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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Anti-Slavery Crusade + Volume 28 In The Chronicles Of America Series + +Author: Jesse Macy + +Editor: Allen Johnson + +Release Date: January 15, 2009 [EBook #3034] +Last Updated: February 6, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ANTI-SLAVERY CRUSADE *** + + + + +Produced by The James J. Kelly Library of St. Gregory's +University, Dianne Bean, Doug Levy, Alev Akman, and David Widger + + + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE ANTI-SLAVERY CRUSADE, + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + A CHRONICLE OF THE GATHERING STORM + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Jesse Macy + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h4> + New Haven: Yale University Press <br /><br /> Toronto: Glasgow, Brook & + Co. <br /><br /> London: Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press <br /><br /> + 1919 + </h4> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + Contents + </h2> + <table summary="" style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: auto"> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. </a> + </td> + <td> + INTRODUCTION + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. </a> + </td> + <td> + THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE CRUSADE + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. </a> + </td> + <td> + EARLY CRUSADERS + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. </a> + </td> + <td> + THE TURNING-POINT + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. </a> + </td> + <td> + THE VINDICATION OF LIBERTY + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. </a> + </td> + <td> + THE SLAVERY ISSUE IN POLITICS + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII. </a> + </td> + <td> + THE PASSING OF THE WHIG PARTY + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII. </a> + </td> + <td> + THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX. </a> + </td> + <td> + BOOKS AS ANTI-SLAVERY WEAPONS + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X. </a> + </td> + <td> + "BLEEDING KANSAS" + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI. </a> + </td> + <td> + CHARLES SUMNER + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII. </a> + </td> + <td> + KANSAS AND BUCHANAN + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII. </a> + </td> + <td> + THE SUPREME COURT IN POLITICS + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XIV. </a> + </td> + <td> + JOHN BROWN + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2H_4_0015"> BIBLIOGRAPHICAL. </a> + </td> + <td> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE ANTI-SLAVERY CRUSADE + </h1> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION + </h2> + <p> + The Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln marks the beginning of + the end of a long chapter in human history. Among the earliest forms of + private property was the ownership of slaves. Slavery as an institution + had persisted throughout the ages, always under protest, always provoking + opposition, insurrection, social and civil war, and ever bearing within + itself the seeds of its own destruction. Among the historic powers of the + world the United States was the last to uphold slavery, and when, a few + years after Lincoln's proclamation, Brazil emancipated her slaves, + property in man as a legally recognized institution came to an end in all + civilized countries. + </p> + <p> + Emancipation in the United States marked the conclusion of a century of + continuous debate, in which the entire history of western civilization was + traversed. The literature of American slavery is, indeed, a summary of the + literature of the world on the subject. The Bible was made a standard + text-book both for and against slavery. Hebrew and Christian experiences + were exploited in the interest of the contending parties in this crucial + controversy. Churches of the same name and order were divided among + themselves and became half pro-slavery and half anti-slavery. + </p> + <p> + Greek experience and Greek literature were likewise drawn into the + controversy. The Greeks themselves had set the example of arguing both for + and against slavery. Their practice and their prevailing teaching, + however, gave support to this institution. They clearly enunciated the + doctrine that there is a natural division among human beings; that some + are born to command and others to obey; that it is natural to some men to + be masters and to others to be slaves; that each of these classes should + fulfill the destiny which nature assigns. The Greeks also recognized a + difference between races and held that some were by nature fitted to serve + as slaves, and others to command as masters. The defenders of American + slavery therefore found among the writings of the Greeks their chief + arguments already stated in classic form. + </p> + <p> + Though the Romans added little to the theory of the fundamental problem + involved, their history proved rich in practical experience. There were + times, in parts of the Roman Empire, when personal slavery either did not + exist or was limited and insignificant in extent. But the institution grew + with Roman wars and conquests. In rural districts, slave labor displaced + free labor, and in the cities servants multiplied with the concentration + of wealth. The size and character of the slave population eventually + became a perpetual menace to the State. Insurrections proved formidable, + and every slave came to be looked upon as an enemy to the public. It is + generally conceded that the extension of slavery was a primary cause of + the decline and fall of Rome. In the American controversy, therefore, the + lesson to be drawn from Roman experience was utilized to support the cause + of free labor. + </p> + <p> + After the Middle Ages, in which slavery under the modified form of + feudalism ran its course, there was a reversion to the ancient classical + controversy. The issue became clearly defined in the hands of the English + and French philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In + place of the time-honored doctrine that the masses of mankind are by + nature subject to the few who are born to rule, the contradictory dogma + that all men are by nature free and equal was clearly enunciated. + According to this later view, it is of the very nature of spirit, or + personality, to be free. All men are endowed with personal qualities of + will and choice and a conscious sense of right and wrong. To subject these + native faculties to an alien force is to make war upon human nature. + Slavery and despotism are, therefore, in their nature but a species of + warfare. They involve the forcing of men to act in violation of their true + selves. The older doctrine makes government a matter of force. The strong + command the weak, or the rich exercise lordship over the poor. The new + doctrine makes of government an achievement of adult citizens who agree + among themselves as to what is fit and proper for the good of the State + and who freely observe the rules adopted and apply force only to the + abnormal, the delinquent, and the defective. + </p> + <p> + Between the upholders of these contradictory views of human nature there + always has been and there always must be perpetual warfare. Their + difference is such as to admit of no compromise; no middle ground is + possible. The conflict is indeed irresistible. The chief interest in the + American crusade against slavery arises from its relation to this general + world conflict between liberty and despotism. + </p> + <p> + The Athenians could be democrats and at the same time could uphold and + defend the institution of slavery. They were committed to the doctrine + that the masses of the people were slaves by nature. By definition, they + made slaves creatures void of will and personality, and they conveniently + ignored them in matters of state. But Americans living in States founded + in the era of the Declaration of Independence could not be good democrats + and at the same time uphold and defend the institution of slavery, for the + Declaration gives the lie to all such assumptions of human inequality by + accepting the cardinal axiom that all men are created equal and are + endowed with certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, + and the pursuit of happiness. The doctrine of equality had been developed + in Europe without special reference to questions of distinct race or + color. But the terms, which are universal and as broad as humanity in + their denotation, came to be applied to black men as well as to white men. + Massachusetts embodied in her state constitution in 1780 the words, "All + men are born free and equal," and the courts ruled that these words in the + state constitution had the effect of liberating the slaves and of giving + to them the same rights as other citizens. This is a perfectly logical + application of the doctrine of the Revolution. + </p> + <p> + The African slave-trade, however, developed earlier than the doctrine of + the Declaration of Independence. Negro slavery had long been an + established institution in all the American colonies. Opposition to the + slave-trade and to slavery was an integral part of the evolution of the + doctrine of equal rights. As the colonists contended for their own + freedom, they became anti-slavery in sentiment. A standard complaint + against British rule was the continued imposition of the slave-trade upon + the colonists against their oft-repeated protest. + </p> + <p> + In the original draft of the Declaration of Independence, there appeared + the following charges against the King of Great Britain: + </p> + <p> + "He has waged cruel war against human nature itself, violating its most + sacred rights of life and liberty in the persons of distant people who + never offended him, captivating and carrying them into slavery in another + hemisphere, or to incur miserable death in their transportation thither. + This piratical warfare, the opprobrium of infidel powers, is the warfare + of the Christian King of Great Britain. Determined to keep open a market + where men should be bought and sold, he has prostituted his negative for + suppressing every legislative attempt to prohibit or to restrain this + execrable commerce." + </p> + <p> + Though this clause was omitted from the document as finally adopted, the + evidence is abundant that the language expressed the prevailing sentiment + of the country. To the believer in liberty and equality, slavery and the + slave-trade are instances of war against human nature. No one attempted to + justify slavery or to reconcile it with the principles of free government. + Slavery was accepted as an inheritance for which others were to blame. + Colonists at first blamed Great Britain; later apologists for slavery + blamed New England for her share in the continuance of the slave-trade. + </p> + <p> + The fact should be clearly comprehended that the sentiments which led to + the American Revolution, and later to the French Revolution in Europe, + were as broad in their application as the human race itself—that + there were no limitations nor exceptions. These new principles involved a + complete revolution in the previously recognized principles of government. + The French sought to make a master-stroke at immediate achievement and + they incurred counterrevolutions and delays. The Americans moved in a more + moderate and tentative manner towards the great achievement, but with them + also a counter-revolution finally appeared in the rise of an influential + class who, by openly defending slavery, repudiated the principles upon + which the government was founded. + </p> + <p> + At first the impression was general, in the South as well as in the North, + that slavery was a temporary institution. The cause of emancipation was + already advocated by the Society of Friends and some other sects. A + majority of the States adopted measures for the gradual abolition of + slavery, but in other cases there proved to be industrial barriers to + emancipation. Slaves were found to be profitably employed in clearing away + the forests; they were not profitably employed in general agriculture. A + marked exception was found in small districts in the Carolinas and Georgia + where indigo and rice were produced; and though cotton later became a + profitable crop for slave labor, it was the producers of rice and indigo + who furnished the original barrier to the immediate extension of the + policy of emancipation. Representatives from their States secured the + introduction of a clause into the Constitution which delayed for twenty + years the execution of the will of the country against the African + slave-trade. It is said that a slave imported from Africa paid for himself + in a single year in the production of rice. There were thus a few planters + in Georgia and the Carolinas who had an obvious interest in the + prolongation of the institution of slavery and who had influence enough, + to secure constitutional recognition for both slavery and the slave-trade. + </p> + <p> + The principles involved were not seriously debated. In theory all were + abolitionists; in practice slavery extended to all the States. In some, + actual abolition was comparatively easy; in others, it was difficult. By + the end of the first quarter of the nineteenth century, actual abolition + had extended to the line separating Pennsylvania from Maryland. Of the + original thirteen States seven became free and six remained slave. + </p> + <p> + The absence of ardent or prolonged debate upon this issue in the early + history of the United States is easily accounted for. No principle of + importance was drawn into the controversy; few presumed to defend slavery + as a just or righteous institution. As to conduct, each individual, each + neighborhood enjoyed the freedom of a large, roomy country. Even within + state lines there was liberty enough. No keen sense of responsibility for + a uniform state policy existed. It was therefore not difficult for those + who were growing wealthy by the use of imported negroes to maintain their + privileges in the State. + </p> + <p> + If the sense of active responsibility was wanting within the separate + States, much more was this true of the citizens of different States. + Slavery was regarded as strictly a domestic institution. Families bought + and owned slaves as a matter of individual preference. None of the + original colonies or States adopted slavery by law. The citizens of the + various colonies became slaveholders simply because there was no law + against it. * The abolition of slavery was at first an individual matter + or a church or a state policy. When the Constitution was formulated, the + separate States had been accustomed to regard themselves as possessed of + sovereign powers; hence there was no occasion for the citizens of one + State to have a sense of responsibility on account of the domestic + institutions of other States. The consciousness of national responsibility + was of slow growth, and the conditions did not then exist which favored a + general crusade against slavery or a prolonged acrimonious debate on the + subject, such as arose forty years later. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In the case of Georgia there was a prohibitory law, which + was disregarded. +</pre> + <p> + In many of the States, however, there were organized abolition societies, + whose object was to promote the cause of emancipation already in progress + and to protect the rights of free negroes. The Friends, or Quakers, were + especially active in the promotion of a propaganda for universal + emancipation. A petition which was presented to the first Congress in + February, 1790, with the signature of Benjamin Franklin as President of + the Pennsylvania Abolition Society, contained this concluding paragraph: + </p> + <p> + "From a persuasion that equal liberty was originally, and is still, the + birthright of all men, and influenced by the strong ties of humanity and + the principles of their institutions, your memorialists conceive + themselves bound to use all justifiable endeavors to loosen the bonds of + slavery, and to promote the general enjoyment of the blessings of freedom. + Under these impressions they earnestly entreat your attention to the + subject of slavery; that you will be pleased to countenance the + restoration to liberty of those unhappy men, who, alone, in this land of + freemen, are groaning in servile subjection; that you will devise means + for removing this inconsistency of character from the American people; + that you will promote mercy and justice towards this distressed race; and + that you will step to the very verge of the power vested in you for + discouraging every species of traffic in the persons of our fellowmen." * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * William Goodell, "Slavery and Anti-Slavery," p. 99. +</pre> + <p> + The memorialists were treated with profound respect. Cordial support and + encouragement came from representatives from Virginia and other slave + States. Opposition was expressed by members from South Carolina and + Georgia. These for the most part relied upon their constitutional + guaranties. But for these guaranties, said Smith, of South Carolina, his + State would not have entered the Union. In the extreme utterances in + opposition to the petition there is a suggestion of the revolution which + was to occur forty years later. + </p> + <p> + Active abolitionists who gave time and money to the promotion of the cause + were always few in numbers. Previous to 1830 abolition societies resembled + associations for the prevention of cruelty to animals—in fact, in + one instance at least this was made one of the professed objects. These + societies labored to induce men to act in harmony with generally + acknowledged obligations, and they had no occasion for violence or + persecution. Abolitionists were distinguished for their benevolence and + their unselfish devotion to the interests of the needy and the + unfortunate. It was only when the ruling classes resorted to mob violence + and began to defend slavery as a divinely ordained institution that there + was a radical change in the spirit of the controversy. The irrepressible + conflict between liberty and despotism which has persisted in all ages + became manifest when slave-masters substituted the Greek doctrine of + inequality and slavery for the previously accepted Christian doctrine of + equality and universal brotherhood. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE CRUSADE + </h2> + <p> + It was a mere accident that the line drawn by Mason and Dixon between + Pennsylvania and Maryland became known in later years as the dividing line + between slavery and freedom. The six States south of that line ultimately + neglected or refused to abolish slavery, while the seven Northern States + became free. Vermont became a State in 1791 and Kentucky in 1792. The + third State to be added to the original thirteen was Tennessee in 1796. At + that time, counting the States as they were finally classified, eight were + destined to be slave and eight free. Ohio entered the Union as a State in + 1802, thus giving to the free States a majority of one. The balance, + however, was restored in 1812 by the admission of Louisiana as a slave + State. The admission of Indiana in 1816 on the one side and of Mississippi + in 1817 on the other still maintained the balance: ten free States stood + against ten slave States. During the next two years Illinois and Alabama + were admitted, making twenty-two States in all, still evenly divided. + </p> + <p> + The ordinance for the government of the territory north of the Ohio River, + passed in 1787 and reenacted by Congress after the adoption of the + Constitution, proved to be an act of great significance in its relation to + the limitation of slavery. By this ordinance slavery was forever + prohibited in the Northwest Territory. In the territory south of the Ohio + River slavery became permanently established. The river, therefore, became + an extension of the original Mason and Dixon's Line with the new meaning + attached: it became a division between free and slave territory. + </p> + <p> + It was apparently at first a mere matter of chance that a balance was + struck between the two losses of States. While Virginia remained a slave + State, it was natural that slavery should extend into Kentucky, which had + been a part of Virginia. Likewise Tennessee, being a part of North + Carolina, became slave territory. When these two Territories became slave + States, the equal division began. There was yet an abundance of territory + both north and south to be taken into the Union and, without any special + plan or agitation, States were admitted in pairs, one free and the other + slave. In the meantime there was distinctly developed the idea of the + possible or probable permanence of slavery in the South and of a rivalry + or even a future conflict between the two sections. + </p> + <p> + When in 1819 Missouri applied for admission to the Union with a state + constitution permitting slavery, there was a prolonged debate over the + whole question, not only in Congress but throughout the entire country. + North and South were distinctly pitted against each other with rival + systems of labor. The following year Congress passed a law providing for + the admission of Missouri, but, to restore the balance, Maine was + separated from Massachusetts and was admitted to the Union as a State. It + was further enacted that slavery should be forever prohibited from all + territory of the United States north of the parallel 36 degrees 30', that + is, north of the southern boundary of Missouri. It is this part of the act + which is known as the Missouri Compromise. It was accepted as a permanent + limitation of the institution of slavery. By this act Mason and Dixon's + Line was extended through the Louisiana Purchase. As the western boundary + was then defined, slavery could still be extended into Arkansas and into a + part of what is now Oklahoma, while a great empire to the northwest was + reserved for the formation of free States. Arkansas became a slave State + in 1836 and Michigan was admitted as a free State in the following year. + </p> + <p> + With the admission of Arkansas and Michigan, thirteen slave States were + balanced by a like number of free States. The South still had Florida, + which would in time become a slave State. Against this single Territory + there was an immense region to the northwest, equal in area to all the + slave States combined, which, according to the Ordinance of 1787 and the + Missouri Compromise, had been consecrated to freedom. Foreseeing this + condition, a few Southern planters began a movement for the extension of + territory to the south and west immediately after the adoption of the + Missouri Compromise. When Arkansas was admitted in 1836, there was a + prospect of the immediate annexation of Texas as a slave State. This did + not take place until nine years later, but the propaganda, the object of + which was the extension of slave territory, could not be maintained by + those who contended that slavery was a curse to the country. Virginia, + therefore, and other border slave States, as they became committed to the + policy of expansion, ceased to tolerate official public utterances against + slavery. + </p> + <p> + Three more or less clearly defined sections appear in the later + development of the crusade. These are the New England States, the Middle + States, and the States south of North Carolina and Tennessee. In New + England, few negroes were ever held as slaves, and the institution + disappeared during the first years of the Republic. The inhabitants had + little experience arising from actual contact with slavery. When slavery + disappeared from New England and before there had been developed in the + country at large a national feeling of responsibility for its continued + existence, interest in the subject declined. For twenty years previous to + the founding of Garrison's Liberator in 1831, organized abolition + movements had been almost unknown in New England. In various ways the + people were isolated, separated from contact with slavery. Their knowledge + of this subject of discussion was academic, theoretical, acquired at + second-hand. + </p> + <p> + In New York and New Jersey slaves were much more numerous than in New + England. There were still slaves in considerable numbers until about 1825. + The people had a knowledge of the institution from experience and + observation, and there was no break in the continuity of their organized + abolition societies. Chief among the objects of these societies was the + effort to prevent kidnapping and to guard the rights of free negroes. For + both of these purposes there was a continuous call for activity. + Pennsylvania also had freedmen of her own whose rights called for + guardianship, as well as many freedmen from farther south who had come + into the State. + </p> + <p> + The movement of protest and protection did not stop at Mason and Dixon's + Line, but extended far into the South. In both North Carolina and + Tennessee an active protest against slavery was at all times maintained. + In this great middle section of the country, between New England and South + Carolina, there was no cessation in the conflict between free and slave + labor. Some of these States became free while others remained slave; but + between the people of the two sections there was continuous communication. + Slaveholders came into free States to liberate their slaves. + Non-slaveholders came to get rid of the competition of slave labor, and + free negroes came to avoid reenslavement. Slaves fled thither on their way + to liberty. It was not a matter of choice; it was an unavoidable condition + which compelled the people of the border States to give continuous + attention to the institution of slavery. + </p> + <p> + The modern anti-slavery movement had its origin in this great middle + section, and from the same source it derived its chief support. The great + body of active abolitionists were from the slave States or else derived + their inspiration from personal contact with slavery. As compared with New + England abolitionists, the middlestate folk were less extreme in their + views. They had a keener appreciation of the difficulties involved in + emancipation. They were more tolerant towards the idea of letting the + country at large share the burdens involved in the liberation of the + slaves. Border-state abolitionists naturally favored the policy of gradual + emancipation which had been followed in New York, New Jersey, and + Pennsylvania. Abolitionists who continued to reside in the slave States + were forced to recognize the fact that emancipation involved serious + questions of race adjustment. From the border States came the colonization + society, a characteristic institution, as well as compromise of every + variety. + </p> + <p> + The southernmost section, including South Carolina, Georgia, and the Gulf + States, was even more sharply defined in the attitude it assumed toward + the anti-slavery movement. At no time did the cause of emancipation become + formidable in this section. In all these States there was, of course, a + large class of non-slaveholding whites, who were opposed to slavery and + who realized that they were victims of an injurious system; but they had + no effective organ for expression. The ruling minority gained an early and + an easy victory and to the end held a firm hand. To the inhabitants of + this section it appeared to be a self-evident truth that the white race + was born to rule and the black race was born to serve. Where negroes + outnumbered the whites fourfold, the mere suggestion of emancipation + raised a race question which seemed appalling in its proportions. Either + in the Union or out of the Union, the rulers were determined to perpetuate + slavery. + </p> + <p> + Slavery as an economic institution became dependent upon a few + semitropical plantation crops. When the Constitution was framed, rice and + indigo, produced in South Carolina and Georgia, were the two most + important. Indigo declined in relative importance, and the production of + sugar was developed, especially after the annexation of the Louisiana + Purchase. But by far the most important crop for its effects upon slavery + and upon the entire country was cotton. This single product finally + absorbed the labor of half the slaves of the entire country. Mr. Rhodes is + not at all unreasonable in his surmise that, had it not been for the + unforeseen development of the cotton industry, the expectation of the + founders of the Republic that slavery would soon disappear would actually + have been realized. + </p> + <p> + It was more difficult to carry out a policy of emancipation when slaves + were quoted in the market at a thousand dollars than when the price was a + few hundred dollars. All slave-owners felt richer; emancipation appeared + to involve a greater sacrifice. Thus the cotton industry went far towards + accounting for the changed attitude of the entire country on the subject + of slavery. The North as well as the South became financially interested. + </p> + <p> + It was not generally perceived before it actually happened that the border + States would take the place of Africa in furnishing the required supply of + laborers for Southern plantations. The interstate slave-trade gave to the + system a solidarity of interest which was new. All slave-owners became + partakers of a common responsibility for the system as a whole. It was the + newly developed trade quite as much as the system of slavery itself which + furnished the ground for the later anti-slavery appeal. The consciousness + of a common guilt for the sin of slavery grew with the increase of actual + interstate relations. + </p> + <p> + The abolition of the African slave-trade was an act of the general + Government. Congress passed the prohibitory statute in 1807, to go into + effect January, 1808. At no time, however, was the prohibition entirely + effective, and a limited illegal trade continued until slavery was + eventually abolished. This inefficiency of restraint furnished another + point of attack for the abolitionists. Through efforts to suppress the + African slave-trade, the entire country became conscious of a common + responsibility. Before the Revolutionary War, Great Britain had been + censured for forcing cheap slaves from Africa upon her unwilling colonies. + After the Revolution, New England was blamed for the activity of her + citizens in this nefarious trade both before and after it was made + illegal. All of this tended to increase the sense of responsibility in + every section of the country. Congress had made the foreign slave-trade + illegal; and citizens in all sections gradually became aware of the + possibility that Congress might likewise restrict or forbid interstate + commerce in slaves. + </p> + <p> + The West Indies and Mexico were also closely associated with the United + States in the matter of slavery. When Jamestown was founded, negro slavery + was already an old institution in the islands of the Caribbean Sea, and + thence came the first slaves to Virginia. The abolition of slavery in the + island of Hayti, or San Domingo, was accomplished during the French + Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. As incidental to the process of + emancipation, the Caucasian inhabitants were massacred or banished, and a + republican government was established, composed exclusively of negroes and + mulattoes. From the date of the Missouri Compromise to that of the Mexican + War, this island was united under a single republic, though it was + afterwards divided into the two republics of Hayti and San Domingo. + </p> + <p> + The "horrors of San Domingo" were never absent from the minds of those in + the United States who lived in communities composed chiefly of slaves. + What had happened on the island was accepted by Southern planters as proof + that the two races could live together in peace only under the relation of + master and slave, and that emancipation boded the extermination of one + race or the other. Abolitionists, however, interpreted the facts + differently: they emphasized the tyranny of the white rulers as a primary + cause of the massacres; they endowed some of the negro leaders with the + highest qualities of statesmanship and self-sacrificing generosity; and + Wendell Phillips, in an impassioned address which he delivered in 1861, + placed on the honor roll above the chief worthies of history—including + Cromwell and Washington—Toussaint L'Ouverture, the liberator of Hayti, + whom France had betrayed and murdered. + </p> + <p> + Abolitionists found support for their position in the contention that + other communities had abolished slavery without such accompanying horrors + as occurred in Hayti and without serious race conflict. Slavery had run + its course in Spanish America, and emancipation accompanied or followed + the formation of independent republics. In 1833 all slaves in the British + Empire were liberated, including those in the important island of Jamaica. + So it happened that, just at the time when Southern leaders were making up + their minds to defend their peculiar institution at all hazards, they were + beset on every side by the spirit of emancipation. Abolitionists, on the + other hand, were fully convinced that the attainment of some form of + emancipation in the United States was certain, and that, either peaceably + or through violence, the slaves would ultimately be liberated. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. EARLY CRUSADERS + </h2> + <p> + At the time when the new cotton industry was enhancing the value of slave + labor, there arose from the ranks of the people those who freely + consecrated their all to the freeing of the slave. Among these, Benjamin + Lundy, a New Jersey Quaker, holds a significant place. + </p> + <p> + Though the Society of Friends fills a large place in the anti-slavery + movement, its contribution to the growth of the conception of equality is + even more significant. This impetus to the idea arises from a fundamental + Quaker doctrine, announced at the middle of the seventeenth century, to + the erect that God reveals Himself to mankind, not through any priesthood + or specially chosen agents; not through any ordinance, form, or ceremony; + not through any church or institution; not through any book or written + record of any sort; but directly, through His Spirit, to each person. This + direct enlightening agency they deemed coextensive with humanity; no race + and no individual is left without the ever-present illuminating Spirit. If + men of old spoke as they were moved by the Holy Spirit, what they spoke or + wrote can furnish no reliable guidance to the men of a later generation, + except as their minds also are enlightened by the same Spirit in the same + way. "The letter killeth; it is the Spirit that giveth life." + </p> + <p> + This doctrine in its purity and simplicity places all men and all races on + an equality; all are alike ignorant and imperfect; all are alike in their + need of the more perfect revelation yet to be made. Master and slave are + equal before God; there can be no such relation, therefore, except by + doing violence to a personality, to a spiritual being. In harmony with + this fundamental principle, the Society of Friends early rid itself of all + connection with slavery. The Friends' Meeting became a refuge for those + who were moved by the Spirit to testify against slavery. + </p> + <p> + Born in 1789 in a State which was then undergoing the process of + emancipating its slaves, Benjamin Lundy moved at the age of nineteen to + Wheeling, West Virginia, which had already become the center of an active + domestic slave-trade. The pious young Quaker, now apprenticed to a + saddler, was brought into personal contact with this traffic in human + flesh. He felt keenly the national disgrace of the iniquity. So deep did + the iron enter into his soul that never again did he find peace of mind + except in efforts to relieve the oppressed. Like hundreds and thousands of + others, Lundy was led on to active opposition to the trade by an actual + knowledge of the inhumanity of the business as prosecuted before his eyes + and by his sympathy for human suffering. + </p> + <p> + His apprenticeship ended, Lundy was soon established in a prosperous + business in an Ohio village not far from Wheeling. Though he now lived in + a free State, the call of the oppressed was ever in his ears and he could + not rest. He drew together a few of his neighbors, and together they + organized the Union Humane Society, whose object was the relief of those + held in bondage. In a few months the society numbered several hundred + members, and Lundy issued an address to the philanthropists of the whole + country, urging them to unite in like manner with uniform constitutions, + and suggesting that societies so formed adopt a policy of correspondence + and cooperation. At about the same time, Lundy began to publish + anti-slavery articles in the Mount Pleasant Philanthropist and other + papers. + </p> + <p> + In 1819 he went on a business errand to St. Louis, Missouri, where he + found himself in the midst of an agitation over the question of the + extension of slavery in the States. With great zest he threw himself into + the discussion, making use of the newspapers in Missouri and Illinois. + Having lost his property, he returned poverty-stricken to Ohio, where he + founded in January, 1821, the Genius of Universal Emancipation. A few + months later he transferred his paper to the more congenial atmosphere of + Jonesborough, Tennessee, but in 1824 he went to Baltimore, Maryland. In + the meantime, Lundy had become much occupied in traveling, lecturing, and + organizing societies for the promotion of the cause of abolition. He + states that during the ten years previous to 1830 he had traveled upwards + of twenty-five thousand miles, five thousand of which were on foot. He now + became interested in plans for colonizing negroes in other countries as an + aid to emancipation, though he himself had no confidence in the + colonization society and its scheme of deportation to Africa. After + leading a few negroes to Hayti in 1829, he visited Canada, Texas, and + Mexico with a similar plan in view. + </p> + <p> + During a trip through the Middle States and New England in 1828, Lundy met + William Lloyd Garrison, and the following year he walked all the way from + Baltimore to Bennington, Vermont, for the express purpose of securing the + assistance of the youthful reformer as coeditor of his paper. Garrison had + previously favored colonization, but within the few weeks which elapsed + before he joined Lundy, he repudiated all forms of colonization and + advocated immediate and unconditional emancipation. He at once told Lundy + of his change of views. "Well," said Lundy, "thee may put thy initials to + thy articles, and I will put my witness to mine, and each will bear his + own burden." The two editors were, however, in complete accord in their + opposition to the slave-trade. Lundy had suffered a dangerous assault at + the hands of a Baltimore slave-trader before he was joined by Garrison. + During the year 1830, Garrison was convicted of libel and thrown into + prison on account of his scathing denunciation of Francis Todd of + Massachusetts, the owner of a vessel engaged in the slave-trade. + </p> + <p> + These events brought to a crisis the publication of the Genius of + Universal Emancipation. The editors now parted company. Again Lundy moved + the office of the paper, this time to Washington, D.C., but it soon became + a peripatetic monthly, printed wherever the editor chanced to be. In 1836 + Lundy began the issue of an anti-slavery paper in Philadelphia, called the + National Inquirer, and with this was merged the Genius of Universal + Emancipation. He was preparing to resume the issue of his original paper + under the old title, in La Salle County, Illinois, when he was overtaken + by death on August 22, 1839. + </p> + <p> + Here was a man without education, without wealth, of a slight frame, not + at all robust, who had undertaken, singlehanded and without the shadow of + a doubt of his ultimate success, to abolish American slavery. He began the + organization of societies which were to displace the anti-slavery + societies of the previous century. He established the first paper devoted + exclusively to the cause of emancipation. He foresaw that the question of + emancipation must be carried into politics and that it must become an + object of concern to the general Government as well as to the separate + States. In the early part of his career he found the most congenial + association and the larger measure of effective support south of Mason and + Dixon's Line, and in this section were the greater number of the abolition + societies which he organized. During the later years of his life, as it + was becoming increasingly difficult in the South to maintain a public + anti-slavery propaganda, he transferred his chief activities to the North. + Lundy serves as a connecting link between the earlier and the later + anti-slavery movements. Eleven years of his early life belong to the + century of the Revolution. Garrison recorded his indebtedness to Lundy in + the words: "If I have in any way, however humble, done anything towards + calling attention to slavery, or bringing out the glorious prospect of a + complete jubilee in our country at no distant day, I feel that I owe + everything in this matter, instrumentally under God, to Benjamin Lundy." + </p> + <p> + Different in type, yet even more significant on account of its peculiar + relations to the cause of abolition, was the life of James Gillespie + Birney, who was born in a wealthy slaveholding family at Dansville, + Kentucky, in the year 1792. The Birneys were anti-slavery planters of the + type of Washington and Jefferson. The father had labored to make Kentucky + a free State at the time of its admission to the Union. His son was + educated first at Princeton, where he graduated in 1810, and then in the + office of a distinguished lawyer in Philadelphia. He began the practice of + law at his home at the age of twenty-two. His home training and his + residence in States which were then in the process of gradual emancipation + served to confirm him in the traditional conviction of his family. While + Benjamin Lundy, at the age of twenty-seven, was engaged in organizing + anti-slavery societies north of the Ohio River, Birney at the age of + twenty-four was influential as a member of the Kentucky Legislature in the + prevention of the passing of a joint resolution calling upon Ohio and + Indiana to make laws providing for the return of fugitive slaves. He was + also conspicuous in his efforts to secure provisions for gradual + emancipation. Two years later he became a planter near Huntsville, + Alabama. Though not a member of the Constitutional Convention preparatory + to the admission of this Territory into the Union, Birney used his + influence to secure provisions in the constitution favorable to gradual + emancipation. As a member of the first Legislature, in 1819, he was the + author of a law providing a fair trial by jury for slaves indicted for + crimes above petty larceny, and in 1826 he became a regular contributor to + the American Colonization Society, believing it to be an aid to + emancipation. The following year he was able to induce the Legislature, + although he was not then a member of it, to pass an act forbidding the + importation of slaves into Alabama either for sale or for hire. This was + regarded as a step preliminary to emancipation. + </p> + <p> + The cause of education in Alabama had in Birney a trusted leader. During + the year 1830 he spent several months in the North Atlantic States for the + selection of a president and four professors for the State University and + three teachers for the Huntsville Female Seminary. These were all employed + upon his sole recommendation. On his return he had an important interview + with Henry Clay, of whose political party he had for several years been + the acknowledged leader in Alabama. He urged Clay to place himself at the + head of the movement in Kentucky for gradual emancipation. Upon Clay's + refusal their political cooperation terminated. Birney never again + supported Clay for office and regarded him as in a large measure + responsible for the pro-slavery reaction in Kentucky. + </p> + <p> + Birney, who had now become discouraged regarding the prospect of + emancipation, during the winter of 1831 and 1832 decided to remove his + family to Jacksonville, Illinois. He was deterred from carrying out his + plan, however, by his unexpected appointment as agent of the colonization + society in the Southwest—a mission which he undertook from a sense + of duty. + </p> + <p> + In his travels throughout the region assigned to him, Birney became aware + of the aggressive designs of the planters of the Gulf States to secure new + slave territories in the Southwest. In view of these facts the methods of + the colonization society appeared utterly futile. Birney surrendered his + commission and, in 1833, returned to Kentucky with the intention of doing + himself what Henry Clay had refused to do three years earlier, still + hoping that Kentucky, Virginia, and Tennessee might be induced to abolish + slavery and thus place the slave power in a hopeless minority. His + disappointment was extreme at the pro-slavery reaction which had taken + place in Kentucky. The condition called for more drastic measures, and + Birney decided to forsake entirely the colonization society and cast in + his lot with the abolitionists. He freed his slaves in 1834, and in the + following year he delivered the principal address at the annual meeting of + the American Anti-Slavery Society held in New York. His gift of leadership + was at once recognized. As vice-president of the society he began to + travel on its behalf, to address public assemblies, and especially to + confer with members of state legislatures and to address the legislative + bodies. He now devoted his entire time to the service of the society, and + as early as September, 1835, issued the prospectus of a paper devoted to + the cause of emancipation. This called forth such a display of force + against the movement that he could neither find a printer nor obtain the + use of a building in Dansville, Kentucky, for the publication. As a result + he transferred his activities to Cincinnati, where he began publication of + the Philanthropist in 1836. With the connivance of the authorities and + encouragement from leading citizens of Cincinnati, the office of the + Philanthropist was three times looted by the mob, and the proprietor's + life was greatly endangered. The paper, however, rapidly grew in favor and + influence and thoroughly vindicated the right of free discussion of the + slavery question. Another editor was installed when Birney, who became + secretary of the Anti-slavery Society in 1837, transferred his residence + to New York City. + </p> + <p> + Twenty-three years before Lincoln's famous utterance in which he + proclaimed the doctrine that a house divided against itself cannot stand, + and before Seward's declaration of an irrepressible conflict between + slavery and freedom, Birney had said: "There will be no cessation of + conflict until slavery shall be exterminated or liberty destroyed. Liberty + and slavery cannot live in juxtaposition." He spoke out of the fullness of + his own experience. A thoroughly trained lawyer and statesman, well + acquainted with the trend of public sentiment in both North and South, he + was fully persuaded that the new pro-slavery crusade against liberty boded + civil war. He knew that the white men in North and South would not, + without a struggle, consent to be permanently deprived of their liberties + at the behest of a few Southern planters. Being himself of the + slaveholding class, he was peculiarly fitted to appreciate their position. + To him the new issue meant war, unless the belligerent leaders should be + shown that war was hopeless. By his moderation in speech, his candor in + statement, his lack of rancor, his carefully considered, thoroughly fair + arguments, he had the rare faculty of convincing opponents of the + correctness of his own view. + </p> + <p> + There could be little sympathy between Birney and William Lloyd Garrison, + whose style of denunciation appeared to the former as an incitement to war + and an excuse for mob violence. As soon as Birney became the accepted + leader in the national society, there was friction between his followers + and those of Garrison. To denounce the Constitution and repudiate + political action were, from Birney's standpoint, a surrender of the only + hope of forestalling a dire calamity. He had always fought slavery by the + use of legal and constitutional methods, and he continued so to fight. In + this policy he had the support of a large majority of abolitionists in New + England and elsewhere. Only a few personal friends accepted Garrison's + injunction to forswear politics and repudiate the Constitution. + </p> + <p> + The followers of Birney, failing to secure recognition for their views in + either of the political parties, organized the Liberty party and, while + Birney was in Europe in 1840, nominated him as their candidate for the + Presidency. The vote which he received was a little over seven thousand, + but four years later he was again the candidate of the party and received + over sixty thousand votes. He suffered an injury during the following year + which condemned him to hopeless invalidism and brought his public career + to an end. + </p> + <p> + Though Lundy and Birney were contemporaries and were engaged in the same + great cause, they were wholly independent in their work. Lundy addressed + himself almost entirely to the non-slaveholding class, while all of + Birney's early efforts were "those of a slaveholder seeking to induce his + own class to support the policy of emancipation." Though a Northern man, + Lundy found his chief support in the South until he was driven out by + persecution. Birney also resided in the South until he was forced to leave + for the same reason. The two men were in general accord in their main + lines of policy: both believed firmly in the use of political means to + effect their objects; both were at first colonizationists, though Lundy + favored colonization in adjacent territory rather than by deportation to + Africa. + </p> + <p> + Women were not a whit behind men in their devotion to the cause of + freedom. Conspicuous among them were Sarah and Angelina Grimke, born in + Charleston, South Carolina, of a slaveholding family noted for learning, + refinement, and culture. Sarah was born in the same year as James G. + Birney, 1792; Angelina was thirteen years younger. Angelina was the + typical crusader: her sympathies from the first were with the slave. As a + child she collected and concealed oil and other simple remedies so that + she might steal out by night and alleviate the sufferings of slaves who + had been cruelly whipped or abused. At the age of fourteen she refused to + be confirmed in the Episcopal Church because the ceremony involved giving + sanction to words which seemed to her untrue. Two years later her mother + offered her a present of a slave girl for a servant and companion. This + gift she refused to accept, for in her view the servant had a right to be + free, and, as for her own needs, Angelina felt quite capable of waiting + upon herself. + </p> + <p> + Of her own free will she joined the Presbyterian Church and labored + earnestly with the officers of the church to induce them to espouse the + cause of the slave. When she failed to secure cooperation, she decided + that the church was not Christian and she therefore withdrew her + membership. Her sister Sarah had gone North in 1821 and had become a + member of the Society of Friends in Philadelphia. In Charleston, South + Carolina, there was a Friends' meeting-house where two old Quakers still + met at the appointed time and sat for an hour in solemn silence. Angelina + donned the Quaker garb, joined this meeting, and for an entire year was + the third of the silent worshipers. This quiet testimony, however, did not + wholly satisfy her energetic nature, and when, in 1830, she heard of the + imprisonment of Garrison in Baltimore, she was convinced that effective + labors against slavery could not be carried on in the South. With great + sorrow she determined to sever her connection with home and family and + join her sister in Philadelphia. There the exile from the South poured out + her soul in an Appeal to the Christian Women of the South. The manuscript + was handed to the officers of the Anti-slavery Society in the city and, as + they read, tears filled their eyes. The Appeal was immediately printed in + large quantities for distribution in Southern States. + </p> + <p> + Copies of the Appeal which had been sent to Charleston were seized by a + mob and publicly burned. When it became known soon afterwards that the + author of the offensive document was intending to return to Charleston to + spend the winter with her family, there was intense excitement, and the + mayor of the city informed the mother that her daughter would not be + permitted to land in Charleston nor to communicate with any one there, and + that, if she did elude the police and come ashore, she would be imprisoned + and guarded until the departure of the next boat. On account of the + distress which she would cause to her friends, Miss Grimke reluctantly + gave up the exercise of her constitutional right to visit her native city + and in a very literal sense she became a permanent exile. + </p> + <p> + The two sisters let their light shine among Philadelphia Quakers. In the + religious meetings negro women were consigned to a special seat. The + Grimkes, having first protested against this discrimination, took their + own places on the seat with the colored women. In Charleston, Angelina had + scrupulously adhered to the Quaker garb because it was viewed as a protest + against slavery. In Philadelphia, however, no such meaning was attached to + the costume, and she adopted clothing suited to the climate regardless of + conventions. A series of parlor talks to women which had been organized by + the sisters grew in interest until the parlors became inadequate, and the + speakers were at last addressing large audiences of women in the public + meeting-places of Philadelphia. + </p> + <p> + At this time when Angelina was making effective use of her unrivaled power + as a public speaker, she received in 1836 an invitation from the + Anti-slavery Society of New York to address the women of that city. She + informed her sister that she believed this to be a call from God and that + it was her duty to accept. Sarah decided to be her companion and assistant + in the work in the new field, which was similar to that in Philadelphia. + Its fame soon extended to Boston, whence came an urgent invitation to + visit that city. It was in Massachusetts that men began to steal into the + women's meetings and listen from the back seats. In Lynn all barriers were + broken down, and a modest, refined, and naturally diffident young woman + found herself addressing immense audiences of men and women. In the old + theater in Boston for six nights in succession, audiences filling all the + space listened entranced to the messenger of emancipation. There is + uniform testimony that, in an age distinguished for oratory, no more + effective speaker appeared than Angelina Grimke. It was she above all + others who first vindicated the right of women to speak to men from the + public platform on political topics. But it must be remembered that scores + of other women were laboring to the same end and were fully prepared to + utilize the new opportunity. + </p> + <p> + The great world movement from slavery towards freedom, from despotism to + democracy, is characterized by a tendency towards the equality of the + sexes. Women have been slaves where men were free. In barbarous ages women + have been ignored or have been treated as mere adjuncts to the ruling sex. + But wherever there has been a distinct contribution to the cause of + liberty there has been a distinct recognition of woman's share in the + work. The Society of Friends was organized on the principle that men and + women are alike moral beings, hence are equal in the sight of God. As a + matter of experience, women were quite as often moved to break the silence + of a religious meeting as were the men. + </p> + <p> + For two hundred years women had been accustomed to talk to both men and + women in Friends' meetings and, when the moral war against slavery brought + religion and politics into close relation, they were ready speakers upon + both topics. When the Grimke sisters came into the church with a fresh + baptism of the Spirit, they overcame all obstacles and, with a passion for + righteousness, moral and spiritual and political, they carried the war + against slavery into politics. + </p> + <p> + In 1833, at the organization of the American Anti-Slavery Society in + Philadelphia, a number of women were present. Lucretia Mott, a + distinguished "minister" in the Society of Friends, took part in the + proceedings. She was careful to state that she spoke as a mere visitor, + having no place in the organization, but she ventured to suggest various + modifications in the report of Garrison's committee on a declaration of + principles which rendered it more acceptable to the meeting. It had not + then been seriously considered whether women could become members of the + Anti-Slavery Society, which was at that time composed exclusively of men, + with the women maintaining their separate organizations as auxiliaries. + </p> + <p> + The women of the West were already better organized than the men and were + doing a work which men could not do. They were, for the most part, + unconscious of any conflict between the peculiar duties of men and those + of women in their relations to common objects. The "library associations" + of Indiana, which were in fact effective anti-slavery societies, were to a + large extent composed of women. To the library were added numerous other + disguises, such as "reading circles," "sewing societies," "women's clubs." + In many communities the appearance of men in any of these enterprises + would create suspicion or even raise a mob. But the women worked on + quietly, effectively, and unnoticed. + </p> + <p> + The matron of a family would be provided with the best riding-horse which + the neighborhood could furnish. Mounted upon her steed, she would sally + forth in the morning, meet her carefully selected friends in a town twenty + miles away, gain information as to what had been accomplished, give + information as to the work in other parts of the district, distribute new + literature, confer as to the best means of extending their labors, and + return in the afternoon. The father of such a family was quite content + with the humbler task of cooperation by supplying the sinews of war. There + was complete equality between husband and wife because their aims were + identical and each rendered the service most convenient and most needed. + Women did what men could not do. In the territory of the enemy the men + were reached through the gradual and tentative efforts of women whom the + uninitiated supposed to be spending idle hours at a sewing circle. + Interest was maintained by the use of information of the same general + character as that which later took the country by storm in Uncle Tom's + Cabin. In course of time all disguise was thrown aside. A public speaker + of national reputation would appear, a meeting would be announced, and a + rousing abolition speech would be delivered; the mere men of the + neighborhood would have little conception how the surprising change had + been accomplished. + </p> + <p> + On rare occasions the public presentation of the anti-slavery view would + be undertaken prematurely, as in 1840 at Pendleton, Indiana, when + Frederick Douglass attempted to address a public meeting and was almost + slain by missiles from the mob. Pendleton, however, was not given over to + the enemy. The victim of the assault was restored to health in the family + of a leading citizen. The outrage was judiciously utilized to convince the + fair-minded that one of the evils of slavery was the development of minds + void of candor and justice. On the twenty-fifth anniversary of the + Pendleton disturbance there was another great meeting in the town. + Frederick Douglass was the hero of the occasion. The woman who was the + head of the family that restored him to health was on the platform. Some + of the men who threw the brickbats were there to make public confession + and to apologize for the brutal deed. + </p> + <p> + In the minds of a few persons of rare intellectual and logical endowment, + democracy has always implied the equality of the sexes. From the time of + the French Revolution there have been advocates of this doctrine. As early + as 1820, Frances Wright, a young woman in Scotland having knowledge of the + Western republic founded upon the professed principles of liberty and + equality, came to America for the express purpose of pleading the cause of + equal rights for women. To the general public her doctrine seemed + revolutionary, threatening the very foundations of religion and morality. + In the midst of opposition and persecution she proclaimed views respecting + the rights and duties of women which today are generally accepted as + axiomatic. + </p> + <p> + The women who attended the meetings for the organization of the American + Anti-Slavery Society were not suffragists, nor had they espoused any + special theories respecting the position of women. They did not wish to be + members of the men's organizations but were quite content with their own + separate one, which served its purpose very well under prevailing local + conditions. James G. Birney, the candidate of the Liberty party for the + Presidency in 1840, had good reasons for opposition to the inclusion of + men and women in the same organization. He knew that by acting separately + they were winning their way. The introduction of a novel theory involving + a different issue seemed to him likely to be a source of weakness. The + cause of women was, however, gaining ground and winning converts. Lucretia + Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton were delegates to the World's Anti-Slavery + Convention at London. They listened to the debate which ended in the + refusal to recognize them as members of the Convention because they were + women. The tone of the discussion convinced them that women were looked + upon by men with disdain and contempt. Because the laws of the land and + the customs of society consigned women to an inferior position, and + because there would be no place for effective public work on the part of + women until these laws were changed, both these women became advocates of + women's rights and conspicuous leaders in the initiation of the + propaganda. The Reverend Samuel J. May, of Syracuse, New York, preached a + sermon in 1845 in which he stated his belief that women need not expect to + have their wrongs fully redressed until they themselves had a hand in the + making and in the administration of the laws. This is an early suggestion + that equal suffrage would become the ultimate goal of the efforts for + righting women's wrongs. + </p> + <p> + At the same time there were accessions to the cause from a different + source. In 1833 Oberlin College was founded in northern Ohio. Into some of + the first classes there women were admitted on equal terms with men. In + 1835 the trustees offered the presidency to Professor Asa Mahan, of Lane + Seminary. He was himself an abolitionist from a slave State, and he + refused to be President of Oberlin College unless negroes were admitted on + equal terms with other students. Oberlin thus became the first institution + in the country which extended the privileges of the higher education to + both sexes of all races. It was a distinctly religious institution devoted + to radical reforms of many kinds. Not only was the use of all intoxicating + beverages discarded by faculty and students but the use of tobacco as well + was discouraged. + </p> + <p> + Within fifteen years after the founding of Oberlin, there were women + graduates who had something to say on numerous questions of public + interest. Especially was this true of the subject of temperance. + Intemperance was a vice peculiar to men. Women and children were the chief + sufferers, while men were the chief sinners. It was important, therefore, + that men should be reached. In 1847 Lucy Stone, an Oberlin graduate, began + to address public audiences on the subject. At the same time Susan B. + Anthony appeared as a temperance lecturer. The manner of their reception + and the nature of their subject induced them to unite heartily in the + pending crusade for the equal rights of women. The three causes thus + became united in one. + </p> + <p> + Along with the crusade against slavery, intemperance, and women's wrongs, + arose a fourth, which was fundamentally connected with the slavery + question: Quakers and Southern and Western abolitionists were ardently + devoted to the interests of peace. They would abolish slavery by peaceable + means because they believed the alternative was a terrible war. To escape + an impending war they were nerved to do and dare and to incur great risks. + New England abolitionists who labored in harmony with those of the West + and South were actuated by similar motives. Sumner first gained public + notice by a distinguished oration against war. Garrison went farther: he + was a professional non-resistant, a root and branch opponent of both war + and slavery. John Brown was a fanatical antagonist of war until he reached + the conclusion that according to the Divine Will there should be a short + war of liberation in place of the continuance of slavery, which was itself + in his opinion the most cruel form of war. + </p> + <p> + Slavery as a legally recognized institution disappeared with the Civil + War. The war against intemperance has made continuous progress and this + problem is apparently approaching a solution. The war against war as a + recognized institution has become the one all-absorbing problem of + civilization. The war against the wrongs of women is being supplanted by + efforts to harmonize the mutual privileges and duties of men and women on + the basis of complete equality. As Samuel May predicted more than seventy + years ago, in the future women are certain to take a hand both in the + making and in the administration of law. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. THE TURNING-POINT + </h2> + <p> + The year 1831 is notable for three events in the history of the + anti-slavery controversy: on the first day of January in that year William + Lloyd Garrison began in Boston the publication of the Liberator; in August + there occurred in Southampton, Virginia, an insurrection of slaves led by + a negro, Nat Turner, in which sixty-one white persons were massacred; and + in December the Virginia Legislature began its long debate on the question + of slavery. + </p> + <p> + On the part of the abolitionists there was at no time any sudden break in + the principles which they advocated. Lundy did nothing but revive and + continue the work of the Quakers and other non-slaveholding classes of the + revolutionary period. Birney was and continued to be a typical + slaveholding abolitionist of the earlier period. Garrison began his work + as a disciple of Lundy, whom he followed in the condemnation of the + African colonization scheme, though he went farther and rejected every + form of colonization. Garrison likewise repudiated every plan for gradual + emancipation and proclaimed the duty of immediate and unconditional + liberation of the slaves. + </p> + <p> + The first number of the Liberator contained an Address to the Public, + which sounded the keynote of Garrison's career. "I shall contend for the + immediate enfranchisement of our slave population—I will be as harsh + as truth and as uncompromising as justice on this subject—I do not + wish to think, or speak, or write with moderation—I am in earnest—I + will not equivocate—I will not retreat a single inch, and I WILL BE + HEARD!" + </p> + <p> + The New England Anti-Slavery Society, of which Garrison was the chief + organizer, was in essential harmony with the societies which Lundy had + organized in other sections. Its first address to the public in 1833 + distinctly recognized the separate States as the sole authority in the + matter of emancipation within their own boundaries. Through moral suasion, + eschewing all violence and sedition, its authors proposed to secure their + object. In the spirit of civil and religious liberty and by appealing to + the Declaration of Independence, the Liberty party of 1840 and 1844, by + the Freesoil party of 1848, and later by the Republican party, and that + nearly all of the abolitionists continued to be faithful adherents to + those principles, are sufficient proof of the essential unity of the great + anti-slavery movement. The apparent lack of harmony and the real confusion + in the history of the subject arose from the peculiar character of one + remarkable man. + </p> + <p> + The few owners of slaves who had assumed the role of public defenders of + the institution were in the habit of using violent and abusive language + against anti-slavery agitators. This appeared in the first debate on the + subject during Washington's administration. Every form of rhetorical abuse + also accompanied the outbreak of mob violence against the reformers at the + time of Garrison's advent into the controversy. He was especially fitted + to reply in kind. "I am accused," said he, "of using hard language. I + admit the charge. I have not been able to find a soft word to describe + villainy, or to identify the perpetrator of it." This was a new departure + which was instantly recognized by Southern leaders. But from the beginning + to the bitter end, Garrison stands alone as preeminently the + representative of this form of attack. It was significant, also, that the + Liberator was published in Boston, the literary center of the country. + </p> + <p> + There is no evidence that there was any direct connection between the + publication of the Liberator and the servile insurrection which occurred + during the following August. * It was, however, but natural that the South + should associate the two events. A few utterances of the paper were + fitted, if not intended, to incite insurrection. One passage reads: + "Whenever there is a contest between the oppressed and the oppressor—the + weapons being equal between the parties—God knows that my heart must + be with the oppressed, and always against the oppressor. Therefore, + whenever commenced, I cannot but wish success to all slave insurrections." + Again: "Rather than see men wearing their chains in a cowardly and servile + spirit, I would, as an advocate of peace, much rather see them breaking + the heads of the tyrant with their chains." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Garrison himself denied any direct connection with the Nat + Turner insurrection. See "William Lloyd Garrison, the Story + of His Life told by His Children," vol. I, p. 251. +</pre> + <p> + George Thompson, an English co-laborer with Garrison, is quoted as saying + in a public address in 1835 that "Southern slaves ought, or at least had a + right, to cut the throats of their masters." * Such utterances are rare, + and they express a passing mood not in the least characteristic of the + general spirit of the abolition movement; yet the fact that such + statements did emanate from such a source made it comparatively easy for + extremists of the opposition to cast odium upon all abolitionists. The + only type of abolition known in South Carolina was that of the extreme + Garrisonian agitators, and it furnished at least a shadow of excuse for + mob violence in the North and for complete suppression of discussion in + the South. To encourage slaves to cut the throats of their masters was far + from being a rhetorical figure of speech in communities where slaves were + in the majority. Santo Domingo was at the time a prosperous republic + founded by former slaves who had exterminated the Caucasian residents of + the island. Negroes from Santo Domingo had fomented insurrection in South + Carolina. The Nat Turner incident was more than a suggestion of the dire + possibilities of the situation. Turner was a trusted slave, a preacher + among the blacks. He succeeded in concealing his plot for weeks. When the + massacre began, slaves not in the secret were induced to join. A majority + of the slain were women and children. Abolitionists who had lived in slave + States never indulged in flippant remarks fitted to incite insurrection. + This was reserved for the few agitators far removed from the scene of + action. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Schouler, "History of the United States under the + Constitution," vol. V, p. 217. +</pre> + <p> + Southern planters who had determined at all hazards to perpetuate the + institution of slavery were peculiarly sensitive on account of what was + taking place in Spanish America and in the British West Indies. Mexico + abolished slavery in 1829, and united with Colombia in encouraging Cuba to + throw off the Spanish yoke, abolish slavery, and join the sisterhood of + New World republics. This led to an effective protest on the part of the + United States. Both Spain and Mexico were advised that the United States + could not with safety to its own interests permit the emancipation of + slaves in the island of Cuba. But with the British Emancipation Act of + 1833, Cuba became the only neighboring territory in which slavery was + legal. These acts of emancipation added zeal to the determination of the + Southern planters to secure territory for the indefinite extension of + slavery to the southwest. When Lundy and Birney discovered these plans, + their desire to husband and extend the direct political influence of + abolitionists was greatly stimulated. To this end they maintained a + moderate and conservative attitude. They took care that no abuse or + misrepresentation should betray them into any expression which would + diminish their influence with fair-minded, reasonable men. They were + convinced that a clear and complete revelation of the facts would lead a + majority of the people to adopt their views. + </p> + <p> + The debate in the Virginia Legislature in the session which met three + months after the Southampton massacre furnishes a demonstration that the + traditional anti-slavery sentiment still persisted among the rulers of the + Old Dominion. It arose out of a petition from the Quakers of the State + asking for an investigation preparatory to a gradual emancipation of the + slaves. The debate, which lasted for several weeks, was able and thorough. + No stronger utterances in condemnation of slavery were ever voiced than + appear in this debate. Different speakers made the statement that no one + presumed to defend slavery on principle—that apologists for slavery + existed but no defenders. Opposition to the petition was in the main + apologetic in tone. + </p> + <p> + A darker picture of the blighting effects of slavery on the industries of + the country was never drawn than appears in these speeches. Slavery was + declared to be driving free laborers from the State, to have already + destroyed every industry except agriculture, and to have exhausted the + soil so that profitable agriculture was becoming extinct, while pine brush + was encroaching upon former fruitful fields. "Even the wolf," said one, + "driven back long since by the approach of man, now returns, after the + lapse of a hundred years, to howl over the desolations of slavery." + Contrasts between free labor in northern industry and that of the South + were vividly portrayed. In a speech of great power, one member referred to + Kentucky and Ohio as States "providentially designated to exhibit in their + future histories the differences which necessarily result from a country + free from, and a country afflicted with the curse of slavery." + </p> + <p> + The debate was by no means confined to industrial or material + considerations. McDowell, who was afterwards elected Governor of the + State, thus portrays the personal relations of master and slave "You may + place the slave where you please—you may put him under any process, + which, without destroying his value as a slave, will debase and crush him + as a rational being—you may do all this, and the idea that he was + born to be free will survive it all. It is allied to his hope of + immortality—it is the ethereal part of his nature which oppression + cannot reach—it is a torch lit up in his soul by the hand of the + Deity, and never meant to be extinguished by the hand of man." + </p> + <p> + Various speakers assumed that the continuance of slavery involved a bloody + conflict; that either peaceably or through violence, slavery as contrary + to the spirit of the age must come to an end; that the agitation against + it could not be suppressed. Faulkner drew a lurid picture of the danger + from servile insurrection, in which he referred to the utterances of two + former speakers, one of whom had said that, unless something effective was + done to ward off the danger, "the throats of all the white people of + Virginia will be cut." The other replied, "No, the whites cannot be + conquered—the throats of the blacks will be cut." Faulkner's + rejoinder was that the difference was a trifling one, "for the fact is + conceded that one race or the other must be exterminated." + </p> + <p> + The public press joined in the debate. Leading editorials appeared in the + Richmond Enquirer urging that effective measures be instituted to put an + end to slavery. The debate aroused much interest throughout the South. + Substantially all the current abolition arguments appeared in the speeches + of the slave-owning members of the Virginia Legislature. And what was done + about it? Nothing at all. The petition was not granted; no action looking + towards emancipation was taken. This was indeed a turning-point. Men do + not continue to denounce in public their own conduct unless their action + results in some effort toward corrective measures. + </p> + <p> + Professor Thomas Dew, of the chair of history and metaphysics in William + and Mary College and later President of the College, published an essay + reviewing the debate in the Legislature and arguing that any plan for + emancipation in Virginia was either undesirable or impossible. This essay + was among the first of the direct pro-slavery arguments. Statements in + support of the view soon followed. In 1835 the Governor of South Carolina + in a message to the Legislature said, "Domestic slavery is the + corner-stone of our republican edifice." Senator Calhoun, speaking in the + Senate two years later, declared slavery to be a positive good. W. G. + Simms, Southern poet and novelist, writing in 1852, felicitates himself as + being among the first who about fifteen years earlier advocated slavery as + a great good and a blessing. Harriet Martineau, an English author who + traveled extensively in the South in 1835, found few slaveholders who + justified the institution as being in itself just. But after the debates + in the Virginia Legislature, there were few owners of slaves who publicly + advocated abolition. The spirit of mob violence had set in, and, contrary + to the utterances of Virginia statesmen, free speech on the subject of + slavery was suppressed in the slave States. This did not mean that + Southern statesmen had lost the power to perceive the evil effects of + slavery or that they were convinced that their former views were + erroneous. It meant simply that they had failed to agree upon a policy of + gradual emancipation, and the only recourse left seemed to be to follow + the example of James G. Birney and leave the South or to submit in silence + to the new order. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. THE VINDICATION OF LIBERTY + </h2> + <p> + With the changed attitude of the South towards emancipation there was + associated an active hostility to dearly bought human liberty. Freedom of + speech, freedom of the press, freedom of worship, the right of assembly, + trial by jury, the right of petition, free use of the mails, and numerous + other fundamental human rights were assailed. Birney and other + abolitionists who had immediate knowledge of slavery early perceived that + the real question at issue was quite as much the continued liberty of the + white man as it was the liberation of the black man and that the + enslavement of one race involved also the ultimate essential enslavement + of the other. + </p> + <p> + In 1831 two slave States and six free States still extended to free + negroes the right to vote. During the pro-slavery crusade these privileges + disappeared; and not only so, but free negroes were banished from certain + States, or were not permitted to enter them, or were allowed to remain + only by choosing a white man for a guardian. It was made a crime to teach + negroes, whether slaves or free men, to read and write. Under various + pretexts free negroes were reduced to slavery. Freedom of worship was + denied to negroes, and they were not allowed to assemble for any purpose + except under the strict surveillance of white men. Negro testimony in a + court of law was invalid where the rights of a white man were involved. + The right of a negro to his freedom was decided by an arbitrary court + without a jury, while the disputed right of a white man to the ownership + of a horse was conditioned by the safeguard of trial by jury. + </p> + <p> + The maintenance of such policies carries with it of necessity the + suppression of free discussion. When Southern leaders adopted the policy + of defending slavery as a righteous institution, abolitionists in the + South either emigrated to the North or were silenced. In either case they + were deprived of a fundamental right. The spirit of persecution followed + them into the free States. Birney could not publish his paper in Kentucky, + nor even at Cincinnati, save at the risk of his life. Elijah Lovejoy was + not allowed to publish his paper in Missouri, and, when he persisted in + publishing it in Illinois, he was brutally murdered. Even in Boston it + required men of courage and determination to meet and organize an + anti-slavery society in 1832, though only a few years earlier Benjamin + Lundy had traveled freely through the South itself delivering anti-slavery + lectures and organizing scores of such societies. The New York + Anti-Slavery Society was secretly organized in 1832 in spite of the + opposition of a determined mob. Mob violence was everywhere rife. Meetings + were broken up, negro quarters attacked, property destroyed, murders + committed. + </p> + <p> + Fair-minded men became abolitionists on account of the crusade against the + rights of white men quite as much as from their interest in the rights of + negroes. Salmon P. Chase of Ohio was led to espouse the cause by observing + the attacks upon the freedom of the press in Cincinnati. Gerrit Smith + witnessed the breaking up of an anti-slavery meeting in Utica, New York, + and thereafter consecrated his time, his talents, and his great wealth to + the cause of liberty. Wendell Phillips saw Garrison in the hands of a + Boston mob, and that experience determined him to make common cause with + the martyr. And the murder of Lovejoy in 1837 made many active + abolitionists. + </p> + <p> + It is difficult to imagine a more inoffensive practice than giving to + negro girls the rudiments of an education. Yet a school for this purpose, + taught by Miss Prudence Crandall in Canterbury, Connecticut, was broken up + by persistent persecution, a special act of the Legislature being passed + for the purpose, forbidding the teaching of negroes from outside the State + without the consent of the town authorities. Under this act Miss Crandall + was arrested, convicted, and imprisoned. + </p> + <p> + Having eliminated free discussion from the South, the Southern States + sought to accomplish the same object in the North. In pursuance of a + resolution of the Legislature, the Governor of Georgia offered a reward of + five thousand dollars to any one who should arrest, bring to trial, and + prosecute to conviction under the laws of Georgia the editor of the + Liberator. R. G. Williams, publishing agent for the American Anti-Slavery + Society, was indicted by a grand jury of Tuscaloosa County, Alabama, and + Governor Gayle of Alabama made a requisition on Governor Marcy of New York + for his extradition. Williams had never been in Alabama. His offense + consisted in publishing in the New York Emancipator a few rather mild + utterances against slavery. + </p> + <p> + Governor McDuffie of South Carolina in an official message declared that + slavery was the very corner-stone of the republic, adding that the + laboring population of any country, "bleached or unbleached," was a + dangerous element in the body politic, and predicting that within + twenty-five years the laboring people of the North would be virtually + reduced to slavery. Referring to abolitionists, he said: "The laws of + every community should punish this species of interference with death + without benefit of clergy." Pursuant to the Governor's recommendation, the + Legislature adopted a resolution calling upon non-slaveholding States to + pass laws to suppress promptly and effectively all abolition societies. In + nearly all the slave States similar resolutions were adopted, and + concerted action against anti-slavery effort was undertaken. During the + winter of 1835 and 1836, the Governors of the free States received these + resolutions from the South and, instead of resenting them as an + uncalled-for interference with the rights of free commonwealths, they + treated them with respect. Edward Everett, Governor of Massachusetts, in + his message presenting the Southern documents to the Legislature, said: + "Whatever by direct and necessary operation is calculated to excite an + insurrection among the slaves has been held, by highly respectable legal + authority, an offense against this Commonwealth which may be prosecuted as + a misdemeanor at common law." Governor Marcy of New York, in a like + document, declared that "without the power to pass such laws the States + would not possess all the necessary means for preserving their external + relations of peace among themselves." Even before the Southern requests + reached Rhode Island, the Legislature had under consideration a bill to + suppress abolition societies. + </p> + <p> + When a committee of the Massachusetts Legislature had been duly organized + to consider the documents received from the slave States, the + abolitionists requested the privilege of a hearing before the committee. + Receiving no reply, they proceeded to formulate a statement of their case; + but before they could publish it, they were invited to appear before the + joint committee of the two houses. The public had been aroused by the + issue and there was a large audience. The case for the abolitionists was + stated by their ablest speakers, among whom was William Lloyd Garrison. + They labored to convince the committee that their utterances were not + incendiary, and that any legislative censure directed against them would + be an encouragement to mob violence and the persecution which was already + their lot. After the defensive arguments had been fully presented, William + Goodell took the floor and proceeded to charge upon the Southern States + which had made these demands a conspiracy against the liberties of the + North. In the midst of great excitement and many interruptions by the + chairman of the committee, he quoted the language of Governor McDuffie's + message, and characterized the documents lying on the table before him as + "fetters for Northern freemen." Then, turning to the committee, he began, + "Mr. Chairman, are you prepared to attempt to put them on?"—but the + sentence was only half finished when the stentorian voice of the chairman + interrupted him: "Sit down, sir!" and he sat down. The committee then + arose and left the room. But the audience did not rise; they waited till + other abolitionists found their tongues and gave expression to a fixed + determination to uphold the liberties purchased for them by the blood of + their fathers. The Massachusetts Legislature did not comply with the + request of Governor McDuffie of South Carolina to take the first step + towards the enslavement of all laborers, white as well as black. And Rhode + Island refused to enact into law the pending bill for the suppression of + anti-slavery societies. They declined to violate the plain requirements of + their Constitution that the interests of slavery might be promoted. Not + many years later they were ready to strain or break the Constitution for + the sake of liberty. + </p> + <p> + In the general crusade against liberty churches proved more pliable than + States. The authority of nearly all the leading denominations was directed + against the abolitionists. The General Conference of the Methodist + Episcopal Church passed in 1836 a resolution censuring two of their + members who had lectured in favor of modern abolitionism. The Ohio + Conference of the same denomination had passed resolutions urging + resistance to the anti-slavery movement. In June, 1836, the New York + Conference decided that no one should be chosen as deacon or elder who did + not give pledge that he would refrain from agitating the church on the + subject. + </p> + <p> + The same spirit appeared in theological seminaries. The trustees of Lane + Seminary, near Cincinnati, Ohio, voted that students should not organize + or be members of anti-slavery societies or hold meetings or lecture or + speak on the subject. Whereupon the students left in a body, and many of + the professors withdrew and united with others in the founding of an + anti-slavery college at Oberlin. + </p> + <p> + A persistent attack was also directed against the use of the United States + mails for the distribution of anti-slavery literature. Mob violence which + involved the post-office began as early as 1830, when printed copies of + Miss Grimke's Appeal to the Christian Women of the South were seized and + burned in Charleston. In 1835 large quantities of anti-slavery literature + were removed from the Charleston office and in the presence of the + assembled citizens committed to the flames. Postmasters on their own + motion examined the mails and refused to deliver any matter that they + deemed incendiary. Amos Kendall, Postmaster-General, was requested to + issue an order authorizing such conduct. He replied that he had no legal + authority to issue such an order. Yet he would not recommend the delivery + of such papers. "We owe," said he, "an obligation to the laws, but a + higher one to the communities in which we live, and if the former be + perverted to destroy the latter, it is patriotism to disregard them. + Entertaining these views, I cannot sanction, and will not condemn, the + step you have taken." This is an early instance of the appeal to the + "higher law" in the pro-slavery controversy. The higher law was invoked + against the freedom of the press. The New York postmaster sought to + dissuade the Anti-slavery Society from the attempt to send its + publications through the mails into Southern States. In reply to a request + for authorization to refuse to accept such publications, the + Postmaster-General replied: "I am deterred from giving an order to exclude + the whole series of abolition publications from the Southern mails only by + a want of legal power, and if I were situated as you are, I would do as + you have done." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Kendall's letters to the postmasters of Charleston and New York were + written in July and August, 1835. In December of the same year, presumably + with full knowledge that a member of his Cabinet was encouraging + violations of law in the interest of slavery, President Jackson undertook + to supply the need of legal authorization. In his annual message he made a + savage attack upon the abolitionists and recommended to Congress the + "passing of such a law as will prohibit, under severe penalties, the + circulation in the Southern States, through the mail, of incendiary + publications." + </p> + <p> + This part of the President's message was referred to a select committee, + of which John C. Calhoun was chairman. The chairman's report was against + the adoption of the President's recommendation because a subject of such + vital interest to the States ought not to be left to Congress. The + admission of the right of Congress to decide what is incendiary, asserted + the report, carries with it the power to decide what is not incendiary and + hence Congress might authorize and enforce the circulation of abolition + literature through the mails in all the States. The States should + themselves severally decide what in their judgment is incendiary, and then + it would become the duty of the general Government to give effect to such + state laws. The bill recommended was in harmony with this view. It was + made illegal for any deputy postmaster "to deliver to any person + whatsoever, any pamphlet, newspaper, handbill, or other printed paper, or + pictorial representation touching the subject of slavery, where by the + laws of the said State, territory, or district their circulation is + prohibited." The bill was defeated in the Senate by a small margin. + Altogether there was an enlightening debate on the whole subject. The + exposure of the abuse of tampering with the mail created a general + reaction, which enabled the abolitionists to win a spectacular victory. + Instead of a law forbidding the circulation of anti-slavery publications, + Congress enacted a law requiring postal officials under heavy penalties to + deliver without discrimination all matter committed to their charge. This + act was signed by President Jackson, and Calhoun himself was induced to + admit that the purposes of the abolitionists were not violent and + revolutionary. Henceforth abolitionists enjoyed their full privileges in + the use of the United States mail. An even more dramatic victory was + thrust upon the abolitionists by the inordinate violence of their + opponents in their attack upon the right of petition. John Quincy Adams, + who became their distinguished champion, was not himself an abolitionist. + When, as a member of the lower House of Congress in 1831, he presented + petitions from certain citizens of Pennsylvania, presumably Quakers, + requesting Congress to abolish slavery and the slave-trade in the District + of Columbia, he refused to countenance their prayer, and expressed the + wish that the memorial might be referred without debate. At the very time + when a New England ex-President was thus advising abolitionists to desist + from sending petitions to Congress, the Virginia Legislature was engaged + in the memorable debate upon a similar petition from Virginia Quakers, in + which most radical abolition sentiment was expressed by actual + slaveowners. Adams continued to present anti-slavery memorials and at the + same time to express his opposition to the demands of the petitioners. + When in 1835 there arose a decided opposition to the reception of such + documents, Adams, still in apparent sympathy with the pro-slavery South on + the main issue, gave wise counsel on the method of dealing with petitions. + They should be received, said he, and referred to a committee; because the + right of petition is sacred. This, he maintained, was the best way to + avoid disturbing debate on the subject of slavery. He quoted his own + previous experience; he had made known his opposition to the purposes of + the petitioners; their memorials were duly referred to a committee and + there they slept the sleep of death. At that time only one voice had been + raised in the House in support of the abolition petitioners, that of John + Dickson of New York, who had delivered a speech of two hours in length + advocating their cause; but not a voice was raised in reply. Mr. Adams + mentioned this incident with approval. The way to forestall disturbing + debate in Congress, he said, was scrupulously to concede all + constitutional rights and then simply to refrain from speaking on the + subject. + </p> + <p> + This sound advice was not followed. For several months a considerable part + of the time of the House was occupied with the question of handling + abolition petitions. And finally, in May, 1836, the following resolution + passed the House: "Resolved, That all petitions, memorials, resolutions, + propositions, or papers relating in any way or to any extent whatever to + the subject of slavery or the abolition of slavery, shall, without being + either printed or referred, be laid on the table, and that no further + action whatever shall be had thereon." This is commonly known as the "gag + resolution." During four successive years it was reenacted in one form or + another and was not repealed by direct vote until 1844. + </p> + <p> + When the name of Mr. Adams was called in the vote upon the passage of the + above resolution, instead of answering in the ordinary way, he said: "I + hold the resolution to be a direct violation of the Constitution of the + United States, of the rules of this House, and of the rights of my + constituents." This was the beginning of the duel between the "old man + eloquent" and a determined majority in the House of Representatives. Adams + developed undreamed-of resources as a debater and parliamentarian. He made + it his special business to break down the barrier against the right of + petition. Abolitionists cooperated with zeal in the effort. Their champion + was abundantly supplied with petitions. The gag resolution was designed to + prevent all debate on the subject of slavery. Its effect in the hands of + the shrewd parliamentarian was to foment debate. On one occasion, with + great apparent innocence, after presenting the usual abolition petitions, + Adams called the attention of the Speaker to one which purported to be + signed by twenty-two slaves and asked whether such a petition should be + presented to the House, since he was himself in doubt as to the rules + applicable in such a case. This led to a furious outbreak in the House + which lasted for three days. Adams was threatened with censure at the bar + of the House, with expulsion, with the grand jury, with the penitentiary; + and it is believed that only his great age and national repute shielded + him from personal violence. After numerous passionate speeches had been + delivered, Adams injected a few important corrections into the debate. He + reminded the House that he had not presented a petition purporting to + emanate from slaves; on the contrary, he had expressly declined to present + it until the Speaker had decided whether a petition from slaves was + covered by the rule. Moreover, the petition was not against slavery but in + favor of slavery. He was then charged with the crime of trifling with the + sensibilities of the House; and finally the champion of the right of + petition took the floor in his own defense. His language cut to the quick. + His calumniators were made to feel the force of his biting sarcasm. They + were convicted of injustice, and all their resolutions of censure were + withdrawn. The victory was complete. + </p> + <p> + After the year 1838 John Quincy Adams had the effective support of Joshua + R. Giddings from the Western Reserve, Ohio—who also fought a pitched + battle of his own which illustrates another phase of the crusade against + liberty. The ship Creole had sailed from Baltimore to New Orleans in 1841 + with a cargo of slaves. The negroes mutinied on the high seas, slew one + man, gained possession of the vessel, sailed to Nassau, and were there set + free by the British Government. Prolonged diplomatic negotiations followed + in which our Government held that, as slaves were property in the United + States, they continued to be such on the high seas. In the midst of the + controversy, Giddings introduced a resolution into the House, declaring + that slavery, being an abridgment of liberty, could exist only under local + rules, and that on the high seas there can be no slavery. For this act + Giddings was arraigned and censured by the House. He at once resigned, but + was reelected with instructions to continue the fight for freedom of + debate in the House. + </p> + <p> + In the campaign against the rights of freemen mob violence was first + employed, but in the South the weapon of repressive legislation was soon + substituted, and this was powerfully supplemented by social and religious + ostracism. Except in a few districts in the border States, these measures + were successful. Public profession of abolitionism was suppressed. The + violence of the mob was of much longer duration in the North and reached + its height in the years 1834 and 1835. But Northern mobs only quickened + the zeal of the abolitionists and made converts to their cause. The + attempt to substitute repressive state legislation had the same effect, + and the use of church authority for making an end of the agitation for + human liberty was only temporarily influential. + </p> + <p> + As early as 1838 the Presbyterian Church was divided over questions of + doctrine into Old School and New School Presbyterians. This served to + forestall the impending division on the slavery question. The Old School + in the South became pro-slavery and the New School in the North became + anti-slavery. At the same time the Methodist Church of the entire country + was beset by a division on the main question. In 1844 Southern Methodist + Episcopalian conferences resolved upon separation and committed themselves + to the defense of slavery. The division in the Methodist Church was + completed in 1846. A corresponding division took place in the Baptist + Church in 1845. The controversy was dividing the country into a free North + and an enslaved South, and Southern white men as well as negroes were + threatened with subjection to the demands of the dominant institution. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. THE SLAVERY ISSUE IN POLITICS + </h2> + <p> + Some who opposed mob violence became active abolitionists; others were led + to defend the rights of abolitionists because to do otherwise would + encourage anarchy and general disorder. The same was true of those who + defended the right of petition and the free use of the mails and the + entire list of the fundamental rights of freemen which were threatened by + the crusade against abolitionists. Birney's contention that unless the + slave is freed no one can be free was thus vindicated: the issue involved + vastly more than the mere emancipation of slaves. + </p> + <p> + The attack made in defense of slavery upon the rights of freemen was early + recognized as involving civil war unless peaceable emancipation could be + attained. So soon as John Quincy Adams faced the new spirit in Congress, + he was convinced that it meant probable war. As early as May, 1836, he + warned the South, saying: "From the instant that your slaveholding States + become the theater of war, civil, servile, or foreign, from that moment + the war powers of the Constitution extend to interference with the + institution of slavery." This sentiment he reiterated and amplified on + various occasions. The South was duly warned that an attempt to disrupt + the Union would involve a war of which emancipation would be one of the + consequences. With the exception of Garrison and a few of his personal + followers, abolitionists were unionists: they stood for the perpetual + union of the States. + </p> + <p> + This is not the place to give an extended account of the Mexican War. * + There are, however, certain incidents connected with the annexation of + Texas and the resulting war which profoundly affected the crusade against + slavery. Both Lundy and Birney in their missions to promote emancipation + through the process of colonization believed that they had unearthed a + plan on the part of Southern leaders to acquire territory from Mexico for + the purpose of extending slavery. This discovery coincided with the + suppression of abolition propaganda in the South. Hitherto John Quincy + Adams had favored the western expansion of our territory. He had labored + diligently to make the Rio Grande the western boundary of the Louisiana + Purchase at the time of the treaty with Spain in 1819. But though in 1825 + he had supported a measure to purchase Texas from Mexico, under the new + conditions he threw himself heartily against the annexation of Texas, and + in 1838 he defeated in the House of Representatives a resolution favoring + annexation. To this end Adams occupied the morning hour of the House each + day from the 16th of June to the 7th of July, within two days of the time + fixed for adjournment. This was only a beginning of his fight against the + extension of slavery. There was no relenting in his opposition to + pro-slavery demands until he was stricken down with paralysis in the + streets of Boston, in November, 1846. He never again addressed a public + assembly. But he continued to occupy his seat in Congress until February + 23, 1848. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See "Texas and the Mexican War" (in "The Chronicles of + America"). +</pre> + <p> + The debate inaugurated in Congress by Adams and others over the extension + of slave territory rapidly spread to the country at large, and interest in + the question became general. Abolitionists were thereby greatly stimulated + to put into practice their professed duty of seeking to accomplish their + ends by political action. Their first effort was to secure recognition in + the regular parties. The Democrats answered in their platform of 1840 by a + plank specifically denouncing the abolitionists, and the Whigs proved + either noncommittal or unfriendly. The result was that abolitionists + organized a party of their own in 1840 and nominated James G. Birney for + the Presidency. Both of the older parties during this campaign evaded the + issue of the annexation of Texas. In 1844 the Whigs again refrained from + giving in their platform any official utterance on the Texas issue, though + they were understood to be opposed to annexation. The Democrats adroitly + asserted in their platform their approval of the re-annexation of Texas + and reoccupation of Oregon. There was a shadowy prior claim to both these + regions, and by combining them in this way the party avoided any odious + partiality towards the acquisition of slave territory. But the voters in + both parties had become interested in the specific question whether the + country was to enter upon a war of conquest whose primary object should be + the extension of slavery. In the North it became generally understood that + a vote for Henry Clay, the Whig candidate, was an expression of opposition + to annexation. This issue, however, was not made clear in the South. In + the absence of telegraph and daily paper it was quite possible to maintain + contradictory positions in different sections of the country. But since + the Democrats everywhere openly favored annexation, the election of their + candidate, James K. Polk, was generally accepted as a popular approval of + the annexation of Texas. Indeed, action immediately followed the election + and, before the President-elect had been inaugurated, the joint resolution + for the annexation of Texas passed both Houses of Congress. + </p> + <p> + The popular vote was almost equally divided between Whigs and Democrats. + Had the vote for Birney, who was again the candidate of the Liberty party, + been cast for Clay electors, Clay would have been chosen President. The + Birney vote was over sixty-two thousand. The Liberty party, therefore, + held the balance of power and determined the result of the election. + </p> + <p> + The Liberty party has often been censured for defeating the Whigs at this + election of 1844. But many incidents, too early forgotten by historians, + go far to justify the course of the leaders. Birney and Clay were at one + time members of the same party. They were personal friends, and as slave + holders they shared the view that slavery was a menace to the country and + ought to be abolished. It was just fourteen years before this election + that Birney made a visit to Clay to induce him to accept the leadership of + an organized movement to abolish slavery in Kentucky. Three years later, + when Birney returned to Kentucky to do himself what Henry Clay had refused + to do, he became convinced that the reaction which had taken place in + favor of slavery was largely due to Clay's influence. This was a common + impression among active abolitionists. It is not strange, therefore, that + they refused to support him as a candidate for the Presidency, and it is + not at all certain that his election in 1844 would have prevented the war + with Mexico. + </p> + <p> + Northern Whigs accused the Democrats of fomenting a war with Mexico with + the intention of gaining territory for the purpose of extending slavery. + Democrats denied that the annexation of Texas would lead to war, and many + of them proclaimed their opposition to the farther extension of slavery. + In harmony with this sentiment, when President Polk asked for a grant of + two million dollars to aid in making a treaty with Mexico, they attached + to the bill granting the amount a proviso to the effect that slavery + should forever be prohibited in any territory which might be obtained from + Mexico by the contemplated treaty. The proviso was written by an Ohio + Democrat and was introduced in the House by David A. Wilmot, a + Pennsylvania Democrat, after whom it is known. It passed the House by a + fair majority with the support of both Whigs and Democrats. At the time of + the original introduction in August, 1846, the Senate did not vote upon + the measure. Davis of Massachusetts moved its adoption but inadvertently + prolonged his speech in its favor until the hour for adjournment. Hence + there was no vote on the subject. Subsequently the proviso in a new form + again passed the House but failed of adoption in the Senate. + </p> + <p> + During the war the Wilmot Proviso was the subject of frequent debate in + Congress and of continuous debate throughout the country until the treaty + with Mexico was signed in 1848. A vast territory had been acquired as a + result of the war, and no decision had been reached as to whether it + should remain free or be opened to settlement by slave-owners. Another + presidential election was at hand. For fully ten years there had been + ever-increasing excitement over the question of the limitation or the + extension of slavery. This had clearly become the topic of supreme + interest throughout the country, and yet the two leading parties avoided + the issue. Their own membership was divided. Northern Democrats, many of + them, were decidedly opposed to slavery extension. Southern Whigs with + equal intensity favored the extension of slavery into the new territory. + The platforms of the two parties were silent on the subject. The Whigs + nominated Taylor, a Southern general who had never voted their party + ticket, but they made no formal declaration of principles. The Democrats + repeated with colorless additions their platforms of 1840 anti 1844 and + sought to win the election with a Northern man, Lewis Cass of Michigan, as + candidate. + </p> + <p> + There was, therefore, a clear field for a party having fully defined views + to express on a topic of commanding interest. The cleavage in the + Democratic party already begun by the debate over the Wilmot Proviso was + farther promoted by a factional division of New York Democrats. Martin Van + Buren became the leader of the liberal faction, the "Barnburners," who + nominated him for President at a convention at Utica. The spirit of + independence now seized disaffected Whigs and Democrats everywhere in the + North and Northwest. Men of anti-slavery proclivities held nonpartizan + meetings and conventions. The movement finally culminated in the famous + Buffalo convention which gave birth to the Freesoil party. The delegates + of all political persuasions united on the one principle of opposition to + slavery. They adopted a ringing platform closing with the words: + "Resolved, That we inscribe on our banner 'Free Soil, Free Speech, Free + Labor, and Free Men,' and under it will fight on, and fight ever, until a + triumphant victory shall reward our exertions." They accepted Van Buren as + their candidate. The vote at the ensuing election was more than fourfold + that given to Birney in 1844. The Van Buren supporters held the balance of + power between Whigs and Democrats in twelve States. Taylor was elected by + the vote of New York, which except for the division in the party would + have gone to Cass. There was no longer any doubt of the fact that a + political force had arisen which could no longer be ignored by the ruling + parties. One of the parties must either support the new issue or give + place to a party which would do so. + </p> + <p> + A political party for the defense of liberty was the fulfillment of the + aspirations of all earnest anti-slavery men and of all abolitionists not + of the radical Garrisonian persuasion. The national anti-slavery societies + were for the most part limited in their operations to the Atlantic + seaboard. The West organized local and state associations with little + reference to the national association. When the disruption occurred + between Garrison and his opponents in 1840, the Western abolitionists + continued their former methods of local organization. They recognized no + divisions in their ranks and continued to work in harmony with all who in + any way opposed the institution of slavery. The political party was their + first really effective national organization. Through party committees, + caucuses, and conventions, they became a part of the forces that + controlled the nation. The older local clubs and associations were either + displaced by the party or became mere adjuncts to the party. + </p> + <p> + The lines for political action were now clearly defined. In the States + emancipation should be accomplished by state action. With a few individual + exceptions the leaders conceded that Congress had no power to abolish + slavery in the States. Upon the general Government they urged the duty of + abolishing both slavery and the slave-trade in the District of Columbia + and in all areas under direct federal control. They further urged upon the + Government the strict enforcement of the laws prohibiting the foreign + slave-trade and the enactment of laws forbidding the interstate + slave-trade. The constitutionality of these main lines of action has been + generally conceded. + </p> + <p> + Abolitionists were pioneers in the formulation of political platforms. The + declaration of principles drawn up by Garrison in 1833 and adopted by the + American Anti-Slavery Society was of the nature of a political platform. + The duty of voting in furtherance of the policy of emancipation was + inculcated. No platform was adopted for the first political campaign, that + of 1840; but four years later there was an elaborate party platform of + twenty-one resolutions. Many things had happened in the eleven years + intervening since the declaration of principles of the American + Anti-Slavery Society. In the earlier platform the freedom of the slave + appears as the primary object. That of the Liberty party assumes the broad + principle of human brotherhood as the foundation for a democracy or a + republic. It denies that the party is organized merely to free the slave. + Slaveholding as the grossest form of despotism must indeed be attacked + first, but the aim of the party is to carry the principle of equal rights + into all social relations. It is not a sectional party nor a party + organized for a single purpose. "It is not a new party, nor a third party, + but it is the party of 1776, reviving the principles of that memorable + era, and striving to carry them into practical application." The spirit of + '76 rings, indeed, throughout the document, which declares that it was + understood at the time of the Declaration and the Constitution that the + existence of slavery was in derogation of the principles of American + liberty. The implied faith of the Nation and the States was pledged to + remove this stain upon the national character. Some States had nobly + fulfilled that pledge; others shamelessly had neglected to do so. + </p> + <p> + These principles are reasserted in succeeding platforms. The later + opponents of slavery in their principles and policies thus allied + themselves with the founders of the republic. They claimed the right to + continue to repeat the words of Washington and Jefferson and those of the + members of the Virginia Legislature of 1832. No new doctrines were + required. It was enough simply to reaffirm the fundamental principles of + democracy. + </p> + <p> + The names attached to the party are significant. It was at first popularly + styled the Abolition party, then officially in turn the Liberty party, the + Freesoil party, and finally the Republican party. Republican was the name + first applied to the Democratic party—the party of Jefferson. The + term Democrat was gradually substituted under the leadership of Jackson + before 1830. Some of the men who participated in the organization of the + later Republican party had themselves been Republicans in the party of + Jefferson. They not only accepted the name which Jefferson gave to his + party, but they adopted the principles which Jefferson proclaimed on the + subject of slavery, free soil, and human rights in general. This was the + final stage in the identification of the later anti-slavery crusade with + the earlier contest for liberty. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. THE PASSING OF THE WHIG PARTY + </h2> + <p> + The middle of the last century was marked by many incidents which have + left a permanent impress upon politics in general and upon the slavery + question in particular. Europe was again in the throes of popular + uprisings. New constitutions were adopted in France, Switzerland, Prussia, + and Austria. Reactions in favor of autocracy in Austria and Germany sent + multitudes of lovers of liberty to America. Kossuth, the Hungarian + revolutionist, electrified American audiences by his appeals on behalf of + the downtrodden in Europe. Already the world was growing smaller. America + did not stop at the Pacific but crossed the ocean to establish permanent + political and commercial relations with Japan and China. + </p> + <p> + The industries of the country were being reorganized to meet new + conditions created by recent inventions. The electric telegraph was just + coming into use, giving rise to a new era in communication. The discovery + of gold in California in 1848 was followed by competing projects to + construct railroads to the Pacific with Chicago and St. Louis as the rival + eastern terminals. The telegraph, the railway, and the resulting + industrial development proved great nationalizing influences. They served + also to give increased emphasis to the contrast between the industries of + the free and those of the slave States. The Census of 1850 became an + effective anti-slavery argument. + </p> + <p> + The telegraph also gave new life to the public press. The presidential + campaign of 1848 was the last one in which it was possible to carry on + contradictory arguments in support of the same candidate. If slavery could + not endure the test of untrammeled discussion when there were no means of + rapid intercommunication such as the telegraph supplied, how could it + contend against the revelations of the daily press with the new type of + reporter and interviewer which was now developed? + </p> + <p> + It is a remarkable coincidence that in the midst of the passing of the old + and the coming in of the new order there should be a change in the + political leadership of the country. Webster, Clay, Calhoun, John Quincy + Adams, not to mention others, all died near the middle of the century, and + their political power passed to younger men. Adams gave his blessing to a + young friend and co-laborer, William H. Seward of New York, intimating + that he expected him to do much to curb the threatening power of the + slaveholding oligarchy; while Andrew Jackson, who died earlier, had + already conferred a like distinction upon young Stephen A. Douglas. There + was no lack of aspirants for the fallen mantles. + </p> + <p> + John C. Calhoun continued almost to the day of his death to modify his + interpretation of the Constitution in the interest of his section. As a + young man he avowed protectionist principles. Becoming convinced that + slave labor was not suited to manufacture, he urged South Carolina to + declare the protective tariff laws null and void within her limits. When + his section seemed endangered by the distribution of anti-slavery + literature through the mail, he extemporized a theory that each State had + a right to pass statutes to protect itself in such an emergency, in which + case it became the duty of the general Government and of all other States + to respect such laws. When it finally appeared that the territory acquired + from Mexico was likely to remain free, the same statesman made further + discoveries. He found that Congress had no right to exclude slavery from + any Territory belonging to the United States; that the owners of slaves + had equal rights with the owners of other property; that neither Congress + nor a territorial authority had any power to exclude slaves from a + Territory. This doctrine was accepted by extremists in the South and was + finally embodied in the Dred Scott decision of 1857. + </p> + <p> + Abolitionists had meantime evolved a precisely contradictory theory. They + asserted that the Constitution gave no warrant for property in man, except + as held under state laws; that with this exception freedom was guaranteed + to all; that Congress had no more right to make a slave than it had to + make a king; and that it was the duty of Congress to maintain freedom in + all the Territories. Extremists expressed the view that all past acts + whereby slavery had been extended were unconstitutional and therefore + void. Between these extreme conflicting views was every imaginable grade + of opinion. The prevailing view of opponents of slavery, however, was in + harmony with their past conduct and maintained that Congress had complete + control over slavery in the Territories. + </p> + <p> + When the Mexican territory was acquired, Stephen A. Douglas, as the + experienced chairman of the Committee on Territories in the Senate, was + already developing a theory respecting slavery in the Territories which + was destined to play a leading part in the later crusade against slavery. + Douglas was the most thoroughgoing of expansionists and would acknowledge + no northern boundary on this side of the North Pole, no southern boundary + nearer than Panama. He regarded the United States, with its great + principle of local autonomy, as fitted to become eventually the United + States of the whole world, while he held it to be an immediate duty to + make it the United States of North America. As the son-in-law of a + Southern planter in North Carolina, and as the father of sons who + inherited slave property, Douglas, although born in Vermont, knew the + South as did no other Northern statesman. He knew also the institution of + slavery at first hand. As a pronounced expansionist and as the + congressional leader in all matters pertaining to the Territories, he + acquired detailed information as to the qualities of these new + possessions, and he spoke, therefore, with a good degree of authority when + he said, "If there was one inch of territory in the whole of our + acquisitions from Mexico where slavery could exist, it was in the valleys + of the Sacramento and the San Joaquin." But this region was at once + preempted for freedom upon the discovery of gold. + </p> + <p> + Douglas did not admit that even the whole of Texas would remain dedicated + to slavery. Some of the States to be formed from it would be free, by the + same laws of climate and resources which determined that the entire West + would remain free. Before the Mexican War the Senator had become convinced + that the extension of slavery had reached its limit; that the Missouri + Compromise was a dead letter except as a psychological palliative; that + Nature had already ordained that slave labor should be forever excluded + from all Western territory both north and south of that line. His reply to + Calhoun's contention that a balance must be maintained between slave and + free States was that he had plans for forming seventeen new States out of + the vast Western domains, every one of which would be free. And besides, + said he, "we all look forward with confidence to the time when Delaware, + Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri, and probably North Carolina + and Tennessee will adopt a gradual system of emancipation." Douglas was + one of the first to favor the admission of California as a free State. + According to the Missouri Compromise law and the laws of Mexico, all + Western territory was free, and he was opposed to interference with + existing conditions. The Missouri Compromise was still held sacred. + Finally, however, it was with Douglas's assistance that the Compromise + measures of 1850 were passed, one of which provided for territorial + Governments for Utah and New Mexico with the proviso that, when admitted + as States, slavery should be permitted or prohibited as the citizens of + those States should determine at the time. Congress refrained from any + declaration as to slavery in the Territories. It was this policy of + "non-intervention" which four years later furnished plausible excuse for + the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. + </p> + <p> + It was not strange that there was general ignorance in all parts of the + country as to the resources of the newly acquired territory. The rush to + the goldfields precipitated action in respect to California. Before + General Taylor, the newly elected President, was inaugurated, there was + imminent need of an efficient government. An early act of the + Administration was to send an agent to assist in the formation of a state + Government, and a convention was immediately called to frame a + constitution. By unanimous vote of the convention, slavery was excluded. + The constitution was approved by popular vote and was presented to + Congress for final acceptance in December, 1849. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime a great commotion had arisen among the people. Southern + state legislatures passed resolutions demanding that the rights of their + peculiar institution should be recognized in the new Territory. Northern + legislatures responded with resolutions favoring the admission of + California as a State and the application of the Wilmot Proviso to the + remaining territory. Northern Democrats had very generally denied that the + affair with Mexico had as a chief purpose the extension of slavery. + Democrats therefore united with Whigs in maintaining the principle of free + soil. In the South there was a corresponding fusion of the two parties in + support of the sectional issue. + </p> + <p> + General concern prevailed as to the attitude of the Administration. + Taylor's election had been effected by both a Southern and a Northern + split in the Democratic party. Northern Democrats had voted for the + Free-soil candidate because of the alleged pro-slavery tendencies of their + own party. Southern Democrats voted for Taylor because of their distrust + of Lewis Cass, their own candidate. Some of these met in convention and + formally nominated Taylor, and Taylor accepted their nomination with + thanks. Northern anti-slavery Whigs had a difficult task to keep their + members in line. There is evidence that Taylor held the traditional + Southern view that the anti-slavery North was disposed to encroach upon + the rights of the South. Meeting fewer Northern Whig supporters, he became + convinced that the more active spirit of encroachment was in the + pro-slavery South. California needed a state Government, and the President + took the most direct method to supply that need. As the inhabitants were + unanimous in their desire to exclude slavery, their wish should be + respected. New Mexico was in a similar situation. As slavery was already + excluded from the territory under Mexican law, and as there was no wish on + the part of the inhabitants to introduce slavery, the President recognized + existing facts and made no change. When Southern leaders projected a + scheme to enlarge the boundaries of Texas so as to extend slavery over a + large part of New Mexico, President Taylor set a guard of United States + troops to maintain the integrity of the Territory. When a deputation of + Southern Whigs endeavored to dissuade him from his purpose, threatening a + dissolution of the Union and intimating that army officers would refuse to + act against citizens of Texas, the soldier President replied that in such + an event he would take command in person and would hang any one caught in + acts of treason. When Henry Clay introduced an elaborate project for a + compromise between the North and the South, the President insisted that + each question should be settled on its own merits and directed the forces + of the Administration against any sort of compromise. The debate over + Clay's Omnibus Bill was long and acrimonious. On July 4, 1850, the + President seemed triumphant. But upon that day, notwithstanding his + apparent robust health, he was stricken down with an acute disease and + died five days later. With his passing, the opposing Whig faction came + into power. The so-called compromise measures were at length one by one + passed by Congress and approved by President Fillmore. + </p> + <p> + California was admitted as a free State; but as a palliative to the South, + Congress passed bills for the organization of territorial Governments for + New Mexico and Utah without positive declarations regarding the powers of + the territorial Legislatures over slavery. All questions relating to title + to slaves were to be left to the courts. Meantime it was left in doubt + whether Mexican law excluding slavery was still in force. Southern + malcontents maintained that this act was a mere hoax, using words which + suggested concession when no concession was intended. Northern + anti-slavery men criticized the act as the entering wedge for another + great surrender to the enemy. Because of the uncertainty regarding the + meaning of the law and the false hopes likely to be created, they + maintained that it was fitted to foment discord and prolong the period of + distrust between the two sections. At all events such was its actual + effect. + </p> + <p> + A third act in this unhappy series gave to Texas ten millions of dollars + for the alleged surrender of claims to a part of New Mexico. This had + little bearing on the general subject of compromise; yet anti-slavery men + criticized it on the ground that the issue raised was insincere; that the + appropriation was in fact a bribe to secure votes necessary to pass the + other measures; that the bill was passed through Congress by shameless + bribery, and that even the boundaries conceded to Texas involved the + surrender of free territory. + </p> + <p> + The abolition of the slave-trade in the District of Columbia was supported + by both sections of the country. The removal of the slave pens within + sight of the Capitol to a neighboring city deprived the abolitionists of + one of their weapons for effective agitation, but it did not otherwise + affect the position of slavery. + </p> + <p> + Of the five acts included in the compromise measures, the one which + provided for the return of fugitive slaves was most effective in the + promotion of hostility between the two sections. During the six months of + debate on the Omnibus Bill, numerous bills were presented to take the + place of the law of 1793. Webster brought forward a bill which provided + for the use of a jury to establish the validity of a claim to an escaped + slave. But that which was finally adopted by a worn-out Congress is + characterized as one of the most barbarous pieces of legislation ever + enacted by a civilized country. A single incident may indicate the nature + of the act. James Hamlet, for three years a resident of New York City, a + husband and a father and a member of the Methodist Church, was seized + eight days after the law went into effect by order of the agent of Mary + Brown of Baltimore, cut off from all communication with his friends, + hurried before a commissioner, and on ex parte testimony was delivered + into the hands of the agent, by whom he was handcuffed and secretly + conveyed to Baltimore. Mr. Rhodes accounts for the enactment in the + following words: "If we look below the surface we shall find a strong + impelling motive of the Southern clamor for this harsh enactment other + than the natural desire to recover lost property. Early in the session it + took air that a part of the game of the disunionists was to press a + stringent fugitive slave law, for which no Northern man could vote; and + when it was defeated, the North would be charged with refusal to carry out + a stipulation of the Constitution.... The admission of California was a + bitter pill for the Southern ultras, but they were forced to take it. The + Fugitive Slave Law was a taunt and a reproach to that part of the North + where the anti-slavery sentiment ruled supremely, and was deemed a partial + compensation." Clay expressed surprise that States from which few slaves + escaped demanded a more stringent law than Kentucky, from which many + escaped. + </p> + <p> + Whatever may have been the motives leading to the enactment, its immediate + effect was the elimination of one of the great national parties, thus + paving the way for the formation of parties along sectional lines. Two + years after the passage of the compromise acts the Democratic national + convention assembled to nominate a candidate for the Presidency. The + platform adopted by the party promised a faithful execution of the acts + known as the compromise measures and added "the act for reclaiming + fugitives from service or labor included; which act, being designed to + carry out an express provision of the Constitution, cannot, with fidelity + thereto, be repealed nor so changed as to destroy or impair its + efficiency." When this was read, the convention broke out in uproarious + applause. Then there was a demand that it should be read again. Again + there was loud applause. + </p> + <p> + Why was there this demand that a law which every one knew had proved a + complete failure should be made a permanent part of the Constitution? And + why the ungovernable hilarity over the demand that its "efficiency" should + never be impaired? Surely the motive was something other than a desire to + recover lost property. Upon the Whig party had been fastened the odium for + the enactment of the law, and the act unrepealed meant the death of the + party. The Democrats saw good reason for laughter. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII. THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD + </h2> + <p> + Wherever there are slaves there are fugitives if there is an available + place of refuge. The wilds of Florida were such a refuge during the early + part of last century. When the Northern States became free, fugitive + slaves began to escape thither, and Canada, when it could be reached, was, + of course, the goal of perfect security and liberty for all. + </p> + <p> + A professed object of the early anti-slavery societies was to prevent the + enslavement of free negroes and in other ways to protect their rights. + During the process of emancipation in Northern States large numbers of + colored persons were spirited off to the South and sold into slavery. At + various places along the border there were those who made it their duty to + guard the rights of negroes and to prevent kidnapping. These guardians of + the border furnished a nucleus for the development of what was later known + as the Underground Railroad. + </p> + <p> + In 1796 President Washington wrote a letter to a friend in New Hampshire + with reference to obtaining the return of a negro servant. He was careful + to state that the servant should remain unmolested rather than "excite a + mob or riot or even uneasy sensations in the minds of well disposed + citizens." The result was that the servant remained free. President + Washington here assumed that "well disposed citizens" would oppose her + return to slavery. Three years earlier the President had himself signed a + bill to facilitate by legal process the return of fugitives escaping into + other States. He was certainly aware that such an act was on the statute + books when he wrote his request to his friend in New Hampshire, yet he + expected that, if an attempt were made to remove the refugee by force, + riot and resistance by a mob would be the result. + </p> + <p> + Not until after the foreign slave-trade had been prohibited and the + domestic trade had been developed, and not until there was a pro-slavery + reaction in the South which banished from the slave States all + anti-slavery propaganda, did the systematic assistance rendered to + fugitive slaves assume any large proportions or arouse bitter resentment. + It began in the late twenties and early thirties of the nineteenth + century, extended with the spread of anti-slavery organization, and was + greatly encouraged and stimulated by the enactment of the law of 1850. + </p> + <p> + The Underground Railroad was never coextensive with the abolition + movement. There were always abolitionists who disapproved the practice of + assisting fugitives, and others who took no part in it. Of those who were + active participants, the larger proportion confined their activities to + assisting those who had escaped and would take no part in seeking to + induce slaves to leave their masters. Efforts of that kind were limited to + a few individuals only. + </p> + <p> + Incidents drawn from the reminiscences of Levi Coffin, the reputed + president of the Underground Railroad, may serve to illustrate the origin + and growth of the system. He was seven years old when he first saw near + his home in North Carolina a coffle of slaves being driven to the Southern + market by a man on horseback with a long whip. "The driver was some + distance behind with the wagon. My father addressed the slaves pleasantly + and then asked, 'Well, boys, why do they chain you?' One of the men whose + countenance betrayed unusual intelligence and whose expression denoted the + deepest sadness replied: 'They have taken us from our wives and children + and they chain us lest we should make our escape and go back to them."' + When Coffin was fifteen, he rendered assistance to a man in bondage. + Having an opportunity to talk with the members of a gang in the hands of a + trader bound for the Southern market, he learned that one of the company, + named Stephen, was a freeman who had been kidnapped and sold. Letters were + written to Northern friends of Stephen who confirmed his assertion. Money + was raised in the Quaker meeting and men were sent to recover the negro. + Stephen was found in Georgia and after six months was liberated. + </p> + <p> + During the year 1821 other incidents occurred in the Quaker community at + New Garden, near Greensboro, North Carolina, which illustrate different + phases of the subject. Jack Barnes was the slave of a bachelor who became + so greatly attached to his servant that he bequeathed to him not only his + freedom but also a large share of his property. Relatives instituted + measures to break the will, and Jack in alarm took refuge among the + Quakers at New Garden. The suit went against the negro, and the newspapers + contained advertisements offering a hundred dollars for information which + should result in his recovery. To prevent his return to bondage, it was + decided that Jack should join a family of Coffins who were moving to + Indiana. + </p> + <p> + At the same time a negro by the name of Sam had for several months been + abiding in the Quaker neighborhood. He belonged to a Mr. Osborne, a + prototype of Simon Legree, who was so notoriously cruel that other + slave-owners assisted in protecting his victims. After the Coffins, with + Jack, had been on the road for a few days, Osborne learned that a negro + was with them and, feeling sure that it was his Sam, he started in hot + haste after them. This becoming known to the Friends, young Levi Coffin + was sent after Osborne to forestall disaster. The descriptions given of + Jack and Sam were practically identical and it was surmised that when + Osborne should overtake the party and discover his mistake, he would seize + Jack for the sake of the offered reward. Coffin soon came up with Osborne + and decided to ride with him for a time to learn his plans. In the course + of their conversation, it was finally agreed that Coffin should assist in + the recovery of Sam. Osborne was also generous and insisted that if it + proved to be the other "nigger" who was with the company, Coffin should + have half the reward. How the young Quaker outwitted the tyrant, gained + his point, sent Jack on his way to liberty, and at the same time retained + the confidence of Osborne so that upon their return home he was definitely + engaged to assist Osborne in finding Sam, is a fascinating story. The + abolitionist won from the slaveholder the doubtful compliment that "there + was not a man in that neighborhood worth a d—n to help him hunt his + negro except young Levi Coffin." + </p> + <p> + Sam was perfectly safe so long as Levi Coffin was guide for the + hunting-party, but matters were becoming desperate. For the fugitive + something had to be done. Another family was planning to move to Indiana, + and in their wagon Sam was to be concealed and thus conveyed to a free + State. The business had now become serious. The laws of the State affixed + the death penalty for stealing a slave. At night when young Coffin and his + father, with Sam, were on their way to complete arrangements for the + departure, horsemen appeared in the road near by. They had only time to + throw themselves flat on the ground behind a log. From the conversation + overheard, they were assured that they had narrowly escaped the + night-riders on the lookout for stray negroes. The next year, 1822, Coffin + himself joined a party going to Indiana by the southern route through + Tennessee and Kentucky. In the latter State they were at one time + overtaken by men who professed to be looking for a pet dog, but whose real + purpose was to recover runaway slaves. They insisted upon examining the + contents of the wagons, for in this way only a short time previous a + fugitive had been captured. + </p> + <p> + These incidents show the origin of the system. The first case of + assistance rendered a negro was not in itself illegal, but was intended + merely to prevent the crime of kidnapping. The second was illegal in form, + but the aid was given to one who, having been set free by will, was being + reenslaved, it was believed, by an unjust decision of a court. The third + was a case of outrageous abuse on the part of the owner. The negro Sam had + himself gone to a trader begging that he would buy him and preferring to + take his chances on a Mississippi plantation rather than return to his + master. The trader offered the customary price and was met with the reply + that he could have the rascal if he would wait until after the enraged + owner had taken his revenge, otherwise the price would be twice the amount + offered. A large proportion of the fugitives belonged to this maltreated + class. Others were goaded to escape by the prospect of deportation to the + Gulf States. The fugitives generally followed the beaten line of travel to + the North and West. + </p> + <p> + In 1826 Levi Coffin became a merchant in Newport, Indiana, a town near the + Ohio line not far from Richmond. In the town and in its neighborhood lived + a large number of free negroes who were the descendants of former slaves + whom North Carolina Quakers had set free and had colonized in the new + country. Coffin found that these blacks were accustomed to assist + fugitives on their way to Canada. When he also learnt that some had been + captured and returned to bondage merely through lack of skill on the part + of the negroes, he assumed active operations as a conductor on the + Underground Railroad. + </p> + <p> + Coffin used the Underground Railroad as a means of making converts to the + cause. One who berated him for negro-stealing was adroitly induced to meet + a newly arrived passenger and listen to his pathetic story. At the + psychological moment the objector was skillfully led to hand the fugitive + a dollar to assist him in reaching a place of safety. Coffin then + explained to this benevolent non-abolitionist the nature of his act, + assuring him that he was liable to heavy damages therefor. The reply was + in this case more forcible than elegant: "Damn it! You've got me!" This + conversion he publicly proclaimed for the sake of its influence upon + others. Many were the instances in which those of supposed pro-slavery + convictions were brought face to face with an actual case of the + threatened reenslavement of a human being escaping from bondage and were, + to their own surprise, overcome by the natural, humane sentiment which + asserted itself. For example, a Cincinnati merchant, who at the time was + supposed to be assisting one of his Southern customers to recover an + escaped fugitive, was confronted at his own home by the poor half-starved + victim. Yielding to the impulse of compassion, he gave the slave food and + personal assistance and directed the destitute creature to a place of + refuge. + </p> + <p> + The division in the Quaker meeting in Indiana with which Levi Coffin was + intimately associated may serve to exemplify a corresponding attitude in + other churches on the question of slavery. The Quakers availed themselves + of the first great anti-slavery movement to rid themselves completely of + the burden. Their Society itself became an anti-slavery organization. Yet + even so the Friends had differences of opinion as to fit methods of + action. Not only did many of them disapprove of rendering aid to fugitives + but they also objected to the use of the meetinghouses for anti-slavery + lectures. The formation of the Liberty party served to accentuate the + division. The great body of the Friends were anti-slavery Whigs. + </p> + <p> + A crisis in the affairs of the Society of Friends in the State of Indiana + was reached in 1843 when the radicals seceded and organized an independent + "Anti-Slavery Friends Society." Immediately there appeared in numerous + localities duplicate Friends' meeting-houses. In and around one of these, + distinguished as "Liberty Hall," were gathered those whose supreme + religious interest was directed against the sin of slavery. Never was + there a church division which involved less bad blood or sense of injury + or injustice. Members of the same family attended separate churches + without the least difference in their cordial relations. No important + principle was involved; there were apparently good reasons for both lines + of policy, and each party understood and respected the other's position. + After the adoption of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 and the passing of + the Whig party, these differences disappeared, the separate organization + was disbanded, and all Friends' meetinghouses became "liberty halls." + </p> + <p> + The disposition to aid the fugitive was by no means confined to the North + nor to Quakers in the South. Richard Dillingham, a young Quaker who had + yielded to the solicitations of escaped fugitives in Cincinnati and had + undertaken a mission to Nashville, Tennessee, to rescue their relatives + from a "hard master," was arrested with three stolen slaves on his hands. + He made confession in open court and frankly explained his motives. The + Nashville Daily Gazette of April 13, 1849, has words of commendation for + the prisoner and his family and states that "he was not without the + sympathy of those who attended the trial." Though Dillingham committed a + crime to which the death penalty was attached in some of the States, the + jury affixed the minimum penalty of three years' imprisonment for the + offense. As Nashville was far removed from Quaker influence or any sort of + anti-slavery propaganda, Dillingham was himself astonished and was + profoundly grateful for the leniency shown him by Court, jury, and + prosecutors. This incident occurred in the year before the adoption of the + Fugitive Slave Law of 1850. It is well known that in all times and places + which were free from partizan bitterness there was a general natural + sympathy for those who imperiled their life and liberty to free the slave. + Throughout the South men of both races were ready to give aid to slaves + seeking to escape from dangers or burdens which they regarded as + intolerable. While such a man as Frederick Douglass, when still a slave, + was an agent of the Underground Railroad, Southern anti-slavery people + themselves were to a large extent the original projectors of the movement. + Even members of the families of slaveholders have been known to assist + fugitives in their escape to the North. + </p> + <p> + The fugitives traveled in various ways which were determined partly by + geographical conditions and partly by the character of the inhabitants of + a region. On the Atlantic coast, from Florida to Delaware, slaves were + concealed in ships and were thus conveyed to free States. Thence some made + their way towards Canada by steamboat or railroad, though most made the + journey on foot or, less frequently, in private conveyances. Stalwart + slaves sometimes walked from the Gulf States to the free States, traveling + chiefly by night and guided by the North Star. Having reached a free + State, they found friends among those of their own race, or were taken in + hand by officers of the Underground Railroad and were thus helped across + the Canadian border. + </p> + <p> + From the seacoast the valley of the Connecticut River furnished a + convenient route for completing the journey northward, though the way of + the fugitives was often deflected to the Lake Champlain region. In later + years, when New England became generally sympathetic, numerous lines of + escape traversed that entire section. Other courses extended northward + from the vicinity of Philadelphia, Delaware, and Maryland. Here, through + the center of American Quakerdom, all conditions favored the escape of + fugitives, for slavery and freedom were at close quarters. The activities + of the Quakers, who were at first engaged merely in preventing the + reenslavement of those who had a legal right to freedom, naturally + expanded until aid was given without reservation to any fugitive. From + Philadelphia as a distributing point the route went by way of New York and + the Hudson River or up the river valleys of eastern Pennsylvania through + western New York. + </p> + <p> + In addition to the routes to freedom which the seacoast and river valleys + afforded, the Appalachian chain of mountains formed an attractive highway + of escape from slavery, though these mountain paths lead us to another + branch of our subject not immediately connected with the Underground + Railroad—the escape from bondage by the initiative of the slaves + themselves or by the aid of their own people. Mountains have always been a + refuge and a defense for the outlaw, and the few dwellers in this almost + unknown wilderness were not infrequently either indifferent or friendly to + the fugitives. The escaped slaves might, if they chose, adopt for an + indefinite time the free life of the hills; but in most cases they + naturally drifted northward for greater security until they found + themselves in a free State. Through the mountainous regions of Virginia + many thus escaped, and they were induced to remain there by the example + and advice of residents of their own color. The negroes themselves + excelled all others in furnishing places of refuge to fugitives from + slavery and in concealing their status. For this reason John Brown and his + associates were influenced to select this region for their great venture + in 1859. + </p> + <p> + But there were other than geographical conditions which helped to + determine the direction of the lines of the Underground Railroad. West of + the Alleghanies are the broad plains of the Mississippi Valley, and in + this great region human elements rather than physical characteristics + proved influential. Northern Ohio was occupied by settlers from the East, + many of whom were anti-slavery. Southern Ohio was populated largely by + Quakers and other people from the slave States who abhorred slavery. On + the east and south the State bordered on slave territory, and every part + of the region was traversed by lines of travel for the slave. In eastern + and northern Indiana a favorable attitude prevailed. Southwestern Indiana, + however, and southern Illinois were occupied by those less friendly to the + slave, so that in these sections there is little evidence of systematic + aid to fugitives. But with St. Louis, Missouri, as a starting-point, + northern Illinois became honeycombed with refuges for patrons of the + Underground Railroad. The negro also found friends in all the settled + portions of Iowa, and at the outbreak of the Civil War a lively traffic + was being developed, extending from Lawrence, Kansas, to Keokuk, Iowa. + </p> + <p> + There is respectable authority for a variety of opinions as to the + requirements of the rendition clause in the Constitution and of the Act of + Congress of 1793 to facilitate the return of fugitives from service or + labor; but there is no respectable authority in support of the view that + neither the spirit nor the letter of the law was violated by the + supporters of the Underground Railroad. This was a source of real weakness + to anti-slavery leaders in politics. It was always true that only a small + minority of their numbers were actual violators of the law, yet such was + their relation to the organized anti-slavery movement that responsibility + attached to all. The platform of the Liberty party for 1844 declared that + the provisions of the Constitution for reclaiming fugitive slaves were + dangerous to liberty and ought to be abrogated. It further declared that + the members of the party would treat these provisions as void, because + they involved an order to commit an immoral act. The platform thus + explicitly committed the party to the support of the policy of rendering + aid to fugitive slaves. Four years later the platform of the Free-soil + party contained no reference whatever to fugitive slaves, but that of 1852 + denounced the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 as repugnant to the Constitution + and the spirit of Christianity and denied its binding force on the + American people. The Republican platform of 1856 made no reference to the + subject. + </p> + <p> + The Underground Railroad filled an insignificant place in the general plan + for emancipation, even in the minds of the directors. It was a lesser task + preparatory to the great work. As to the numbers of slaves who gained + their freedom by means of it, there is a wide range of opinion. Statements + in Congress by Southern members that a hundred thousand had escaped must + be regarded as gross exaggerations. In any event the loss was confined + chiefly to the border States. Besides, it has been stated with some show + of reason that the danger of servile insurrection was diminished by the + escape of potential leaders. + </p> + <p> + From the standpoint of the great body of anti-slavery men who expected to + settle the slavery question by peaceable means, it was a calamity of the + first magnitude that, just at the time when conditions were most favorable + for transferring the active crusade from the general Government to the + separate States, public attention should be directed to the one point at + which the conflict was most acute and irrepressible. + </p> + <p> + Previous to 1850 there had been no general acrimonious debate in Congress + on the rendition of fugitive slaves. About half of those who had + previously escaped from bondage had not taken the trouble to go as far as + Canada, but were living at peace in the Northern States. Few people at the + North knew or cared anything about the details of a law that had been on + the statute books since 1793. Members of Congress were duly warned of the + dangers involved in any attempt to enforce a more stringent law than the + previous act which had proved a dead letter. To those who understood the + conditions, the new law also was doomed to failure. So said Senator Butler + of South Carolina. An attempt to enforce it would be met by violence. + </p> + <p> + This prediction came true. The twenty thousand potential victims residing + in Northern States were thrown into panic. Some rushed off to Canada; + others organized means for protection. A father and son from Baltimore + came to a town in Pennsylvania to recover a fugitive. An alarm was + sounded; men, mostly colored, rushed to the protection of the one whose + liberty was threatened. Two Quakers appeared on the scene and warned the + slavehunters to desist and upon their refusal one slave-hunter was + instantly killed and the other wounded. The fugitive was conveyed to a + place of safety, and to the murderers no punishment was meted out, though + the general Government made strenuous efforts to discover and punish them. + In New York, though Gerrit Smith and a local clergyman with a few + assistants rescued a fugitive from the officers of the law and sent him to + Canada, openly proclaiming and justifying the act, no attempt was made to + punish the offenders. + </p> + <p> + After a dozen years of intense and ever-increasing excitement, when other + causes of friction between North and South had apparently been removed and + good citizens in the two sections were rejoicing at the prospect of an era + of peace and harmony, public attention was concentrated upon the one + problem of conduct which would not admit of peaceable legal adjustment. + Abolitionists had always been stigmatized as lawbreakers whose aim was the + destruction of slavery in utter disregard of the rights of the States. + This charge was absolutely false; their settled program involved full + recognition of state and municipal control over slavery. Yet after public + attention had become fixed upon conduct on the part of the abolitionists + which was illegal, it was difficult to escape the implication that their + whole course was illegal. This was the tragic significance of the Fugitive + Slave Act of 1850. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX. BOOKS AS ANTI-SLAVERY WEAPONS + </h2> + <p> + Whittier offered up "thanks for the fugitive slave law; for it gave + occasion for 'Uncle Tom's Cabin.'" Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe had been + mistress of a station on the Underground Railroad at Cincinnati, the + storm-center of the West, and out of her experience she has transmitted to + the world a knowledge of the elemental and tragic human experiences of the + slaves which would otherwise have been restricted to a select few. The + mistress of a similar station in eastern Indiana, though she held novel + reading a deadly sin, said: "'Uncle Tom's Cabin' is not a novel, it is a + record of facts. I myself have listened to the same stories." The reading + public in all lands soon became sympathetic participants in the labors of + those who, in defiance of law, were lending a hand to the aspirants for + liberty. At the time of the publication of the story in book form in + March, 1852, America was being profoundly stirred by the stories of + fugitives who had escaped from European despotism. Mrs. Stowe refers to + these incidents in her question: "When despairing Hungarian fugitives make + their way, against all the search-warrants and authorities of their lawful + governments to America, press and political cabinet ring with applause and + welcome. When despairing African fugitives do the same thing—it is—what + IS it?" Little did she think that when the eloquence of the Hungarian + refugee had been forgotten, the story of Eliza and Uncle Tom would ring + throughout the world. + </p> + <p> + The book did far more than vindicate the conduct of those who rendered + assistance to the fugitive from slavery; it let in daylight upon the + essential nature of slavery. Humane and just masters are shown to be + forced into participation in acts which result in intolerable cruelty. + Full justice is done to the noble and admirable character of Southern + slave-owners. The author had been a guest in the home of the "Shelbys," in + Kentucky. She had taken great pains to understand the Southern point of + view on the subject of slavery; she had entered into the real trials and + difficulties involved in any plan of emancipation. St. Clair, speaking to + Miss Ophelia, his New England cousin, says: + </p> + <p> + "If we emancipate, are you willing to educate? How many families of your + town would take in a negro man or woman, teach them, bear with them, and + seek to make them Christians? How many merchants would take Adolph, if I + wanted to make him a clerk; or mechanics, if I wanted to teach him a + trade? If I wanted to put Jane and Rosa to a school, how many schools are + there in the Northern States that would take them in? How many families + that would board them? And yet they are as white as many a woman north or + south. You see, cousin, I want justice done us. We are in a bad position. + We are the more obvious oppressors of the negro; but the unchristian + prejudice of the north is an oppressor almost equally severe." + </p> + <p> + Throughout the book the idea is elaborated in many ways. Miss Ophelia is + introduced for the purpose of contrasting Northern ignorance and New + England prejudice with the patience and forbearance of the better class of + slave-owners of the South. The genuine affection of an unspoiled child for + negro friends is made especially emphatic. Miss Ophelia objected to Eva's + expressions of devotion to Uncle Tom. Her father insists that his daughter + shall not be robbed of the free utterance of her high regard, observing + that "the child is the only true democrat." There is only one Simon Legree + in the book, and he is of New England extraction. The story is as + distinctly intended to inform Northern ignorance and to remove Northern + prejudice as it is to justify the conduct of abolitionists. + </p> + <p> + What was the effect of the publication? In European countries far removed + from local partizan prejudice, it was immediately received as a great + revelation of the spirit of liberty. It was translated into twenty-three + different languages. So devoted were the Italians to the reading of the + story that there was earnest effort to suppress its circulation. As a + drama it proved a great success, not only in America and England but in + France and other countries as well. More than a million copies of the + story were sold in the British Empire. Lord Palmerston avers that he had + not read a novel for thirty years, yet he read Uncle Tom's Cabin three + times and commended the book for the statesmanship displayed in it. + </p> + <p> + What is in the story to call forth such commendation from the cold-blooded + English statesman? The book revealed, in a way fitted to carry conviction + to every unprejudiced reader, the impossibility of uniting slavery with + freedom under the same Government. Either all must be free or the mass + subject to the few—or there is actual war. This principle is finely + brought out in the predicament of the Quaker confronted by a fugitive with + wife and child who had seen a sister sold and conveyed to a life of shame + on a Southern plantation. "Am I going to stand by and see them take my + wife and sell her?" exclaimed the negro. "No, God help me! I'll fight to + the last breath before they shall take my wife and son. Can you blame me?" + To which the Quaker replied: "Mortal man cannot blame thee, George. Flesh + and blood could not do otherwise. 'Woe unto the world because of offences + but woe unto them through whom the offence cometh.'" "Would not even you, + sir, do the same, in my place?" "I pray that I be not tried." And in the + ensuing events the Quaker played an important part. + </p> + <p> + Laws enacted for the protection of slave property are shown to be + destructive of the fundamental rights of freemen; they are inhuman. The + Ohio Senator, who in his lofty preserve at the capital of his country + could discourse eloquently of his readiness to keep faith with the South + in the matter of the faithful execution of the Fugitive Slave Law, + becomes, when at home with his family, a flagrant violator of the law. + Elemental human nature is pitted against the apparent interests of a few + individual slaveowners. The story of Uncle Tom placed all supporters of + the new law on the defensive. It was read by all classes North and South. + "Uncle Tom's Cabin as it is" was called forth from the South as a reply to + Mrs. Stowe's book, and there ensued a general discussion of the subject + which was on the whole enlightening. Yet the immediate political effect of + the publication was less than might have been expected from a book so + widely read and discussed. Its appearance early in the decade did not + prevent the apparent pro-slavery reaction already described. But Mr. + Rhodes calls attention to the different impression which the book made + upon adults and boys. Hardened sinners in partizan politics could read the + book, laugh and weep over the passing incidents, and then go on as if + nothing had happened. Not so with the thirteen-year-old boy. He never + could be the same again. The Republican party of 1860 was especially + successful in gaining the first vote of the youthful citizen and + undoubtedly owed much of its influence to "Uncle Tom's Cabin." + </p> + <p> + Two lines of attack were rapidly rendering impossible the continuance of + slavery in the United States. Mrs. Stowe gave effective expression to the + moral, religious, and humanitarian sentiment against slavery. In the year + in which her work was published, Frederick Law Olmsted began his extended + journeys throughout the South. He represents the impartial scientific + observer. His books were published during the years 1856, 1857, and 1861. + They constitute in their own way an indictment against slavery quite as + forcible as that of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," but an indictment that rests + chiefly upon the blighting influence of the institution of slavery upon + agriculture, manufactures, and the general industrial and social order. + The crisis came too soon for these publications to have any marked effect + upon the issue. Their appeal was to the deliberate and thoughtful reader, + and political control had already drifted into the hands of those who were + not deliberate and composed. + </p> + <p> + In 1857, however, there appeared a book which did exert a marked influence + upon immediate political issues. There is no evidence that Hinton Rowan + Helper, the author of "The Impending Crisis," had any knowledge of the + writings of Olmsted; but he was familiar with Northern anti-slavery + literature. "I have considered my subject more particularly," he states in + his preface, "with reference to its economic aspects as regards the whites—not + with reference, except in a very slight degree, to its humanitarian or + religious aspects. To the latter side of the question, Northern writers + have already done full and timely justice.... Yankee wives have written + the most popular anti-slavery literature of the day. Against this I have + nothing to say; it is all well enough for women to give the fictions of + slavery; men should give the facts." He denies that it had been his + purpose to cast unmerited opprobium upon slaveholders; yet a sense of + personal injury breathes throughout the pages. If he had no intention of + casting unmerited opprobrium upon slaveholders, it is difficult to imagine + what language he could have used if he had undertaken to pass the limit of + deserved reprobation. In this regard the book is quite in line with the + style of Southern utterance against abolitionists. + </p> + <p> + Helper belonged to a slaveholding family, for a hundred years resident in + the Carolinas. The dedication is significant. It is to three personal + friends from three slave States who at the time were residing in + California, in Oregon, and in Washington Territory, "and to the + non-slaveholding whites of the South generally, whether at home or + abroad." Out of the South had come the inspiration for the religious and + humanitarian attack upon slavery. From the same source came the call for + relief of the poverty-stricken white victims of the institution. + </p> + <p> + Helper's book revived the controversy which had been forcibly terminated a + quarter of a century before. He resumes the argument of the members of the + Virginia legislature of 1832. He reprints extended selections from that + memorable debate and then, by extended references to later official + reports, points out how slavery is impoverishing the South. The South is + shown to have continuously declined, while the North has made immense + gains. In a few years the relation of the South to the North would + resemble that of Poland to Russia or of Ireland to England. The author + sees no call for any arguments against slavery as an economic system; he + would simply bring the earlier characterization of the situation down to + date. + </p> + <p> + Helper differs radically from all earlier speakers and writers in that he + outlines a program for definite action. He estimates that for the entire + South there are seven white non-slaveholders for every three slaveholders. + He would organize these non-slaveholding whites into an independent + political party and would hold a general convention of non-slaveholders + from every slave State to adopt measures to restrain "the diabolical + excesses of the oligarchy" and to annihilate slavery. Slaveholders should + be entirely excluded from any share in government. They should be treated + as criminals ostracized from respectable society. He is careful to state, + however, that by slaveholder he does not mean such men as Benton of + Missouri and many others throughout the slave States who retain the + sentiments on the slavery question of the "immortal Fathers of the + Republic." He has in mind only the new order of owners, who have + determined by criminal methods to inflict the crime of slavery upon an + overwhelming majority of their white fellow-citizens. + </p> + <p> + The publication of "The Impending Crisis" created a profound sensation + among Southern leaders. So long as the attack upon the peculiar + institution emanated from the North, the defenders had the full benefit of + local prejudice and resentment against outside intrusion. Helper was + himself a thorough-going believer in state rights. Slavery was to be + abolished, as he thought, by the action of the separate States. Here he + was in accord with Northern abolitionists. If such literature as Helper's + volume should find its way into the South, it would be no longer possible + to palm off upon the unthinking public the patent falsehood that + abolitionists of the North were attempting to impose by force a change in + Southern institutions. All that Southern abolitionists ever asked was the + privilege of remaining at home in their own South in the full exercise of + their constitutional rights. + </p> + <p> + Southern leaders were undoubtedly aware of the concurrent publications of + travelers and newspaper reporters, of which Olmsted's books were + conspicuous examples. Olmsted and Helper were both sources of proof that + slavery was bringing the South to financial ruin. The facts were getting + hold of the minds of the Southern people. The debate which had been + adjourned was on the eve of being resumed. Complete suppression of the new + scientific industrial argument against slavery seemed to slave-owners to + furnish their only defense. + </p> + <p> + The Appalachian ranges of mountains drove a wedge of liberty and freedom + from Pennsylvania almost to the Gulf. In the upland regions slavery could + not flourish. There was always enmity between the planters of the coast + and the dwellers on the upland. The slaveholding oligarchy had always + ruled, but the day of the uplanders was at hand. This is the explanation + of the veritable panic which Helper's publication created. A debate which + should follow the line of this old division between the peoples of the + Atlantic slave States would, under existing conditions, be fatal to the + institution of slavery. West Virginia did become a free State at the first + opportunity. Counties in western North Carolina claim to have furnished a + larger proportion of their men to the Union army than any other counties + in the country. Had the plan for peaceable emancipation projected by + abolitionists been permitted to take its course, the uplands of South + Carolina would have been pitted against the lowlands, and Senator Tillman + would have appeared as a rampant abolitionist. There might have been + violence, but it would have been confined to limited areas in the separate + States. Had the crisis been postponed, there surely would have been a + revival of abolitionism within the Southern States. Slavery in Missouri + was already approaching a crisis. Southern leaders had long foreseen that + the State would abolish slavery if a free State should be established on + the western boundary. This was actually taking place. Kansas was filling + up with free-state settlers and, by the act of its own citizens, a few + years later did abolish slavery. + </p> + <p> + Republicans naturally made use of Helper's book for party purposes. A + cheap abridged edition was brought out. Several Republican leaders were + induced to sign their names to a paper commending the publication. Among + these was John Sherman of Ohio, who in the organization of the newly + elected House of Representatives in 1859 was the leading candidate of the + Republicans for the speakership. During the contest the fact that his name + was on this paper was made public, and Southern leaders were furious. + Extracts were read to prove that the book was incendiary. Millson of + Virginia said that "one who consciously, deliberately, and of purpose + lends his name and influence to the propagation of such writings is not + only not fit to be speaker, but he is not-fit to live." It is one of the + ironies of the situation that the passage selected to prove the incendiary + character of the book is almost a literal quotation from the debate in the + Virginia Legislature of 1832. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X. "BLEEDING KANSAS" + </h2> + <p> + Both the leading political parties were, in the campaign of 1852, fully + committed to the acceptance of the so-called Compromise of 1850 as a final + settlement of the slavery question; both were committed to the support of + the Fugitive Slave Act. The Free-soil party, with John P. Hale as its + candidate, did make a vigorous attack upon the Fugitive Slave Act, and + opposed all compromises respecting slavery, but Free-soilers had been to a + large extent reabsorbed into the Democratic party, their vote of 1852 + being only about half that of 1848. Though the Whig vote was large and + only about two hundred thousand less than that of the Democrats, yet it + was so distributed that the Whigs carried only four States, Massachusetts, + Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee. The other States gave a Democratic + plurality. + </p> + <p> + Had there been time for readjustment, the Whig party might have recovered + lost ground, but no time was permitted. There was in progress in Missouri + a political conflict which was already commanding national attention. + Thomas H. Benton, for thirty years a Senator from Missouri, and a national + figure, was the storm-center. His enemies accused him of being a + Free-soiler, an abolitionist in disguise. He was professedly a stanch and + uncompromising unionist, a personal and political opponent of John C. + Calhoun. According to his own statement he had been opposed to the + extension of slavery since 1804, although he had advocated the admission + of Missouri with a pro-slavery constitution in 1820. He was, from the + first, senior Senator from the State, and by a peculiar combination of + influences incurred his first defeat for reelection in 1851. + </p> + <p> + Benton's defeat in the Missouri Legislature was largely the result of + national pro-slavery influences. In a former chapter, reference was made + to the Ohio River as furnishing a "providential argument against slavery." + The Mississippi River as the eastern boundary of Missouri furnished a like + argument, but on the north not even a prairie brook separated free labor + in Iowa from slave labor in Missouri. The inhabitants of western Missouri, + realizing that the tenure of their peculiar institution was becoming + weaker in the east and north, early became convinced that the organization + of a free State along their western boundary would be followed by the + abolition of slavery in their own State. This condition attracted the + attention of the national guardians of pro-slavery interests. Calhoun, + Davis, Breckinridge, Toombs, and others were in constant communication + with local leaders. A certain Judge W. C. Price, a religious fanatic, and + a pro-slavery devotee, was induced to visit every part of the State in + 1844, calling the attention of all slaveholders to the perils of the + situation and preparing the way for the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. + Senator Benton, who was approached on the subject, replied in such a way + that all radical defenders of slavery, both national leaders and local + politicians, were moved to unite for his political defeat. + </p> + <p> + David R. Atchison, junior Senator from Missouri, had been made the leader + of the pro-slavery forces. The defeat of Benton in the Missouri + Legislature did not end the strife. He at once became a candidate for + Atchison's place in the election which was to occur in 1855, and he was in + the meantime elected to the House of Representatives in 1852. The most + telling consideration in Benton's favor was the general demand, in which + he himself joined, for the immediate organization of the western territory + in order to facilitate the building of a system of railways reaching the + Pacific, with St. Louis as the point of departure. For a time, in 1852, + and 1853, Benton was apparently triumphant, and Atchison was himself + willing to consent to the organization of the new territory with slavery + excluded. The national leaders, however, were not of the same mind. The + real issue was the continuance of slavery in the State; the one thing + which must not be permitted was the transfer of anti-slavery agitation to + the separate States. Henry Clay's proposal of 1849 to provide for gradual + emancipation in Kentucky was bitterly resented. It had long been an axiom + with the slavocracy that the institution would perish unless it had the + opportunity to expand. Out of this conviction arose Calhoun's famous + theory that slaveowners had under the Constitution an equal right with the + owners of all other forms of property in all the Territories. The theory + itself assumed that the act prohibiting slavery in the territory north of + the southern boundary of Missouri was unconstitutional and void. But this + theory had not yet received judicial sanction, and the time was at hand + when the question of freedom or slavery in the western territory was to be + determined. Between March and December, 1853, the discovery was made that + the Act of 1850 organizing the Territories of New Mexico and Utah had + superseded the Compromise of 1820; that a principle had been recognized + applicable to all the Territories; that all were open to settlement on + equal terms to slaveholders and non-slaveholders; that the subject of + slavery should be removed from Congress to the people of the Territories; + and that they should decide, either when a territorial legislature was + organized or at the time of the adoption of a constitution preparatory to + statehood, whether or not slavery should be authorized. These ideas found + expression in various newspapers during the month of December, 1853. + Though the authorship of the new theory is still a matter of dispute, it + is well known that Stephen A. Douglas became its chief sponsor and + champion. The real motives and intentions of Douglas himself and of many + of his supporters will always remain obscure and uncertain. But no + uncertainty attaches to the motives of Senator Atchison and the leaders of + the Calhoun section of the Democratic party. For ten years at least they + had been laboring to get rid of the Missouri Compromise. Their motive was + to defend slavery and especially to forestall a successful movement for + emancipation in the State of Missouri. + </p> + <p> + From early in January, 1854, until late in May, Douglas's Nebraska bill + held the attention of Congress and of the entire country. At first the + measure simply assumed that the Missouri Compromise had been superseded by + the Act of 1850. Later the bill was amended in such a way as to repeal + distinctly that time-honored act. At first the plan was to organize + Nebraska as a single Territory extending from Texas to Canada. Later it + was proposed to organize separate Territories, one west of Missouri under + the name of Kansas, the other west of Iowa under the name of Nebraska. + Opposition came from Free-soilers, from Northern Whigs and a few Whigs + from the South, and from a large proportion of Northern Democrats. The + repeal of the Missouri Compromise came like a thunderbolt out of a clear + sky to the people of the North. For a time Douglas was the most unpopular + of political leaders and was apparently repudiated by his party. The first + name designating the opponents of the Douglas bill was "Anti-Nebraska + men," for which the name Republican was gradually substituted and in 1856 + became the accepted title of the party. + </p> + <p> + The provision for two territorial governments instead of one carried with + it the idea of a continued balance between slave and free States; Kansas, + being on a geographical parallel with the slave States, would probably + permit slavery, while Nebraska would be occupied by free-state immigrants. + Though this was a commonly accepted view, Eli Thayer of Worcester, + Massachusetts, and a few others took a different view. They proposed to + make an end of the discussion of the extension of slavery by sending free + men who were opposed to slavery to occupy the territory open for + settlement. To attain this object they organized an Emigrant Aid Company + incorporated under the laws of the State. Even before the bill was passed, + the corporation was in full working order. Thayer himself traveled + extensively throughout the Northern States stimulating interest in western + emigration, with the conviction that the disturbing question could be + peacefully settled in this way. California had thus been saved to freedom; + why not all other Territories? The new company had as adviser and + co-laborer Dr. Charles Robinson, who had crossed the Kansas Territory on + his way to California and had acquired valuable experience in the art of + state-building under peculiar conditions. + </p> + <p> + The first party sent out by the Emigrant Aid Company arrived in Kansas + early in August, 1854, and selected the site for the town of Lawrence. + During the later months of the year, four other parties were sent out, in + all numbering nearly seven hundred. Through extensive advertisement by the + company, through the general interest in the subject and the natural flow + of emigration to the West, Kansas was receiving large accessions of + free-state settlers. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the men of Missouri, some of whom had striven for a decade to + secure the privilege of extending slavery into the new Territory, were not + idle. Instantly upon the removal of legal barriers, they occupied adjacent + lands, founded towns, staked out claims, formed plans for preempting the + entire region and for forestalling or driving out all intruders. They had + at first the advantage of position, for they did not find it difficult to + maintain two homes, one in Kansas for purposes of voting and fighting and + another in Missouri for actual residence. Andrew H. Reeder, a Pennsylvania + Democrat of strong pro-slavery prejudices, was appointed first Governor of + the Territory. When he arrived in Kansas in October, 1854, there were + already several thousand settlers on the ground and others were + continually arriving. He appointed the 29th of November for the election + of a delegate to Congress. On that day several hundred Missourians came + into the Territory and voted. There was no violence and no contest; the + free-state men had no separate candidate. Notwithstanding the violence of + language used by opposing factions, notwithstanding the organization of + secret societies pledged to drive out all Northern intruders, there was no + serious disturbance until March 30, 1855, the day appointed for the + election of members of the territorial Legislature. On that day the + Missourians came full five thousand strong, armed with guns, bowie-knives, + and revolvers. They met with no resistance from the residents, who were + unarmed. They took charge of the precincts and chose pro-slavery delegates + with one exception. Governor Reeder protested and recommended to the + precincts the filing of protests. Only seven responded, however, and in + these cases new elections were held and contesting delegates elected. + </p> + <p> + The Governor issued certificates to these and to all those who in other + precincts had been chosen by the horde from Missouri. When the Legislature + met in July, the seven contests were decided in favor of the pro-slavery + party, the single freestate member resigned, and the assembly was + unanimous. + </p> + <p> + Governor Reeder fully expected that President Pierce would nullify the + election, and to this end he made a journey to Washington in April. On the + way he delivered a public address at Easton, Pennsylvania, describing in + lurid colors the outrage which had been perpetrated upon the people of + Kansas by the "border ruffians" from Missouri, and asserting that the + accounts in the Northern press had not been exaggerated. + </p> + <p> + While Governor Reeder in contact with the actual events in Kansas was + becoming an active Free-soiler, President Pierce in association with + Jefferson Davis and others of his party was developing active sympathies + with the people of western Missouri. To the President this invasion of + territory west of the slave State by Northern men aided by Northern + corporations seemed a violation of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and he sought + to induce Reeder to resign. This, however, the Governor positively refused + to do unless the President would formally approve his conduct in Kansas—an + endorsement which required more fortitude than President Pierce possessed. + On his return to Kansas, determined to do what he could to protect the + Kansas people from injustice, he called the Legislature to meet at Pawnee, + a point far removed from the Missouri border. Immediately upon their + organization at that place the members of the Legislature adjourned to + meet at Shawnee, near the border of Missouri. The Governor, who decided + that this action was illegal, then refused to recognize the Assembly at + the new place. A deadlock thus ensued which was broken on the 15th of + August by the removal of Governor Reeder and the appointment of Wilson + Shannon of Ohio in his place. In the meantime the territorial Legislature + had adjourned, having "enacted" an elaborate proslavery code made up from + the slave code of Missouri with a number of special adaptations. For + example, it was made a penitentiary offense to deny by speaking or + writing, or by printing, or by introducing any printed matter, the right + of persons to hold slaves in the Territory; no man was eligible to jury + service who was conscientiously opposed to holding slaves; and lawyers + were bound by oath to support the territorial statutes. + </p> + <p> + The free-state men, with the approval of Reeder, refused to recognize the + Legislature and inaugurated a movement in the fall of 1855 to adopt a + constitution and to organize a provisional territorial Government + preparatory to admission as a State, following in this respect the + procedure in California and Michigan. A convention met in Topeka in + October, 1855, and completed on the 11th of November the draft of a + constitution which prohibited slavery. On the 15th of December the + constitution was approved by a practically unanimous vote, only free-state + men taking part in the election. A month later a Legislature was elected + and at the same time Charles Robinson was elected Governor of the new + commonwealth. In the previous October, Reeder had been chosen Free-soil + delegate to Congress. The Topeka freestate Legislature met on the 4th of + March, 1856, and after petitioning Congress to admit Kansas under the + Topeka constitution, adjourned until the 4th of July pending the action of + Congress. Thus at the end of two years two distinct Governments had come + into existence within the Territory of Kansas. It speaks volumes for the + self-control and moderation of the two parties that no hostile encounter + had occurred between the contestants. When the armed Missourians came in + March, 1855, the unarmed settlers offered no resistance. Afterward, + however, they supplied themselves with Sharp's rifles and organized a + militia. With the advent of Governor Shannon in September, 1855, the + proslavery position was much strengthened. In November, in a quarrel over + a land claim, a free-state settler by the name of Dow was killed. The + murderer escaped, but a friend of the victim was accused of uttering + threats against a friend of the murderer. For this offense a posse led by + Sheriff Jones, a Missourian, seized him, and would have carried him away + if fourteen freestate men had not "persuaded" the Sheriff to surrender his + prisoner. This interference was accepted by the Missourians as a signal + for battle. The rescuers must be arrested and punished. A large force of + infuriated Missourians and pro-slavery settlers assembled for a raid upon + the town of Lawrence. In the meantime the Lawrence militia planned and + executed a systematic defense of the town. When the two armies came within + speaking distance, a parley ensued in which the Governor took a leading + part in settling the affair without a hostile shot. This is known in + Kansas history as the "Wakarusa War." + </p> + <p> + The progress of affairs in Kansas was followed with intense interest in + all parts of the country. North and South vied with each other in the + encouragement of emigration to Kansas. Colonel Buford of Alabama sold a + large number of slaves and devoted the proceeds to meeting the expense of + conducting a troop of three hundred men to Kansas in the winter of 1856. + They went armed with "the sword of the spirit," and all provided with + Bibles supplied by the leading churches. Arrived in the territory, they + were duly furnished with more worldly weapons and were drilled for action. + About the same time a parallel incident is said to have occurred in New + Haven, Connecticut. A deacon in one of the churches had enlisted a company + of seventy bound for Kansas. A meeting was held in the church to raise + money to defray expenses. The leader of the company declared that they + also needed rifles for self-defense. Forthwith Professor Silliman, of the + University, subscribed one Sharp's rifle, and others followed with like + pledges. Finally Henry Ward Beecher, who was the speaker of the occasion, + rose and promised that, if twenty-five rifles were pledged on the spot, + Plymouth Church in Brooklyn would be responsible for the remaining + twenty-five that were needed. He had already said in a previous address + that for the slaveholders of Kansas, Sharp's rifles were a greater moral + agency than the Bible. This led to the designation of the weapons as + "Beecher's Bibles." Such was the spirit which prevailed in the two + sections of the country. + </p> + <p> + President Pierce had now become intensely hostile towards the free-state + inhabitants of Kansas. Having recognized the Legislature elected on March + 30, 1855, as the legitimate Government, he sent a special message to + Congress on January 24, 1856, in which he characterized as revolutionary + the movement of the free-state men to organize a separate Government in + Kansas. From the President's point of view, the emissaries of the New + England Emigrant Aid Association were unlawful invaders. In this position + he not only had the support of the South, but was powerfully seconded by + Stephen A. Douglas and other Northern Democrats. + </p> + <p> + The attitude of the Administration at Washington was a source of great + encouragement to Sheriff Jones and his associates, who were anxious to + wreak their vengeance on the city of Lawrence for the outcome of the + Wakarusa War. Jones came to Lawrence apparently for the express purpose of + picking a quarrel, for he revived the old dispute about the rescuing party + of the previous fall. As a consequence one enraged opponent slapped him in + the face, and at last an unknown assassin entered the sheriff's tent by + night and inflicted a revolver wound in his back. Though the citizens of + Lawrence were greatly chagrined at this event and offered a reward for the + discovery of the assailant, the attack upon the sheriff was made the + signal for drastic procedure against the town of Lawrence. A grand jury + found indictments for treason against Reeder, Robinson, and other leading + citizens of the town. The United States marshal gave notice that he + expected resistance in making arrests and called upon all law-abiding + citizens of the Territory to aid in executing the law. It was a welcome + summons to the pro-slavery forces. Not only local militia companies + responded but also Buford's company and various companies from Missouri, + in all more than seven hundred men, with two cannon. It had always been + the set purpose of the free-state men not to resist federal authority by + force, unless as a last resort, and they had no intention of opposing the + marshal in making arrests. He performed his duty without hindrance and + then placed the armed troops under the command of Sheriff Jones, who + proceeded first to destroy the printing-press of the town of Lawrence. + Then, against the protest of the marshal and Colonel Buford, the + vindictive sheriff trained his guns upon the new hotel which was the pride + of the city; the ruin of the building was made complete by fire, while a + drunken mob pillaged the town. + </p> + <p> + On May 22, 1856, the day following the attack upon Lawrence, Charles + Sumner was struck down in the United States Senate on account of a speech + made in defense of the rights of Kansas settlers. The two events, which + were reported at the same time in the daily press, furnished the key-note + to the presidential campaign of that year, for nominating conventions + followed in a few days and "bleeding Kansas" was the all-absorbing issue. + In spite of the destruction of property in Lawrence and the arrest of the + leaders of the free-state party, Kansas had not been plunged into a state + of civil war. The free-state party had fired no hostile shot. Governor + Robinson and his associates still relied upon public opinion and they + accepted the wanton attack upon Lawrence as the best assurance that they + would yet win their cause by legal means. + </p> + <p> + A change, however, soon took place which is associated with the entrance + of John Brown into the history of Kansas. Brown and his sons were living + at Osawatomie, some thirty miles south of Lawrence. They were present at + the Wakarusa War in December, 1855, and were on their way to the defense + of Lawrence on May 21, 1856, when they were informed that the town had + been destroyed. Three days after this event Brown and his sons with two or + three others made a midnight raid upon their pro-slavery neighbors living + in the Pottawatomie valley and slew five men. The authors of this deed + were not certainly known until the publication of a confession of one of + the party in 1879, twenty years after the chief actor had won the + reputation of a martyr to the cause of liberty. The Browns, however, were + suspected at the time; warrants were out for their arrest; and their homes + were destroyed. + </p> + <p> + For more than three months after this incident, Kansas was in a state of + war; in fact, two distinct varieties of warfare were carried on. Publicly + organized companies on both sides engaged in acts of attack and defense, + while at the same time irresponsible secret bands were busy in violent + reprisals, in plunder and assassination. In both of these forms of + warfare, the free-state men proved themselves fully equal to their + opponents, and Governor Shannon was entirely unable to cope with the + situation. It is estimated that two hundred men were slain and two million + dollars' worth of property was destroyed. + </p> + <p> + The state of affairs in Kansas served to win many Northern Democrats to + the support of the Republicans. The Administration at Washington was held + responsible for the violence and bloodshed. The Democratic leaders in the + political campaign, determined now upon a complete change in the + Government of the Territory, appointed J. W. Geary as Governor and placed + General Smith in charge of the troops. The new incumbents, both from + Pennsylvania, entered upon their labors early in September, and before the + October state elections Geary was able to report that peace reigned + throughout the Territory. A prompt reaction in favor of the Democrats + followed. Buchanan, their presidential candidate, rejoiced in the fact + that order had been restored by two citizens of his own State. It was now + very generally conceded that Kansas would become a free State, and + intimate associates of Buchanan assured the public that he was himself of + that opinion and that if elected he would insure to the free-state party + evenhanded justice. Thousands of voters were thus won to Buchanan's + support. There was a general distrust of the Republican candidate as a man + lacking political experience, and a strong conservative reaction against + the idea of electing a President by the votes of only one section of the + country. At the election in November, Buchanan received a majority of + sixty of the electoral votes over Fremont, but in the popular vote he fell + short of a majority by nearly 400,000. Fillmore, candidate of the Whig and + the American parties, received 874,000 votes. + </p> + <p> + There was still profound distrust of the administration of the Territory + of Kansas, and the free-state settlers refused to vote at the election set + for the choosing of a new territorial Legislature in October. The result + was another pro-slavery assembly. Governor Geary, however, determined to + secure and enforce just treatment of both parties. He was at once brought + into violent conflict with the Legislature in an experience which was + almost an exact counterpart of that of Governor Reeder; and Washington did + not support his efforts to secure fair dealings. A pro-slavery deputation + visited President Pierce in February, 1857, and returned with the + assurance that Governor Geary would be removed. Without waiting for the + President to act, Geary resigned in disgust on the 4th of March. Of the + three Governors whom President Pierce appointed, two became active + supporters of the free-state party and a third, Governor Shannon, fled + from the territory in mortal terror lest he should be slain by members of + the party which he had tried to serve. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI. CHARLES SUMNER + </h2> + <p> + The real successor to John Quincy Adams as the protagonist of the + anti-slavery cause in Congress proved to be not Seward but Charles Sumner + of Massachusetts. This newcomer entered the Senate without previous + legislative experience but with an unusual equipment for the role he was + to play. A graduate of Harvard College at the age of nineteen, he had + entered upon the study of law in the newly organized law school in which + Joseph Story held one of the two professorships. He was admitted to the + bar in 1834, but three years later he left his slender law practice for a + long period of European travel. This three years' sojourn brought him into + intimate touch with the leading spirits in arts, letters, and public life + in England and on the Continent, and thus ripened his talents to their + full maturity. He returned to his law practice poor in pocket but rich in + the possession of lifelong friendships and happy memories. + </p> + <p> + Sumner's political career did not begin until 1847, when as a Whig he not + only opposed any further extension of slavery but strove to commit his + party to the policy of emancipation in all the States. Failing in this + attempt, Sumner became an active Free-soiler in 1848. He was twice a + candidate for Congress on the Free-soil ticket but failed of election. In + 1851 he was elected to the United States Senate by a coalition between his + party and the Democrats. This is the only public office he ever held, but + he was continuously reelected until his death in 1874. + </p> + <p> + John Quincy Adams had addressed audiences trained in the old school, which + did not defend slavery on moral grounds. Charles Sumner faced audiences of + the new school, which upheld the institution as a righteous moral order. + This explains the chief difference in the attitude of the two leaders. + Sumner, like Adams, began as an opponent of pro-slavery aggression, but he + went farther: he attacked the institution itself as a great moral evil. + </p> + <p> + As a constitutional lawyer Sumner is not the equal of his predecessor, + Daniel Webster. He is less original, less convincing in the enunciation of + broad general principles. He appears rather as a special pleader + marshaling all available forces against the one institution which assailed + the Union. In this particular work, he surpassed all others, for, with his + unbounded industry, he permitted no precedent, no legal advantage, no + incident of history, no fact in current politics fitted to strengthen his + cause, to escape his untiring search. He showed a marvelous skill in the + selection, arrangement, and presentation of his materials, and for his + models he took the highest forms of classic forensic utterance. + </p> + <p> + Sumner exhibited the ordinary aloofness and lack of familiarity with + actual conditions in the South which was characteristic of the New England + abolitionist. He perceived no race problem, no peculiar difficulty in the + readjustments of master and slave which were involved in emancipation, and + he ignored all obstacles to the accomplishment of his ends. Webster's + arraignment of South Carolina was directed against an alleged erroneous + dogma and only incidentally affected personal morality. The reaction, + therefore, was void of bitter resentment. Sumner's charges were directed + against alleged moral turpitude, and the classic form and scrupulous + regard for parliamentary rules which he observed only added to the feeling + of personal resentment on the part of his opponents. Some of the defenders + of slavery were themselves devoted students of the classics, but they + found that the orations of Demosthenes furnished nothing suited to their + purpose. The result was a humiliating exhibition of weakness, personal + abuse, and vindictiveness on their part. + </p> + <p> + There was a conspiracy of silence on the slavery question in 1852. Each of + the national parties was definitely committed to the support of the + compromise and especially to the faithful observance of the Fugitive Slave + Law. Free-soilers had distinctly declined in numbers and influence during + the four preceding years. Only a handful of members in each House of + Congress remained unaffiliated with the parties whose platforms had + ordained silence on the one issue of chief public concern. It was by a + mere accident in Massachusetts politics that Charles Sumner was sent to + the Senate as a man free on all public questions. + </p> + <p> + While the parties were making their nominations for the Presidency, Sumner + sought diligently for an opportunity in the Senate to give utterance to + the sentiments of his party on the repeal of the Fugitive Slave Act. But + not until late in August did he overcome the resistance of the combined + opposition and gain the floor. The watchmen were caught off guard when + Sumner introduced an amendment to an appropriation bill which enabled him + to deliver a carefully prepared address, several hours in length, calling + for the repeal of the law. + </p> + <p> + The first part of this speech is devoted to the general topic of the + relation of the national Government to slavery and was made in answer to + the demand of Calhoun and his followers for the direct national + recognition of slavery. For such a demand Sumner found no warrant. By the + decision of Lord Mansfield, said he, "the state of slavery" was declared + to be "of such a nature, that it is incapable of being introduced on any + reasons, moral or political, but ONLY BY POSITIVE LAW.... it is so odious, + that nothing can be suffered to support it but positive law." Adopting the + same principle, the Supreme Court of the State of Mississippi, a tribunal + of slaveholders, asserted that "slavery is condemned by reason and the + Laws of Nature. It exists, and can ONLY exist, through municipal + regulations." So also declared the Supreme Court of Kentucky and numerous + other tribunals. This aspect of the subject furnished Sumner occasion for + a masterly array of all the utterances in favor of liberty to be found in + the Constitution, in the Declaration of Independence, in the + constitutional conventions, in the principles of common law. All these led + up to and supported the one grand conclusion that, when Washington took + the oath as President of the United States, "slavery existed nowhere on + the national territory" and therefore "is in no respect a national + institution." Apply the principles of the Constitution in their purity, + then, and "in all national territories slavery will be impossible. On the + high seas, under the national flag, slavery will be impossible. In the + District of Columbia, slavery will instantly cease. Inspired by these + principles, Congress can give no sanction to slavery by the admission of + new slave States. Nowhere under the Constitution can the Nation by + legislation or otherwise, support slavery, hunt slaves, or hold property + in man.... As slavery is banished from the national jurisdiction, it will + cease to vex our national politics. It may linger in the States as a local + institution; but it will no longer engender national animosities when it + no longer demands national support." + </p> + <p> + The second part of Sumner's address dealt directly with the Fugitive Slave + Act of 1860. It is much less convincing and suggests more of the + characteristics of the special pleader with a difficult case. Sumner here + undertook to prove that Congress exceeded its powers when it presumed to + lay down rules for the rendition of fugitive slaves, and this task + exceeded even his power as a constitutional lawyer. + </p> + <p> + The circumstances under which Sumner attacked slavery were such as to have + alarmed a less self-centered man, for the two years following the + introduction of the Nebraska bill were marked by the most acrimonious + debate in the history of Congress, and by physical encounters, challenges, + and threats of violence. But though Congressmen carried concealed weapons, + Sumner went his way unarmed and apparently in complete unconcern as to any + personal danger, though it is known that he was fully aware that in the + faithful performance of what he deemed to be his duty he was incurring the + risk of assassination. + </p> + <p> + The pro-slavery party manifested on all occasions a disposition to make + the most of the weak point in Sumner's constitutional argument against the + Fugitive Slave Law. He was accused of taking an oath to support the + Constitution though at the same time intending to violate one of its + provisions. In a discussion, in June, 1854, over a petition praying for + the repeal of the Fugitive Slave Act, Senator Butler of South Carolina put + the question directly to Senator Sumner whether he would himself unite + with others in returning a fugitive to his master. Sumner's quick reply + was, "Is thy servant a dog that he should do this thing?" Enraged + Southerners followed this remark with a most bitter onslaught upon Sumner + which lasted for two days. When Sumner again got the floor, he said in + reference to Senator Butler's remark: "In fitful phrase, which seemed to + come from unconscious excitement, so common with the Senator, he shot + forth various cries about 'dogs,' and, among other things, asked if there + was any 'dog' in the Constitution? The Senator did not seem to bear in + mind, through the heady currents of that moment that, by the false + interpretation he fastens upon the Constitution, he has helped to nurture + there a whole kennel of Carolina bloodhounds, trained, with savage jaw and + insatiable in scent, for the hunt of flying bondmen. No, sir, I do not + believe that there is any 'kennel of bloodhounds,' or even any 'dog' in + the Constitution." Thereafter offensive personal references between the + Senators from Massachusetts and South Carolina became habitual. These + personalities were a source of regret to many of Sumner's best friends, + but they fill a small place, after all, in his great work. Nor were they + the chief source of rancor on the part of his enemies, for Southern + orators were accustomed to personalities in debate. Sumner was feared and + hated principally because his presence in Congress endangered the + institution of slavery. + </p> + <p> + Sumner's speech on the crime against Kansas was perhaps the most + remarkable effort of his career. It had been known for many weeks that + Sumner was preparing to speak upon the burning question, and his friends + had already expressed anxiety for his personal safety. For the larger part + of two days, May 19 and 20, 1856, he held the reluctant attention of the + Senate. For the delivery of this speech he chose a time which was most + opportune. The crime against Kansas had, in a sense, culminated in March + of the previous year, but the settlers had refused to submit to the + Government set up by hostile invaders. They had armed themselves for the + defense of their rights, had elected a Governor and a Legislature by + voluntary association, had called a convention, and had adopted a + constitution preparatory to admission to the Union. That constitution was + now before the Senate for approval. President Pierce, Stephen A. Douglas, + and all the Southern leaders had decided to treat as treasonable acts the + efforts of Kansas settlers to secure an orderly government. Their plans + for the arrest of the leaders were well advanced and the arrests were + actually made on the day after Sumner had concluded his speech. + </p> + <p> + A paragraph in the address is prophetic of what occurred within a week. + Douglas had introduced a bill recognizing the Legislature chosen by the + Missourians as the legal Government and providing for the formation of a + constitution under its initiative at some future date. After describing + this proposed action as a continuation of the crime against Kansas, Sumner + declared: "Sir, you cannot expect that the people of Kansas will submit to + the usurpation which this bill sets up and bids them bow before, as the + Austrian tyrant set up the ducal hat in the Swiss market-place. If you + madly persevere, Kansas will not be without her William Tell, who will + refuse at all hazards to recognize the tyrannical edict; and this will be + the beginning of civil war." + </p> + <p> + To keep historical sequence clear at this point, all thought of John Brown + should be eliminated, for he was then unknown to the public. It must be + remembered that Governor Robinson and the free-state settlers were, as + Sumner probably knew, prepared to resist the general Government as soon as + there should be a clear case of outrage for which the Administration at + Washington could be held directly responsible. Such a case occurred when + the United States marshal placed federal troops in the hands of Sheriff + Jones to assist in looting the town of Lawrence. Governor Robinson no + longer had any scruples in advising forcible resistance to all who used + force to impose upon Kansas a Government which the people had rejected. + </p> + <p> + In the course of his address Sumner compared Senators Butler and Douglas + to Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, saying: "The Senator from South Carolina + has read many books of chivalry, and believes himself a chivalrous knight, + with sentiments of honor and courage. Of course he has chosen a mistress + to whom he has made his vows, and who, though ugly to others, is always + lovely to him; though polluted in the sight of the world, is chaste in his + sight. I mean the harlot Slavery. Let her be impeached in character, or + any proposition be made to shut her out from the extension of her + wantonness, and no extravagance of manner or hardihood of assertion is + then too great for the Senator." + </p> + <p> + When Sumner concluded, the gathering storm broke forth. Cass of Michigan, + after saying that he had listened to the address with equal surprise and + regret, characterized it as "the most unAmerican and unpatriotic that ever + grated on the ears of the members of that high body." Douglas and Mason + were personal and abusive. Douglas, recalling Sumner's answer to Senator + Butler's question whether he would assist in returning a slave, renewed + the charge made two years earlier that Sumner had violated his oath of + office. This attack called forth from Sumner another attempt to defend the + one weak point in his speech of 1852, for he was always irritated by + reference to this subject, and at the same time he enjoyed a fine facility + in the use of language which irritated others. + </p> + <p> + One utterance in Douglas's reply to Sumner is of special significance in + view of what occurred two days later: "Is it his object to provoke some of + us to kick him as we would a dog in the street, that he may get sympathy + upon the just chastisement?" Two days later Sumner was sitting alone at + his desk in the Senate chamber after adjournment when Preston Brooks, a + nephew of Senator Butler and a member of the lower House, entered and + accosted him with the statement that he had read Sumner's speech twice and + that it was a libel on South Carolina and upon a kinsman of his. Thereupon + Brooks followed his words by striking Sumner on the head with a cane. + Though the Senator was dazed and blinded by the unexpected attack, his + assailant rained blow after blow until he had broken the cane and Sumner + lay prostrate and bleeding at his feet. Brooks's remarks in the House of + Representatives almost a month after the event leave no doubt of his + determination to commit murder had he failed to overcome his antagonist + with a cane. He had also taken the precaution to have two of his friends + ready to prevent any interference before the punishment was completed. + Toombs of Georgia witnessed a part of the assault and expressed approval + of the act, and everywhere throughout the South, in the public press, in + legislative halls, in public meetings, Brooks was hailed as a hero. The + resolution for his expulsion introduced in the House received the support + of only one vote from south of Mason and Dixon's Line. A large majority + favored the resolution, but not the required two-thirds majority. Brooks, + however, thought best to resign but was triumphantly returned to his seat + with only six votes against him. Nothing was left undone to express + Southern gratitude, and he received gifts of canes innumerable as symbols + of his valor. Yet before his death, which occurred in the following + January, he confessed to his friend Orr that he was sick of being regarded + as the representative of bullies and disgusted at receiving testimonials + of their esteem. + </p> + <p> + With similar unanimity the North condemned and resented the assault that + had been made upon Sumner. From party considerations, if for no other + reasons, Democrats regretted the event. Republicans saw in the brutal + attack and in the manner of its reception in the South another evidence of + the irrepressible conflict between slavery and freedom. They were ready to + take up the issue so forcibly presented by their fallen leader. A part of + the regular order of exercises at public meetings of Republicans was to + express sympathy with their wounded champion and with the Kansas people of + the pillaged town of Lawrence, and to adopt ways and means to bring to an + end the Administration which they held responsible for these outrages. + Sumner, though silenced, was eloquent in a new and more effective way. A + half million copies of "The Crime against Kansas" were printed and + circulated. On the issue thus presented, Northern Democrats became + convinced that their defeat at the pending election was certain, and their + leaders instituted the change in their program which has been described in + a previous chapter. They had made an end of the war in Kansas and drew + from their candidate for the Presidency the assurance that just treatment + should at last be meted out to harassed Kansas. + </p> + <p> + Though Sumner's injuries were at first regarded as slight, they eventually + proved to be extremely serious. After two attempts to resume his place in + the Senate, he found that he was unable to remain; yet when his term + expired, he was almost unanimously reelected. Much of his time for three + and a half years he spent in Europe. In December, 1859, he seemed + sufficiently recovered to resume senatorial duties, but it was not until + the following June that he again addressed the Senate. On that occasion he + delivered his last great philippic against slavery. The subject under + discussion was still the admission of Kansas as a free State, and, as he + remarked in his opening sentences, he resumed the discussion precisely + where he had left off more than four years before. + </p> + <p> + Sumner had assumed the task of uttering a final word against slavery as + barbarism and a barrier to civilization. He spoke under the impelling + power of a conviction in his God-given mission to utilize a great occasion + to the full and for a noble end. For this work his whole life had been a + preparation. Accustomed from early youth to spend ten hours a day with + books on law, history, and classic literature, he knew as no other man + then knew what aid the past could offer to the struggle for freedom. The + bludgeon of the would-be assassin had not impaired his memory, and four + years of enforced leisure enabled him to fulfill his highest ideals of + perfect oratorical form. Personalities he eliminated from this final + address, and blemishes he pruned away. In his earlier speeches he had been + limited by the demands of the particular question under discussion, but in + "The Barbarism of Slavery" he was free to deal with the general subject, + and he utilized incidents in American slavery to demonstrate the general + upward trend of history. The orator was sustained by the full + consciousness that his utterances were in harmony with the grand sweep of + historic truth as well as with the spirit of the present age. + </p> + <p> + Sumner was not a party man and was at no time in complete harmony with his + coworkers. It was always a question whether his speeches had a favorable + effect upon the immediate action of Congress; there can, however, be no + doubt of the fact that the larger public was edified and influenced. + Copies of "The Crime against Kansas" and "The Barbarism of Slavery" were + printed and circulated by the million and were eagerly read from beginning + to end. They gave final form to the thoughts and utterances of many + political leaders both in America and in Europe. More than any other man + it was Charles Sumner who, with a wealth of historical learning and great + skill in forensic art, put the irrepressible conflict between slavery and + freedom in its proper setting in human history. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII. KANSAS AND BUCHANAN + </h2> + <p> + In view of the presidential election of 1856 Northern Democrats + entertained no doubts that Kansas, now occupied by a majority of + free-state men, would be received as a free State without further ado. The + case was different with the Democrats of western Missouri, already for ten + years in close touch with those Southern leaders who were determined + either to secure new safeguards for slavery or to form an independent + confederacy. Their program was to continue their efforts to make Kansas a + slave State or at least to maintain the disturbance there until the + conditions appeared favorable for secession. + </p> + <p> + In February, 1857, the pro-slavery territorial Legislature provided for + the election of delegates to a constitutional convention, but Governor + Geary vetoed the act because no provision was made for submitting the + proposed constitution to the vote of the people. The bill was passed over + his veto, and arrangements were made for registration which free-state men + regarded as imperfect, inadequate, or fraudulent. + </p> + <p> + President Buchanan undoubtedly intended to do full justice to the people + of Kansas. To this end he chose Robert J. Walker, a Mississippi Democrat, + as Governor of Kansas. Walker was a statesman of high rank, who had been + associated with Buchanan in the Cabinet of James K. Polk. Three times he + refused to accept the office and finally undertook the mission only from a + sense of duty. Being aware of the fate of Governor Geary, Walker insisted + on an explicit understanding with Buchanan that his policies should not be + repudiated by the federal Administration. Late in May he went to Kansas + with high hopes and expectations. But the free-state party had persisted + in the repudiation of a Government which had been first set up by an + invading army and, as they alleged, had since then been perpetuated by + fraud. They had absolutely refused to take part in any election called by + that Government and had continued to keep alive their own legislative + assembly. Despite Walker's efforts to persuade them to take part in the + election of delegates to the constitutional convention, they resolutely + held aloof. Yet, as they became convinced that he was acting in good + faith, they did participate in the October elections to the territorial + Legislature, electing nine out of the thirteen councilors and twenty-four + out of the thirty-nine representatives. Gross frauds had been perpetrated + in two districts, and the Governor made good his promise by rejecting the + fraudulent votes. In one case a poll list had been made up by copying an + old Cincinnati register. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime, thanks to the abstention of the free-state people, the + pro-slavery party had secured absolute control of the constitutional + convention. Yet there was the most absolute assurance by the Governor in + the name of the President of the United States that no constitution would + be sent to Congress for approval which had not received the sanction of a + majority of the voters of the Territory. This was Walker's reiterated + promise, and President Buchanan had on this point been equally explicit. + </p> + <p> + When, therefore, the pro-slavery constitutional convention met at + Lecompton in October, Kansas had a free-state Legislature duly elected. To + make Kansas still a slave State it was necessary to get rid of that + Legislature and of the Governor through whose agency it had been chosen, + and at the same time to frame a constitution which would secure the + approval of the Buchanan Administration. Incredible as it may seem, all + this was actually accomplished. + </p> + <p> + John Calhoun, who had been chosen president of the Lecompton convention, + spent some time in Washington before the adjourned meeting of the + convention. He secured the aid of master-hands at manipulation. Walker had + already been discredited at the White House on account of his rejection of + fraudulent returns at the October election of members to the Legislature. + The convention was unwilling to take further chances on a matter of that + sort, and it consequently made it a part of the constitution that the + president of the convention should have entire charge of the election to + be held for its approval. The free-state legislature was disposed of by + placing in the constitution a provision that all existing laws should + remain in force until the election of a Legislature provided for under the + constitution. + </p> + <p> + The master-stroke of the convention, however, was the provision for + submitting the constitution to the vote of the people. Voters were not + permitted to accept or reject the instrument; all votes were to be for the + constitution either "with slavery" or "with no slavery." But the document + itself recognized slavery as already existing and declared the right of + slave property like other property "before and higher than any + constitutional sanction." Other provisions made emancipation difficult by + providing in any case for complete monetary remuneration and for the + consent of the owners. There were numerous other provisions offensive to + free-state men. It had been rightly surmised that they would take no part + in such an election and that "the constitution with slavery" would be + approved. The vote on the constitution was set for the 21st of December. + For the constitution with slavery 6226 votes were recorded and 569 for the + constitution without slavery. + </p> + <p> + While these events were taking place, Walker went to Washington to enter + his protest but resigned after finding only a hostile reception by the + President and his Cabinet. Stanton, who was acting Governor in the absence + of Walker, then called together the free-state Legislature, which set + January 4, 1858, as the date for approving or rejecting the Lecompton + Constitution. At this election the votes cast were 138 for the + constitution with slavery, 24 for the constitution without slavery, and + 10,226 against the constitution. But President Buchanan had become + thoroughly committed to the support of the Lecompton Constitution. + Disregarding the advice of the new Governor, he sent the Lecompton + Constitution to Congress with the recommendation that Kansas be admitted + to the Union as a slave State. + </p> + <p> + Here was a crisis big with the fate of the Democratic party, if not of the + Union. Stephen A. Douglas had already given notice that he would oppose + the Lecompton Constitution. In favor of its rejection he made a notable + speech which called forth the bitterest enmity from the South and arrayed + all the forces of the Administration against him. Supporters of Douglas + were removed from office, and anti-Douglas men were put in their places. + In his fight against the fraudulent constitution Douglas himself, however, + still had the support of a majority of Northern Democrats, especially in + the Western States, and that of all the Republicans in Congress. A bill to + admit Kansas passed the Senate, but in the House a proviso was attached + requiring that the constitution should first be submitted to the people of + Kansas for acceptance or rejection. This amendment was finally accepted by + the Senate with the modification that, if the people voted for the + constitution, the State should have a large donation of public land, but + that if they rejected it, they should not be admitted as a State until + they had a population large enough to entitle them to a representative in + the lower House. The vote of the people was cast on August 2, 1858, and + the constitution was finally rejected by a majority of nearly twelve + thousand. Thus resulted the last effort to impose slavery on the people of + Kansas. + </p> + <p> + Although the war between slavery and freedom was fought out in miniature + in Kansas, the immediate issue was the preservation of slavery in + Missouri. This, however, involved directly the prospect of emancipation in + other border States and ultimate complete emancipation in all the States. + The issue is well stated in a Fourth of July address which Charles + Robinson delivered at Lawrence, Kansas, in 1855, after the invasion of + Missourians to influence the March election of that year, but before the + beginning of bloody conflict: + </p> + <p> + "What reason is given for the cowardly invasion of our rights by our + neighbors? They say that if Kansas is allowed to be free the institution + of slavery in their own State will be in danger.... If the people of + Missouri make it necessary, by their unlawful course, for us to establish + freedom in that State in order to enjoy the liberty of governing ourselves + in Kansas, then let that be the issue. If Kansas and the whole North must + be enslaved, or Missouri become free, then let her be made free. Aye! and + if to be free ourselves, slavery must be abolished in the whole country, + then let us accept that due. If black slavery in a part of the States is + incompatible with white freedom in any State, then let black slavery be + abolished from all. As men espousing the principles of the Declaration of + the Fathers, we can do nothing else than accept these issues." + </p> + <p> + The men who saved Kansas to freedom were not abolitionists in the + restricted sense. Governor Walker found in 1857 that a considerable + majority of the free-state men were Democrats and that some were from the + South. Nearly all actual settlers, from whatever source they came, were + free-state men who felt that a slave was a burden in such a country as + Kansas. For example, during the first winter of the occupation of Kansas, + an owner of nineteen slaves was himself forced to work like a trooper to + keep them from freezing; and, indeed, one of them did freeze to death and + another was seriously injured. + </p> + <p> + In spite of all the advertising of opportunity and all the pressure + brought to bear upon Southerners to settle in Kansas, at no time did the + number of slaves in the Territory reach three hundred. The climate and the + soil made for freedom, and the Governors were not the only persons who + were converted to free-state principles by residence in the Territory. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII. THE SUPREME COURT IN POLITICS + </h2> + <p> + The decision and arguments of the Supreme Court upon the Dred Scott case + were published on March 6, 1857, two days after the inauguration of + President Buchanan. The decision had been agreed upon many months before, + and the appeal of the negro, Dred Scott, had been decided by rulings which + in no way involved the validity of the Missouri Compromise. Nevertheless, + a majority of the judges determined to give to the newly developed theory + of John C. Calhoun the appearance of the sanctity of law. According to + Chief Justice Taney's dictum, those who made the Constitution gave to + those clauses defining the power of Congress over the Territories an + erroneous meaning. On numerous occasions Congress had by statute excluded + slavery from the public domain. This, in the judgment of the Chief + Justice, they had no right to do, and such legislation was + unconstitutional and void. Specifically the Missouri Compromise had never + had any binding force as law. Property in slaves was as sacred as property + in any other form, and slave-owners had equal claim with other property + owners to protection in all the Territories of the United States. Neither + Congress nor a territorial Legislature could infringe such equal rights. + </p> + <p> + According to popular understanding, the Supreme Court declared "that the + negro has no rights which the white man is bound to respect." But Chief + Justice Taney did not use these words merely as an expression of his own + or of the Court's opinion. He used them in a way much more contemptible + and inexcusable to the minds of men of strong anti-slavery convictions. He + put them into the mouths of the fathers of the Republic, who wrote the + Declaration of Independence, framed the Constitution, organized state + Governments, and gave to negroes full rights of citizenship, including the + right to vote. But how explain this strange inconsistency? The Chief + Justice was equal to the occasion. He insisted that in recent years there + had come about a better understanding of the phraseology of the + Declaration of Independence. The words, "All men are created equal," he + admitted, "would seem to embrace the whole human family, and if they were + used in a similar instrument at this day they would be so understood." But + the writers of that instrument had not, he said, intended to include men + of the African race, who were at that time regarded as not forming any + part of the people. Therefore—strange logic!—these men of the + revolutionary era who treated negroes actually as citizens having full + equal rights did not understand the meaning of their own words, which + could be comprehended only after three-quarters of a century when, + forsooth, equal rights had been denied to all persons of African descent. + </p> + <p> + The ruling of the Court in the Dred Scott case came at a time when + Northern people had a better idea of the spirit and teachings of the + founders of the Republic regarding the slavery question than any + generation before or since has had. The campaign that had just closed had + been characterized by a high order of discussion, and it was also + emphatically a reading campaign. The new Republican party planted itself + squarely on the principles enunciated by Thomas Jefferson, the reputed + founder of the old Republican party. They went back to the policy of the + fathers, whose words on the subject of slavery they eagerly read. From + this source also came the chief material for their public addresses. To + the common man who was thus indoctrinated, the Chief Justice, in + describing the sentiments of the fathers respecting slavery, appeared to + be doing what Horace Greeley was wont to describe as "saying a thing and + being conscious while saying it that the thing is not true." + </p> + <p> + The Dred Scott decision laid the Republicans open to the charge of seeking + by unlawful means to deprive slaveowners of their rights, and it was to + the partizan interest of the Democrats to stand by the Court and thus + discredit their opponents. This action tended to carry the entire + Democratic party to the support of Calhoun's extreme position on the + slavery question. Republicans had proclaimed that liberty was national and + slavery municipal; that slavery had no warrant for existence except by + state enactment; that under the Constitution Congress had no more right to + make a slave than it had to make a king; that Congress had no power to + establish or permit slavery in the Territories; that it was, on the + contrary, the duty of Congress to exclude slavery. On these points the + Supreme Court and the Republican party held directly contradictory + opinions. + </p> + <p> + The Democratic platform of 1856 endorsed the doctrine of popular + sovereignty as embodied in the Kansas-Nebraska legislation, which implied + that Congress should neither prohibit nor introduce slavery into the + Territories, but should leave the inhabitants free to decide that question + for themselves, the public domains being open to slaveowners on equal + terms with others. But once they had an organized territorial Government + and a duly elected territorial Legislature, the residents of a Territory + were empowered to choose either slave labor or exclusively free labor. + This at least was the view expounded by Stephen A. Douglas, though the + theory was apparently rendered untenable by the ruling of the Court which + extended protection to slave-owners in all the Territories remaining under + the control of the general Government. It followed that if Congress had no + power to interfere with that right, much less had a local territorial + Government, which is itself a creature of Congress. A state Government + alone might control the status of slave property. A Territory when + adopting a constitution preparatory to becoming a State would find it then + in order to decide whether the proposed State should be free or slave. + This was the view held by Jefferson Davis and the extreme pro-slavery + leaders. Aided by the authority of the Supreme Court, they were prepared + to insist upon a new plank in future Democratic platforms which should + guarantee to all slave-owners equal rights in all Territories until they + ceased to be Territories. Over this issue the party again divided in 1860. + </p> + <p> + Republicans naturally imagined that there had been collusion between + Democratic politicians and members of the Supreme Court. Mr. Seward made + an explicit statement to that effect, and affirmed that President Buchanan + was admitted into the secret, alleging as proof a few words in his + inaugural address referring to the decision soon to be delivered. Nothing + of the sort, however, was ever proven. The historian Von Holst presents + the view that there had been a most elaborate and comprehensive program on + the part of the slavocracy to control the judiciary of the federal + Government. The actual facts, however, admit of a simpler and more + satisfactory explanation. + </p> + <p> + Judges are affected by their environment, as are other men. The transition + from the view that slavery was an evil to the view that it is right and + just did not come in ways open to general observation, and probably few + individuals were conscious of having altered their views. Leading churches + throughout the South began to preach the doctrine that slavery is a + divinely ordained institution, and by the time of the decision in the Dred + Scott case a whole generation had grown up under such teaching. + </p> + <p> + A large proportion of Southern leaders had become thoroughly convinced of + the righteousness of their peculiar system. Not otherwise could they have + been so successful in persuading others to accept their views. Even before + the Dred Scott decision had crystallized opinion, Franklin Pierce, + although a New Hampshire Democrat of anti-slavery traditions, came, as a + result of his intimate personal and political association with Southern + leaders, to accept their guidance and strove to give effect to their + policies. President Buchanan was a man of similar antecedents, and, + contrary to the expectation of his Northern supporters, did precisely as + Pierce had done. It is a matter of record that the arguments of the Chief + Justice had captivated his mind before he began to show his changed + attitude towards Kansas. In August, 1857, the President wrote that, at the + time of the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, slavery already existed + and that it still existed in Kansas under the Constitution of the United + States. "This point," said he, "has at last been settled by the highest + tribunal known in our laws. How it could ever have been seriously doubted + is a mystery." Granted that slavery is recognized as a permanent + institution in itself—just and of divine ordinance and especially + united to one section of the country—how could any one question the + equal rights of the people of that section to occupy with their slaves + lands acquired by common sacrifice? Such was undoubtedly the view of both + Pierce and Buchanan. It seemed to them "wicked" that Northern + abolitionists should seek to infringe this sacred right. + </p> + <p> + By a similar process a majority of the Supreme Court justices had become + converts to Calhoun's newly announced theory of 1847. It undoubtedly + seemed strange to them, as it did later to President Buchanan, that any + one should ever have held a different view. If the Court with the force of + its prestige should give legal sanction to the new doctrine, it would + allay popular agitation, ensure the preservation of the Union, and secure + to each section its legitimate rights. Such apparently was the expectation + of the majority of the Court in rendering the decision. But the decision + was not unanimous. Each judge presented an individual opinion. Five + supported the Chief Justice on the main points as to the status of the + African race and the validity of the Missouri Compromise. Judge Nelson + registered a protest against the entrance of the Court into the political + arena. Curtis and McLean wrote elaborate dissenting opinions. Not only did + the decision have no tendency to allay party debate, but it added greatly + to the acrimony of the discussion. Republicans accepted the dissenting + opinions of Curtis and McLean as a complete refutation of the arguments of + the Chief Justice; and the Court itself, through division among its + members, became a partizan institution. The arguments of the justices thus + present a complete summary of the views of the proslavery and anti-slavery + parties, and the opposing opinions stand as permanent evidence of the + impossibility of reconciling slavery and freedom in the same government. + </p> + <p> + It was through the masterful leadership of Stephen A. Douglas that the + Lecompton Constitution was defeated. In 1858 an election was to be held in + Illinois to determine whether or not Douglas should be reelected to the + United States Senate. The Buchanan Administration was using its utmost + influence to insure Douglas's defeat. Many eastern Republicans believed + that in this emergency Illinois Republicans should support Douglas, or at + least that they should do nothing to diminish his chances for reelection; + but Illinois Republicans decided otherwise and nominated Abraham Lincoln + as their candidate for the senatorship. Then followed the memorable + Lincoln-Douglas debates. + </p> + <p> + This is not the place for any extended account of the famous duel between + the rival leaders, but a few facts must be stated. Lincoln had slowly come + to the perception that a large portion of the people abhorred slavery, and + that the weak point in the armor of Douglas was to be found in the fact + that he did not recognize this growing moral sense. Douglas had never been + a defender of slavery on ethical grounds, nor had he expressed any + distinct aversion to the system. In support of his policy of popular + sovereignty his favorite dictum had been, "I do not care whether slavery + is voted up or voted down." + </p> + <p> + This apparent moral obtuseness furnished to Lincoln his great opportunity, + for his opponent was apparently without a conscience in respect to the + great question of the day. Lincoln, on the contrary, had reached the + conclusion not only that slavery was wrong, but that the relation between + slavery and freedom was such that they could not be harmonized within the + same government. In the debates he again put forth his famous utterance, + "A house divided against itself cannot stand," with the explanation that + in course of time either this country would become all slave territory or + slavery would be restricted and placed in a position which would involve + its final extinction. In other words, Lincoln's position was similar to + that of the conservative abolitionists. As we know, Birney had given + expression to a similar conviction of the impossibility of maintaining + both liberty and slavery in this country, but Lincoln spoke at a time when + the whole country had been aroused upon the great question; when it was + still uncertain whether slavery would not be forced upon the people of + Kansas; when the highest court in the land had rendered a decision which + was apparently intended to legalize slavery in all Territories; and when + the alarming question had been raised whether the next step would not be + legalization in all the States. + </p> + <p> + Lincoln was a long-headed politician, as well as a man of sincere moral + judgments. He was defining issues for the campaign of 1860 and was putting + Douglas on record so that it would be impossible for him, as the candidate + of his party, to become President. Douglas had many an uncomfortable hour + as Lincoln exposed his vain efforts to reconcile his popular sovereignty + doctrine with the Dred Scott decision. As Lincoln expected, Douglas won + the senatorship, but he lost the greater prize. + </p> + <p> + The crusade against slavery was nearing its final stage. Under the + leadership of such men as Sumner, Seward, and Lincoln, a political party + was being formed whose policies were based upon the assumption that + slavery is both a moral and a political evil. Even at this stage the party + had assumed such proportions that it was likely to carry the ensuing + presidential election. Davis and Yancey, the chief defenders of slavery, + were at the same time reaching a definite conclusion as to what should + follow the election of a Republican President. And that conclusion + involved nothing less than the fate of the Union. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV. JOHN BROWN + </h2> + <p> + The crusade against slavery was based upon the assumption that slavery, + like war, is an abnormal state of society. As the tyrant produces the + assassin, so on a larger scale slavery calls forth servile insurrection, + or, as in the United States, an implacable struggle between free white + persons and the defenders of slavery. + </p> + <p> + The propaganda of Southern and Western abolitionists had as a primary + object the prevention of both servile insurrection and civil war. It was + as clear to Southern abolitionists in the thirties as it was to Seward and + Lincoln in the fifties that, unless the newly aroused slave power should + be effectively checked, a terrible civil war would ensue. To forestall + this dreaded calamity, they freely devoted their lives and fortunes. + Peaceable emancipation by state action, according to the original program, + was prevented by the rise of a sectional animosity which beclouded the + issue. As the leadership drifted into the hands of extremists, the + conservative masses were confused, misled, or deceived. The South + undoubtedly became the victim of the erroneous teachings of alarmists who + believed that the anti-slavery North intended, by unlawful and + unconstitutional federal action, to abolish slavery in all the States; + while the North had equally exaggerated notions as to the aggressive + intentions of the South. + </p> + <p> + The opposing forces finally met on the plains of Kansas, and extreme + Northern opposition became personified in John Brown of Osawatomie. He was + born in Connecticut in May, 1800, of New England ancestry, the sixth + generation from the Mayflower. A Calvinist, a mystic, a Bible-reading + Puritan, he was trained to anti-slavery sentiments in the family of Owen + Brown, his father. He passed his early childhood in the Western Reserve of + Ohio, and subsequently moved from Ohio to New York, to Pennsylvania, to + Ohio again, to Connecticut, to Massachusetts, and finally to New York once + more. He was at various times tanner, farmer, sheep-raiser, horse-breeder, + wool-merchant, and a follower of other callings as well. From a business + standpoint he may be regarded as a failure, for he had been more than once + a bankrupt and involved in much litigation. He was twice married and was + the father of twenty children, eight of whom died in infancy. + </p> + <p> + Until the Kansas excitement nothing had occurred in the history of the + Brown family to attract public attention. John Brown was not conspicuous + in anti-slavery efforts or in any line of public reform. As a mere lad + during the War of 1812 he accompanied his father, who was furnishing + supplies to the army, and thus he saw much of soldiers and their officers. + The result was that he acquired a feeling of disgust for everything + military, and he consistently refused to perform the required military + drill until he had passed the age for service. Not quite in harmony with + these facts is the statement that he was a great admirer of Oliver + Cromwell, and Rhodes says of him that he admired Nat Turner, the leader of + the servile insurrection in Virginia, as much as he did George Washington. + There seems to be no reason to doubt the testimony of the members of his + family that John Brown always cherished a lively interest in the African + race and a deep sympathy with them. As a youth he had chosen for a + companion a slave boy of his own age, to whom he became greatly attached. + This slave, badly clad and poorly fed, beaten with iron shovel or anything + that came first to hand, young Brown grew to regard as his equal if not + his superior. And it was the contrast between their respective conditions + that first led Brown to "swear eternal war with slavery." In later years + John Brown, Junior, tells us that, on seeing a negro for the first time, + he felt so great a sympathy for him that he wanted to take the negro home + with him. This sympathy, he assures us, was a result of his father's + teaching. Upon the testimony of two of John Brown's sons rests the + oft-repeated story that he declared eternal war against slavery and also + induced the members of his family to unite with him in formal consecration + to his mission. The time given for this incident is previous to the year + 1840; the idea that he was a divinely chosen agent for the deliverance of + the slaves was of later development. + </p> + <p> + As early as 1834 Brown had shown some active interest in the education of + negro children, first in Pennsylvania and later in Ohio. In 1848 the Brown + family became associated with an enterprise of Gerrit Smith in northern + New York, where a hundred thousand acres of land were offered to negro + families for settlement. During the excitement over the Fugitive Slave Act + of 1850 Brown organized among the colored people of Springfield, + Massachusetts, "The United States League of Gileadites." As an + organization this undertaking proved a failure, but Brown's formal written + instructions to the "Gileadites" are interesting on account of their + relation to what subsequently happened. In this document, by referring to + the multitudes who had suffered in their behalf, he encouraged the negroes + to stand for their liberties. He instructed them to be armed and ready to + rush to the rescue of any of their number who might be attacked: + </p> + <p> + "Should one of your number be arrested, you must collect together as + quickly as possible, so as to outnumber your adversaries who are taking an + active part against you. Let no able-bodied man appear on the ground + unequipped, or with his weapons exposed to view: let that be understood + beforehand. Your plans must be known only to yourself, and with the + understanding that all traitors must die, wherever caught and proven to be + guilty. Whosoever is fearful or afraid, let him return and depart early + from Mount Gilead" (Judges, vii. 3; Deut. xx. 8). Give all cowards an + opportunity to show it on condition of holding their peace. Do NOT DELAY + ONE MOMENT AFTER YOU ARE READY: YOU WILL LOSE ALL YOUR RESOLUTION IF YOU + DO. LET THE FIRST BLOW BE THE SIGNAL FOR ALL TO ENGAGE: AND WHEN ENGAGED + DO NOT DO YOUR WORK BY HALVES, BUT MAKE CLEAN WORK WITH YOUR ENEMIES,—AND + BE SURE YOU MEDDLE NOT WITH ANY OTHERS. By going about your business + quietly, you will get the job disposed of before the number that an uproar + would bring together can collect; and you will have the advantage of those + who come out against you, for they will be wholly unprepared with either + equipments or matured plans; all with them will be confusion and terror. + Your enemies will be slow to attack you after you have done up the work + nicely; and if they should, they will have to encounter your white friends + as well as you; for you may safely calculate on a division of the whites, + and may by that means get to an honorable parley." + </p> + <p> + He gives here a distinct suggestion of the plans and methods which he + later developed and extended. + </p> + <p> + When Kansas was opened for settlement, John Brown was fifty-four years + old. Early in the spring of 1855, five of his sons took up claims near + Osawatomie. They went, as did others, as peaceable settlers without arms. + After the election of March 30, 1855, at which armed Missourians overawed + the Kansas settlers and thus secured a unanimous pro-slavery Legislature, + the freestate men, under the leadership of Robinson, began to import + Sharp's rifles and other weapons for defense. Brown's sons thereupon wrote + to their father, describing their helpless condition and urging him to + come to their relief. In October, 1855, John Brown himself arrived with an + adequate supply of rifles and some broadswords and revolvers. The process + of organization and drill thereupon began, and when the Wakarusa War + occurred early in December, 1855, John Brown was on hand with a small + company from Osawatomie to assist in the defense of Lawrence. The + statement that he disapproved of the agreement with Governor Shannon which + prevented bloodshed is not in accord with a letter which John Brown wrote + to his wife immediately after the event. The Governor granted practically + all that the freestate men desired and recognized their trainbands as a + part of the police force of the Territory. Brown by this stipulation + became Captain John Brown, commander of a company of the territorial + militia. + </p> + <p> + Soon after the Battle of Wakarusa, Captain Brown passed the command of the + company of militia to his son John, while he became the leader of a small + band composed chiefly of members of his own family. Writing to his wife on + April 7, 1856, he said: "We hear that preparations are making in the + United States Court for numerous arrests of free-state men. For one I have + not desired (all things considered) to have the slave power cease from its + acts of aggression. 'Their foot shall slide in due time.'" This letter of + Brown's indicates that the writer was pleased at the prospect of + approaching trouble. + </p> + <p> + When, six weeks later, notice came of the attack upon Lawrence, John + Brown, Junior, went with the company of Osawatomie Rifles to the relief of + the town, while the elder Brown with a little company of six moved in the + same direction. In a letter to his wife, dated June 26, 1856, more than a + month after the massacre in Pottawatomie Valley, Brown said: + </p> + <p> + "On our way to Lawrence we learned that it had been already destroyed, and + we encamped with John's company overnight.... On the second day and + evening after we left John's men, we encountered quite a number of + pro-slavery men and took quite a number of prisoners. Our prisoners we let + go, but kept some four or five horses. We were immediately after this + accused of murdering five men at Pottawatomie and great efforts have been + made by the Missourians and their ruffian allies to capture us. John's + company soon afterwards disbanded, and also the Osawatomie men. Since + then, we have, like David of old, had our dwelling with the serpents of + the rocks and the wild beasts of the wilderness." + </p> + <p> + There will probably never be agreement as to Brown's motives in slaying + his five neighbors on May 24, 1856. Opinions likewise differ as to the + effect which this incident had on the history of Kansas. Abolitionists of + every class had said much about war and about servile insurrection, but + the conservative people of the West and South had mentioned the subject + only by way of warning and that they might point out ways of prevention. + Garrison and his followers had used language which gave rise to the + impression that they favored violent revolution and were not averse to + fomenting servile insurrection. They had no faith in the efforts of + Northern emigrants to save Kansas from the clutches of the slaveholding + South, and they denounced in severe terms the Robinson leadership there, + believing it sure to result in failure. To this class of abolitionists + John Brown distinctly belonged. He believed that so high was the tension + on the slavery question throughout the country that revolution, if + inaugurated at any point, would sweep the land and liberate the slaves. + Brown was also possessed of the belief that he was himself the divinely + chosen agent to let loose the forces of freedom; and that this was the + chief motive which prompted the deed at Pottawatomie is as probable as any + other. + </p> + <p> + Viewed in this light, the Pottawatomie massacre was measurably successful. + Opposing forces became more clearly defined and were pitted against each + other in hostile array. There were reprisals and counter-reprisals. Kansas + was plunged into a state of civil war, but it is quite probable that this + condition would have followed the looting of Lawrence even if John Brown + had been absent from the Territory. + </p> + <p> + Coincident with the warfare by organized companies, small irregular bands + infested the country. Kansas became a paradise for adventurers, soldiers + of fortune, horse thieves, cattle thieves, and marauders of various sorts. + Spoiling the enemy in the interest of a righteous cause easily degenerated + into common robbery and murder. It was chiefly in this sort of conflict + that two hundred persons were slain and that two million dollars' worth of + property was destroyed. + </p> + <p> + During this period of civil war the members of the Brown family were not + much in evidence. John Brown, Junior, captain of the Osawatomie Rifles, + was a political prisoner at Topeka. Swift destruction of their property + was visited upon all those members who were suspected of having a share in + the Pottawatomie murders, and their houses were burned and their other + property was seized. Warrants were out for the arrest of the elder Brown + and his sons. Captain Pate who, in command of a small troop, was in + pursuit of Brown and his company, was surprised at Black Jack in the early + morning and induced to surrender. Brown thus gained control of a number of + horses and other supplies and began to arrange terms for the exchange of + his son and Captain Pate as prisoners of war. The negotiations were + interrupted, however, by the arrival of Colonel Sumner with United States + troops, who restored the horses and other booty and disbanded all the + troops. With the Colonel was a deputy marshal with warrants for the arrest + of the Browns. When ordered to proceed with his duty, however, the marshal + was so overawed that, even though a federal officer was present, he merely + remarked, "I do not recognize any one for whom I have warrants." + </p> + <p> + After the capture of Captain Pate at Black Jack early in June, little is + known about Brown and his troops for two months. Apart from an encounter + of opposing forces near Osawatomie in which he and his band were engaged, + Brown took no share in the open fighting between the organized companies + of opposing forces, and his part in the irregular guerrilla warfare of the + period is uncertain. Towards the close of the war one of his sons was shot + by a preacher who alleged that he had been robbed by the Browns. After + peace had been restored to Kansas by the vigorous action of Governor + Geary, Brown left the scene and never again took an active part in the + local affairs of the Territory. + </p> + <p> + John Brown's influence upon the course of affairs in Kansas, like William + Lloyd Garrison's upon the general anti-slavery movement of the country, + has been greatly misunderstood and exaggerated. Brown's object and + intention were fundamentally contradictory to those of the freestate + settlers. They strove to build a free commonwealth by legal and + constitutional methods. He strove to inaugurate a revolution which would + extend to all pro-slavery States and result in universal emancipation. + John Brown was in Kansas only one year, and he never made himself at one + with those who should have been his fellow-workers but went his solitary + way. Only in three instances did he pretend to cooperate with the regular + freestate forces. He could not work with them because his conception of + the means to be adopted to attain the end was different from theirs. + Probably before he left the Territory in 1856, he had realized that his + work in Kansas was a failure and that the law-and-order forces were too + strong for the execution of his plans. Certain it is that within a few + weeks after his departure he had transferred the field of his operations + to the mountains of Virginia. Kansas became free through the persistent + determination of the rank and file of Northern settlers under the wise + leadership of Governor Robinson. It is difficult to determine whether the + cause of Kansas was aided or hindered by the advent of John Brown and the + adventurers with whom his name became associated. + </p> + <p> + During the fall of 1856 and until the late summer of 1857 Brown was in the + East raising funds for the redemption of Kansas and for the reimbursement + of those who had incurred or were likely to incur losses in defense of the + cause. For the equipment of a troop of soldiers under his own command he + formulated plans for raising $30,000 by private subscription, and in this + he was to a considerable extent successful. It can never be known how much + was given in this way to Brown for the equipment of his army of + liberation. It is estimated that George L. Stearns alone gave in all fully + $10,000. Because Eastern abolitionists had lost confidence in Robinson's + leadership, they lent a willing ear to the plea that Captain Brown with a + well-equipped and trained company of soldiers was the last hope for + checking the enemy. Not only would Kansas become a slave State without + such help, it was said, but the institution of slavery would spread into + all the Territories and become invincible. + </p> + <p> + The money was given to Brown to redeem Kansas, but he had developed an + alternative plan. Early in the year 1857, he met in New York Colonel Hugh + Forbes, a soldier of fortune who had seen service with Garibaldi in Italy. + They discussed general plans for an aggressive attack upon the South for + the liberation of the slaves, and with these plans the needs of Kansas had + little or no connection. "Kansas was to be a prologue to the real drama," + writes his latest biographer; "the properties of the one were to serve in + the other." In April six months' salary was advanced out of the Kansas + fund to Forbes, who was employed at a hundred dollars a month to aid in + the execution of their plans. Another significant expenditure of the + Kansas fund was in pursuance of a contract with a Mr. Blair, a Connecticut + manufacturer, to furnish at a dollar each one thousand pikes. Though the + contract was dated March 80, 1857, it was not completed until the fall of + 1859, when the weapons were delivered to Brown in Pennsylvania for use at + Harper's Ferry. + </p> + <p> + Instead of rushing to the relief of Kansas, as contributors had expected, + the leader exercised remarkable deliberation. When August arrived, it + found him only as far as Tabor, Iowa, where a considerable quantity of + arms had been previously assembled. Here he was joined by Colonel Forbes, + and together they organized a school of military tactics with Forbes as + instructor. But as Forbes could find no one but Brown and his son to + drill, he soon returned to the East, still trusted by Brown as a + co-worker. It would seem that Forbes himself wished to play the chief part + in the liberation of America. + </p> + <p> + While he was at Tabor, Brown was urged by Lane and other former associates + of his in Kansas to come to their relief with all his forces. There had, + indeed, been a full year of peace since Geary's arrival, but early in + October there was to occur the election of a territorial Legislature in + which the free-state forces had agreed to participate, and Lane feared an + invasion from Missouri. But although the appeal was not effective, the + election proved a complete triumph for the North. Late in October, after + the signal victory of the law-and-order party at the election, Brown was + again urged with even greater insistence to muster all his forces and come + to Kansas, and there were hints in Lane's letter that an aggressive + campaign was afoot to rid the Territory of the enemy. Instead of going in + force, however, Brown stole into the Territory alone. On his arrival, two + days after the date set for a decisive council of the revolutionary + faction, he did not make himself known to Governor Robinson or to any of + his party but persuaded several of his former associates to join his + "school" in Iowa. From Tabor he subsequently transferred the school to + Springdale, a quiet Quaker community in Cedar County, Iowa, seven miles + from any railway station. Here the company went into winter quarters and + spent the time in rigid drill in preparation for the campaign of + liberation which they expected to undertake the following season. + </p> + <p> + While he was at Tabor, Brown began to intimate to his Eastern friends that + he had other and different plans for the promotion of the general cause. + In January, 1858, he went East with the definite intention of obtaining + additional support for the greater scheme. On February 22, 1858, at the + home of Gerrit Smith in New York, there was held a council at which Brown + definitely outlined his purpose to begin operations at some point in the + mountains of Virginia. Smith and Sanborn at first tried to dissuade him, + but finally consented to cooperate. The secret was carefully guarded: some + half-dozen Eastern friends were apprised of it, including Stearns, their + most liberal contributor, and two or three friends at Springdale. + </p> + <p> + As early as December, 1857, Forbes began to write mysterious letters to + Sanborn, Stearns, and others of the circle, in which he complained of + ill-usage at the hands of Brown. It appears that Forbes erroneously + assumed that the Boston friends were aware of Brown's contract with him + and of his plans for the attack upon Virginia; but, since they were + entirely ignorant on both points, the correspondence was conducted at + cross-purposes for several months. Finally, early in May, 1858, it + transpired that Forbes had all the time been fully informed of Brown's + intentions to begin the effort for emancipation in Virginia. Not only so, + but he had given detailed information on the subject to Senators Sumner, + Seward, Hale, Wilson, and possibly others. Senator Wilson was told that + the arms purchased by the New England Aid Society for use in Kansas were + to be used by Brown for an attack on Virginia. Wilson, in entire ignorance + of Brown's plans, demanded that the Aid Society be effectively protected + against any such charge of betrayal of trust. The officers of the Society + were, in fact, aware that the arms which had been purchased with Society + funds the year before and shipped to Tabor, Iowa, had been placed in + Brown's hands and that, without their consent, those arms had been shipped + to Ohio and just at that time were on the point of being transported to + Virginia. This knowledge placed the officers of the New England Aid + Society in a most awkward position. Stearns, the treasurer, had advanced + large sums to meet pressing needs during the starvation times in Kansas in + 1857. Now the arms in Brown's possession were, by vote of the officers, + given to the treasurer in part payment of the Society's debt, and he of + course left them just where they were. * On the basis of this arrangement + Senator Wilson and the public were assured that none of the property given + for the benefit of Kansas had been or would be diverted to other purposes + by the Kansas Committee. It was decided, however, that on account of the + Forbes revelations the attack upon Harper's Ferry must be delayed for one + year and that Brown must go to Kansas to take part in the pending + elections. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * "When the denouement finally came, however, the public and + press did not take a very favorable view of the transaction; + it was too difficult to distinguish between George L. + Stearns, the benefactor of the Kansas Committee, and George + L. Stearns, the Chairman of that Committee." Villard, "John + Brown," p. 341. +</pre> + <p> + Though Brown arrived in Kansas late in June, he took no active part in the + pending measures for the final triumph of the free-state cause. It is + something of a mystery how he was occupied between the 1st of July and the + middle of December. Under the pseudonym of "Shubal Morgan" he was + commander of a small band in which were a number of his followers in + training for the Eastern mission. The occupation of this band is not + matter of history until December 20, 1858, when they made a raid into the + State of Missouri, slew one white man, took eleven slaves, a large number + of horses, some oxen, wagons, much food, arms, and various other supplies. + This action was in direct violation of a solemn agreement between the + border settlers of State and Territory. The people in Kansas were in + terror lest retaliatory raids should follow, as would undoubtedly have + happened had not the people of Missouri taken active measures to prevent + such reprisals. + </p> + <p> + Rewards were offered for Brown's arrest, and free-state residents served + notice that he must leave the Territory. In the dead of winter he started + North with some slaves and many horses, accompanied by Kagi and Gill, two + of his faithful followers. In northern Kansas, where they were delayed by + a swollen stream, a band of horsemen appeared to dispute their passage. + Brown's party quickly mustered assistance and, giving chase to the enemy, + took three prisoners with four horses as spoils of war. In Kansas parlance + the affair is called "The Battle of the Spurs." The leaders in the chase + were seasoned soldiers on their way to Harper's Ferry with the intention + of spending their lives collecting slaves and conducting them to places of + safety. For this sort of warfare they were winning their spurs. It was + their intention to teach all defenders of slavery to use their utmost + endeavor to keep out of their reach. As Brown and his company passed + through Tabor, the citizens took occasion at a public meeting to resolve + "that we have no sympathy with those who go to slave States to entice away + slaves, and take property or life when necessary to attain that end." + </p> + <p> + A few days later the party was at Grinnell, Iowa. According to the + detailed account which J. B. Grinnell gives in his autobiography, Brown + appeared on Saturday afternoon, stacked his arms in Grinnell's parlor and + disposed of his people and horses partly in Grinnell's house and barn and + partly at the hotel. In the evening Brown and Kagi addressed a large + meeting in a public hall. Brown gave a lurid account of experiences in + Kansas, justified his raid into Missouri by saying the slaves were to be + sold for shipment to the South, and gave notice that his surplus horses + would be offered for sale on Monday. "What title can you give?" was the + question that came from the audience. "The best—the affidavit that + they were taken by black men from land they had cleared and tilled; taken + in part payment for labor which is kept back." + </p> + <p> + Brown again addressed a large meeting on Sunday evening at which each of + the three clergymen present invoked the divine blessing upon Brown and his + labors. The present writer was told by an eye-witness that one of the + ministers prayed for forgiveness for any wrongful acts which their guest + may have committed. Convinced of the rectitude of his actions, however, + Brown objected and said that he thanked no one for asking forgiveness for + anything he had done. + </p> + <p> + Returning from church on Sunday evening, Grinnell found a message awaiting + him from Mr. Werkman, United States marshal at Iowa City, who was a friend + of Grinnell. The message in part read: "You can see that it will give your + town a bad name to have a fight there; then all who aid are liable, and + there will be an arrest or blood. Get the old Devil away to save trouble, + for he will be taken, dead or alive." Grinnell showed the message to + Brown, who remarked: "Yes, I have heard of him ever since I came into the + State.... Tell him we are ready to be taken, but will wait one day more + for his military squad." True to his word he waited till the following + afternoon and then moved directly towards Iowa City, the home of the + marshal, passing beyond the city fourteen miles to his Quaker friends at + Springdale. Here he remained about two weeks until he had completed + arrangements for shipping his fugitives by rail to Chicago. In the + meantime, where was Marshal Werkman of Iowa City? Was he of the same mind + as the deputy marshal who had accompanied Colonel Sumner? Two of Brown's + men had visited the city to make arrangements for the shipment. The + situation was obvious enough to those who would see. The entire incident + is an illuminating commentary on the attitude of both government and + people towards the Fugitive Slave Law. In March the fugitives were safely + landed in Canada and the rest of the horses were sold in Cleveland, Ohio. + The time was approaching for the move on Virginia. + </p> + <p> + Brown now expended much time and attention upon a constitution for the + provisional government which he was to set up. In January and February, + 1858, Brown had labored over this document for several weeks at the home + of Frederick Douglass at Rochester, New York. A copy was in evidence at + the conference with Sanborn and Gerrit Smith in February, and the document + was approved at a conference held in Chatham, Canada, on May 8, 1858, just + at the time when Forbes's revelations caused the postponement of the + enterprise. It is an elaborate constitution containing forty-eight + articles. The preamble indicates the general purport: + </p> + <p> + Whereas, Slavery throughout its entire existence in the United States is + none other than a most barbarous, unprovoked, and unjustifiable war of one + portion of its citizens upon another portion the only conditions of which + are perpetual imprisonment and hopeless servitude or absolute + extermination; in utter disregard and violation of those eternal and + self-evident truths set forth in our Declaration of Independence: + Therefore, we the citizens of the United States, and the Oppressed People, + who, by a decision of the Supreme Court are declared to have no rights + which the White Man is bound to respect; together with all other people + degraded by the laws thereof, Do, for the time being ordain and establish + for ourselves, the following PROVISIONAL CONSTITUTION AND ORDINANCES, the + better to protect our Persons, Property, Lives and Liberties and to govern + our actions. + </p> + <p> + Article Forty-six reads: + </p> + <p> + The foregoing articles shall not be construed so as in any way to + encourage the overthrow of any State Government or of the general + government of the United States; and look to no dissolution of the Union, + but simply to Amendment and Repeal. And our flag shall be the same that + our Fathers fought under in the Revolution. + </p> + <p> + In Article Forty, "profane swearing, filthy conversation, and indecent + behavior" are forbidden. The document indicates an obvious intention to + effect a revolution by a restrained and regulated use of force. + </p> + <p> + Mobilization of forces began in June, 1859. Cook, one of the original + party, had spent the year in the region of Harper's Ferry. In July the + Kennedy farm, five miles from Harper's Ferry, was leased. The Northern + immigrants posed as farmers, stock-raisers, and dealers in cattle, seeking + a milder climate. To assist in the disguise, Brown's daughter and + daughter-in-law, mere girls, joined the community. Even so it was + difficult to allay troublesome curiosity on the part of neighbors at the + gathering of so many men with no apparent occupation. Suspicion might + easily have been aroused by the assembling of numerous boxes of arms from + the West and the thousand pikes from Connecticut. Late in August, Floyd, + Secretary of War, received an anonymous letter emanating from Springdale, + Iowa, giving information which, if acted upon, would have led to an + investigation and stopped the enterprise. + </p> + <p> + The 24th of October was the day appointed for taking possession of + Harper's Ferry, but fear of exposure led to a change of plan and the move + was begun on the 16th of October. Six of the party who would have been + present at the later date were absent. The march from Kennedy farm began + about eight o'clock Sunday evening. Before midnight the bridges, the town, + and the arsenal were in the hands of the invaders without a gun having + been fired. Before noon on Monday some forty citizens of the neighborhood + had been assembled as prisoners and held, it was explained, as hostages + for the safety of members of the party who might be taken. During the + early forenoon Kagi strongly urged that they should escape into the + mountains; but Brown, who was influenced, as he said, by sympathy for his + prisoners and their distressed families, refused to move and at last found + himself surrounded by opposing forces. Brown's men, having been assigned + to different duties, were separated. Six of them escaped; others were + killed or wounded or taken prisoners. Brown himself with six of his men + and a few of his prisoners made a final stand in the engine-house. This + was early in the afternoon. All avenues of escape were now closed. Brown + made two efforts to communicate with his assailants by means of a flag of + truce, sending first Thompson, one of his men, with one of his prisoners, + and then Stevens and Watson Brown with another of the prisoners. Thompson + was received but was held as a prisoner; Stevens and Watson Brown were + shot down, the first dangerously wounded and the other mortally wounded. + Later in the afternoon Brown received a flag of truce with a demand that + he surrender. He stated the conditions under which he would restore the + prisoners whom he held, but he refused the unconditional surrender which + was demanded. + </p> + <p> + About midnight Colonel Robert E. Lee arrived from Washington with a + company of marines. He took full command, set a guard of his own men + around the engine-house and made preparation to effect a forcible entrance + at sunrise on Tuesday morning in case a peaceable surrender was refused. + Lee first offered to two of the local companies the honor of storming the + castle. These, however, declined to undertake the perilous task, and the + honor fell to Lieutenant Green of the marines, who thereupon selected two + squads of twelve men each to attempt an entrance through the door. To + Lee's aide, Lieutenant Stuart, who had known Brown in Kansas, was + committed the task of making the formal demand for surrender. Brown and + Stuart, who recognized each other instantly upon their meeting at the + door, held a long parley, which resulted, as had been expected, in Brown's + refusal to yield. Stuart then gave the signal which had been agreed upon + to Lieutenant Green, who ordered the first squad to advance. Failing to + break down the door with sledge-hammers, they seized a heavy ladder and at + the second stroke made an opening near the ground large enough to admit a + man. Green instantly entered, rushed to the back part of the room, and + climbed upon an engine to command a better view. Colonel Lewis Washington, + the most distinguished of the prisoners, pointed to Brown, saying, "This + is Osawatomie." Green leaped forward and by thrust or stroke bent his + light sword double against Brown's body. Other blows were administered and + his victim fell senseless, and it was believed that the leader had been + slain in action according to his wish. + </p> + <p> + The first of the twelve men to attempt to follow their leader was + instantly killed by gunshot. Others rushed in and slew two of Brown's men + by the use of the bayonet. To save the prisoners from harm, Lee had given + careful instruction to fire no shot, to use only bayonets. The other + insurgents were made prisoners. "The whole fight," Green reported, "had + not lasted over three minutes." + </p> + <p> + Of all the prisoners taken and held as hostages, not one was killed or + wounded. They were made as safe as the conditions permitted. The eleven + prisoners who were with Brown in the engine-house were profoundly + impressed with the courage, the bearing, and the self-restraint of the + leader and his men. Colonel Washington describes Brown as holding a + carbine in one hand, with one dead son by his side, while feeling the + pulse of another son, who had received a mortal wound, all the time + watching every movement for the defense and forbidding his men to fire + upon any one who was unarmed. The testimony is uniform that Brown + exercised special care to prevent his men from shooting unarmed citizens, + and this conduct was undoubtedly influential in securing generous + treatment for him and his men after the surrender. + </p> + <p> + For six weeks afterwards, until his execution on the 2d of December, John + Brown remained a conspicuous figure. He won universal admiration for + courage, coolness, and deliberation, and for his skill in parrying all + attempts to incriminate others. Probably less than a hundred people knew + beforehand anything about the enterprise, and less than a dozen of these + rendered aid and encouragement. It was emphatically a personal exploit. On + the part of both leader and followers, no occasion was omitted to drive + home the lesson that men were willing to imperil their lives for the + oppressed with no hope or desire for personal gain. Brown especially + served notice upon the South that the day of final reckoning was at hand. + </p> + <p> + It is natural that the consequences of an event so spectacular as the + capture of Harper's Ferry should be greatly exaggerated. Brown's + contribution to Kansas history has been distorted beyond all recognition. + The Harper's Ferry affair, however, because it came on the eve of the + final election before the war, undoubtedly had considerable influence. It + sharpened the issue. It played into the hands of extremists in both + sections. On one side, Brown was at once made a martyr and a hero; on the + other, his acts were accepted as a demonstration of Northern malignity and + hatred, whose fitting expression was seen in the incitement of slaves to + massacre their masters. + </p> + <p> + The distinctive contribution of John Brown to American history does not + consist in the things which he did but rather in that which he has been + made to represent. He has been accepted as the personification of the + irrepressible conflict. + </p> + <p> + Of all the men of his generation John Brown is best fitted to exemplify + the most difficult lesson which history teaches: that slavery and + despotism are themselves forms of war, that the shedding of blood is + likely to continue so long as the rich, the strong, the educated, or the + efficient, strive to force their will upon the poor, the weak, and the + ignorant. Lincoln uttered a final word on the subject when he said that no + man is good enough to rule over another man; if he were good enough he + would not be willing to do it. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0015" id="link2H_4_0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + </h2> + <p> + Among the many political histories which furnish a background for the + study of the anti-slavery crusade, the following have special value: + </p> + <p> + J. F. Rhodes, "History of the United States from the Compromise of 1860," + 7 vols. (1893-1906). The first two volumes cover the decade to 1860. This + is the best-balanced account of the period, written in an admirable + judicial temper. H. E. von Holst, Constitutional anal Political History of + the United States," 8 vols. (1877-1892). A vast mine of information on the + slavery controversy. The work is vitiated by an almost virulent antipathy + toward the South. James Schouler, "History of the United States," 7 vols. + (1895-1901). A sober, reliable narrative of events. Henry Wilson, "History + of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America," 3 vols. (1872-1877). + The fullest account of the subject, written by a contemporary. The + material was thrown together by an overworked statesman and lacks + proportion. + </p> + <p> + Three volumes in the "American Nation Series" aim to combine the treatment + of special topics of commanding interest with general political history. + A. B. Hart's "Slavery and Abolition" (1906) gives an account of the origin + of the controversy and carries the history down to 1841. G. P. Garrison's + "Westward Extension" (1906) deals especially with the Mexican War and its + results. T. C. Smith's "Parties and Slavery" (1906) follows the gradual + disruption of parties under the pressure of the slavery controversy. + </p> + <p> + From the mass of contemporary controversial literature a few titles of + more permanent interest may be selected. William Goodell's "Slavery and + Anti-slavery" (1852) presents the anti-slavery arguments. A. T. Bledsoe's + "An Essay on Liberty and Slavery" (1856) and "The Pro-slavery Argument" + (1852), a series of essays by various writers, undertake the defense of + slavery. + </p> + <p> + Only a few of the biographies which throw light on the crusade can be + mentioned. "William Lloyd Garrison," 4 vols. (1885-1889) is the story of + the editor of the Liberator told exhaustively by his children. Less + voluminous but equally important are the following: W. Birney, "James G. + Birney and His Times" (1890); G. W. Julian, "Joshua R. Giddings" (1892); + Catherine H. Birney, "Sarah and Angelina Grimke" (1885); John T. Morse, + "John Quincy Adams." Those who have not patience to read E. L. Pierce's + ponderous "Memoir and Letters of Charles Sumner," 4 vols. (1877-1893), + would do well to read G. H. Haynes's "Charles Sumner" (1909). + </p> + <p> + The history of the conflict in Kansas is closely associated with the lives + of two rival candidates for the honor of leadership in the cause of + freedom. James Redpath in his "Public Life of Captain John Brown" (1860), + Frank B. Sanborn in his "Life and Letters of John Brown" (1885), and + numerous other writers give to Brown the credit of leadership. The + opposition view is held by F. W. Blackmar in his "Life of Charles + Robinson" (1902), and by Robinson himself in his Kansas Conflict (2d ed., + 1898). The best non-partizan biography of Brown is O. G. Villard's "John + Brown, A Biography Fifty Years After" (1910). + </p> + <p> + The Underground Railroad has been adequately treated in W. H. Siebert's + "The Underground Railroad from Slavery to Freedom" (1898), but Levi + Coffin's "Reminiscences" (1876) gives an earlier autobiographical account + of the origin and management of an important line, while Mrs. Stowe's + "Uncle Tom's Cabin" throws the glamour of romance over the system. + </p> + <p> + For additional bibliographical information the reader is referred to the + articles on "Slavery, Fugitive Slave Laws, Kansas, William Lloyd Garrison, + John Brown, James Gillespie Birney," and "Frederick Douglass" in "The + Encyclopaedia Britannica" (11th Edition). + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Anti-Slavery Crusade, by Jesse Macy + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ANTI-SLAVERY CRUSADE *** + +***** This file should be named 3034-h.htm or 3034-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/0/3/3034/ + +Produced by The James J. 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