fact that the larger +public was edified and influenced. Copies of "The Crime against +Kansas" and "The Barbarism of Slavery" were printed and +circulated by the million and were eagerly read from beginning to +end. They gave final form to the thoughts and utterances of many +political leaders both in America and in Europe. More than any +other man it was Charles Sumner who, with a wealth of historical +learning and great skill in forensic art, put the irrepressible +conflict between slavery and freedom in its proper setting in +human history. + + + +CHAPTER XII. KANSAS AND BUCHANAN + +In view of the presidential election of 1856 Northern Democrats +entertained no doubts that Kansas, now occupied by a majority of +free-state men, would be received as a free State without further +ado. The case was different with the Democrats of western +Missouri, already for ten years in close touch with those +Southern leaders who were determined either to secure new +safeguards for slavery or to form an independent confederacy. +Their program was to continue their efforts to make Kansas a +slave State or at least to maintain the disturbance there until +the conditions appeared favorable for secession. + +In February, 1857, the pro-slavery territorial Legislature +provided for the election of delegates to a constitutional +convention, but Governor Geary vetoed the act because no +provision was made for submitting the proposed constitution to +the vote of the people. The bill was passed over his veto, and +arrangements were made for registration which free-state men +regarded as imperfect, inadequate, or fraudulent. + +President Buchanan undoubtedly intended to do full justice to the +people of Kansas. To this end he chose Robert J. Walker, a +Mississippi Democrat, as Governor of Kansas. Walker was a +statesman of high rank, who had been associated with Buchanan in +the Cabinet of James K. Polk. Three times he refused to accept +the office and finally undertook the mission only from a sense of +duty. Being aware of the fate of Governor Geary, Walker insisted +on an explicit understanding with Buchanan that his policies +should not be repudiated by the federal Administration. Late in +May he went to Kansas with high hopes and expectations. But the +free-state party had persisted in the repudiation of a Government +which had been first set up by an invading army and, as they +alleged, had since then been perpetuated by fraud. They had +absolutely refused to take part in any election called by that +Government and had continued to keep alive their own legislative +assembly. Despite Walker's efforts to persuade them to take part +in the election of delegates to the constitutional convention, +they resolutely held aloof. Yet, as they became convinced that he +was acting in good faith, they did participate in the October +elections to the territorial Legislature, electing nine out of +the thirteen councilors and twenty-four out of the thirty-nine +representatives. Gross frauds had been perpetrated in two +districts, and the Governor made good his promise by rejecting +the fraudulent votes. In one case a poll list had been made up by +copying an old Cincinnati register. + +In the meantime, thanks to the abstention of the free-state +people, the pro-slavery party had secured absolute control of the +constitutional convention. Yet there was the most absolute +assurance by the Governor in the name of the President of the +United States that no constitution would be sent to Congress for +approval which had not received the sanction of a majority of the +voters of the Territory. This was Walker's reiterated promise, +and President Buchanan had on this point been equally explicit. + +When, therefore, the pro-slavery constitutional convention met at +Lecompton in October, Kansas had a free-state Legislature duly +elected. To make Kansas still a slave State it was necessary to +get rid of that Legislature and of the Governor through whose +agency it had been chosen, and at the same time to frame a +constitution which would secure the approval of the Buchanan +Administration. Incredible as it may seem, all this was actually +accomplished. + +John Calhoun, who had been chosen president of the Lecompton +convention, spent some time in Washington before the adjourned +meeting of the convention. He secured the aid of master-hands at +manipulation. Walker had already been discredited at the White +House on account of his rejection of fraudulent returns at the +October election of members to the Legislature. The convention +was unwilling to take further chances on a matter of that sort, +and it consequently made it a part of the constitution that the +president of the convention should have entire charge of the +election to be held for its approval. The free-state legislature +was disposed of by placing in the constitution a provision that +all existing laws should remain in force until the election of a +Legislature provided for under the constitution. + +The master-stroke of the convention, however, was the provision +for submitting the constitution to the vote of the people. Voters +were not permitted to accept or reject the instrument; all votes +were to be for the constitution either "with slavery" or "with no +slavery." But the document itself recognized slavery as already +existing and declared the right of slave property like other +property "before and higher than any constitutional sanction." +Other provisions made emancipation difficult by providing in any +case for complete monetary remuneration and for the consent of +the owners. There were numerous other provisions offensive to +free-state men. It had been rightly surmised that they would take +no part in such an election and that "the constitution with +slavery" would be approved. The vote on the constitution was set +for the 21st of December. For the constitution with slavery 6226 +votes were recorded and 569 for the constitution without slavery. + +While these events were taking place, Walker went to Washington +to enter his protest but resigned after finding only a hostile +reception by the President and his Cabinet. Stanton, who was +acting Governor in the absence of Walker, then called together +the free-state Legislature, which set January 4, 1858, as the +date for approving or rejecting the Lecompton Constitution. At +this election the votes cast were 138 for the constitution with +slavery, 24 for the constitution without slavery, and 10,226 +against the constitution. But President Buchanan had become +thoroughly committed to the support of the Lecompton +Constitution. Disregarding the advice of the new Governor, he +sent the Lecompton Constitution to Congress with the +recommendation that Kansas be admitted to the Union as a slave +State. + +Here was a crisis big with the fate of the Democratic party, if +not of the Union. Stephen A. Douglas had already given notice +that he would oppose the Lecompton Constitution. In favor of its +rejection he made a notable speech which called forth the +bitterest enmity from the South and arrayed all the forces of the +Administration against him. Supporters of Douglas were removed +from office, and anti-Douglas men were put in their places. In +his fight against the fraudulent constitution Douglas himself, +however, still had the support of a majority of Northern +Democrats, especially in the Western States, and that of all the +Republicans in Congress. A bill to admit Kansas passed the +Senate, but in the House a proviso was attached requiring that +the constitution should first be submitted to the people of +Kansas for acceptance or rejection. This amendment was finally +accepted by the Senate with the modification that, if the people +voted for the constitution, the State should have a large +donation of public land, but that if they rejected it, they +should not be admitted as a State until they had a population +large enough to entitle them to a representative in the lower +House. The vote of the people was cast on August 2, 1858, and the +constitution was finally rejected by a majority of nearly twelve +thousand. Thus resulted the last effort to impose slavery on the +people of Kansas. + +Although the war between slavery and freedom was fought out in +miniature in Kansas, the immediate issue was the preservation of +slavery in Missouri. This, however, involved directly the +prospect of emancipation in other border States and ultimate +complete emancipation in all the States. The issue is well stated +in a Fourth of July address which Charles Robinson delivered at +Lawrence, Kansas, in 1855, after the invasion of Missourians to +influence the March election of that year, but before the +beginning of bloody conflict: + +"What reason is given for the cowardly invasion of our rights by +our neighbors? They say that if Kansas is allowed to be free the +institution of slavery in their own State will be in danger .... +If the people of Missouri make it necessary, by their unlawful +course, for us to establish freedom in that State in order to +enjoy the liberty of governing ourselves in Kansas, then let that +be the issue. If Kansas and the whole North must be enslaved, or +Missouri become free, then let her be made free. Aye! and if to +be free ourselves, slavery must be abolished in the whole +country, then let us accept that due. If black slavery in a part +of the States is incompatible with white freedom in any State, +then let black slavery be abolished from all. As men espousing +the principles of the Declaration of the Fathers, we can do +nothing else than accept these issues." + +The men who saved Kansas to freedom were not abolitionists in the +restricted sense. Governor Walker found in 1857 that a +considerable majority of the free-state men were Democrats and +that some were from the South. Nearly all actual settlers, from +whatever source they came, were free-state men who felt that a +slave was a burden in such a country as Kansas. For example, +during the first winter of the occupation of Kansas, an owner of +nineteen slaves was himself forced to work like a trooper to keep +them from freezing; and, indeed, one of them did freeze to death +and another was seriously injured. + +In spite of all the advertising of opportunity and all the +pressure brought to bear upon Southerners to settle in Kansas, at +no time did the number of slaves in the Territory reach three +hundred. The climate and the soil made for freedom, and the +Governors were not the only persons who were converted to +free-state principles by residence in the Territory. + + + +CHAPTER XIII. THE SUPREME COURT IN POLITICS + +The decision and arguments of the Supreme Court upon the Dred +Scott case were published on March 6, 1857, two days after the +inauguration of President Buchanan. The decision had been agreed +upon many months before, and the appeal of the negro, Dred Scott, +had been decided by rulings which in no way involved the validity +of the Missouri Compromise. Nevertheless, a majority of the +judges determined to give to the newly developed theory of John +C. Calhoun the appearance of the sanctity of law. According to +Chief Justice Taney's dictum, those who made the Constitution +gave to those clauses defining the power of Congress over the +Territories an erroneous meaning. On numerous occasions Congress +had by statute excluded slavery from the public domain. This, in +the judgment of the Chief Justice, they had no right to do, and +such legislation was unconstitutional and void. Specifically the +Missouri Compromise had never had any binding force as law. +Property in slaves was as sacred as property in any other form, +and slave-owners had equal claim with other property owners to +protection in all the Territories of the United States. Neither +Congress nor a territorial Legislature could infringe such equal +rights. + +According to popular understanding, the Supreme Court declared +"that the negro has no rights which the white man is bound to +respect." But Chief Justice Taney did not use these words merely +as an expression of his own or of the Court's opinion. He used +them in a way much more contemptible and inexcusable to the minds +of men of strong anti-slavery convictions. He put them into the +mouths of the fathers of the Republic, who wrote the Declaration +of Independence, framed the Constitution, organized state +Governments, and gave to negroes full rights of citizenship, +including the right to vote. But how explain this strange +inconsistency? The Chief Justice was equal to the occasion. He +insisted that in recent years there had come about a better +understanding of the phraseology of the Declaration of +Independence. The words, "All men are created equal," he +admitted, "would seem to embrace the whole human family, and if +they were used in a similar instrument at this day they would be +so understood." But the writers of that instrument had not, he +said, intended to include men of the African race, who were at +that time regarded as not forming any part of the people. +Therefore--strange logic!--these men of the revolutionary era who +treated negroes actually as citizens having full equal rights did +not understand the meaning of their own words, which could be +comprehended only after three-quarters of a century when, +forsooth, equal rights had been denied to all persons of African +descent. + +The ruling of the Court in the Dred Scott case came at a time +when Northern people had a better idea of the spirit and +teachings of the founders of the Republic regarding the slavery +question than any generation before or since has had. The +campaign that had just closed had been characterized by a high +order of discussion, and it was also emphatically a reading +campaign. The new Republican party planted itself squarely on the +principles enunciated by Thomas Jefferson, the reputed founder of +the old Republican party. They went back to the policy of the +fathers, whose words on the subject of slavery they eagerly read. +>From this source also came the chief material for their public +addresses. To the common man who was thus indoctrinated, the +Chief Justice, in describing the sentiments of the fathers +respecting slavery, appeared to be doing what Horace Greeley was +wont to describe as "saying a thing and being conscious while +saying it that the thing is not true." + +The Dred Scott decision laid the Republicans open to the charge +of seeking by unlawful means to deprive slaveowners of their +rights, and it was to the partizan interest of the Democrats to +stand by the Court and thus discredit their opponents. This +action tended to carry the entire Democratic party to the support +of Calhoun's extreme position on the slavery question. +Republicans had proclaimed that liberty was national and slavery +municipal; that slavery had no warrant for existence except by +state enactment; that under the Constitution Congress had no more +right to make a slave than it had to make a king; that Congress +had no power to establish or permit slavery in the Territories; +that it was, on the contrary, the duty of Congress to exclude +slavery. On these points the Supreme Court and the Republican +party held directly contradictory opinions. + +The Democratic platform of 1856 endorsed the doctrine of popular +sovereignty as embodied in the Kansas-Nebraska legislation, which +implied that Congress should neither prohibit nor introduce +slavery into the Territories, but should leave the inhabitants +free to decide that question for themselves, the public domains +being open to slaveowners on equal terms with others. But once +they had an organized territorial Government and a duly elected +territorial Legislature, the residents of a Territory were +empowered to choose either slave labor or exclusively free labor. +This at least was the view expounded by Stephen A. Douglas, +though the theory was apparently rendered untenable by the ruling +of the Court which extended protection to slave-owners in all the +Territories remaining under the control of the general +Government. It followed that if Congress had no power to +interfere with that right, much less had a local territorial +Government, which is itself a creature of Congress. A state +Government alone might control the status of slave property. A +Territory when adopting a constitution preparatory to becoming a +State would find it then in order to decide whether the proposed +State should be free or slave. This was the view held by +Jefferson Davis and the extreme pro-slavery leaders. Aided by the +authority of the Supreme Court, they were prepared to insist upon +a new plank in future Democratic platforms which should guarantee +to all slave-owners equal rights in all Territories until they +ceased to be Territories. Over this issue the party again divided +in 1860. + +Republicans naturally imagined that there had been collusion +between Democratic politicians and members of the Supreme Court. +Mr. Seward made an explicit statement to that effect, and +affirmed that President Buchanan was admitted into the secret, +alleging as proof a few words in his inaugural address referring +to the decision soon to be delivered. Nothing of the sort, +however, was ever proven. The historian Von Holst presents the +view that there had been a most elaborate and comprehensive +program on the part of the slavocracy to control the judiciary of +the federal Government. The actual facts, however, admit of a +simpler and more satisfactory explanation. + +Judges are affected by their environment, as are other men. The +transition from the view that slavery was an evil to the view +that it is right and just did not come in ways open to general +observation, and probably few individuals were conscious of +having altered their views. Leading churches throughout the South +began to preach the doctrine that slavery is a divinely ordained +institution, and by the time of the decision in the Dred Scott +case a whole generation had grown up under such teaching. + +A large proportion of Southern leaders had become thoroughly +convinced of the righteousness of their peculiar system. Not +otherwise could they have been so successful in persuading others +to accept their views. Even before the Dred Scott decision had +crystallized opinion, Franklin Pierce, although a New Hampshire +Democrat of anti-slavery traditions, came, as a result of his +intimate personal and political association with Southern +leaders, to accept their guidance and strove to give effect to +their policies. President Buchanan was a man of similar +antecedents, and, contrary to the expectation of his Northern +supporters, did precisely as Pierce had done. It is a matter of +record that the arguments of the Chief Justice had captivated his +mind before he began to show his changed attitude towards Kansas. +In August, 1857, the President wrote that, at the time of the +passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, slavery already existed and +that it still existed in Kansas under the Constitution of the +United States. "This point," said he, "has at last been settled +by the highest tribunal known in our laws. How it could ever have +been seriously doubted is a mystery." Granted that slavery is +recognized as a permanent institution in itself--just and of +divine ordinance and especially united to one section of the +country--how could any one question the equal rights of the +people of that section to occupy with their slaves lands acquired +by common sacrifice? Such was undoubtedly the view of both Pierce +and Buchanan. It seemed to them "wicked" that Northern +abolitionists should seek to infringe this sacred right. + +By a similar process a majority of the Supreme Court justices had +become converts to Calhoun's newly announced theory of 1847. It +undoubtedly seemed strange to them, as it did later to President +Buchanan, that any one should ever have held a different view. If +the Court with the force of its prestige should give legal +sanction to the new doctrine, it would allay popular agitation, +ensure the preservation of the Union, and secure to each section +its legitimate rights. Such apparently was the expectation of the +majority of the Court in rendering the decision. But the decision +was not unanimous. Each judge presented an individual opinion. +Five supported the Chief Justice on the main points as to the +status of the African race and the validity of the Missouri +Compromise. Judge Nelson registered a protest against the +entrance of the Court into the political arena. Curtis and McLean +wrote elaborate dissenting opinions. Not only did the decision +have no tendency to allay party debate, but it added greatly to +the acrimony of the discussion. Republicans accepted the +dissenting opinions of Curtis and McLean as a complete refutation +of the arguments of the Chief Justice; and the Court itself, +through division among its members, became a partizan +institution. The arguments of the justices thus present a +complete summary of the views of the proslavery and anti-slavery +parties, and the opposing opinions stand as permanent evidence of +the impossibility of reconciling slavery and freedom in the same +government. + +It was through the masterful leadership of Stephen A. Douglas +that the Lecompton Constitution was defeated. In 1858 an election +was to be held in Illinois to determine whether or not Douglas +should be reelected to the United States Senate. The Buchanan +Administration was using its utmost influence to insure Douglas's +defeat. Many eastern Republicans believed that in this emergency +Illinois Republicans should support Douglas, or at least that +they should do nothing to diminish his chances for reelection; +but Illinois Republicans decided otherwise and nominated Abraham +Lincoln as their candidate for the senatorship. Then followed the +memorable Lincoln-Douglas debates. + +This is not the place for any extended account of the famous duel +between the rival leaders, but a few facts must be stated. +Lincoln had slowly come to the perception that a large portion of +the people abhorred slavery, and that the weak point in the armor +of Douglas was to be found in the fact that he did not recognize +this growing moral sense. Douglas had never been a defender of +slavery on ethical grounds, nor had he expressed any distinct +aversion to the system. In support of his policy of popular +sovereignty his favorite dictum had been, "I do not care whether +slavery is voted up or voted down." + +This apparent moral obtuseness furnished to Lincoln his great +opportunity, for his opponent was apparently without a conscience +in respect to the great question of the day. Lincoln, on the +contrary, had reached the conclusion not only that slavery was +wrong, but that the relation between slavery and freedom was such +that they could not be harmonized within the same government. In +the debates he again put forth his famous utterance, "A house +divided against itself cannot stand," with the explanation that +in course of time either this country would become all slave +territory or slavery would be restricted and placed in a position +which would involve its final extinction. In other words, +Lincoln's position was similar to that of the conservative +abolitionists. As we know, Birney had given expression to a +similar conviction of the impossibility of maintaining both +liberty and slavery in this country, but Lincoln spoke at a time +when the whole country had been aroused upon the great question; +when it was still uncertain whether slavery would not be forced +upon the people of Kansas; when the highest court in the land had +rendered a decision which was apparently intended to legalize +slavery in all Territories; and when the alarming question had +been raised whether the next step would not be legalization in +all the States. + +Lincoln was a long-headed politician, as well as a man of sincere +moral judgments. He was defining issues for the campaign of 1860 +and was putting Douglas on record so that it would be impossible +for him, as the candidate of his party, to become President. +Douglas had many an uncomfortable hour as Lincoln exposed his +vain efforts to reconcile his popular sovereignty doctrine with +the Dred Scott decision. As Lincoln expected, Douglas won the +senatorship, but he lost the greater prize. + +The crusade against slavery was nearing its final stage. Under +the leadership of such men as Sumner, Seward, and Lincoln, a +political party was being formed whose policies were based upon +the assumption that slavery is both a moral and a political evil. +Even at this stage the party had assumed such proportions that it +was likely to carry the ensuing presidential election. Davis and +Yancey, the chief defenders of slavery, were at the same time +reaching a definite conclusion as to what should follow the +election of a Republican President. And that conclusion involved +nothing less than the fate of the Union. + + + +CHAPTER XIV. JOHN BROWN + +The crusade against slavery was based upon the assumption that +slavery, like war, is an abnormal state of society. As the tyrant +produces the assassin, so on a larger scale slavery calls forth +servile insurrection, or, as in the United States, an implacable +struggle between free white persons and the defenders of slavery. + +The propaganda of Southern and Western abolitionists had as a +primary object the prevention of both servile insurrection and +civil war. It was as clear to Southern abolitionists in the +thirties as it was to Seward and Lincoln in the fifties that, +unless the newly aroused slave power should be effectively +checked, a terrible civil war would ensue. To forestall this +dreaded calamity, they freely devoted their lives and fortunes. +Peaceable emancipation by state action, according to the original +program, was prevented by the rise of a sectional animosity which +beclouded the issue. As the leadership drifted into the hands of +extremists, the conservative masses were confused, misled, or +deceived. The South undoubtedly became the victim of the +erroneous teachings of alarmists who believed that the anti- +slavery North intended, by unlawful and unconstitutional federal +action, to abolish slavery in all the States; while the North had +equally exaggerated notions as to the aggressive intentions of +the South. + +The opposing forces finally met on the plains of Kansas, and +extreme Northern opposition became personified in John Brown of +Osawatomie. He was born in Connecticut in May, 1800, of New +England ancestry, the sixth generation from the Mayflower. A +Calvinist, a mystic, a Bible-reading Puritan, he was trained to +anti-slavery sentiments in the family of Owen Brown, his father. +He passed his early childhood in the Western Reserve of Ohio, and +subsequently moved from Ohio to New York, to Pennsylvania, to +Ohio again, to Connecticut, to Massachusetts, and finally to New +York once more. He was at various times tanner, farmer, sheep- +raiser, horse-breeder,wool-merchant, and a follower of other +callings as well. From a business standpoint he may be regarded +as a failure, for he had been more than once a bankrupt and +involved in much litigation. He was twice married and was the +father of twenty children, eight of whom died in infancy. + +Until the Kansas excitement nothing had occurred in the history +of the Brown family to attract public attention. John Brown was +not conspicuous in anti-slavery efforts or in any line of public +reform. As a mere lad during the War of 1812 he accompanied his +father, who was furnishing supplies to the army, and thus he saw +much of soldiers and their officers. The result was that he +acquired a feeling of disgust for everything military, and he +consistently refused to perform the required military drill until +he had passed the age for service. Not quite in harmony with +these facts is the statement that he was a great admirer of +Oliver Cromwell, and Rhodes says of him that he admired Nat +Turner, the leader of the servile insurrection in Virginia, as +much as he did George Washington. There seems to be no reason to +doubt the testimony of the members of his family that John Brown +always cherished a lively interest in the African race and a deep +sympathy with them. As a youth he had chosen for a companion a +slave boy of his own age, to whom he became greatly attached. +This slave, badly clad and poorly fed, beaten with iron shovel or +anything that came first to hand, young Brown grew to regard as +his equal if not his superior. And it was the contrast between +their respective conditions that first led Brown to "swear +eternal war with slavery." In later years John Brown, Junior, +tells us that, on seeing a negro for the first time, he felt so +great a sympathy for him that he wanted to take the negro home +with him. This sympathy, he assures us, was a result of his +father's teaching. Upon the testimony of two of John Brown's sons +rests the oft-repeated story that he declared eternal war against +slavery and also induced the members of his family to unite with +him in formal consecration to his mission. The time given for +this incident is previous to the year 1840; the idea that he was +a divinely chosen agent for the deliverance of the slaves was of +later development. + +As early as 1834 Brown had shown some active interest in the +education of negro children, first in Pennsylvania and later in +Ohio. In 1848 the Brown family became associated with an +enterprise of Gerrit Smith in northern New York, where a hundred +thousand acres of land were offered to negro families for +settlement. During the excitement over the Fugitive Slave Act of +1850 Brown organized among the colored people of Springfield, +Massachusetts, "The United States League of Gileadites." As an +organization this undertaking proved a failure, but Brown's +formal written instructions to the "Gileadites" are interesting +on account of their relation to what subsequently happened. In +this document, by referring to the multitudes who had suffered in +their behalf, he encouraged the negroes to stand for their +liberties. He instructed them to be armed and ready to rush to +the rescue of any of their number who might be attacked: + +"Should one of your number be arrested, you must collect together +as quickly as possible, so as to outnumber your adversaries who +are taking an active part against you. Let no able-bodied man +appear on the ground unequipped, or with his weapons exposed to +view: let that be understood beforehand. Your plans must be known +only to yourself, and with the understanding that all traitors +must die, wherever caught and proven to be guilty. "Whosoever is +fearful or afraid, let him return and depart early from Mount +Gilead" (Judges, vii. 3; Deut. xx. 8). Give all cowards an +opportunity to show it on condition of holding their peace. Do +NOT DELAY ONE MOMENT AFTER YOU ARE READY: YOU WILL LOSE ALL YOUR +RESOLUTION IF YOU DO. LET THE FIRST BLOW BE THE SIGNAL FOR ALL TO +ENGAGE: AND WHEN ENGAGED DO NOT DO YOUR WORK BY HALVES, BUT MAKE +CLEAN WORK WITH YOUR ENEMIES,--AND BE SURE YOU MEDDLE NOT WITH +ANY OTHERS. By going about your business quietly, you will get +the job disposed of before the number that an uproar would bring +together can collect; and you will have the advantage of those +who come out against you, for they will be wholly unprepared with +either equipments or matured plans; all with them will be +confusion and terror. Your enemies will be slow to attack you +after you have done up the work nicely; and if they should, they +will have to encounter your white friends as well as you; for you +may safely calculate on a division of the whites, and may by that +means get to an honorable parley." + +He gives here a distinct suggestion of the plans and methods +which he later developed and extended. + +When Kansas was opened for settlement, John Brown was fifty-four +years old. Early in the spring of 1855, five of his sons took up +claims near Osawatomie. They went, as did others, as peaceable +settlers without arms. After the election of March 30, 1855, at +which armed Missourians overawed the Kansas settlers and thus +secured a unanimous pro-slavery Legislature, the freestate men, +under the leadership of Robinson, began to import Sharp's rifles +and other weapons for defense. Brown's sons thereupon wrote to +their father, describing their helpless condition and urging him +to come to their relief. In October, 1855, John Brown himself +arrived with an adequate supply of rifles and some broadswords +and revolvers. The process of organization and drill thereupon +began, and when the Wakarusa War occurred early in December, +1855, John Brown was on hand with a small company from Osawatomie +to assist in the defense of Lawrence. The statement that he +disapproved of the agreement with Governor Shannon which +prevented bloodshed is not in accord with a letter which John +Brown wrote to his wife immediately after the event. The Governor +granted practically all that the freestate men desired and +recognized their trainbands as a part of the police force of +the Territory. Brown by this stipulation became Captain John +Brown, commander of a company of the territorial militia. + +Soon after the Battle of Wakarusa, Captain Brown passed the +command of the company of militia to his son John, while he +became the leader of a small band composed chiefly of members of +his own family. Writing to his wife on April 7, 1856, he said: +"We hear that preparations are making in the United States Court +for numerous arrests of free-state men. For one I have not +desired (all things considered) to have the slave power cease +from its acts of aggression. 'Their foot shall slide in due +time.'" This letter of Brown's indicates that the writer was +pleased at the prospect of approaching trouble. + +When, six weeks later, notice came of the attack upon Lawrence, +John Brown, Junior, went with the company of Osawatomie Rifles to +the relief of the town, while the elder Brown with a little +company of six moved in the same direction. In a letter to his +wife, dated June 26, 1856, more than a month after the massacre +in Pottawatomie Valley, Brown said: + +"On our way to Lawrence we learned that it had been already +destroyed, and we encamped with John's company overnight .... On +the second day and evening after we left John's men, we +encountered quite a number of pro-slavery men and took quite a +number of prisoners. Our prisoners we let go, but kept some four +or five horses. We were immediately after this accused of +murdering five men at Pottawatomie and great efforts have been +made by the Missourians and their ruffian allies to capture us. +John's company soon afterwards disbanded, and also the Osawatomie +men. Since then, we have, like David of old, had our dwelling +with the serpents of the rocks and the wild beasts of the +wilderness." + +There will probably never be agreement as to Brown's motives in +slaying his five neighbors on May 24, 1856. Opinions likewise +differ as to the effect which this incident had on the history of +Kansas. Abolitionists of every class had said much about war and +about servile insurrection, but the conservative people of the +West and South had mentioned the subject only by way of warning +and that they might point out ways of prevention. Garrison and +his followers had used language which gave rise to the impression +that they favored violent revolution and were not averse to +fomenting servile insurrection. They had no faith in the efforts +of Northern emigrants to save Kansas from the clutches of the +slaveholding South, and they denounced in severe terms the +Robinson leadership there, believing it sure to result in +failure. To this class of abolitionists John Brown distinctly +belonged. He believed that so high was the tension on the slavery +question throughout the country that revolution, if inaugurated +at any point, would sweep the land and liberate the slaves. Brown +was also possessed of the belief that he was himself the divinely +chosen agent to let loose the forces of freedom; and that this +was the chief motive which prompted the deed at Pottawatomie is +as probable as any other. + +Viewed in this light, the Pottawatomie massacre was measurably +successful. Opposing forces became more clearly defined and were +pitted against each other in hostile array. There were reprisals +and counter-reprisals. Kansas was plunged into a state of civil +war, but it is quite probable that this condition would have +followed the looting of Lawrence even if John Brown had been +absent from the Territory. + +Coincident with the warfare by organized companies, small +irregular bands infested the country. Kansas became a paradise +for adventurers, soldiers of fortune, horse thieves, cattle +thieves, and marauders of various sorts. Spoiling the enemy in +the interest of a righteous cause easily degenerated into common +robbery and murder. It was chiefly in this sort of conflict that +two hundred persons were slain and that two million dollars' +worth of property was destroyed. + +During this period of civil war the members of the Brown family +were not much in evidence. John Brown, Junior, captain of the +Osawatomie Rifles, was a political prisoner at Topeka. Swift +destruction of their property was visited upon all those members +who were suspected of having a share in the Pottawatomie murders, +and their houses were burned and their other property was seized. +Warrants were out for the arrest of the elder Brown and his sons. +Captain Pate who, in command of a small troop, was in pursuit of +Brown and his company, was surprised at Black Jack in the early +morning and induced to surrender. Brown thus gained control of a +number of horses and other supplies and began to arrange terms +for the exchange of his son and Captain Pate as prisoners of war. +The negotiations were interrupted, however, by the arrival of +Colonel Sumner with United States troops, who restored the horses +and other booty and disbanded all the troops. With the Colonel +was a deputy marshal with warrants for the arrest of the Browns. +When ordered to proceed with his duty, however, the marshal was +so overawed that, even though a federal officer was present, he +merely remarked, "I do not recognize any one for whom I have +warrants." + +After the capture of Captain Pate at Black Jack early in June, +little is known about Brown and his troops for two months. Apart +from an encounter of opposing forces near Osawatomie in which he +and his band were engaged, Brown took no share in the open +fighting between the organized companies of opposing forces, and +his part in the irregular guerrilla warfare of the period is +uncertain. Towards the close of the war one of his sons was shot +by a preacher who alleged that he had been robbed by the Browns. +After peace had been restored to Kansas by the vigorous action of +Governor Geary, Brown left the scene and never again took an +active part in the local affairs of the Territory. + +John Brown's influence upon the course of affairs in Kansas, like +William Lloyd Garrison's upon the general anti-slavery movement +of the country, has been greatly misunderstood and exaggerated. +Brown's object and intention were fundamentally contradictory to +those of the freestate settlers. They strove to build a free +commonwealth by legal and constitutional methods. He strove to +inaugurate a revolution which would extend to all pro-slavery +States and result in universal emancipation. John Brown was in +Kansas only one year, and he never made himself at one with those +who should have been his fellow-workers but went his solitary +way. Only in three instances did he pretend to cooperate with the +regular freestate forces. He could not work with them because his +conception of the means to be adopted to attain the end was +different from theirs. Probably before he left the Territory in +1856, he had realized that his work in Kansas was a failure and +that the law-and-order forces were too strong for the execution +of his plans. Certain it is that within a few weeks after his +departure he had transferred the field of his operations to the +mountains of Virginia. Kansas became free through the persistent +determination of the rank and file of Northern settlers under the +wise leadership of Governor Robinson. It is difficult to +determine whether the cause of Kansas was aided or hindered by +the advent of John Brown and the adventurers with whom his name +became associated. + +During the fall of 1856 and until the late summer of 1857 Brown +was in the East raising funds for the redemption of Kansas and +for the reimbursement of those who had incurred or were likely to +incur losses in defense of the cause. For the equipment of a +troop of soldiers under his own command he formulated plans for +raising $30,000 by private subscription, and in this he was to a +considerable extent successful. It can never be known how much +was given in this way to Brown for the equipment of his army of +liberation. It is estimated that George L. Stearns alone gave in +all fully $10,000. Because Eastern abolitionists had lost +confidence in Robinson's leadership, they lent a willing ear to +the plea that Captain Brown with a well-equipped and trained +company of soldiers was the last hope for checking the enemy. Not +only would Kansas become a slave State without such help, it was +said, but the institution of slavery would spread into all the +Territories and become invincible. + +The money was given to Brown to redeem Kansas, but he had +developed an alternative plan. Early in the year 1857, he met in +New York Colonel Hugh Forbes, a soldier of fortune who had seen +service with Garibaldi in Italy. They discussed general plans for +an aggressive attack upon the South for the liberation of the +slaves, and with these plans the needs of Kansas had little or no +connection. "Kansas was to be a prologue to the real drama," +writes his latest biographer; "the properties of the one were to +serve in the other." In April six months' salary was advanced out +of the Kansas fund to Forbes, who was employed at a hundred +dollars a month to aid in the execution of their plans. Another +significant expenditure of the Kansas fund was in pursuance of a +contract with a Mr. Blair, a Connecticut manufacturer, to furnish +at a dollar each one thousand pikes. Though the contract was +dated March 80, 1857, it was not completed until the fall of +1859, when the weapons were delivered to Brown in Pennsylvania +for use at Harper's Ferry. + +Instead of rushing to the relief of Kansas, as contributors had +expected, the leader exercised remarkable deliberation. When +August arrived, it found him only as far as Tabor, Iowa, where a +considerable quantity of arms had been previously assembled. Here +he was joined by Colonel Forbes, and together they organized a +school of military tactics with Forbes as instructor. But as +Forbes could find no one but Brown and his son to drill, he soon +returned to the East, still trusted by Brown as a co-worker. It +would seem that Forbes himself wished to play the chief part in +the liberation of America. + +While he was at Tabor, Brown was urged by Lane and other former +associates of his in Kansas to come to their relief with all his +forces. There had, indeed, been a full year of peace since +Geary's arrival, but early in October there was to occur the +election of a territorial Legislature in which the free-state +forces had agreed to participate, and Lane feared an invasion +from Missouri. But although the appeal was not effective, the +election proved a complete triumph for the North. Late in +October, after the signal victory of the law-and-order party at +the election, Brown was again urged with even greater insistence +to muster all his forces and come to Kansas, and there were hints +in Lane's letter that an aggressive campaign was afoot to rid the +Territory of the enemy. Instead of going in force, however, Brown +stole into the Territory alone. On his arrival, two days after +the date set for a decisive council of the revolutionary faction, +he did not make himself known to Governor Robinson or to any of +his party but persuaded several of his former associates to join +his "school" in Iowa. From Tabor he subsequently transferred the +school to Springdale, a quiet Quaker community in Cedar County, +Iowa, seven miles from any railway station. Here the company went +into winter quarters and spent the time in rigid drill in +preparation for the campaign of liberation which they expected to +undertake the following season. + +While he was at Tabor, Brown began to intimate to his Eastern +friends that he had other and different plans for the promotion +of the general cause. In January, 1858, he went East with the +definite intention of obtaining additional support for the +greater scheme. On February 22, 1858, at the home of Gerrit Smith +in New York, there was held a council at which Brown definitely +outlined his purpose to begin operations at some point in the +mountains of Virginia. Smith and Sanborn at first tried to +dissuade him, but finally consented to cooperate. The secret was +carefully guarded: some half-dozen Eastern friends were apprised +of it, including Stearns, their most liberal contributor, and two +or three friends at Springdale. + +As early as December, 1857, Forbes began to write mysterious +letters to Sanborn, Stearns, and others of the circle, in which +he complained of ill-usage at the hands of Brown. It appears that +Forbes erroneously assumed that the Boston friends were aware of +Brown's contract with him and of his plans for the attack upon +Virginia; but, since they were entirely ignorant on both points, +the correspondence was conducted at cross-purposes for several +months. Finally, early in May, 1858, it transpired that Forbes +had all the time been fully informed of Brown's intentions to +begin the effort for emancipation in Virginia. Not only so, but +he had given detailed information on the subject to Senators +Sumner, Seward, Hale, Wilson, and possibly others. Senator Wilson +was told that the arms purchased by the New England Aid Society +for use in Kansas were to be used by Brown for an attack on +Virginia. Wilson, in entire ignorance of Brown's plans, demanded +that the Aid Society be effectively protected against any such +charge of betrayal of trust. The officers of the Society were, in +fact, aware that the arms which had been purchased with Society +funds the year before and shipped to Tabor, Iowa, had been placed +in Brown's hands and that, without their consent, those arms had +been shipped to Ohio and just at that time were on the point of +being transported to Virginia. This knowledge placed the officers +of the New England Aid Society in a most awkward position. +Stearns, the treasurer, had advanced large sums to meet pressing +needs during the starvation times in Kansas in 1857. Now the arms +in Brown's possession were, by vote of the officers, given to the +treasurer in part payment of the Society's debt, and he of course +left them just where they were.* On the basis of this arrangement +Senator Wilson and the public were assured that none of the +property given for the benefit of Kansas had been or would be +diverted to other purposes by the Kansas Committee. It was +decided, however, that on account of the Forbes revelations the +attack upon Harper's Ferry must be delayed for one year and that +Brown must go to Kansas to take part in the pending elections. + +* "When the denouement finally came, however, the public and +press did not take a very favorable view of the transaction; it +was too difficult to distinguish between George L. Stearns, the +benefactor of the Kansas Committee, and George L. Stearns, the +Chairman of that Committee." Villard, "John Brown," p. 341. + +Though Brown arrived in Kansas late in June, he took no active +part in the pending measures for the final triumph of the free- +state cause. It is something of a mystery how he was occupied +between the 1st of July and the middle of December. Under the +pseudonym of "Shubal Morgan" he was commander of a small band in +which were a number of his followers in training for the Eastern +mission. The occupation of this band is not matter of history +until December 20, 1858, when they made a raid into the State of +Missouri, slew one white man, took eleven slaves, a large number +of horses, some oxen, wagons, much food, arms, and various other +supplies. This action was in direct violation of a solemn +agreement between the border settlers of State and Territory. The +people in Kansas were in terror lest retaliatory raids should +follow, as would undoubtedly have happened had not the people of +Missouri taken active measures to prevent such reprisals. + +Rewards were offered for Brown's arrest, and free-state residents +served notice that he must leave the Territory. In the dead of +winter he started North with some slaves and many horses, +accompanied by Kagi and Gill, two of his faithful followers. In +northern Kansas, where they were delayed by a swollen stream, a +band of horsemen appeared to dispute their passage. Brown's party +quickly mustered assistance and, giving chase to the enemy, took +three prisoners with four horses as spoils of war. In Kansas +parlance the affair is called "The Battle of the Spurs." The +leaders in the chase were seasoned soldiers on their way to +Harper's Ferry with the intention of spending their lives +collecting slaves and conducting them to places of safety. For +this sort of warfare they were winning their spurs. It was their +intention to teach all defenders of slavery to use their utmost +endeavor to keep out of their reach. As Brown and his company +passed through Tabor, the citizens took occasion at a public +meeting to resolve "that we have no sympathy with those who go to +slave States to entice away slaves, and take property or life +when necessary to attain that end." + +A few days later the party was at Grinnell, Iowa. According to +the detailed account which J. B. Grinnell gives in his +autobiography, Brown appeared on Saturday afternoon, stacked his +arms in Grinnell's parlor and disposed of his people and horses +partly in Grinnell's house and barn and partly at the hotel. In +the evening Brown and Kagi addressed a large meeting in a public +hall. Brown gave a lurid account of experiences in Kansas, +justified his raid into Missouri by saying the slaves were to be +sold for shipment to the South, and gave notice that his surplus +horses would be offered for sale on Monday. "What title can you +give?" was the question that came from the audience. "The best-- +the affidavit that they were taken by black men from land they +had cleared and tilled; taken in part payment for labor which is +kept back." + +Brown again addressed a large meeting on Sunday evening at which +each of the three clergymen present invoked the divine blessing +upon Brown and his labors. The present writer was told by an eye- +witness that one of the ministers prayed for forgiveness for any +wrongful acts which their guest may have committed. Convinced of +the rectitude of his actions, however, Brown objected and said +that he thanked no one for asking forgiveness for anything he had +done. + +Returning from church on Sunday evening, Grinnell found a message +awaiting him from Mr. Werkman, United States marshal at Iowa +City, who was a friend of Grinnell. The message in part read: +"You can see that it will give your town a bad name to have a +fight there; then all who aid are liable, and there will be an +arrest or blood. Get the old Devil away to save trouble, for he +will be taken, dead or alive." Grinnell showed the message to +Brown, who remarked: "Yes, I have heard of him ever since I came +into the State . . . . Tell him we are ready to be taken, but +will wait one day more for his military squad." True to his word +he waited till the following afternoon and then moved directly +towards Iowa City, the home of the marshal, passing beyond the +city fourteen miles to his Quaker friends at Springdale. Here he +remained about two weeks until he had completed arrangements for +shipping his fugitives by rail to Chicago. In the meantime, where +was Marshal Werkman of Iowa City? Was he of the same mind as the +deputy marshal who had accompanied Colonel Sumner? Two of Brown's +men had visited the city to make arrangements for the shipment. +The situation was obvious enough to those who would see. The +entire incident is an illuminating commentary on the attitude of +both government and people towards the Fugitive Slave Law. In +March the fugitives were safely landed in Canada and the rest of +the horses were sold in Cleveland, Ohio. The time was approaching +for the move on Virginia. + +Brown now expended much time and attention upon a constitution +for the provisional government which he was to set up. In January +and February, 1858, Brown had labored over this document for +several weeks at the home of Frederick Douglass at Rochester, New +York. A copy was in evidence at the conference with Sanborn and +Gerrit Smith in February, and the document was approved at a +conference held in Chatham, Canada, on May 8, 1858, just at the +time when Forbes's revelations caused the postponement of the +enterprise. It is an elaborate constitution containing forty- +eight articles. The preamble indicates the general purport: + +Whereas, Slavery throughout its entire existence in the United +States is none other than a most barbarous, unprovoked, and +unjustifiable war of one portion of its citizens upon another +portion the only conditions of which are perpetual imprisonment +and hopeless servitude or absolute extermination; in utter +disregard and violation of those eternal and self-evident truths +set forth in our Declaration of Independence: Therefore, we the +citizens of the United States, and the Oppressed People, who, by +a decision of the Supreme Court are declared to have no rights +which the White Man is bound to respect; together with all other +people degraded by the laws thereof, Do, for the time being +ordain and establish for ourselves, the following PROVISIONAL +CONSTITUTION AND ORDINANCES, the better to protect our Persons, +Property, Lives and Liberties and to govern our actions. + +Article Forty-six reads: + +The foregoing articles shall not be construed so as in any way to +encourage the overthrow of any State Government or of the general +government of the United States; and look to no dissolution of +the Union, but simply to Amendment and Repeal. And our flag shall +be the same that our Fathers fought under in the Revolution. + +In Article Forty, "profane swearing, filthy conversation, and +indecent behavior" are forbidden. The document indicates an +obvious intention to effect a revolution by a restrained and +regulated use of force. + +Mobilization of forces began in June, 1859. Cook, one of the +original party, had spent the year in the region of Harper's +Ferry. In July the Kennedy farm, five miles from Harper's Ferry, +was leased. The Northern immigrants posed as farmers, stock- +raisers, and dealers in cattle, seeking a milder climate. To +assist in the disguise, Brown's daughter and daughter-in-law, +mere girls, joined the community. Even so it was difficult to +allay troublesome curiosity on the part of neighbors at the +gathering of so many men with no apparent occupation. Suspicion +might easily have been aroused by the assembling of numerous +boxes of arms from the West and the thousand pikes from +Connecticut. Late in August, Floyd, Secretary of War, received an +anonymous letter emanating from Springdale, Iowa, giving +information which, if acted upon, would have led to an +investigation and stopped the enterprise. + +The 24th of October was the day appointed for taking possession +of Harper's Ferry, but fear of exposure led to a change of plan +and the move was begun on the 16th of October. Six of the party +who would have been present at the later date were absent. The +march from Kennedy farm began about eight o'clock Sunday evening. +Before midnight the bridges, the town, and the arsenal were in +the hands of the invaders without a gun having been fired. Before +noon on Monday some forty citizens of the neighborhood had been +assembled as prisoners and held, it was explained, as hostages +for the safety of members of the party who might be taken. +During the early forenoon Kagi strongly urged that they should +escape into the mountains; but Brown, who was influenced, as he +said, by sympathy for his prisoners and their distressed +families, refused to move and at last found himself surrounded by +opposing forces. Brown's men, having been assigned to different +duties, were separated. Six of them escaped; others were killed +or wounded or taken prisoners. Brown himself with six of his men +and a few of his prisoners made a final stand in the engine- +house. This was early in the afternoon. All avenues of escape +were now closed. Brown made two efforts to communicate with his +assailants by means of a flag of truce, sending first Thompson, +one of his men, with one of his prisoners, and then Stevens and +Watson Brown with another of the prisoners. Thompson was received +but was held as a prisoner; Stevens and Watson Brown were shot +down, the first dangerously wounded and the other mortally +wounded. Later in the afternoon Brown received a flag of truce +with a demand that he surrender. He stated the conditions under +which he would restore the prisoners whom he held, but he refused +the unconditional surrender which was demanded. + +About midnight Colonel Robert E. Lee arrived from Washington with +a company of marines. He took full command, set a guard of his +own men around the engine-house and made preparation to effect a +forcible entrance at sunrise on Tuesday morning in case a +peaceable surrender was refused. Lee first offered to two of the +local companies the honor of storming the castle. These, however, +declined to undertake the perilous task, and the honor fell to +Lieutenant Green of the marines, who thereupon selected two +squads of twelve men each to attempt an entrance through the +door. To Lee's aide, Lieutenant Stuart, who had known Brown in +Kansas, was committed the task of making the formal demand for +surrender. Brown and Stuart, who recognized each other instantly +upon their meeting at the door, held a long parley, which +resulted, as had been expected, in Brown's refusal to yield. +Stuart then gave the signal which had been agreed upon to +Lieutenant Green, who ordered the first squad to advance. Failing +to break down the door with sledge-hammers, they seized a heavy +ladder and at the second stroke made an opening near the ground +large enough to admit a man. Green instantly entered, rushed to +the back part of the room, and climbed upon an engine to command +a better view. Colonel Lewis Washington, the most distinguished +of the prisoners, pointed to Brown, saying, "This is Osawatomie." +Green leaped forward and by thrust or stroke bent his light sword +double against Brown's body. Other blows were administered and +his victim fell senseless, and it was believed that the leader +had been slain in action according to his wish. + +The first of the twelve men to attempt to follow their leader was +instantly killed by gunshot. Others rushed in and slew two of +Brown's men by the use of the bayonet. To save the prisoners from +harm, Lee had given careful instruction to fire no shot, to use +only bayonets. The other insurgents were made prisoners. "The +whole fight," Green reported, "had not lasted over three +minutes." + +Of all the prisoners taken and held as hostages, not one was +killed or wounded. They were made as safe as the conditions +permitted. The eleven prisoners who were with Brown in the +engine-house were profoundly impressed with the courage, the +bearing, and the self-restraint of the leader and his men. +Colonel Washington describes Brown as holding a carbine in one +hand, with one dead son by his side, while feeling the pulse of +another son, who had received a mortal wound, all the time +watching every movement for the defense and forbidding his men to +fire upon any one who was unarmed. The testimony is uniform that +Brown exercised special care to prevent his men from shooting +unarmed citizens, and this conduct was undoubtedly influential in +securing generous treatment for him and his men after the +surrender. + +For six weeks afterwards, until his execution on the 2d of +December, John Brown remained a conspicuous figure. He won +universal admiration for courage, coolness, and deliberation, and +for his skill in parrying all attempts to incriminate others. +Probably less than a hundred people knew beforehand anything +about the enterprise, and less than a dozen of these rendered aid +and encouragement. It was emphatically a personal exploit. On the +part of both leader and followers, no occasion was omitted to +drive home the lesson that men were willing to imperil their +lives for the oppressed with no hope or desire for personal gain. +Brown especially served notice upon the South that the day of +final reckoning was at hand. + +It is natural that the consequences of an event so spectacular as +the capture of Harper's Ferry should be greatly exaggerated. +Brown's contribution to Kansas history has been distorted beyond +all recognition. The Harper's Ferry affair, however, because it +came on the eve of the final election before the war, undoubtedly +had considerable influence. It sharpened the issue. It played +into the hands of extremists in both sections. On one side, Brown +was at once made a martyr and a hero; on the other, his acts were +accepted as a demonstration of Northern malignity and hatred, +whose fitting expression was seen in the incitement of slaves to +massacre their masters. + +The distinctive contribution of John Brown to American history +does not consist in the things which he did but rather in that +which he has been made to represent. He has been accepted as the +personification of the irrepressible conflict. + +Of all the men of his generation John Brown is best fitted to +exemplify the most difficult lesson which history teaches: that +slavery and despotism are themselves forms of war, that the +shedding of blood is likely to continue so long as the rich, the +strong, the educated, or the efficient, strive to force their +will upon the poor, the weak, and the ignorant. Lincoln uttered a +final word on the subject when he said that no man is good enough +to rule over another man; if he were good enough he would not be +willing to do it. + +BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + +Among the many political histories which furnish a background for +the study of the anti-slavery crusade, the following have special +value: + +J. F. Rhodes, "History of the United States from the Compromise +of 1860," 7 vols. (1893-1906). The first two volumes cover the +decade to 1860. This is the best-balanced account of the period, +written in an admirable judicial temper. H. E. von Holst, +Constitutional anal Political History of the United States," 8 +vols. (1877-1892). A vast mine of information on the slavery +controversy. The work is vitiated by an almost virulent antipathy +toward the South. James Schouler, "History of the United States," +7 vols. (1895-1901). A sober, reliable narrative of events. +Henry Wilson, "History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power +in America," 3 vols. (1872-1877). The fullest account of the +subject, written by a contemporary. The material was thrown +together by an overworked statesman and lacks proportion. + +Three volumes in the "American Nation Series" aim to combine the +treatment of special topics of commanding interest with general +political history. A. B. Hart's "Slavery and Abolition" (1906) +gives an account of the origin of the controversy and carries the +history down to 1841. G. P. Garrison's "Westward Extension" +(1906) deals especially with the Mexican War and its results. T. +C. Smith's "Parties and Slavery" (1906) follows the gradual +disruption of parties under the pressure of the slavery +controversy. + +>From the mass of contemporary controversial literature a few +titles of more permanent interest may be selected. William +Goodell's "Slavery and Anti-slavery" (1852) presents the +anti-slavery arguments. A. T. Bledsoe's "An Essay on Liberty and +Slavery" (1856) and "The Pro-slavery Argument" (1852), a series +of essays by various writers, undertake the defense of slavery. + +Only a few of the biographies which throw light on the crusade +can be mentioned. "William Lloyd Garrison," 4 vols. (1885-1889) +is the story of the editor of the Liberator told exhaustively by +his children. Less voluminous but equally important are the +following: W. Birney, "James G. Birney and His Times" (1890); G. +W. Julian, "Joshua R. Giddings" (1892); Catherine H. Birney, +"Sarah and Angelina Grimke" (1885); John T. Morse, "John Quincy +Adams." Those who have not patience to read E. L. Pierce's +ponderous "Memoir and Letters of Charles Sumner," 4 vols. (1877- +1893), would do well to read G. H. Haynes's "Charles Sumner" +(1909). + +The history of the conflict in Kansas is closely associated with +the lives of two rival candidates for the honor of leadership in +the cause of freedom. James Redpath in his "Public Life of +Captain John Brown" (1860), Frank B. Sanborn in his "Life and +Letters of John Brown" (1885), and numerous other writers give to +Brown the credit of leadership. The opposition view is held by F. +W. Blackmar in his "Life of Charles Robinson" (1902), and by +Robinson himself in his Kansas Conflict (2d ed., 1898). The best +non-partizan biography of Brown is O. G. Villard's "John Brown, A +Biography Fifty Years After" (1910). + +The Underground Railroad has been adequately treated in W. H. +Siebert's "The Underground Railroad from Slavery to Freedom" +(1898), but Levi Coffin's "Reminiscences" (1876) gives an earlier +autobiographical account of the origin and management of an +important line, while Mrs. Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin" throws the +glamour of romance over the system. + +For additional bibliographical information the reader is referred +to the articles on "Slavery, Fugitive Slave Laws, Kansas, William +Lloyd Garrison, John Brown, James Gillespie Birney," and +"Frederick Douglass" in "The Encyclopaedia Britannica" (11th +Edition). + + + + + + +End of The Project Gutenberg Etext of The Anti-Slavery Crusade +by Jesse Macy + diff --git a/old/ascru10.zip b/old/ascru10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..80154a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/ascru10.zip |